AN
ENCYCLOPEDIA
OP
ARCHITECTURE.
LONDON:
A. and G. A SPOTTISWOOOE,
New-street-S<)iiare.
Gr
AN
ENCYCLOPEDIA
ARCHITECTURE,
HISTORICAL, THEORETICAL, AND PRACTICAL.
JOSEPH GWILT.
ILLUSTRATED WITH MORE THAN ONE THOUSAND ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD
BY R. BRANSTON,
FROM
DRAWINGS BY JOHN SEBASTIAN GWILT.
THIRD EDITION,
WITH A SUPPLEMENTAL VIEW OF THE SYMMETRY AND STABILITY
OP
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.
LONDON :
LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS.
MDCCCLIV* =
PREFACE.
AN Encyclopaedia of any of the fine arts has, from its nature, considerable
advantage over one which relates to the sciences generally. In the latter,
the continual additions made to the common stock of knowledge frequently
effect such a complete revolution in their bases and superstructure, that
the established doctrines of centuries may be swept away by the discoveries
of a single day. The arts, on the other hand, are founded upon principles
unsusceptible of change. Fashion may, indeed, — nay, often does, — change
the prevailing taste of the day, but first principles remain the same ; and as,
in a cycle, the planets, after a period of wandering in the heavens, return to
the places which they occupied ages before, so, in the arts, after seasons of
extravaganza and bizzareria, a recurrence to sound taste is equally certain.
It is unfortunate for the productions of the arts that the majority of those
who are constituted their judges are little qualified for the task, either by
education or habits ; but on this, as it has been the complaint of every age,
it is perhaps useless to dwell. This much may be said, that before any one
can with propriety assume the name of architect, he must proceed regularly
through some such course as is prescribed in this work. The main object of
its author has been to impart to the student all the knowledge indispensable
for the exercise of his profession ; but should the perusal of this encyclo-
paedia serve to form, guide, or correct, the taste even of the mere amateur,
the author will not consider that he has laboured in vain.
An encyclopaedia is necessarily a limited arena for the exhibition of an
author's power ; for although every subject in the department of which it
treats must be noticed, none can be discussed so extensively as in a sepa-
rate work. An attempt to produce a Complete Body of Architecture the
author believes to be entirely original. In his celebrated work, L'Art de
Batir, Rondelet has embodied all that relates to the construction of build-
ings. Durand, too, (Lecons et Precis d' Architecture,) has published some
admirable rules on composition and on the graphic portion of the art.
Lebrun ( Theorie d 'Architecture) has treated on the philosophy of the equi-
librium, if it may be so called, of the orders. The Encyclopedic Me-
thodique contains, under various heads, some invaluable detached essays,
many of which, however, suffer from want of the illustrative plates which
were originally projected as an appendage to them. All these, with others
in the French language, might, indeed, be formed into a valuable text-book
for the architect ; but no such attempt has hitherto been made. Neither
A 3
vi PREFACE.
in Germany nor in Italy has any complete work of the kind appeared. In
the English, as in other languages, there are doubtless several valuable
treatises on different branches of the art, though not to the same extent as in
French. In 1756, Ware (London, folio) published what he called A Complete
JBody of Architecture. This, though in many respects an useful work, is far
behind the wants of the present day. It is confined exclusively to Roman
and Italian architecture ; but it does not embrace the history even of these
branches, nor does it contain a word on the sciences connected with con-
struction. The details, therefore, not being sufficiently carried out, and
many essential branches being entirely omitted, the work is not so generally
useful as its name would imply. From these authorities, and many others,
besides his own resources, the author of this encyclopaedia has endeavoured
to compress within the limits of one closely-printed volume all the elementary
knowledge indispensable to the student and amateur; and he even ventures
to indulge the belief that it will be found to contain information which the
experienced professor may have overlooked.
Though, in form, the whole work pretends to originality, this pretension
is not advanced for the whole of its substance. Not merely all that has long
been known, but even the progressive discoveries and improvements of
modern times, are usually founded on facts which themselves have little
claims to novelty. As a fine art, architecture, though in its applications and
changes inexhaustible, is in respect of first principles confined within certain
limits ; but the analysis of those principles and their relation to certain
types have afforded some views of the subject which, it is believed, will be
new even to those who have passed their lives in the study of the art.
In those sciences on which the constructive power of the art is based, the
author apprehended he would be entitled to more credit by the use of
weightier authorities than his own. Accordingly, in the Second Book, he has
adopted the algebra of Euler ; and in other parts, the works of writers of
established reputation. The use of Rossignol's geometry may indeed be
disapproved by rigid mathematicians ; but, considering the variety of attain-
ments indispensable to the architectural student, the author was induced to
shorten and smooth his path as much as possible, by refraining from burden-
ing his memory with more mathematical knowledge than was absolutely re-
quisite for his particular art. On this account, also, the instruction in algebra
is not carried beyond the solution of cubic equations : up to that point it
was necessary to prepare the learner for a due comprehension of the suc-
ceeding inquiries into the method of equilibrating arches and investigating
the pressures of their different parts.
In all matters of importance, in which the works of previous writers have
been used, the sources have been indicated, so that reference to the originals
may be made. Upon the celebrated work of Rondelet above mentioned, on
many learned articles in the Encyclopedic Methodique, and on the works of
Durand and other esteemed authors, large contributions have been levied ;
but these citations, it will be observed, appear for the first time in an
English dress. In that part of the work which treats of the doctrine of
arches, the chief materials, it will be seen, have been borrowed from Ron-
PREFACE. vii
delet, whose views the author has adopted in preference to those he himself
gave to the world many years ago, in a work which passed through several
editions. Again, in the section on shadows, the author has not used his own
treatise on Sciography. In the one case, he is not ashamed to confess his
inferiority in so important a branch of the architect's studies ; and in the
other, he trusts that matured experience has enabled him to treat the subject
in a form likely to be more extensively useful than that of treading in his
former steps.
The sciences of which an architect should be cognisant are enumerated by
Vitruvius at some length in the opening chapter of his first book. They
are, perhaps, a little too much swelled, though the Roman in some measure
qualifies the extent to which he would have them carried. " For," he ob-
serves, " in such a variety of matters" (the different arts and sciences) " it
cannot be supposed that the same person can arrive at excellence in each."
And again : " That architect is sufficiently educated whose general know-
ledge enables him to give his opinion on any branch when required to do so.
Those unto whom nature hath been so bountiful that they are at once geo-
metricians, astronomers, musicians, and skilled in many other arts, go beyond
what is required by the architect, and may be properly called mathematicians
in the extended sense of that word." Pythius, the architect of the temple
of Minerva at Priene, differed, however, from the Augustan architect, inas-
much as he considered it absolutely requisite for an architect to have as ac-
curate a knowledge of all the arts and sciences as is rarely acquired even
by a professor devoted exclusively to one.
In a work whose object is to compress within a comparatively restricted
space so vast a body of information as is implied in an account of what is
known of historical, theoretical, and practical architecture, it is of the highest
importance to preserve a distinct and precise arrangement of the subjects, so
that they may be presented to the reader in consistent order and unity.
Without order and method, indeed, the work, though filled with a large and
valuable stock of information, would be but an useless mass of knowledge.
In treating the subjects in detail, the alphabet has not been made to per-
form the function of an index, except in the glossary of the technical terms,
which partly serves at the same time the purpose of a dictionary, and that
of an index to the principal subjects noticed in the work. The following
is a synoptical view of its contents, exhibiting its different parts, and the
mode in which they arise from and are dependent on each other.
Book I. HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE, considered in —
Chap. i. ORIGIN.
1. Wants of Man. 3. Different Sorts of Dwellings
2. Origin and Progress. arising from different Occu-
pations of Mankind.
ii. VARIOUS COUNTRIES.
1. Druidical and Celtic. 8. Chinese.
2. Pelasgic and Cyclopean. 9. Mexican.
3. Babylonian. 10. Arabian or Saracenic.
4. Persepolitan. ] 1 . Grecian.
5. Jewish. 12. Etruscan.
6. Indian. 13. Roman.
7. Egyptian. 14. Byzantine and Romanesque.
Vlll
PREFACE.
15. Pointed.
16. Italian.
17. French.
Chap. in. BRITISH ISLES.
1 . British Architecture from an
early Period.
2. Norman.
3. Early English.
4. Ornamented English.
5. Florid English or Tudor.
18. German.
19. Spain and Portugal.
20. Russia.
6. Elizabethan.
7. James I. to Anne.
8. George I.
9. George II.
10. George III.
Book II. THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE, founded on knowledge of—
Chap. i. CONSTRUCTION.
1. Arithmetic and Algebra.
2. Geometry.
3. Practical Geometry.
4. Plane Trigonometry.
5. Conic Sections.
6. Descriptive Geometry.
ii. MATERIALS.
1. Stone.
2. Granite.
3. Marble.
4. Timber.
5. Iron.
6. Lead.
7. Zinc.
an. USE OF MATERIALS IN —
1. Foundations and Drains.
2. Bricklaying and Tiling.
3. Masonry.
4. Practical Carpentry.
5. Joinery.
6. Slating.
7. Plumbery.
iv. MEDIUM OF EXPRESSION BY —
1. Drawing in general.
2. Perspective.
7. Mensuration.
8. Mechanics and Statics.
9. Arches.
10. Walls.
11. Mechanical Carpentry.
8. Slates.
9. Bricks and Tiles.
10. Lime, Sand, Water, and Ce-
ment.
11. Glass.
12. Asphalte.
8. Glazing.
9. Plastering.
10. Smithery and Ironmongery.
11. Foundery.
12. Painting and Gilding.
13. Specifications.
14. Measuring and estimating.
3. Shadows.
4. Working Drawings.
III. PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE, as a Fine Art consists in —
Chap. i. KNOWLEDGE OF PRINCIPAL PARTS
J. Beauty in Architecture.
2. The Orders.
3. Tuscan Order.
4. Doric Order.
5. Ionic Order.
6. Corinthian Order.
7. Composite Order.
8. Pedestals.
9. Intercolumniations.
10. Arcades and Arches.
11. Orders above Orders
12. Arcades above Arcades.
13. Basements and Attics.
OF A BUILDING. —
14. Pilasters.
15. Caryatides and Persians.
16. Balustrades and Balusters.
1 7. Pediments.
18. Cornices.
19. Profiles of Doors.
20. Windows.
21. Niches and Statues.
22. Chimney Pieces.
23. Staircases.
24. Ceilings.
25. Proportions of Rooms.
ii. COMBINATION OF PARTS BY —
1. General Principles of com-
position.
2. Drawings necessary in Com-
position.
3. Caissons in Hemispherical
and Cylindrical Vaulting.
4. Horizontal and Vertical
Combinations in Building.
5. Subdivisions of Apartments
and Points of Support.
6. Combination of Parts in
leading Forms.
PREFACE. ix
Chap. HI. APPLICATION OF COMBINATION IN —
1 . General Observations. 1 4. Exchanges.
2. Bridges. 15. Custom Houses.
3. Churches. 16. Theatres.
4. Palaces. 17. Hospitals.
5. Government Offices. 18. Prisons.
6. Courts of Law. 1 9. Barracks.
7. Town Halls. 20. Private Buildings generally.
8. Colleges. 21. Private Buildings in Towns.
9. Public Libraries. 22. Private Buildings in the
10. Museums. Country.
11. Observatories. 23. Farm Houses.
12. Lighthouses. 24. Cottages.
13. Abattoirs, or Public Slaughter
Houses.
APPENDIX. — Laws relating to Building: Building Act — Chimney -Sweepers
Act — Dilapidations — Compound Interest Tables and Valuation of Pro-
perty.
GLOSSARY, containing also LIST OF PRINCIPAL ARCHITECTS and their Works, &c.
INDEX.
Perfection is not attainable in human labour, and the errors and defects
of this work will, doubtless, in due time be pointed out ; but as the subject
has occupied the author's mind during a considerable practice, he is inclined
to think that these will not be very abundant. He can truly say that he has
bestowed upon it all the care and energy in his power ; and he alone is re-
sponsible for its errors or defects ; — the only assistance he has to acknow-
ledge being from his son, Mr. John Sebastian Gwilt, by whom the illustra-
tive drawings were executed. No apology is offered for its appearance,
inasmuch as the want of such a book has been felt by every architect at the
beginning of his career. Not less is wanted a similar work on Civil En-
gineering, which the author has pleasure in stating is about to be shortly
supplied by his friend, Mr. Edward Cresy.
Without deprecating the anger of the critic, or fearing what may be
urged against his work, the author now leaves it to its fate. His attempt
has been for the best, and he says with sincerity,
Si quid novisti rectius istis
Candidus imperti, si non his utere mecum."
J. G.
Abinydon Street, Westminster,
30th September, 1842.
In this the third impression of the work, I have endeavoured to make it
more perfect by further alterations, additions, and corrections. To render
it perfect I cannot hope, and therefore must still rely on the indulgence of
its readers.
J. G.
Abinydon Street, Westminster,
January, 1854.
CONTENTS.
BOOK I.
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
CHAP. I.
Page
SECT. 1 1 .
Grecian -
57
ORIGIN OF ARCHITECTURE.
12.
Etruscan -
74
SECT. 1.
o
Wants of Man, and
Buildings
Origin and Progress
first
of
Page
13.
14.
15.
16.
Roman
Byzantine and Romanesque
Pointed
Italian
75
107
119
131
3.
building -
Different Sorts of Dwellings
arising from different Oc-
cupations
2
3
17.
18.
19.
20.
French -
German
Spain and Portugal
Russian
152
157
158
162
CHAP. II.
CHAP. III.
ARCHITECTURE OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES.
ARCHITECTURE OF BRITAIN.
SECT. 1.
Druidical and Celtic
_
4
SECT. 1.
Early Houses and Architec-
2.
Pelasgic or Cyclopean
-
10
ture of the Britons
164
3.
Babylonian
-
15
2.
Norman
169
4,
Persepolitan and Persian -
19
3.
Early English
175
5.
Jewish
.
24
4.
Ornamented English
178
6.
Indian
_
25
5.
Florid English or Tudor -
183
7.
Egyptian -
_
30
6.
Elizabethan
195
8.
Chinese
_
43
7.
James I. to Anne -
202
9.
Mexican -
_
47
8.
George I.
218
10.
Arabian, Moresque, or {
sara-
9.
George II.
221
cenic
-
50
10.
George III.
223
BOOK II.
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
CHAP. I.
CONSTRUCTION.
SECT. 1. Arithmetic and Algebra
2. Geometry
3. Practical Geometry
4. Plane Trigonometry
5. Conic Sections
6. Descriptive Geometry
7. Mensuration
8. Mechanics and Statics
9. Arches
10. Walls
11. Mechanical Carpentry
CHAP. II.
MATERIALS USED IN BUILDING.
SECT. 1. Stone
2. Granite
3. Marble -
SECT. 4. Timber
482
5. Iron
492
6. Lead -
497
227
7. Copper
498
306
8. Zinc
499
333
9. Slates
500
338
1 0. Bricks and Tiles -
501
344
1 1 . Lime, Sand, Water, Cement
505
359
12. Glass
510
372
13. Asphalte -
511
381
398
CHAP. III.
425
441
USE OF MATERIALS.
SECT. 1. Foundations and Drains
512
2. Bricklaying and Tiling
514
3. Masonry -
518
4. Practical Carpentry
538
457
5. Joinery -
563
479
6. Slating ...
581
480
7. Plumbery -
582
xii
CONTENTS
SECT. 8. Glazing - - _ 535
9. Plastering - - 587
10. Smithery and Ironmongery 59O
11. Foundery - 593
12. Painting and Gilding - 593
13. Specifications - - 595
14. Measuring and estimating - 620
j CHAP. IV.
i
MEDIUM OF EXPRESSION.
SECT. 1. Drawing in general
2. Perspective
3. Shadows -
4. Working Drawings
- 642
- 649
- 662
- 671
BOOK III.
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
CHAP. I.
THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A BUILDING.
SECT. 1. Beauty in Architecture - 673
2. The Orders - - 680
3. Tuscan Order - - 690
4. Doric Order - 693
5. Ionic Order - 699
6. Corinthian Order - 705
7. Composite Order - - 709
8. Pedestals - - - 713
9. Intercolumniations - 715
10. Arcades and Arches - 718
11. Orders above Orders - 728
12. Arcades above Arcades - 732
13. Basements and Attics - 734
14. Pilasters - 735
15. Caryatides and Persians - 738
16. Balustrades and Balusters - 739
17. Pediments - 745
18. Cornices - 746
] 9. Profiles of Doors - - 748
20. Windows - - 751
21 . Niches and Statues - 758
22. Chimney- Pieces - - 761
23. Staircases - 763
24. Ceilings - - 767
25. Proportions of Rooms - 769
CHAP. II.
COMBINATION OF PARTS.
SECT. 1. General Principles of Com-
position - 771
2. Drawings necessary in Com-
position - 772
3. Caissons in Cylindrical and
Hemispherical Vaulting - 774
SECT. 4. Horizontal and Vertical
Combinations in Building 775
5. Subdivisions and Apartments
of Buildings, and their
Points of Support - 778
6. Combination of the Parts in
leading Forms - - 779
CHAP. III.
PUBLIC BUILDINGS.
SECT. 1. General Observations on Pub-
lic and Private Buildings 782
2. Bridges - - 783
3. Churches - 784
4. Palaces - - 786
5. Government Offices - 787
6. Courts of Law - - 788
7. Town Halls - - 789
8. Colleges - - - 790
9. Public Libraries - - 792
10. Museums - - - 793
11. Observatories - - 794
12. Lighthouses - 796
13. Abattoirs, or Public Slaugh-
ter-Houses - - 797
14. Exchanges - 799
15. Custom- Houses - - 80O
16. Theatres - - 801
17. Hospitals - 807
18. Prisons - - 808
19. Barracks . - 81O
20. Private Buildings — General
Observations - - 810
21. Private Buildings in Towns 811
22. Private Buildings in the
Country - 813
23. Farm-Houses - 815
24. Cottages - - 816
APPENDIX.
I. Gothic or Pointed Architecture - 819
SECT. 1. General Remarks on Pointed Archi-
tecture, in relation to its Symmetry and
Stability - - - - 819
SECT. 2. Different Periods of the Art, and
Flamboyant Style
SECT. 3. Pendents
SECT. 4. Vaulting -
SECT. 5. Shafts
II. Dilapidations
III. Compound Interest and Annuity
Tables [857]
- 832 IV. Valuation of Property - - 882
GLOSSARY, containing also A LIST OP THE PRINCIPAL ARCHITECTS
OF ALL TIMES AND COUNTRIES, AND THEIR WORKS - - 885
ADDENDA TO THE GLOSSARY 1054
INDEX - ... .. 1057
ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF
ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
CHAP. I.
ON THE ORIGIN OF ARCHITECTURE.
SECT. I.
WANTS OF MAN, AND FIRST BUILDINGS.
1. PROTECTION from the inclemency of the seasons was the mother of architecture. Of
little account at its birth, it rose into light and life with the civilisation of mankind ; and,
proportionately as security, peace, and good order were established, it became, not less than
its sisters, painting and sculpture, one method of transmitting to posterity the degree of
importance to which a nation had attained, and the moral value of that nation amongst the
kingdoms of the earth. If the art, however, be considered strictly in respect of its actual
utility, its principles are restricted within very narrow limits ; for the mere art, or rather
science, of construction, has no title to a place among the fine arts. Such is in various
degrees to be found among people of savage and uncivilised habits ; and until it is brought
into a system founded upon certain laws of proportion, and upon rules based on a refined
analysis of what is suitable in the highest degree to the end proposed, it can pretend to no
rank of a high class. It is only when a nation has arrived at a certain degree of opulence
and luxury that architecture can be said to exist in it. Hence it is that architecture, in its
origin, took the varied forms which have impressed it with such singular differences in
different countries ; differences which, though modified as each country advanced in civilisa-
tion, were, in each, so stamped, that the type was permanent, being refined only in a higher
degree in their most important examples.
2. The ages that have elapsed, and the distance by which we are separated from the
nations among whom the art was first practised, deprive us of the means of examining the
shades of difference resulting from climate, productions of the soil, the precise spots upon
which the earliest societies of man were fixed, with their origin, number, mode of life, and
social institutions ; all of which influenced them in the selection of one form in preference to
another. We may, however, easily trace in the architecture of nations, the types of three
distinct states of life, which are clearly discoverable at the present time ; though in some
cases the types may be thought doubtful.
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK T.
SECT. II.
ORIGIN ANT- PROGRESS OF BUILDING.
3. The original classes into which mankind were divided were, we may safely assume,
those of hunters, of shepherds, and of those occupied in agriculture; and the buildings for
protection which each would require, must have been characterised by their several occu-
pations. The hunter and fisher found all the accommodation they required in the clefts
and caverns of rocks ; and the indolence
which those states of life induced, made
them insensible or indifferent to greater
comfort than such naturally-formed ha-
bitations afforded. We are certain that
thus lived such tribes. Jeremiah (chap,
xlix. 16.), speaking of the judgment
upon Edom, says, " O thou that dwellest
in the clefts of the rock, that boldest the
height of the hill ; " a text which of late
has received ample illustration from tra-
vellers, and especially from the labours of
Messrs. Leon de Laborde and Linant, in
the splendid engravings of the ruins of
I'etra (fig. 1.). To the shepherd, the
inhabitant of the plains wandering from
one spot to another, as pasture became
inadequate to the support of his flocks,
another species of dwelling was more ap-
propriate ; one which he could remove
with him in his wanderings : this was the
tent, the type of the architecture of
China, whose people were, like all the
Tartar races, nomades or scenites, that is,
shepherds or dwellers in tents. Where a
portion of the race fixed its abode for
Fig. i. RUINS OF PETRA. the purposes of agriculture, a very dif-
ferent species of dwelling was necessary. Solidity was required as well for the personal
comfort of the husbandman as for preserving, from one season to another, the fruits of the
earth, upon which he and his family were to exist. Hence, doubtless, the hut, which most
authors have assumed to be the type of Grecian architecture.
4. Authors, says the writer in the Encyc. Mtthodique, in their search after the origin of
architecture, have generally confined their views to a single type, without considering the
modification which would be necessary for a mixture of two or more of the states of mankind;
for it is evident that any two or three of them may co-exist, a point upon which more will
be said in speaking of Egyptian architecture. Hence have arisen the most discordant and
contradictory systems, formed without sufficient acquaintance with the customs of different
people, their origin, and first state of existence.
5. The earliest habitations which were constructed after the dispersion of mankind from
the plains of Sennaar (for there, certainly, as we shall hereafter see, even without the evidence
of Scripture, was a great multitude gathered together), were, of course, proportioned to
the means which the spot afforded, and to the nature of the climate to which they were to be
adapted. Reeds, canes, the branches, bark, and leaves of trees, clay, and similar materials
would be first used. The first houses of the Egyptians and of the people of Palestine were
of reeds and canes interwoven. At the present day the same materials serve to form the
houses of the Peruvians. According to Pliny (1. vii. ), the first houses of the Greeks were
only of clay ; for it was a considerable time before that nation was acquainted with the
process of hardening it into bricks. The Abyssinians still build with clay and reeds.
Wood, however, offers such facilities of construction, that still, as of old, where it abounds,
its adoption prevails. At first, the natural order seems to be that which Vitruvius
describes in the first chapter of his second book. " The first attempt," says our author,
" was the mere erection of a few spars, united together with twigs, and covered with mud.
Others built their walls of dried lumps of turf, connected these walls together by means of
timbers laid across horizontally, and covered the erections with reeds and boughs, for the
purpose of sheltering themselves from the inclemency of the seasons. Finding, however,
that flat coverings of this sort would not effectually shelter them in the winter season, they
made their roofs of two inclined planes, meeting each other in a ridge at the summit, the
whole of which they covered with clay, and thus carried off the rain." The same author
CHAP.
ORIGIN OF ARCHITECTURE.
afterwards observes, « The woods about Pontus furnish such abundance of timber, that
they build in the following manner. Two trees are laid level on the earth, right and left,
at such distance from each other as will suit the length of the trees which are to cross and
connect them. On
the extreme ends
of these two trees
are laid two other
trees, transverse-
ly : the space
which the house
will enclose is thus
marked out. The
four sides being
so set out, towers
are raised, whose
walls consist of
trees laid horizon-
tally, but kept per-
pendicularly over
each other, the al-
ternate layers yok-
ing the angles.
The level inter-
stices, which the thickness of the trees alternately leave, is filled in with chips and mud.
On a similar principle they form their roofs, except that gradually reducing the length of
the trees which traverse from angle to angle, they assume a pyramidal form. They are
covered with boughs, and thus, after a rude fashion of vaulting, their quadrilateral roofs are
formed." The northern parts of Germany, Poland, and Russia still exhibit traces of this
principle of building; and they are also found in Florida, Louisiana, and elsewhere, in
various places. See Jiff. 2.
6. We shall not, in this place, pursue the discussion on the timber hut, which has
certainly, with great appearance of probability, been so often said to contain within it the
types of Grecian architecture, but shall, under that head, enlarge further on the subject.
SECT. III.
DIFFERENT SORTS OF DWELLINGS ARISING FROM niFFERENT OCCUPATIONS.
7. The construction of the early habitations of mankind required little skill and as little
knowledge. A very restricted number of tools and machines was required. The method
of felling timber, which uncivilised nations still use, namely, by fire, might have served all
purposes at first. The next step would be the shaping of hard and infrangible stones into
cutting tools, as is still the practice in some parts of the continent of America. These, as
the metals became known, would be supplanted by tools formed of them. Among the
Peruvians, at their invasion by the Spaniards, the only tools in use were the hatchet and
the adze ; and we may fairly assume that similar tools were the only ones known at a
period of high antiquity. The saw, nails, the hammer, and other instruments of carpentry
were unknown. The Greeks, who, as Jacob Bryant says, knew nothing of their own
history, ascribe the invention of the instruments necessary for working materials to Daedalus;
but only a few of these were known even in the time of Homer, who confines himself to
the hatchet with two edges, the plane, the auger, and the rule. He particularises neither
the square, compasses, nor saw. Neither the Greek word irpuav (a saw), nor its equivalent,
is to be found in his works. Dasdalus is considered, however, by Goguet as a fabulous person
altogether, the word meaning, according to him, nothing more than a skilful workman, a
meaning which, he observes, did not escape the notice of Pausanias. The surmise is borne
out by the non-mention of so celebrated a character, if he had ever existed, by Homer, and,
afterwards, by Herodotus. The industry and perseverance of man, however, in the end,
overcame the difficulties of construction. For wood, which was the earliest material, at
length were substituted bricks, stone, marble, and the like ; and edifices were reared of
unparalleled magnificence and solidity. It seems likely, that bricks would have been in
use for a considerable period before stone was employed in building. They were, probably,
after moulding, merely subjected to the sun's rays to acquire hardness. These were the
materials whereof the Tower of Babel was constructed. These also, at a very remote
period, were used by the Egyptians. Tiles seem to have been of as high an antiquity as
bricks, and to have been used, as in the present day, for covering roofs.
8. The period at which wrought stone was originally used for architectural purposes is
B 2
4 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
quite unknown, as is that in which cement of any kind was first employed as the medium
of uniting masonry. They were both, doubtless, the invention of that race which we have
mentioned as cultivators of land, to whom is due the introduction of architecture, properly
so called. To them solid and durable edifices were necessary as soon as they had fixed
upon a spot for the settlement of themselves and their families.
9. Chaldnea, Egypt, Phoenicia, and China are the first countries on record in which
architecture, worthy the name, made its appearance. They had certainly attained con-
siderable proficiency in the art at a very early period ; though it is doubtful, as respects
the three first, whether their reputation is not founded rather on the enormous masses of
their works, than on beauty and sublimity of form. Strabo mentions many magnificent
works which he attributes to Semiramis ; and observes that, besides those in Babylonia,
there were monuments of Babylonian industry throughout Asia. He mentions Ao</>ot (high
altars), and strong walls and battlements to various cities, as also subterranean passages of
communication, aqueducts for the conveyance of water under ground, and passages of great
length, upwards, by stairs. Bridges are also mentioned by him (lib. xvi. ). Moses has pre-
served the names of three cities in Chaldsea which were founded by Nimrod ( Gen. x. 10.).
Ashur, we are told, built Nineveh ; and ( Gen. xix. 4. ) as early as the age of Jacob and
Abraham, towns had been established in Palestine. The Chinese attribute to Fohi the
encircling of cities and towns with walls ; and in respect of Egypt, there is no question
that in Homer's time the celebrated city of Thebes had been long in existence. The
works in India are of very early date ; and we shall hereafter offer some remarks, when
speaking of the extraordinary monument of Stonehenge, tending to prove, as Jacob Bryant
supposes, that the earliest buildings of both nations, as well as those of Phrenicia and other
countries, were erected by colonies of some great original nation. If the Peruvians and
Mexicans, without the aid of carriages and horses, without scaffolding, cranes, and other
machines used in building, without even the use of iron, were enabled to raise monuments
which are still the wonder of travellers, it would seem that the mechanical arts were not
indispensable to the progress of architecture ; but it is much more likely that these were
understood at an exceedingly remote period in Asia, and in so high a degree as to have lent
their aid in the erection of some of the stupendous works to which we have alluded.
10. The art of working stone, which implies the use of iron and a knowledge of the
method of tempering it, was attributed to Tosorthus, the successor of Menes. It seems,
however, possible that the ancients were in possession of some secret for preparing bronze
tools which were capable of acting upon stone. Be that as it may, no country could have
been called upon earlier than Egypt to adopt stone as a material, for the climate does not
favour the growth of timber ; hence stone, marble, and granite were thus forced into use ;
and we know that, besides the facility of transport by means of canals, as early as the time
of Joseph waggons were in use. ( Gen. xlv. 19.) We shall hereafter investigate the hypo-
thesis of the architecture of Greece being founded upon types of timber buildings, merely
observing here, by the way, that many of the columns and entablatures of Egypt had
existence long before the earliest temples of Greece, and therefore that, without recurrence
to timber construction, prototypes for Grecian architecture are to be found in the venerable
remains of Egypt, where it is quite certain wood was not generally employed as a material,
and where the subterranean architecture of the country offers a much more probable origin
of the style.
CHAP. II.
ARCHITECTURE OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES.
SECT, I.
DRUIDICAL AND CELTIC ARCHITECTURE.
11. If rudeness, want of finish, and the absence of all appearance ot art, be criteria for
judgment on the age of monuments of antiquity, the wonderful remains of Abury and
Stonehenge must be considered the most ancient that have preserved their form so as to
indicate the original plan on which they were constructed. The late Mr. Godfrey Higgins,
a gentleman of the highest intellectual attainments, in his work on the Celtic Druids (pub-
lished 1829), has shown, as we think satisfactorily, that the Druids of the British Isles were
a colony of the first race of people, learned, enlightened, and descendants of the persons who
escaped the deluge on the borders of the Caspian Sea ; that they were the earliest occu-
piers of Greece, Italy, France, and Britain, and arrived in those places by a route nearly
CHAP. II. DRUIDICAL AND CELTIC 5
along the forty-fifth parallel of north latitude ; that, in a similar manner, colonies advanced
from the same great nation by a southern line through Asia, peopling Syria and Africa, and
arriving at last by sea through the Pillars of Hercules at Britain ; that the languages of
the western world were the same, and that one system of letters — viz. that of the Irish
Druids pervaded the whole, was common to the British Isles and Gaul, to the inhabitants
of Italy, Greece, Syria, Arabia, Persia, and Hindostan ; and that one of the two alphabets
(of the same system) in which the Irish MSS. are written — viz. the Beth-luis-nion — came
by Gaul through Britain to Ireland ; and that the other — the Bobeloth — came through the
Straits of Gibraltar. Jacob Bryant thinks that the works called Cyclopean were executed
at a remote age by colonies of some great original nation ; the only difference between his
opinion and that of Mr. Higgins being, that the latter calls them Druids, or Celts, from the
time of the dispersion above alluded to.
12. The unhewn stones, whose antiquity and purport is the subject of this section, are
found in Hindostan, where they are denominated " pandoo koolies," and are attributed to a
fabulous being named Pandoo and his sons. With a similarity of character attesting their
common origin, we find them in India, on the shores of the Levant and Mediterranean, in
Belgium, Denmark, Sweden and Norway, in France, and on the shores of Britain from the
Straits of Dover to the Land's End in Cornwall, as well as in many of the interior parts of
the country. They are classed as follows: — 1. The single stone, pillar, or obelisk.
2. Circles of stones of different number and arrangement. 3. Sacrificial stones. 4. Crom-
lechs and cairns. 5. Logan stones. 6. Tolmen or colossal stones.
13. (1.) Single Stones. — Passages abound in Scripture in which the practice of erecting
single stones is recorded. The reader on this point may refer to Gen. xxviii. 18., Judges, ix.
6., 1 Sam. vii. 12., 2 Sam. xx. 8., Joshua, xxiv. 27. The single stone might be an emblem
of the generative power of Nature, and thence an object of idolatry. That mentioned in
the first scriptural reference, which Jacob set up in his journey to visit Laban, his uncle, and
which he had used for his pillow, seems, whether from the vision he had while sleeping upon
it, or from some other cause, to have become to him an object of singular veneration ; for
he set it up, and poured oil upon it, and called it " Bethel " (the house of God). It is
curious to observe that some pillars in Cornwall, assumed to have been erected by the Phoe-
nicians, still retain the appellation Bothel. At first, these stones were of no larger dimen-
sion than a man could remove, as in the instance just cited, and that of the Gilgal of
Joshua (Josh. iv. 20.) ; but that which was set up under an oak at Shechem (ibid. xxiv. 260,
was a great stone. And here we may notice another singular coincidence, that of the Bothel
in Cornwall being set up in a place which, from its proximi'y to an oak which was near the
spot, was called Bothel-ac ; the last syllable being the Saxon for an oak. It appears from
the Scriptures that these single stones were raised on various occasions ; sometimes, as
in the case of Jacob's Bethel and of Samuel's Ebenezer, to commemorate instances of
divine interposition ; sometimes to record a covenant, as in the case of Jacob and Laban
( Gen. xxxi. 48.) ; sometimes, like the Greek stela?, as sepulchral stones, as in the case of
Rachel's grave (Gen. xxxvi. 20.), 1700 years B.C., according to the usual reckoning. They
were occasionally, also, set up to the memory of individuals, as in the instance of Absalom's
pillar and others. The pillars and altars of the patriarchs appear to have been erected in
honour of the only true God, Jehovah ; but wherever the Canaanites appeared, they seem
to have been the objects of idolatrous worship, and to have been dedicated to Baal or the
sun, or the other false deities whose altars Moses ordered the Israelites to destroy. The
similarity of pillars of single stones almost at the opposite sides of the earth, leaves no doubt
in our mind of their being the work of a people of one common origin widely scattered ;
and the hypotheses of Bryant and Higgins sufficiently account for their appearance in
places so remote from each other. In consequence, says the latter writer, of some cause, no
matter what, the Hive, after the dispersion, casted and sent forth its swarms. One of the
largest descended, according to Genesis (x. 2.), from Corner, went north, and then west,
pressed by succeeding swarms, till it arrived at the shores of the Atlantic Ocean, and ulti-
mately colonised Britain. Another branch, observes the same author, proceeded through
Sarmatia southward to the Euxine (Cimmerian Bosphorus) ; another to Italy, founding
the states of the Umbrii and the Cimmerii, at Cuma, near Naples. Till the time of the
Romans these different lines of march, like so many sheepwalks, were without any walled
cities. Some of the original tribe found their way into Greece, and between the Carpathian
mountains and the Alps into Gaul, scattering a few stragglers as they passed into the
beautiful valleys of the latter, where traces of them in Druidical monuments and language
are occasionally found. Wherever they settled, if the conjecture is correct, they employed
themselves in recovering the lost arts of their ancestors.
14. To the Canaanites of Tyre and Sidon may be chiefly attributed the introduction of
these primeval works into Britain. The Tyrians, inhabiting a small slip of barren land,
were essentially and necessarily a commercial people, and became the most expert and
adventurous sailors of antiquity. It has been supposed that the constancy of the needle to
the pole, " that path which no fowl knoweth, and which the vulture's eye hath not seen*"
B 3
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
was known to the Tynans ; and, indeed, it seems scarcely possible that, by the help of the
stars alone, they should have been able to maintain a commerce for tin on the shores of
Britain, whose western coast furnished that metal in abundance, and whose islands (the
Scilly) were known by the title of Cassiterides, or tin
islands. In this part of Britain there seems unquestion-
able evidence that they settled a colony, and were the
architects of Stonehenge, Abury, and other similar works
in the British islands. In these they might have been
assisted by that part of the swarm which reached our
shores through Gaul ; or it is possible that the works in
question may be those of the latter only, of whom traces
exist in Britany at the monument of Carnac, whereof
it is computed 4000 stones still remain. From among
the number of pillars of this kind still to be seen in
England, we give ( fig. 3.) that standing at Rudstone, in
the east riding of Yorkshire. It is described by Drake,
in his Eboracum, as " coarse rag stone or millstone grit,
and its weight is computed at between 40 and 50 tons.
In form (the sides being slightly concave) it approaches
to an ellipse on the plan, the breadth being 5 ft. 10 in.,
and the thickness 2 ft. 3 in., in its general dimensions.
Its height is 24 ft. ; and, according to a brief account
communicated to the late Mr. Pegge, in the year 1769
(ArchcBologia, vol. v. p. 95.), its depth underground equals its height above, as appeared from
an experiment made by the late Sir William Strickland."
15. (2.) Circles of Shme. — The Israelites were in the habit of arranging stones to repre-
sent the twelve tribes of Israel (Exod. xxiv. 4.), and for another purpose. (Deut. xxvii. 2.)
And in a circular form we find them set up by Joshua's order on the passage of the Israelites
through Jordan to Gilgal (b^n)? a word in which the radical Gal or Gil (signifying a
wheel) is doubled to denote the continued repetition of the action. In this last case, Joshua
made the arrangement a type of the Lord rolling away their reproach from them.
16. Though traces of this species of monument are found in various parts of the world,
even in America, we shall confine our observations to those of Abury and Stonehenge,
merely referring, by way of enumeration, to the places where they are to be found. Thus
we mention Rolbrich in Oxfordshire, the Hurlers in Cornwall, Long Meg and her daughters
in Cumberland, remains in Derbyshire, Devonshire, Dorsetshire, at Stanton Drew in
Somersetshire, and in Westmoreland. They are common in Wales, and are found in the
Western Isles. There are examples in Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and various
parts of Germany. Clarke, in his description of the hill of Kushunlu Tepe in the Troad,
observes, that all the way up, the traces of former works may be noticed, and that, on the
summit, there is a small oblong area, six yards long and two broad, exhibiting vestiges of the
highest antiquity ; the stones forming the inclosure being as rude as those of Tiryns in
Argolis, and encircled by a grove of oaks covering the top of this conical mountain. The
entrance is from the south. Upon the east and west, outside of the trees, are stones ranging
like what we in England call Druidical circles. Three circles of stones are known in
America, one of which stands upon a high rock on the banks of the river Winnipigon.
The stupendous monument of Carnac in Britany, of which we have above made mention,
is not of a circular form ; the stones there being arranged in eleven straight lines, from
30 to 33 ft. apart, some of which are of enormous size. They are said to have formerly
extended three leagues along the coast. A description of this monument is given in vol. xxii.
of the Archaologia.
17. Abury, or Avebury, in Wiltshire, of which we give a view in a restored state
(fig* 4. ), is a specimen of this species of building, in which the climax of magnificence
was attained. Stukely, who examined the ruins when in much better preservation than at
present, says, " that the whole figure represented a snake transmitted through a circle ; "
and that, " to make their representation more natural, they artfully carried it over a variety
of elevations and depressions, which, with the curvature of the avenues, produces sufficiently
the desired effect. To make it still more elegant and picture-like, the head of the snake is
carried up the southern promontory of Hackpen Hill, towards the village of West Kennet ;
nay, the very name of the hill is derived from this circumstance ; " for acan, he observes, sig-
nifies a serpent in the Chaldaic language. Dr. S. then goes on to state, "that the dracontia
was a name, amongst the first-learned nations, for the very ancient sort of temples of which
they could give no account, nor well explain their meaning upon it." The figure of the
serpent extended two miles in length ; and but a very faint idea can now be formed of what
it was in its original state. • Two double circles, one to the north and the other to the
south of the centre, were placed within the large circle, which formed the principal body of
the serpent, and from which branched out the head to Hackpen Hill, in the direction of
CHAP. II.
DRUIDICAL AND CELTIC.
Fig. 4.
West Kennet, as one avenue ; and the other, the tail, in the direction of Beckhampton.
Dr. Stukely makes the number of stones, 652 in all, as under : —
Stones.
The great circle . .100
Outer circle north of the centre 30
Inner ditto . . .12
Outer circle, south . . 30
Inner ditto . . .12
Cove and altar stone, north circle 4
Central pillar and altar, south
circle . . 2
Kennet avenue . 200
Beckhampton avenue 200
Outer circle of Hackpen 40
Inner ditto . . 18
Long stone. Cove jambs
A stone he calls the ring stone
Closing stone of the tail
Total
Stones.
Of these, only seventy-six stones remained in the Kennet avenue in 1722. The large
circle was enclosed by a trench or vallum upwards of 50ft. in depth and between 60 and
70 ft. in width, leaving entrances
open where the avenues intersected
it. The colossal mound, called
" Silbury hill," close to the Bath
road, was probably connected in
some way with the circle we have
described, from the circumstance of
the Roman road to Bath, made long
afterwards, being diverted to avoid
it. Dr. Owen thinks that the Abury
circle was one of three primary cir-
cles in Great Britain, and that Sil-
bury hill was the pile of Cy vrangon
(heaping) characterised in the 14th
Welsh triad; but the conjecture
affords us no assistance in determin-
ing the people by whom the monu-
ment was raised. If it be in its
arrangement intended to represent
a serpent, it becomes immediately
connected with ophiolatry, or ser-
pent worship, a sin which beset the
Israelites, and which would stamp
it as proceeding from the central
N stamen of the hypothesis on which
Mr. Higgins sets out. See Observ-
ations on Dracontia, by the Rev. John Bathurst Deane, Archceol. vol. xxv.
" JEoliam Pltanen a larva parte relinquit,
Factaque de saxo longi simulacra Draconis,"
which is a picturesque description of Abury.
18. Stonehenge, on Salisbury Plain, about seven miles from Salisbury and two miles
B 4
Fig. 5.
PLAN OF STONEHENGB.
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
to the west of Ambresbury, is certainly more artificial in its structure than Abury, and its
construction may therefore be safely referred to a later date. Fig. 5. is a restored plan of
this wonder of the west, as it may well be called. The larger circle is 105 feet in diameter,
and between it and the interior smaller circle is a space of about 9 feet. Within this smaller
circle, which is half the height (8 feet) of the exterior one, was a portion of an ellipsis
formed by 5 groups of stones, to which Dr. Stukely has given the name of trilithons,
because formed by two vertical and one horizontal stone: the former are from 17 to 18^-
feet high, the middle trilithon being the highest. Within this ellipsis is another of single
stones, half the height of the trilithons. The outer circle was crowned with a course of
stones similar to an architrave or epistylium, the stones whereof were let into or joggled
with one another by means of egg-shaped tenons formed out of the vertical blocks. The
ellipsis was connected in a similar manner. Within the inner elliptical enclosure was a
block 16ft. long, 4ft. broad, and 20 in. thick. This has usually been called the altar
stone. Round the larger circle, at the distance of 100 ft., a vallum was formed about 52 ft.
in width, so that the external dimension of the work was a diameter of 420 ft. The vallum
surrounding these sacred places seems to have been borrowed by the Canaanites in imitation
of the enclosure with which Moses surrounded Mount Sinai, in order to prevent the multi-
tude from approaching too near the sacred mysteries. The number of stones composing
this monument is variously given. In the subjoined account we follow Dr. Stukely : —
Great circle> vertical stones .
Epistylia
Inner circle
Vertical stones of outer ellipsis
Epistylia to them
Inner ellipsis . ,
Altar .
Stones.
30
30
40
10
5
19
Stones within vallum .
A large table stone
Distant pillar ....
Another stone, supposed to have been
opposite the entrance
Total
Stones.
2
1
1
1
Northwards from Stonehenge, at the distance of a few hundred yards, is a large single stone,
which, at the period of its being placed there, has been by some thought to have marked
a meridian line from the centre of the circle.
19. Fig. 6. is a view of the present state of this interesting ruin from the west. Mr.
Kig. 6.
Cunnington, in a letter to Mr. Higgins, gives the following account of the stones which
remain of the monument : — " The stones on the outside of the work, those comprising the
outward circle as well as the large (five) trilithons, are all of that species of stone called
* gar 'sen ' found in the neighbourhood; whereas the inner circle of small upright stones,
and those of the interior oval, are composed of granite, hornstone, &c., most probably pro-
cured from some part of Devonshire or Cornwall, as I know not where such stones could
be procured at a nearer distance."
20. Authors have in Stonehenge discovered an instrument of astronomy, and among them
Maurice, whose view as to its founders coincides with those of the writers already cited, and
with our own. We give no opinion on this point, but shall conclude the section by placing
before the reader the substance of M. Bailly's notion thereon, recommending him to consult,
in that respect, authorities better than we profess to be, and here expressing our own belief
that the priests of ancient Britain were priests of Baal ; and that the monuments, the
subjects of this section, were in existence long before the Greeks, as a nation, were known,
albeit they did derive the word Druid from Spvs (an oak), and said that they themselves
were avroxQoves (sprung from the earth).
21. M. Bailly says, on the origin of the sciences in Asia, that a nation possessed of
profound wisdom, of elevated genius, and of an antiquity far superior to the Egyptians or
Indians, immediately after the flood inhabited the country to the north of India, between
the latitudes of 40 J and 50 , or about 50° nortlx He contends that some of the most
celebrated observatories and inventions relating to astronomy, from their peculiar character,
could have taken place only in those latitudes, and that arts and improvements gradually
CHAP. II. DRUIDICAL AND CELTIC. 9
travelled thence to the equator. The people to whom his description is most applicable is
the northern progeny of Brahmins, settled near the Imaus and in Northern Thibet. We
add, that Mr. Hastings informed Maurice of an immemorial tradition that prevailed at
Benares, which was itself, in modern times, the grand emporium of Indian learning, — that
all that of India came from a country situate in 4O° of N. latitude. On this Maurice says,
" This is the latitude of Samarcand, the metropolis of Tartary ; and, by this circumstance,
the position of M. Bailly should seem to be confirmed. This is the country where, according
to the testimony of Josephus and other historians cited by the learned Abbe Pezron, are to
be found the first Celtae, by whom all the temples and caves of India were made. Higgms
observes on this, that the worship of the Mithraitic bull existed in India, Persia, Greece,
Italy, and Britain, and that the religion of the Druids, Magi, and Brahmins was the same.
22. (3.) Sacrificial Stones. — These have been confounded with the cromlech, but the
difference between them is wide. They are simple stones, either encircled by a shallow
trench (vallum) and bank (agger), or by a few stones. Upon these almost all authors
concur in believing that human immolation was practised ; indeed, the name blod, or
blood-stones, which they bear in the north of Europe, seems to point to their infernal use.
We do not think it necessary to pursue further inquiry into them, as they present no
remarkable nor interesting features.
23. (4. ) Cromlechs and Cairns. — The former of these seem to stand in the same relation
to the large circles that the modern cell does to the conventual church of the Catholics.
They consist of two or more sides, or vertical stones, and sometimes a back stone, the whole
being covered with one not usually placed exactly horizontal, but rather in an inclining
position. We here {fig. 7.) give
a representation of one, that
has received the name of Kit's
Cotty House, which lies on the
road between Maidstone and
Rochester, about a mile north-
eastward from Aylesford church,
and is thus described in the
Beauties of England and Wales.
It " is composed of four huge
-v-<s.i stones unwrought» three °f them
^ vjj^^^^^^^^^^ standing on end but inclined in-
k wards, and supporting the fourth,
which lies transversely over
them, so as to leave an open recess beneath. The dimensions and computed weights of these
stones are as follows : — height of that on the south side 8 ft., breadth 7^ ft., thickness 2 ft.,
weight 8 tons; height of that on the north side 7 ft., breadth 7^ ft., thickness 2ft.,
weight 8^ tons. The middle stone is very irregular ; its medium length as well as breadth
may be about 5 ft., its thickness about 1 ft. 2 in., and its weight about 2 tons. The upper
stone or impost is also extremely irregular; its greatest length is nearly 12 ft., and its
breadth about 9| ft.; its thickness is 2 ft., and its weight about 10^ tons : the width of the
recess at bottom is 9 ft., and at top 7^ ft. ; from the ground to the upper side of the covering
stone is 9 ft. These stones are of the kind called Kentish rag. Many years ago there was
a single stone of a similar kind and size to those forming the cromlech, about 70 yards to
the north-west : this, which is thought to have once stood upright, like a pillar, has been
broken into pieces and carried away." Another cromlech stood in the neighbourhood,
which has been thrown down. The nonsense that has been gravely written upon this
and similar monuments is scarcely worth mention. It will hardly be believed that there
existed people who thought it was the sepulchral monument of king Catigern, from similarity
of name, and others who consider it the grave of the Saxon chief, Horsa, from its proximity
to Horsted. Cromlechs are found in situations remote indeed, a specimen being seated on
the Malabar coast ; and in the British isles they are so numerous, that we do not think
it necessary to give a list of them.
24. The cairn or earn which we have in this section coupled with the cromlech, perhaps
improperly, is a conical heap of loose stones. Whether its etymology be that of Rowland,
from the words I2~r\p (kern-ned), a coped heap, we shall, from too little skill in Hebrew,
not venture to decide ; so we do not feel quite sure that, as has been asserted, they were raised
over the bodies of deceased heroes and chieftains. Our notion rather inclines to their
having been a species of altar, though the heap of stones to which Jacob gave the name of
Galeed, if it were of this species, was rather a memorial of the agreement between him
and Laban. It can scarcely be called an architectural work ; but we should have considered
our notice of the earlier monuments of antiquity incomplete without naming the cairn.
25. (5.) Logan or Rocking Stones. — These were large blocks poised so nicely on the
points of rocks, that a small force applied to them produced oscillation. The weight of the
celebrated one in Cornwall, which is granite, has been computed at upwards of 90 tons.
10
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
The use of these stones has been conjectured to be that of testing the innocence of persons
accused of crime, the rocking of the stone being certain, unless wedged up by the judge of
the tribunal, in cases where he knew the guilt of the criminal : but we think that such a
purpose is highly improbable.
26. (6. ) Tolmen or Colossal Stones. — The Tolmen, or hole of stone, is a stone of
considerable magnitude, so disposed upon
rocks as to leave an opening between
them, through which an object could be
passed. It is the general opinion in Corn-
wall that invalids were cured of their
diseases by being passed through the
opening above mentioned. " The most
stupendous monument of this kind," (see
fig. 8. ) says Borlase, " is in the tenement
of Men, in the parish of Constantine, in
Cornwall; it is one great oval pebble,
placed on the points of two natural rocks,
so that a man may creep under the great
8. TOI.MKN IN CORNWALL. one, between the supporters, through a
passage of about three feet wide, by as much high. The longest diameter of this stone is
33 ft., being in a direction due north and south. Its height, measured perpendicularly over
the opening is, 14 ft. 6 in., and the breadth, in the widest part, 18 ft. 6 in., extending from
east to west. I measured one half of the circumference, and found it, according to my
computation, 48 £ ft., so that this stone is 97 ft. in circumference, lengthwise, and about
60 ft. in girt, measured at the middle ; and, by the best information, it contains about
750 tons." We close this section by the expression of our belief that the extraordinary
monuments whereof we have been speaking are of an age as remote as, if not more so
than, the pyramids of Egypt, and that they were the works of a colony of the great
nation that was at the earliest period settled in central Asia, either through the swarm
that passed north-west over Germany, or south-west through Phoenicia; for, on either
route, but rather, perhaps, the latter, traces of gigantic works remain, to attest the wonderful
powers of the people of whom they are the remains.
SECT. II.
PELASGIC OR CYCLOPEAH ARCHITECTURE.
27. Pelasgic or Cyclopean architecture, (for that as well as the architecture of Phoenicia,
seems to have been the work of branches of an original similarly thinking nation) pre-
sents for the notice of the reader, little more than massive walls composed of huge pieces of
rock, scarcely more than piled together without the connecting medium of cement of any
species. The method of its construction, considered as masonry, to the eye of the architect
is quite sufficient to connect it with what we have in the preceding section called Druidical
or Celtic architecture. It is next to impossible to believe that all these species were not
executed by the same people. The nature and principles of Egyptian art were the same,
but the specimens of it which remain bear marks of being of later date, the pyramids only
excepted. The Greek fables about the Cyclopeans have been sufficiently exposed by Jacob
Bryant, who has shown that the Greeks knew nothing about their own early history.
Herodotus (lib. v. cap. 57. et seq.) alludes to them under the name of Cadmians, saying they
were particularly famous for their architecture, which he says they introduced into Greece ;
and wherever they came, erected noble structures remarkable for their height and beauty.
These were dedicated to the Sun under the names of Elorus and Pelorus. Hence every
thing great and stupendous was called Pelorian; and, transferring the ideas of the works to
the founders, they made them a race of giants. Homer says of Polyphemus, —
A»S{/ -yt ffiTOfotyu, aXXat pica U^WTI.
Virgil, too, describes him " Ipse arduus, alta pulsat sidera." Famous as lighthouse builders,
wherein a round casement in the upper story afforded light to the mariner, the Greeks
turned this into a single eye in the forehead of the race, and thus made them a set of mon-
sters. Of the race were Trophonius and his brother Agamedes, who, according to Pau-
sanias (lib. ix.) contrived the temple at Delphi and the Treasury constructed to Urius. So
great was the fame for building of the Cyclopeans that, when the Sybil in Virgil shows
^Eneas the place of torment in the shades below, the poet separates it from the regions of
bliss by a Cyclopean wall : —
Mcenia conspicio.
Cyclopum educta caminis
JEn. lib. vi. v.630.
CHAP. II.
PELASGIC OR CYCLOPEAN.
11
28. The walls of the city of Mycene are of the class denominated Cyclopean, thus de-
nounced for ruin by Hercules in Seneca : —
" Quid moror ? majus niihi
Bellum Mycenis restat, ut Cyclopea
Kversa mauibus mcenia nostris concidant." Hercules Furens, act. 4. v. 996.
29. The gate of the city and the chief tower were particularly ascribed to them ( Pausanias,
lib. ii. ) A rgos had also the reputation of being Cyclopean. But, to return to Mycene,
Euripides, we should observe, speaks of its walls as being built after the Phoenician rule
and method : —
fl? TO.
XtKVOVI XCtt TUZOIS
Hercules Furens, v.944.
Fig. 9,
30. Fig. 9. is a representation of a portion of the postern gate of the walls of Mycene,
for the purpose of exhibiting to the reader the cha-
racter of the masonry employed in it.
31. The walls of Tiryns, probably more ancient
than those we have just named, are celebrated by
Homer in the words Tipvvda Teixtoffro-av, and are said
by Apollodorus and Strabo to have been built by
workmen whom Praetus brought from Lycia. The
words of Strabo are, TipvvQi opfirirripup xpTjerourflcu So/cet
UpoiTos, KCU reixurai Sia KvKXuTrcaf ovs firra p.*v ftvat,
Ka\fia6at Se rcurrepoxct/jos, Tpe<f>o/j.evovs €/c TTJS Tf^j/Tjy,
Proetus appears to have used Tiryns as a harbour, and
to have walled it by the assistance of the Cyclops, who
were seven in number, and called Gastrocheirs (belly-
handed), living by their labour. " These seven Cy-
clops," says Jacob Bryant, " were, I make no doubt,
seven Cyclopean towers built by the people. " Further
on, he adds, " These towers were erected likewise
for Purait, or Puratheia, where the rites of fire were
performed : but Purait, or Puraitus, the Greeks
changed to Praetus ; and gave out that the towers
were built for Praetus, whom they made a king of that country." The same author says
that the Cyclopeans worshipped the sun under the symbol of a serpent ; thus again
connecting them with the builders of Abury
noticed in page 6. Fig. 10. is a view of
some portions of the walls of Tiryns, and
for others we refer the reader to the Travels
in Albania, by the Rev. Mr. Hughes.
32. Mr. Hamilton (Archceologia) divides
the specimens of Cyclopean buildings into
four aeras. In the first he includes Tiryns
and Mycene, where the blocks composing
the masonry are of various sizes, having or
having had smaller stones in their inter-
stices. Second, as at Julis and Delphi,
masonry without courses, formed of irre-
^ gular polygonal stones, whose sides fit to
| each other. Third, that in which the stones
\ are laid in courses of the same height, but
jt unequal in length of stones ; of this species
p" are specimens in Boeotia, Argolis, and the
Phocian cities. Fourth and last, that in
which the stones are of various heights, and
always rectangular, whereof examples are
found in Attica. It may be here mentioned
that, in the Etrurian part of Italy we find
examples of Cyclopean works of the class,
which Mr. Hamilton places in the second
aera; as at Norba in Latium, Cora, Signia,
and Alatrium; in the three last whereof the walls resemble those of Tiryns, Argos, and
Mycene ; also at Fiesole, Arezzo, and other places.
33. We shall now return to some further particulars in relation to Tiryns and Mycene,
from which a more distinct notion of these fortresses will be obtained ; but further investi-
gation of those in Italy will hereafter be necessary, under the section on Etruscan architecture.
The Acropolis of Tiryns, a little to the south-east of Argos, is on a mount rising about fifty
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
feet above the level of the plain, the foundations of its inclosure being still perfect and
traceable, as in the annexed figure (fig. 11.). The ancient city is thought to have sur-
E ACROPOLIS OK TIRYNS.
rounded the fortress, and that formerly the city was nearer the sea than at present. Bryant,
with his usual ingenuity, has found in its general form a type of the long ship of Danaus,
which, we confess, our imagination is not lively enough to detect. On the east of the
fortress are quarries, which furnish stone similar to that whereof it is built. It had entrances
from the east and the west, and one at the south-eastern angle. That on the east, lettered A,
is pretty fairly preserved, and is approached by an inclined access, B, 15 ft. wide, along
the eastern and southern sides of the tower, C, which is 20 ft. square and 40 ft. high,
passing, at the end of the last named side, under a gateway, composed of very large blocks
of stone, that which forms the architrave being 10 ft. long, and over which, from the frag-
ments lying on the spot, it is conjectured that a triangular stone was placed ; but thereon
is no appearance of sculpture. D is the present entrance. The general thickness of the
rails is 25 ft., and" they are formed by three parallel ranks of stones 5 ft. thick, thus leaving
two ranges of galleries each 5 ft. wide and 12ft. high. The sides of the
galleries are formed by two courses of stone, and the roof by two other
horizontal courses, sailing over so as to meet at their summit, and some-
what resembling a pointed arch. See fig. 1 1 . That part of the gallery,
fig. 12., now uncovered, is about 90 ft. long, and has six openings or
recesses towards the east, one whereof seems to have afforded a communi-
cation with some exterior building, of whose foundation traces are still
in existence. The interval between these openings varies from 10 ft. 6 in.
to 9 ft. 8 in. ; the openings themselves being from 5 ft. 6 in. to 4 ft. 10 in.
*I.I.KKV. wide. It is probable that these galleries extended all round the citadel,
though now only accessible where the walls are least perfect, at the southern part of
the inclosure. There are no remains of the south-eastern portal. It appears to have been
connected with the eastern gate by an avenue enclosed between the outer and inner curtain,
of which avenue the use is not known. Similar avenues have been found at Argos and
other ancient cities in Greece. The northern point of the hill is least elevated, and smaller
stones have been employed in its wall. The exterior walls are built of rough stones, some
of which are 9 ft. 4 in. in length and 4 ft. thick, their common size being somewhat less
When entire, the wall must have been 60 ft. high, and on the eastern side has been entirely
destroyed. The whole length of the citadel is about 660 ft., and the breadth about 180 ft.,
the walls being straight without regard to inequality of level in the rock.
34. The Acropolis of Mycene was probably constructed in an age nearly the same as
that of Tiryns. Pausanias mentions a gate on which two lions were sculptured, to which
the name of the Gate of the Lions has been given (fig. 13.) These are still in their
original position. It is situate at the end of a recess about 50 ft. long, commanded by pro-
jections of the walls, which are here formed of huge blocks of square stones, many placed
on each other without breaking joint, which circumstance gives it a very inartificial appear-
ance. The epistylium of the gate is a single stone 15 ft. long and 4 ft. 4 in. high. To
the south of the gate above mentioned the wall is much ruined. In one part something
like a tower is discernible, whose walls, being perpendicular while the curtain inclines a
little inward from its base, a projection remained at the top by which an archer could defend
the wall below. The blocks of the superstructure are of great size, those of the sub-
structure much smaller. The gates excepted, the whole citadel is built of rough masses of
rock, nicely adjusted and fitted to each other, though the smaller stones with which the
CHAP. II.
PELASGIC OR CYCLOPEAN.
interstices were filled have mostly disappeared. The southern ramparts of the citadel and
all the other walls follow the natural irregularity of the precipice on which they stand. At
its eastern point it is attached by
a narrow isthmus to the mountain.
It is a long irregular triangle,
standing nearly east and west.
The walls are mostly of well-
jointed polygonal stones, although
the rough construction occasionally
appears. The general thickness of
the walls is 21 ft., in some places
25 ; their present height, in the
most perfect part, is 43 ft. There
are, in some places, very slight
projections from the walls, resem-
bling towers, whereof the most
perfect one is at the south-east
angle, its breadth being 33 ft. and
its height 43 ft. The size of the
block whereon the lions are sculp-
tured is 1 1 ft. broad at the base,
9 ft. high, and about 2 ft. thick,
of a triangular form suited to the
This block, in its appearance, resembles the green basalt of
r~~
Fi«. 13. _ GATE 0V ^
recess made for its reception.
Egypt-
35. In this place we think it proper to notice a building at Mycene, which has been
called by some the Treasury of Atreus, or the tomb of his son Agamemnon mentioned by
Pausariias. This building at first misled some authors into
a belief that the use of the arch was known in Greece at a
very early period ; but examination of it shows that it was
formed by horizontal courses, projecting beyond each other as
they rose, and not by radiating joints or beds, and that the sur-
face was afterwards formed so as to give the whole the ap-
pearance of a pointed dome, by cutting away the lower angles
"Fi£ ur'iKKAsiKY OK ATRKus. (fig, 14.). It is probablythe most ancient of buildings in
Greece ; and it is a curious circumstance that at New Grange, near Drogheda, in Ire-
land, there is a monument whose form, construction, and plan of access resemble it so
strongly that it is impossible to consider their similarity the result of accident. A repre-
sentation of this may be seen in the work by Mr. Hig-
gins which we have so often quoted, and will, we think,
satisfy the reader of the great probability of the hypothesis
hereinbefore assumed having all the appearance of truth.
By the subjoined plan (fig. 15.) it will be seen that a
space 20 ft. wide, between the two walls, conducts us to
the entrance, which is 9 ft. 6 in. at the base, 7 ft. 10 in. at
the top, and about 1 9 ft. high. The entrance passage is
18 ft. long and leads to the main chamber, which, in its
general form, has some resemblance to a bee-hive, whose
diameter is about 48 ft. and height about 49. (fig. 16.)
The blocks are placed in courses as above shown, 34 courses
being at present visible. They are laid with the greatest
precision, without cement, and are unequal in size. Their
Fig. I*. PLAN oFrRKU9. average height may be taken at 2ft., though to a spectator
on the floor, from the effect of the perspective, they appear to diminish very much towards
the vertex. This monument has a second chamber, to which you enter on the right from the
larger one just described. This is about 27 ft. by 20, and 19ft. high ; but its walls, from the
obstruction of the earth, are not visible. The doorway to it is 9^ ft. high, 4 ft. 7 in. wide
at the base, and 4 ft. 3 in. at the top. Similar to the larger or principal doorway, it has a
triangular opening over its lintel. The stones which fitted into these triangular openings
were of enormous dimensions, for the height of that over the principal entrance is 12 ft.,
and its breadth 7 ft. 8 in. The vault has been either lined with metal or ornamented with
some sort of decorations, inasmuch as a number of bronze nails are found fixed in the stones
up to the summit. The lintel of the door consists of two pieces of stone, the largest whereof
is 27 ft. long, 17 ft. wide, and 3 ft. 9 in. thick, calculated, therefore, at 133 tons weight ; a
mass which can be compared with none ever used in building, except those at Balbec and
in Egypt. The other lintel is of the same height, and probably (its ends are hidden) of
11
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
the same length as the first. Its breadth, however, is only one foot. Its exterior has two
parallel mouldings, which are continued down the jambs of the doorway.
Fig. 16.
36. The stone employed is of the hard and beautiful breccia, of which the neighbouring
rocks, and the contiguous Mount Eubora, consist. It is the hardest and compactest breccia
which Greece produces, resembling the
antique marble called Breccia Tracag-
nina antica, sometimes found among the
ruins of Rome. Near the gate lie some
masses of rosso antico decorated with
guilloche-like and zigzag ornaments,
and a columnar base of a Persian cha-
racter. Some have supposed that these
belonged to the decorations of the door-
way ; but we are of a different opinion,
inasmuch as they destroy its grand cha-
racter. We think if this were the tomb
of Agamemnon, they were much more
likely to have been a part of the shrine
in which the body or ashes were de-
posited.
37. It is conjectured that the trea-
sury of Minyas king of Orchomenus,
whereof Pausanias speaks, bore a re-
semblance to the building we have just
described ; and it is very probable that
all the subterranean chambers of Greece,
Italy, and Sicily were very similarly
constructed. Fig. 17. represents the
entrance to the building from the out-
side. As the architecture of the early
races whereof we have been speaking
will be further discussed in investi-
Fig. n. TREASURY OF MINYAS. gating other monuments, we do not
think it necessary to enlarge further in this place on what we have termed Pelasgic
or Cyclopean architecture.
CHAP. II. BABYLONIAN. 15
SECT. III.
BABYLONIAN ARCHITECTURE.
38. The name prefixed to this section must not induce the reader to suppose we shall
be able to afford him much instruction on this interesting subject. The materials are
scanty; the monuments, though once stupendous, still more so. " If ever," says Keith, in
his Evidence of the Truth of the Christian Religion, " there was a city that seemed to bid
defiance to any predictions of its fall, that city was Babylon. It was for a long time the
most famous city in the Old World. Its walls, which were reckoned among the wonders of
the world, appeared rather like the bulwarks of nature than the workmanship of man."
The city of Babylon is thus described by ancient writers. It was situated in a plain of
vast extent, and divided into two parts by the river Euphrates, which was of considerable
width at the spot. The two divisions of the city were connected by a massive bridge of
masonry strongly connected with iron and lead ; and the embankments to prevent inroads
of the river were formed of the same durable materials as the walls of the city. Herodotus
says that the city itself was a perfect square enclosed by a wall 480 furlongs in circum-
ference, which would make it eight times the size of London. It is said to have had num-
bers of houses three or four stories in height, and to have been regularly divided into
streets running parallel with each other, and cross ones opening to the river. It was sur-
rounded by a wide and deep trench, from the earth whereof, when excavated, square bricks
were formed and baked in a furnace. With these, cemented together through the medium
of heated bitumen intermixed with reeds to bind together the viscid mass, the sides of the
trenches were lined, and with the same materials the vast walls above mentioned were con-
structed. At certain intervals watch-towers were placed, and the city was entered by
100 gates of brass. In the centre of each of the principal divisions of the city a stupen-
dous public monument was erected. In one (Major Rennel thinks that on the eastern side)
stood the temple of Belus; in the other, within a large strongly fortified enclosure, the royal
palace. The former was a square pile, each side being two furlongs in extent. The
tower erected on its centre was a furlong in breadth and the same in height, thus making
it higher than the largest of the pyramids, supposing the furlong to contain only 500 feet.
On this tower as a base were raised, in regular succession, seven other lofty towers, and the
whole, according to Diodorus, crowned with a bronze statue of the god Belus 40 feet high.
See fig. 18., in which the dotted lines show the
present remains, according to Sir R. K. Porter's
account in his Travels. The palace, serving also
as a temple, stood on an area 1^ mile square,
and was surrounded by circular walls, which,
according to Diodorus, were decorated with
sculptured animals resembling life, painted in
their natural colours, on the bricks of which they
were depicted, and afterwards burnt in. Such
w^as the city of Babylon in its meridian splendour,
that city whose founder (if it were not Nimrod,
FIK. 1». riisipi-K OK HKI.US. sometimes called Belus,) is unknown. Great as
it was, it was enlarged by Semiramis, and still further enlarged and fortified by Nebuchad-
nezzar. We shall now present, from the account of Mr. Rich, a gentleman who visited the
spot near thirty years ago, a sketch of what the city now is. The first grand mass of
ruins marked A (fig. 19. ), which the above gentleman describes, he says extends 11OO
yards in length and 800 in its greatest breadth, in figure nearly resembling a quadrant ;
its height is irregular, but the most elevated part may be about 50 or 60 ft. above the level of
the plain, and it has been dug into for the purpose of procuring bricks. This mound Mr. R.
distinguishes by the name of Amran. On the north is a valley 550 yards long, and then the
second grand heap of ruins, whose shape is nearly a square of 700 yards long and broad ;
its south-west angle being connected with the north-west angle of the mounds of Amran
by a high ridge nearly 100 yards in breadth. This is the place where Beauchamp made
his observations, and is highly interesting from every vestige of it being composed of build-
ings far superior to those whereof there are traces in the eastern quarter. The bricks are
of the finest description, and, notwithstanding this spot being the principal magazine of them
and constantly used for a supply, are still in abundance. The operation of extracting the
bricks has caused much confusion, and increased the difficulty of deciphering the use of
this mound. In some places the solid mass has been bored into, and the superincum-
bent strata falling in, frequently bury workmen in the rubbish. In all these excavations
walls of burnt brick laid in lime mortar of a good quality are to be seen ; and among the
ruins are to be found fragments of alabaster vessels, fine earthenware, marble, and great
quantities of varnished tiles, whose glazing and colouring are surprisingly fresh. " In a
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK 1.
PT.AN OF BABYLON.
hollow," observes Mr. Rich, " near the southern part, I found a sepulchral urn of earthen-
ware, which had been broken in digging, and
near it lay some human bones, which pul-
verised with the touch." Not more than 200
yards from the northern extremity of this
mound, is a ravine, near 100 yards long, hol-
lowed out by those who dig for bricks, on one
of whose sides a few yards of wall remain, the
face whereof is clear and perfect, and appears
to have been the front of some building. The
opposite side is so confused a mass of rubbish,
that it looks as if the ravine had been worked
through a solid, building. Under the founda-
tions at the southern end was discovered a sub-
terranean passage floored and walled with large
bricks in bitumen, and covered over with pieces
of sandstone a yard thick and several yards
long, on which the pressure is so great as to
have pushed out the side walls. What was
seen was near seven feet in height, its course
being to the south. The upper part of the
passage is cemented with bitumen, other parts of
the ravine with mortar, and the bricks have all
writing on them. At the northern end of the
ravine an excavation was made, and a statue
of a lion of colossal dimensions, standing on a
pedestal of coarse granite and rude workman-
ship, was discovered. This was about the spot
marked E on the plan. A little to the west
of the ravine at B is a remarkable ruin called
the Kasr or Palace, which, being uncovered,
and partly detached from the rubbish, is visible
from a considerable distance. It is " so sur-
prisingly fresh," says the author, " that it was only after a minute inspection I was satisfied
of its being in reality a Babylonian remain." It consists of several walls and piers, in some
places ornamented with niches, and in others strengthened by pilasters of burnt brick in
lime cement of great tenacity. The tops of the walls have been broken down, and they
may have been much higher. Contiguous to this ruin is a heap of rubbish, whose sides
are curiously streaked by the alternation of its materials, probably unburnt bricks, of which
a small quantity were found in the neighbourhood, without however any reeds in their in-
terstices. A little to the N. N. E. of it is the famous tree which the natives call Atheli.
They say it existed in ancient Babylon, and was preserved by God that it might afford a
convenient place to Ali for tying up his horse after the battle Hellah ! " " It is an ever-
green," says Mr. R., " something resembling the lignum vita?, and of a kind, I believe, not
common in this part of the country, though I am told there is a tree of the description at
Bassora." The valley which separates the mounds just described from the river is white
with nitre, and does not now appear to have had any buildings upon it except a small cir-
cular heap at D. The whole embankment is abrupt, and shivered by the action of the
water. At the narrowest part E, cemented into the burnt brick wall, there were a number
of urns filled with human bones which had not undergone the action of fire. From a con-
siderable quantity of burnt bricks and other fragments of building in the water the river
appears to have encroached here.
39. A mile to the north of the Kasr, and 950 yards from the bank of the river, is the last
ruin of this series, which Pietro della Valle, in 1616, described as the tower of Belus, in
which he is followed by Rennell. The natives call it, according to the vulgar Arab pro-
nunciation of those parts, Mujelibe, which means overturned. They sometimes also apply
the same term to the mounds of the Kasr. This is marked F on the plan. " It is of an
oblong shape, irregular in its height and the measurement of its sides, which face the car-
dinal points as follows: the northern side 200 yards in length, the southern 219, the eastern
182, and the western 136. The elevation of the south-east or highest angle, 141 feet.
The western face, which is the least elevated, is the most interesting on account of the ap-
pearance of building it presents. Near the summit of it appears a low wall, with inter-
ruptions, built of unburnt bricks mixed up with chopped straw or reeds and cemented with
clay mortar of great thickness." The south-west angle seems to have had a turret, the others
are less perfect. The ruin is much worn into furrows, from the action of the weather,
penetrating considerably into the mound in some places. The summit is covered with
heaps of rubbish, among which fragments of burnt brick are found, and here and there
CHAP. II.
BABYLONIAN.
17
Fig. 20
whole bricks with inscriptions on them. Interspersed are innumerable fragments of pottery,
brick, bitumen, pebbles, vitrified brick or scoria, and even shells, bits of glass, and mother
of pearl. The north-
ern face of the Muje-
libe (fig. 20. ) contains
.^^y,.. a niche of the height
of a man, at the back
whereof a low aper-
-'Si'^^^r> ture leads to a small
ijjji&gsjs^*^-^'^ cavity, whence a pas-
sage branches off to
the right till it is lost
in the rubbish. It is
called by the natives
the serdaub or cellar, and Mr. Rich was informed that four years previous to his survey, a
quantity of marble was taken out from it, and a coffin of mulberry wood, in which was con-
tained a human body enclosed in a tight wrapper, and apparently partially covered with
bitumen, which crumbled into dust on exposure to the air. About this spot Mr. R. also ex-
cavated and found a coffin containing a skeleton in high preservation, whose antiquity was
placed beyond dispute by the attachment of a brass bird to the outside of the coffin, and in-
side an ornament of the same material, which had seemingly been suspended to some part of
the skeleton. On the western side of the river there is not the slightest vestige of ruins ex-
cepting opposite the mass of Amran, where there are two small mounds of earth in existence.
40. The most stupendous and surprising mass of the ruins of ancient Babylon is situate
in the desert, about six miles to the south-west of Hellah. It is too distant to be shown
on the block plan above given. By the Arabs it is called Birs Nemroud ; by the Jews,
Nebuchadnezzar's Prison. Mr. Rich was
the first traveller who gave any account
of this ruin, of which fig. 21. is a repre-
sentation ; and the description following
we shall present in Mr. Rich's own words.
" The Birs Nemroud is a mound of an ob-
long figure, the total circumference of
which is 762 yards. At the eastern side
it is cloven by a deep furrow, and is not
more than fifty or sixty feet high ; but at
the western it rises in a conical figure to
the elevation of 198 ft., and on its summit
is a solid pile of brick 37 ft. high by 28 in
breadth, diminishing in thickness to the
top, which is broken and irregular, and
rent by a large fissure extending through a
third of its height. It is perforated by small
square holes disposed in rhomboids. The
fine burnt bricks of which it is built have
inscriptions on them ; and so admirable is
Fi&- 21- Bms TOMROUD. the cement, which appears to be lime mortar,
that, though the layers are so close together that it is difficult to discern what substance is be- ;
tween them, it is nearly impossible to extract one of the bricks whole. The other parts of the
summit of the hill are occupied by immense fragments of brickwork, of no determinate figure,
tumbled together and converted into solid vitrified masses, as if they had undergone the action
of the fiercest fire or been blown up with gunpowder, the layers of the bricks being perfectly
discernible, — a curious fact, and one for which I am utterly incapable of accounting. These,
incredible as it may seem, are actually the ruins spoken of by Pere Emanuel (See I)' An-*
ville, sur TEuphrate et le Tigre), who takes no sort of notice of the prodigious mound on
which they are elevated." The mound is a majestic ruin, and of a people whose powers
were not lost, if the hypothesis brought before the reader in the previous section on Celtic
and Druidical architecture be founded on the basis of truth, but shown afterwards, on
their separation from the parent stock, in Abury, Stonehenge, Carnac, and many other
places. Ruins to a considerable extent exist round the Birs Nemroud ; but for our pur-
pose it is not necessary to particularise them. The chance (for more the happiest conjec-
ture would not warrant) of conclusively enabling the reader to come to a certain and definite
notion of the venerable city, whereof it is our object to give him a faint idea, is far too
indefinite to detain him and exhaust his patience. One circumstance, however, we must
not omit ; and again we shall use the words of the traveller to whom we are under so
many obligations. They are, — " To these ruins I must add one, which, though not in the
same direction, bears such strong characteristics of a Babylonian origin, that it would be
C
18 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
improper to omit a description of it in this place. I mean Akerkouf, or, as it is more
generally called, Nimrod's Tower ; for the inhabitants of these parts are as fond of attri-
buting every vestige of antiquity to Nimrod as those of Egypt are to Pharaoh. It is
situate ten miles to the north-west of Bagdad, and is a thick mass of unburnt brickwork,
of an irregular shape, rising out of a base of rubbish ; there is a layer of reeds between
every fifth or sixth (for the number is not regulated) layer of bricks. It is perforated with
small square holes, as the brickwork at the Birs Nemroud ; and about half way up on the
east side is an aperture like a window ; the layers of cement are very thin, which, consider-
ing it is mere mud, is an extraordinary circumstance. The height of the whole is 126 ft. ;
diameter of the largest part, 100ft. ; circumference of the foot of the brickwork above the
rubbish, 300ft. ; the remains of the tower contain 100,000 cubic feet. (Vide Ives's Travels,
p. 298.) To the east of it is a dependent mound, resembling those at the Birs and Al
Hheimar."
41. The inquiry (following Mr. Rich) now to be pursued is that of identifying some of
the remains which have been described with the description which has been left of them.
And, first, of the circuit of the city. The greatest circumference of the city, according to
the authors of antiquity, was 480 stadia (supposed about 500 ft. each), the least 360. Strabo,
who was on the spot when the walls were sufficiently perfect to judge of their extent, states
their circuit at 385 stadia. It seems probable that within the walls there was a quantity of
arable and pasture ground, to enable the population to resist a siege ; and that, unlike modern
cities, the buildings were distributed in groups over the area inclosed ; for Xenophon reports
that when Cyrus took Babylon (which event happened at night) the inhabitants of the oppo-
site quarter of the town were not aware of it till the third part of the day ; that is, three hours
after sunrise. The accounts of the height of the walls all agree in the dimension of 50 cubits,
which was their reduced height from 350 ft. by Darius Hystaspes, in order to render the
town less defensible. The embankment of the river with walls, according to Diodorus
100 stadia in length, indicates very advanced engineering skill; but the most wonderful
structure of the city was the tower, pyramid, or sepulchre of Belus, whose base, according
to Strabo, was a stadium on each side. It stood in an enclosure of two miles and a half,
and contained the temple in which divine honours were paid to the tutelary deity of Baby-
lon. The main interest attached to the tower of Belus arises from a belief of its identity
with the tower which we learn from Scripture ( Gen. xi. ) the descendants of Noah, with
Belus at their head, constructed in the plains of Shinar. The two masses of ruins in which
this tower must be sought, seem to be the Birs Nemroud, whose four sides are 2286 En-
glish feet in length ; and the Mujelibe, whose circumference is 2111 ft. Now, taking the
stadium at 500ft., the tower of Belus, according to the accounts, would be 2000ft. in cir-
cumference ; so that both the ruins agree, as nearly as possible, in the requisite dimensions,
considering our uncertainty respecting the exact length of the stadium. Mr. Rich evidently
inclines to the opinion that the Birs Nemroud is the ruin of this celebrated temple, though
lie allows " a very strong objection may be brought against the Birs Nemroud in the dis-
tance of its position from the extensive remains on the eastern bank of the Euphrates,
which for its accommodation would oblige us to extend the measurement of each side of
the square to nine miles, or adopt a plan which would totally exclude the Mujelibe, all the
ruins above it, and most of those below : even in the former case, the Mujelibe and the
Birs would be at opposite extremities of the town close to the walls, while we have every
reason to believe that the tower of Belus occupied a central situation."
42. The citadel or palace was surrounded by a wall whose total length was 60 stadia,
within which was another of 40 stadia, whose inner face was ornamented with painting, —
a practice (says Mr. Rich) among the Persians to this day. Within the last-named wall
was a third, on which hunting subjects were painted. The old palace was on the opposite
side of the river, the outer wall whereof was no larger than the inner wall of the new one.
Above the palace or citadel were, according to Strabo, the hanging gardens, for which, in
some respects, a site near the Mujelibe would sufficiently answer, were it not that the
skeletons found there " embarrass almost any theory that may be formed on this extra-
ordinary pile."
43. As yet, no traces have been found of the tunnel under the Euphrates, nor of the
obelisk which Diodorus says was erected by Semiramis ; it is not, however, impossible that
the diligence and perseverance of future travellers may bring them to light. Rich believes
that the number of buildings within the city bore no proportion to the extent of the walls,
— a circumstance which has already been passingly noticed. He moreover thinks that the
houses were, in general, small ; and further, that the assertion of Herodotus, that it
abounded in houses of two or three stories, argues that the majority consisted of only one.
He well observes, " The peculiar climate of this district must have caused a similarity of
habits and accommodation in all ages ; and if, upon this principle, we take the present
fashion of building as some example of the mode heretofore practised in Babylon, the
houses that had more than one story must have consisted of the ground floor, or basse-conr,
occupied by stables, magazines, and serdaubs or cellars, sunk a little below the ground, for
CHAP. II. PERSEPOLITAN AND PERSIAN. 19
the comfort of the inhabitants during the heat ; above this a gallery with the lodging
rooms opening into it ; and over all the flat terrace for the people to sleep on during the
summer." In these observations we fully concur with the author, believing that climate
and habits influence the arts of all nations.
44. Vastness of dimension, rather than refined art, may be reasonably inferred of the
Babylonian architecture ; the sculptures which have been seen are those of a people not so
advanced in art as the Egyptians. Froin the similarity of the arrow-headed characters on
the bricks found about the ruins of Babylon to those which appear on the ruins of Perse-
polis, we may fairly conjecture a similarity of habits and taste between the people of the
two cities ; of the latter we have more perfect remains than of the former, of which we
shall furnish our readers with some examples in the next section. In Asia, about the
provinces of which we have spoken, must be sought the first notions of the art. There
its wonders first appeared ; there it first developed its power. Greater almost at its birth
than ever afterwards, it seems all at once to have risen, as respects absolute grandeur, to
the highest state of which it was there susceptible; and, degenerating successively under
the hands of other people, we may reckon by the periods of its decay the epochs of its
duration.
45. No trace of the arch has been found in the ruins either at the Kasr or in the passages
at the Mujelibe. Massy piers, buttresses, and pilasters supplied the place of the column.
The timuer employed was that of the date tree, posts of which were used in their domestic
architecture, round which, says Strabo, they twist reeds and apply a coat of paint to them.
Thickness of wall was obtained by casing rubble work with fine brick, of which two sorts
were made. The one was merely dried in the sun, the other burned in a kiln. The latter
was 1 3 in. square and 3 in. thick, with varieties for different situations in the walls. They
are of various colours. The sun-dried is considerably larger than the kiln-dried. There
is reason for believing that lime cement was more generally used than bitumen or clay ;
indeed, Niebuhr says that the bricks laid in bitumen were easily separated, but that where
mortar had been employed no force could detach them from each other without breaking
them in pieces.
SECT. IV.
PERSEPOLITAN AND PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE.
46 Persepolis, the ancient capital of Persia, whereof the few ruins now remaining
we are about to describe, was seated (lat. about 30° N., long, about 53° E.) in the great
plain of Merdasht or Istakhr, one of the most fertile in the world, being watered in all
directions by rivulets and artificial drains, which ultimately unite in the Bundemir, the
ancient Araxes. The site of this city, destroyed two thousand years since, would, like
Memphis, have scarcely left a vestige by which it could have been identified, but for the
celebrated ruins of Chel-Minar (fig. 22.), which are believed to be the remains of that
UINS OP PBRSKPOT.T*.
ancient palace of the masters of Asia to which Alexander set fire in a moment of madness
and debauch. The information we are about to give on this subject is obtained from De
Bruyn, who examined the ruins with great attention in 1704, with some reference also to
Niebuhr and Sir R. K. Porter, the latest traveller who has published any account of them.
47. The ruins are situated at the foot and to the west of the mountain Kulirag-met.
On three sides the walls are remaining, the mountain to the east forming the other side
C 2
20
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
BOOK I,
From north to south the extent is 600 paces (1425ft.), and 390 (802ft.) from west to
east to the mountain on the south side, having no stairs on that side ; average height about
18 ft. 7 in. On the north side it is 410 paces (926 ft.) from east to west, and the wall is
21 ft. high in some places. At the north-west corner of the wall, about 80 paces in extent
westward, are some rocks before the principal staircase. On mounting the steps there is
found a large platform 40O paces in extent towards the mountain. Along the wall on three
,/-<, sides a pavement ex-
tends for a width of
8 ft. The principal
staircase A (fig. 23. )
is not placed in the
middle of the west
side, but nearer to
the north. It has a
double flight, the dis-
tance between the
flights at the bot-
tom being 42 ft., and
the width of them is
25 ft. 7 in. The steps
are 4 in. high, and
14 in. wide. Fifty-
five of them remain
on the north side,
and fifty-three on
the south ; and it is
probable that some
are buried by the
_t ruins. The half
spaces at the top of
the first flight are
51 ft. 4 in. wide. The upper flights are separated from the lower by a wall which runs
through at the upper landing. The upper flights are in forty-eight steps, and are cut out
of single blocks of the rock. The upper landing is seventy-five feet between the flights.
48. Forty-two feet from the landing, at B, are two large portals and two columns
(originally four). The bottom of the first is covered with two blocks of stone, which fill
two thirds of the space ; the other third having been destroyed by time. The second por-
tal is more covered by the earth than the first, by five feet. They are 22 ft. 4 in. deep,
and 13 ft. 4. in. wide. On the interior side-faces of their piers, and nearly the whole
length of them, are large figures of bulls, cut in bas-relief. The heads of these animals are
entirely destroyed ; and their breasts and fore feet project from the piers : the two of the
first portal face to the staircase, and those of the other face towards the mountain. On the
upper part of the piers there are some arrow-headed characters, too small to be made out
from below. The remains of the first portal are
39 ft. high, and of the second 28 ft. The base
of the piers is 5 ft. 2 in. high, and projects in-
wards ; and the bases upon which the figures
stand are 1 ft. 2 in. high. We may here ob-
serve that the figures on the further portal have
the body and legs of a bull, an enormous pair
of wings (fig. 24. ) projecting from the shoulders,
and the heads looking to the east show the faces
of men. On the head is a cylindrical diadem,
on both sides of which horns are clearly repre-
sented winding from the brows upwards to the
front of the crown ; the whole being surmounted
with a sort of coronet, formed of a range of
leaves like the lotus, and bound with a fillet
carved like roses. The two columns (at Sir R.
K. Porter's visit only one remained) are the
most perfect among the ruins, and are 54 ft.
high. At the distance of fifty-two feet south-
eastward from the second portico is a water-
trough cut out of a single stone 20 ft. long and
17 ft. 5 in. broad, and standing 3 ft. high from
the ground. From hence to the northern wall of the platform is covered with fragments j
and the remains of one column not channelled as the others are ; this is 12 ft. 4 in. high.
F.»r.
UURB ON A PORTAL AT PKKSIIPOMS.
CHAP. II. PERSEPOLITAN AND PERSIAN. 21
49. At one hundred and seventy-two feet from the portals, southward, is another stair-
case of two flights (lettered C), one west and the other east. On the top of the ramp of
the steps are some foliages, and a lion tearing to pieces a bull, in bas-relief, and larger than
nature. This staircase is half buried. The western flight has twenty-eight steps, and the
other, where the ground is higher, has only eighteen. These steps are 17 ft. long, 3 in.
high, and 14£ in. wide. The wall of the landing is sculptured with three rows of figures,
one above the other, and extending ninety-eight feet. The faces of these inner terrace Avails
!• arrgnmni mmm _ are all decorated with bas-reliefs, of
Avhich fig. 25. is a specimen. On ar-
riving at the top of this staircase, was
found another large platform, paved
with large blocks of stone ; and at the
distance of twenty -two feet two inches
from the parapet of the landing, are the
most northern columns (lettered D),
originally twelve in number, whereof
in Sir R. K. Porter's time only one
remained. At seventy-one feet south-
ward from these stood thirty-six columns more, at intervals of tAventy-two feet two inches
from each other, whereof only five noAV remain ; the bases, hoAvever, of all the others are in
their places, though most of them are much damaged. This group of columns is lettered
E. To the east and west of the last-named group are two other groups of twelve each
marked F and G, whereof five still remain in the eastern one, and four in the western one.
The columns of the central group are fifty-five feet high ; and those of the other three
groups are sixty feet in height. To the south of the three groups of columns is situate the
most raised building on these ruins. On the east, towards the mountain, a large mass of
ruins is visible (lettered H), consisting of portals, passages, windows, &c. The first are
decorated with figures on the interior ; and the whole plot on which they stand is 95 paces
from east to Avest, and about 1 25 paces from north to south. The centre part of the plot is
covered with fragments of columns and other stones ; and in the interior part there seems
to have been a group of seventy-six columns, whereof none are represented by Sir R. K.
Porter, nor are they shown in either of Le Bruyn's views. The highest building as to
level, marked I, is 118 ft. distant from the columns lettered G. Some foundations are
visible in front of this building, to which there is not the slightest trace of a staircase. At
fifty-three feet from the fa9ade of it to the right is a staircase of double flight, marked K,
where again bassi relievi are to be found, near which are the remains of some portals
which Le Bruyn thinks were destroyed by an earthquake. The next ruin (L) is 54^ ft. in
extent, and has portals similar to those in other parts of the place. To its north, M
exhibits uniform features, with windoAvs, and what travellers have agreed to call niches,
which are nothing more than square-headed recesses. Sculpture here again abounds,
whereof we do not think a description necessary, as in fig. 25. a specimen of it has been
given, sufficient to indicate its character. Behind this edifice is another, in some respects
similar, except that it is thirty-eight feet longer. It is marked N on the plan. One
hundred feet to the south of this last set of ruins (lettered O), Sir R. K. Porter seems
to have found traces of columns, which, if AVB read Le Bruyn rightly, he does not mention.
In this, the last-named traveller found a staircase leading to subterranean apartments, as he
thought, but nothing of interest was discovered. The general dimensions of the building
(P) extend about 160 ft. from north to south, and 190ft. from east to west. It ex-
hibits ten portals in ruins, besides other remains ; and there are traces of thirty-six
columns, in six ranks of six each. The spot is covered with fragments, under which have
been traced conveyances for Avater. To the west of the last-named building was another
entirely in ruins : to the east of it are visible the remains of a fine staircase, much resembling
that first described, and which, therefore, we do not think it necessary to particularise,
more than AVC do the numberless fragments scattered over the whole area, which Avas equal
to nearly thirty English acres ! The ruins at Q, are of portals. At R and S are tombs
cut in the rock, of curious form, but evidently, from their character, the work of those Avho
constructed the enormous pile of building of which we have already inserted a repre-
sentation. Between the leading forms of the portals of these ruins, or porticoes, as Le
Bruyn calls them, and those of the structures of Egypt, there is a very striking resemblance.
On comparison of the two, it is impossible not to be struck with the large crowning hol-
loAved member, Avhich seems to have been common to the edifices on the banks of the Nile
and those on the plain of Merdasht. In both, this member, forming, as it were, an en-
tablature, is ornamented with vertical ribs or leaves, and the large fillet above the holloAV
appears equally in each. In the walls of the Persepolitan remains, there is perhaps less real
massiveness than in those which Avere the works of the Egyptians ; but the similarity of
appearance betAveen them points to the conjecture that, though neither might have been
borroAved from the other, they are not many removes from one common parent. The an-
C 3
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
noxcd diagram (fig. 26.) will give the reader some notion of the style of the architecture of
I
AND CAPITAL.
Persepolis. The diagram (fig. 27.) exhibits a specimen of a column and capital. Fig. 28.
is a capital from one of the tombs. The walls forming the revetemcnt of
the great esplanade are wonderfully perfect ; and appear still capable of re-
sisting equally the attacks of time and barbarism. The surface of the platform,
generally, is unequal, and was of different levels : the whole seems to have
been hewn from the mountain, from whence
the marble has been extracted for con-
structing the edifices : hence the pave-
ments appear masses of marble, than which
nothing more durable or beautiful can be
conceived. No cement appears to have
been used, but the stones seem to have
been connected by cramps, whose removal,
however, has neither deranged the courses
from which they have been removed, nor «"fl
affected their nice fitting to each other ;
,-they are, indeed, so well wrought that the
joints can scarcely be perceived, so close that the thinnest plate of metal could
not be introduced between them.
50. No person can look at the style of composition and details of Persepolis without a
conviction of some intimate connection between the architects of Persia and those of Egypt.
The principles of both are identical ; and without inquiring into
the exact date of the monument whose description we have just
left, there is sufficient to convince us that the theory started in
respect of the Cyclopean architecture, of the arts travelling in
every direction from some central Asiatic point, is fully borne out ;
and that the Egyp-
tian style had its
origin in Asia. We
are quite aware that
conjectures, bearing
a semblance of pro-
bability, have as-
signed the erection
of this stupendous
palace to Egyptian
captives, at a com-
_. paratively late pe-
'.^'] riod, after the con-
FliTalh quest of Egypt by *V ro-
Ajinow-HKAUKu CHAKAUTKKS. Caml)yses ', but we think they are answered by the similarity of
arrow-headed characters used therein to those of ancient Babylon, whereof an example is
here given (fig. 29. ) from one of the portals of Persepolis. A few miles to the south of
Persepolis, the excavated hill of Nakshi Ilustan (fig. 30.) presents a number of sculptured
'l
CHAP. IT.
PERSEPOLITAN AND PERSIAN.
23
tombs, the highest supposed to be coeval with Persepolis, and formed for the sepulture of
the early kings of Persia. The lower tombs seem to have belonged to the Parthian Sas-
sanide dynasties.
About 10 degrees westward of Persepolis, and in a parallel of latitude 7 degrees north of
it, the discoveries of Botta and our countryman Layard have latterly brought to light the
interesting remains of some specimens of ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE at the ancient city of
Nineveh. From these we learn that in matters of art the early Persians were indebted to
the still earlier Assyrians. In both AVC find the same arrangement of bassi-rilievi against the
walls — entrances decorated vrith gigantic winged animals, bearing human heads — similarity
in ornament and costume — processions like those at Nimroud and Khorsabad, with a slight
variation of folds in the drapery. The cuneiform character (see the preceding page) has,
moreover, in the hands of Major Rawlinson and M. Lassen, become a known language ;
and, from an inscription found on the third terrace, behind the Chel-Minar, the structure is
assigned to the time of Darius. Other parts are given to the time of Darius Hystaspes
and of Xerxes.
51. The present architecture of Persia much resembles that of other Mahometan coun-
tries. The city of Ispahan, in its prosperity, is said to have been surrounded by a wall
twenty miles in circuit. The houses are generally mean in external appearance : they
commonly consist of a large square court, surrounded with rooms of varying dimensions for
different uses, the sides of the area being planted with flowers, and refreshed by fountains.
Distinct from this is a smaller court, round which are distributed the apartments belonging
to the females of the family ; and almost every dwelling has a garden attached to it. The
interior apartments of the richer classes are splendidly finished, though simply furnished.
Those inhabited by the governor, public officers, and opulent merchants, may almost vie
with palaces. Nearly all are constructed with sun-dried bricks, the public edifices only
being built with burnt bricks; the roofs, mostly flat, have terraces, whereon the inhabitants
sleep during several months of the year. According to Chardin, there were in his time within
the walls 160 mosques, 48 colleges, 1802 caravanseras, 273 baths, 12 cemeteries, and 38,000
houses. But the city has since fallen into great ruin. The Shah Meidan, however (figs. 31.
Fig. 31.
^ ___
3HH1HH HiHifiHH
_
tfiifllfHH
ggHHfl gffijffilS gHHHHg iffiffiilS ESS
521
and 32.), or royal square, is still one of the largest and finest in the world. It is 440
paces in length, and 1 60 in breadth. On its south side stands the royal mosque, erected by
Shah Abbas, in the sixteenth century, and constructed of stone, covered with highly varnished
bricks and tiles, whereon are inscribed sentences of the Koran. On another side of the
Meidan is a Mahometan college called the Medresse Shah Sultan Hossein. The entrance is
through a lofty portico decorated with twisted columns of Tabriz marble, leading through
two brazen gates, whose extremities are of silver, and their whole surface sculptured and
embossed with flowers, and verses from the Koran. Advancing into the court, on the right
side is-a mosque, whose dome is covered with lacquered tiles, and adorned externally with
ornaments of pure gold. This, and the minarets that flank it, are now falling into decay.
The other sides of the square are occupied, one, by a lofty and beautiful portico, and the
remaining two by small square cells for students, twelve in each front, disposed in two stories.
In the city arc few hospitals ; one stands, however, beside the caravanserai of Shah Abbas,
who erected both at the same time, that the revenue of the latter might support the proper
officers of the hospital. That the reader may have a proper idea of one of these inns of the
C 4
24
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
East, if they may be so called, we have here given the plan of that just above named (jfy.
33. ). The palaces of the kings
are enclosed in a fort of lofty
walls, about three miles in cir-
cuit ; in general the front room
or hall is very open, and the
roof supported by carved and
gilded columns. The windows
glazed with curiously stained
glass of a variety of colours ;
each has a fountain in front.
The palace of Chehel Sitoon,
or forty pillars, is placed in the
middle of an immense square,
intersected by canals, and
planted with trees. Towards
the garden is an open saloon
whose ceiling is borne by
eighteen columns, inlaid with
mirrors, and appearing at a dis-
tance to consist entirely of
glass. The base of each is of
marble, sculptured into four lions, so placed that the shafts stand on them. Mirrors are
distributed on the walls in great profusion, and the ceiling is ornamented with gilt flowers.
An arched recess leads from the apartment just described into a spacious and splendid hall,
whose roof is formed into a variety of domes, decorated with painting and gilding. The
walls are partly of white marble, and partly covered with mirrors, and are moreover deco-
rated with six large paintings, whose subjects are the battles and royal fetes of Shah Ismael
and Shah Abbas the Great. Though of considerable age, the colours are fresh, and the
gilding still brilliant. Adjoining the palace is the harem, erected but a few years ago.
The bazaars are much celebrated ; they consist of large wide passages, arched, and lighted
from above, with buildings or stores on each side. One of these was formerly 600 geo-
metrical paces in length, very broad and lofty. From these being adjacent to each other,
a person might traverse the whole city sheltered from the weather. In Ispahan, we must
not forget to notice that some fine bridges exist, which cross the river Zenderond.
Fig. 33.
CARAVANSERAI OF SH.l
SECT. V.
JEWISH ARCHITECTURE.
52. We are scarcely justified in giving a section, though short, to the architecture of the
Jews, since the only buildings recorded as of that nation are the Temple of Jerusalem con-
structed by Solomon, and the house of the forest of Lebanon. The shepherd tribes of
Israel, indeed, do not seem to have required such dwellings or temples as would lead them,
when they settled in cities, to the adoption of any style very different from that of their
neighbours. Whatever monuments are mentioned by them appear to have been rude, and
have been already noticed in the section on Druidical and Celtic architecture. When
Solomon ascended the throne, anxious to fulfil the wish his father had long entertained of
erecting a fixed temple for the reception of the ark, he was not only obliged to send to
Tyre for workmen, but for an architect also. Upon this temple a dissertation has been
written by a Spaniard of the name of Villalpanda, wherein he, with consummate simplicity,
urges that the orders, instead of being the invention of the Greeks, were the invention of God
himself, and that Callimachus most shamefully put forth pretensions to the formation of the
Corinthian capital which, he says, had been used centuries before in the temple at Jerusalem.
The following account of the temple is from the sixth chapter of the First Book of Kings.
Its plan was a parallelogram (taking the cubit at 1*824 ft., being the length generally
assigned to it) of about 109^ ft. by 36Aft., being as nearly as may be two thirds of the
size of the church of St. Martin's in the Fields. In front was a pronaos, or portico,
stretching through the whole front (36^ ft.) of the temple, and its depth was half its extent.
The cell, or main body of the temple, was 54| ft. deep, and the sanctuary beyond 36^
feet, the height of it being equal to its length and breadth. The height of the middle
part, or cell, was 54^ ft. ; and that of the portico the same as the sanctuary, — that is,
361 ft., — judging from the height of the columns. In the interior, the body of the temple
was surrounded by three tiers of chambers, to which there was an ascent by stairs; and the
central part was open to the sky. The ends of the beams of the floors rested on corbels of
stone, and were not inserted into the walls, which were lined with cedar, carved into
CHAP. II JEWISH.— INDIAN. 25
cherubims and palm trees, gilt. In the sanctuary two figures of cherubs were placed,
whose wings touched each other in the centre, and extended outwards to the walls. These
were 10 cubits high. In the front of the portico were two pillars of brass, which were cast
by Hiram, " a widow's son of the tribe of Naphtali," whose " father was a man of Tyre"
^^ and who " came to king Solomon and wrought all his work." These two pillars of
""j — Y brass (1 Kings, vii. 14, 15.) were each 18 cubits high, and their circumference was
12 cubits ; hence their diameter was 3 '8 2 cubits. The chapiters, or capitals, were
5 cubits high ; and one of them was decorated with lilies upon a net-work ground,
and the other with pomegranates. From the representation (Jig. 34.) here given,
the reader must be struck with their resemblance to the columns of Egypt with
their lotus leaves, and sometimes net-work. In short, the whole description would
_] L almost as well apply to a temple of Egypt as to one at Jerusalem. And this tends,
Fig. 3t. though slightly it is true, to show that the Phoenician workmen who were employed
on the temple worked in the same style as those of Egypt.
53. The house of the forest of Lebanon was larger than the temple, having been 10O
cubits in length, by 50 in breadth ; it also had a portico, and from the description seems to
have been similar in style.
54. Phoenician Architecture. — That part of the great nation of Asia which settled on the
coasts of Palestine, called in scripture Canaanites, or merchants, were afterwards by the
Greeks called Phoenicians. Sidon was originally their capital, and Tyre, which after-
wards became greater than the parent itself, was at first only a colony. From what we
have said in a previous section on the walls of Mycene, it may be fairly presumed that their
architecture partook of the Cyclopean style ; but that it was much more highly decorated
is extremely probable from the wealth of a people whose merchants were princes, and whose
traffickers were the honourable of the earth. Besides the verses of Euripides, which point
to the style of Phoenician architecture, we have the authority of Lucian for asserting that
it was Egyptian in character. Unfortunately all is surmise ; no monuments of Phoenician
architecture exist, and we therefore think it useless to dwell longer on the subject.
SECT. VI.
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE.
55. Whence the countries of India derived their architecture is a question that has occupied
abler pens than that which we wield, and a long period has not passed away since the im-
pression on our own mind was, that the monuments of India were not so old as those of
Egypt. Upon maturer reflection, we are not sure that impression was false ; but if the arts of
a country do not change, if the manners and habits of the people have not varied, the admis-
sion of the want of high antiquity of the monuments actually in existence
will not settle the point. The capitals and columns about Persepolis have
a remarkable similarity to some of the Hindoo examples, and seem to
indicate a common origin ; indeed, it is our opinion, and one which we
have not adopted without considerable hesitation, that though the existing
buildings of India be comparatively modern, they are in a style older than
that of the time of their erection. Sir William Jones, whose opinion seems
to have been that the Indian temples and edifices are not of the highest
antiquity, says (3rd Discourse), " that they prove an early connection be-
tween India and Africa. The pyramids of Egypt, the colossal statues de-
scribed by Pausanias and others, the Sphinx and the Hermes Canis (which
last bears a great resemblance to the Varahavatar, or the incarnation of
Vishnu in the form of a boar), indicate the style and mythology of the
same indefatigable workmen who formed the vast excavations of Canarah,
the various temples and images of Buddha, and the idols which are con-
tinually dug up at Gaya or in its vicinity. The letters on many of these
monuments appear, as I have before intimated, partly of Indian and partly
of Abyssinian or Ethiopia origin ; and all these indubitable facts may in-
duce no ill-grounded opinion that Ethiopia and Hindustan were peopled
Fig. 35. A COLUMN ov or colonised by the same extraordinary race." In a previous page (Jig. 27. ),
«DRA SUBBA. the reader will find a Persepolitan column and capital; we place before
him, in fig. 35., an example from the Indra Subba which much resembles it in detail, and
at the Nerta Chabei at Chillambaram are very similar examples. Between the styles of
Persepolis and Egypt a resemblance will be hereafter traced, and to such an extent, that
there seems no reasonable doubt of a common origin. The monuments of India may
be divided into two classes, the excavated and constructed; the former being that wherein a
building has been hollowed, or, as it were, quarried out of the rock; the latter, that built
of separate and different sorts of materials, upon a regular plan, as may be seen in those
buildings improperly called pagodas, which ornament the enclosures of the sacred edifices, of
26
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
which they are component parts. The class first named seems to have interested travellers
inore than the last, from the apparent difficulty of execution ; but on this account we are not
so sure that they ought to create more astonishment than the constructed temple, except that,
according to Daniel (Asiat. lies. vol. i. ), they are hollowed in hard and compact granite.
56. The monuments which belong to the first class are of two sorts ; those actually hollowed
out of rocks, and those presenting forms of apparently constructed buildings, but which are,
in fact, rocks shaped by human hands into architectural forms. Of the first sort are the
caves of Elephanta and Ellora ; of the last, the seven large pagodas of Mavalipowram. It
will immediately occur to the reader that the shaping of rocks into forms implies art, if
the forms be imposing or well arranged : so, if the hollowing a rock into well-arranged and
well -formed chambers be conducted in a way indicating an acquaintance with architectural
effect, we are not to assume that a want of taste must be consequent on the first sort merely
because it cannot be called constructive architecture. And here we must observe, that we
think the writer in the Encyclopedic Mcthodique (art. Arch. Indienne) fails in his reasoning ;
our notion being simply this, that as far as respects these monuments, if they are worthy to
be ranked as works of art, the means by which they were produced have nothing to do with
the question. It must, however, be admitted, that what the architect understands by or-
donnance, or the composition of a building, and the proper arrangement of its several
parts, points which so much engaged the attention of the Greeks and Romans, will not be
found in Indian architecture as far as our acquaintance with it extends. Conjectures
infinite might be placed before the reader on the antiquity of this species of art, but they
would be valueless, no certain data, of which we are aware, existing to lead him in the right
road ; and we must, therefore, be content with enumerating some of the principal works
in this style. The caves at Ellora consist of several apartments ; the plan of that called
the Indra Subba (fig. 36. ) is here given, to show the species of plan which these places
FIR. 37
exhibit ; andjfta. 37. is a view of a portion of the interior of the same. The group of temples
which compose these excavations are as follow : —
Temple of Diagannathn.
External width of the excavation
Length (interior)
Width (ditto)
Height -
Height of the pillars
Temple of Parocona.
Length internally
Width -
Height ....
Temple of Adi — Natha.
Length ....
Height ....
Temple of Djenonasla.
Width - . „ -
Height - ...
Temple of Domma — Leyma.
Length -
Width ....
Height ....
ft.
in.
Temple of Indra. •
ft.
in.
57
0
length -
- 54
0
34
0
Width -
- 44
0
20
0
Height ....
- 27
0
13
0
Height of columns
- 22
0
11
0
Another Temple.
Length -
- Ill
0
35
0
Width -
- 22
4
25
0
Height - ...
- 15
0
8
0
Temple of Mahadeo.
Length ....
- G8
0
45
0
Width ....
- 17
0
9
0
Height - ---
- 12
0
11
0
Temple of Ramichouer.
o
11
2
Height -
- 15
0
55
0
Temple of Kailaga.
1H
6
Length -
- 88
0
16
10
Height -
- 47
0
CHAV. IT
INDIAN.
27
57. The most celebrated excavated temple is that of Elephanta (fig. 38.), near Bombay,
of whose interior composition
the reader may obtain a faint
idea from the subjoined re-
presentation (fig. 39.)- It is
130 ft. long, 110 ft. wide, and
14|ft. high. The ceiling is
flat, and is apparently sup-
ported by four ranks of co-
lumns, about 9 ft. high, and
of a balustral form. These
stand on pedestals, about
two thirds the height of the
columns themselves. A great
Fig. 3S. TEMPI.K Oy KLKP,,AMA. portion of the walls is co-
vered with colossal human figures, forty to fifty in number, in high relief, and distin-
guished by a variety of symbols, probably representing the attributes of the deities
KI.MPIIANTA.
that were worshipped, or the actions of the heroes whom they represented. At the end
of the cavern there is a dark recess, about 20 ft. square, entered by four doors, each
Hanked by gigantic figures. " These stupendous works," says Robertson, "are of such high
antiquity, that, as the natives cannot, either from history or tradition, give any information
concerning the time in which they were executed, they universally ascribe the formation of
them to the power of superior beings. From the extent and grandeur of these sub-
terraneous mansions, which intelligent travellers compare to the most celebrated monu-
ments of human power and art in any part of the earth, it is manifest that they could not
have been formed in that stage of social life where men continue divided into small tribes,
unaccustomed to the efforts of persevering industry." Excavations similar to those we
have named are found at Canarah, in the Island of Salsette, near Bombay. In these there
are four stories of galleries, leading in all to three hundred apartments. The front is
formed by cutting away one side of the rock. The principal temple, 84 ft. long, and 40 ft.
broad, is entered by a portico of columns. The roof is of the form of a vault, 40 ft. from
the ground to its crown, and has the appearance of being supported by thirty pillars,
octagonal in plan, whose capitals and bases are formed of elephants, tigers, and horses.
The walls contain cavities for lamps, and are covered with sculptures of human figures of
both sexes, elephants, horses, and lions. An altar, 27 ft. high and 20 ft. in diameter,
stands at the further end, and over it is a dome shaped out of the rock. Though the
sculptures in these caves are low in rank compared with the works of Greek and Etrurian
artists, yet they are certainly in a style superior to the works of the Egyptians ; and we
infer from them a favourable opinion of the state of the arts in India at the period of their
formation. " It is worthy of notice," observes the historian we have just quoted, " that
although several of the figures in the caverns at Elephanta be so different from those
now exhibited in the pagodas as objects of veneration, that some learned Europeans
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
ia
Fig. 40.
have imagined they represent the rites of a religion more ancient than that now esta-
blished in Hindostan ; yet by the Hindoos themselves
the caverns are considered as hallowed places of their
own worship, and they still resort thither to perform
their devotions, and honour the figures there, in the
same manner with those in their own pagodas." Mr.
Hunter, who in the year 1784 visited the place, con-
siders the figures there as representing deities who
are still objects of worship among the Hindoos. One
circumstance justifying this opinion is, that several
of the most conspicuous personages in the groups at
Elephanta are decorated with the zennar, the sacred
string or cord peculiar to the order of Brahmins, an
authentic evidence of the distinction of casts having
been established in India at the time when these
works were finished.
58. The structure of the earliest Indian tem-
ples was extremely simple. Pyramidal, and of large
dimensions, they had no light but that which the
door afforded ; and, indeed, the gloom of the cavern
seems to have led them to consider the solemn dark-
ness of such a mansion sacred. There are ruins of
this sort at Deogur and at a spot near Tanjore, in
the Carnatic. In proportion, however, to the pro-
gress of the country in opulence and refinement, their
sacred buildings became highly ornamented, and must
be considered as monuments exhibiting a high de-
gree of civilisation of the people by whom they were
erected. Very highly finished pagodas, of great an-
tiquity, are found in different parts of Hindostan, and
particularly in its southern districts, where they were
not subjected to the destructive fury of Mahometan
zeal. To assist the reader in forming a notion of the
style of the architecture whereof we are treating, we here place before him a diagram (fig. 40. )
of part of the pagoda at Chillambaram, near Porto Novo, on the Coro-
mandel coast ; one which is, on account of its antiquity, held in great
veneration. The monument would be perhaps more properly described
as a cluster of pagodas, enclosed in a rectangular space 1332 ft. in
length, and 936 ft. in width, whose walls are 30 ft. in height, and
7 ft. in thickness, each side being provided with a highly deco-
rated frustum of a pyramid over an entrance gateway. The large
enclosure is subdivided into four subordinate ones, whereof the cen-
tral one, surrounded by a colonnade and steps, contains a piscina
or basin for purification. That on the southern side forms a cloister
enclosing three contiguous temples called Chabei, lighted only by
their doors and by lamps. The court on the west is also claustral,
having in the middle an open portico, consisting of one hundred
columns, whose roof is formed by large blocks of stone. The last
is a square court with a temple and piscina, to which is given the
name of the Stream of Eternal Joy. To the temple is attached
a portico of thirty-six columns, in four parallel ranks, whose cen-
tral intercolumniation is twice the width of those at the sides, and
in the centre, on a platform, is the statue of the Bull Nundu. It
is lighted artificially with lamps, which are kept constantly burn-
ing, and is much decorated with sculpture. The central inclosure,
on its eastern side, has a temple raised on a platform, in length 224
ft., and in width 64 ft., having a portico in front, consisting of a vast
number of columns 30 ft. high ; at the end of it a square vestibule
is constructed with four portals, one whereof in the middle leads to
the sanctuary, named Nerta Chabei, or Temple of Joy and Eternity,
the altar being at the end of it. The temple is much decorated with
sculpture, representing the divinities of India. The pilaster fig, 41.
is placed at the sides of the door of the Nerta Chabei, and is extremely
curious ; but the most singular object about the building is a chain of
THE granite carved out of the rock, attached to the pilasters, and supported
at four other points in the face of the rock so as to form festoons.
The links are about 3ft. long, and the whole length of the chain is 146ft. The pyramids
CHAP. II.
INDIAN.
'hereof arc 25 ft. high, and 4 ft. thick.
above mentioned, which stand over the entrances of the outer enclosure, rise from rectangular
bases, and consist of several
floors. The passage through
them is level with the ground.
59. A very beautiful ex-
ample of the Indian pagoda
exists at Tanjore, which we
here insert (fig. 42.).
60. One of the largest tem-
ples known is that on the small
island Seringham, near Trichi-
nopoly, on the Coromandel
coast. It is situate about a mile
from the western extremity of
the island, and is thus described
by Sonnerat. It is composed
of seven square enclosures, one
within the other, the walls
These enclosures are 350 ft. distant from one an-
other, and each has four large gates with a high
tower; which are placed, one in the middle of
each side of the enclosure, and opposite to the four
cardinal points. The outward wall is near four
miles in circumference, and its gateway to the south
is ornamented with pillars, several of which are
simple stones, 33 ft. long, and nearly 5 ft. in
diameter ; and those which form the roof are still
larger. In the inmost inclosures are the cha-
pels. About half a mile to the east of Sering-
ham, and nearer to the river Caveri than the
Coleroon, is another large pagoda, called Jembi-
kisma, but this has only one enclosure. The
extreme veneration in which Seringham is held
arises from a belief that it contains that identical
image of the god Vishnu which used to be wor-
shipped by Brahma.
61. We shall conclude this section with some
observations on Tchoultry (or lun) at Madurah
(fig. 43.). Its effect is quite theatrical, and its
perfect symmetry gives it the appearance of a work
of great art, and of greater skill in composition
than most other Indian works. Yet an examination
of the details, and particularly of the system of
corbelling over, destroys the charm which a first
glance at it creates. In it, the ornaments which
in Grecian architecture are so well applied and
balanced, seem more the work of chance than of
consideration. We here insert an external view
TCHOULTBY AT MADURAI
of the temple at this place (fig. 44.).
The essential differences between Indian and Egyp-
tian architecture, in connection
with the sculpture applied to
them, have been well given
in the Encyclopedic Mcthodique,
and we shall here subjoin them.
In Egypt, the principal forms
of the building and its parts
preponderate, inasmuch as the
hieroglyphics with which they
are covered never interfere
with the general forms, nor in-
jure the effect of the whole ; in
India, the principal form is
lost in the ornaments which
divide and decompose it. In
Egypt, that which is essential
predominates; in India, you
are lost in the multitude of
30 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
accessories. In the Egyptian architecture, even the smallest edifices are grand ; in that
of India, the infinite subdivision into parts gives an air of littleness to the largest build-
ings. In Egypt, solidity is carried to the extreme ; in India, there is not the slightest
appearance of it.
SECT. VII.
EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE.
62. We propose to consider the architecture of Egypt — First, in respect of the physical,
political, and moral causes which affected it. Secondly, in respect of its analysis and deve-
lopment. Thirdly, and lastly, in respect of the taste, style, and character which it exhibits.
63. I. In our introduction, we have alluded to the three states of life which even in
the present day distinguish different nations of the earth — hunters, shepherds, and agri-
culturists ; in the second class whereof ar« included those whose subsistence is on the pro-
duce of the waters, which was most probably the principal food of the earliest inhabitants
of Egypt. Seated on the banks of a river whose name almost implies fertility, they would
have been able to live on the supply it afforded for a long period before it was necessary to
resort to the labours of agriculture. In such a state of existence nothing appears more pro-
bable than that they should have availed themselves of the most obvious shelter which nature
afforded against the extremes of heat and cold, namely, the cavern ; which, consisting of tufo
and a species of white soft stone, was easily enlarged or formed to meet their wants. Certain
it is, that at a very early period the Egyptians were extremely skilful in working stone, an
art which at a later time they carried to a perfection which has never been surpassed. As
the Tyrians, Sidonians, and other inhabitants of Palestine were, owing to the material
which their cedar forests afforded, dexterous in joinery, so the Egyptians received an im-
pulse in the style of their works from an abundance of the stone of all sorts which their
quarries produced. Subterranean apartments, it will be said, are found in other countries ;
but they will mostly, India excepted, be found to be the remains of abandoned quarrries,
exhibiting no traces of architecture, nor places for dwelling. Egypt, on the contrary, from
time immemorial, was accustomed to hollow out rocks for habitation. Pliny (lib. xxxvi.
c. 13.) tells us, that the great Labyrinth consisted of immense excavations of this sort.
Such were the subterranean chambers of Biban el Melook, those which have in the
present day received the name of the Labyrinth, and many others, which were not likely to
have been tombs. When the finished and later monuments of a people resemble their first
essays, it is easy to recognise the influential causes from which they result. Thus, in
Egyptian architecture, every thing points to its origin. Its simplicity, not to say monotony,
its extreme solidity, almost heaviness, form its principal characters. Then the want of
profile and paucity of members, the small projection of its mouldings, the absence of aper-
tures, the enormous diameter of the columns employed, much resembling the pillars left in
quarries for support, the pyramidal form of the doors, the omission of roofs and pediments,
the ignorance of the arch (which we believe to have been unknown, though we are aware
that a late traveller of great intelligence is of a different opinion), — all enable us to recur to
the type with which we have set out. If we pursue this investigation, we do not discover
timber as an element in Egyptian compositions, whilst in Grecian architecture, the types
certainly do point to that material. It is not necessary to inquire whether the people had
or had not tents or houses in which timber was used for beams or for support, since the
character of their architecture is specially influenced by the exclusive use of stone as a
material ; and however the form of some of their columns may not seem to bear out the
hypothesis (such, for instance, as are shaped into bundles of reeds with imitations of
plants in the capitals), all the upper parts are constructed without reference to any other
than stone construction. It is, moreover, well known that Egypt was extremely bare of
wood, and especially of such as was suited for building.
64. The climate of Egypt was, doubtless, one great cause of the subterranean style, as it
must be in the original architecture of every nation. Materials so well adapted to the
construction it induced, furnishing supports incapable of being crushed, and single blocks
of stone which dispensed with all carpentry in roofs or coverings, a purity of air and even-
ness of temperature which admitted the greatest simplicity of construction from the absence
of all necessity to provide against the inclemency of seasons, and which permitted the in-
scription of hieroglyphics even on soft stone without the fear of their disappearance, — all
these concurred in forming the character of their stupendous edifices, and stimulated them
in the development of the art.
65. The monarchical government, certainly the most favourable to the construction of
great monuments, appears to have existed in Egypt from time immemorial. The most
CHAP. II. EGYPTIAN. 31
important edifices with which history or their ruins have made us acquainted, were raised
under monarchies ; and we scarcely need cite any other than the ruins of Persepolis, of
which an account is given in a previous section, to prove the assertion : these, in point of
extent, exceed all that Egypt or Greece produced. Indeed, the latter nation sought beauty
of form rather than immense edifices ; and Rome, until its citizens equalled kings in their
wealth, had no monuments worthy to be remembered by the historian, or transmitted as
models to the artist.
66. Not the least important of the causes that combined in the erection of their monu-
ments was the extraordinary population of Egypt : and though we may not perhaps entirely
rely on the wonderful number of twenty thousand cities, which old historians have said
were seated within its boundaries, it is past question that the country was favourable to the
rearing and maintenance of an immense population. As in China at the present day, there
appears in Egypt to have been a redundant population, which was doubtless employed in
the public works of the country, in which the workman received no other remuneration
than his food.
67. The Egyptian monarchs appear to have gratified their ambition as much in the pro-
vision for their own reception after this life as during their continuance in it. If we except the
Memnonium, and what is called the Labyrinth at Memphis, temples and tombs are all that
remain of their architectural works. Diodorus says, that the kings of Egypt spent those
enormous sums on their sepulchres which other kings expend on palaces. They considered
that the frailty of the body during life ought not to be provided with more than necessary pro-
tection from the seasons, and that the palace was nothing more than an inn, which at their
death the successor would in his turn inhabit, but that the tomb was their eternal dwell-
ing, and sacred to themselves alone. Hence they spared no expense in erecting indestruc-
tible edifices for their reception after death. Against the violation of the tomb it seems
to have been a great object with them to provide, and doubts have existed on the minds of
some whether the body was, after all, deposited in the pyramids, which have been thought
to be enormous cenotaphs, and that the body was in some subterraneous and neighbouring
spot. Other writers pretend that the pyramids were not tombs, assigning to them certain
mystic or astronomical destinations. There are, however, too many circumstances contra-
dictory of such an assumption to allow us to give it the least credit ; and there is little im-
propriety in calling them sepulchral monuments, whether or not the bodies of the monarchs
were ever deposited in them. The religion of Egypt, though not so fruitful, perhaps, as
that of Greece in the production of a great number of temples, did not fail to engender an
abundant supply. The priesthood was powerful and the rites unchangeable : a mysterious
authority prevailed in its ceremonies and outward forms. The temples of the country are
impressed with mystery, on which the religion was based. Here, indeed, Secresy was deified
in the person of Harpocrates ; and, according to Plutarch ( De hide), the sphinx, which deco-
rated the entrances of their temples, signified that mystery and emblem were engrafted on
their theology. Numerous doors closed the succession of apartments in the temples, leaving
the holy place itself to be seen only at a great distance. This was of little extent, con-
taining merely a living idol, or the representation of one. The larger portion .of the
temple was laid out for the reception of the priests, and disposed in galleries, porticoes, and
vestibules. With few and unimportant variations, the greatest similarity and uniformity is
observable in their temples, in plan, in elevation, and in general form, as well as in the
details of their ornaments. In no country was the connection between religion and
architecture closer than in Egypt, and as the conceptions and execution in architecture are
dependent on the other arts, we will here briefly examine the influence which the religion
of the country had upon them.
68. Painting and sculpture are not only intimately connected with architecture through the
embellishments they are capable of affording to it, but are handmaids at her service in what
depends upon taste, upon the principles of beauty, upon the laws of proportion, upon the pre-
servation of character, and in various other respects. Nature, in one sense, is the model upon
which architecture is founded ; not as a subject of imitation, but as presenting for imitation
principles of the harmony, proportion, effect, and beauty, for which the arts generally are
indebted to nature. We think it was Madame de Stael who said that architecture was
frozen music. Now, though in architecture, as in the other arts, there is no sensible imi-
tation of nature, yet by a study of her mode of operating, it may be tempered and modified
so as to give it the power of language and the sublimity of poetry. In respect of the con-
nection of the art with sculpture, little need be said : in a material light, architecture is but
a sculptured production, and its beauty in every country is in an exact ratio with the skill
which is exhibited in the use of the chisel. Facts, however, which are worth more than
arguments, prove that as is the state of architecture in a country, so is that of the other arts.
Two things prevented the arts of imitation being carried beyond a certain point in the country
under our consideration ; the first was political, the other religious. The first essays of
art are subjects of veneration in all societies ; and when, as in Egypt, all change was for-
bidden, and a constant and inviolable respect was entertained for that which had existed be-
32 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
fore, when all its institutions tended to preserve social order as established, and to discourage
and forbid all innovation, the duration of a style was doomed to become eternal. Religion,
however, alone, was capable of effecting the same object, and of restraining within certain
bounds the imitative faculty, by the preservation of types and primitive conventional signs
for the hieroglyphic language, which, from the sacred purposes for which it was employed,
soon acquired an authority from which no individual would dare to deviate by an improve-
ment of the forms under which it had appeared. Plato observes, that no change took
place in painting among the Egyptians ; but that it was the same, neither better nor worse,
than it had been ages before his time. SKOTTWI/ S" fvprjffeis avroOi ra /j.vpio<TTov eras yeypafj.-
juej/a, t\ TfTVTrcafj.fl/a (ot/% ws CTTOS enreu/ fj.vpioarrov, aAA' ovrcus) row vvv SfSirjfjuovpyrj/j.ei'ow ovre
rt Ka\\ioi>a, ovr* ai(Txi(a> rrlv OUTTJJ/ Se rexvr)v aireipyacrneva. — De Legibus, lib. ii.
69. Uniformity of plan characterises all their works ; they never deviated from the right
line and square. " Les Egyptiens," observes M. Caylus " ne nous ont laisse aucun monu-
ment public dont 1'elevation ait ete circulaire." The uniformity of their elevations is still
more striking. Neither division of parts, contrast, nor effect is visible. All this necessarily
resulted from the political and religious institutions whereof we have been speaking.
70. II. In analysing the architecture of Egypt, three points offer themselves for consider-
ation, — construction, form, and decoration. In CONSTRUCTION, if solidity be a merit, no
nation has equalled them. Notwithstanding the continued effect of time upon the edifices
of the country, they still seem calculated for a duration equally long as that of the globe
itself. The materials employed upon them were well adapted to insure a defiance of all
that age could effect against them. The most abundant material is what the ancients
called the Thebaic granite. Large quarries of it were seated near the Nile in Upper
Egypt, between the first cataract and the town of Assouan, now Syene. The whole of the
country to the east, the islands, and the bed of the Nile itself, are of this red granite,
whereof were formed the obelisks, colossal statues, and columns of their temples. Blocks
of dimensions surprisingly large were obtained from these quarries. Basalt, marble, free-
stone, and alabaster were found beyond all limit compared with the purposes for which they
were wanted.
71. We have already observed, that Egypt was deficient in timber, and especially that sort
proper for building. There are some forests of palm trees on the Lybian side, near
Dendera (Tentyris); but the soil is little suited to the growth of timber. Next in quantity
to the palm is the acacia ; the olive is rare. With the exception of the palm tree, there is
none suited for architectural use. The oak is not to be found ; and that, as well as the fir
which the present inhabitants use, is imported from Arabia. Diodorus says, that the early
inhabitants used canes and reeds interwoven and plastered with mud for their huts ; but he
confines this practice to the country away from towns, in which, from fragments that have
been found, we may infer that brick was the material in most common use.
72. Bricks dried in the sun were employed even on large monuments ; but it is probable
that these were originally faced either with stone or granite. The pyramids described by
Pocock, called Ktoube el Meuschich, are composed of bricks, some of which are 13^ in. long,
6^ in. wide, and 4 in. thick ; others 15 in. long, 7 in. wide, and 4£ in. thick. They are not
united by cement, but in some instances cements of a bituminous nature were employed
and in others a mortar composed of lime or plaster and sand, of which it would seem that
this second was exceedingly powerful a^ well as durable.
73. The Egyptians arrived at the highest degree of skill in quarrying and working
stone, as well as in afterwards giving it the most perfect polish. In their masonry they
placed no reliance on the use of cramps, but rather on the nice adjustment of the stones
to one another, on the avoidance of all false bearings, and the nice balance of all over-
hanging weight. Of their mechanical skill the reader will form some idea by reference
to volume iii. p. 328. of Wilkinson's Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, from
a representation in a grotto at El Bersheh. A colossus on a sledge is therein pulled along
by 172 men, but none of the mechanical powers seem to be called in to their assistance.
" The obelisks," says Mr. Wilkinson, " transported from the quarries of Syene to Thebes
and Heliopolis, vary in size from 70 to 93 ft. in length. They are of one single stone ; and
the largest in Egypt, which is that at the great temple at Karnak, I calculate to weigh
about 297 tons. This was brought about 138 miles from the quarry to where it now
stands; and those taken to Heliopolis passed over a space of 800 miles." Two colossi
(one of them is the vocal Memnon), each of a single block 47 ft. in height, and contain-
ing 1 1,5OO cubic feet, are carved from stone not known within several days' journey of the
place ; and at the Memnonium is a colossal statue, which, when entire, weighed 887
tons. We consider, however, the raising of the obelisks a far greater test of mechanical
skill than the transport of these prodigious weights ; but into the mode they adopted we
have no insight from any representations yet discovered. We can scarcely suppose that
in the handling of the weights whereof we have spoken, they were unassisted by the me-
chanical powers, although, as we have observed, no representations to warrant the conjecture
have been brought to light.
CHAP. II.
EGYPTIAN.
74. In the construction of the pyramids it is manifest they would serve as their own
_-x scaffolds. The oldest monuments of Egypt of
which we below give a view, and a section of that of
the largest, called of Cheops (fig. 45.), are the py-
ramids at Gizeh, to the north of Memphis. Mr.
Wilkinson supposes them to have been erected by
Suphis and Jeusuphis his brother, 2120 years B. c.,
that is, previous by nearly 400 years to the entrance
of Joseph into Egypt ; but the same author ad-
mits that, previous to the reign of Osirtasen,
174O B. c., there is nothing to guide us with
certainty as respects dates. The edifices (fig.
46.), however, more commonly known by the
names of Cheops, Cephrenes, and Mycerinus, are
extraordinary for their size and the consequent
orks of the art they are of no further importance
than being a link in the chain of
its history. They are. constructed
of stone from the neighbouring
mountains, and are in steps, of
which in the largest there are two
hundred and eight, varying in
height from 2^ ft. (French) to 4
.,. ft., decreasing in height as they
rise towards the summit. Their
width diminishes in the same pro-
portion, so that a line drawn from
the base to the summit touches the
edge of each step. So great a
difference in the measures by different authors appears, that we here subjoin those of the
pyramid of Cheops : —
fig. 45. SECTION or PYRAMID OK CHBOPS.
labour bestowed upon them ; but as
Fig. 46.
Authors.
Length
of base.
*s?ep°l Hl
'ight.
Authors
Length
of base.
No. of
steps.
Height.
Herodotus
800 Gr. ft.
- 852 Eng. ft.
Thevenot
_
.
727 Eng. ft.
208
554
Eng.
ft.
Strabo
600 —
. 666
_—
Niebuhr
m
_
757 -
. .
4f,9
__
Diodorus
700 -
- 639
—
Chazelles
_
_
751 —
.
49S
Sandys
300 paces
Mai llet
-
-
-
208
Bellonius
324 —
Pocock
•
-
.
212
Greaves
G93 Eng. ft.
207 499
__
Belon
.
_
_
250
Le Bruyn -
750 —
- 656
—
French Engineers -
477
Prosper Alpinus -
799 —
- GGG
—
Mr Perring, a recent traveller, in respect of the proportions of the great pyramid, has en-
deavoured to prove that the unit of Egyptian measurement is an ell equal to 1 '71 3 English
feet, and that it is expressed a certain number of times without remainder in a correct
measurement of the pyramids of Gizeh. Thus, he says, the perpendicular height of the
great pyramid is exactly 280 of such ells, the base 448 ; and that A base : perpendicular
height ;: slant height I base. Upon the top thereof is a platform 32 ft. square, consisting
of nine large stones, each about a ton in weight, though inferior in that respect to others in
the edifice, which vary from 5 ft. to 30 ft. in length, and from 3 ft. to 4 ft. in height. From
this platform Dr. Clarke saw the pyramids of Saccara to the south, and on the east of them
smaller monuments of the same kind nearer to the Nile. He remarked, moreover, an appear-
ance of ruins which might be traced the whole way from the pyramids of Gizeh to those of
Saccara, as if the whole had once constituted one great city. The stones of the platform are
soft limestone, a little harder and more compact than what in England is called clunch. The
pyramids are built with common mortar ex-
ternally, but no appearance of mortar can
be discerned in the more perfect parts of*
the masonry. The faces of the pyramid
are directed to the four cardinal points.
The entrance is in the north front, and
the passage to the central chamber is
shown on the preceding section. That
in the pyramid of Cephrenes (fig. 47.)
is thus described by Belzoni: — The first
passage is built of granite, the rest are cut
out of the natural sandstone rock which
rises above the level of the basis of the
pyramid. This passage is 104 ft. long, 4 ft. high, and 3 ft. 6 in. wide; descending at an
angle of 26 degrees : at the bottom is a portcullis, beyond which is a horizontal passage
Fig. 47. KNT
SECOND PYRAMID.
34 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
of the same height as the first, and at the distance of 22 ft. it descends in a different
direction, leading to some passages below. Hence it re-ascends towards the centre of the
pyramid by a gallery 84 ft. long, 6 ft. high, and 3 ft. 6 in. wide, leading to a chamber also
cut out of the solid rock. The chamber is 46 ft. in length, 16 feet wide, and 23 ft. 6. in. in
height, and contained a sarcophagus of granite 8 ft. long, 3 ft. 6. in. wide, and 2 ft. 3 in.
deep in the inside. Returning from the chamber to the bottom of the gallery a passage de-
scends at an angle of 26 degrees to the extent of 48 ft. 6 in., when it takes a horizontal direc-
tion for a length of 55 ft. ; it then again ascends at the same angle and proceeds to the
base of the pyramid, where another entrance is formed from the outside. About the
middle of the horizontal passage there is a descent into another chamber, which is 32 ft.
long,. 10 ft. wide, and 8 ft. 6 in. high. The dimensions of this pyramid, as given by
Denon, are a base of 655 ft. and a height of 398 ft. Those of the pyramid of Mycerinus
are a base of 280 ft., and a height of 162 ft. The pyramids of Saccara, which are as many
as twenty in number, vary in form, dimensions, and construction. They extend five miles to
the north and south of the village of Saccara. Some of them are rounded at the top, and
resemble hillocks cased with stone. One is constructed with steps like that of Cheops. They
are six in number, each 25 ft. high, and 1 1 ft. wide The height of one in the group is 150ft.
Another, built also in steps, is supposed to be as high as that of Cheops. The stones whereof
they are composed are much decayed, and more crumbling than those of Gizeh ; hence they
are considered older. One of them is formed of unburnt bricks, containing shells,
gravel, and chopped straw, and is in a very mouldering state. About 300 paces from the
second pyramid stands the extraordinary gi-
gantic statue of the Sphinx (Jig- 48.), whose
length from the fore-part to the tail has been
found to be 125 ft. Belzoni cleared away
the sand, and found a temple held between
the legs and another in one of its paws.
According to Denon, the antiquity of the
Egyptian temples may be comparatively deter-
mined from their size ; the larger ones being
posterior to the smaller. Since, however, the
wonderful insight we have obtained into the
meaning of the hieroglyphics, more accurate
information than we before possessed may be
gained on that point by reference to Mr. (now
Fi 48 THE gpllIKX Sir Gardiner) Wilkinson's works on Egypt and
Thebes. A spirit of simplicity, grandeur, and
solidity reigns through the whole of them, and every precaution seems to have been taken
to render them eternal. The walls by which they are enclosed are found sometimes 26 ft. in
thickness, and those of the entrance gate of a temple at Thebes are as much as 53 ft. thick
at their base, and are composed of blocks of enormous size. The masonry employed is that
called by the Greeks emplectum (e/xTrAe/cToi'), all filling in of an inferior or rubble work
being discarded. They are masses of nicely squared and fitted stones, and are built exter-
nally with a slope like the walls of a modern fortification. The columns are absolutely
necessary for the support of the ceilings, which consist of large blocks of stone, and are
therefore of few diameters in height. Sometimes they are in a single piece, as at Thebes
and Tentyris. The stones of which the ceilings are composed are usually, according to
Pococke, 14 ft. long, and 5^ ft. in breadth, but some run much larger.
75. Before adverting to the form and disposition of the Egyptian temple, we think it here
necessary to notice the recent discovery of an arch in a tomb at Saccara, said to be of the
time of Psammeticus II., and of one also at Thebes in the remains of a crude brick
pyramid. (See Wilkinson's Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, vol. iii. p. 263. 321.) That
exhibited in the tomb of Saccara, from the vignette given, is clearly nothing but a lining of
the rock, and is, if truly represented in the plate, incapable of bearing weight, which is the
office of an arch. That, however, at Thebes, to which Mr. W. assigns the date of 15OO
B.C., with every respect for his great information on the subject, and with much deference
to his judgment, not having ourselves seen it, we cannot easily believe to be of such anti-
quity. Its appearance is so truly Roman, that we must be permitted to doubt the truth of
his conjecture. We are, moreover, fortified in the opinion we entertain by the principles
on which the style of Egyptian architecture is founded, which are totally at variance with
the use of the arch. We have ventured to transfer this (fig. 49.) to our pages, that the
reader may form a judgment on the subject, as well as ourselves. We will only add, that
the reasons assigned by Mr. W. for the Egyptians not preferring such a mode of con-
struction as the arch, because of the difficulty of repairing it when injured, and the con-
sequences attending the decay of a single block, are not of any weight with us, because,
practically, there is an easy mode of accomplishing such repair. And, again, the argu-
ment that the superincumbent weight applied to an arch in such a case as that before
CHAP. II.
EGYPTIAN.
35
Fig. 49.
us will not hold good, inasmuch as the balance on the back of each course would almost pre-
^-^ serve the opening without any arch at all.
76. THE FORM AND DISPOSITION of the
Egyptian temple seem to have been
founded on immutable rules. The only
points wherein they differ from one an-
other are in the number of their subdivi-
sions and their extent, as the city for
which they served was more or less rich.
Unlike the temples of the Greeks and
Romans, whose parts were governed by
the adoption of one of the orders, and
whose whole, taken in at a single glance,
could be measured from any one of its
parts, those of Egypt were an assemblage
of porticoes, courts, vestibules, galleries, apartments, communicating with each other, and
surrounded with walls. Strabo, in his 17th book, thus describes the temples in question.
" At the entrance of the consecrated spot the ground is paved to the width of 100 ft.
(ir\fdpov} or less, and in length three or four times its width, and in some places even more.
This is called the court (Spo/xos, course) ; thus Callimachus uses the words —
'O JgOjttaj h^o; euros AvouSiSos-
Throughout the whole length beyond this on each side of the width are placed sphinxes of
stone, 20 cubits or more distant from one another, one row being on the right, and the other
on the left. Beyond the sphinxes is a great vestibule (TrpoirvXov), then a further one, and
beyond this another. The number, however, of the sphinxes, as of the vestibules, is not
always the same, but varies according to the length and breadth of the course. Beyond
the vestibules (Trpoirv\aid) is the temple (vecos), having
a very large porch (irpovaos), which is worthy to be
recorded. The chapel (crr/Kos) is small, and without
a statue ; or, if there be one, it is not of human form,
but that of some beast. The porch on each side has
a wing (irrepa) ; these consist of two walls as high as
the temple itself, distant from each other at the bottom
a little more than the width of the foundations of the
temple, then they incline towards each other, rising to
the height of 50 or 60 cubits. These walls are
sculptured with large figures, similar to those which
are to be seen in the works of the Etruscans and
ancient Greeks." Th is account is not at all exagger-
ated, as we shall immediately show by the introduction
in this place of the plan, section, and elevation of the
celebrated temple at Apollinopolis Magna, between
Thebes and the first cataract, which, though, as we
learn from the deciphering in these days, the hiero-
glyphics upon it are not of the time of the Pharaohs,
seems admirably calculated to give the reader almost
all the information necessary for understanding the
subject. This will, moreover, so much more fully
explain it than words, that we shall not need to do more
than afterwards come to some recital of the details.
77. This edifice, seated near Edfou, about twenty
miles south of Thebes, is one of the largest in Egypt,
and is comparatively in good preservation. Its form is
rectangular, and its general dimensions 450ft. by 140ft.
(fig. 50.) In the centre of one of the short sides is the
entrance, which consists of two buildings, each 100 ft.
long, and 32 ft. in width ; both pyramidal in form, and
A- lying in the same direction, but separated by a passage
20 ft. in width, with a doorway at each extremity. This passage conducts us to a qua-
drangle 140 ft. long, and 120 ft. wide, flanked by twelve columns on each side, and eight
more on the entrance side, all standing a few feet within the walls, and thus forming a co-
lonnade round three sides covered by a flat roof. A view of a portion of it is given in fig. 54.
At the further end of the quadrangle (which rises by corded steps) opposite to the en-
trance, is a portico extending the whole breadth of the quadrangle, and 45 ft. in
depth. It has three ranks of columns, containing six in each rank, is covered by a flat
roof, and is enclosed by walls on three sides, the fourth, or that opposite the entrance,
D 2
Fig. 50.
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
being open. This is, however, closed breast high by a species of pedestals half inserted
in the columns, and in the central intercolumniation a doorway is constructed with piers,
over which are a lintel and cornice cut through. From this portico a doorway leads
to an inner vestibule, in which are three ranks of four columns each, smaller than those
first described, but distributed in the same way. Beyond this, in Cousin's plan, are
sundry apartments, with staircases and passages, whereof the smaller central one was
doubtless the cell. Fig. 51. is a longitudinal section. Fig. 52. is the elevation. We
KI.BVATION
K INTERIOR.
Fig. 52.
may here add, that there is so little difference between the earlier and later speci-
mens of Egyptian architecture, that though, as we have hinted, this is of the latter, it
will convey a pretty correct know-
ledge of all. The general appear-
ance of the temple is given in jig.
53., and a view of the interior in
fig. 54. The plan of the Egyptian
temple is always uniform, symme-
trical, and rectangular. Its most
brilliant feature is the great num-
ber of columns employed, in which
is displayed a prodigality unap-
proached by any other nation. This,
however, was induced by the ne-
cessity for employing blocks of stone
for the ceilings or roofs. The
greatest irregularity occurring in any
of the plans known, is in that at the
island of Philze (see Jig. 55. ), and it
is very evident that the cause was the shape ot the ground on which it is placed. The in-
x — ~\T "\ "^ i tercolumniations were very small,
_. .-— <^ x N\ \ \ \ i /~?~>-. rarely exceeding a diameter, or one
AV j <///'/ diameter and a half of the column.
We know of no specimens of pe-
ripteral temples similar to those of
Greece, that is, those in which
the cell is surrounded by columns.
In the elevations of those of Egypt,
the spirit and character of their
architecture is more particularly
developed. But they are monotonous. The repetition of the same forms is carried to
the utmost pitch of tolerance. The pyramidal form prevails in all the combinations, whether
in walls, doors, general masses, or details. In considering the principal parts of the eleva-
tions, the first feature that presents itself is the column, which we will notice without its
attendant base and capital. If it were possible to establish a system relative to their inven-
tion and subsequent perfection, we might easily arrange them in distinct classes, principally as
respects their decoration ; but as far as regards general form, the Egyptian column may be
reduced to two varieties, the circular and polygonal. The first are of two sorts. Some
are found quite plain or smooth, but ornamented with hieroglyphics (see fig. 56.). Some
CHAP. II.
EGYPTIAN.
are composed with ranges of horizontal circles, and look like an assemblage of bundles
of rods tied together at intervals. The only difference among those
columns which are circular and plain is in their having hierogly-
phics, or not. Of the second sort there are many varieties, of which
we here present three specimens (fig. 57.). They have the appear-
ance of being bound together by hoops, like barrels. These are usually
in three rows with four or five divisions in each ; but these arrange-
ments seem to have been subject to no certain laws. The species of
columns in question is certainly curious, and appears based upon the
imitation of stems of trees bound together, so as out of a number to
form one strong post. It seems scarcely possible that they could
have had their origin in mere whim or caprice. Many polygonal
columns are to be found in Egypt. Some square specimens are to
be seen in the grottos at Thebes cut out of the rock itself. Simi-
lar examples occur at the entrance of the sanctuary of a temple in the same city. Hexa-
gonal ones are described by Norden, and Pocock mentions one of a
form triangular on the plan. We do not at present remember any
fluted specimen, except in the tombs of Beni-Hassan, of which a
representation will be given in the section on Grecian architecture.
Their character is shortness and thickness. They vary from three to
eleven feet in diameter, the last dimension being the largest diameter
that Pocock observed, as in height the tallest was forty feet. Such
were some of those he measured at Carnac and Luxor, but this he gives only as an ap-
proximation from the circumstance of so much of them being buried in the earth.
78. Pilasters, properly so called, are not found in Egyptian architecture. The base of
the column, when it appears, is extremely simple in its form. Among the representations
in Denon's work is one in which the base is in the shape of an inverted ogee. It belongs
to a column of one of the buildings at Tentyris.
79. In their capitals, the Egyptians exhibited great variety of form. They may, how-
ever, be reduced to three species, — the square, the vase-formed, and the
swelled. The first (fig. 58.) is nothing more than a simple abacus, merely
placed on the top of the shaft of the column, to which it is not joined by the
intervention of any moulding. This abacus is, however, sometimes high
enough to admit of a head being sculptured thereon, as in the annexed
block. It does not appear, as in Grecian architecture, that in that of Egypt
differently proportioned and formed columns had different capitals assigned
to them. The notion of imparting expression to architecture by a choice of
forms of different nature, and more or less complicated according to the
character of an order, was unknown in Egypt. It was an architectural
language which the people knew not. The vase-shaped capital (fig. 59.)
v\g, 58. CAPITA!.. js variously modified : sometimes it occurs quite plain ; in other cases it is
differently decorated, of which we here give two examples. It certainly has all the appear-
~ ance of having afforded the first hint for the
bell of the Corinthian capital. The third
or swelled capital is also found in many
varieties ; but if the form be not founded
on that of the bud of a tree, we scarcely
Fig. 59. VASB AND OTHER SHAPED cA VITA i.3. know wherein its original type is to be
sought. Two examples of it are here appended.
80. The entablature, for such (however unlike it be to the same thing in the architecture
of Greece) we suppose we must call the massive
loading placed on the walls and columns of
ancient Egypt, is very little subdivided. The
upper part of it, which we may call the cornice,
projects considerably, having a large concave
member, in some cases consisting of ornaments
representing a series of reeds parallel to each
Fig. co. BNTABI.ATUBB. other from top to bottom ; in other cases in
groups of three or six in a group, the intervals between them being sculptured with winged
globes, as on the portico of the temple at Tentyris, given in fig. 6O. Sculptures of
animals, winged globes, and scarabaei, are the almost constant decorations placed on what
may be called the architrave of the Egyptian temple. Of the winged globe, usually
found on the centre of it, as also of the great concave cornice, ./fy. 61. is a representation.
We close our observations on the cor-
nices of the Egyptian temple by request-
ing the reader, if he have the smallest
K-.K. ei. WINCED OI.OBK. doubt on the common origin of the archi-
D 3
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
lectures of Egypt and Persepolis, to refer to fig. 26., where he will find a precisely
similar use of the great cavetto which crowned the buildings of both countries. The
writer who, in the Description Abrrgge des Monumens de la Haute Egypt, has found that
this great curve is borrowed from the bending leaves of the palm tree, has mistaken the
elements of decoration for substantial constructive art, and has forgotten that the first object
follows long after the latter. But we doubt if he really meant what his words import. The
ceilings of Egypt are invariably monotonous. The non-use of the arch, whereon we have
touched in a preceding page, and the blocks of stone which the country afforded, allowed
little scope for display of varied form. In the colonnades of the country, architraves of stone
rest on the columns (see Jig. 54.), on which transversely are placed those which actually
form the ceilings, just like the floor boards of a modern economical English building. On
them are often found some of the most interesting representations that are in existence :
we allude to those of the zodiacal constellations disposed circularly about the centre of the
apartments in which they are placed. Though nothing has been deduced from these to
satisfy us on the date of their continent buildings, they are not the less worthy of further
investigation, which, however, it is not our province here to pursue.
8 1 . The gates and portals of the Egyptian temples were either placed, as at Carnac
and Luxor {figs. 62. and 63.), in
masses of masonry, or between
columns, as already noticed, in-
clined upwards, having generally
a reed moulding round them, and
the whole crowned with a large
cavetto. They were plentifully co-
vered with hieroglyphics ; fre-
quently fronted by a pair of obe-
lisks ; and on their sides were placed
staircases of very simple construc-
tion, leading to platforms on their
summits. It is now difficult to
account for the extraordinary la-
bour bestowed on these masses of
masonry. More than pictorial ef-
fect must have been the motive.
The reader will, by turning back
tJ fig. 52., be equally surprised
with ourselves when he contem-
plates, in the gateway at the Tem-
ple of Apollinopolis Magna, such
The masses in these are always py-
ramidal, and bear great resemblance to the
gates of modern fortifications. Sometimes
they are extremely simple, and do not rise so
high as the adjacent buildings which flank
them. Their thickness is enormous, some
of them extending to the extraordinary depth
of fifty feet.
82. Windows were not frequently used.
When they occur they are long small paral-
lelograms, rarely ornamented, but splayed
inside. Many of the apartments were with-
out windows at all.
83. We have, in a previous page, alluded to
the Pyramids ; to which we here add, that,
whatever might have been their purpose, it is
Fig. 63. KGYpTtA* PORTAL AT cAHNAc. certain that the form adopted in them — one
that among other people, was devoted to the purposes of sepulture— was of all architectural
forms that calculated to ensure durability, and was, moreover, well suited to the views of a
nation which took extraordinary means to preserve the body after life, and expended large
sums on their tombs. .
84. ORNAMENT or DECORATION may be considered under two heads, — that which con-
sists in objects foreign to the forms of the edifices themselves, such as statues, obelisks,
&c. ; and that which is actually affixed to them, such as the carving on the friezes, bas-
reliefs, &C. 'it. f
85. The former of these are remarkable for the size and beauty of the materials whereot
they are composed. First for notice are their statues of colossal dimensions, which are mostly,
if not always, in a sitting attitude. The two here given (Jig. 64. ) are from the Memnonmm.
Fig. 62.
vast efforts developed on so apparently minor a point.
CHAP. II.
EGYPTIAN.
Fig. 64, COLOSSAL STATUES FROM THE MEMNONIUM.
They are generally isolated, and placed on simple pedestals. The use of Caryatides, as
they are called, perhaps improperly, in
Egyptian architecture, if we may judge
from remains, does not appear to have
been very frequent. In the tomb of
Osymandyas, we find, according to Dio-
dorus, that there was a peristylium, 40O
feet square, supported by animals ] 6
cubits high, each in one stone, instead
of columns. The same author (vol. i.
f. 56. ed. Wesseling), speaking of Psam-
meticus, says, " Having now obtained
the whole kingdom, he built a pro-
pyleeum, on the east side of the temple,
to the God at Memphis ; which temple he encircled with a wall ; and in this propyleeum,
instead of columns, substituted colossal statues 12 cubits in height." Statues of sphinxes
in allies or avenues were used for ornamenting the dromos of their temples. Of this species
of ornament the ruins of Thebes present a magnificent example. They were placed on
plinths facing one another, and about ten feet apart. Examples of lions also occur. The
form of the Egyptian obelisks is too well known to need a description here. They have been
alleged to be monuments consecrated to the sun. From the situation they often occupy, it
is clear they were used neither as gnomons nor solar quadrants.
86. Amongst the ornaments affixed to their
buildings, or rather forming a part of them,
the most frequent are hieroglyphics and bas-reliefs.
The custom of cutting the former upon almost
every building was, as we now find, for the pur-
pose of record ; but it is nevertheless to be consi-
dered as ornamental in effect. The figures that
are sculptured on the walls of the temples are
mostly in low relief, and are destitute of propor-
tion ; and, when in groups, are devoid of senti-
ment. Painting was another mode of decoration.
The grottoes of the Thebaid, and other subter-
ranean apartments, abound with pictures, not
only of hieroglyphics, but of other subjects. But
the taste of all these, either in drawing, colour-
ing, or composition, is not better than that of their
sculpture. (See an example in fig. 65.) Yet in
both these arts, from the precision with which
they are cut and the uniformity of line and pro-
portion they exhibit, a certain effect is produced
which is not altogether displeasing.
87. The nymphaea lotus, or water lily, seems to have been the type of much of the orna-
ment used for the purpose of decoration. The leaf of the palm tree was another object of
imitation, and is constantly found in the capitals of their columns. The use of the palm
leaf in this situation may have been derived from a popular notion mentioned by Plutarch,
( Symposiac. lib. vi. cap. 4. ), that the palm tree rose under any weight that was placed upon
it, and even in proportion to the degree of depression it experienced. This supposed pe-
culiarity is also mentioned by Aulus Gellius (lib. iii. cap. 6.). The reed of the Nile,
with its head, enters into some combinations of ornament, and moreover fashioned into
bundles, seems to have been the type of some of the species of their columns. In their
entablatures and elsewhere, animals of all sorts occasionally find a place as ornaments, even
down to fishes, which occur in a frieze at Assouan ; and, as we have before observed, there
are few buildings of importance in which the winged globe does not appear as an orna-
ment.
88. Some observations on the taste, style, and character of Egyptian architecture, will
conclude this section. If the type was, as we imagine, derived from the early subterranean
edifices of the people, whose customs allowed of no change or improvement, we cannot be
surprised at the great monotony that exists in all their monuments. The absence of variety
in their profiles, by means of projecting and re-entering parts, of the use of the arch, of the
inclined roof, and of all deviation from those shades of different developments, which
impart character to a work of art, generated the monotony, the subject of our complaint.
It cannot be denied that in those arts which have nature for their model, the artists of Egypt
never sought excellence in true representation. Now architecture is so allied to the other
arts, that the principles by which they were guided in these latter were carried through in
PRESENTATION TO OSI
40 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I
the former. It was impossible that the abstract imitation of nature, which constitutes
almost the essence of architecture, which is founded upon the most refined observations of
the impressions of different objects on our senses, which indicates numberless experiments
and successive trials, and which therefore requires the independence of the artist, could be
developed in a country where the restrictions of religion and the spirit of routine became
the dominant genius of all the arts. In positive imitation, whose existence and principles
have been already traced from grottoes and hollowed subterranean apartments, the types of
Egyptian architecture were unsusceptible of variety, and very remote from that which
characterises invention. The monotony thence resulting was attended by another effect, —
that of endeavouring to correct it by a profusion of hieroglyphics. As to the other orna-
ments employed, they seem ?b have flowed from caprice, both in selection and employment,
resting on no fixed principles of necessity or fitness, nor subject to any laws but those" of
chance. The original forms, indeed, of Egyptian architecture, unfounded, like those of
Greece, on a construction with timber, would not suggest the use of ornament. Nothing
seemed fixed, nothing determined by natural types. We must, however, except some of
their columns, which do appear to have been formed with some regard to imitation.
89. In the architecture of Egypt we find great want of proportion, or that suitable ratio
which the different parts of a body should bear to each other and to the whole. In all or-
ganised beings, their parts so correspond, that, if the size of a single part be known, the
whole is known. Nature has thus formed them for the sake of dependence on and aid to
each other. In works of art, the nearer we approach a similar formation, the more refined
and elegant will be its productions. Solidity is abused in the works of the Egyptians ; the
means employed always seem greater than were necessary. This discovers another cause
of their monotony. The masses of material which the country produced measured their
efforts and conceptions, and their invention was exhausted by a very restricted number of
combinations. Their monuments are doubtless admirable for their grandeur and solidity ;
but the preponderance of the latter, when carried beyond certain bounds, becomes clumsi-
ness ; art then disappears, and character becomes caricature. Though we think it useful
thus to analyse Egyptian art, it must not be supposed that we are insensible to its imposing,
and often picturesque, effect. It can never be revived, and our observations upon it must
be understood as in comparison with Greek art, which has proved so susceptible of modi-
fication that it is not likely to be abandoned in any part of the world where civilisation
has appeared.
90. Though the private dwellings of the Egyptians were not comparable with their pub-
lic edifices, they were not altogether devoid of splendour. Examples of them from sculp-
tures may be seen in Mr. Wilkinson's work above quoted. In the towns they of course
varied in size and plan. The streets were narrow and laid out with regularity ; and the
mixture, as frequently met with in eastern towns, of large houses with low hovels, appears
to have been avoided. In Thebes, the number of stories were, according to Diodorus, in
some cases as much as four and five. Houses of small size were usually connected together,
rarely exceeding two stories. They were regular in plan, the rooms usually occupying three
sides of a court-yard, separated by a wall from the street ; or on each side of a long passage
from a similar entrance court. The court was sometimes common to several houses. Large
mansions were detached, having often different entrances on their several sides, with portals
very similar in form to those of their temples. These portals were about 12 or 15 ft. high,
and on each side was a smaller door. Entering through the porch, the passage was into an
open court wherein was a receiving room for visitors, and this was supported by columns,
and closed in the lower part by intercolumnal panels. On the opposite side of the court
was another door, by which the receiving room was entered from the interior. Three doors
led from this court to another of larger dimensions, ornamented with trees, communicating
on the right and left with the interior parts of the building, and having a back entrance. The
arrangement of the interior was the same on each side of the court ; six or more chambers,
whose doors faced each other, opened on a corridor supported by columns on the right and
left of the area, which was shaded by a double row of trees. A sitting room was placed
at the upper end of one of these areas, opposite the door leading to the great court ;
and over this and the chambers were the apartments of the upper story. On each side of
the sitting-room was a door opening on to the street. Of course there were houses on
other plans, which are given by Wilkinson ; but the above conveys a sufficient idea of
their general distribution. On the tops of the houses were terraces, serving as well for
repose as exercise. The walls and ceilings were richly painted, and the latter were formed
into compartments with appropriate borders. Some of their villas were on a very large
scale, and were laid out with spacious gardens, watered by canals communicating with the
Nile.
91. We close this section with a list of the principal ancient edifices of Egypt (for which
we are indebted to the work of Mr. Wilkinson), whose situations are marked on the
accompanying map (fig. 66.). At Heliopolis (modern name Matarieh} (No. 1.), a little to
the north of Cairo, the obelisk of Osirtasen I., and the remains of walls and houses. Near
CHAP. II.
EGYPTIAN.
Cairo, to the south-west, pyramids of
Geezeh (No. 2.), Saccara, and Dashoor.
At Mitraheni (No. 3.), a colossus of
Remeses II. ; the mounds of Memphis,
fragments of statues, and remains of
buildings. About thirty-eight miles
above Cairo, on the east bank ( No. 4. ),
are the mounds of Aphroditopolis ; and
on the opposite bank a false pyramid.
Three miles further, on the east bank,
the walls of an ancient village called
El Heebec (No. 5.), with some hiero-
glyphics. At Benisooef a road leads to
the Fyoom ; a brick pyramid at Illa-
houn (No. 6.), another at El Hawara,
and traces of the Labyrinth. An obelisk
at Biggig (No. 7.); ruins near Lake
Mocris and at Kasr Keroun (No. 8.).
From Abou Girgeh (No. 9.), on the
west bank, a road to Oxyrinchery (Bah-
nasa) (No. 10.), where are mounds but
no ruins. At Gabel e' Tayr, a rock
temple. Eight miles below Minieh
(No. 11.) is Acoris (Tehneh), on the
east bank, where is a Greek Ptolemaic
inscription on the cliff, tombs in the rock
with inscriptions on the doors, hiero-
glyphic tablets, &c. On the east bank,
seven miles above Minieh, Kom Ahmar,
where are the ruins of an old town and
some grottoes. Nine miles further up
-~ are the grottoes of Beni Hassan ( No. 12.);
and about a mile and a half further on
a grotto or rock temple of Bubastis or
Diana. Antinoe (Shekh Abadeh), west
bank, few traces of the town, a theatre,
principal streets, baths, &c. Outside the
26 town, the hippodrome. At El Bersheh,
a grotto, wherein is a colossus on a
sledge. Hermopolis, on the west bank
(Oshmounayn) (No. 13.), no remains of
it. At Gebel Toona are mummy pits,
a tablet of hieroglyphics, and statues in
high relief. At Shekh Said (No. 14.)
the mountains recede to the eastward,
leaving the river ; a little beyond is the
village of Tel eb Amarma, to the north
of which are the remains of a small
town, and to the south the ruins of a
city, which Mr. W. supposes to have
24 been the Alabastron. To the east are
grottoes with sculptures ; and on the
summit of the mountain an ancient
alabaster quarry. At El Hargib (No.
15.), the ruins of an old town. At
E' Sioot (No. 16.) (the ancient Lyco-
23 polis) are grottoes. At Gow (Antaeo-
polis), a few stones of the temple close
to the river. At Shekh Heredee, small
grottoes; and a Roman statue at the
base of the mountain cut out of a piece
of the rock. West of Soohag (No. 17.)
22 is the old town of Athribis, where is a
Greek inscription in the ruined temple,
and grottoes in the mountain. On the
east side of the river, opposite, is
E'Khmim (No. 18.) (Parcopolis, Greek
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
inscription of Temple of Pan, and remains of other stone buildings. Mensheeh (No. 19.)
(Ptolemais Hermii), on the west
bank, from whence three hours' ride
to Abydus (now Arabat el Matfoon),
where are two temples and many
tombs. Hou (Diospolis parva), a
few remains of Ptolemaic times.
Dendera (No. 20.) (ancient Tenty-
ris) has two temples (figs. 67. and
68.), inscriptions, zodiac, &c. At
Qoft (Coptos), ruins of the old
Fig. 67.
town and of a temple ; and at the village of El Qala, to the north, a small Roman Egyp-
tian temple. Qoos (No. 21.) (Apolli-
nopolis parva) no ruins. At Thebes
(No. 22.) (Diospolis magna), on the
east bank, Karnac and Lugsor ; on the
west, tombs of the kings, private tombs,
several temples, colossi of the plain, &c.
At Erment (No. 23.) (Hermonthis), west
bank, a temple and early Christian church.
At Tofnees and Asfoon (No. 24.) mounds
of ancient towns, but no ruins. Esneh
(fig. 69.) (Latopolis) (No. 25.) possesses
a fine portico, zodiac and quay ; sixteen
miles from whence is a small stone pyra-
mid. On the east bank, four miles be-
yond, is El Kab (Eilethyas), where are
ruins of a very ancient town ; the temples
Fig. (is. INTERIOR OF TEMPLE AT TBXTVRis. lately destroyed ; grottoes in the mountain ;
and a short distance up the valley three small temples. Edfu (No. 26.) (Apollinopolis
magna) has two temples ; and
eleven miles above it are the
remains of an old town. At
Komombo (No. 27.) (Ombos)
are two temples, and an an-
cient stone gateway in a crude
brick wall on the east side of
t-A-:-~-t -• fRSk r-rSS ^rj-tggrT»gTn ~ --~v=5j«e^_r the inclosure of the temples.
• Hfcrt^^ At E' Sooan (No. 28.) (Syene),
ruins of a small Roman temple,
Fig. 69. PORTICO AT ESNEH. some columns, granite quar-
ries, in one of which is a broken obelisk. Island of Elephanta, opposite the rocks of
E' Sooan, is the Nilometer, with Greek incriptions relating to the rise of the Nile. A
granite gateway bearing the name of Alexander, son of Alexander the Great. At Philae
(No. 29.) temples and ruins. On the Island of Biggeh, opposite Philae to the west,
ruined temple, tablets, &c.
92. In Nubia, temples at Dabode (No. 30.) (Paremboli) and Kababshee (No. 31.)
(Talmis) ; to the north of the last a small but interesting temple, called Bayt el Wellea,
cut in the rock, and of the time of Remeses II. A temple at Dandoor (No. 32.), and one
cut in the rock, of the time of Remeses II., at Gerf Hossayn (Tutzis). At Sabooa
(No. 33.), a temple of the time of Remeses II., with an avenue of sphinxes, the adytum
cut in the rock, the rest built. At Assaia (No. 34.) or Amada, a temple of Thothmes
ancient ; and nearly opposite, on the east bank, is Dayr, where is a temple cut in the rock
of the date of Remeses II. At Ypsambool (No. 35.) (figs. 70. and 71.), two fine temples
Fig. 70.
TBMPI.B AT VP8AMBOO1"
F«. 71.
YPSAMIlOOIr.
CHAP. II. CHINESE. 43
cut in the rock of the time of Remeses II., and the finest out of Thebes. Above the last-
named place there are no buildings of importance mentioned by our author.
SECT. VIII.
CHINESE ARCHITECTURE.
93. In the first chapter, the reader will remember, we have said that in the tent is to be
found the type of this architecture ; and one which, M. de Paw justly observes, cannot be
mistaken. We are not aware of the utility of a very minute investigation of its style, which
in this country is of no further importance than attaches to the silly decoration of gardens
with imitations of its productions ; but as the object of this work would not be fully attained
without some account of it, we propose to consider it, firstly, with respect to its principles,
character, and taste ; secondly, with respect to its buildings, their parts, and the method of
construction adopted in them.
94. (1.) To judge of the arts of a people, we ought to be acquainted with the people
themselves, the constitution of their minds, their power, their habits, and the connection of
the arts with their wants and pleasures. As one man differs from another, so do these differ
among nations. The desire of improving on what has been done before us, no less distin-
guishes nations than individuals from each other. Whatever may be the cause, this faculty
does not seem to be possessed by the Chinese. Unlike their Indian neighbours, amongst
whom appears an exuberance of invention, the arts of imitation in China have been bound
in the chains of mechanical skill. Their painters are rather naturalists than artists ; and an
European, engaged on the foreground of a landscape, tells us that the criticism by a native
artist on his work was confined to the observation that he had omitted some fibres and sink-
ings in some of the leaves of the foliage employed in it. The political and moral subjection
of the people seems to have doomed them to remain in that confined circle wherein long
habit and repugnance to change have enclosed them.
95. In speaking of the principles of Chinese architecture, the word is used in application
to those primitive causes which gave birth to it, and which, in every species of architecture,
are the elements of its character and the taste it exhibits. The imitation of the tent, as we
have before observed, is the true origin of their buildings ; and this agrees with our know-
ledge of the primitive state of the Chinese, who, like all the Tartar tribes, were nomadic.
On this is founded the singular construction of their dwellings, which would stand were
the walls destroyed ; inasmuch as, independent of them, their roofs rest upon timber framing,
just as though they had surrounded tents with enclosures of masonry. Indeed, from the
accounts of travellers, a Chinese city looks like a large permanent encampment, as well in
respect of its roofs as its extent. If, again, we recur to their concave sloped sides, we can
arrive at no other conclusion ; and though the carpentry of which they are raised has for
ages been subjected to these forms, when we consider the natural march of human invention,
especially in cases of necessity, we cannot believe that, in a country where the primitive
construction was of timber, the coverings of dwellings would at once have been so simple
and so light. Their framing seems as though prepared merely for a canvas covering.
Again, we have, if more were wanting, another proof, in the posts employed for the support
of their roofs. On them we find resting nothing analogous to the architecture for receiving
and supporting the upper timbers of the carpentry ; on the contrary, the roof projects over
and beyond the posts or columns, whose upper extremities are hidden by the eaves ; thus
superseding the use of a capital. A canvas covering requires but a slender support : hence
lightness is a leading feature in the edifices of China. The system of carpentry (if such it
can be called) thus induced, will be noticed under the second head ; but we must here
observe, that lightness is not at all incompatible with essential solidity of construction ; and
whilst other materials than those which formed tents have been substituted for them, the
forms of the original type have been preserved, making this lightness the more singular,
inasmuch as the slightest analogy between those of the original and the copy is imper-
ceptible. This change of material prevents in the copy the appearance of solidity, and
seems a defect in the style, unless we recur to the type.
96. A characteristic quality of Chinese architecture is gaiety of effect. Their coloured
roofs, compared by their poets to the rainbow, — their porticoes, diapered with variegated
tints, — the varnish lavished on their buildings, — the keeping of this species of decoration
with the light forms of the buildings, — all these unite in producing, to eyes accustomed to
contemplate them, a species of pleasure which they would with difficulty relinquish ; and it
seems reasonable that the architecture of Europe must appear cold and monotonous to men
whose pleasure in the arts is more dependent on their senses than on their judgment.
97. Taste in art is a quality of vague signification, except amongst those whose lives are
44 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK J.
passed in its practice ; neither is this the place to say, upon that subject, more than that, in
the application of ornament or decoration to architecture, it must depend on the method of
construction. This is not found in that whereof we are writing. With the Chinese, the
art of ornamenting a building is an application of capricious finery and patchwork, in which
grotesque representations of subjects connected with their mythology often prevail : yet, in
this respect, they exhibit a fertility of invention, and produce beautiful abstract combinations
quite in character with the general forms. Indeed, the parts of their architecture are in
harmony with each other. All is based upon natural principles, and is so adapted to the
few and simple wants of a nation whose enormous population alone seems to render it inde-
pendent of every other people, that no period can be assigned to the future duration of an
architecture which, we apprehend, has existed amongst them from the earliest date of their
dwelling in cities.
98. (2.) TIMBER is the chief material in use among the Chinese; and that of which the
country produces the principal is the nan-mon, which, according to some, is a species of
cedar ; others have placed it among the firs. It is a straight thick tree, and improves with
age. De Paw says that it furnishes sticks from twelve to thirteen feet high, of useful wood ;
but Chambers limits it to a smaller size. Respecting its beauty and duration, all travellers
agree, Davis (Description of the Empire of China) says that the nan-mo is a description of
cedar, which resists insects and lime, and appears to be exclusively used for imperial dwell-
ings and temples. It was an article of impeachment against the minister of Kien-loong,
that he had presumed to use this wood in the construction of his private palace. According
to Du Halde, the iron-wood, the-ly-mow, is as tall as the oaks of Europe, but is less in its
trunk, and differs from it in colour, which is darker, and in weight. The author does not
tell us whether it is employed for columns. The tse-lau, also called mo-wAng, or king of
woods, resembles what we call rosewood ; but its use is confined chiefly to articles of fur-
niture. The tchou-tse, or bamboo, grows to a great height in China. Though hollow, it
is very hard, and capable of bearing great weight. It is employed for scaffolding and sheds
of all kinds ; and the frame- work of their matted houses for theatrical exhibitions is carried
up with bamboos in a few hours. It is in universal use. The missionaries inform us that
BRICK has been in use with the nation from the earliest period, and of both species, — burnt
and merely dried in the sun. Chambers describes the walls of the houses built of this
material as generally eighteen inches thick. He says, the workmen bring up the foundations
for three or four courses in solid work ; after which, as the walls rise, the bricks are used in
the alternate courses as headers and stretchers on the two faces of them ; so that the headers
meet, and thus occupy the whole thickness, leaving a void space between the stretchers :
they then carry up another course of stretchers, breaking the vertical joints. STONE and
MARBLE are little employed ; not on account of their scarcity, for they are abundant, nor on
the score of economy, for they are acquainted with the method of working them, as is proved
from their use in public buildings and tombs. Neither can it arise from the difficulty or
want of acquaintance with the means of transport ; for we find in their gardens immense
blocks introduced for the purposes of ornament ; and in their marble staircases, the steps,
whatever the length, are always in a single piece. The fear of earthquakes, moreover, does
not appear to have been a motive for their rejection. That is rather to be found in the
climate, which, especially in the southern parts, would, from the great heat and moisture,
tend to render their houses unwholesome. In the scaffolding they use for the erection of
their buildings, security and simplicity are the principal features ; not, however, unmixed
with skill. It consists of long poles, so inclined as to make the ascent easy, and is executed
without any transverse bearing pieces.
99. The police of architecture among the Chinese is, to an European, a singular feature
in its practice ; and we cannot refrain from presenting to the reader the curious restrictions
imposed upon every class in their several dwellings. Police, indeed, may be said to govern
the arts of China. Its laws detail the magnitude and arrangement permitted for the Ion, or
palace of a prince of the first, second, or third degree; for a noble of the imperial family, for
a grandee of the empire, for the president of a tribunal, for a mandarin, — for, indeed, all
classes. They extend, also, to the regulation of the public buildings of capitals, and other
cities, according to their rank in the empire. The richest citizen, unless bearing some office
in the state, is compelled to restrict the extent of his house to his exact grade in the country ;
and whatever form and comfort he may choose to give to the interior, the exterior of his
dwelling towards the street must be in every respect consistent with these laws. According
to the primitive laws on this subject, the number of courts, the height of the level of the
ground floor, the length of the buildings, and the height of the roofs, were in a progressive
ratio from the mere bourgeois to the emperor ; and the limits of each were exactly defined.
The ordinary buildings are only a single story high : the climate seems to discountenance
many stories. Though Pekin is in the fortieth degree of north latitude, the police obliges
the shopkeepers and manufacturers to sleep in the open air under their penthouses in the
hottest part of the summer.
10O. The leon is a building of several stories. Of this sort are almost all the small palaces
CHAP. II.
CHINESE.
4.1
built by the emperors in their pleasure gardens. The taste for this class of building at one
period prevailed to such an extent that houses were constructed from 1 50 ft. to 200 ft. in
height, flanked by towers extending to 300 ft. Though the emperors have, generally, aban-
doned these enormous buildings, they are still occasionally erected. Most houses of the
country are so slightly built as to be incapable of bearing more than one story. Indeed,
the necessity for making the most of an area by doubling and tripling its capacity, which
exists in the capitals of Europe, does not operate in China.
101. The houses of the Chinese are uniform in their appearance. We here annex the
plan and elevation of one (figs. 72. and 73.) ; from which it will be seen
that a large portion of the area is occupied by courts, passages, and gar-
dens. Sir W. Chambers describes those of the merchants at Canton as
being, generally, a long rectangle on the plan, two stories high, and the
apartments divided on the ground floor by a wide passage, which extends
through the whole length. On the side towards the street the shops
are placed, beyond which a quadrangular open vestibule leads to the
private apartments, which are distributed on the right and left of the
passage. There is a salon, usually about 1 8 ft. or 20 ft. long, and 20 ft.
wide, open towards the vestibule, or with a screen of canework to protect
it from the sun and rain. At the back are doors extending from the
floor about half way to the ceiling ; the superior part being of trellis
work, covered with painted gauze, which gives light to the bedroom.
The partition walls are not carried higher than the ground story, and
are lined with mats to the height of three feet, above which a painted
paper is used. The pavement is of differently coloured stone, or marble
squares. The doors are generally rectangular, of wood, and varnished
or painted with figures. Sometimes the communication between apart-
ments is in the form of an entire circle, which some have compared to
the aperture of a bird-cage. The
windows are rectangular, and filled
in with framework in patterns of
squares, parallelograms, polygons, and
circles, variously inscribed in or in-
tersecting each other. The railwork
to the galleries is similarly orna-
mented. The compartments of the
windows are generally filled in with
a transparent oyster shell instead of
i j \svft glass. The upper floor, which oc-
Fig. 72. OR.H-ND PI.AK. cupies the whole breadth of the
house, is divided into several large apartments, which are, occasionally, by means of tem-
porary partitions, converted into rooms for visitors, apart from the family. The sleeping
rooms for the people connected with the business are over the shops. The roof stands on
wooden columns ; and its extremities, projecting beyond the walls, are usually decorated
with the representation of a dragon.
102. In the system of carpentry practised by the Chinese, the columns and beams look
more like the bars of a light cage than the supports and ties of a solid piece of
P framing, or like a collection of bamboos fastened to one another. The accom-
b panying diagram (fig. 74.) will convey our meaning to the reader. Their
^ columns vary in their forms and in their proportions from eight to twelve
~ diameters in height, and are without capitals. They are generally of wood,
standing on marble or stone bases, and are occasionally polygonal as well
as circular. Some are placed on moulded bases.
103. The palaces are constructed on nearly the same plan. Nothing, say
the missionaries of Pekin, gives a more impressive idea of a palace and the
greatness of its inhabitant, whether we consider its extent, symmetry, eleva-
tion, and uniformity, or whether we regard it for the splendour and magnifi-
ecence of its parts, than the palace of the emperor at Pekin. The whole, they
say, produced an effect upon them for which they were not prepared. It
Fig. 74. COLUMN AM> occupies an area of upwards of 3600 ft. from east to west, and above 3000 ft.
IECE> from north to south, without including the three fore-courts. Mr. Barrow,
in his Account of Lord Macartney's Embassy, describes it as a vast enclosure of a rectangular
form, surrounded by double walls, having between them ranges of offices, covered by roofs
sloping towards the interior. The included area is occupied by buildings not more than
two stories high, and forming several quadrangular courts of various sizes, in the centres of
which are buildings standing on granite platforms, 5 ft. or 6 ft. high. These are sur-
rounded by columns of wood, which support a projecting roof turned up at the angles.
One of these buildings, serving as a hall of audience, stands like the rest on a platform, and
Fl*
us ic iiorsB.
46 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I
its projecting roof is supported by a double row of wooden columns, the intervals between
which, in each row, are filled with brickwork to the height of 4 ft. ; the part above the
wall being filled in with lattice work, covered with transparent paper. The courts are
intersected by canals spanned by several marble bridges. The gateways of the quadrangles
are adorned with marble columns on pedestals, decorated with dragons. The courts
contain sculptured lions 7 ft. or 8 ft. high ; and at the angles of the building, surrounding
each area, are square towers, two stories high, crowned with galleries. The reader will
find a delineation of this extraordinary building in Cousin's work, Du Genie de L' Architec-
ture, 4to, Paris, 1822, pi. 26. The peristylia of the interior buildings of the palace are
built upon a platform of white marble, above which they are raised but a few steps ; but
this platform is reached by three flights of marble steps, decorated with vases and other
ornaments.
104. It is said that there are 10,000 miao, or idol temples in Pekin and its environs.
Some of these are of considerable size, others are more distinguished for their beauty ; there
is, however, no sufficient account of them, and we shall therefore proceed to those of Canton,
which have been decribed by Chambers. He says that in this city there are a great num-
ber of temples, to which Europeans usually apply the name of pagoda. Some of these are
small, and consist of a single chamber ; others stand in a court surrounded by corridors, at
the extremity of which the ting, or idols, are placed. The most extensive of these pagodas
is at Ho-nang, in the southern suburb of Conan. Its interior area is of the length of 590 ft.,
its width 250 ft. This area is surrounded by cells for 200 bonzes, having no light but what
is obtained from the doors. The entrance to the quadrangle is by a vestibule in the middle
of one of the short sides ; and at the angles are buildings 30 ft. square, in which the principal
bonzes reside. In the middle of each of the long sides is a rectangular area, surrounded by
cells, one containing the kitchens and refectories, and the other, hospitals for animals, and a
burying ground. The great quadrangle contains three pagodas or pavilions, each 33 ft.
square on the plan. They consist each of two stories, the lowest whereof is surrounded by
a peristyle of twenty- four columns. The basement to each is 6ft. high, to which there is a
flight of steps on each side, and the three basements are connected by a broad wall for the
purpose of communication between them, with steps descending into the court. The roofs
of the peristylia are concave on the exterior ; and the angles, which are curved upwards, are
decorated with animals. The sides of the upper story are formed with wooden posts, filled
in with open framework. Round the foot on the exterior is a balcony with a rail in front.
The roof resembles that of the peristyle, and has its angles similarly ornamented. The
buildings are all covered with green varnished tiles.
105. The Chinese towers, which also Europeans call pagodas, are very common in the
country. The most celebrated, whereof a diagram is presented here (fig. 75.), is thus
described by P. Le Comte. Its
form on the plan is octagonal,
and 40 ft. in diameter ; so that
each side is full 16^ ft. It is sur-
rounded by a wall at a distance
of 15 ft., bearing, at a moderate
height, a roof covered with var-
nished tiles, which seems to rise
out of the body of the tower,
forming a gallery below. The
tower consists of nine stories,
each ornamented with a cornice
of 3 ft. at the level of the win-
dows, and each with a roof si-
milar to that of the gallery, ex-
cept that they do not project so
much, not being supported by a
second wall. They grow smaller as the stories rise. The wall of the ground story is 1 2 ft.
thick, and 8^ ft. high, and is cased with porcelain, whose lustre the rain and dust have much
injured in the course of three centuries. The staircase within is small and inconvenient, the
risers being extremely high. Each floor is formed by transverse beams, covered with planks
forming a chamber, whose ceiling is decorated with painting. The walls are hollowed for
numberless niches, containing idols in bas-relief. The whole work is gilt, and seems of
marble or wrought stone ; but the author thinks it of brick, which the Chinese are ex-
tremely skilful in moulding with ornaments thereon. The first story is the highest, but the
rest are equal in height. " I counted," says M. Le Comte, " 1 90 steps, of ten full inches
each, which make 1 58 ft. If to this we add the height of the basement, and that of the
ninth story, wherein there are no steps, and the covering, we shall find that the whole
exceeds a height of 200 ft. The roof is not the least of the beauties which this tower boasts.
It consists of a thick mast, whose foot stands on the eighth floor, and rises thirty feet from
CHAP. II. CHINESE. 47
the outside of the biiilding. It appears enveloped in a large spiral band of iron, clear by
several feet from the pole, on whose apex is a gilt globe of extraordinary dimensions.
106. The word tower has been vaguely applied to all these buildings ; but in China
there are differences in their application, which are classed under three heads : — 1. Tai, or
platforms for astronomical or meteorological observations, or for enjoying the air and land-
scape. 2. Hou, such as that just described in detail, being edifices of several stories, isolated
and circular, square and polygonal on the plan, built of different materials in different places.
3. Ta, which are sepulchral towers. These are commonly massive, of strange but simple
forms.
107. The Pay-Icon, or triumphal arches of the Chinese, are to be found in every city.
They are erected to celebrate particular events. Those at Ning-po are with a central and
two smaller side openings, and are ornamented with polygonal stone columns, supporting
an entablature of three or four fasciae. These are usually without mouldings, the last but
one excepted, which is a species of frieze filled with inscriptions. They are crowned
with roofs of the usual form, having broad projections, whose angles are turned upwards.
The apertures are sometimes square, and sometimes circular headed.
108. China abounds in bridges ; but Du Halde and the missionaries have made more of
them in their accounts than they appear to deserve. What they have described as a bridge
of ninety-one arches between Soo-chow and Hang-chow, was passed by Lord Macartney,
and found to be nothing more than a long causeway. Its highest arch, however, was sup-
posed to be between 20 ft. and 30 ft. high, and its length about half a mile. Some of their
bridges, however, as in the case of that observed by the late Sir George Staunton (vol. ii.
p. 177.), are skilfully constructed. They have long been acquainted with the use of the
arch composed of wedge-shaped voussoirs, perhaps long before it was known in Europe.
Their great wall is one of their most remarkable monuments. It consists of an earthen
mound, retained on each side by walls of brick and masonry, with a terraced platform of
square bricks. Its total height is 20 ft., including a parapet of 5 ft. The thickness at the
^fg^ base is 25 ft., and it diminishes
to 15ft. at the platform. The
towers on it, at intervals of about
200 paces, are 40 ft. square at
the base, diminishing to 30 ft.
at the top ; and their height is
about 37 ft. Some of the towers,
however, are 48 ft. high, and
consist of two stories. It ex-
tends from the province of Shen-
Si to the Wanghay, and in a
length of 1500 miles is con-
F* 76' ducted over mountains, valleys,
and rivers, often in places inaccessible to an enemy. (See^. 76.)
SECT. IX.
MEXICAN ARCHITECTURE.
109. The architecture of the people who had possession of America before its discovery
by Columbus has a considerable claim upon our attention. When a people appears to have
had no means of modelling their ideas through study of the existing monuments of older
nations, nor of preserving any traces of the style of building practised by the race from
which they originated, their works may be expected to possess some novelty in the mode oi
combination or in the nature of the objects combined ; and, in this point of view, American
architecture is not without interest. It is, moreover, instructive in pointing out the bent
of the human mind when unbiassed by example in the art.
110. North America was found by the Spaniards advanced in agriculture and civilisation,
and more especially so in the valleys of Mexico and Oaxaca. These provinces seem to have
been traversed by different migratory tribes, who left behind them traces of cultivation. It
is not our intention here to discuss the mode of the original peopling of America ; but we
must, in passing, observe that the vicinity of the continents of Asia and America is such as
to induce us to remind the reader that one of the swarms, which we mentioned in the
section on Druidical and Celtic Architecture, might have moved in a direction which ulti-
mately brought them to that which, in modern times, has received the name of the New
World. The Toultecs appeared in 648, making roads, building cities, and constructing
great pyramids, which are yet admired. They knew the use of hieroglyphical paintings,
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
founded metals, and were able to cut the hardest stone. (Humboldt, New Spain.) The Aztec*
appeared in 1 1 96, and seem to have had a similar origin and language. Their works, though
they attest the infancy of art, bear a striking resemblance to several monuments of the most
civilised people. The rigid adherence of the people to the forms, opinions, and customs
which habit had rendered familiar to them, is common to all nations under a religious
and military despotism.
111. The edifices erected by the Mexicans for religious purposes were solid masses of
earth of a pyramidal shape, partly faced with stone. They were called Teocallis (Houses
of God). That of ancient Mexico, 318 ft. at the base and 121 ft. in height, consisted
of five stories ; and, when seen at a distance, so truncated was the pyramid that the monu-
ment appeared an enormous cube, with small altars covered by wooden cupolas on the top.
The place where these cupolas terminated was elevated 177 ft. above the base of the
edifice or the pavement of the
enclosure. Hence we may ob-
serve that the Teocalli was very
similar in form to the ancient mo-
nument of Babylon, called the
Mausoleum of Belus. The pyra-
mids of Teotihuacan (fig. 77.),
which still remain in the Mexican
Valley, have their faces within 52
minutes of a degree of the cardi-
nal points of the compass. Their
PYRAMIDS OF TKOTiHiMCAN. interior is clay, mixed with small
stones. This kernel is covered with a thick wall of porous amygdaloid. Traces are
perceived of a bed of lime, which externally covers the stone.
112. The great pyramid of Cholula (fig. 78.), the largest and most sacred temple in
Mexico, appears, at a distance,
like a natural conical hill, wooded,
and crowned with a small church ;
on approaching it, its pyramidal
form becomes distinct, as well as
the four stories whereof it consists,
though they are covered with
vegetation. Humboldt compares
it to a square whose base is four
times that of the Place Vendome
F.g. 7
at Paris covered with bricks to a height twice that of the Louvre. The height of it is 177 ft. .
and the length of a side of the base 1423 ft.. There is a flight of 120 steps to the platform.
Subjoined is a comparative statement of the Egyptian and Mexican pyramids : —
Dimensions.
EGYPTIAN.
MEXICAN.
Height in feet -
Length of base in feet
Cheops.
448
728
Cephrenes.
398
655
Mycerinus.
162
280
Saccara
(of five stories).
150
210
Teotihu-
acan .
171
645
Cholula.
172
1355
The Cholula pyramid is constructed with unburnt bricks and clay, in alternate layers.
As in other Teocallis, there are cavities of considerable size, intended for sepulchres. In
cutting through one side of it to form the present road from Puebla to Mexico, a square
chamber was discovered, built of stones, and supported by beams of cypress wood. Two
skeletons were found in it and a number of curiously painted and varnished vases. Hum-
boldt, on an examination of the ruins, observed an arrangement of the bricks for the purpose
of diminishing the pressure on the roof, by the sailing over of the bricks horizontally. The
area on the top contains 3500 square yards, and was occupied by the Temple of Quetzal-
coatl, the God of Air, who has yielded his place to the Virgin. By the way, we may here
mention that tumuli are found in Virginia, Canada, and Peru, in which there are galleries
built of stone communicating with each other by shafts ; but these are not surmounted by
temples.
113. In the northern part of the intenaancy of Vera Cruz, west from the mouth of the
Rio Tecolutla, two leagues distant from the great Indian village of Papantla, we meet
with a pyramidal edifice of great antiquity. The pyramid of Papantla remained unknown
to the first conquerors. It is seated in the middle of a thick forest, and was only discovered
by some hunters about thirty- five years ago. It is constructed of immense blocks of stone
laid in mortar ; but is not so remarkable for its size as for its form and the perfection of
its finish, being only 80 ft. square at the base, and not quite 60 ft. high. A flight of fifty-seven
CHAP. II.
MEXICAN.
49
steps leads to the truncated pyramid. Like all the Mexican teocallis, it is composed of
stages, six whereof are still distinguishable, and a seventh appears to be concealed by the
vegetation with which its sides are covered. The facing of the stories is ornamented
with hieroglyphics, in which serpents and crocodiles, carved in relievo, are discernible.
Each story contains a great number of square niches symmetrically distributed. In the
first story twenty-four are on each side ; in the second, twenty ; and in the third, sixteen.
The number of these niches in the body of the pyramid is 366, and there are twelve in the
stairs towards the east.
1 14. The military intrenchment of Xochiculco, near Tetlama, two leagues south-west
of Cuernavaca, is another remarkable ancient monument. It is an insulated hill, 370 ft.
high, surrounded with ditches or trenches, and divided by the hand of man into five terraces
covered with masonry. The whole has the appearance of a truncated pyramid, whereof
the four faces are in the cardinal points of the compass. The masonry is of porphyry, very
regularly cut, and adorned with hieroglyphics ; among which are to be seen a crocodile
spouting up water, and men sitting cross-legged after the Asiatic fashion. On the plat-
form, which is very large, is a small square edifice, which was most probably a temple.
115. Though the province of Oaxaca contains no monuments of ancient Aztec architec-
ture, which astonish by their colossal dimensions, like the houses of the gods of Cholula,
Papautla, and Teotihuacan, it possesses the ruins of edifices remarkable for their symmetry
and the elegance of their ornaments. The antiquity of them is unknown. In the district
of Oaxaca, south of Mexico, stands the palace of Mitla, contracted from Mignitlan, signi-
fying, in Aztec, the place of woe. By the Tzapotec Indians the ruins are called leoba, or luiva
(burial, or tomb), alluding to the excavations found beneath the walls. It is conjectured to
have been a palace constructed over the tombs of the kings, for retirement, on the death of
a relation. The tombs of Mitla are three edifices, placed symmetrically in a very romantic
situation. That in the best preservation, and, at the same time, the principal one, is nearly
130 ft. long. A staircase, formed in a pit, leads to a subterranean apartment, 88 ft. in
length, and 26 ft. in width. This, as well as the exterior part of the edifice, is decorated
with fret, and other ornaments of similar character (fig. 79.). But the most singular
feature in these ruins, as com-
pared with other Mexican
architecture, was the discovery
of six porphyry columns, placed
for the support of a ceiling, in
the midst of a vast hall. They
are almost the only ones which
have been found in the new
continent, and exhibit strong
marks of the infancy of the
art, having neither base nor ca-
pital. The upper part slightly
diminishes. Their total height
/ t~* •*-><- — 4£i_5& tVJxz- •& Km^Stt^jrfpiSihi )*&g?g=fp*^* *s 19 ft. , in single blocks of
porphyry. The ceiling under
which they were placed was
formed by beams of Savine wood, and three of them are still in good preservation. The
roof is of very large slabs. The number of separate buildings was originally five, and
they were disposed with great regularity. The gate, whereof some vestiges are still dis-
cernible, led to a court 150 ft. square, which, from the rubbish and remains of subter-
ranean apartments, it is supposed was surrounded by four oblong edifices. That on the
right is tolerably preserved, the remains of two columns being still in existence. The prin-
cipal building had a terrace, raised between three and four feet above the level of the court,
and serving as a base to the walls it surrounds. In the wall is a niche, with pillars, four or
five feet above the level of the floor. The stone lintel, over the principal door of the hall,
is in a single block, 1 2 ft. long and 3 ft. deep. The excavation is reached by a very wide
staircase, and is in the form of a cross, supported by columns. The two portions of it,
which intersect each other at right angles, are each 82 ft. long by 25 ft. wide. The inner
court is surrounded by three small apartments, having no communication with the
fourth, which is behind the niche. The interiors of the apartments are decorated with
paintings of weapons, sacrifices, and trophies. Of windows there are no traces. Humboldt
was struck with the resemblance of some of the ornaments to those on the Etruscan vases
of Lower Italy. In the neighbourhood of these ruins are the remains of a large pyramid,
and other buildings.
116. In the intendency of Sonora, which lies north-west of the city of Mexico, and in
the Gulf of California, on the banks of the Rio Gila, are some remarkable ruins, known by
the name of the Casa Grande. They stand in the middle of the vestiges of an ancient Aztec
city. The sides are in the direction of the four cardinal points, and are 445 ft. from north
E
50 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
to south, and 276 ft. from east to west. The materials are unburned brick, symmetrically
arranged, but unequal in size. The walls are 4 ft. in thickness. The building was of
three stories. The principal edifice was surrounded by a wall with towers in it at intervals.
From vestiges which appear, it is supposed the town was supplied with the water of the
Rio Gila, by an artificial canal. The plain in the neighbourhood is covered with broken
earthen pottery painted in white, red, and blue colours.
117. The capital of Mexico, reconstructed by the Spaniards, is undoubtedly one of the
finest cities ever built by Europeans in either hemisphere. Perhaps there scarcely exists a
city of the same extent which, for the uniform level of the grouud on which it stands, for
the regularity and breadth of the streets, and the extent of its great square, can be compared
to the capital of New Spain. The architecture is pleasing. Ornament is sparingly applied
to it ; and the sorts of stone employed, which are a porous amygdaloid called tetz&ntH, and
a porphyry of vitreous feld-spath, without any quartz, give to the Mexican buildings an air
of solidity, and sometimes even of magnificence. The wooden balconies and galleries which
disfigure the European cities in both the Indies are discarded. The balustrades and gates
are all of Biscay iron ornamented with bronze ; and the houses, instead of roofs, have terraces,
like those in Italy and other southern countries. It must, however, be admitted, notwith-
standing the progress of the arts there during the last thirty years, that it is less from the
grandeur and beauty of the edifices, than from the breadth and straightness of the streets,
and their uniform regularity and extent, that Mexico commands the admiration of Eu-
ropeans.
SECT. X.
ARABIAN, MORESQUE, OR SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE.
118. Before the appearance of Mahomet, in the seventh century, and the consequent
establishment of Islamism, the Arabians were by no means celebrated for their skill in
architecture. The beautiful country of Happy Yemen, wherein were seated the most
ancient and populous of the forty-two cities of Arabia enumerated by Abulfeda, does
not appear to have produced what might have been expected from the neighbours of the
Egyptians, Syrians, Chaldeans, and Persians. The arts of the surrounding nations seem
to have been lost upon them. Though a part of their time and industry was devoted to
the management of their cattle, still they were collected into towns, and were employed in
the labours of trade and agriculture. The towers of Saana, compared by Abulfeda to
Damascus, and the marvellous reservoir of Merab, were constructed by the kings of the
Homerites, who, after a sway of two thousand years, became extinguished in 502. The
latter, the Meriaba, mentioned by Pliny as having been destroyed by the legions of Au-
gustus, was six miles in circumference, and had not revived in the fourteenth century.
" But," says Gibbon, " the profane lustre of these was eclipsed by the prophetic glories of
Medina and Mecca." Of the ancient architecture of Arabia there are so few examples
remaining, that no satisfactory account can be given of it. Excavations, still seen in rocks,
are said to be the houses of the people called Thamud ; but the Caaba of Mecca is the
only one of the seven temples in which the Arabians worshipped their idols now in
existence. It is a quadrangular building, about 36 ft. long, 34 ft. broad, and about
40 ft. high. It is lighted by a door on the east side, and by a window, and the roof is
supported by three octangular pillars. Since its adoption by Mahomet, it has been enclosed
by the caliphs with a quadrangle, round which are porticoes and apartments for the pil-
grims resorting to it. Here were the tombs of the eighty descendants of Mahomet and of
his wife ; but, in 1803, they were destroyed by the Wahabees, who, however, respected
and spared the Caaba and its enclosures.
119. The extraordinary conquests from the Indus to the Nile, under Omar, the second
caliph, who, after a reign of ten years, died in A. n. 644, brought the victorious Moslems in
contact with nations then much more civilised than themselves. As their empire extended,
their love for the arts and sciences increased. The first mosque built out of the limits of
Arabia is supposed to be that which was founded by Omar on the site of the ancient
temple at Jerusalem. Under the dynasty of the Ommiades, of which race Omar was a
member, the cultivation of architecture was carried on with success. The seat of the
empire was removed to Damascus, which was considerably enlarged and improved. Among
its numerous splendid buildings was the celebrated mosque founded by Alwalid II. It was
he who introduced the lofty minaret, which, though an innovation at the time, seems, in later
years, to have been as necessary a portion of the mosque as the main body of it. This
caliph made considerable additions to the mosque at Medina, as he also did to that which
had been built by Omar on the site of the Temple of Solomon, above mentioned. His
generals and governors of provinces seem to have been equally zealous in the cause of art
and the prophet ; witness the mosque built by one of the former on taking Samarcand, and
CHAP. II. ARABIAN OR SARACENIC. 51
the universal improvement in the provinces under the sway of the latter. Great as were
the works just mentioned, the removal of the seat of the empire to the western frontier of
Persia, by the second caliph of the dynasty of the Abassides, gave a lustre to Arabian
architecture which almost surpasses belief. Almansor, the brother and successor of Saffah,
laid the foundations of Bagdad in the year 145 from the Hejira (A. n. 762), a city which
remained the imperial seat of his posterity during a period of five hundred years. The
chosen spot is on the eastern bank of the Tigris, about fifteen miles above Modain ; the
double wall was of a circular form ; " and such," says Gibbon, " was the rapid increase of a
capital, now dwindled to a provincial town, that the funeral of a popular saint might be
attended by eight hundred thousand men and sixty thousand women of Bagdad and the
adjacent villages." The magnificence displayed in the palace of the caliph could only be
exceeded by that of the Persian kings ; but the pious and charitable foundation of cisterns
and caravanseras along a measured road of seven hundred miles, has never been equalled.
1 20. About A. D. 660-5, the prudence of the victorious general Akbah had led him to
the purpose of founding an Arabian colony in the heart of Africa ; and of forming a
citadel that might secure, against the accidents of war, the wealth and families of the
Saracens. With this view, under the modest title of a caravan station, he planted the colony
of Cairoan, in the fiftieth year of the Hejira. " When," observes Gibbon, " the wild beasts
and serpents were extirpated, when the forest, or rather wilderness, was cleared, the vestiges
of a Roman town were discovered in a sandy plain : the vegetable food of Cairoan is
brought from afar ; and the scarcity of springs constrains the inhabitants to collect, in cis-
terns and reservoirs, a precarious supply of rain water. These obstacles were subdued by
the industry of Akbah ; he traced a circumference of three thousand and six hundred paces,
which he encompassed with a brick wall ; in the space of five years the governor's palace
was surrounded with a sufficient number of private habitations ; a spacious mosque was
supported by five hundred columns of granite, porphyry, and Numidian marble."
121. "In the West, the Ommiades of Spain," says the same author, "supported with
equal pomp the title of Commander of the Faithful. Three miles from Cordova, in honour
of his faithful Sultana, the third and greatest of the Abdalrahmans constructed the city,
palace, and gardens of Zehra. Twenty- five years, and above three millions sterling, were
employed by the founder : his liberal taste invited the artists of Constantinople, the most
skilful sculptors and architects of the age ; and the buildings were sustained by twelve
hundred columns of Spanish and African, of Greek and Italian marble. The hall of
audience was incrusted with gold and pearls, and a great bason in the centre was sur-
rounded with the curious and costly figures of birds and quadrupeds." The streets and
houses at this place are hollowed out of the rock, which stands 1200 feet above them.
122. Whether we contemplate the materials furnished by Babylon and its neighbour-
hood, the dismantled towns of Syria, or the abundant ruins of Egypt, and from Tripoli to the
Atlantic, it is curious, as the historian of the western Arabs has remarked, to observe that
no people constructed, without recourse to the quarry, so many magnificent edifices. In
Spain, this was most remarkably the case, whereof the reader will be convinced by reference
to Murphy's Arabian Antiquities, and Laborde's Voyage Pittoresque de VEspagne.
123. From the latter half of the eighth century to nearly the middle of the ninth, the
progress of the Arabians in the sciences was wonderful. Their merit, however, in the art
which it is our province to investigate, was of a class inferior to that of the people who
invented and carried into execution, though later, the principles which regulated the stu-
pendous monuments of Gothic architecture in Europe. They certainly understood the
science of architecture ; and works on it were written for the benefit of those whose occu-
pations led them to take an interest in the art.
124. We regret that our limits do not permit us to dwell on the progress in the sciences
made by the Arabians, though some of them are intimately connected with our subject.
But the information we omit will be much more satisfactorily obtained by the reader con-
sulting the pages of the historian of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire. Our
purpose is now to present a concise view of the architecture of the Arabians from Laborde's
Voyage Pittoresque de VEspagne (vol. ii. part 1 . xliii. et seq. ) ; observing, by the way, that,
from our own study of the subject, we are inclined fully to adopt it. In Spain there
is a sufficient number of monuments of architecture to class them chronologically, and to
assign an epoch to the different styles they exhibit. Though the species does not resemble
that which has been denominated Gothic, which is clearly not an imitation, the one and the
other sprung from the same source. The point of departure was the architecture of
Byzantium, in which city, after the fall of Italy, a totally new style arose, whose develop-
ment in different modes was the basis of all modern architecture. As though the Coliseum
had furnished the hint, the immense edifices, in the style of the period, were constructed
with a multiplicity of stories, — they were heavy without, though lightly and richly 'deco-
rated within ; the artists employed in their erection seeming to aim at a transference to
the architecture and sculpture on which they were engaged of the oriental profusion of
ornament visible in the stuffs of India. This Byzantine school produced the Lombard and
E 2
52
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
Saxon styles in the North, on which we shall enlarge in the section on Gothic architecture ;
and, in the South, it produced the Arabian, Saracenic, or Moresque style, by whichever name
the reader may choose to distinguish it. Both were strongly impregnated with the vices
and defects into which the Roman architecture of the period had fallen. For the sake of
illustrating what we mean, we refer, as examples, to the Baths of Dioclesian, to that
emperor's palace at Salona, and to the buildings of Justinian and Theodosius, — from all
which may be learned the abuses and incongruities which attended the fall, not only of
architecture, but of all the other arts. We find in them arches springing from capitals,
columns without entablatures, and even zigzag ornaments. But, with all this perversion
of taste, the general form of the plans of the edifices altered not : that of the temples
more particularly continued unchanged. Some great convulsion was necessary before
they could undergo alteration, and such was the introduction of Christianity. Thus, says
Saint Isidore, the basilica suffered transformation into the Christian church : — " Ba-
silicas olim negotiis plenae, nunc votis pro salute susceptis." Of this, in a succeeding
page, we shall have more to say. But the change was not confined to the basilica ; the
palace and domestic dwelling equally partook of the alteration of wants. The Romans,
whilst masters of the world, were careless in protecting their cities by walls. Defence was
only necessary on their frontiers ; and there, walls and towers were constructed, from which
was the first hint for the castle, of which the Roman villa, fortified, is the type. When,
however, Italy was invaded, the fate of war soon caused exterior decoration to be sacrificed
to internal comfort and luxury ; and even Rome, under Belisarius, was surrounded by w?lls
and towers. The people, whose prowess made these precautions necessary, soon found the
convenience of adopting similar habits and buildings.
125. The Arabians, whose wandering life could scarcely be imagined capable of such a
change, ultimately established themselves in Roman castles, and turned the Christian
churches, which, at the period, were extremely numerous, into mosques. For some time,
the architecture of the Goths, of the Arabians or Moors, was, as respects plan, the same ;
not less so was the character of the ornaments employed by both nations ; but it was not
long before these diverged into styles which possessed each its peculiar beauties. The
Christians soon used the pointed arch ; and the style they adopted became slender and
tall, whilst that of the Moslems, from the nature of the climate and their peculiar habits,
was deficient in elevation, though in the end it acquired a lightness and elegance which it
did not at its origin possess. But it is proper, here, to impress on the mind of the reader
that Gothic and Arabian architecture have nothing in common between them, except their
origin from a common source. It is an error to confound them, or to suppose that the
pointed arch is found in any strictly Arabian edifices. That, as far as we can ascertain, did
not exist before the eleventh century. It seems to have been a development in the parts of
a style which, as it passed into more northern latitudes, became more acute in the roofs,
from the necessity of discharging the rain and snow with greater facility. This pointed
style spread itself over some parts of India ; but, there, none of the examples are older than
the fourteenth or fifteenth century. Except in ornamental detail, whereof we append two
specimens (figs. 80, 81.) from the Alhambra, the Arabs were not inventive. It is not
FIR. 80.
PAVEMENT, AMIAMBRA.
CHAP. II.
ARABIAN OR SARACENIC.
unlikely that their skill in geometry greatly assisted them in the extraordinary combination
of lines to be found in their decorations, which nothing can surpass ;
nor was it till the time of the Abassides that the Arabians became
fully acquainted with what had been done by the Greeks. This
knowledge was not confined to them, for there is abundant proof,
1. That all the modern arts, as well of the North, as of the West
and South, had their origin from the Greek empire at Constantinople,
which at that period gave the fashion in them, as did Italy five cen-
turies afterwards. 2. That the plans of churches and mosques are
traceable to that of the ancient basilica, as in the citadels of the
middle ages, and the palaces of the Greek emperors, are to be found
the types of the Gothic castle and of the Moresque alcazar. 3. That
the Gothic and Saracenic styles attained their several perfection in very
"" different manners as to the details of their distribution and ornament,
and acquired peculiar characters, which in both may be divided into three periods, the last in
each being lost in the change that took place in Italy on the revival of the arts. The
periods of the Gothic will be noticed under the proper section.
126. The first period in the history of Moresque architecture is from the foundation of
Islamism to the ninth century, of which the finest example was the Mosque of Cordova in
Spain. This was commenced in 770 by Abderahman, and finished by his son and successor,
Hisham. Its plan is a parallelogram, whose longest side is 620 ft. by 440, formed by a wall
and counterforts, both of which are embattled. The height of the wall varies from 35 to
60 ft. , and its thickness is 8 ft. The whole of the quadrangular space is internally divided
into two parts, viz. a court of 210 ft. in depth, the mosque itself covering the remainder of
the area. The mosque consists of nineteen naves (of a portion of one whereof ./fy. 82. is a
diagram) formed by seventeen ranks of columns, and a wall pierced
with arches, from south to north, and thirty-two narrower naves from
east to west. Each of these naves is about 1 6 ft. wide from north to
south, and about 400 ft. long, their width in the opposite direction
being less. Thus the intersection of the naves with each other
produces 850 columns, which, with fifty-two columns in the court,
form a total of upwards of 900 columns. They are about 18 in. in
diameter, the mean height of them is about 1 5 ft., and they are covered
with a species of Corinthian and Composite capital, of which there
are many varieties. The columns have neither socle nor base, and are
connected by arches from one to another. The ceilings are of wood,
painted, each range forming, on the outside, a small roof, separated from
v\g. 82. MOSQUE AT CORDOVA. tnose adjoining by a gutter. The variety of the marbles of the columns
produces an effect of richness which all agree is very striking. They were most probably
procured from the Roman ruins of the city. It is impossible to pass over the description
of this mosque without calling to mind the resemblance it bears in its arrangement to the
basilicas at Rome. The reader who has seen St. Agnese and St. Paolo fuori le mura, we
are sure, will think with us. After the conquest of Cordova in 1 236, this mosque was
converted into a cathedral. In 1528, it was much disfigured by modern erections, which
were necessary for better adapting it to the service of the Christian religion. These,
however, have not so far ruined its ancient effect as to prevent an idea being formed of it
when in its splendour. The decorations throughout are in stucco, painted of various colours,
decorated with legends, and occasionally gilt like the churches of the Lower Empire.
127. In the second period, the style greatly improved in elegance. It lasted till the close
of the thirteenth century, just before which time was founded the royal palace and fortress
of the Alhambra, at Granada (fig. 83.), perhaps the most perfect model of pure Arabian
architecture that has existed. During this period, no traces of the Byzantine style are to be
found. An exuberance of well-tempered ornament is seen in their edifices, whose distribution
and luxury manifest the highest degree of refinement. Speaking of the interior of the building
above mentioned, M. de Laborde says, that it exhibits " tout ce que la volupte, la grace,
1'industrie peuvent reunir de plus agre"able et de plus parfait." After passing the principal
entrance, you arrive at two oblong courts ; one whereof, celebrated in Arabian history, called
the Court of the Lions, is in fig. 84. represented on the following page. This court is
100 ft. long and 50 ft. broad, having 128 columns of white marble. Round these two courts,
on the ground floor, are disposed the apartments of the palace. Those for state look out
towards the country ; the rest, cooler and more retired, have openings for light under the
interior porticoes. The whole is on one plane, the walls being placed so as exactly to suit
the plateau of the rock ; its entire length is about 2300 ft., and breadth 600ft. The doors
are few and large, and the windows, except on the side where the landscape is most magni-
ficent, are chiefly towards the interior. In one of the apartments, the Arabian architect
has, in an inscription, given his reason for this adoption, in the following terms : — " My
windows admit the light, and exclude the view of external objects, lest the beauties of
E 3
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
nature should divert your attention from the beauties of my work." The walls are covered
with arabesques, apparently cast in moulds, and afterwards joined together. The orna-
RStin&yifi
Fig. 8J.
ments are in colours of gold, pink, light blue, and a dusky purple, the first colour being
nearest the eye, and the last furthest from it ; the general surface, however, is white. The
_ walls, to the height of four feet, were
lined with variously figured and coloured
porcelain mosaics, as were the floors. The
Arabs of the Spanish caliphate appear
to have known some mode of preventing
the decay of paint and timber, for the
paintings, in which the medium for the
colour is not oil, retain the original fresh-
ness of their colours, and the woodwork
of the ceilings presents no symptoms of
decomposition. It has been conjectured
that the soundness of the wood through-
out has arisen from the trees being lanced
or drained of their sap at the time of felling ; but it may be, that the coating of paint has had
some effect in producing the result. Description conveys no notion of this extraordinary
edifice : the reader who wishes to obtain one must refer to Murphy's work, already
mentioned.
1 28. The third period of Arabian architecture is from the end of the thirteenth century to
the decline of the Saracen power in Spain. During a portion of this period, it was used by
the Spaniards themselves, and like the Gothic, in the northern and middle parts of Europe,
was engrafted on the style which crept from Italy into all countries till the Renaissance.
During this period were built the castles of Benavento, Penafiel, and Tordesillas ; and the
alcazars of Segovia and Seville. The plans continued much the same ; but Greek orna-
ments began to appear, with Moresque arches on Corinthian columns. At this time, also,
representations of the human figure are to be seen, which, by the laws of Mahomet, were
strictly forbidden. There was a charm about this architecture which makes one almost
regret that reason and advance in civilisation have extinguished it.
129. We are not to look to the works of the Arabians for the real grandeur which is exhi-
bited in the works of Egypt, Greece, or Rome. Brick was the material most used. When
stone was employed, it was covered with a coating of stucco. In their constructive com-
binations there is nothing to surprise. The domes which crown their apartments are
neither lofty nor large in diameter, neither do they exhibit extraordinary mechanical skill.
The Arabian architects seem to have been unacquainted with the science of raising vaults
on lofty piers. In the specimen cited at Cordova, the span, from pier to pier is less than
20 ft., which would not have required much skill to vault, yet we find the ceilings of
timber. The use of orders was unknown to them ; the antique columns which they intro-
duced were employed as they found them, or imitations of them, without an acquaintance
with the types from which they were derived, with their principles or proportions. In truth,
CHAP. II.
ARABIAN OR SARACENIC.
55
XABIAN ARCHES.
Fi«. SO
thrust at the abutments.
r\
their columns are posts. We do not find, in the forms of Arabian art, that character of
originality which can be traced from local causes. The Arabians had spread themselves
out in every direction, far from their own country, in which they had never cultivated the
arts ; hence their architecture was founded upon the models before them, which the
Byzantine school supplied. Of the forms of their arches,
some whereof are here exhibited (fig- 85.), the most favourite
seems to have been the horse-shoe form. They may be
ranged into two classes, — that just named, and the other, that
wherein the curve is of contrary flexure, and described from
several centres. Both classes are vicious in respect of con-
struction, from the impossibility of gaining resistance to
In masonry, such arches could not be executed on a large scale.
In brick arches, however, the surface of the cement is so increased, that if it be good, and great
care be used in not removing the centres till the cement is set, great variety of form in them
may be hazarded. If the pleasure — perhaps we may say sensuality — of the eye is alone to be
consulted, the Arabians have surpassed all other nations in their architecture. The exquisite
lines on which their decorations are based, the fantasticness of their forms, to which colour was
most tastefully superadded, are highly seductive. Their works have the air of fairy enchant-
ment, and are only to be compared to that imagination with which the oriental poetry
abounds. The variety and profusion wherewith they employed ornament impart to the
interior masses of their apartments the appearance of a congeries of painting, incrustation,
mosaic, gilding, and foliage ; and this was probably much augmented by the Mahometan
law, which excluded the representation of the human figure. If a reason be unnecessary
for the admission of ornament, nothing could be more satisfactory than the splendour and
brilliancy that resulted from their combinations. One of their practices, that of introducing
light into their apartments by means of openings in the form of stars, has a magical effect.
130. We have principally confined ourselves, in the foregoing remarks, to the architecture
of the Arabians as it is
found in Spain, which, it
is proper to observe, is
only a class of the edifices
in the style. There is so
close a resemblance be-
ll tween the buildings of
ir J-+ •—**—•+*• that country and those of
other places that were,
till lately, under the
dominion of the Moors,
that, allowing only for difference of climate, we might have left
the subject without further illustration, but that we think the re-
presentation in figs. 86. and 87. of a Turkish house at Algiers,
which we have extracted from Durand's Parallele des Edifices, may
give a better idea of Arabian architecture than a host of words.
131. In Mecca, the city of the Prophet, the houses are of stone,
and three or four stories in height. The material employed in-
ATAKHKM. dicates solidity of construction. The streets are regular. The
leading features are — the balconies covered with blinds ; fronts of the houses much orna-
mented ; doors, with steps and small seats on both sides ; roofs terraced, with very
high parapets, opened at intervals by a railing formed of brick, in which holes are left
for the circulation of the air, at the same time giving an ornamental appearance to the front ;
staircases narrow and inconvenient ; rooms of good dimensions and well-proportioned,
having, besides the principal windows, an upper tier. Damascus, of which a slight view
(Jig. 88.) is annexed, has been described as resembling a large camp of conical tents, which,
on a nearer approach, are found to be small cupolas to the houses. Brick, sun-dried, is the
principal material, and the forms of the roofs mentioned are absolutely necessary to protect
against the winter rains. Streets generally narrow, houses well supplied with fountains,
and containing a large number of houses that may be ranked as palaces. Mosques, many
in number, but presenting none that are very remarkable. The bazaars and baths of con-
siderable size and splendour. In Bagdad, there are many large squares. The gates erected
by the caliphs are still in existence, and are fine specimens of Arabian art. Its walls of
mud are 25 ft. in height, but within them are ramparts, carried on arches. In Bussorah,
the most remarkable feature is the mode in which they construct their arches, which is
effected without centres.
132. We do not think it necessary to detain the reader on the architecture of Moorish
or Western Arabia. As in the eastern parts of the ancient empire, the houses usually
consist of a court, whereof some or all of its sides are surrounded by galleries. Narrow
rooms run generally parallel with the gallery, usually without any opening but the door
E 4
56
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
opening on to the gallery. Roofs are flat or terraced. Walls variously built, often of lime,
plaster, and stones, carried up in a sort of casing, which is removed when the work is set.
From want of good timber, the rooms are narrow. The mosques are by no means worthy
of notice. Fez, an ancient Arabian city, contains some lofty and spacious houses. Its
streets are narrow, and on their first floors have projections which much interrupt the light.
In the centre of each house is an open quadrangle, surrounded by a gallery, communicating
with a staircase. Into this gallery the doors of the apartments open. The ceilings are
lofty, the floors of brick. All the principal houses are supplied with cisterns in the lower
parts, for furnishing a supply to the baths, a luxury with which also every mosque is pro-
vided. In this town there are nearly two hundred caravanseras or inns, three stories high,
in each of whose apartments, varying from fifty to one hundred, water is laid on for ablu-
tion. The shops, as in Cairo, are very small ; so much so, that the owner can reach all the
articles he deals in without changing his posture. In Tripoli, the houses rarely exceed one
story in height ; but we must be content with observing that the character is still the same.
" Nee facies omnibus una, nee di versa tamen." Though the late Sultan built a new palace
in the Italian style at Constantinople, the Moslems will not easily relinquish a style inti-
CK TO A RBCKPT10N ROOM OF THE SEP
mately allied to their habits and religion, a style whereof ./fy. 89. will convey some idea to
the reader. He is also referred to figs. 31, 32, and 33., as examples of the same style in
Persia.
CHAP. II.
GRECIAN.
57
Fig. 00.
SECT. XI.
GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE.
133. The architecture of Greece is identical with columnar architecture. Writers on
the subject have so invariably treated the hut as the type on which it is formed, that, though
we are not thoroughly satisfied of the theory being correct, it would be difficult to wander
from the path they have trodden. In the section on Egyptian architecture, we have alluded
to the tombs at Beni-hassan, and we here present a representation of a portion of them
from a sketch with which we were favoured many years since by Mr., now Sir Charles,
Barry (fig. 90.). The reader will perceive
in it the appearance of the Doric column
almost in its purity. Wilkinson ( Manners
and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians) is
of opinion that the date of these tombs is
1740 B. c., that is, in the time of the first
Osirtasen, an antiquity which can be as-
signed to no example in Greece. These
tombs are excavated in a rock, a short dis-
tance from the Nile, on its right bank, about
forty-eight French leagues south of Cairo.
Two of them have architectural fronts like
the above plate. The columns are five
diameters and a half in height. The num-
ber of the flutes, which are shallow, is 20,
and the capital consists of a simple abacus.
There are no indications of a base or plinth.
Above the architrave, which is plain, there is a projecting ledge of the rock, somewhat re-
sembling a cornice, whose soffit is sculptured, apparently in imitation of a series of reeds, laid
transversely and horizontally. There certainly does, in this, appear some reference to
imitation of a hut, and the refinement of the Greeks, in after ages, may have so ex-
tended the analogy as in the end to account for all parts of the entablature. The tra-
dition doubtless existed long before Vitruvius wrote, who gives us nothing more than the
belief of the architects of his time. The point is not, at this time, likely to be answered
satisfactorily ; if it could, it might be important, as leading to the solution of some points
of detail, which limit the propriety or impropriety of certain forms in particular situations.
Having thus cautioned the reader against implicit faith in the system we are about to
develope, we shall preface it by the opinion, on this subject, of M. Quatremere de Quincy,
an authority of great value in everything that relates to the art. Carpentry, says that
writer, is incontestably the model upon which Greek architecture is founded ; and of the
three models which nature has supplied to the art, this is, beyond doubt, the finest and most
perfect of all. And again, he observes, whoever bestoAvs his attention on the subject, will
easily perceive that, by the nature of it, it includes all those parts that are effective for
utility and beauty, and that the simplest wooden hut has in it the germ of the most mag-
nificent palace.
134. We must here premise that this section is strictly confined to the architecture of
Greece and its colonies. Much confusion has arisen from the want of strict limits to the
term Grecian Architecture, one which has been indiscriminately applied to all buildings in
which the orders appear. The orders were altered in their profiles, proportions, and details
by the Romans ; and though between them and those of the Greeks there is a general resem-
blance, and their members are generally similar, yet, on a minute examination, great differ-
ence will be found. In the former, for instance, the contour of every moulding is a portion
of a circle ; in the latter, the contours of the mouldings are portions of conic sections. In
Roman architecture, we find the dome, which in Greek architecture never occurs. In the
latter, the arch is never seen ; in the former, it is often an important feature. Indeed, the
columnar style, as used by the Greeks, rendered arches unnecessary ; hence, in all imitation
of that style, its introduction produces a discord which no skill can render agreeable to the
educated eye. Attempts have been made by the modern German architects to introduce
the use of the arch with Greek forms ; but they have been all signal failures, and that
because it is incapable of amalgamation with the solemn majesty and purity of Greek com-
position.. Before such blending can be accomplished with success, the nature of pure Greek
architecture must be changed.
1 35. Following, then, the authors, ancient and modern, on the origin of the art, we now
proceed to a development of its origin. The first trees or posts which were fixed in the
earth for supporting a cover against the elements, were the origin of the isolated columns
which afterwards became the supports of porticoes in temples. Diminishing in diameter
58
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
as they rose in height, the tree indicated the diminution of the column. No type, however,
of base or pedestal is found in trees : hence the ancient Doric is without base. This practice,
however, from the premature decay of wood standing immediately on the ground, caused the
intervention of a step to receive it, and to protect the lower surface from the damp.
Scamozzi imagines that the mouldings at the bases and capitals of columns had their origin
in cinctures of iron, to prevent the splitting of the timber from the superincumbent weight.
Others, however, are of opinion that the former were used merely to elevate the shafts
above the dampness of the earth, and thereby prevent rot. In the capital, it seems natural
that its upper surface should be increased as much as possible, in order to procure a greater
area for the reception of the architrave. This member, or chief beam, whose name
bespeaks its origin, was placed horizontally on the tops of the columns, being destined, in
effect, to carry the covering of the entire building. Upon the architrave lay the joists of
the ceiling, their height being occupied by the member which is called the frieze. In the
Doric order, the ends of these joists were called triglyphs, from their being sculptured with
two whole and two half glyphs or channels. These, however, in the other orders in strictly
Greek architecture, do not appear in the imitation of the type, though in Roman architec-
ture it is sometimes otherwise, as in the upper order of the Coliseum at Rome, where
they are sculptured into consoles. The space between the triglyphs was, at an early period
of the art, left open, as we learn from a passage in the Iphigenia of Euripides, where
Pvlades advises Orestes to slip through one of the metopae, in order to gain admission into
the temple. In after times, these intervals were filled up, and in the other orders they alto-
gether disappear, the whole length of the frieze becoming one plain surface. The inclined
rafters of the roof projected over the faces of the walls of the building, so as to deliver the
rain clear of them. Their ends were the origin of the mutule or modillion, whereof the
former had its under side inclined, as, among many other examples, in the Parthenon at
Athens. The elevation, or as it is technically termed, pitch of the pediment, followed from
the inclined sides of the roof, whose inclination depended on the nature of the climate.
Thus authors trace from the hut the origin of the different members of architecture which
a consideration of the annexed diagram will make more intelligible to the reader. Figs.
91. and 92. exhibit the parts of a roof in elevation and section; a a are the architraves or
Fig. 91.
BI.SVAT10K.
trabes; bb the ridge piece or columen; c the king-post or columua of a roof; dd the tie-beam
or transtrum ; e the strut or capreolus; ff the rafters or cantherii ; gggg the purlines or
templa ; h h the common rafters or asserts. The form of the pediment became an object of
so much admiration, and so essential a part of the temple, that Cicero says, if a temple were
to be built in heaven, where no rain falls, it would be necessary to bestow one upon it.
" Capitolii fastigium illud, et caeterarum aedium, non venustas sed necessitas ipsa fabrieata
est. Nain cum esset habita ratio quemadmodum ex utraque parte tecti aqua delaberetur
utilitatem templi fastigii dignitas consecuta est, ut etiam si in ccelo capitolium statueretur
ubi imber esse non potest, nullam sine fastigio dignitatem habiturum fuisse videatur."
(De Oratore, lib. iii. ) The inclination of the pediment will be hereafter discussed, when
we speak on the article Roof, in another part of the work. Under the section on Cyclopean
Architecture, mention has been made of the works at Tiryns and Mycene. We do not think
there is sufficient chain of evidence to connect those ruins with the later Grecian works,
though it must be confessed that the temples of Sicily, especially at Selinus, and perhaps
those at Paestum, are connecting links. Perhaps the sculptures at Selinus might be pro-
perly called Cyclopean sculpture, in its more refined state.
136. Architecture, as well as all the other arts, could only be carried to perfection by
slow steps. Stone could not have been used in building until the mechanical arts had been
well known. It is curious that Pliny gives the Greeks credit only for caves as their ori-
ginal dwellings, from which they advanced to simple huts, built of earth and clay. His words
are (lib. vii. s. 57. ), " Laterarias ac donios constituerunt priini Euryalus et Hyperbias
CHAP. II. GRECIAN. 59
fratres Athenis : antea specus erant pro domibus." This, perhaps, is no more than a tradi-
tionary fable. Fables of this kind, however, often have some foundation in fact. We are
not always inclined to discard them, for we have little more than tradition for the early ex-
cellence of the Athenians in civilisation, a nation among the Greeks who first became a
body politic, and whose vanity caused them to assume the name of Avroxdoves, from a
belief, almost sanctioned by Plato, that their ancestors actually rose from the earth. How
strong the prevailing opinion was of the original superiority of the Athenians, may be
gathered from Cicero, in his oration for Flaccus. " Adsunt," he says, " Athenienses, unde
humanitas, doctrina, religio, fruges, jura, leges ortse, atque in omnes terras distributee
putantur : de quorum urbis possessione, propter pulchritudinem, etiam inter deos certamen
fuisse proditum est : qua? vetustate ea est, ut ipsa ex sese suos cives genuisse dicatur." But
we shall not attempt, here, an early history of Greece ; for which this is not the place, and, if
accomplished, would little answer our views. The Greeks exhibited but little skill in their
earliest edifices. The temple of Delphi, mentioned by Homer, in the first book of the
Iliad (v. 404. et seq. ), which Bryant supposes to have been originally founded by Egyptians,
was, as we learn from Pausanias (Photic, c. 5.), a mere hut, covered with laurel branches.
Even the celebrated Areopagus was but a sorry structure, as we learn from Vitruvius
(lib. ii. cap. 1.), who judged of it from its ruins. The fabulous Cadmus — for we cannot
help following Jacob Bryant in his conjectures upon this personage — has been supposed
to have existed about 1519 B. c., to have instructed the Greeks in the worship of the
Egyptian and Phoenician deities, and to have taught them various useful arts ; but this
carries us so far back, that we should be retracing our steps into Cyclopean architecture, if
we were here to dwell on the period ; and we must leave the reader — as is our own, and as
we apprehend will be the case with all who may succeed us — to grope his way out of the
darkness as best he may.
137. The earliest writer from whom gleanings can be made to elucidate the architecture
of Greece is the father of poets. To Homer we are obliged to recur, little as we approve
of the architectural graphic flights in which the poet is wont generally to indulge. Though
the Odyssey may not be of so high antiquity as the Iliad, it is, from internal evidence, of
great age, for the poem exhibits a government strictly patriarchal, and it sufficiently proves
that the chief buildings of the period were the palaces of princes. We may here, in
passing, observe, that in Greece, previous to Homer and Hesiod, the sculptor's art appears
to have been unknown, neither was practised the representation of Gods. The words of
Athenagoras (Leg. pro Christ, xiv. ) are — At S'eiKovfs fJ.*XPl /UTJTTCO TrAacrrtXTj, /cat ypaipiKr], /cat
avSpiavToiroiTiTiKr) ri<rav, oude fvo^i^ovro. The altar, which was merely a structure for sacred
use, was nothing more than a hearth, whereon the victim was prepared for the meal ;
and it was not till long after Homer's time that a regular priesthood appeared in Greece.
In Sparta, the kings performed the office. In Egypt, the dignity was obtained by inherit-
ance ; as was the case in other places. The Odyssey places the altar in the king's palace ;
and we may reasonably assume that the spot was occasionally, perhaps always, used as the
temple. From such premises, it is reasonable to conjecture that until the sacerdotal was
separated from the kingly office, the temple, either in Greece or elsewhere, had no existence.
It may not be without interest to collect, here, the different passages in the Odyssey, which
bear upon the nature and construction of the very earliest buildings of importance.
Between the av\r) and the Sofios there must have been a distinction. The former, from its
etymology aw, must have been a locus subdialis ; and though it is sometimes used ( Iliad, Z.
247.) for the whole palace, such is not generally its meaning in the Odyssey. The av\t] was
the place in which the female attendants of Penelope were slain by Telemachus ( Odyss. X.
446. ), by tying them up with a rope over the &o\os or ceiling. Hence we arrive at the
conclusion that this &o\os belonged to the aidov(ra or cloister, supposing, as we have done,
that the av\r) was open at top, and the aiQovcra is described (Iliad, T. 176.) as epiSowrros, that
is, sonorous or echoing, and as circumscribing the open part of the av\7]. The &oAos was
supported by Kioves, posts or columns, and in the centre of the auA?j stood the fio/j.os or altar.
If our interpretation be correct, the fj.eaoSfj.ai in this arrangement must be the spaces between
the columns or posts, or the inter col umniations, as the word is usually translated ; and the
passage in the Odyssey (T. 37.), wherein Telemachus is said to have seen the light on the
walls, becomes quite clear. The passage is as follows : < —
Eujr-/?? («,«; TOI^OI ,i«yacg4;v, xciXctt r
T£ 00X01, XOU XHH'; l/'^Otr'
There seems no doubt that the word aiQovara will bear the interpretation given, and the
arrangement is nothing more than that of the hypaethral, and even correspondent with the
Egyptian temple, particularly that of the temple at Edfou, described by Denon, and repre-
sented in his plate 34.
138. Before we quit this part of our subject, let us consider the description which
Homer ( Odyss. H. 81.) gives of the house of Alcinous as illustrative of Greek architecture.
This dwelling, which Ulysses visited, had a brazen threshold, ovSos. It was vi|/epe^rjs or
60 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
lofty-roofed. The walls were brazen on every side, from the threshold to the innermost
part. This, however, is rather poetic. The coping SpijKos was of a blue colour. The
interior doors are described as gold. The jambs of them, oTa0/xo«, were of silver on a brazen
threshold. The lintel virepOvpiov was silver, and the cornice Kopuvt] of gold. Statues of
dogs, in gold and silver, which had been curiously contrived by Vulcan himself, guarded
the portal. Thus far, making all due allowance for the poet's fancy, we gain an insight into
what was considered the value of art in his day, more dependent, it would seem, on material
than on form. Seats seemed to have been placed round the interior part of the house, on
which seats were cushions, which the women wrought. But we must return to the con-
struction of the av\T), inasmuch as in it we find considerable resemblance to the rectangular
and columnar disposition of the comparatively more recent temple.
139. It would be a hopeless task to connect the steps that intervened between the sole
use of the altar and the establishment of the temple in its perfection ; though it might, did
our limits permit the investigation, be more easy to find out the period when the regular
temple became an indispensable appendage to the religion of the country. It is closely
connected with that revolution which abolished the civil, judicial, and military offices of
kings leaving the sacerdotal office to another class of persons. Though in the palace of the
king no portion of it was appropriated to religious ceremony, the spot of the altar only
excepted, yet, as it was the depository of the furniture and utensils requisite for the rite of
sacrifice, when the palace was no more, an apartment would be wanting for them ; and this,
conjoined with other matters, may have suggested the use of the cell. Eusebius has con-
jectured that the temple originated in the reverence of the ancients for their departed
relations and friends, and that they were only stately monuments in honour of heroes, from
whom the world had received considerable benefit, as in the case of the temple of Pallas, at
Larissa, really the sepulchre of Acrisius, and the temple of Minerva Polias at Athens, which
is supposed to cover the remains of Erichthonius. The passage in Virgil (JEn. ii. v. 74.) —
tumulum antiquse Cereris, sedemque sacratam
Venimus —
is explanatory of the practice of the ancients in this respect ; and, indeed, it is well known
that sacrifices, prayers, and libations were offered at almost every tomb ; nay, the resting-
place of the dead was an asylum or sanctuary not less sacred than was, afterwards, the temple
itself. From Strabo (lib. ii. ) it is clear that the temple was not always originally a struc-
ture dedicated to a god, but that it was occasionally reared in honour of other personages.
140. Before proceeding to that which is more accurately known, it may not be unin-
structive to the reader to glance at the houses of the Greeks, as may be gathered from
passages in the Iliad and the Odyssey. We shall merely remind him that Priam's house
had fifty separate chambers, though he lived in a dwelling apart from it. These houses
were, in some parts, two stories in height, though the passages supporting that assertion
(Iliad, B. 514—16. 184.) have been pronounced of doubtful antiquity. There is, how-
ever, not the slightest doubt that the dwellings of the East consisted of more than a
single story. David wept for Absalom in the chamber over the gate (2 Sam. xviii. 33.).
The altars of Ahaz were on the terrace of the upper chamber (3 Kings, xxiii. 12.). The
summer chamber of Eglon had stairs to it, for by them Ehud escaped, after he had revenged
Israel (Judges, iii. 20. ; 1 Kings, vi. 8.). In the Septuagint, these upper stories are all repre-
sented by the word virepwov, the same employed by Homer. The Jewish law required
(Dent. xxii. 8.) the terraces on the tops of their houses to be protected by a battlement ;
and, indeed, for want of a railing ( Odyss. K. 552. et seq. ) of this sort, Elpenor, one of the
companions of Ulysses, at the palace of Circe, fell over and broke his neck. The use of
the word K\i/j.a£ in the Odyssey, connected with the words avagaivsiv and KaraSawav, and
the substantive virepwov, is of frequent occurrence : it is either a ladder or a staircase, and
which of them is unimportant ; but it clearly indicates an upper story. To a comparatively
late period, the Greek temple was of timber. Even statues of the deities were, in the
time of Xenophon, made in wood for the smaller temples (lib. iv. c. 1.), where the revenue
of them was not adequate to afford a more expensive material. But time and accidents
would scarcely permit their prolonged duration, and none survived long enough to allow of
a proper description of them reaching us. The principle of their construction necessarily
bore some relation to the materials employed, and the use of stone must have imparted new
features to them. In timber, the beam (epistylium), which was borne by the columns,
would probably extend in one piece through each face of the building. But in a stone
construction this could not take place, even had blocks of such dimensions been procurable,
and had mechanical means been at hand to place them in their proper position. From this
alone follows a diminution of spaces between the columns. The arch, be it recollected, was
unknown. It is curious to observe that the relative antiquity of the examples of Grecian
Doric may be expressed in terms of the intercolumniations; that is, the number of diame-
ters forming the intervals between the columns. There is, moreover, another point worthy
of notice, which is, that their antiquity may be also estimated by the comparison of the
heights of the columns compared with their diameters. This, however, will require
CHAP. II. GRECIAN. 61
further consideration when we come to treat of the orders : here it is noticed only inci-
dentally. Though we are not inclined to place reliance on the account given by Vitruvius
of the origin of the orders of architecture, we should scarcely be justified in its omission
here. It seems necessary to notice it in any work on architecture ; and, after remarking
that the age which that author assigns for their origin is long before Homer's time, at
which there seems no probability of their existence, from the absence of all reference to
them in his poems, we here subjoin the account of Vitruvius (lib. iv. c. 1.) : — " Dorus, son
of Hellen and the Nymph Orseis, reigned over Achaia and Peloponnesus. He built a
temple of this (the Doric) order, on a spot sacred to Juno, at Argos, an ancient city.
Many temples similar to it were afterwards raised in the other parts of Achaia, though,
at that time, its proportions were not precisely established. When the Athenians,
in a general assembly of the states of Greece, sent over into Asia, by the advice
of the Delphic oracle, thirteen colonies at the same time, they appointed a governor
over each, reserving the chief command for Ion, the son of Xuthus, and Creusa,
whom the Delphic Apollo had acknowledged as son. He led them over into Asia,
where they occupied the borders of Caria, and built the great cities of Ephesus,
Miletus, Myus (afterwards destroyed by inundation, and its sacred rites and suffrages
transferred by the lonians to the inhabitants of Miletus), Priene, Samos, Teos, Colophon,
Chios, Erythrae, Phocaea, Clazomene, Lebedos, and Melite. This last, as a punishment for
the arrogance of its citizens, was detached from the other states in the course of a war
levied on it, in a general council, and in its place, as a mark of favour towards king
Attalus and Arsinoe, the city of Smyrna was received into the number of the Ionian states.
These received the appellation of Ionian, after the Carians and Lelegas had been driven
out, from the name of Ion, the leader. In this country, allotting different sites to sacred
purposes, they erected temples, the first of which was dedicated to Apollo Panionius. It
resembled that which they had seen in Achaia, and from the species having been first used
in the cities of Doria, they gave it the name of Doric. As they wished to erect this
temple with columns, and were not acquainted with their proportions, nor the mode in
which they should be adjusted, so as to be both adapted to the reception of the superin-
cumbent weight, and to have a beautiful effect, they measured a man's height by the
length of the foot, which they found to be a sixth part thereof, and thence deduced the
proportions of their columns. Thus the Doric order borrowed its proportion, strength,
and beauty from the human figure. On similar principles, they afterwards built the temple
of Diana ; but in this, from a desire of varying the proportions, they used the female
figure as a standard, making the height of the column eight times its thickness, for the
purpose of giving it a more lofty effect. Under this new order, they placed a base as a
shoe to the foot. They also added volutes to the capital, resembling the graceful curls of
the hair, hanging therefrom, to the right and left, certain mouldings and foliage. On the
shaft, channels were sunk, bearing a resemblance to the folds of a matronal garment.
Thus were two orders invented ; one of a masculine character, without ornament, the other
of a character approaching the delicacy, decorations, and proportions of a female. The
successors of these people, improving in taste, and preferring a more slender proportion,
assigned seven diameters to the height of the Doric column, and eight and a half to the
Ionic. That species, of which the lonians were the inventors, has received the appellation
of Ionic. The third species, which is called Corinthian, resembles, in its character, the
graceful elegant appearance of a virgin, whose limbs are of a more delicate form, and
whose ornaments should be unobtrusive. The invention of the capital of this order arose
from the following circumstance. (Fig. 93.) A Corinthian virgin, who was of mar-
riageable age, fell a victim to a violent disorder : after her
interment, her nurse, collecting in a basket those articles to
which she had shown a partiality when alive, carried them
to her tomb, and placed a tile on the basket, for the longer
preservation of its contents. The basket was accidentally
placed on the root of an acanthus plant, which, pressed
by the weight, shot forth, towards spring, its stems and
large foliage, and in the course of its growth, reached the
angles of the tile, and thus formed volutes at the extremi-
ties. Callimachus, who, for his great ingenuity and taste
in sculpture, was called by the Athenians Kara-rfxvosi hap-
Fig. 93. ORIGIN or CORINTHIAN CAPITAL. pening at this time to pass by the tomb, observed the basket
and the delicacy of the foliage that surrounded it. Pleased with the form and novelty of the
combination, he took the hint for inventing these columns, using them in the country about
Corinth," &c. Now, though we regret to damage so elegant and romantic a story, we
must remind those who would willingly trust the authority we have quoted, that Vitruvius
speaks of matters which occurred so long before his time, that in such an investigation as
that before us we must have other authentication than that of the author we quote, and
most especially in the case of the Corinthian capital, whose type may be referred to in a
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK i.
vast number of the examples of Egyptian capitals, one of which, among many, is seen
mfiy. 94.
141. The progress of the art in Greece, whose inhabitants, in
the opinion of the Egyptian priests in the time of Solon, were
so ignorant of all science that they neither understood the mytho-
logy of other nations nor their own (Plato, in Timceo), cannot be
satisfactorily followed between the period assigned to the siege of
Troy and the time of Solon and Pisistratus, or about 590 B. c. But
it is, however, certain that within four centuries after Homer's time,
notwithstanding their originally coarse manners, the Grecians attained
the highest excellence in the arts. Goguet is of opinion the nurture
of the art was principally in Asia Minor, in which country, he thinks,
we must seek for the origin of the Doric and Ionic orders, whilst
in Greece Proper the advancement was slow. The Corinthian order
was, however, the last invented, and it seems generally agreed that its invention belongs to
the mother country ; but this we shall not stop to discuss here. The Temple of Jupiter,
at Olympia, one of the earliest temples of Greece (Pausanias, Eliac. Pr. c. 10.), was
was built about 630 years before the Christian era ; and after this period ware reared
temples at Samos, Priene, Ephesus, and Magnesia, and other places up to that age when,
under the administration of Pericles, the architecture of Greece attained perfection, and
the highest beauty whereof it is supposed to be susceptible, in the Parthenon (fig. 95.)
Fig. 91. no
Fig. 95.
OF THE PARTHENON.
at Athens. The date of the erection of the temple of Diana, at Ephesus, was really as
remote as that of the temple we have just mentioned. If Livy had sufficiently our confi-
dence, and we concede that other writers corroborate his statement (lib. i. c. 45.), its date
is as ancient as the time when Servius Tullius was king of Rome. Great, however, as were
the works which the Grecians executed, the mechanical powers were, if one may judge from
Tliucydides (lib. iv. ), not then compendiously applied for raising weights.
142. The origin of the Doric order is a question not easily disposed of. Many provinces
of Greece bore the name of Doria ; but a name is often the least satisfactory mode of ac-
counting for the birth of the thing which bears it. We have already attempted to account
for the parts of this order by a reference to its supposed connection with the hut. The
writer, in the Enci/clopedie Methodiqve, truly says that if the Doric had an inventor, that
inventor was a people whose wants were, for a long period, similar, and with whom a style
of building prevailed suitable to their habits and climate, though but slowly modified and
carried to perfection. At the beginning of this section, we have, however, sufficiently
spoken on this matter. But there are some peculiarities to be noticed with respect to the
Doric order, which we think will be better given here than in the third book, where we
propose to treat of the orders more fully ; and these consist in the great differences which
are found in its proportions and parts in different examples. For this purpose, several
buildings have been arranged in the following table, wherein the first column exhibits the
name of the building ; the second the height of the column, of the example as a nume-
. IT.
GRECIAN
63
rator, and its lower diameter as a denominator, both in English feet ; the third is the
quotient of the second, showing the height of the column, expressed in terms of its lower
diameter ; the fourth column shows the height of the entablature in terms of the diameter
of the column ; the fifth column gives the distance between the columns in the same
terms ; and the sixth shows the height of the capitals also in the same terms : —
Example.
Height divided
by lower Diameter
in English Feet.
Diameters
high.
Height of
Entablature
in Terms of
Diameter.
Interco-
lumniations.
Height of
Capital
in terms of
Diameter.
Temple at Corinth -
23-713 -
4-065
•
1-362
•405
5-83 —•
Hypaethral Temple at Paestum
28-950
'7-00 =
4-134
1-741
1-167
•549
Enneastyle Temple at Paestum
21-000
4-329
1-140
1-064
•500
4-85 '
Greater Hexastyle Temple at Selinus
32-678
7-49
4-361
2-200
1-490
•490 1
Temple of Minerva at Syracuse
28-665 _
6-50
4-410
•
•
•486
Octastyle Hypaethral Temple at Selinus -
48-585 _
"10-62
4-572
2-038
1-023
•450
Temple of Juno Lucina at Agrigentum
21-156
4-59
4-605
•
•570
Temple of Concord at Agrigentum
22-062
-T64- =
4-753
1-976
1-071
•487
Hexastyle Temple at Paestum
20-3S3
4-24 :
4795
1-917
1-111
•564
Temple of Jupiter Panhellenius .it Egina -
17-354
5-395
'•
1-680
•486
322
Parthenon -
34-232
6T15
5-56S
1-977
1-275
•459
Temple of Theseus at Athens
18717
3:30 !
5-669
1-964
1-250
•502
Temple of Minerva at Sunium
19-762 _
3-34
5-899
1-928
1-472
•372
Doric Portico of Augustus at Athens
26-206 _
4-33
6-042
1-724
1-046
•374
Temple of Apollo, Island of Delos -
18721 _
6-052
1-900
1-500
•555
Temple of Jupiter Nemeus -
33932
5 22"
6-515
1-560
1-348
•383
Portico of Philip of Macedon
19-330 _
6-535
1-867
2-700
•480
143. Casting our eye down the third column of the above table, we find the height of
the column in terms of its lower diameter varying from 4-065 to 6 '535. Lord Aberdeen
(Inquiry into the Principles of Beauty in Greek Architecture, 1822) seems to prefer the pro-
portion of the capital to the column, as a test for determining its comparative antiquity ;
but we are not, though it is entitled to great respect, of his opinion, preferring, as we do,
a judgment from the height as compared with the diameter to any other criterion ; although
it must be admitted that it is not an infallible one. The last columns shows what an in-
constant test the height of the capital exhibits. There is another combination, to which
reference ought to be made, — the height of the entablature, which forms the third column
of the table, in which it appears that the most massive is about one third the height of the
whole order, and the lightest is about one fourth, and that these proportions coincide with
the thickest and the thinnest columns.
144. The entasis or swelling, which the Greeks gave to their columns, and first veri-
fied by the observations of Mr. Allason, was a refinement introduced probably at a
late period, though the mere diminution of them was adopted in the earliest times.
The practice is said to have its type in the law which Nature observes in the formation
of the trunks of trees. This diminution varies, in a number of examples, from one
fifth to one third of the lower diameter ; a mean of sixteen examples gives one fourth.
The mere diminution is not, however, the matter for consideration ; but the curved
outline of the shaft, which is attributed to some refined perception of the Greeks,
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
relative to the apparent diminution of objects as their distance from the eye was increased,
which Vitruvius imagines it was the object of the entasis to correct. It cannot be denied
that in a merely conical shaft there is an appearance of concavity, for which it is difficult
to account. The following explanation of this phenomenon, if it may be so called, is
given by our esteemed and learned friend, Mr. Narrien, in the Encyc, Metropol art. Ar-
chitecture. " When," he observes, " we direct the axis of the eye to the middle of a tall
column, the organ accommodates itself to the distance of that part of the object, in order
to obtain distinctness of vision, and then the oblique pencils of light from the upper and
lower parts of the column do not so accurately converge on the retina : hence arises a
certain degree of obscurity, which always produces a perception of greater magnitude than
would be produced by the same object if seen more distinctly. The same explanation
may serve to account for the well-known fact, that the top of an undiminished pilaster
appears so much broader than the body of its shaft ; to which, in this case, may be added
some prejudice, caused by our more frequently contemplating other objects, as trees, which
taper towards their upper extremities." Connected in some measure with the same optical
deception is the rule which Vitruvius lays down (book iii. chap. 2.) for making the
columns, at the angles of buildings, thicker than those in the middle by one fiftieth part
of a diameter, — a law which we find followed out to a much greater extent in the temples
of the Parthenon and of Theseus, at Athens, where the columns at the angles exceed in
diameter the intermediate ones by one forty- fourth and one twenty-eighth respectively.
Where, however, the columns were viewed against a dark ground, some artists think f-hat a
contrary deception of the eye seems to take place.
145. In the investigation of the Doric order, among its more remarkable features are to
be noted the longitudinal striae, called flutes, into which the column is cut ; every two
whereof unite, in almost every case, in an edge. Their horizontal section varies in different
examples. In some, the flutes are formed by segments of circles ; in others, the form ap-
proaches that of an ellipsis. The number all round is usually twenty ; such being the case
at Athens ; but at Pzestum the exterior order of the great temple has twenty-four, the lower
interior order twenty, and the upper interior sixteen only. It has been strangely imagined,
by some, that these flutings, which, be it remembered, are applied to the other orders as
well as to the Doric, were provided for the reception of the spears of persons visiting the
temples. The conjecture is scarcely worth refutation, first, because no situation for the Sovpo-
SO/CTJ (place for spears) would have led to their more continual displacement from accident ;
and secondly, because of the sloping or hemispherical form in the other orders, the foot of
the spear must have immediately slid off. Their origin may probably be found in the
polygonal column, whose sides received a greater play of light by being hollowed out, — a
refinement which would not be long unperceived by the Greeks.
146. We shall now notice some of the more important Doric edifices, as connected with
the later history of the Doric order, which was that most generally used by the European
states of Greece, up to their subjugation by the Romans. The temple of Jupiter Pan-
hellenius, at Egina, is probably one of the most ancient in Greece. The story, however, of
Pausanias, that it was built by JEacus, before the war of Troy, is only useful as showing
us its high antiquity. (Fig. 96.) The proportions of its columns and entablature are to be
Fig. 96.
CHAP. II.
GRECIAN.
found in a preceding page. The sculpture with which this building was decorated is now
at Munich. Though, perhaps, not so old as the building itself, it is of an antiquity coeval
with the Persian invasion. The name of the architect of this temple was Libon, of whom
no other work is known ; its age is, perhaps, from about 600 years before Christ. The
Doric temple at Corinth, of which five columns, with their architrave, are still in existence,
is a very early specimen of Grecian architecture. The assertion that it was dedicated to
Venus is unsupported by testimony.
147. The Grecian temples in Sicily were erected at periods which it is not easy to fix ;
and with respect to them, we can only, from circumstances connected with the island, reason
on the dates to be assigned to them. The founding of the city of Selinus or Selinuns, on
the south-west coast of the island, has usually been attributed to a colony from Megara ;
but we are of opinion with the Baron Pisani (Memoria sulle Metope Selinuntine) that it
existed as a Phoenician city long previous to the settlement there by the Megaraans. The
style and forms of the sculpture of the Selinuntine temples seem to bear marks of a
remoter age than is usually allowed to them, that is, 500 years B. c. Of the means and
the circumstances under which they were raised we are ignorant ; but their ruins sufficiently
indicate the wealth and power that were employed upon them, as well as a considerably
advanced state of the art.
148. The temple of Jupiter Olympius, the largest in the island, and one of the most
stupendous monuments of antiquity, was, as we learn from Diodorus (lib. xiii. p. 82.),
never completed. The Agrigentines were occupied upon it when the city was taken by
Hamilcar, in the 93d Olympiad. Its columns were on such a scale that their flutes
were sufficiently large to receive the body of a man. The temples of Peace and of
Concord, in the few vestiges that remain of them, attest the ancient magnificence of the
city of Agrigentum, and are among the most beautiful as well as the best preserved
remains of antiquity. A Corinthian colony established itself at Syracuse, as is said, 750
B. c. ; but no details of the history of the city furnish us with the means of ascertaining
when the first temples there were erected. Its riches and magnificence were, however,
such that it soon became an object of temptation to the Carthaginians. Its temple of
Minerva is evidently of very remote antiquity.
149. The great Hypaethral temple at Paestum was probably constructed during the
period that the city was under the power of the Sybarites, who dispossessed its original
inhabitants, enjoying, for upwards of two hundred years, the fruits of their usurpation.
Marks of Greek art are visible in it, and the antiquity of the Hypasthral temple itself is
confirmed by the example. The city fell into the hands of the Lucanians about 350 years
B.C. ; after which, in about 70 years, it was a municipal town of the Roman empire. The
following is perhaps the chronological order of the principal buildings of Sicily and Magna
Graecia ; viz. Syracuse, Paestum, Selinus, Segesta, and Agrigentum.
150. The dates of the edifices at Athens are, without difficulty, accurately fixed. The
Propylaeum (figs. 97 and 98.) was commenced by Mnesicles about 437 B.C., and, at a great
Fig. 97
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
Fig. 98.
expense, was completed in five years. It is a specimen of the military architecture of the
period, and at the same time forms a fine entrance to the Acropolis of Athens. At the rear
of its Doric portico the roof of the vestibule was supported within by two rows of Ionic
columns, whose bases still remain. By the introduction of these an increased height was
obtained for the roof, the abaci of the Ionic capitals being thus brought level with the ex-
@©oooooooo©
o
Q Q
Fig 99.
,50ft
1BKON.
terior frieze of the building. The Parthenon (figs. 99. and 100.) erected a few years later,
under the superintendence of Ictinus, is well known as one of the finest remains of antiquity.
Fig. 100.
As well as the building last mentioned, it was reared at the period when Pericles had the
management of public affairs, and was without a rival in Athens. Phidias was the super-
intendent sculptor employed ; and many of the productions which decorated this magnifi-
cent edifice have doubtless become known to the reader in his visits to the British Museum,
where a large portion of them are now deposited. Nearly coeval with the Propyla?um and
Parthenon, or perhaps a little earlier, is the temple of Theseus (fig. 101.), which was, it
is supposed, erected to receive the ashes of the national hero, when removed from Scyros
to Athens. The ruins of the architectural monuments of this city attest that the boasted
power and opulence of Greece was not an idle tale. Pericles, indeed, was charged by his
enemies with having brought disgrace upon the Athenians by removing the public trea-
CHAP. If.
GRECIAN
67
sures of Greece from Delos, and lavishing them in gilding their city, and ornamenting it
with statues and temples that
cost a thousand talents, as a
proud and vain woman tricks
herself out with jewels. (Plu-
tarch's Life of Pericles.} The
temple of Minerva, at Sunium,
was probably by Ictinus ; but
one of the happiest efforts of
this architect was the temple
of Apollo Epicurius, in Arca-
dia, still nearly entire. The
peculiarities found in it we will
shortly detail. The front has
six columns, and instead of
thirteen in each flank (the usual
number) there are fifteen. In
the interior, buttresses on each
Fig. 101. TBMPLB or THESEUS. side> to the number of six, re-
turn inwards from the walls of the cell, each ending in semicircular pilasters of the Ionic order.
These seem to have been brought up for the facility of supporting the roof, which was of
stone. With the exception of the temple of Minerva at Tegea, its reputation for beauty was
such, that it surpassed, if that be a true test, all other buildings in Peloponnesus. Its situ-
ation is about three or four miles from the ruins of Phigalia, on an elevated part of Mount
Cotylus, commanding a splendid landscape, which is terminated by the sea in the distance.
151. About 370 B.C., Epaminondas restored the Messenians to independence, and built
the city of Messene. The ruins still extant prove that the art at that period had not ma-
terially declined. Its walls, in many parts, are entire, and exhibit a fine example of Grecian
military architecture in their towers and gates. At no distant time from the age in ques-
tion the portico of Philip of Macedon, at least his name is inscribed on it, shows that the
Doric order had undergone a great change in its proportions. This portico must have been
erected about 338 B.C., and after it the Ionic order seems to have been more favoured and
cultivated. The last example of the Doric is perhaps the portico of Augustus, at Athens.
152. Before proceeding to the investigation of the Ionic order, it may here, perhaps, be
as well to speak of the proportions between the length and breadth of temples, as compared
with the rules given by Vitruvius (book iv. chap. 4. ), that the length of a temple shall be
double its breadth, and the cell itself in length one fourth part more than the breadth, in-
cluding the wall in which the doors are placed. Though in the Greek examples these
proportions are approximated, an exact conformity with the rule is not observed in any. The
length, for instance, of the temple of Jupiter, at Selinus, is to the breadth as 2 -05 to 1 ; in
the temple of Theseus, as 2-3 to 1 ; and from the mean of six examples of the Doric order,
selected in Greece and Sicily, is 2'21 to 1. If the flanks be regulated in length by making
the number of intercolumniations exactly double those in front, it will be immediately seen
that the proportions of Vitruvius are obtained on a line passing through the axes of the
columns. But as in most of the Greek temples the central intercolumniation in front is
wider than the rest, the length of the temple would necessarily be less than twice the width.
In the earlier specimens of the Doric order the length is certainly, as above mentioned in
the temple of Jupiter at Selinus, very nearly in accordance with the rule ; but in order to
counteract the effect of the central intercolumniation being wider, the number of columns,
instead of intercolumniations on the flank, is made exactly double those in front. In
the later examples, however, as in the temples of Theseus and the Parthenon, and some
others, the number of intercolumniations on the flank was made double the number of
columns in the front, whence the number of columns on the flanks was double the number
of those in front and one more ; so that the proportion became nearly in the ratio of 2\3 to 1.
The simplicity which flowed from these arrangements in the Grecian temples was such
that it seems little more than arithmetical architecture, — so symmetrical that from the three
data, the diameter of the column, the width of the intercolumniation, and the number of
columns in front, all the other parts might be found.
153. The IONIC order, at first chiefly confined to the states of Asia Minor, appears to have
been coeval with the Doric order. The most ancient example of it on record is the temple
of Juno, at Samos. Herodotus (Euterpe} says, it was one of the most stupendous edifices
erected by the Greeks. In the Ionian Antiquities (2d edit. vol. i. c. 5.) is to be found an
account of its ruins. It was erected about 540 years B.C., by Rhaecus and Theodorus, two
natives of the island. The octastyle temple of Bacchus, at Teos, in whose praise Vitruvius
was lavish, shows by its ruins that the old master of our art was well capable of appre-
ciating the beauties of an edifice. Hermogenes, of Alabanda, was its architect, and he
seems to have been the promoter of a great change in the taste of his day. Vitruvius
F 2
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
(lib. iv. c. 3.) tells us that Hermogenes, " after having prepared a large quantity of marble
for a Doric temple, changed his mind, and, with the materials collected, made it of the
Ionic order, in honour of Bacchus." We are bound, however, to observe upon this, that
the story is not confirmed by any other writer. It is probable that this splendid building
was raised after the Persian invasion ; for, according to Strabo (lib. xiv. ), all the sacred
edifices of the Ionian cities, Ephesus excepted, were destroyed by Xerxes. Besides this
octastyle temple, those of Apollo Didymaeus, near Miletus, built about 376 B.C., and of
Minerva Polias, at Priene, dedicated by Alexander of Macedon, are the chief temples of
this order of much fame in the colonies. We shall therefore confine our remaining re-
marks to the three Ionic temples at Athens, and shall, as in the Doric order, subjoin a
synoptical view of their detail.
Example.
Height divided
bj lower Diameter,
in English Feet.
Diameters
high.
Height of
Entablature
in terms of
Diameter.
Interco-
lumniations.
2-090
3-500
2-000
Height of
Capital in
terms of
Diameter.
Upper
Diameter,
lower Diam.
being 1-000.
Temple on the Ilyssus
Temple of Minerva Polias -
Temple of Erectheus
14694
8241
9-119
9-337
2-265
2-287
0-610
0-700
0-773
•850
•833
•816
1783
25-387
2786
21-625 _
2-317
154. We here see that the Ionic column varies in height from eight diameters and nearly
a quarter to nearly nine and a half, and the upper diameter in width between T<jf5 and fffo.
The dissimilarity of the capitals renders it impossible to compare them. The mean height
of the entablature is about a fourth of the height of the whole order. The height of the
Grecian Ionic cornice may be generally considered as two-ninths of the whole entablature.
155. The age of the double temple of Minerva Polias (fig. 102.) and Erectheus has
Fig. 102.
not been accurately ascertained. From the earliest times these personages were held in
high veneration by the Athenians, and it is more than likely that a confusion has arisen
between the ancient and modern edifices. The former was partially destroyed by Xerxes,
and there is no certainty that the latter was restored by Pericles.
156. In the bases applied to the order in the Athenian buildings there are two tori, with
a scotia or trochilus between them, a fillet below and above the scotia separating it from
the tori. The lower fillet generally coincides with a vertical line let fall from the extreme
projection of the upper torus. In the temple on the Ilyssus the lower fillet projects about
half the distance between the hollow of the scotia and the extremity of the inferior torus.
The height of the two tori and scotia are nearly equal, and a bead is placed on the upper
CHAP. II.
GRECIAN.
G 9
torus for the reception of the shaft of the column. The temples of Erectheus and that on
the Ilyssus have the lower tori of their bases uncut, whilst the upper ones are fluted hori-
zontally. In that of Minerva Polias, the upper torus is sculptured with a guilloche. The
base just described is usually denominated the ATTIC BASE, though also used in the
colonies. The bases, however, of the temples of Minerva Polias at Priene, and of Apollo
Didymseus near Miletus, are very differently formed.
157. The VOLUTE, the great distinguishing feature of the order, varies considerably in
the different examples. In the edifices on the Ilyssus and at Priene, as well as in that of
Apollo Didymaeus, the volute has only one channel between the revolutions of the spiral ;
whilst in those of Erectheus and Minerva Polias, at Athens, each volute is furnished with
two distinct spirals and channels. In the temple on the Ilyssus, the capital is terminated a
little below the eye of the volute ; in the others it reaches below the volutes, and is de-
corated with honeysuckle flowers and foliage. The number of flutes, which on the plan
are usually elliptical, is twenty-four, and they are separated by fillets from each other. In
some examples they descend into the apophyge of the shaft.
158. The tomb of Theron, at Agrigentum, in which Ionic columns and capitals are
crowned with a Doric entablature, has, by some, been quoted as an example of the Ionic
order ; but we do not believe it to be of any antiquity, and, if it were, it is so anomalous
a specimen that it would be useless to pursue any inquiry into its foundation.
159. In the ante or pilasters of this order, as well as of the Doric, their capitals differ
in profile from the columns, and are never decorated with volutes. Their breadth is usually
less than a diameter of the column, and they are not diminished.
160. The highest degree of refinement of Greek architecture is exhibited in its examples
of the Corinthian order, whose distinguishing feature is its capital. We have, in a pre- 4
ceding page (139), given Vitruvius's account of its origin ; but we much doubt whether
Callimachus was its inventor.
161. The capitals of Egyptian columns are so close upon the invention, that we ap- *
prehend it was only a step or two in advance of what had previ-
ously been done. The palm leaf, lotus flower, and even volutes,
had been used in similar situations in Egypt, and the contour of
the lotus flower itself bears no small resemblance to the bell of
the Corinthian capital.
162. We are inclined to assign the period of the latter part of
the Peloponnesian war as that in which the order first came into
use. We find from Pausanias (Arcad. c. 45.) that Scopas, the
celebrated architect of Paros, rebuilt the temple of Minerva at
Tega2a, which was destroyed by fire about 400 years B.C., and that,
according to that author, it was the largest and most beautiful
edifice in the Peloponnesus. The cell, which was hypaethral, was
surrounded by two ranks of Doric columns, which were surmounted
by others of the Corinthian order. The peristyle of this temple
was Ionic.
163. The delicacy of formation of this order has, doubtless,
subjected its examples to earlier destruction and decay than have
attended the other orders : hence our knowledge of it is almost
confined to the examples we meet of it in the Tower of the Winds,
and the Choragic monument of Lysicrates (fig. 103.), both at
Athens ; the former whereof can scarcely be considered Corinthian,
and the latter not very strictly so. It was erected about 330 years
B.C., as appears from the inscription on the frieze. These Choragic
buildings, usually of small dimensions, were erected in honour of
those who, as choragi or leaders of the chorus in the musical games,
were honoured with the prize, which was a tripod. The following
are the proportions observed in the Choragic monument of Ly-
sicrates : —
Fig. 103. CHORAGIC MO>
Height of columns in English feet
Height of columns in terms of lower diameter
Height of capital in terms of lower diameter
Upper diameter of shaft in terms of the lower diameter
Height of the architrave in terms of the lower diameter .
Height of the frieze in terms of the lower diameter
Height of cornice in terms of the lower diameter
Total height of entablature in terms of the lower diameter
0850
0-483
0-833
11-637
10-318
1-216
2-166
From which it appears that the entablature is less than a fifth of the total height of the
order. The intercolumniations are 2-200 diameters. The base is little different from that
used in the Ionic order.
164. In the ornaments applied for the decoration of the sacred edifices of the Greeks,
F 3
70 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
they imitated the real and symbolical objects used in their worship. Thus, at the temple
of Apollo at Teos, the lyre, tripod, and griffin occur; in the Temple of the Winds at
Athens, the winds are personified on the walls ; the Choragic monument of Lysicrates ex-
hibits the consequences of a contempt of music ; on the temple of Victory, at the entrance
of the Acropolis, was recorded, on the very spot, the assault and repulsion of the Amazons ;
the Lapithae are vanquished again in the temple of Theseus, the founder of the city ; and
lastly, in the Parthenon is brought before the eye, on a belt round the cell of the temple,
the Panathenaic procession, which, issuing from the door of the cell, biennially perambulated
the edifice, whilst its pediment perpetuates the contest between Neptune and Minerva for
the honour of naming the city, and calls to remembrance the words of Cicero, " De quorum,"
(Atheniensium,) " urbis possessione, propter pulchritudinem etiam inter deos certamen
fuisse proditum est," &c. In the capitals of the Corinthian examples just noticed the leaves
are those of the olive, a tree sacred to the tutelary goddess of Athens, and on that account as
well as its beauty of form and simplicity adopted by a people whose consistency in art has
never been excelled.
165. Besides the method of supporting an entablature by means of columns, the em-
ployment of figures was adopted, as in the temples of Erectheus and Minerva Polias before
mentioned (see^/?^. 102.). They were called Caryatides ; and their origin, according to the
account of it by Vitruvius (lib. i. c. 1.), was that Carya, a city of Peloponnesus, having as-
sisted the Persians against the Grecian states, the latter, when the country was freed from
their invaders, turned their arms against the Caryans, captured their city, put the males to
the sword, and led the women into captivity. The architects of the time, to perpetuate the
ignominy of the people, substituted statues of these women for columns in their porticoes,
faithfully copying their ornaments and drapery. It is, however, certain that the origin
of their application for architectural purposes is of far higher antiquity than the invasion of
Greece by the Persians, and in the above account Vitruvius is not corroborated by any
other writer. Herodotus ( PolymnicC), indeed, observes that some of the states whom he
enumerates sent the required offering of salt and water to Xerxes ; but no mention is made
of Carya, whose conduct, if punished in such an extraordinary manner, would have been too
curious a matter to have been passed over in silence. Whether the use of statues to perform
the office of columns travelled into Greece from India or from Egypt, we will not pretend
to determine. Both, however, will furnish examples of their application. In the latter
country we find them employed in the tomb of King Osymandyas ( Diodorus, torn. i. f. 56.
Wesseling). Diodorus also, speaking of Psammeticus, says that having obtained the whole
kingdom, he built a propylseum on the east side of the temple to the god at Memphis,
which temple he encircled with a wall ; and in this propylaeum, instead of columns, substi-
tuted colossal statues (KO\OTTOVS inroffrijffas') twelve cubits in height.
1 66. The application of statues and representations of animals is a prominent feature in the
architecture of Egypt, whereof the temple at Ibsambul is a striking example, though in
that the figures do not absolutely carry the entablature (seefg. 71.). In India many in-
stances of this use of statues occur, as in the excavations of the temple near Vellore
described by Sir C. Mallet (Asiat. Res. vol. vi.), wherein heads of lions, elephants, and
imaginary animals apparently support the roof of the cave of Jugnath Subba ; and at
Elephanta, where colossal statues are ranged along the sides as high as the underside of the
entablature (seejfy. 39.). But as the settlement of the claims of either of these countries
to the invention is not our object, we shall proceed to consider how they obtained in
Greece the name that has been applied to them long before the period of which Vitruvius
speaks.
167. Kapva, the nut tree (Nux juglans), which Plutarch (Sympos. lib. ii.) says received
its name from its effect (Kapos, sopor) on the senses, was that into which Bacchus, after co-
habitation with her, transformed Carya, one of the three daughters of Dion, king of Laconia,
by his wife Iphitea. The other daughters, Orphe and Lyco, were turned into stones for
having too closely watched their sister's intercourse with the lover. Diana, from whom
the Lacedemonians learnt this story, was on that account, as well perhaps as the excellence
of the fruit of the tree, therefore worshipped by them under the name of Diana Caryatis.
(Servius, note on 8th Eel. of Virgil, edit. Burman.) Another account, however, not at all
affecting the hypothesis, is given of the name of Diana Caryatis in one of the old commen-
tators of Statins (Barthius, lib. iv. v. 225.). It is as follows. Some virgins threatened
with danger whilst celebrating the rites of the goddess, took refuge under the branches of
a nut tree (/capua), in honour and perpetuation whereof they raised a temple to Diana
Caryatis. If this, however, be an allusion to the famous interposition of Aristomenes in
protecting some Spartan virgins taken by his soldiers, it is not quite borne out by the
words of Diodorus. Salmasius (Exercit. Pliniance, f. 603. et seq.) says, that Diana was
worshipped at Carya, near Sparta, under the name of Diana Caryatis ; and that at her temple
and statue the Lacedemonian virgins had an anniversary festival, with dancing, according to
the custom of the country.
168. But to return more closely to the subject, we will give the words of Pausanias (Z,aco-
CHAP. II.
GRECIAN.
Fig. 104.
Fig. 105.
m'cs) on the temple to the goddess at Carya. " The third turning to the right leads to Carya,
and the sanctuary of Diana ; for the neighbourhood of Carya is sacred to that goddess and
her nymphs. The statue of Diana Caryatis is in the open air ; and in this place the Lace-
demonian virgins celebrate an anniversary festival with the old custom of the dance."
Kuhnius on the passage in question, after reference to Hesychius, says, " Caryatides etiam
dicuntur Lacunae saltantes, sinistra ansatae, uti solebant Caryatides puellas in honorem
Diana?."
169. From the circumstances above mentioned, we think it may be fairly concluded that
the statues called Caryatides were originally applied to or used about the temples of Diana ;
and that instead of representing captives or persons in a state of ignominy, they were in
fact representations of the virgins engaged in the worship of that goddess. It is probable
that after their first introduction other figures, in buildings appropriated to other divinities,
were gradually employed ; as in the Pandroseum (attached to the temple of Minerva Polias),
for instance, where they may be representations of the virgins
called Canephorae, who assisted in the Panathenaic procession.
Fig. 104. is a representation of one of those used in the Pan-
droseum (see also Jig. 102.); and. Jig. 105. is from the Townley col-
lection, now in the British Museum. Piranesi conjectured that
this last, with others, supported the entablature of an ancient
Roman building restored by him from some fragments found near
the spot where they were discovered, which is rather more than a
mile beyond the Capo di Bove, near Rome. Four of the statues
were found ; and on one of the three, purchased by Cardinal Albani,
the following inscription was found : — KPITUN KAI NIKOAAO2
EOOIOTN ; showing that it was the work of Greek artists.
170. The republican spirit of Greece tended to repress all ap-
pearance of luxury in their private dwellings. The people seem to
have thrown all their power into the splendour and magnificence of
their temples ; and it was not till a late period that their houses received much attention.
Except in the open courts of them, it is difficult to conceive any application of the orders.
It is certain that they frequently consisted of more than one story ; but beyond this all is
conjecture. In the time of Demosthenes ( Orctt. adv. Aristocratem) the private houses had
begun to be increased in extent ; and the description of them by Vitruvius, who knew
Athens well, proves that they were then erected on an extent implying vast luxury.
171. Within the last few years discoveries have been made at Athens, which would lead
us to the belief that it was the practice of the Greeks to paint in party colours every portion
of their temples, and that in violently contrasted colours. This has received the name of
polychrome architecture. It is rather strange that no ancient writer has spoken of the prac-
tice, and the only way to account for the omission is by supposing it to have been so com-
mon that no one thought of mentioning it. From the information of M. Schaubert, the
government architect at Athens, it appears that every part of the surface of the Parthenon
had a coating of paint. That the coffers of the ceiling were painted, and its frieze ornamented
with a fret in colours, was, he observes, known ; but the whole building, he continues, as
well as other temples, was thickly painted, in the metopae, in the pediment, on the drapery
of the figures, on the capitals, and on all the mouldings. So that, as he says with great
simplicity, with its mouldings and carvings variously coloured, the simple Doric temple of
Theseus was in effect richer than the most gorgeous example of Corinthian ; and it would
be worth the trouble to restore with accuracy a polychrome temple. From M. Quast
(Mittheilungen uber Alt und Neu Athen, Berlin, 1834), we learn that the colour was not used
in a fluid state merely for the purpose of staining the marble, but in a thick coat, so that
the material was completely covered ; and that in the temple of Theseus this is more
traceable than in any other. Though the colours, that of blue smalt more especially,
have left but a grey crust, yet their original tone is still apparent. In this building deep
blues and reds are the predominant colours, so as to relieve one another. The corona was
deep blue, and the guttae of a brown red ; the foliage of the cymatium was alternately
streaked with blue and red, the ground being green, which colour is applied to the small
leaves on some of the lesser mouldings. Some of the coffers are coloured of a red inclining
to purple, on which the ornament is given ; others exhibit a blue ground, with red stars.
The architrave of the portico was a bright red ; the figures in the frieze were painted in
their proper natural colours : traces of the colour show that the walls were green. It
was not discovered that in the columns more than the arrises of the flutes were painted,
although the echinus was. We do not doubt the accuracy of MM. Semper and Quast ;
but after all it is possible that all this painting may have been executed at a period much
later than that of the buildings themselves.
172. The most ancient theatres of Greece were constructed in a temporary manner ; but
the little security from accident they afforded to a large concourse of persons soon made the
Greeks more cautious for their security, and led to edifices of stone, which, in the end, ex-
F 4
72
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
ceeded in magnitude all their other buildings. Their form on the plan (see fig. 106.) was
rather more than a semicircle, and consisted of two parts ; the ffKtiv}], scena, and
PLAN Of A GREEK THEATER.
cavea. The scena was at first merely a partition for the actors reaching quite across- the
stage, dressed with boughs and leaves, but in after times was very differently and more
expensively constructed. It had three principal gates, two on the sides and one in the
centre ; at which last the principal characters entered. The whole scene was divided into
several parts, whereof the most remarkable were — the fipovreiov, brontceum, under the floor,
where were deposited vessels full of stones and other materials for imitating the sound of
thunder ; the £TrurKT]viov, episcenium, a place on the top of the scene, in which were placed
the machines for changing the various figures and prospects ; the irapavKtyiov, parascenium,
which served the actors as a dressing room ; the irpovKfyiov, proscenium, or stage, on which
the performers acted ; the opXTjerrpa, orchestra, was the part in which the performers danced
and sang, in the middle whereof was the Xoytiov or i^v/ieArj, pulpitum ; the vwoa -K^VLOV,
hyposcenium, was a partition under the pulpitum, where the music was placed ; the KOL\OI>,
cavea, was for the reception of the spectators, and consisted of two or three divisions of
several seats, each rising above one another, the lowest division being appropriated to
persons of rank and magistrates, the middle one to the commonalty, and the upper one to
the women. Round the cavea porticoes were erected for shelter in rainy weather, the
theatre of the Greeks having no roof or covering. The theatre was always dedicated to
Bacchus and Venus, the deities of sports and pleasures ; to the former, indeed, it is said
they owe their origin : hence, the plays acted in them were called AiovvtriaKa, Dionysiaca,
as belonging to Atwixros, or Bacchus. Every citizen shared by right in the public diver-
sion and public debate ; the theatre was therefore open to the whole community.
173. The Athenian ayopai, or fora, were numerous ; but the two most celebrated were the
old and new forum. The old forum was in the Ceramicus within the city. The assemblies
of the people were held in it, but its principal use was as a market, in which to every
trade was assigned a particular portion.
174. The supply of water at Athens was chiefly from wells, aqueducts being scarcely
known there before the time of the Romans. Some of these wells were dug at the public
expense, others by private persons.
175. The first gymnasia are said to have been erected in Lacedemonia, but were after-
wards much improved and extended, and became common throughout Greece. The gym-
nasium consisted of a number of buildings united in one enclosure, whereto large num-
bers resorted for different purposes. In it the philosophers, rhetoricians, and professors of all
the other sciences, delivered their lectures ; in it also the wrestlers and dancers practised and
exercised ; all which, from its space, they were enabled to do without interfering with one
another. The chief parts (fig. 107.), following Vitruvius (lib. v. cap. 11.), are — A, the Tre-
pi(TTV\iov,peristi/lium, which included \hea<paipi(rrypiov, sphceristerium, and ira\ai<TTpa, palestra ;
1 , 2, 3, are the <rroa.i, portions, with B B, ej-eSpcu, exhedrcE, where probably the scholars used
to meet ; 4, 4, is the double portico looking to the south ; c, ecpr^aiov, ephabeum, where the
CHAP. II.
GRECIAN.
73
ephebi or youths exercised, or, as some say, where those that designed to exercise met and
agreed what kind of exercise they should contend in, and what should be the victor's re-
ward ; D, is the coryceum ; E, the KovKTT'fjpiov, conisterium, where the dust was kept for
sprinkling those that had been anointed ; F is the cold bath (frigida lavatio) ; G, the eAato-
elceothesium, or
place for
anointing those that were about
to wrestle ; H, the frigidarium, or
cold chamber ; j, passage to the
propigneum, or furnace; t, the
propigneum; M, the arched su-
datio, for sweating ; N, the laco-
nicum; o, the hot bath (calida
lavatio); 5, 7, the two porticoes
described as out of the pala?stra,
of which 7 forms the xystus, and
6 a double portico ; a a, the mar-
gines, or semitae of the xystus, to
separate the spectators from the
wrestlers; bb, the middle part
excavated two steps, cc, down;
Q Q, gardens ; d d, walks ; e e, sta-
tiones for seats ; R R, £y<rra, xysta,
sometimes called irepiSpo/jLiSes, for
walking or exercises ; s, the sta-
dium, with raised seats round it.
176. The roofs of the edifices
of Athens vary from 14£ to 15|
degrees in inclination, a subject
which will be hereafter fully con-
sidered, when we come to investi-
gate the principles of constructing
roofs. In Rome, as will hereafter
be seen, the inclination is much
more. There is nothing to war-
rant us in a belief that the arch
was known to the Greeks till after
the age of Alexander. Indeed,
the want of a name for it in a
language so generally copious as
the Greek, suffices to show that
they were unacquainted with it.
It was most probably in much earlier use in Italy. The words &o\os, afyis, and ^oAts, are
not used in a sense that signifies an arch until after the reign of the above-named mo-
narch ; nor is any description extant from which may be conceived the construction of an
arch on scientific principles.
177. From the time of Pericles to that of Alexander, all the arts, and most especially
that of architecture, seem to have attained a high state of perfection. Every moral and
physical cause had concurred in so advancing them. But perfection, when once reached
in the works of man, is only the commencement of their falling away from it. Liberty,
the love of country, ambition in every department of life, had made Athens the focus of the
arts and sciences : the defeat of the Persians at Marathon and other celebrated victories
had brought peace to the whole of the states of Greece. In the space of time preceding
the Pelopon-nesian war, there seems to have been, as it were, an explosion of every species of
talent, and it was at this period that they set about rebuilding the temples and other edifices
that the Persians had thrown down, of which a wise policy had preserved the ruins, so that
the contemplation of desolation and misfortune afforded them an eloquent reminiscence of
the peril in which they continually stood. It was indeed only after the flight of the ge-
neral of Xerxes, and the victory gained by Themistocles, that a general restoration of their
monuments and the rebuilding of Athens were set about. These were the true trophies of
the battle of Salamis. About 335 years B. c. Alexander became master of Greece. Fired
with every species of glory, and jealous of leaving to posterity monuments that should be
unworthy of his greatness and fame, or other than proofs of the refinement of his taste,
this prince gave a new impulse to genius by the exclusive choice that he made of the
most skilful artists, and by the liberal rewards he bestowed upon them. The sacking of
Corinth by the Romans in less than two centuries (about 146 B.C.) was the first disaster
that the fine arts encountered in Greece ; their overthrow there was soon afterwards com-
pleted by the country becoming a Roman province. At the former occurrence Polybius
Fig. 107.
74
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK t.
(cited by Strabo) says, that during the plunder the Roman soldiers were seen casting
their dice on the celebrated picture of Bacchus by Aristides. Juvenal well describes such
a scene ( Satire xi. 100. ) : —
Tune rudis et Graias mirari nescius artes,
Urbibus eversis, praedarum in parte reperta
Magnorum artificftm frangebat pocula miles.
The well-known story of the consul Mummius shows either that the higher ranks among
the Roman citizens were not very much enlightened on the arts, or that he "was a singular
blockhead. We have now arrived at the period at which Greece was despoiled and Rome
enriched, and must pursue the history of the art among the Romans ; incidental to which a
short digression will be necessary on Etruscan architecture.
SECT. XII.
ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE.
178. The inhabitants of Etruria, a country of Italy, now called Tuscany, are supposed
to have been a colony from Greece. They certainly may have been a swarm from the
original hive (see Druidical, Celtic, 13.; and Cyclopean Architecture, 32.) that passed through
Greece in their way to Italy. The few remains of their buildings still existing show, from
their construction, that they are coeval with the walls of Tiryns, Mycenae (figs. 9. and 10.),
and other works of a very early age ; and it is our own opinion that the wandering from that
great central nation, of which we have already so much spoken, was as likely to conduct the
Etrurians at once to the spot on which they settled, as to bring them through Greece to the
place of their settlement. It is equally our opinion that, so far from the country whereof we
now treat having received their arts from the Greeks, it is quite as possible, and even likely,
that the Greeks may have received their arts from the Etruscans. The history of Etruria,
if we consult the different writers who have mentioned it, is such a mass of contradiction and
obscurity, that there is no sure guide for us. It seems to be a moving picture of constant
emigration and re-emigration between the inhabitants of Greece and Italy. The only point
upon which we can surely rest is, that there were many ancient relations between the two
countries, and that in after times the dominion of the Etruscans extended to that part of
Italy which, when it became occupied by Grecian colonies, took the name of Magna
Graecia. The continual intercourse between the two countries lessens our surprise at the
great similarity in their mythology, in their religious tenets, and in their early works of
art. We are quite aware that the learned Lanzi was of opinion ( Saggio di Lingua Etrusca),
that the Etruscans were not the most ancient people of Italy. We are not about to dispute
that point. He draws his conclusion from language ; we draw our own from a comparison
of the masonry employed in both nations, from the remains whereof we should, if there be
a difference, assign the earliest date to that of Hetruria. This, to be sure, leaves open the
question whether the country was preoccupied ; one which, for our purpose, it is not ne-
cessary to settle. We have Winkelman and Guarnacci on our side, who from medals and
coins arrived at the belief that among the Etruscans the arts were more advanced at a very
early age than among the Greeks ; and Dr. Clarke's reasoning tends to prove for them a
Phoenician origin.
179. Great solidity of construction is the prominent feature in Etruscan architecture.
Their cities were surrounded by walls consisting of enormous blocks of stone, and usually
very high. Remains of them are still to be seen at Volterra (fig. 108.), Cortona, Fiesole
(fig. 109.), &c. " Mcenibus," says Al-
berti (De Re JEdific. lib. vii. c. 2.) " ve-
terum praesertim populi Etruriae quad-
ratum eumdemque vastissimum lapidem
probavere." In the walls of Cortona
some of the stones are upwards of 22
Roman feet in length, and from 5 to 6 ft.
high, and in them neither cramps nor
cement appear to have been employed.
The walls of Volterra are built after the
same gigantic fashion. In the earliest
specimens of walling, the blocks of stone were of an irregular polygonal form, and so dis-
posed as that all their sides were in close contact with one another. Of this species is the
wall at Cora, near Velletri. The gates were very simple, and built of stones of an oblong
square form. The gate of Hercules, at Volterra, is an arch consisting of nineteen stones ; a
JSOE3E
Fig. 108.
T VOLTKRRA.
Fig. 109. WALL AT
CHAP. II. ROMAN. 75
circumstance which, if its antiquity be allowed to be only of a moderately remote period,
would go far to disprove all Lanzi's reasoning, for, as we have noticed in the preceding ar-
ticle, the arch was unknown in Greece till after the time of Alexander. According to Gori
(Museum Etruscum), vestiges of theatres have been discovered among the ruins of some of
their cities. That they were acquainted with the method of conducting theatrical represent-
ations is evident from Livy, who mentions an occasion on which comedians were brought from
Etruria to Rome, whose inhabitants at the time in question were only accustomed to the
games of the circus. The gladiatorial sports, which were afterwards so much the delight of
the Romans, were also borrowed from the same people. They constructed their temples
peripterally ; the pediments of them were decorated with statues, quadrigae, and bassi
rilievi, in terra cotta, many whereof were remaining in the time of Vitruvius and Pliny.
Though it is supposed that the Etruscans made use of wood in the entablatures of their
temples, it is not to be inferred that at even the earliest period they were unacquainted
with the use of stone for their architraves and lintels, as is sufficiently proved in the Piscina
of Volterra.
180. The Romans, until the conquest of Greece, borrowed the taste of their architecture
from Etruria. Even to the time of Augustus, the species called Tuscan was to be seen by
the side of the acclimatised temple of the Greeks.
181. The atrium or court, in private houses, seems to have been an invention of the
Etruscans. Festus derives its name from its having been first used at Atria, in Etruria :
" Dictum Atrium quia id genus edificii primum Atriae in Etruria sit institutum." We
shall, however, allude in the next section to Etruscan architecture as connected with
Roman ; merely adding here, that in about a year after the death of Alexander the nation
fell under the dominion of the Romans.
SECT. XIII.
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
182. The Romans can scarcely be said to have had an original architecture; they had
rather a modification of that of the Greeks. Their first Instruction in the art was received
from the Etruscans, which was probably not until the time of the Tarquins, when their
edifices began to be constructed upon fixed principles, and to receive appropriate decoration.
In the time of the first Tarquin, who was a native of Etruria, much had been done to-
wards the improvement of Rome. He brought from his native country a taste for that
grandeur and solidity which prevailed in the Etruscan works. After many victories he
had the honour of a triumph, and applied the wealth he had acquired from the conquered
cities to building a circus, for which a situation was chosen in the valley which reached
from the Aventine to the Palatine Hill. Under his reign the city was fortified, ^cleansed,
and beautified. The walls were built of hewn stone, and the low grounds about the Forum
drained, which prepared the way for the second Tarquin to construct that Cloaca Maxima,
which was reckoned among the wonders of the world. The Forum was surrounded with
galleries by him ; and his reign was further distinguished by the erection of temples, schools
for both sexes, and halls for the administration of public justice. This, according to the
best chronologies, must have been upwards of 610 years B. c. Servius Tullius enlarged
the city, and among his other works continued those of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus,
which had been commenced by his predecessor ; but the operations of both were eclipsed
by monuments, for which the Romans were indebted to Tarquinius Superbus, the seventh
king of Rome. Under him the Circus was completed, and the most effective methods
taken to finish the Cloaca Maxima. This work, on which neither labour nor expense was
spared to make the work everlasting, is of wrought stone, and its height and breadth are
so considerable, that a cart loaded with hay could pass through it. Hills and rocks were
cut through for the purpose of passing the filth of the city into the Tiber. Pliny calls
the Cloaca?, " operum omnium dictu maximum, suffbssis montibus, atque urbe pensili, sub-
terque navigata." The temple of Jupiter Capitolinus was not finished till after the ex-
pulsion of the kings, 508 B. c. ; but under Tarquinius Superbus it was considerably ad-
vanced. In the third consulship of Poplicola, the temple was consecrated. As the name,
which \vas changed, imports, this temple stood on the Mons Capitolinus, and embraced, ac-
cording to Plutarch, four acres of ground. It was twice afterwards destroyed, and twice
rebuilt on the same foundations. Vespasian, at a late period, rebuilt it ; and upon the
destruction of this last by fire, Domitian raised the most splendid of all, in which the
gilding alone cost 12,000 talents. It is impossible now to trace the architecture of the
Romans through its various steps between the time of the last king, 508 B. c., and the sub-
jugation of Greece by that people in the year 145 B. c., a period of 363 years. The
76 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
disputes in which they were continually engaged left them little leisure for the arts of
peace ; yet the few monuments with which we are acquainted show a power and skill
that mark them as an extraordinary race. Thus in the year 397 B. c., on the occasion of
the siege of Veil, the prodigy, as it was supposed, of the lake of Alba overflowing, when
there was little water in the neighbouring rivers, springs, and marshes, induced the au-
thorities to make an emissarium, or outlet for the superfluous water, which subsists to this
day. The water of the lake Albano, which runs along Castel Gondolfo, still passes through
it. A few years after this event an opportunity was afforded, which, with more care on
the part of the authorities, might have considerably improved it, after its demolition by
Brennus. This event occurred 389 B. c., and was nearly the occasion of the population
being removed to Veii altogether, a place which offered them a spot fortified by art and
nature, good houses ready built, a wholesome air, and a fruitful territory. The eloquence,
however, of Camillus prevailed over their despondency. Livy (b. vi. ) observes, that in
the rebuilding, the state furnished tiles, and the people were allowed to take stone and
other materials wherever they could find them, giving security to finish their houses
within the year. But the haste with which they went to work caused many encroach-
ments on each other's soil. Every one raised his house where he found a vacant space ; so
that in many cases they built over the common sewers, which before ran under the streets.
So little taste for regularity and beauty was observed, that the city, when rebuilt, was even
less regular than in the time of Romulus ; and though in the time of Augustus, when
Rome had become the capital of the world, the temples, palaces, and private houses were
more magnificent than before, yet these decorations could not rectify the fault of the plan.
Though perhaps not strictly within our own province, we may here mention the temple
built in honour of Juno Moneta, in consequence of a vow of L. Furius Camillus when
before the Volsci. This was one of the temples on the Capitoline hill. The epithet above
mentioned was given to the queen of the gods, a short time before the taking of Rome by
the Gauls. It was pretended that from the temple of Juno a voice had proceeded, ac-
companied with an earthquake, and that the voice had admonished the Romans to avert
the evils that threatened them by sacrificing a sow with pig. She was hence called Moneta
(from monere). The temple of Juno Moneta becoming afterwards a public mint, the
medals stamped in it for the current coin took the name of Moneta (money). This temple
was erected about 345 years B.C., on the spot where the house of Marcus Manlius had stood.
183. In the time that Appius Claudius was censor, about 309 B. c., the earliest paved
road was made by the Romans. It was first carried to Capua, and afterwards continued
to Brundusium, a length altogether of 350 miles. Statius calls it regina viarum. Paved
with the hardest stone, it remains entire to the present day. Its breadth is about 14 ft. ;
the stones of which it is composed vary in size, but so admirably was it put together that
they are like one stone. Its bed is on two strata ; the first of rough stones cemented with
mortar, and the second of gravel, the thickness altogether being about 3 ft. To the same
Appius Claudius belongs the honour of having raised the first aqueduct. The water with
which it supplied the city was collected from the neighbourhood of Frascati, about 100 ft.
above the level of Rome. The Romans at this time were fast advancing in the arts and
sciences ; for in about nineteen years afterwards we find Papirius, after his victory over the
Samnites, built a temple to Quirinus out of a portion of its spoils. Upon this temple was
fixed (Pliny, b. vii. c. 60.) the first sun-dial that Rome ever saw. For a long while the
Romans marked only the rising and setting of the sun ; they afterwards observed, but in a
rude clumsy manner, the hour of noon. When the sun's rays appeared between the rostra
and the house appointed for the reception of the ambassadors, a herald of one of the consuls
proclaimed with a loud voice that it was mid-day. With the aid of the dial they now marked
the hours of the day, as they soon after did those of the night by the aid of the clepsydra
or water-clock. The materials for carrying on the investigation are so scanty, and moreover,
as in the case of Grecian architecture, without examples whereon we can reason, that we
will not detain the reader with further speculations, but at once proceed to that period
(145 B.C.) when Greece was reduced to a Roman province. Art, in the strict application
of that word, was not properly understood by the victorious Romans ; and a barrenness
appears to have clung about that whereof we treat, even with all the advantages that Rome
possessed. It may be supposed that the impulse given to the arts would have been imme-
diate ; but, like the waves generated by the ocean storm, a succession of them was necessary
before the billows would approach the coast. Perhaps, though it be only conjectural, the
first effect was visible in the temple reared to Minerva at Rome, out of the spoils of the
Mithridatic war, by Pompey the Great, about sixty years B.C., after a triumph unparalleled
perhaps in the history of the world ; after the conclusion of a war of thirty years' duration,
in which upwards of two millions of his fellow-creatures had been slain and vanquished ;
after 846 ships had been sunk or taken, and 1538 towns and fortresses had been reduced
to the power of the empire, and all the countries between the lake Majotis and the Red
Sea had been subdued. It is to be regretted that no remains of this temple exist. The
inscription ( Plin. lib. vii. c. 26. ) was as follows : —
CHAP. II. ROMAN.
CN . POMPEIUS . CN . F . MAGNUS . IMP .
BELLO . XXX . ANNORUM . CONFECTO .
FUSTS . FUGATIS . OCCISIS . IN . DERITIONEM . ACCEPTIS .
HOM1NUM . CENTIES . VICIES . SEMEL . CENTENIS .
LXXXIII . M .
DEPRESSIS . AUT . CAPT . NAVIBUS . DCCCXLVI
OPPIDIS . CASTELLTS . MDX XXVIII
IN . F1DEM . RECEPTIS .
TERRIS . A . MAEOTI . LACU . AD . RUBRUM . MARE
SUBACTIS .
VOTUM . MERITO . MINERVA .
184. The villas of the Romans at this period were of considerable extent; the statues
of Greece had been acquired for their decoration, and every luxury in the way of decora-
tion that the age could afford had been poured into them from the plentiful supply that
Greek art afforded. To such an extreme was carried the determination to possess every
thing that talent could supply, that we find Cicero was in the habit of employing two
architects, Chrysippus and Cluatius (ad Atticum, lib. iii. epist. 29. and lib. xii. epist. 18.);
the first certainly, the last probably a Greek. Their extent would scarcely be credited but
for the corroboration we have of it in some of their ruins.
185. Until the time of Pompey no permanent theatre existed in Rome : the ancient dis-
cipline requiring that the theatre should continue no longer than the shows lasted. The
most splendid temporary theatre was that of M.^Emilius Scaurus, who, when aedile, erected
one capable of containing 80,000 persons, which was decorated, from all accounts, with sin-
gular magnificence and at an amazing cost. History (Plin. xxxvi. 15.) records an extra-
ordinary instance of mechanical skill, in the theatre erected by Curio, one of Caesar's par-
tisans, at the funeral exhibition in honour of his father. Two large theatres of timber
were constructed back to back, and on one side so connected with hinges and machinery
for the purpose, that when the theatrical exhibitions had closed they were wheeled or
slung round so as to form an amphitheatre, wherein, in the afternoon, shows of gladiators
were given. Returning, however, to the theatre erected by Pompey, which, to avoid
the animadversion of the censors, he dedicated as a temple to Venus: the plan (Pliny,
vii. 3. ) was taken from that at Mitylene, but so enlarged as to be capable of containing
40,000 persons. Round it was a portico for shelter in case of bad weather : a curia
or senate house was attached to it with a basilica or hall for the administration of jus-
tice. The statues of male and female persons celebrated for their lives and characters
were selected and placed in it by Atticus, for his attention to which Cicero (Epist. ad
Attic, iv. 9. ) was commissioned by Pompey to convey his thanks. The temple of Venus,
which was attached to avoid the breach of the laws committed, was so contrived that the
seats of the theatre served as steps to the temple ; a contrivance which also served to escape
the reproach of encountering so vast an expense for mere luxury, for the temple was so
placed that those who visited the theatre might seem at the same time to come for the
purpose of worshipping the goddess. At the solemnity of its dedication the people were
entertained with the most magnificent shows that had ever been exhibited in Rome. We
cannot prolong the account of this edifice by detailing them, — indeed that would be foreign
to our purpose ; but we may add, that such a building presents to us a genuine idea of the
vast grandeur and wealth of those principal subjects of Rome, who from their own private
revenues could rear such magnificent buildings, and provide for the entertainment of the
people shows to which all the quarters of the globe contributed, and which no monarch
now on earth could afford to exhibit. This theatre was finished about 54 B.C.
186. In the year 45 B.C. Rome witnessed a triumph not less extraordinary than that we
have just recorded, — that of Julius Caesar on his return from Utica. From the commence-
ment of the civil war that had raged he had found no leisure for celebrating the triumphs
which induced the people to create him dictator for ten years, and to place his statue in the
Capitol opposite to that of Jupiter, with the globe of the earth under his feet, and the in-
scription " To Caesar the Demi- God." We need scarcely remind our readers that his
first triumph was over the Gauls ; that this was followed by that over Ptolemy and Egypt ;
the third over Pharnaces and Pontus ; and the fourth over Juba. The triumph recorded
these appropriately ; but we leave that — merely observing, by the way, that the fruit of his
victories amounted to 65,000 talents and 2822 crowns of gold, weighing together 20,414
Roman pounds, — to state that on this occasion the Circus was enlarged, a lake sunk for the
exhibition of Egyptian and Tyrian galleys, and that in the same year he dedicated a temple
to Venus Genetrix, and opened his new forum. Warriors are not often inclined to call in
the aid of the arts, except for commemorating their own actions. Not so with Caesar. In
the year 44 B.C., after his triumph over the sons of Pompey, we once more find him engaged
in the arts of peace. A temple to Clemency was erected by him, in which his statue was
placed near to that of the goddess, and joining hands with her. In the next year he laid
78 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
the foundations of what at the time were considered two magnificent edifices for ttie orna-
ment of the city : a temple to Venus, which for grandeur it is supposed would have sur-
passed every example of that kind in the world ; and a theatre of very gigantic dimensions,
— both which were afterwards completed by Augustus. But the projects he conceived were
only equalled by those of Alexander. He began the rebuilding and repair of many towns
in Italy ; the drainage of the Pontine marshes, the malaria of which is the curse of Rome
to the present day ; the formation of a new bed for the Tiber from Rome to the sea, for the
purpose of improving the navigation of that river ; the formation of a port at Ostia for the
reception of first-rate ships ; a causeway over the Apennines from the Adriatic to Rome ;
the rebuilding of Corinth and Carthage, whither colonies had been sent by him, a scheme
afterwards perfected by Augustus ; a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth to avoid the
navigation round the Peloponnesus ; and lastly, the formation of an exact geographical
map of the Roman empire, with the roads marked thereon, and the distances of the towns
from each other. Such was Ceesar, whom to eulogise would be impertinent.
187. Augustus deprived the Romans of their liberty, and in return for the deprivation
consoled them with all the gratification the arts could supply. The victorious Romans
had known little of the arts in their highest state of refinement, and the degraded Greeks
were constrained to neglect them. They were in a state of barrenness during a portion of
the last age of the Roman republic ; nor did they exhibit any signs of fruitfulness until
C?esar had established the empire on the ruins of the expiring republic, and his successor,
giving peace to the universe, closed the temple of Janus, and opened that of the arts. By
him skilful artists, pupils of the great masters, were invited from Greece, where, though
languishing, they were yet silently working without fame or encouragement. Some who
had been led into slavery, like Rachel of old, carried their gods with them — the gods of the
arts. Encouraged by the rising taste of their masters, they now began to develop the
powers they possessed, and their productions became necessary to the gratification of the
people. Thus it was that our art, among the others, born and reared in Greece, made
Italy its adopted country, and there shone with undiminished splendour, though perhaps
less happy and less durable. Though the exotic might have lost some beauties in the soil to
which it was transplanted, the stock possessed such extraordinary vigour that grafts from
it still continue to be propagated in every quarter of the globe.
188. The Greek architects who settled in Italy executed works of surprising beauty:
they raised up pupils, and founded a school. It must be conceded that it was more an
imitative than an original school, wherein it was necessary to engraft Roman taste which
was modified by different habits and climate, on Greek art. And here we cannot refrain
from an observation or two upon the practice in these days of comparing Greek and Roman
architecture. Each was suitable to the nation that used it ; the forms of Greek columns,
their intercoluminations, the inclination of the pediment, were necessarily changed in a
country lying between four and five degrees further north from the equator. But the su-
perficial writers, whose knowledge occasionally appears to instruct the world, never take
these matters into their consideration ; and we regret, indeed, to admit that in this country
the philosophy of the art is little understood by the public, from the professors being ge-
nerally too much engaged in its practice to afford them leisure for diffusing the knowledge
they possess.
189. The Romans were trained to arms from their cradle; and that they were very averse
to the cultivation of the arts by their youth, the passage in the JEneid (b. vi. v. 847. ), which
has been so often quoted, is a sufficient proof: —
Excudent alii spirantia mollius {era
Credo equidem ; vivos ducent e marmore vultus.
******
Tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento ;
Hae tibi erunt artes.
1 90. They were at all times anxious to subjugate for their own purposes those nations
that successfully cultivated the arts ; a motive which, joined to the desire of aggrandisement,
induced them at a very early period to carry their arms against the Etruscans, who were in
a far higher state of cultivation than themselves. This was also, one motive to their con-
duct in Sicily and Asia Minor ; whence, as well as from Greece, they drew supplies of
artists for Rome, instead of employing their own citizens. Though in Rome architecture
lost in simplicity, it gained in magnificence. It there took deeper root than the other arts,
from its affording, by the dimensions of its monuments, more splendour to the character of
so dominating a nation. Its forms are more susceptible of real grandeur than those of the
other arts, which are put in juxtaposition with nature herself; and hence they were more
in keeping with the politics of the people. The patronage of the fine arts by Augustus
has never before or since been equalled. They followed his good fortune, they dwelt in
the palace, and sat on the throne with him. His boast was not a vain one, when he asserted
that he found his capital built of brick and left it of marble. By him was reared in the
capital in question the temple and forum of Mars the Avenger ; the temple of Jupiter
CHAP. II.
ROMAN.
Tonans, on the Capitol ; that of Apollo Palatine, with public libraries ; the portico and
basilica' of Caius and Lucius; the porticoes of Livia and Octavia; and the theatre of Mar-
cellus. " The example," says Gibbon, " of the sovereign was imitated by his ministers
and generals ; and his friend Agrippa left behind him the immortal monument of the Pan-
theon."
191. Under Tiberius and Caligula architecture seems to have been in a state of languor,
nor do we know of any thing in the reign of Claudius the fifth Caesar, save the completion
of one of the finest aqueducts of Rome, that of Aqua Claudia, whose length is 38 miles, in
more than seven whereof the water passes over arches raised more than 100ft. from the sur-
face of the ground. Nero's reign, though his taste bordered more on show than intrinsic
beauty, was on the whole favourable to architecture. Much could not be expected of a
man who covered with gilding a statue of Alexander, and decapitated fine statues for the
purpose of substituting his own head for that of the original. The colossal statues of him-
self which he caused to be sculptured indicate a mind prone to vice and excess. The same
taste for exaggeration was carried into his buildings. His prodigality in every way was
inexhaustible ; he seems rather to have left monuments of expenditure than of taste. A
palace, which from its extraordinary richness has been called the Domus Aurea, was erected
for him by his architects Severus and Celer, than which nothing could be more brilliant
nor gorgeous ; beyond it no pomp of decoration could be conceived. In the midst of so
much wealth the only object of contempt was its possessor. The reader may form some
notion of it when told (Plin. lib. xxxvi.) that in finishing a part of it Otho laid out a sum
equivalent to near 4O4,OOOZ. sterling.
192. Galba, Otho, and Vitellius can scarcely be said to have reigned. It was reserved
for Vespasian and his son Titus, the tenth and eleventh Caesars, to astonish the city, and
indeed the world, by such masses of building in amphitheatres and baths as we may predict
it will never again see reared. The Coliseum (Jig. 110.), so named, according to some,
from its gigantic dimensions, but
according to others, with more
probability, from its proximity to
a colossal statue of Nero, was com-
menced by the father, and finished
by the son. According to Justus
Lipsius, the seats would hold
87,000 persons; to this number
Fontana adds 10,000, which the
upper porticoes would contain,
and 12,000 more in other parts;
making a total of 109,000 spec-
tators who could view at their
ease the sports and combats in
the arena. We do not think there
is much, if any, exaggeration in Fontana's statement, seeing that the building covers nearly
six English acres of ground. The reader will from the above description identify the
structure mentioned by Martial : —
Omnis Caesareo cedat labor amphitheatre,
Unum pro cunctis fama loquatur opus.
" Biennio post ac menses novem amphitheatri perfecto opere," is the expression of Victor
in respect to the time employed in its construction. Though the monument itself be
astonishing, still more so is it that such a mass should have taken only two years and nine
months in building, even with all the means that the emperors had under their power. We
shall reserve a more particular description of it for a subsequent page. In spite of the ra-
vages of time, and the hands, ancient and modern, which have despoiled it for its materials,
enough still remains completely to exhibit the original plan, and to enable the spectator
to form a perfect idea of the immense mass. The Baths of Titus were another of the
wonders of the age. The remains of them are not so perfect as others, but they are still
majestic. Besides the edifices erected by Vespasian and his son, they made it a part of
their duty to take measures for the preservation of those which existed, and were in need
of repair and restoration.
193. The last Caesar, Domitian, was of a disposition too wicked to be of service to his
country : his reign was, fortunately for it, but short. In the year 98, on the death of Nerva,
Trajan became master of the empire. He had served against the Jews under Vespasian
and Titus, and probably acquired from them and their example a great taste for archi-
tecture, in which he shed a lustre upon the country as great as his splendid victories over
the Persians and Dacians gained for it in the field. Of his works, which, as Gibbon says,
bear the stamp of his genius, his bridge over the Danube must have been a surprising
effort. According to Dio Cassius, this bridge was constructed with twenty stone piers in
Fig. 110.
TUB COLISEUM.
80
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
COLUMN OF TR/
the river, 150 ft. high and 60 feet wide, bearing arches of 170 ft. span. It was destroyed
by Hadrian, his successor : some say out of envy ; but the plea was, that it served the bar-
barians as an inlet to the empire, as much as it facilitated the passage of its troops to keep
them in subjection. His triumphal arches, his column (fig. 111.), and forum, and other
works, attest the vigour and beauty of the art under the
reign of Trajan. The forum was a quadrangle sur-
rounded by a lofty portico, into which the entrance was
through four triumphal arches, and in the centre was the
column. Apollodorus was his principal architect, by
whom was erected the column above mentioned, which
was not only the chef-d'oeuvre of the age, but has never
been surpassed. It is 110 ft. high, thus marking the
height of the hill that had been cut away to receive the
forum. " The public monuments with which Hadrian
adorned every province of the empire were executed
not only by his orders, but under his immediate inspec-
tion. He was himself an artist ; and he loved the arts,
as they conduced to the glory of the monarch. They
were encouraged by the Antonines, as they contributed
to the happiness of the people. But if they were the
first, they were not the only architects of their domi-
nions. Their example was universally imitated by their
principal subjects, who were not afraid of declaring to
the world that they had spirit to conceive and wealth
to accomplish the noblest undertakings. Scarcely had
the proud structure of the Coliseum been dedicated at
Rome, before edifices of a smaller scale indeed, but of
the same design and materials, were erected for the use
and al the expense of the cities of Capua and Verona. The inscription of the stupendous
bridge at Alcantara attests that it was thrown over the Tagus by the contribution of a few
Lusitanian communities. When Pliny was entrusted with the government of Bithynia and
Pontus, provinces by no means the richest or most considerable of the empire, he found
the cities within his jurisdiction striving with each other in every useful and ornamental
work that might deserve the curiosity of strangers, or the gratitude of their citizens. It
was the duty of the proconsul to supply their deficiencies, to direct their taste, and some-
times to moderate their emulation. The opulent senators of Rome and the provinces
esteemed it an honour, and almost an obligation, to adorn the splendour of their age and
country ; and the influence of fashion very frequently supplied the want of taste or
generosity. Among a crowd of these private benefactors, we select Herodes Atticus, an
Athenian citizen, who lived in the age of the Antonines. Whatever might be the motive
of his conduct, his magnificence would have been worthy of the greatest kings." We make
no apology for so long a quotation from the historian of the Decline and Fall, whose ex-
pressions are so suitable to our purpose. The family of Herod was highly descended ; but
his grandfather had suffered by the hands of justice ; and Julius Atticus, his father, must
have died in poverty, but for the discovery of an immense treasure in an old house, the
only piece of his patrimony that remained. By the law this would have been the property
of the emperor, to whom Julius gave immediate information. Nerva the Just, who was
then on the throne, refused to accept it, desiring him to keep it and use it. The cautious
Athenian hesitatingly replied, that the treasure was too large for a subject, and that he
knew not how to use it. The emperor replied, " Abuse it then, for 'tis your own." He
seems really to have followed the monarch's bidding, for he expended the greatest part of
it in the service of the public. This man's son, Herodes, had acquired the prefecture of the
free cities of Asia, among which the town of Troas being ill supplied with water, he ob-
tained from the munificence of Hadrian a sum equivalent to 100,OOOZ. sterling for con-
structing a new aqueduct. The work on execution amounted to double the estimate ; and
on the officers of the revenue complaining, Atticus charged himself with the whole of the
additional expense. Some considerable ruins still preserve the fame of his taste and muni-
ficence. The Stadium which he erected at Athens was 600 ft. in length, entirely of white
marble, and capable of recei ing the whole body of the people. To the memory of his
wife, Regilla, he dedicated a theatre, in which no wood except cedar was employed. He
restored the Odeum to its ancient beauty ana magnificence. His boundless liberality was
not, however, confined within the city of Athens. " The most splendid ornaments," says
Gibbon, " bestowed on the temple of Neptune in the Isthmus, a theatre at Corinth, a
stadium at Delphi, a bath at Thermopylae, and an aqueduct at Canusium in Italy, were
insufficient to exhaust his treasures. The people of Epirus, Thessaly, Euboea, Boeotia,
and Peloponnesus experienced his favours, and many inscriptions of the cities of Greece
and Asia gratefully style Herodes Atticus their patron and benefactor."
CHAP. II.
ROMAN.
81
194. Architecture was still practised with success under the Antonines, the successors of
Hadrian, among whom Marcus Aurelius was a great patron of the arts. On these history
almost instructs us, that the effect of the individual character of the sovereign, and the
general and leading circumstances of his reign, are so influential as to enable us from the
two last to estimate the prosperity of the first.
1 95. The rapidity with which after the time of Commodus, that most unworthy son of
a worthy father, the emperors succeeded each other, was as unfavourable for the arts as for
their country. A little stand was made against their rapid decline, under Septimius
Sever us, whose triumphal arch still remains as a link in the chain of their decay, and
perhaps the first. It is difficult to conceive how in so short a period from the time of
Marcus Aurelius, not thirty years, sculpture had so lost ground. In the arch commonly
called that of the Goldsmiths, the form and character of good architecture is entirely
obliterated. Its profiles are vicious, and its ornaments debased and overcharged.
196. The art was somewhat resuscitated under Alexander Severus, but it was fast follow-
ing the fate of the empire in the West, and had become almost lifeless under Valerian
and his son Gallienus, whose arch is an index to its state in his reign. The number of com-
petitors for the purple, and the incursions of the barbarians, were felt. Aurelian and
Probus suspended its total annihilation ; but their reigns were unfortunately too short to
do it substantial service. The extraordinary structures at Baalbec and Palmyra have been
referred, on the authority of a fragment of John of Antioch, surnamed Malala, to the age
of Antoninus Pius ; but we are inclined to think the style places them a little later than
that period. Baalbec, or, as its Syrian meaning imports, the City of Baal, or the Sun, is
situate at the north-eastern extremity of the valley of Becat or Beka, near that place
,1.. ..
n
i-s
where the two Lebanons unite, about fifty miles to the north-west of Damascus. The
tirst traveller who described it with accuracy was Maundrell, in his Journey from Aleppo
to Jerusalem, in 1697. It has,
however, been since visited, as well
as Palmyra, by Messrs. Wood and
Dawkins, in 1751, and by M.
Volney at a later period. The
principal building, the temple, is
of a rectangular form, and is seated
in the centre of the western ex-
tremity of a large quadrangular
enclosure, two of whose sides were
parallel to those of the temple ; and
parallel to its front was the third.
To this was attached an hexagonal
court, serving as a vestibule, in
front of which was the grand en-
trance portico. The length of the
quadrangle is about 360 ft. and
breadth about 350 ft. ( See/fy. 112.)
The temple, marked A, is, in round
numbers, 200 ft. in length, and
^___ 100 ft. in breadth; it was dipteral,
and had ten columns in front
and nineteen on the sides. That the reader may form some idea of the style, which was
to the last degree debased, and would not justify by any utility the extending this ac-
G
82 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
count, we have in fig. 113. given the sketch of a circular temple standing near the above.
Of Eniesa, the other celebrated Ccelo- Syrian city, not a vestige remains.
197. Of Tadmor, or Palmyra, denoting both in Syriac as well as Latin a multitude of
palm-trees, Solomon was said to have been the original founder. It lies considerably to
the east of Baalbec, and upwards of 200 miles from the nearest coast of Syria. Situate
between the Roman and Parthian monarchies, it was suffered to observe a humble neu-
trality until after the victories of Trajan ; when, sinking into the bosom of Rome, it
flourished more than 150 years in the subordinate though humble rank of a colony. " It
was during that peaceful period," observes Gibbon, " if we may judge from a few remain-
ing inscriptions, that the wealthy Palmyrenians constructed those temples, palaces, and
porticoes, whose ruins, scattered over an extent of several miles, have deserved the curiosity
of our travellers." The ruins of it were discovered by some English travellers towards
the end of the 17th century, and were more lately visited by the Messrs. Dawkins and
Wood, already mentioned. The power of Zenobia, who wished to shake off the sub-
jection to Rome, was insufficient to withstand the forces of Aurelian, and Palmyra
fell into his hands about the year 237. A slight sketch of the ruins (fig. 114.) is here
given. The style of architecture
is almost the same as that of Baal-
bec ; and, like that, so vitiated in
almost every profile, that we do
not think it necessary longer to
dwell upon it, although great the
extent of its ruins. In the same
way, we must pass over those of
Djerash, which were visited by Mr.
Barry, and of other considerable
cities, though some are said to con-
tain examples in a better and purer
Fig. 114. RUINS or PALMYRA. Stvle.
1 98. The reign of Dioclesian was extended, and was illustrious from his military exploits.
It was also remarkable for the wisdom he displayed in dividing with others the discharge
of duties he could not himself perform ; as well as, finally, by his abdication and retirement
to Spalatro. Architecture was, however, too far sunk for him to raise it ; and, though mo-
numents of great grandeur were reared by him in Rome and his native town of Salona, they
were degenerated by innovation and a profusion of ornaments which sometimes proved dis-
astrous to those beneath, upon whom they occasionally fell, but the taste for which, among the
Romans, had increased by their intercourse with the East. At a period when no sculptor
existed in Rome, this monarch raised the celebrated baths there which bear his name. His
palace at Spalatro ( fig. 115.) covered between nine and ten English acres. Its form was quad-
rangular, flanked with sixteen towers. Two of the sides were 600 ft., and the other 70O ft.
in length. It was constructed of stone little inferior to marble. Four streets, intersecting
each other at right angles, divided the several parts of the edifice ; and the approach to the
principal apartment was from a stately entrance, still called the golden gate. By compar-
ing the present remains with the Treatise by Vitruvius, there appears a coincidence in the
practice here with the precepts of that author. The building consisted of only one story,
and the rooms were lighted from above. Towards the south-west was a portico upwards
of 500 ft. long, ornamented with painting and sculpture. We do not think it necessary to
follow up further the decay of the arts in the West; it is sufficient to add that the fifth
century witnessed the contemporaneous fall of them and of Rome itself.
1 99. Towards the year 330, the seat of the Roman empire was removed to Constantinople,
where the reign of Constantine, though brilliant, was unsuccessful in restoring the arts,
upon which religious as well as political causes had begun to act. The establishment of
Christianity had less effect on architecture than on her sister arts. The new species of
worship could be performed as well in the old as in temples of a new form, or the old
columns might be employed in new edifices, in which, indeed, they were eminently ser-
viceable ; but statues of the gods were no longer wanted, and the sculptor's art was aban-
doned. The removal, however, of the government to the Bosphorus retarded the decline
of the empire in the East. Byzantium, on whose foundations was placed the city of Con-
stantinople, owed its origin to a colony of Megarians ; and little was it to be imagined that
its disasters would have closed in so glorious a termination as occurred to it. The ancient
city still continued to possess some splendid productions of the schools of Asia Minor, which
it almost touched, and in common with which it enjoyed the arts. Constantine profited
by the circumstance, restored the monuments, and transported thither the best examples of
sculpture.
200. Architecture was called in by the emperor to aid him in affording security, conveni-
ence, and pleasure to the inhabitants of the new metropolis. Vast walls surrounded the city ;
superb porticoes, squares of every kind, aqueducts, baths, theatres, hippodromes, obelisks,
CHAI-. II.
ROMAN.
*iiliiiiiitilHMimi*'Qiir tt t-tft -i-im-t-r 1 -i-i-r*-t
pr^n
0 ft ft Q 0
ft
ft ft t?t?0 ^
e
Wfi
']
V.
^Gft tTft ft
n
eBti7!!?
? ?
n
n
I. ^
I
n
r
Fie. 115.
triumphal arches, stately and magnificent temples, were provided for the public. Schools
of architecture, which none but persons of good birth were allowed to enter, were esta-
blished, with professors and prizes for the meritorious. From all this care, one might have
supposed a plentiful harvest would have been reaped. But, alas ! with all the expense, with
all the fine marbles that were employed, with the bronze and gold lavished on the
construction and decoration of the edifices erected, the art was not re-established on its
true principles. Every thing was rich ; but, notwithstanding the exaggerated praises of
the ignorant writers of the day, every thing was deficient in real beauty. Richness of
material will never compensate for want of elegance in form. " The buildings of the new
city," observes Gibbon, " were executed by such artificers as the reign of Constantine could
afford ; but they were decorated by the hands of the most celebrated masters of the age of
Pericles and Alexander. To revive the genius of Phidias and Lysippus surpassed, indeed,
the power of a Roman emperor ; but the immortal productions which they had bequeathed
to posterity were exposed without defence to the rapacious vanity of a despot. By his
G 2
84 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
commands the cities of Greece and Asia were despoiled of their most valuable ornaments.
The trophies of memorable wars, the objects of religious veneration, the most finished
statues of the gods and heroes, of'the sages and poets of ancient times, contributed to the
splendid triumph of Constantinople, and gave occasion to the remark of the historian
Cedrenus, who observes, with some enthusiasm, that nothing seemed wanting except the souls
of the illustrious men whom those admirable monuments were intended to represent."
201. In Rome, the triumphal arch erected in honour of Constantine presents, to this day,
an example of the barbarous and tasteless spirit of the age. It is nothing less than an
incongruous mixture, in sculpture and architecture, of two periods remote from each other.
But, discordant as the styles are, the absurdity of placing on it part of the triumphs of
Trajan, whose arch was robbed for the occasion, is still greater. Not only was Trajan's arch
despoiled of its has reliefs, but the columns and capitals, which the architect, from ignorance,
scarcely knew how to put together, were stolen for the occasion. We have used the term
ignorance of the architect, who, (if the monument were not standing, the fact could scarcely
be credited,) with the finest models before his eyes, placed modillions with dentils in the
cornice, and has used the same parts in his impost.
202. The partition of the empire at the death of Constantine was injurious as well to the
arts as to the empire; and at its reunion by Constantius in 353, he exhibited but little soli-
citude about their prosperity. On a visit of thirty days to Rome, he presented the city with
the obelisk that now stands in front of the Basilica of S. Giovanni Laterano. It had been
intended by Constantine for his new city ; and, after being brought down the Nile from the
Temple of the Sun at Heliopolis, was conveyed to the banks of the Tiber instead of those
of the Bosphorus. After being landed about three miles from the city, it was first elevated
in the Circus Maximus. This piece of granite is about 115 ft. in length.
203. Julian's name is in bad odour with the Christian world ; but he ought, neverthe-
less, to have justice rendered to him for his administration of the affairs of the empire, his
love of freedom, and his patronage of the arts. This emperor, at Constantinople, con-
structed some porticoes and improved the port ; and, even at so remote a spot as Paris, there
still remain the ruins of a palace and baths of his construction ; a circumstance which should
make his memory an object of respect, perhaps veneration, to the inhabitants of that city.
204. Under Valentinian and Valens the arts received little attention, though the former
manifested some care for them. Gratian was entitled to a sort of negative praise for
leaving the empire of the West to his brother Valentinian II., and that of the East to Theo-
dosius ; who, after the death of the former, held the sway of the whole empire, patronising
architecture, and erecting many large edifices in Constantinople. After this the empire was
lastingly divided. On the death of Theodosius, Arcadius succeeded him in the East, and
in the West Honorius, under whom, whilst he was ingloriously enjoying the pleasures and
luxuries of his palace at Ravenna, Alaric, king of the Visigoths, entered and pillaged Rome
in the year 410. Honorius raised or repaired several of the Basilica? at Rome ; among
them that of S. Paolo fuori le Mura ; and, in honour of the two emperors, a triumphal arch
was erected in the city in 406, but of this no remains are in existence.
205. After this time, for sixty years the empire of the West was in a state of distraction.
Nine princes filled the throne during that period, on and off the stage, rather like actors
than monarchs. But the extinction of the Roman name could be no longer protracted.
In 455, Genseric, king of the Vandals, gave up Rome for pillage to his soldiers for the
space of three days, and some years after, his example was followed by Ricimer. In 476,
the Roman empire in the West was annihilated.
206. We have thus, in this and the preceding section, shortly traced the history of Roman
architecture from its dawn among the Etruscans to the close of the regal power in Rome ;
and from that period to the time of its culmination under Augustus, an age of great splen-
dour in the art, comparable even with the best days of Athens, if allowance be made for
the respective habits of the nations and the climates under which they were placed. From
the zenith we have followed it in its setting under Dioclesian, and after that through its
crepusculum, which, in 476, was succeeded by total darkness ; a darkness, however, not
without meteors and coruscations which occasionally enabled us to enlighten the reader in
the journey he has undertaken with us. The revolutions, however, of empires, like those of
the globe on its axis, bring other dawns : such is the case with the arts, which follow those
revolutions ; and we shall hereafter have to record another dawn of them, which, like the
light of our great luminary, had its day-spring in the east, whence came the architects of
Venice and Pisa. But, before we approach that period, it will be necessary to take a cur-
sory glance at those monuments of Rome and other places under its dominion, in which the
ruins alone attest the extraordinary power and magnificence of that State, and to examine
the details of their construction as respects what simply presents itself to the eye.
207. We now, therefore, proceed to a view, 1. Of the religious buildings of the Ro-
mans in quadrangular and circular temples; 2. Of their public buildings in fora, triumphal
arches, bridges, aqueducts, theatres, amphitheatres, and baths and circi ; 3. Of their private
CHAP. II. ROMAN. 85
houses and tombs ; confining ourselves to those ruins in the city, and occasionally the pro-
vinces, which best illustrate the subject.
208. Temples 1. The quadrangular Roman temple partook very much of its Greek, or
perhaps Etruscan, original ; though occasionally, as in the Temple of Peace, there is a very
considerable deviation from the type. But the exceptions to the general rule are very
few indeed in number. The most beautiful temple of the Corinthian order that per-
haps ever existed in the world was the Temple of Jupiter Stator, in the Campo Vaccino
(Forum), at Rome. We adopt the name of Jupiter Stator, because by that, though
its propriety cannot be now ascertained, it is generally known. Recent excavations have
proved that it was an octastyle peripteral temple, with twelve columns in flank, and that
the cell occupied eight columns with their intercolumniations in depth. No Greek work
could surpass in elegance and beauty the profile of the Corinthian order employed in this
edifice. The capital, whether we consider it in design or execution, is unparalleled. At
the same time we must admit that it bears every mark of the improvements that had been
effected through the medium of Greek artists. Only three columns of it remain ; these
are 47*65 ft. high, their lower diameter being 4*84 ; so that, in terms of the diameter, the
columns are 9 -8 diameters high. The height of the entablature is a small fraction less than
one quarter the height of the column. The intercolumniations are, as nearly as possible,
1 '5 diameter of the column ; whence the size of the temple will be easily determined.
209. Almost at the foot of the Capitol, not far from the Temple of Jupiter Stator, stands the
Corinthian Temple of Jupiter Tonans, reputed to have been built by Augustus, of which,
as of the last, only three columns remain. This was an hexastyle peripteral (except on the
side towards the rock) temple, 1 15 ft. long and 92 ft. wide, measured from outside to outside
of column. The columns are 47 '08 ft. high, and their lower diameter is 4'60 ft. ; their
height, therefore, in terms of the diameter, is very nearly 10^- diameters. The height of
the entablature is 9'77 ft., or not quite one fifth of the height of the column. The inter-
columniations are T56 diameter. There is a tale in Suetonius, that Augustus had bells
suspended round this temple for the purpose of scaring the birds away, which their agita-
tion by the wind effected. The style of this temple is inferior to that last described, yet it
is not without beauty, though we must allow the cornice is, as compared with it, deficient
in effect.
210. The Temple of Mars Ultor was one of those erected by Augustus. Its profile ex-
hibits a fine and bold example of the Corinthian order. Its whole length was about 116 ft.,
and its breadth about 73 ft. The cornice of the entablature is wanting. The intercolumni-
ations are about 1| diameter.
211. In the Campo Vaccino are the remains of a Corinthian temple, built by M. Aurelius
in honour of Antoninus, his predecessor, and Faustina, the daughter of that emperor and wife
of M. Aurelius. It was prostyles and hexastylos • the columns are 46'10 ft. high ; the
entablature 11*03 ft. ; diameter of the columns 4*85 ft. ; and the intercolumniations, except
the centre one, which is wider thau the others, are 1^ diameter of the columns. From
the above it follows that the columns are 9^ diameters high, and the entablature rather less
than one fourth the height of the column. The frieze is ornamented with griffins and
candelabra in a very good style of art. It is not our intention to describe more than the
principal temples, with their parts, but to afford to the reader in this place a general view
of the art ; we shall therefore merely mention those of the Maison Carree at Nismes, and
the little edifice at Trevi, which last is erected in a very vitiated style : both are of the
Corinthian order, and quadrangular in form.
212. Rome is very poor in examples of Ionic temples, the only two remaining being that
of Fortuna Virilis and that of Concord ; the first not very pure in its detail, and the latter in
the very worst style. The Temple of Fortuna Virilis is of the species called prostyle and te-
trastyle ; that is, with four columns in front and seven on the sides, whereof the cell occupies
four intercolumniations. The height of the columns is 27*35 ft. ; the lower diameter of the
columns 3*1 1 ft.; and the height of the entablature 6'78 ft. A peculiarity has been no-
ticed in this example of the different centres of the ornamented members being ranged so
as to fall with exactness over the axes of the columns.
213. The Temple of Concord, which is a restoration, as the inscription on it proves, of a
former temple that stood on the spot, is most probably of the age of Constantine, and scarcely
deserves the notice here taken of it, except as a connecting link in the chain of art. It was
hexastyle and peripteral. The eight columns which remain are of red and white granite
of different diameters. The bases are Attic, and without plinths, except those of the angular
columns. The capitals are inelegant and clumsily sculptured. The mouldings of the
architrave have been chiselled away to form a plane surface for containing the inscription.
Modillions and dentils are met with in the cornice, and the frieze in the interior was
sculptured. The height of the columns is 42-86 ft., and their lower diameter 4-48 ft.; so
that they are about 9^ diameters high. The height of the entablature is 7 '2 ft., or about
one sixth of the height of the column.
G 3
86
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
2J4. The circular temples of Rome and its neighbourhood will next be mentioned. Two
of them, that of Vesta at Rome and of the Sybil at Tivoli, of the Corinthian order, are of
considerable antiquity. Their cells are cylindrical, and are supposed to have been covered
with domes resting on the walls, though that is by no means certain. The Temple of
Vesta is raised on three steps, whilst that of the Sybil is raised on a circular basement
about five feet high. Both the cella? are encircled about with a colonnade of the Corinthian
order. The capitals of the Temple of the Sybil are extraordinary as pieces of effective art.
The leaves of the capital, instead of being appKquees to the bell, as in other examples, are
in this cut into it, and impart a magical appearance to it. The tout ensemble of this
temple seems to have been conceived with an eye to its situation, and the order seems
calculated only for the spot on which it stands (see fig, 116.). The circular Temple
Fig. 116. TBMI
of Bacchus is of a late date. In its exterior there is nothing to remark, except that it has
lost a portico at its entrance which originally belonged to it. It consists of a central cir-
cular cell, if such it may be called, surrounded by a circular aisle, the former being
separated from the latter by twelve pairs of double columns, coupled in the direction of the
radii of the plan; from which columns arches spring, carrying a cylindrical wall 39*36 ft.
diameter, covered with a hemispherical dome 65 '6 ft. high from the pavement. The
aisle or corridor is 14-75 ft. wide, surrounding, as we have said, the double colonnade,
from which to the exterior wall is a semicircular vault, whose sofite is 32 ft. high from
the pavement. The Temple of Minerva Medica is in a very ruined state ; little more than
half of it is standing. It was, when perfect, of a cylindrical shape, 110ft. in diameter; but
the interior was formed
into ten plane vertical
faces, each whereof had a
semicircular recess open
towards the centre of the
building. A hemispherical
brick dome covered the
temple, whose vertex is
1 1 3 ft. from the pavement.
A semicircular wing, co-
vered by a hemispherical ly
formed vault, stood on
each side of the building,
but they are now in ruins.
Fig. 117. shows the ruin
as it was in 1816, from a
memorandum we then
made. A rectangular ves-
tibule with four Corin-
thian columns formed the
TKMPt.K OF
VFRVA MEDICA.
CHAP. II.
ROMAN.
87
entrance, and was surmounted by a pediment roof. The temple now stands in a private
garden.
215. We have reserved for the last example of a circular temple the celebrated Pantheon,
supposed to have formed at one time a portion of the baths of Agrippa ; but whether with
truth we must decline investigating, as unconnected with our present purpose. Our own
belief is, that the body of the temple was erected in the time of the republic with simple
large niches, as \nfigs. 1.18. and 119., in the left sides whereof it is shown as originally built,
and on the right sides as now standing,
and that the portico was appended
by Agrippa about A. n. 14, at which
time the columns were added to the
niches, and other alterations made, as
seen on the right half of the plan
and section. The interior is circular,
and about 139 ft. diameter, measuring
from inside to inside of the columns,
which are about 33 ft. high. At a
height of 75 ft. from the ground in
the interior springs the hemispherical
dome, which has five horizontal ranks
of caissons or panels, the top of the
dome being terminated by what is
technically termed an eye, or circular
opening, about 27 ft. diameter. All
that is found in the temple is of the
Corinthian order.
(216.) Fig. 120. is an elevation of
the Pantheon, with the portico of the
Parthenon below it, for the purpose
of comparing the relative sizes of the
porticoes of the two buildings. The
portico, it will be seen, is octastyle,
and projects 62 ft. from the circum-
ference of the circular part of the
edifice. The shafts of the columns
are plain, and the portico is sur-
mounted by a pediment similar
to that on the wall of the building.
The columns are 47'03 ft. high, and
their lower diameter 4 '79ft. The
entablature is 10-22 ft., or nearly, not quite a fifth of the height of the column. The
profile of the order is bold and well
conceived, and the execution in a
good style. It has been stripped of
its ornaments, many whereof were
bronze, by the cupidity of the pos-
sessors of power at various times.
Though the present interior is com-
paratively modern, we think it right
to give the following particulars of
the order : — The columns are 34 '67
ft. high, the lower diameter being
3-64 ft. The shafts are fluted, and
have what are called cablings up one
third of their height. It will be seen
on inspection of the plan that these
columns are placed in front of the
great niches. We are not aware that
the circumstance whereto we are
about to advert has been heretofore
noticed, and we give the result of our
calculation in round numbers only, as an approximation to the truth. The rules for
lighting apartments will form the subject of a future section. We shall here merely observe,
that the contents of the building, measuring round the inner convexity of the columns, and
not calculating the niches, is about 1,787,300 cubic feet, and that the area of the eye of the
dome is about 32 square ft., from which it follows that 2226 cubic ft. of space in this
building are lighted by 1 foot superficial of light. The building is neither gloomy nor
G 4
OF PANTHEON.
FANTHKON.
88
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
dark ; on the contrary a pleasant light is diffused throughout, and darkness is not found in
any corner of it. This is a subject well worthy of consideration, and one which we pro-
pose hereafter to turn to practical account.
Fig. 1<20.
PORTICO OK PARTHENON.
217. The Temple of Peace has been reserved by us to close the notices of the Roman tem-
ples, because of its deviation from the general form of other Greek and Roman temples, which
in the quadrangular species are so formed on one general plan that ab uno disce omnes is the
expression applicable to them. The Jigs. 121. and 122. represent the plan and section of this
building. The former will be seen
to have been rectangular, with a
porch extending along the whole
breadth of the building in front.
This was vaulted, the summit in-
teriorly being 35 ft. high; and in
front were seven semicircular-headed
apertures serving as entrances. The
length of the temple outside, not
including the depth of the porch,
was 294 ft. ; depth of the porch 30
\ ft. ; width of the building 1 97 ft. The
i temple was longitudinally divided
\ into three nearly equal parts, whereof
the central one was a rectangular
salone of the whole length of the
temple, whose breadth was one third
of its length. The roof of this was
a vault with three groins, formed
by the intersection of semicylindrical
vaults at right angles to the cen-
tral one. The height of the vaulting from the pavement was about 116 ft., and
appears to have been decorated with sunk panels. We shall not however pursue the
CHAP. II.
ROMAN.
89
Fiji. 12'2.
verbal description of this edifice, which will be much better understood by an inspection of
the diagrams. We will only add, that although the columns in the interior are entirely
gone, and the building is in a sad state of dilapidation, enough has been discovered to prove
that the restoration here submitted
to the reader is not very far from the
truth. In many cases the restorations
of Palladio, whose works it is the
fashion amongst half-instructed archi-
tects and still less informed amateurs
to decry, are not to be wholly relied
on in his capacity of antiquary, and
certainly must not be taken for granted ;
but his restoration of this temple cannot
widely differ from the truth. It ap-
pears to have been founded by Claudius,
and finished by Vespasian after the
conquest of Judea, and seems to have been the depository of the spoils of the temple at
Jerusalem. It is uncertain by what accident in the reign of Commodus it was destroyed,
but it is conjectured it was restored during his reign. It may not be here altogether out
of place to notice that the temple in question seems in some measure to have furnished the
hint for the nave of the Italian Duomo with its side aisles. It was but in the addition
of the transepts and choir, whose type is indicated even in the basilicas of the first
Christians, that a variation is to be seen. If the cross, however, be not sufficiently apparent
in the basilica, it cannot be mistaken in the churches but little later.
218. Fora. — 2. The Forum of the Romans is described generally in Vitruvius ( Book vi.
chap. 1.). He directs that it should be a large rectangular area, whose breadth is to be
about two thirds of its length. The basilica or court of justice, serving also as an exchange
for the merchants, is to be attached to it. The forum in a Roman city was the arena on
which business, politics, and pleasure were equally transacted, discussed, and enjoyed.
Among the Greeks it was called the ayopa, signifying a place in which the citizens were
collected. It is here to be observed, that the fora of the Romans were of two sorts : Fora
Civilia and Fora Venalia ; the former whereof were designed as well with the object of
ornamenting the cities in which they were erected, as for admitting a site for the public
courts of justice, and other public buildings ; the latter were intended to provide for the
necessities and conveniences of the inhabitants, and no doubt bore a resemblance to our
markets. The great Forum at Rome was seated between the Palatine and Capitoline
hills. Though its boundary cannot now be satisfactorily traced, there seems little doubt
that it included the Arch of Septimius Severus, the Temple of Concord, and the Curia or
seriate house, as well as the building of the Temple of Jupiter Stator, which has been above
noticed. Restorations of this have been imagined by more than one artist, and more par-
ticularly by an ingenious French artist of the name of Caristie, who has published a thin
folio volume on the subject, well deserving the attention of the architectural student ; but
as we shall presently place before the reader a forum from Pompeii in which less uncertainty
exists, we shall not stop here in our enumeration of the other fora of Rome. The Forum
of Nerva is said to have been 367 ft. long, and 164 ft. wide. At one end were five arched
entrances, and at the other the Temple of Nerva. The Forum of Trajan, built by the
emperor whose name it bears, was erected from the foreign spoils taken by him in his
wars. The coverings of its edifices were all of brass, and the porticoes and their columns
constructed in an exceedingly splendid style of execution. Ammianus Marcellinus (Hist.
lib. xvi.) describes, with much force, the delight of Constantius on contemplating it when
he made his triumphal entry into Rome. The representations make its length 1150ft.,
and its mean breadth about 470 ft. In it was the emperor's magnificent column (fig. 111.),
at one end was the Temple of Trajan, and at the other his Triumphal Arch. This Forum
contained the celebrated and splendid Basilica Ulpiana. The other example we shall
mention was at Fano, and we mention it because it contained a basilica by Vitruvius him-
self. He describes the portico of the Temple of Augustus as joining that side of the
basilica which was furthest from the centre of the Forum, and a temple of Jupiter as
standing at the opposite end. He goes on to describe the Treasury, Prison, and Curia,
as placed on the longer sides of the Forum exteriorly to the shops which surrounded the
area. The commentators on Vitruvius have been at considerable pains to make out the
plan of the basilica of this building from the verbal description of it by the author, —
perhaps none of them with greater success than old Daniel Barbaro.
219. But no words convey the description of a place so well as a diagram of the object
under consideration; and as there exists at Pompeii a forum so perfect, that all the rules
given by our great master are exemplified in it, we here place the plan (fig. 123.) of the
forum there before the reader, so that he may have a complete notion of the arrangement.
Entering from the gate of Herculaneum, the principal street leads to its north-west corner,
90
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
whence the access to it is by a flight of steps downwards, through an arch in a brick wall,
still partially covered with stucco. It has been conjectured with probability, that the en-
trances to it were occasionally closed, from the remains of iron gates having been found
at some of them. A smaller passage occurs to the right of the arch just mentioned, and
a fountain attached to the wall between them. A is supposed to have been a temple of
Venus ; B, a public granary ; C, a temple of Jupiter ; D, probably a Senaculum, or
council chamber ; E, a temple to Mercury ; F, a Chalcidicum ; G G, curia? ; H, treasury ;
I, triumphal arch ; K, araeostyle portico with ambulatory above.
JL * * * * 4
_— ^^- ^^a
TIE
*--- «^M
*
°rj a DO a ' ' ' "
y
j
t
I
gji cu FORUM n
a
I
•5
0 •
Pa
FORUM OF POMPEII.
Fig. 123.
220. Triumphal Arches. — The Romans were the first people who erected triumphal
arches ; their earliest examples being extremely simple and plain. A plain arch with a statue
of the victor and his trophies on the summit, was for a long period the only method practised.
The arch by degrees expanded in after times, the style became enriched, and the whole was
at length loaded with a profusion of every sort of ornament. Latterly they were a rect-
angular mass (see fig. 124. of the arch of Constantine), penetrated by three arches, a central
and two smaller side ones. The upper part consisted of a very high attic, frequently
covered with inscriptions and has reliefs, statues, triumphal cars and ornaments of that kind.
The keystones were sometimes decorated with figures of victory. Of the triumphal arches
that remain there are three classes: — first, those consisting of a single arch, as the arch of
Trajan at Ancona, and Titus at Rome; second, those in which there are two arches, as in
the example at Verona ; third, those with three arches, whereof the central was the prin-
cipal one, and those at the sides much smaller, as the arches of Constantine, Septimius
Severus, &c. The most ancient of the remaining arches is that of Augustus at Rimini.
It was erected on the occasion of his repairing the Flaminian way from that town to Rome.
The erection of these triumphal arches afforded the means of gratifying the extraordinary
vanity of the people with whom they originated. Many of them are in very had taste; a
remark that applies even to the Arch of Titus, which was erected before the arts had more
than begun to droop. The orders applied to them we do not think it necessary to de-
scribe in detail, because inapplicable except under precisely similar circumstances.
221. Bridges. — There is perhaps no single point in the history of architecture by which
the civilisation of a people is so easily recognised as by that of their bridges. Latterly, in
this country, the division of science as well as labour has so changed, that it seems almost
necessary to refer to other works for knowledge on this subject ; but as this is one in which
architecture in all its branches must be considered, we shall here, as in the other sections
of this work relating to the point in question, treat it in such manner as to give the
reader some notion of the subject. The history of the bridges in every nation is connected
with local causes, which have great influence on their construction ; and though in other
respects a nation may in the arts have attained a high pitch of excellence, yet it is possible
that in bridge building their progress may be very limited as respects science. The matter
CHAP. II.
ROMAN.
91
will depend entirely on the nature of the country. In our view of Grecian Architecture
this subject has not been even mentioned, and it is nearly certain that Greece boasts no
bridge whose date is anterior to its occupation by the Romans. But, independent of its
want of acquaintance with the arch, the circumstance may be accounted for by the country
not being intersected by any river of magnitude. Those to which one might be inclined
to attach the name of river, are rather mountain torrents than sheets of water rolling their
streams down to the ocean. A single arch in most cases would be all that was necessary
to connect opposite banks, and the rocks themselves would form abutments for the single
arch that was to connect them, without danger of failure.
222. In Italy, however, a country watered by many and considerable rivers, the study of the
architecture of bridges was indispensable, as well for the accommodation of the cities with
which it abounded, as for the service of the constant military expeditions of the restless and
craving people who inhabited its surface. From its very earliest foundation, no city in the
world would sooner have been placed in the predicament of requiring bridges than Rome
herself; besides which, skill was required in their construction over a river like the Tiber,
rapid and liable to be swelled by sudden floods. The earliest bridges of the Romans were of
timber : such was that which joined the Janiculum to the Mons Aventinus, called the Pons
Sublicius from the sublicae, stakes (Liv. i. c. 33. ), whereof it was composed. It is not here our
intention to enumerate the ancient bridges of Rome; but the ruins of those which have come
under our observation exhibit skill and science not inferior to the most extraordinary ex-
amples which modern art can exhibit ; witness the Pons Narniensis on the Flaminian way
near Narni, about sixty miles from Rome. It was built by Augustus, and at the present
day there remains, as though standing to mock modern science, an arch of a span of 150 ft.,
whose intrados is 100 ft. above the level of the river below. But of the works of this
kind executed by the Romans we know of none, either in ancient or modern times, that is
comparable with that erected by Trajan over the Danube, whose piers from their foun-
dation were 150ft. in height, and the span of whose arches was 170 ft., and to the
number of twenty. The bridge was 60 ft. in width. This work, whose existence is
scarcely credible, putting in the background all that of which in the present day it is our
habit to boast, is reputed to have been destroyed by Hadrian, the successor of its founder,
under a pretence that if the barbarians became masters of it, it might serve them as well
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
for making incursions on the empire, as for the empire in repressing those incursions. But
other less creditable motives have been attributed to Hadrian for its destruction, one of
them the envy he had of the name of its founder. There are still partial remains of an
ancient Roman bridge over the Tagus near Alcantara. This consisted of six arches, each
60 ft. span, extending altogether 800 ft. in length, and some of them 200 ft. high above
the river. We do not, in closing our brief view of the bridges of the Romans, more than
mention the extraordinary temporary bridge which Csesar threw over the Rhine.
223. Aqueducts. — It is obvious that of all the requisites for a city, the supply of
wholesome water is only equalled by that of discharging it, which latter we have before
seen was well provided for in the Eternal City. The aqueducts by which the Romans
supplied their cities with this necessary element, are among the largest and most mag-
nificent of their works. Their ruins alone, without other testimony, supply the means
of estimating their extraordinary power, skill, and industry. They are works which sink
into nothingness all other remnants of antiquity, not even excluding the amphitheatres,
which we shall soon have to notice, because they were for the comfort, not the pastime, of
the people. The earliest aqueduct was that of Appius Claudius, which we have above
noticed as constructed in the 44 2d year of the city. It conveyed the Aqua Appia to
Rome, from a distance of between seven and eight miles, by a deep subterraneous channel
upwards of eleven miles in length. We shall here digress for a moment, by observing that
upon the discovery of good water at a distance from the city at a much higher level than
the service therein indicated, it was the practice to supply by means of a channel raised at
any height as the case needed, through a stone-formed trough raised on the tops of arches
as the course of it required over valleys, and otherwise became necessary from the nature of
the face of the country, such a quantity as the source would afford. Hence the arcades
raised to carry this simple trough of supply were often of stupendous height, and their
length was no less surprising. In the present day, the power of steam has afforded other
means of supplying a great city with water ; but we much question whether the supply
afforded by all the concealed pipes of this vast metropolis can compete in refreshment
and general utility to its inhabitants with those at the present day poured into Rome,
without becoming a burthen to the respective inhabitants, and this principally from the
means which their predecessors provided.
224. The aqueduct of Quintus Martius, erected 312 years before Christ, is among the
most extraordinary of the Roman aqueducts. Commencing at a spring thirty-three
miles distant from Rome, it made a circuit of three miles, and then, after being conveyed
through a vault or tunnel of 16 ft. in diameter, continued for thirty-eight miles along a
series of arcades 70 ft. in height. It was formed with three distinct channels, one above the
other, conveying the water from three different sources. In the upper one was the Aqua
Julia, in the next the Aqua Tepula, and in the lowest the Aqua Martia. The Aqua
Virginia was constructed by Agrippa, and in its course passed through a tunnel 800 paces in
length. The Aqua Claudia, begun by Nero, and finished by Claudius, of which fig. 125.
shows several arches, conveyed water to
Rome from a distance of thirty-eight
miles ; thirty miles of this length was
subterraneous, and seven miles on arcades,
and it still affords a supply of water to the
city. The Anio was conveyed to Rome
by two different channels : the first was car-
ried over a length of forty-three miles,
and the latter of sixty-three, whereof six
AQUA CI.ALUU
Fig. 125.
miles and a half formed a continued series of arches, many of them upwards of 100 ft. in
height above the ground on which they stood. At the beginning of the reign of Nerva,
there were nine great aqueducts at Rome. That emperor, under the superintendence of
Julius Frontinus, constructed five others, and at a later period there were as many as
twenty. According to Frontinus (de Aquaeductibus) the nine earlier aqueducts supplied
14,018 quinaria daily, which are equal to 27,743,100 cubic ft. ; and it has been computed
that when all the aqueducts were in delivery, the surprising quantity of 50,000,000 of
cubic ft. of water was afforded to the inhabitants of Rome, so that, reckoning the popula-
tion at one million, which it probably never exceeded, 50 cubic ft. of water were allowed for
the consumption of each inhabitant. More magnificent Roman aqueducts are, however, to be
found in the provinces than those that supplied the city. That of Metz, whereof many of
the arcades remain, is one of the most remarkable ; extending across the Moselle, a river
of considerable breadth where it crosses it, it conveyed the water of the Gorse to the city
of Metz. From the reservoir in which the water was received, it was conducted through
subterranean channels of hewn stone, so spacious that in them a man might stand upright.
The arches appear to have been about fifty in number, and about 50 ft. in height. Those
in the middle of the river have been swept away by the ice, those at the extremities re-
maining entire. In a still more perfect state than that at Metz is the aqueduct of Segovia,
CHAP. II.
ROMAN.
93
of which one hundred and fifty of the arches remain, all formed of large blocks unconnected
by cement, in two ranks of arcades one above the other.
225. It has been conjectured that the causes for not carrying these aqueducts in straight
lines were first to avoid excessive height, where low grounds were crossed, and, secondly, to
diminish the velocity of the water, so that it might not be delivered to the city in a turbid
state. Along the line of an aqueduct, according to Montfauf on, at certain intervals, re-
servoirs called Castella were formed, in which the water might deposit its silt; these were
round towers of masonry raised of course as high as the aqueduct itself, and sometimes highly
ornamented. The same author observes that below the general bed of the channel, pits
were sunk for the reception and deposit of the earthy particles which the water contained.
Vitruvius directs the channels to be covered over to protect the water from the sun's rays,
and (lib. viii. chap. 7.) he moreover directs that when water-pipes are passed across a
valley, a venter should be formed, which is a subterranean reservoir wherein the water may
be collected, and by which its expansion may be diminished, so that the hydrostatical
pressure will not burst the joints. He also recommends that open vertical pipes should
be raised for the escape of the air which accompanies the water, a practice which the mo-
derns have found it necessary to adopt wherever it is necessary to bend pipes upwards, and
thus permit the escape of air, which would impede, and even stop altogether, the movement
of the water in them.
226. Theatres. — The earliest stone theatre of Rome, as we have before stated (185.),
was that of Pompey ; but it must be recollected that as there are notices in history of this
theatre having been more than once consumed by fire, there can be little doubt that a
portion, probably the seats and scenes, were of wood. The second theatre of stone was
raised by Julius Caesar, after which Augustus reared one in honour of Marcellus, the son of
his sister. The scanty ruins of this last enable one to do little more than trace its elevation,
and from their curve to compute its extent. There was no essential difference between the
form of the Roman and Greek Theatre, of which latter we have given a diagram in fig. 106.
We nevertheless think it right here to present the reader with one of the Roman Theatre
Jig. 126.), as nearly as it can be made out from the description of Vitruvius. (Book v.
Chap. 6. " The form of
a theatre," according to
that author, " is to be
adjusted so, that from the
centre of the dimension
allotted to the base of
the perimeter, a circle
is to be described, in
which are inscribed, at
equal distances from
each other, four equi-
lateral triangles whose
points must touch the
circumference of the cir-
cle." — " Of these tri-
angles the side of that
which is nearest the
scene determines the
face of it, in that part
where it cuts the cir-
cumference of the circle.
A line drawn parallel
to it through the centre
will separate the pulpitum of the proscenium from the orchestra. Thus the pulpitum be-
comes more spacious and convenient that that of the Greeks, because our actors remain
chiefly on the scena. In the orchestra are assigned seats to the senators : the height of its
pulpitum must not exceed 5 ft., so that the spectators in the orchestra may have a clear view
of the motions of the actors. The portions between the staircases (cunei) of the theatre are
to be so divided that the vertices of the triangles, that touch the circumference, may point to
the directions of the ascents and steps between the cunei on the first prcEcinction or story.
Above these the steps are placed alternately and form the upper cunei in the middle of those
below. The angles thus pointing to staircases will be seven in number, and the remaining
five will indicate certain points on the scene. That in the centre, for instance, is the situ-
ation for the royal door, those on the right and left the doors of the guests, and those at the
extremities the points at which the road diverges. The seats (gradns} for the spectators
are not to be less than 20 in. in height nor more than 22. Their width is not to be
more than 2^ ft. nor less than 2 ft. " Besides the theatres named, that of Cornelius
Balbus, built by him in honour of Augustus, was on a scale of considerable magnificence.
94 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
227. The large theatre at Pompeii, as was frequently the case, was formed upon the slope
of a hill, the corridor being the highest part, whence the audience descended to their seats,
and staircases were saved. The gradus at this theatre were about 1 ft. 3 in. high, and 2 ft.
4 in. wide, and from a part which is divided and numbered off, 1 ft. 3^ in. appear to have
been allotted to each spectator. There still remain some of the iron rings, for the reception
of the masts from which the velarium or awning was suspended.
228. Amphitheatres. — The amphitheatre was unknown to the Greeks. At an early period,
however, in Rome, human beings were compelled to fight for the amusement of spectators.
The taste for such spectacles increased with its indulgence ; but it was nevertheless not
until the time of the em-
perors, that buildings were
erected solely for exhibi-
tion of gladiatorial shows.
The principal amphithe-
atres, of which remains
still exist, are one at Alba,
a small city of Latium ;
another near the Tiber at
Otricoli ; one of brick
near the banks of the Ga-
rigliano ; one at Puzzuoli,
wherein parts of the ar-
cades and caves for wild
beasts still remain; one at Capua; another at Verona; a very fine one at Pola in Istria
(Jig. 127.). In France, Aries, Saintes Autun, Nismes, and Nice possessed amphitheatres.
In short, wherever the Romans went, they erected those extraordinary monuments of their
power and skill. But all that we have enumerated were far surpassed by the Coliseum,
which has been already briefly mentioned by us at page 79. The form of this building on
the plan is an ellipse, whose transverse exterior axis is 615 ft. and its conjugate 510 ft.,
covering therefore nearly six English acres of ground. The whole mass is placed on an
ascent of six stages, which encircle its whole circumference. In the centre is the arena, a
name which it received from being strewed with sand, the transverse and conjugate axes
whereof are 281 and 176 ft. respectively. Round the arena was a wall on which was the
podium or fence ; and immediately behind this wall all round was a row of cells in which
the beasts were placed preparatory to their entrance into the arena. In the rear of the
cells was a corridor from which vaults radiated in directions perpendicular or nearly so
to the curve of the ellipse, and serving to support the first moenianum or interior range
of seats. In some of these vaults were steps leading to the podium ; others were merely
passages between the first corridor and the next towards the interior. The second corridor
was lighted by apertures cut through its vault to the prcecinctio which separated the first
and second horizontal division of the seats. In rear of the second corridor, vaults again
radiated, in some whereof were steps leading to the second division of the seats, and in others
were galleries which led from the corridor to the double arcade, surrounding the whole
edifice. The description will be better comprehended by reference to figs. 128. and 129.,
in the latter whereof a portion of the exterior side is removed, to exhibit the section.
229. About the whole exterior of the building, there are three orders of columns rising
above each other, and one of pilasters crowning the whole. The columns are of equal
diameter, and are filled in between with eighty arcades in each story. The arches of these
arcades have all archivolt mouldings round them. Four of the arcades in the lower tier
were reserved for the admission of distinguished personages, the remainder for the populace ;
these last were called vomitoria, serving both for ingress and egress to and from the places
of the spectators, by means of steps under the vaults that supported the seats. The piers
which support the arches are 7 ft. 4. in. wide ; on each is a half column projecting from
the general face of the wall. The opening between the piers is 17 ft. 3-fe in. Impost
mouldings are placed at the springing of the arches, and encircle the building except where
interrupted by the columns and openings. The lower order resembles the Doric,
except that the frieze is without triglyphs and the cornice without mutules. Desgodetz
makes the height of the columns 27-63 ft., and their lower diameter 2-91 ft. Their
diminution is very small. The height of the entablature is 6 '64 ft., and the height,
therefore, of the whole order above the pavement is 34-27 ft. The second order is
Ionic, and stands on a dado 6 ft. high, broken under the columns to receive their
projection from the wall. The columns are 25-73 ft. high. The volutes of the capitals
are without ornament ; the eye being merely marked by a circle. The entablature is
6*64 ft. high, and its subdivisions are like that in the order below. There are neither
modillions nor dentils in the cornice. The height of the whole order is 38-37 ft. The
third order is Corinthian, standing on a dado 6*39 ft. high. The columns are 25*58 ft. high,
the entablature 6*59 ft., and the height of the entire order, including the dado, is 38 '57 ft
CHAI>. II.
ROMAN.
95
The upper story is decorated with a series of Corinthian pilasters on subplinths 2 -79 ft.
high, placed on a dado of the height of 7 ft. The height of the pilasters, which are lot
PLAN OF COI.ISBUM.
Fig. 128
diminished, is 28 ft., and the height of their entablature is 7 '37 ft. The frieze and archi-
trave are broken vertically in each interpilaster over three corbels, on which it is supposed,
Fig. 129.
SECTION AND ELEVATION OF COLISEUM.
running through the back part of the cornice, poles were placed for holding the velarium,
which was occasionally stretched over the building to protect the spectators from the sun
or rain. The whole height of the fa9ade above the steps was 162 ft. The columns project
rather more from the walls than their semidiameter ; and the faces of the walls are not in
the same vertical plane, but recede from it towards the interior of the building. The widths
of the piers vary in the different stories, being respectively from the lower part upwards as
8*71, 8 '38, and 7 '28 ft. Between the pilasters, in the fourth order, are square windows.
The velarium was attached to the poles round the circumference with a fall towards the
interior, so that the rain was delivered into the arena. The following has been supposed
as a method of spreading the velarium, of which Fontana gives a representation, but no de-
scription. To a cable placed round and made fast on the edge of the podium, and follow-
ing its curve, strong ropes were attached in the direction (on the plan) of the radiating walls.
These ropes passed through pullies in the poles, 240 in number, at the top of the building,
which rested on the corbels above mentioned, and thus raised the velarium to the required
height. It would follow the inclination of the seats, and the cloth, of whatever fabric or
materials it might be, being formed in gores equal on the outer edges to the distance of the
masts from each other, might move on the radiating ropes by rings attached to the edges of
96 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
each gore, so as to be moved backwards and forwards by persons stationed on the parapet.
Marine soldiers were employed for this purpose. The velarium was sometimes of silk, but
more usually yellow or brown woollen cloth. Nero once had a purple velarium stretched
across the building, representing the heavens with stars of gold on it, and a design em-
broidered thereon of the Chariot of the Sun.
230. It has been conjectured by some Roman antiquaries that the arena was boarded ;
and, from the changes that could be made on it in a very short period, the conjecture is
highly probable. Domitian covered it with water for the purpose of exhibiting marine
shows and naval fights. Sometimes it was changed into the representation of a forest with
wild beasts roaming about. These alterations were effected by means of machines called
pegmata. In particular parts of the building, pipes were provided for the distribution of
perfumes, which it was a common practice to sprinkle in showers ; but, on particularly
great occasions, the perfumes were allowed to flow down the steps or gradus of the amphi-
theatre.
23 1 . The conjecture relative to the boarded floor of the arena has been corroborated by
the discoveries made while the French had possession of Rome. They excavated the arena,
and found vaults and passages under its whole area. It is much to be regretted that these
inquiries were not carried on, owing to an accumulation of waters, for which nc drainage
having been provided, they became unwholesome from stagnancy, and it therefore was
necessary once more to close it again by obvious means. Great care was bestowed on the
drainage of this edifice, which was encircled by a large sewer for the reception of the
water of the interior drains, that were all conducted into it. Another drain, 30 inches
wide, was carried round under the second corridor, into which are conveyed the water
from the perpendicular conduits and that from the third corridor, whose drain is 3 ft. in
depth and 17 inches in width. The sides of these drains are lined with tiles. Another
drain runs on the outer side of the third corridor, and is of the same size as the last named.
Other drains communicate with these towards the arena in various directions.
232. Paoli thinks that amphitheatres were first used by the Etruscans, and by them
introduced into Rome ; that the people in question first exhibited their games in narrow
valleys, and that the spectators were ranged around on the sides of the hills ; that when these
sports were exhibited in cities, an arena was dug into the level ground, and the earth thrown
out was formed into seats ; and that when the community became rich enough, or the games
came to be held in greater esteem, the amphitheatre was enclosed with a wall, and the seats
formed of wood or stone. It certainly appears to us that Paoli's conjecture is reasonable,
and that Etruscan buildings or formations were the original type.
233. The amphitheatre at Nismes was capable of containing 17,000 persons : it was 400 ft.
long and 320 ft. broad. That at Verona, upon whose age antiquaries are divided in opinion,
some maintaining that it was built in the time of Augustus, and others as late as the time
of Maximian, Maffei making somewhat of a mean between the two periods, is of an ellip-
tical form, 508 ft. long and 403 ft. broad. It is in much better preservation than the
Coliseum. Its exterior wall has three stories of Tuscan pilasters on the face of the wall,
the two upper whereof stand on podia. Between these pilasters are arcades of semi-
circular-headed apertures. Maffei says, that allowing a foot and a half of room for each
person, this edifice would seat 22,000 spectators.
234. Baths. — Publius Victor says that the city of Rome contained public and private
baths to the amazing number of 850. Some of these we know, from their ruins, were
buildings of great extent and magnificence. They were all constructed, we mean the public
ones, on plans very similar; and, in order to a description of them, we give in fig. 130. a
restored plan of the baths of Caracalla, at Rome. Those of Titus and Dioclesian may
also be traced ; the chief others being those of Agrippa, Nero, and Domitian. The baths
of Antoninus Caracalla are thus described by Eustace (vol. i. p. 226.): " Repassing the
Aventine Hill, we came to the baths of Antoninus Caracalla, that occupy part of its de-
clivity, and a considerable portion of the plain between it, Mons Caeliolus and Mons
Caelius. No monument of ancient architecture is calculated to inspire such an exalted
idea of Roman magnificence as the ruins of their thermae, or baths. Many remain in a
greater or less degree of preservation ; such as those of Titus, Dioclesian, and Caracalla.
To give the untravelled reader some notion of these prodigious piles, I will confine my
observations to the latter, as the greatest in extent and as the best preserved ; for, though
it be entirely stripped of its pillars, statues, and ornaments, both internal and external, yet
its walls still stand, and its constituent parts and principal apartments are evidently distin-
guishable. The length of the thermae was 1840 ft., its breadth 1476. At each end were
two temples ; one to Apollo, and another to Esculapius, as the tutelary deities (genii tute-
lares) of a place sacred to the improvement of the mind and the care of the body. The
two other temples were dedicated to the two protecting divinities of the Antonine family,
Hercules and Bacchus. In the principal building were, in the first place, a grand circular
vestibule, with four halls on each side, for cold, tepid, warm, and steam baths : in the
centre was an immense square for exercise, when the weather was unfavourable to it in the
CHAP. II.
ROMAN.
97
X^^A
0 ^
A
f^T^'T^T''"^. .C T "F""^f"
i'[^-
FiR. 130.
open air ; beyond it a great hall, where 1 600 marble seats were placed for the convenience
of the bathers : at each end of this hall were libraries. This building terminated on both
sides in a court surrounded with porticoes, with a spacious odeum for music, and in the
middle a spacious basin for swimming. Round this edifice were walks shaded by rows of
trees, particularly the plane ; and in its front extended a gymnasium for running, wrestling,
&c. in fine weather. The whole was bounded by a vast portico, opening into exedra?, or
spacious halls, where the poets declaimed and philosophers gave lectures to their auditors.
This immense fabric was adorned within and without with pillars, stucco work, paintings,
and statues. The stucco and paintings, though faintly indeed, are yet in many places per-
ceptible. Pillars have been dug up, and some still remain amidst the ruins ; while the
Farnesian bull and the famous Hercules, found in one of these halls, announce the multi-
plicity and beauty of the statues which adorned the thermse of Caracalla. The flues and
reservoirs of water still remain. The height of the pile was proportioned to its extent, and
still appears very considerable, even though the ground be raised at least 12 ft. above its
ancient level. It is now changed into gardens and vineyards ; its high massive walls form
separations, and its limy ruins, spread over the surface, burn the soil and check its natural
fertility."
235. Returning to the plan of the baths in question, we have now to explain that the
circular apartment, lettered A, was called the solar cell. It was 111 ft. in diameter, and
contained the different Idbra of the baths. This solar cell, Spartianus says, could not be
equalled by the best architects of that age. The dome was lined with brass, of which ma-
terial also were the lattices to the windows. B, the apodyterium, or undressing room.
C, a xystus, or apartment for exercise in unfavourable weather. D contained the piscina,
or large reservoir for swimming. E, vestibule for spectators and the dresses of the bathers.
F, entrance vestibule of the therms, having libraries on each side. G G, rooms wherein
the athletae prepared for their exercises. H, a court, having a piscina for bathing in the
centre. I, ephebeum, place of exercise for the youth. K K, the elceotherium, or apartment for
anointing the bathers with oil. L L, vestibules. M, laconicum, an apartment so called, as
it is said, from the name of the stove by which it was heated, and from the custom of the
sudatio, or sweating, having originated in Laconia. N, caldarium, or hot water bath, which
was most frequented. O, tepidarium, or tepid water bath. P, frigidarium, or cold water
bath. Q, exedraR for seats for the use of the philosophers and their scholars. W, rooms for
conversation. R R, exedrce, or large recesses for the use of the philosophers. Y, conisterium,
or place where, after anointing, the wrestlers were sprinkled with dust.
236. We have just given the common explanation to the word laconicum ; but it is right
the reader should know that its true meaning is in some doubt. Galiani considers it a great
chamber wherein the people underwent sweating. To this Cameron adds, " I for myself
hold it certain that the apartment for this purpose has been by some authors improperly
termed ; the laconicum is nothing more than a little cupola which covered an aperture in
the pavement of the hot bath, through which the vivid flame of the hypocaustum, or
furnace, passed and heated the apartment at pleasure. Without thu means," continues that
author, " the hot bath would not have had a greater heat than the other chambers, the
H
P8 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
temperature of which was milder. I have been induced to form this opinion, not only
from the ancient paintings found in the baths of Titus, but also by the authority of Vitru-
vius, who says that the hot bath (concamerata sudatio) had within it, in one of the corners,
or rather ends, the laconicum. Now, if the laconicum was in the corner of the hot bath,
it is clear that it is not the bath itself, but merely a part of it ; and if, as others have thought,
it was the hot bath itself, to what purpose served the concamerata sudatio ? "
237. The baths and thermae of the Romans, like the gymnasia of the Greeks, were highly
ornamented with bassi relievi, statues, and paintings. The basins were of marble, and the
beautiful mosaic pavements were only equalled by the decorations of the vaults and
cupolas. Nothing more strongly proves the magnificence and luxury of the ancient
Romans than the ruins of the baths still to be seen in Rome. Agrippa decorated his baths
with encaustic paintings, and covered the walls of the caldarium with slabs of marble, in
which small paintings were inserted. All these luxuries were introduced under the em-
perors ; and the mere act of bathing, as described by Seneca in the instance of Scipio
Africanus, appears to have been almost lost in the effeminacy of the later practice. The
splendour of the places may be judged of by calling to the remembrance of the reader
that the celebrated statue of the Laoeoon was one of the decorations of the baths of Titus,
and that of the Farnese Hercules of the baths of Caracalla.
238. We have, in the section on Aqueducts (224.), stated the extraordinary quantity of
water with which the city was supplied by them, and there can be no doubt that the baths
caused a very great consumption of that necessary article of life. After the removal of the
empire to Constantinople, we hear of no thermae being erected ; and it is probable that at
that period many of those in the city fell into decay. The aqueducts by which they were
supplied were, moreover, injured by the incursions of invaders, another cause of the destruc-
tion of the baths. Remains of Roman baths have been discovered in this country, for
descriptions whereof the reader is referred to the Archaologia.
239. We shall conclude our observations on the Roman baths by the mention of some
curious paintings in the baths of Titus, very similar in their features to those found in
places on the walls of Pompeii ; we allude to representations of slender twisted columns,
broken entablatures, and curvilinear pediments, columns standing on corbels attached to
the walls, a profusion of sculpture, with fantastic animal figures and foliage, and many
other estravaganzas, which found imitators after the restoration of the arts, and, in some
cases, with great success.
240. Circi. — The circus of the Greeks was nothing more than a plain, or race course ;
from its length called 'S.TaSiov (stadium) ; as also KipKos, from its oval figure. With the
Romans it became a regular building of great dimensions and magnificence. The Circus
Maximus, constructed originally in a rude manner by Romulus, and afterwards rebuilt by
the elder Tarquin, is, in its external dimensions, computed to have been 2000 ft. long and
550 ft. broad, consisting of two parallel walls in the direction of its length, united at one
extremity by a set of apartments, called carceres, arranged in the form of the segment of a
circle of about 430 ft. radius ; and, at the opposite short end, by a semicircular enclosure.
The carceres contained the chariots ready for starting. The arena, or space thus enclosed,
contained a long low wall called the spina, 1300 ft. in length, running along its longitudinal
axis, and commencing at the centre of the semicircular end, having a meta, or goal, at
each of its extremities. Like those of the theatre and amphitheatre, the seats of the spec-
tators were placed round the arena with a podium in front ; between which and the spina
tlie races of the chariots were exhibited. The circus of Nero was nearly of the same form,
Lut neither so long nor so broad, being only 1400 ft. in length and 260 in breadth, and
its spina but 800 ft.
2^1. The remains of the circus of Caracalla, of which Bianconi has given a very good
account, are still sufficiently abundant to trace the plan (fig. 131.). It was nearly of the
same dimensions as that of Nero. There are in this building some curious examples of
lightening the spandrels of the arches over which the seats were constructed, by filling them
in with light vessels of pottery ; a practice which has been partially adopted in some
modern buildings, and is still usefully practised on the Continent. Generally speaking,
the circus was a parallelogram, whose external length was from four to five times its breadth.
It was surrounded by seats ranged above each other and bounded by an exterior wall,
probably pierced with arcades. The spina was about two thirds the length of the building,
and was ornamented with statues, obelisks, and other ornaments, terminated at each end by
the meta, which consisted of three obelisks or columns. The carceres were closed by gates
in front and rear, which were not opened till the signal was given for starting. In the
circus of Caracalla, it will be seen that these carceres were placed obliquely to the long
sides of the edifice, so as to equalise the length of their course from the starting point to
the goal. So that it would seem there was as much nicety in a chariot race of old as
in a modern horse race.
242. Private Houses. — The domestic architecture of the Romans possesses great interest ;
the general instructions spread over the sixth book of Vitruvius upon their parts and pro-
CHAP. II.
ROMAN.
99
at A
UE-
Fig. 131. TTAK 07 CIRCUS OF CAH ACAIJ.A.
portions have received much illustration from the
discoveries at Pompeii ; and it is pleasant to find
that, following his merely verbal directions, a build-
ing might be planned which would correspond
as nearly with what we now know was the case,
as two houses, even in a modern city, may be ex-
pected to resemble one another. In the following
observations we have used most abundantly the ele-
gant little work of Mazois (Le Palais de Scaurus,
2d ed. 8vo. Paris, 1822), and feel a pleasure in thus
acknowledging our obligations to that author ; but,
before more immediately using his observations on
the later habitations of the Romans, we shall pre-
mise that until after the war of Pyrrhus, towards the
year 280 B.C., the use of tiles as a covering for them
appears to have been unknown. Till then thatch or
shingles formed the covering of the houses. They
consisted of a single story ; for, according to Pliny
(lib. xxxiv. c. 15.) and Vitruvius (lib. ii. c. 8,), a law
was in force forbidding walls of a greater thickness
than one foot and a half; whence it is clear they
could not have been safely raised higher than a
single story with the unbaked bricks then in use.
But the space within which the city wasconfined, with
an increasing population, rendered it necessary to pro-
vide in height that which could not be obtained in area;
so that, in the time of Augustus, the height of a house
was limited to 70 ft. (AureL Viet.; and Strabo, lib. v.)
243. The extraordinary fortunes that were realised
in Rome towards the last years of the republic, when
the refinements of the arts of Greece were introduced
into the city, soon led its more favoured citizens to
indulge in architectural splendour. Luciu% Cassius
bad decorated his dwelling with columns of foreign
marble ; but all other private edifices were thrown
into shade by that of Scaurus, in which were em-
ployed black marble columns of the height of 38 ft.
Mamurra lined his apartments with marble; and,
indeed, such was the prodigality, for it deserves that
term, of the Romans, that Pliny (lib. xvii. c. 50.)
tells us of Domitius Aheiiobarbus having offered a
sum equivalent to 48,500i sterling (sexagies sester-
tium) for the house of Crassus, which was refused.
Their villas were equally magnificent. Cicero had
two of great splendour — his Formian and Tusculan
villas; but these were exceeded in beauty by those of
Lucullus and Pollio, the latter near Posilippo, where
some remains of it are still to be seen. Though
Augustus attempted to stop this extraordinary rage
for magnificence, he was unsuccessful; and the ex-
amples which were afforded by later emperors were
unlikely to restrain the practice where the means ex-
isted. In the Domus Aurea of Nero, domestic archi-
tecture appears, from all accounts, to have reached
the utmost degree of splendour and magnificence.
244. In the better class of Roman dwellings, cer-
tain apartments were considered indispensable ; and
these, in different degrees of size and decoration,
were always found. There were others which were
or were not so found, according to the wealth and
fancy of the proprietor. Thus, every private house
of any pretension was so planned that one portion
was assigned to the reception of strangers, or rather
for public resort, and the other for the private use
of the family. The public part was destined for the
reception of dependants or clients, who resorted to
the house of their patron for advice and assistance.
II 2
100
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
The number of these clients was honourable and useful to the patron, as they might, in
civil matters, be depended on for their votes. Hence lawyers especially had their houses
thronged with them ; and it is amusing in the present day to see the term of client still
kept up among our barristers : for although his state of dependence has lost nothing of
its extent, the eminence of the patron is now measured by the quantity and amount of fees
his clients enable him to consume. Vitruvius describes the public portion as consisting of
the portions, vestibulum, cavcedium or atrium, tablinum, alee, fauces, and some few others,
which were not added except at the especial desire of the party for whom the building was
to be erected.
245. The parts which were sacred to the
use of the family were the peristyle, the cu-
bicula (sleeping apartments), the triclinium,
the ceci, the pinacothecce, or picture galleries,
the bibliotheca, or library, baths, cxedrm,
xysti, and others.
24 G. In the more extended mansions of
the Romans was an area, surrounded on two
sides by porticoes and shops, and ornamented
with statues, trophies, and the like, and on
the third (the fourth being open) was the
decorated entrance or portico of the house.
But in smaller dwellings this entrance or
portico was in a line with the front of the
houses in the street ; the vestibule or pro-
tltyrum (fig- 132. ) being in the Roman houses
merely a passage room, which led from the
street to the entrance of the atrium. In
this vestibule, or rather by its side, the os-
tiarius or porter was stationed, as in French
houses we find a concierge. When there
were two courts, we are inclined to think
that the one nearest the street was called
the atrium, and the farthest from it the ca-
vcedium ; but in many cases we also think
that the atrium served equally as a cavaedium
according to the owner's rank. The explan-
ation of Varro will certainly answer for one
as well as the other. It may be that the
cavaxlium was a second atrium of larger
size.
247. Of the atrium Vitruvius describes five sorts: 1. The Tuscan, wherein the pro-
tecting roof was a sort of pent-house on the four sides, supported by beams framed at
right angles into each other ; the space in the centre forming the compluvium, and the
basin or area in the centre the imphn-inm. 2. The tetrashjk atrium (one with four
CHAI-. II.
ROMAN.
101
columns), which was similar to the Tuscan, except that the angles of the beams of the roof
or pent-house rested on four columns. 3. The Corinthian atrium (Jiff. 133.), which dif-
fered only from the last in its size, and the number of its columns. 4. The atrium dis-
pluviatum in which the slope of the roofs was towards the body of the building. 5. The
atrium testudinatum, which was covered with a ceiling, and with nothing more than an
aperture therein to afford light. The compluvium was sometimes (Plin. xix. c. i.)
provided with a sort of awning. The roof of the four sides of the atrium was covered
with ornamental tiles, the eaves' faces whereof were terminated between their sloping junc-
tions with carved faces called antefixce, similar to those in the roofs of the Grecian tem-
ples. The atrium was, moreover, frequently embellished with fountains. It was in the
atrium that the splendid columns which we have mentioned, as decorating the house of
Scaurus, were placed. The walls were either lined with marble or painted with various
devices, and the pavement was decorated with mosaic work or with precious marbles.
248. The tablinum, which usually opened towards the atrium, seems to have been a sort of
levee room, wherein the master of the mansion received his visitors or clients, lists of whom
were therein recorded, and where the maestro di camera announced their names. Some
have thought, and we do not say they are wrong, that this apartment contained (which it
might also do without affecting the truth of the first supposition) the family archives,
statues, pictures, pedigree, and other appurtenances incident to a long line of ancestors.
249. The apartments on the sides right and left of the tablinum were called, as their
name signifies, alee. These were also furnished with portraits, statues, and other pieces re-
lative to the family, not omitting inscriptions commemorative of actions worthy their name.
250. Two corridors, one on each side of the atrium, which led to the interior" of the house
from the atrium, were called fauces (jaws).
251. In houses of moderate dimensions, chambers were distributed round the atrium for
the reception and lodging of strangers ; but
in establishments of importance, wherein the
proprietor was a person of extended con-
nexions, there was a separate Jiospitium ap-
propriated to that purpose.
252. We have stated that the peristyle was
a portion of the private part of the house.
It was mostly, if not always, placed beyond
the atrium, with which it communicated by
means of the tablinum and fauces. Similar
in general form and design to the atrium, •
for it was surrounded by columns (see Jig.
134.), it was larger than that apartment.
The centre was usually provided with a par-
terre in which shrubs and flowers were dis-
tributed, and in its middle a fish pool. This
portion of the peristyle was called the xystus
(Pitr. lib. vi. c. 10. ). In better houses
there was an ante-room called procveton, to
each of the bed-chambers, of whose arrange-
ment very little is known. The triclinium
(rpeis KXivai, three beds), or dining-room,
was so called from its having three couches
round the table on which the dinner was
served ; the fourth side being left open for
the servants (see fig. 135.). It was raised
two steps from the peristyle, and separated
from the garden by a large window. Winter triclinia were placed towards the west, and
those for summer to the east. In large houses there were several triclinia, whose couches
would contain a greater or less number of people. The ceci were large salons or halls,
of Greek origin, and, like the atria, were of more than one species ; as for instance the
tetrastyle, the Corinthian, and the Egyptian. " There is this difference," observes Vi-
truvius (lib. v. cap. 6.), " between the Corinthian and Egyptian oecus. The former has
a single order of columns, standing either on a podium or on the ground, and over it
architraves and cornices, either of wood or plaster, and a semicircular ceiling above the
cornice. In the Egyptian oecus, over the lower column, is an architrave, from which to
the surrounding walls is a boarded and paved floor, so as to form a passage round it in the
open air. Then, perpendicularly over the architrave of the lower columns, columns one
fourth smaller are placed. Above their architraves and cornices, they are decorated with
ceilings, and windows are placed between the upper columns. Thus they have the appear-
ance of basilica? rather than of Corinthian triclinia." The rccus, called Cyzicene by the
Greeks, was different to those of Italy. Its aspect was to the north, towards the °-ar-
II 3
102
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
Fig. 135.
dens* and had doors in the middle. It was
made long, and broad enough to hold two
triclinia opposite to each other. The Greek
cecus was not, however, much used in Italy.
The pinacotheca (picture room), where pos-
sible, faced the north : both this and the bib-
liotheca (library), whose aspect was east, do
not require explanation. The exedrcs of the
Roman houses were large apartments for
the general purposes of society. The upper
stories of the house, the chief being on
the ground floor, were occupied by slaves,
freedmen, and the lower branches of the
family. Sometimes there was a solarium
(terrace), which was, in fine weather, much
resorted to.
253. Fig. 136. is a plan of the house of
Pansa at Pompeii, by reference to which the
reader will gain a tolerable notion of the
situation of the different apartments whereof
we have been speaking. A is the prothyrum,
which was paved with mosaic. B B B B, Tuscan atrium, in whose centre is the com-
pluvium or basin (b) for the reception of the water from the roof. One of the proportions
assigned to the atrium by Vitruvius is, that the
length shall be once and a half the breadth ;
and here it is precisely such, c, a pedestal or
altar of the household god. C C, ala;. They
were on three sides surrounded by seats, and, from
Sir W. Gell's account, are analogous to similar re-
cesses in the galleries of Turkish houses, with their
divans : the thresholds were mosaic. Vitruvius
directs them to be two sevenths of the length of the
atrium ; which is precisely their size here. D, ta-
blinum. It was separated from the atrium by an
aulseum, or curtain, like a drop scene. Next the
inner court was sometimes, perhaps generally, a
window, occupying the whole side. The tablinum
was used as a dining-room in summer. E E E E,
peristyle, which, in this example, exactly corre-
sponds with the proportions directed by Vitruvius.
F F F F were domestic apartments, as penaria,
or cubicula, or cellae domestics. G, probably
the pinacotheca, or apartment for pictures. H,
fauces, or passage of communication between the
outer and inner divisions of the house. I, cubi-
culum. Its use cannot be doubted, as it contains a
bedstead, filling up the whole width of the further
end of it. K, triclinium, raised two steps from the
peristyle, and separated from the garden by a large
window. In this room company was received,
and chairs placed for their accommodation. L L L,
exedrae. M M M, cellae familiarise, or family cham-
bers : the further one had a window looking into
a court at d. N, lararium or armarium, a recep-
tacle for the more revered and favourite gods.
O, kitchen with stoves therein, and opening into a
court at e, and an inner room P, in which were
dwarf walls to deposit oil jars. Q, fauces con-
ducting to the garden. Along the back front,
R R R R, is a portico or pergula, for training
vines and creepers on the back front of the
house, before the windows of the triclinium. S S :
these two rooms, opening into the pergula, were,
it is presumed, cubicula. T T, &c. : the apartments
thus marked seem to have constituted a distinct
portion of the house, and communicated with the
street by a separate door. That they were in-
FLAN OF HOUSE OK FANSA
CHAP. II.
ROMAN.
103
eluded in the establishment of Pansa seems certain, from their being connected with the
peristyle by the large apartment U. On excavating here, four skeletons of females
were found marked by their gold ear-rings ; also a candelabrum, two vases, a fine
marble head of a faun, gold bracelets, rings with engraved stones, &c. &c. V V V are
shops, which appear, by the remains of staircases, to have had apartments above. They
contain dwarf walls for ranging oil jars and other goods against. W W, &c. are dif-
ferent shops. One is of a baker, and to it the necessary conveniences are appended. X X,
apotheca or store-rooms. Y is the bakehouse, containing the oven Z, the mills, a
kneading trough, &c. : it is paved with volcanic stone in irregular polygons, g g, place for
the wood and charcoal, h appears to have been almost a distinct dwelling : two of the
apartments had windows to the street, which runs southward to the forum, f f f, entrances
from the street to the house of Pansa. The house was surrounded by streets, or, in other
words, was an insula. We have thus named the principal apartments, and identified them
by an example. In more magnificent houses there were the sacrarium, the venereum, the
sphamsterium, the aleatorium, &c. &c. The painting fiy. 137. is in the kitchen of the
house of Pansa, and represents the worship of the lares, under whose care and protection the
provisions and cooking utensils were placed.
PAINTING AT POMPEII.
254. Tombs The Romans were rather given to magnificence in the tombs erected for their
dead. Some of these were public, and others for the interment of individuals or families.
The former were often of vast extent, and have been compared to subterranean cities ; the
others were pyramids, conical and cylindrical towers, with ranges of vaults in them for
sepulture.
255. Perhaps the earliest tomb at Rome is that of the Horatii, which stands on the Ap-
pian Way, and was probably constructed by Etruscan workmen. It has a basement 45 ft.
square on the plan, on which stand five masses of rubble or earth, faced with masonry,
in the form of frusta of cones, four of which are ten feet diameter at the bottom, and are
placed at the four angles of the basement. The fifth stands in the centre of the whole
mass, and is larger than the others.
256. The principal tombs about Rome are, 1. The pyramid of Caius Cestius, whose sides
are 102 ft. long, and its height about the same number of feet. The interior contains in
the centre a rectangular cell, 20 ft. long, and 13 ft. broad. At each external angle of this
pyramid stands a Doric column, without any portion of entablature over it. It is
possible these were intended as ornaments, though it has often puzzled us to find out how
they ever could have been so thought. 2. The tomb of Adrian, now converted into the Castel
St. Angelo, had originally a square basement, whose sides were 170 ft. long. From this
substructure rose a cylindrical tower, 1 15 ft. diameter, probably at one time encircled by a
colonnade. It is now used as a fortress, and was considerably altered by Pope Paul III.
3. The mausoleum of Cecilia Metella is a circular building, 90 ft. in diameter, and 62 ft,
high, standing on a basement of the same form. Up to the frieze the tomb is of Tra-
vertine stone, but the frieze itself is of marble, with sculptured rams' heads and garlands.
In what may be called the core is a cell, 19 ft. diameter, to which there is an entrance by
a passage on the exterior.
257. We do not, however, think it .necessary further to detail the Roman tombs which
may be found in Rome or the provinces, but, in lieu of extending our description on this
H 4
104
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
head, to give the reader a notion of their forms in Jig. 138. by a group from Pompeii,
among the remains of which
city there are a great many
and various examples. They
are in general of small dimen-
sions, and stand so near one
another as to form a street,
called the Street of the
Tombs. Some of these are
decorated very highly, both
as respects ornament in the
architecture and bassi relievi
on the different faces. The
Romans were particular in
keeping alive the memory
of the dead, hence their
tombs were constantly looked
after and kept in repair ; a
matter which, in this country
of commerce and politics,
a man's descendants rarely
think of, after dividing the
Fig. 138. T,.»I..:S AT P..MI-KM. spoil at his death.
2/J8. Character of Roman Architecture. — The character of the Roman architecture in its
best period was necessarily very different from the Grecian, on which it was founded. We
envy not those who say that they feel no beauties except those which the pure Grecian
Doric of the Parthenon possesses. Each style, in every division of architecture, has its
beauties ; and those, among other causes, arise from each style being suited to the country
in which it was reared ; neither can we too often repeat the answer which Quatremere de
Quincy gives in the Encyclopedic Methodique to the question many years since propounded by
the French Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres, " Whether the Greeks borrowed
their architecture from the Egyptians ?" The answer of that highly talented writer is,
" That there is no such thing as general human architecture, because the wants of mankind
must vary in different countries. The only one in which the different species of archi-
tecture can approach each other is intellectual ; it is that of impressions, which the qualities
whose effects are produced by the building art can work upon the mind of every man, of
every country. Some of them result from every species of architecture, — an art which
sprung, as well from the huts of Greece, as from the subterraneous excavations of Egypt,
from the tents of Asia, and from several mixed principles to us unknown. Thus the use of
the word architecture is improper. We ought to name the species ; for between the idea of
architecture as a genus and as a species there is the same difference as between language
and tongue ; and to seek for a simple origin of architecture is as absurd as a search would
be after the primitive language. If so, the hut of Vitruvius would be but an ingenious
fable, as some have said ; but it would be a ridiculous falsehood if he had pretended that it
was the type of all architecture." If we must confine ourselves to the simplicity and
purity of line which the Greek temple exhibits, — circumstances, be it observed, that no future
occasion can ever again effectually call up, — all the admiration of the numberless monu-
ments of the Romans is based upon false data, and we are not among those who feel inclined
to set ourselves up against the universal consent of our race. Thus far we think it neces-
sary to observe on the silly rage which a few years ago existed for setting up in this
metropolis pure Greek Doric porticoes and pure Greek profiles. What could more
exhibit the poverty of an artist's imagination, for instance, if the thing exist, than appending
to a theatre the Doric portico of a temple ? But the thing is too ridiculous to dwell on,
and we proceed to our purpose. Whether the Romans invented the Tuscan order we much
doubt. No example of it exists similar in formation to that described by Vitruvius : it
must, however, be admitted that it is a beautiful combination of parts, and worthy so great
a people. It seems highly probable that this order was used by the Etruscans, and that to
them its origin is attributable. The use of timber in the entablature, which we know was
practised by them to a great extent, seems to sanction such an hypothesis. Its detail, as
well as that of the other orders of architecture, belong to another part of this work ; we
shall not therefore further speak of it than in the language of Sir Henry Wotton, who
says, with his usual quaintness and simplicity, that it is a sturdy labourer in homely
apparel.
259. The Doric order with the Romans was evidently not a favourite. In their hands
its character was much changed. The remains of it in the theatre of Marcellus, in the
examples at Cora and Pompeii, and the fragment at the baths of Dioclesian, are not sufficient,
the case of the first only excepted, to justify us in detaining the reader on the matter. The
CHAP. II.
ROMAN.
105
lower order of the Coliseum, be it observed, wants the triglyph, the distinguishing feature
of the order ; so that although in a previous page we have described it as Doric, we
scarcely know whether we have not erred in our description. But to approach the subject
of the Roman Doric more closely, we will examine the general form of the example which
the theatre of Marcellus affords. Therein the whole height of the order is 31-15 ft.
whereof the entablature is rather more than one fifth, and the columns are 7 '8 6 diameters
high. From the intercolumniations nothing can be deduced, because the arcade which
separates puts them out of comparison with other examples. Its profile is clearlv that
which has formed the basis upon which the Doric of the Italian architects is founded ; they
have, however, generally added a base to it. There is great difference between it and the
Grecian Doric, which in its form is much more pyramidal, and would, even in ancient
Rome, have been out of character with the decorations applied in the architecture of the
city, in which all severity of form was abandoned. The details, however, of the Roman as
well as of the Grecian Doric will be given, and, from the representations, better understood
by the reader, when we come to treat of the Orders in the third book of this work, where
some varieties of it are submitted to the reader.
260. In the examples of Roman Ionic, that of the theatre of Marcellus excepted, there is
a much greater inferiority than in the instance of Roman Doric to which we have just
alluded ; indeed, that of the Temple of Concord is composed in so debased a style, that it
ought scarcely to be alluded to. The following table exhibits the general proportions of
the four Roman profiles of it : —
Height di-
vided by
lower Dia-
meter in En-
glish Feet.
Dia-
meters in
Height.
Entabla-
ture in
Terms of
the Dia-
meter.
Inter-
colum-
niation.
Height of
Capital in
Terms of
the Dia-
meter.
Upper
Dia-
.m-t( r of
Shaft.
Fortuna Virilis (Temple of) -
Concord (Temple of)
Marcellus (Theatre of)
Coliseum - -
27-348 _
3'I09 ~
42 861
"4486 "
23'940
'reso =
25731
2'91
8-796
9-554
9-OOO
8-842
2-182
1-605
2-391
2-280
2-125
1-807
•457
•500
•557
•466
•874
•825
•842 .
•833
261. From the above it appears that, except in the case of the Temple of Concord, the
entablature is about one fifth of the height of the whole order, and that the column diminishes
about -ffJQ of its lower diameter. The capitals of the Roman are much smaller than those
of the Grecian Ionic, and their curves are by no means so elegant and graceful. There is
no appearance of refinement and care in their composition, than which the rules of Vitruvius
give an altogether much more beautiful profile than those examples we have here quoted
present. In the Temple of Concord, the volutes are placed diagonally on the capital, so
that the four faces are similar in form. In the Greek specimens, as also in the Temple of
Fortuna Virilis, this is done on one angle only of the capital of the columns, and that for
the purpose of again bringing the faces of the volutes on to the flanks of the building, instead
of showing the baluster sides of the capitals. On the whole, we think the modern
Italian architects succeeded in producing much more beautiful profiles of this order, which
never appears to have been a favourite in Rome, than their ancient predecessors.
262. The Corinthian seems to have been greatly preferred to the other orders by the
luxurious Romans. There is little doubt that the capitals were generally the work of Greek
sculptors, and some of those they have left are exceedingly beautiful; one that we
have already mentioned, that of Jupiter Stator, points to sculpture of the highest class.
The following table contains the general proportions of six well-known examples in Rome : —
Height di- 1
vided by Dia-
Entabla-
ture in
Inter-
Height ofl TT,,npr
Capital in | Vj £er
lower Dia- (meters in
Terms of
col um-
Terms of \mt>tor nc
meter in En-
Height.
the Dia-
niation.
the Dia-
Shaft.
glish Feet.
meter.
meter.
Pantheon, Portico
47-029 _
4797 ~
9-804
2-317
2-092
1-175
•855
Pantheon, Interior
34 674 _
3'642 ~
9-499
2-251
1-834
1-000
•866
Jupiter Tonans
47'084
4 598 ~
10-241
2-069
1-558
1-167
•867
Jupiter Stator -
47'648
4841 —
9-820
2-534
1-575
1-08
•891
Facade of Nero -
"6T568 =
9-973
2-439
-
J-269
•883
Arch of Constantino
28:037
2 902 ~
9-661
2-388
- -
1-095
•882
263. From the above, it appears that a mean of the whole height of the Corinthian
order in the Roman examples is 12-166 diameters, and that the entablature is less than a fifth
106
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
of the height of the order, being as -1686 : 1 -0000. The diminution of the shaft is not so
much as in the Ionic, being only T's204g of the lower diameter. The Temple of the Sybil at
Tivoli presents quite a distinct species, and is the romance of the art, if we may be allowed
such an expression. The mean height of the columns is 9 '833 diameters, being rather
slenderer than the height recommended by Vitruvius (Lib. iv. c. 9.). The attic base,
which will be considered in another portion of the work, was frequently employed by
the Roman artists.
264. The invention of the Composite order is attributed, with every probability, to the
Romans. It resembles generally the Corinthian, the main variation consisting in the part
above the second tier of leaves in the capital. The following table exhibits the general
proportions of three examples : —
Example.
Height divided
by lower Dia-
meter in English
Feet.
Diame-
ters in
Height.
Entablature in
Terms of the
Diameter.
Height of Ca-
pital in Terms
of the Dia-
meter.
Dia-
meter at
top of
Shaft.
Arch of Titus -
22065 _
2M7
10-662
2-533
1-287
•887
Arch of Severus
23-847 _
~2~887 ~~
8-260
2-316
1-144
•882
Baths of Dioclesian
18J176
4619 —
10-495
2-3
1-181
•802
265. The mean of these makes the entablature a little less than one fifth of the entire
height of the order, the ratio being as -1955 : 1-0000. The diminution of the shaft is
T^ of the lower diameters. The mean height of the columns is 9-806 diameters. A
strongly marked feature in Roman architecture is the stylobate or pedestal for the
reception of columns, which was not used by the Greeks. In the examples, it varies in
height, but, generally speaking, it is very nearly four diameters of the column ; a mean of
those used in the triumphal arches comes out at 3-86 diameters. Another difference from
Greek architecture is in the form of the Roman pilaster, which was sometimes so strongly
marked as to form a sort of square column with capitals and bases similar to those of the
columns it accompanies, except in being square instead of circular on the plan. It is di-
minished in some buildings, as in the portico of the Pantheon, and in that of Mars Ultor,
while in others, no such diminution takes place. The reader will recollect that the Greek
antae were never diminished, that their projection was always very small, and that the mould-
ings of their capitals were totally different from the columns with which they are connected.
266. But the most wonderful change the Romans effected in architecture was by the in-
troduction of the arch ; a change which, by various steps, led, through the basilica, to the
construction of the extraordinary Gothic cathedrals of Europe, in its progress opening
beauties in the art of which the Greeks had not the remotest conception. These matters
will be more entered into in the next section : we only have to observe here, that its import-
ance was not confined to the passage of rivers by means of bridges, but that it enabled the
Romans to supply in the greatest abundance to their cities water of a wholesome quality,
without which no city can exist. To the introduction, moreover, of the arch, their
triumphal edifices were indebted for their principal beauties ; and without it their theatres
and amphitheatres would have lost half their elegance and magnificence. Whence the arch
came is not known. In the section on Egyptian architecture, the subject has already
been noticed. We are not aware of any example ornamentally applied before the time
of Alexander.
267. The use of coupled columns and niches exhibits other varieties in which the Romans
delighted ; but the former are not found till an age in which the art of architecture had
begun to decline.
268. There is still another point to which the reader's attention must be directed, and it
is almost a sure test of Roman or Greek design ; namely, the form of the mouldings of an
order on their section. In purely Greek architecture, the contours of the mouldings are
all formed from sections of the cone, whilst in that of the Romans, the contours are all
portions of circles.
269. Under the climate of Rome it became necessary to raise the pitch of the roof higher
than was necessary in Greece; hence the Roman pediment was more inclined to the
horizon. As, however, we shall, in another place, when we consider the practical forma-
tion of roofs generally, investigate the law which, forced by climate upon the architect,
governed the inclination of the pediment ; the reader, for further information, is referred, on
that point, to its proper place in this work ; namely, that wherein the subject of roofs is
treated of.
CHAP. II.
BYZANTINE AND ROMANESQUE.
107
SECT. XIV.
BYZANTINE AND ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE.
270. We propose in this section to take a concise view of the state of debased Roman
architecture, from the year 476, in which the Roman empire in the West was destroyed, to
the introduction of the pointed arch at the latter end of the 1 2th century. It will be ne-
cessary to premise that the term Romanesque is very general, and comprises the works of
the Lombards as well as those of a later species, which in this country are called Saxon and
Norman, for the character of all is the same, and we think much confusion will be pre-
vented by the arrangement we propose. Between the fifth and the eighth centuries, at
the beginning of which latter period the whole of Europe formed one great Gothic kingdom,
the prospect is over a dreary desert in which the oases of our art are few and far between.
The constant change of power, the division of the empire, which was so overgrown that it
could no longer hang together, the irruptions of the Goths, whose name has been most
improperly connected with all that is barbarous in art, make it no easy task to give the un-
learned reader more than a faint idea of what occurred in the extended period through
which, often in darkness, we must proceed to feel our way. But, previous to this, we shall
continue the state of the architecture in the East ; because, having already given some account
of Saracenic architecture, which had its origin about the seventh century, we shall not
again have to divert his attention from the subject until the reader is introduced to the
pointed style : an arrangement which, we trust, will assist his memory in this history.
271. The emperor Theodosius, who died A. n. 395, exhibited great talent in arms, and
was desirous to extend the benefit of his influence to the arts, in which he did much for
the empire. His sons, Arcadius in the city of Constantinople, and Honorius at Rome,
were incapable of doing them any service, though by them was raised the famous Theodosian
column at the first named city, which was surrounded with bassi relievi, after the fashion
of that erected long before in honour of Trajan at Rome. The ascent of Theodosius 1 1.
to the throne promised as well for the empire as for the arts. He called architecture to
his aid for embellishing the cities of the empire. Under him, in 413, Constantinople was sur- *
rounded with a new wall ; some extensive baths, and a magnificent palace for the two sisters
of Pulcheria were erected. In 447, an earthquake nearly destroyed the city, which was so
admirably restored under this emperor that he might with propriety have been called its
second founder. Except some trifling matters under Anastasius II., and Justin his successor,
little was done till Justinian, the nephew of the last named, ascended the throne of the East, in
527. By him the celebrated architect Anthemius was invited to Constantinople. Through
the genius of this artist, aided by his colleague Isidore the Milesian, on the ruins of the
principal church of the city, which, dedicated to Saint Sophia or the Eternal Wisdom, had
been twice destroyed by fire, was raised so splendid an edifice, that Justinian is said on its
completion to have exclaimed, as Gibbon observes, "with devout vanity : " " Glory be to God,
who hath thought me worthy to accomplish so great a work. I have vanquished thee, O
Solomon." We shall make no apology for giving the description in the words of the
historian we have just quoted; a representation of the building being appended in Jigs.
139. and 140. " But the pride of the Roman Solomon, before twenty years had elapsed, was
humbled by an earthquake, which overthrew the
eastern part of the dome. Its splendour was restored
by the perseverance of the same prince ; and in the
thirty-sixth year of his reign, Justinian celebrated
the second dedication of a temple, which remains,
after twelve centuries, a stately monument of his
fame. The architecture of St. Sophia, which is now
converted into the principal mosque, has been imi-
tated by the Turkish sultans, and that venerable
pile continues to excite the fond admiration of the
Greeks, and the more rational curiosity of European
travellers. The eye of the spectator is disappointed
by an irregular prospect of half domes and shelving
roofs : the western front, the principal approach, is
destitute of simplicity and magnificence ; and the
scale of dimensions has been much surpassed by
several of the Latin cathedrals. But the architect
who first erected an aerial cupola is entitled to the
praise of bold design and skilful execution. The
FiB. 159. PLA* OK CHUHCH OK ST. SOPH.*. do™ of St. Sophia, illuminated by four and twenty
windows, is formed with so small a curve, that the
depth is equal to only one sixth of its diameter ; the measure of that diameter is 115 ft.,
108
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE,
BOOK I
Pi;,'. HO.
and the lofty centre, where a crescent has supplanted the cross, rises to the perpendicular
height of 180 ft. above the pavement. The circle which encompasses the dome lightly
reposes on four strong arches, and their weight is firmly supported by four massy piles "
(piers), "whose strength is assisted on the northern and southern sides by four columns of
Egyptian granite. A Greek cross inscribed in a quadrangle represents the form of the
edifice ; the exact breadth is 243 ft., and 269 may be assigned for the extreme length from
the sanctuary in the east, to the nine western doors which open into the vestibule, and from
thence into the narthex or exterior portico. That portico was the humble station of the
penitents. The nave or body of the church was filled by the congregation of the faithful ;
but the two sexes were prudently distinguished, and the upper and lower galleries were
allotted for the more private devotion of the women, Beyond the northern and southern
piles " (piers), " a balustrade, terminated on either side by the thrones of the emperor and
the patriarch, divided the nave from the choir ; and the space, as far as the steps of the
altar, was occupied by the clergy and singers. The altar itself, a name which insensibly
became familiar to Christian ears, was placed in the eastern recess, artificially built in the
form of a demi-cylinder, and this sanctuary communicated by several doors with the
sacristy, the vestry, the baptistery, and the contiguous buildings, subservient either to the
pomp of worship or the private use of the ecclesiastical ministers." We should be fearful
of thus continuing the quotation, but that we prefer the language of Gibbon to our own ;
beyond which, the practical knowledge the rest of the description discloses is not unworthy
the scientific architect, and the subject is the type of the great modern cathedrals, that of
St. Paul, in London, among the rest. " The memory," he continues, " of past calamities in-
spired Justinian with a wise resolution, that no wood, except for the doors, should be admitted
into the new edifice ; and the choice of the materials was applied to the strength, the light-
ness, or the splendour of the respective parts. The solid piles " (piers) " which sustained
the cupola were composed of huge blocks of freestone, hewn into squares and triangles,
fortified by circles of iron, and firmly cemented by the infusion of lead and quicklime ;
but the weight of the cupola was diminished by the levity of its substance, which consists
either of pumice-stone that floats in the water, or of bricks from the Isle of Rhodes, five
times less ponderous than the ordinary sort. The whole frame of the edifice was con-
structed of brick ; but those base materials were concealed by a crust of marble ; and the
inside of St. Sophia, the cupola, the two larger and the six smaller semi-domes, the walls,
the hundred columns, and the pavement, delight even the eyes of barbarians with a rich
and variegated picture." Various presents of marbles and mosaics, amongst which latter
were seen representations of Christ, the Virgin, and saints, added to the magnificence of the
edifice, and the precious metals in their purity imparted splendour to the scene. Before
the building was four feet out of the ground its cost had amounted to a sum equivalent to
200,0007. sterling, and the total cost of it when finished may, at the lowest computation, be
reckoned as exceeding one million. In Constantinople alone, the emperor dedicated twenty-
CHAP. II. BYZANTINE AND ROMANESQUE. 109
five churches to Christ, the Virgin, and favourite saints. These were highly decorated, and
imposing situations were found for them. That of the Holy Apostles at Constantinople,
and of St. John at Ephesus, appear to have had the church of St. Sophia for their types ;
but in them the altar was placed under the centre of the dome, at the junction of four
porticoes, expressing the figure of the cross. " The pious munificence of the emperor was
diffused over the Holy Land ; and if reason," says Gibbon, " should condemn the monas-
teries of both sexes, which were built or restored by Justinian, yet charity must applaud
the wells which he sank, and the hospitals which he founded, for the relief of the weary
pilgrims." " Almost every saint in the calendar acquired the honour of a temple; almost
every city of the empire obtained the solid advantages of bridges, hospitals, and aqueducts ;
but the severe liberality of the monarch disdained to indulge his subjects in the popular
luxury of baths and theatres." He restored the Byzantine palace ; but selfishness, as re-
spected his own comfort, could not be laid to his charge : witness the costly palace he erected
for the infamous Theodora, and the munificent gifts, equal to 180,0007. sterling, which
he bestowed upon Antioch for its restoration after an earthquake. His care was not
limited to the peaceful enjoyment of life by the empire over which he presided; for the forti-
fications of Europe and Asia were multiplied by Justinian from Belgrade to the Euxine,
from the conflux of the Save to the mouth of the Danube ; a chain of above fourscore forti-
fied places was extended along the banks of the great river, and many military stations ap-
peared to extend beyond the Danube, the pride of the Roman name. We might consider-
ably extend the catalogue of the extraordinary works of Justinian ; but our object is a
general view, not a history of the works of this extraordinary person, of whom, applying the
verses architecturally, it might truly be said —
Si Pergama dextra
Defend! posseut : ctiam hac defensa t'uissent ; —
and by whom, if architecture could again have been restored, such a consummation would
have been accomplished.
272. In 565 Justin succeeded to the throne of the East, after whose reign nothing oc-
curs to prevent our proceeding to the Western part of the empire, except the notice neces-
sary to be taken of Leo the Isaurian, who ordered the statues in the different churches to
be broken in pieces, and the paintings which decorated them to be destroyed. Under him
Ravenna was lost to the Eastern empire, and under his predecessors Mahomet appeared ;
and in his successors originated the Saracenic architecture described in a previous section.
It was under Justin, in 571, that the prophet, as he is called, was born, and was in 632
succeeded by Abubekr.
273. We now return to the empire in the West, whose ruin, in 476, drew after it that of
the arts, which had grievously degenerated since the fourth century, at which period their
decadence was strongly marked. But we must digress a little by supplying a chasm in the
history of our art relative to the ancient basilica of Rome, the undoubted types of the
comparatively modern cathedrals of Europe ; and within the city of Rome we shall find
ample materials for tracing the origin whereof we speak.
274. The severe laws against the Christians which Severus had passed expired with his
authority, and the persecuted race, between A. n. 21 1 and 249, enjoyed a calm, during which
they had been permitted to erect and consecrate convenient edifices for the purposes of re-
ligious worship, and to purchase lands even at Rome for the use of the community. Under
Dioclesian, however, in many places the churches were demolished, though in some situations
they were only shut up. This emperor, as if desirous of committing to other hands the
work of persecution he had planned by his edicts, no sooner published them, than he divested
himself, by abdication, of the imperial purple.
275. Under Constantine, in the beginning of the fourth century, the Christians began
again to breathe ; and though that emperor's religion, even to the period of his death, is in-
volved in some doubt, it is certain that his opinion, as far as we can judge from his acts,
was much inclined towards Christianity. Out of the seven principal churches, or basilica?,
of Rome, namely, Sta. Croce di Gierusalemme, S. Giovanni Laterano, S. Lorenzo fuori le
Mura, S. Paolo, S. Pietro, S. Sebastiano, and Sta. Maria Maggiore, all but the last were
founded by Constantine himself. The ancient basilica, which derived its name from
/3a.cri\fvs (a king), and OIKOS (a house), was that part of the palace wherein justice was
administered to the people. The building for this purpose retained its name long after
the extinction of the kingly office, and was in use with the Romans as well as the Grecians.
Vitruvius does not, however, give us any specific difference between those erected by one
or the other of those people. In lib. v. c. 1. he gives us the details of its form and ar-
rangement, for which the reader is referred to his work. The name of basilica was after-
wards transferred to the first buildings for Christian worship ; not because, as some have
supposed, the first Christian emperors used the ancient basilica; for the celebration of their
religious rites, but more probably with reference to the idea of sovereignty which the reli-
gion exercised, though \ve do not assert that such conclusion is to be necessarily drawn.
110
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
There can be no doubt that the most ancient Christian basilicas were expressly constructed
for the purpose of religion, and their architectural details clearly point to the epoch in
which they were erected. These new temples of religion borrowed, nevertheless, as well in
their whole as in their details, so much from the ancient basilicae, that it is not surprising
they should have retained their name. We here place before the reader (fig. 14 1 . ) a plan of
Fig. 111. PLAN Or THK BASILICA OF ST. PAUL.
the ancient basilica of S.Paolo fuori le Muni, and (fig. 142. ) an interior view of it, whereby
Fig. 142.
its general effect may be better understood. The latter shows how admirably it was adapted
to the reception of an extremely numerous congregation. The numberless columns which
the ancient buildings readily supplied were put in requisition for constructing these basilicas
whereof, adopting the buildings of the same name as the type, they proportioned the eleva-
tion to the extent of the plans, and, in some cases, decorated them with the richest ornaments.
Instead of always connecting the columns together by architraves on their summit, which might
not be at hand, arches were spanned from one to the other, on which walls were carried up
to bear the roofing. Though the practice of vaulting large areas did not appear till a con-
siderable time after the building of the first Christian basilicae, it must be recollected that
the Temple of Peace at Rome had previously exhibited a specimen of the profound know-
ledge of the Romans in the practice of vaulting : in that example, groined vaults of very
large dimensions were borne on entablatures and columns. Nor does this knowledge appear
to have been lost in almost the last stage of decline of Roman architecture under the emperor
Dloclesian. In the baths of this emperor are to be seen not only groined vaults in three
CHAP. II. BYZANTINE AND ROMANESQUE. Ill
divisions, whose span is nearly 70 ft., but at the back of each springer a buttress, precisely
of the nature of a flying buttress, is contrived to counteract the thrusts of the vaulting.
276. In recording the annihilation of the arts on the invasion of Odoacer, at the end of
the fifth and during the course of the sixth century, historians have imputed it to the
Gothic nations, qualifying by this name the barbarous style which then degraded the pro-
ductions of the arts. Correct they are as to the epoch of their ruin, which coincided truly
enough with the empire of the Goths ; but to this nation they are unjust in attributing the
introduction of a barbarous style.
277. History informs us, that as soon as the princes of the Goths and Ostrogoths had fixed
themselves in Italy, they displayed the greatest anxiety to make the arts again flourish, and
but for a number of adverse circumstances they would have succeeded. Indeed, the people
whom the Romans designated as barbarous, were inhabitants of the countries to the north
and east of Italy, who actually acquired that dominion and power which the others lost.
Instructed at first by their defeats, they ultimately acquired the arts of those who originally
conquered them. Thus the Gauls, the Germans, the Pannonians, and Illyrians, had, from
their submission to the Roman people, acquired quite as great a love for the arts as the
Romans themselves. For instance, at Nismes, the birthplace of Antoninus Pius, the arts
were in a state of high cultivation ; in short, there were schools as good out of as in Italy
itself.
278. Odoacer, son of Edicon, the chief of a Gothic tribe, after obtaining possession of
Rome in 476, preserved Italy from invasion for six years; and there is little doubt that one
of his objects was the preservation of the arts. He was, however, stabbed by the hand, or
at least the command, of his rival and successor, Theodoric, in 493. Theodoric, the son
of Theodemir, had been educated at Constantinople, and though personally he neglected
the cultivation of science and art, he was very far from insensible to the advantages they
conferred on a country. From the Alps to the extremity of Calabria, the right of conquest
had placed Theodoric on the throne. As respects what he did for the arts, no better record
of his fame could exist than the volume of public Epistles composed by Cassiodorus, in the
royal name. " The reputation of Theodoric," says Gibbon, " may repose with confidence on
the visible peace and prosperity of a reign of thirty-three years ; the unanimous esteem of his
own times, and the memory of his wisdom and courage, his justice and humanity, which was
deeply impressed on the minds of the Goths and Italians." The residence of Theodoric was
at Ravenna chiefly, occasionally at Verona ; but in the seventh year of his reign he visited the
capital of the Old World, where, during a residence of six months, he proved that one at
least of the Gothic kings was anxious to preserve the monuments of the nations he had
subdued. Royal edicts were framed to prevent the abuses, neglect, or depredations of the
citizens upon works of art ; and an architect, the annual sum of two hundred pounds of
gold, twenty-five thousand tiles, and the receipt of customs from the Lucrine port, were
assigned for the ordinary repairs of the public buildings. Similar care was bestowed on
the works of sculpture. Besides the capitals, Pavia, Spoleto, Naples, and the rest of the
Italian cities, acquired under his reign the useful or splendid decorations of churches,
aqueducts, baths, porticoes, and palaces. His architects were Aloysius for Rome, and
Daniel for Ravenna, his instructions to whom manifest his care for the art ; and under him
Cassiodorus, for fifty-seven years minister of the Ostrogoth kings, was for a long period
the tutelary genius of the arts. The death of Theodoric occurred in 526 ; his mausoleum
is still in existence at Ravenna, being now called Sta. Maria della Rotunda. That city
contains also the church of St. Apollinaris, which shows that at this period very little, if
any, change had been made in the arrangement of large churches on the plan of the basilica.
The front of the convent of the Franciscan friars in the same town, which is reputed to be
the entrance to the palace, bears considerable resemblance to the Porta Aurea of Dioclesian,
at Spalatro. These buildings are all in a heavy debased Roman style, and we are quite at
a loss to understand the passage quoted by Tiraboschi, from Cassiodorus, who therein gives
a particular description of the very great lightness and elegance of columns; thus — " Quid
dicamus columnarum junceam proceritatem? Moles illas sublimissimas fabricarum quasi
quibusdam erectis hastilibus contineri et substantial qualitate concavis canalibus excavatas,
ut magis ipsas aestimes fuisse transfusas ; alias ceris judices factum, quod metal! is durissimis
videas expolitum." (Lib. vii. Var. 15.) We know no examples of the period that bear
out these assertions of Cassiodorus; on the contrary, what is known of this period indicates
a totally different style.
279. If the successors of Theodoric had succeeded to his talents as well as his throne,
and if they had been assisted by ministers like Cassiodorus, the arts and letters of Italy
might have recovered ; but, after the retirement of that minister, from the succession of
Vitiges, towards 538, the arts were completely extinct. In 543-7, Rome was taken and
plundered by Totila ; and afterwards, in 553, this ill-fated city was again united to the
Eastern empire by the talents of Belisarius and Narses.
280. From the year 568 up to the conquest of Italy by Charlemagne, in 774, the country
was overrun by the Lombards, a people who quickly attained a high degree of civilization,
112
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
and were much given to the practice of architecture. Maffei, Muratori, and Tiraboschi
have clearly proved that neither the Goths nor the Lombards introduced any particular
style, but employed the architects whom they found in Italy. Fig 143. is the west end
ST. MICHAEL, PA VIA.
of the church of St. Michael, at Pavia, a work executed under the Lombards, and, therefore,
here inserted as an example of style. The anxiety, however, of the Lombards to preserve the
arts was not sufficient to prevent their increasing decay, which daily became more apparent.
Not more than the Goths do they deserve the reproach for their treatment of and indiffer-
ence to them. Besides fortifications and citadels for defence, they built palaces, baths, and
temples, not only at Pavia, the seat of their empire, but at Turin, Milan, Spoleto, and
Benevento. Hospitals under them began to be founded. The Queen Theodelinda, in
particular, signalised her pious zeal in founding one at Monza, near Milan, her favourite
residence, and endowing it in a most liberal manner.
281. In the eighth century the influence of the popes on the fine arts began to be felt.
John VI. and Gregory III., at the commencement of the eighth century, showed great soli-
citude in their behalf. During this age the popes gained great temporal advantages, and
their revenues enabled them to treat those advantages so as to do great good for Italy. In
the ninth century Adrian I. signalised himself in this passion to such an extent, that Ni-
cholas V. placed on his monument the in-
scription,—
Restituit mores, mcenia, templa, Domos.
His works were many and admirable. Among
those of great use, he constructed porticoes
from the city to San Paolo and S. Lorenzo
fuori le Mura.
282. Before we advance to the age of
Charlemagne, it will be necessary to notice
the church of St. Vitalis, at Ravenna, which
we have reserved for. this place on account of
the singularity of its construction. It was
erected, as is usually believed, under the reign
of Justinian, in the sixth century. See Jiffs.
144. and 145. The exterior walls are formed
in a regular octagon, whose diameter is 1 28 ft.
Within this octagon is another concentric one,
54 ft. in diameter, from the eight piers whereof
(55 ft. in height) a hemispherical vault is
gathered over, and over this is a timber conical
roof. The peculiarity exhibited in the con-
*-fl struction of the cupola is, that the spandrels are
filled in with earthen vases ; and that round the
ClIAV. II.
BYZANTINE AND ROMANESQUE.
113
Fig. 145.
SECTION Of ST. VITAI.IS, RAVENNA.
exterior of its base semicircular headed windows are introduced, each of which is subdivided
into two apertures of similar forms. Between every two piers hemicylindrical recesses are
formed, each covered by a semidome, whose vertex is 48 ft. from the pavement, and each
of them contains two windows subdivided into three spaces by two columns of the Corin-
thian order, supporting semicircular-headed arches. Between the piers and the external
walls are two corridors, which surround the whole building, in two stories, one above the
other, each covered by hemicylindrical vaulting. The upper corridor above the vault
is covered with a sloping or leanto roof. We have before noticed the introduction of vases
in the spandrels at the Circus of Caracalla ; and we cannot help being struck with the
similarity of construction in the instance above cited. It fully bears out the observation of
Mb'ller (Denkmahler der Deutschen Baukunst), " that, though beauty of proportion seems to
have been unappreciated in these ages, and architecture was confined within a servile imi-
tation of the earlier forms, the art of compounding cement, the proper selection of build-
ing materials, and an intimate acquaintance with the principles of solid construction with
which the ancients were so conversant, were fully understood."
283. The sera, of Charlemagne, which opened after the middle of the eighth century and
continued into the early part of the ninth, gave rise to many grand edifices dedicated to
Christianity. This extraordinary man, rising to extensive dominion, did much towards re-
storing the arts and civilisation. " Meanwhile, in the south-east," says an intelligent
anonymous writer, " the decrepid Grecian empire, itself maintaining but a sickly existence,
had nevertheless continued so far to stretch a protecting wing over them [the arts] that
they never had there equally approached extinction. It seems probable that Charlemagne
drew thence the architect and artisans who were capable of designing and building such a
church as the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle, in Germany." " If Charlemagne," says Gibbon,
" had fixed in Italy the seat of the Western empire, his genius would have aspired to re-
store, rather than violate, the works of the Caesars ; but as policy confined the French
monarch to the forests of Germany, his taste could be gratified only by destruction, and
the new palace and church of Aix-la-Chapelle were decorated with the marbles of Ravenna
and Rome." The fact is, that the Byzantine or Romanesque style continued, with various
degrees of beauty, over the Continent, and in this country, till it was superseded by the in-
troduction of the pointed style. Mb'ller, from whom we extract jfy. 146. which represents
the portico of the Convent of Lorsch, situate about two and a half German miles from
Darmstadt, considers it as all that remains of the first church built in the time of Charle-
magne. The same learned author observes, that, on comparison with each other of the
ancient churches of Germany, two leading differences are discoverable in their styles, of
which all others are grades or combinations. The first, or earliest, whose origin is from the
South, is, though in its later period much degenerated, of a highly finished character,
distinguished by forms and decorations resembling those of Roman buildings, by flat roofs,
by hemicylindrical vaults, and by great solidity of construction. The second and later style
still preserves the semicircular forms ; but the high pitched roof, more adapted to the seasons
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
ov r-ouscn.
of a northern climate, begins to be substituted for the flat roof of the South, as at the ca-
thedral of Worms on the west side, the western tower of the church at Gelnhausen, and in
many other examples.
284. We are now approaching a period in which more light can be thrown on our sub-
ject than on that we have just quitted. In the ninth century, on, as it is said, the designs of a
Greek artist, rose the cathedral of St. Mark at Venice, the largest of the Italian churches in
the Byzantine style. Its plan is that of a Greek cross, whose arms are vaulted hemicy-
lindrically, and, meeting in the centre of the building, terminate in four semicircular arches
on the four sides of a square, about 42 ft. in length in each direction. From the anterior
angles of the piers, pendentives gather over, as in St. Sophia, at Constantinople, and form a
circle wherefrom rises a cylindrical wall or drum in which windows for lighting the interior
are introduced. From this drum, the principal dome, which is hemispherical, springs.
Longitudinally and transversely the church is separated by ranks of columns supporting
semicircular arches. The aisles of the nave and choir, and those of the transepts, intersect
each other in four places about the centre of the cross, over which intersections are small
domes ; so that on the roof are four smaller and one larger dome. In the exterior front
towards the Piazza San Marco, the facade consists of two stories, in the centre of the lower
one whereof is a large semicircularly arched entrance, on each side of which are two other
smaller arched entrances of the same form. These have all plain archivolts springing from
the upper of two orders of columns. On each flank of the facade is a smaller open arcade
springing at each extremity from an upper of two orders of insulated columns. A gallery
with a balustrade extends round the exterior of the church, in front whereof, in the centre,
are the four famous bronze horses which once belonged to the arch of Nero. The second
story towards the Piazza San Marco consists of a central semicircular aperture, with two
blank semicircular arches on each side, not quite so high and wide. These five divisions
are all crowned by canopy pediments of curves of contrary flexures, and ornamented with
foliage. Between each two arches and at the angles a turret is introduced consisting of
thre'e stories of columns, and terminated by a pinnacle. The building has been considerably
altered since its first construction; and, indeed, the ornaments last named point to a later
age than the rest of the edifice, the general character of which has, nevertheless, been pre-
served. There is considerable similarity of plan between this church and that of St.
Sophia.
285. Very much partaking the character of composition of St. Mark, but dissimilar in
CHAP. II.
BYZANTINE AND ROMANESQUE.
115
general plan, is the church of St. Anthony at Padua, which has six domes over the nave,
transepts, centre, and choir. It is, moreover, distinguished by two slender towers or minarets,
which impart to it the air of a Saracenic edifice.
286. The Italian architecture in the Byzantine or Romanesque style preserved a very
different sort of character from that of the same date in Germany and other parts of Europe.
Thus, — taking the cathedrals of Pisa and Worms, whose respective periods of construction
are very close together, — the former is separated into its nave and aisles by columns with
Corinthian capitals, reminding one very much of the early Christian basilica ; in the latter,
the separation of the nave from the aisles is by square piers. The cathedral at Pisa, with
its baptistery, campanile, and the campo santo or cemetery, are a group of buildings of more
curiosity than any four edifices in the world, and the more so from being so strongly
marked with the distinguishing features of the Byzantine and Romanesque styles. The
cathedral {fig. 147.), whose architect was Buschetto of Dulichio, a Greek, was built in the
beginning in the llth cen-
tury. It consists of a nave,
with two aisles on each side
of it, transepts, and choir. Its
bases, capitals, cornices, and
other parts were fragments of
antiquity collected from dif-
ferent places, and here with
great skill brought together
by Buschetto. The plan of
the church is a Latin cross; its
length from the interior face of
the wall to the back of the
recess is 311 ft., the width of
the nave and four side aisles
106 ft. 6 in., the length of the
transept 237 ft. 4 in., and its
width, with its side aisles,
58 ft. The centre nave is
41 ft. wide, and has twenty-
four Corinthian columns,
twelve on each side, all of
=**,__ marble, 24 ft. 10 in. high, and
full 2 ft. 3 in. in diameter.
From the capitals of these
columns arches spring, and over them is another order of columns, smaller and more nu-
merous, from the circumstance of one being inserted over the centre of an intercolumniation
below, and from their accompanying two openings under arches nearly equal to the width
of such intercolumniations. These form an upper gallery, or (riforium, anciently appropriated
to the use of females. The four aisles have also isolated columns of the Corinthian order,
but smaller, and raised on high plinths, in order to make them range with the others. The
transepts have each a nave and two side aisles, with isolated columns, the same size as those of
the other. The soffit of the great nave and of the transepts is of wood, gilt, but the smaller
ones are groined. The height of the great nave is 91 ft., that of the transepts about 84 ft.,
and that of the aisles, 35 ft. In the centre nave are four piers, on which rest four large
arches, supporting an elliptical cupola. The church is lighted by windows above the second
order of the interior. The edifice is surrounded by steps. The extreme width of the
western front, measured above the plinth moulding, is 1 16 ft., and the height from the pave-
ment to the apex of the roof is 1 1 2 ft. 3 in. The fa9ade has five stories, the first whereof
consists of seven arches, supported by six Corinthian columns and two pilasters, the middle
arch being larger than the others : the second has twenty-one arches, supported by twenty
columns and two pilasters ; the third is singular, from the fa9ade contracting where the
two aisles finish, and forming two lateral inclined planes, whence in the middle are columns
with arches on them as below. The columns which are in the two inclined planes gradually
diminish in height : the fifth story is the same, and forms a triangular pediment, the columns
and arches as they approach the angles becoming more diminutive. The two exterior sides
have two orders of pilasters, one over the other. The roof of the nave is supported, externally,
by a wall decorated with columns, and arches resting on their capitals. The whole of the
building is covered with lead. The drum of the cupola is externally ornamented with
eighty-eight columns connected by arches, over which are pediments in marble, forming a
species of crowns. The principal point of difference in these cathedrals from the old
basilicae, in imitation whereof they were doubtless built, is in the addition of the transepts,
by which a cruciform plan was given to these edifices. The style of the building in
question is much lighter than most of the buildings of the period. But, whatever the taste
FiR. It?
116
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
and style, the architect of it was a very skilful mechanic. One of his epitaphs, at Pisa, we
subjoin, in proof of what we have stated.
Quod vix mille bourn possent juga juncta movere,
Et quod vix potuit per mare ferre ratis,
Buschetti nisu, quod erat mirabile visu,
Dena puellarum turba levavit onus.
287. In Germany, the 10th and llth centuries afford some edifices very important in the
history of the art. Such are the cathedrals of Spire, Worms, Mayence, and others, still in
existence to testify their extraordinary solidity and magnificence. In that country, as Moller
remarks, there was a great disparity between its several provinces, as respected their degrees
of civilisation. On the banks of the Rhine, and in the south, cities were established when
those parts became subject to the Romans, and there the arts of peace and the Christian
religion took root, and flourished; whilst, in the north and east, paganism was still in existence.
Christianity, indeed, and civilisation gradually and generally extended from the southern
and western parts. The clergy, we know from history, themselves directed the building of
churches and convents. The buildings, therefore, of these parts are of great importance in
the history of architecture. The leading forms of these churches, as well as of those that
were built about the same period in France and England, are founded upon the ancient
basilicae ; that is, they were long parallelograms with side aisles, and transepts which represent
the arms of the cross, over whose intersection with the nave there is frequently a louvre.
The choir and chancel terminate semicircularly on the plan. The semicircle prevails in
the vaultings and over openings. The nave is lofty, frequently covered with groined vaulting,
sometimes with flat timber covering; the gables are of small inclination. In the upper
parts small short columns are frequently introduced. The prevailing feature in the ex-
terior is horizontality, by which it is distinguished from the style which came into use in the
13th century. The profiles of the mouldings are, almost without exception, of Roman
origin ; the impost mouldings under the arches are, in this respect, peculiarly striking ; and
among the parts the Attic base constantly appears. The Roman basilicae were always
covered with flat horizontal ceilings ; those of the churches we are speaking of are mostly
vaulted. Hence the necessity of substituting pillars or piers for the insulated columns,
which had only to carry wooden roofs. There are, however, a few churches remaining,
which preserve the ancient type, as a church at Ratisbon, and the conventual churches of
Paulinzell and Schwarzach. Fig. 148. shows the plan, and^. 149. a sketch of one bay in a
*MS. Fig 148.
longitudinal section of the north side of the nave of the cathedral
at Worms, which was commenced in the year 996, and conse-
crated in 1016. It is one of the most ancient of the German
churches, and one of the most instructive. On our examination
of it, recently, we were astonished at its state of preservation.
The plan, it will be seen, is strongly distinguished by the cross ;
the square pie;s are alternately decorated with half columns ; and
the chancel, at the east end, terminates with a semicircle. The
western end of the church, which is octagonal, seems to be more
modern than the rest, inasmuch as the pointed arch appears in it.
Fig. 150. is a view of the edifice.
288. Parts of the cathedral at Mentz are more ancient than
any part of that at Worms ; hence it may be studied with advan-
tage, as containing a view of the styles of several centuries. The
south-eastern gate of the cathedral is given by Moller in his work
(Plate VI.).
289. 'Whittington, a highly talented author, of whom the world
was deprived at a very early age (Historical Survey of the Eccle-
siastical Antiquities of France, 41 o. Lond. 1S09), observes, that
the buildings in France of the 9th and 10th centuries were imi-
CHAP. II.
BYZANTINE AND ROMANESQUE.
117
Fig. IM.
JRMS CATHBDRA1
tated from the works of Charle-
magne ; hut that his feehle suc-
cessors, deficient both in riches
and power, were unable to equal
them in magnitude or beauty of
materials. During a large por-
tion of the 9th century the
country was a scene of conster-
nation and bloodshed. The
most celebrated, and almost the
only foundation of consequence
which took place during this
dreary period, was the abbey of
Clugny. It was built, about
910, by Berno, abbot of Balme,
with the assistance of William,
Duke of Aquitaine and Au-
vergne. But there is little
doubt that the present church
was built in the following cen-
tury. During the llth century,
the French, relieved from their
disordered state, hastened to re-
build and repair their ecclesias-
tical structures, and their various
cities and provinces vied with each other in displays of enthusiastic devotion. Robert the
Pious, by his example, encouraged the zeal of his clergy and people ; and the science of
architecture revived with majesty and effect from its fallen state. Morard, the abbot of
St. Germain des Pres, was enabled by this monarch to rebuild the church of his con-
vent on a larger scale. St. Genevieve was also restored, and a cloister added to it, by
his order. He, moreover, made preparations for erecting a cathedral at Paris in a style
of as great magnificence as the times would allow. At Orleans, the place of his na-
tivity, he built the churches of Notre Dame de bonnes nouvelles, St. Peter, and St. Aignan,
which last was consecrated in 1029. But our space does not allow an enumeration of all
the works undertaken during his reign. About this time, the cathedral of Chartres was
rebuilt by Fulbert, its bishop, whose great reputation, in France and the rest of Europe,
enabled him to execute it in a manner till then unknown in his country. Canute, the
king of England, and Richard, Duke of Normandy, were among the princes who assisted
him with contributions. His successor, Thierri or Theodoric, completed the building. The
northern part was afterwards erected in 1060, at the expense of Jean Cormier, a native of
Chartres, and physician to the king. The length of the church is 420 ft., its height 108 ft.,
and the nave 48 ft. wide. The transepts extend 210 ft. The abbey church of Clugny,
which succeeded that above mentioned, is one of the largest and most interesting of the ec-
clesiastical monuments of France, and was begun in the commencement of the 1 1 th century,
by the abbot Odilo, and finished by his successor Hugh, in 1069. The ceremony of its
dedication did not, however, take place till many years after. The style of architecture in
France, in the llth, was the same as in the preceding centuries ; but the churches were
larger and more solidly constructed. The oldest buildings of France now existing, with
some exceptions, are traceable to this aera ; such are the venerable fabrics of St. Germain
des Pres, St. Benigne at Dijon, those of Chartres, La Charite sur Loire, Clugny, and
others; all remaining to illustrate the history of the arts of this period. But, as we have
said before, and to the student the observation cannot be too often repeated, the style which
prevailed was no more than a debased and feeble attempt to imitate the ancient architecture
of Rome, and its best examples are not, in style even, equal to those of the art in its
lowest state under the reign of Dioclesian ; indeed the investigation is only important as
being one of the means by which we can arrive at a just conclusion on the state of civilisa-
tion at different periods. Mores fabrica loquuntur is an expression of Cassiodorus, so true,
that to prove it would indeed be 'lighting the sun with a candle ; and we must not trifle
with the patience of the reader.
290. The Saxon churches of England, to which and its more modern architecture our
succeeding chapter will be entirely devoted, were very inferior in every respect to the
Norman churches of France ; and these latter differed materially from thosq in the neigh-
bourhood of Paris, and further to the south. The Norman churches were larger in some
examples ; but they were more rude in design and execution. The abbey church of
St. Stephen, raised at Caen by William the Conqueror, and that founded by his Queen
Matilda in the same city in honour of the Holy Trinity, are the chief examples of the
peculiar manner of building introduced by the Norman prelates into England at the end
1 T>
118
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
of the 1 1th century ; after which, as we shall presently see, a new and extraordinary style
made its appearance in Europe, a style whereof fig. 151. will, on inspection, sufficiently
give a general notion to the reader.
Fig. 151.
291. Before leaving the subject of this section, we must fall back again upon Italy
to notice two or three works intimately connected with this period of the art. We
here more particularly allude to the celebrated baptistry and campanile of Pisa, a city
which seems to have been a great nursing mother to our art, no less than to those of
painting and sculpture. The Campo Santo of that city, of which, from the number of
examples to be noticed, we regret we shall be unable to give but a short account, belongs
to the next period, and must be noticed after them.
292. Dioti Salvi, whose birthplace even is unknown, commenced, in 1 152. the baptistery
i>f Pisa ( fig. \ 52. ), and after eight years completed it It is close to the cathedral of the
place, and though on the xvall of
the inner gallery there be an in-
scription, cut in the character of the
middle ages, " A.D. 1278, ^EDIFICATA
FUIT BE NOVO," and it may be con-
sistent with truth that the edi-
fice was ornamented by John of
Pisa, there is nothing to invalidate
the belief that the building stands
on the foundations originally set
out, and that for its principal fea-
tures it is indebted to the architect
whose name we have mentioned.
It is 100 ft. in diameter within the
walls, which are 8 ft. 6 in. thick.
The covering is a double brick
dome, the inner one conical, the
outer hemispherical. The former
is a frustum of a pyramid of
twelve sides. Its upper extremity
forms a horizontal polygon, finished
with a small parabolic cupola,
showing twelve small marble ribs
on the exterior. The outer vault
terminates above, at the base of
the small cupola, which stands like
a lantern over the aperture. From
tile pavement, the height of the
cupola is 102ft. The entrance is
by a decorated doorway, from the
sill of which the general pavement
is sunk three steps round the build-
ing ; the space between the steps and the wall having been provided for the accommodation
of the persons assembled to view the ceremony of baptism. An aisle or corridor is con-
tinued round its interior circumference, being formed by eight granite columns and four piers,
from which are turned semicircular arches, which support an upper gallery ; and above
the arches are twelve piers, bearing the semicircular arches which support the pyramidal
Fig. 152.
ISTBRV OK PISA.
CHAT. II. POINTED. 119
dome. On the exterior are two orders of Corinthian columns engaged in the wall, which
support semicircular arches. In the upper order the columns are more numerous, inas-
much as each arch below bears two columns above it. Over every two arches of the upper
order is a sharp pediment, separated by a pinnacle from the adjoining ones ; and above the
pediments a horizontal cornice encircles the building. Above the second story a division
in the compartments occurs, which embraces three of the lower arches ; the separation
being effected by piers triangular on the plan, crowned by pinnacles. Between these piers,
semicircular headed small windows are introduced, over each of which is a small circular
window, and thereover sharp pediments. Above these the convex surface of the dome
springs up, and is divided by twelve ribs, truncated below the vertex, and ornamented with
crockets. Between these ribs are a species of dormer windows, one between every two ribs,
ornamented with columns, and surmounted each by three small pointed pediments. The
total height is about 179 ft. The cupola is covered with lead and tiles; the rest of the
edifice is marble.
293. The extraordinary campanile, or bell tower, near the cathedral at Pisa, was built
about 1 174. It is celebrated from the circumstance of its overhanging upwards of thirteen
feet, a peculiarity observable in many other Italian towers, but in none to so great an extent
as in this. There can be no doubt whatever that the defect has arisen from bad foundation,
and that the failure exhibited itself long before the building was completed ; because, on
one side, at a certain height, the columns are higher than on the other ; thus showing an en-
deavour on the part of the builders to bring back the upper part of the tower to as vertical
a direction as was practicable, and recover the situation of the centre of gravity. The
tower is cylindrical, 50 ft. in diameter, and 180 ft. high. It consists of eight stories of
columns, in each of which they bear semicircular arches, forming open galleries round the
story. The roof is flat, and the upper story contains some bells. The last of the group of
buildings in Pisa is the Campo Santo, which, from its style and date (1278), is only men-
tioned here out of its place in order to leave this interesting spot without necessity for further
recurrence to it. It is the public burying place of the city, and, whether from the remains on
its walls of the earliest examples of Giotto, and Cimabue, the beauty of its proportions, or
the sculpture that remains about, is unparalleled in interest to the artist. It is a quadrangle,
403 ft. in length, 117 ft. in width, and is surrounded by a corridor 32 ft. in breadth. This
corridor is roofed, forming a sort of cloister with semicircular-headed windows, which were
at first simple apertures extending down to the pavement, but they have been subsequently
divided into smaller apertures by columns, which, from the springing of the arches, branch
out into tracery of elegant design. The interior part of the quadrangle is open to the sky.
Some of the arches above mentioned were completed as late as the year 1 464,
SECT. XV.
POINTED ARCHITECTURE.
294. About the end ot the 12th and the beginning of the 13th century, a most singular
and important change took place in the architecture of Europe. The flat southern roof,
says Moller, was superseded by the high pitched northern covering of the ecclesiastical
edifices, and its introduction brought with it the use of the pointed arch, which was sub-
.siiiuted for the semicircular one; a necessary consequence, for the roof and vaults being
thus raised, the character of the whole could not be preserved without changing the entire
arrangement of the combination of forms. But we have great doubts on Moller's hypo-
thesis ; it will, indeed, be hereafter seen we have a different belief on the origin of the pointed
arch. Before we at all enter upon the edifices of the period, we think it will be better to
put the reader in possession of the different hypotheses in which various writers have in-
dulged, relative to the introduction or invention of the pointed arch ; and though we attach
very little importance to the discovery, if it could now be clearly established, we are, as our
work would be incomplete without the notice, compelled to submit them for the reader's
consideration.
295. 1. Some have derived this style from the holy groves of the early Celts. — But we can
see no ground for this hypothesis, for it was only in the 14th and 15th centuries that ribs
between the groins (which have been compared to the small branches of trees) were intro-
duced ; hence it is rather difficult to trace the similarity which its supporters contend for.
296. 2. That the style originated from huts made with twigs and branches of trees intertwined.
— An hypothesis fancifully conceived and exhibited to the world by Sir James Hall, in
some very interesting plates attached to his work. Moller properly observes upon this
theory of twigs, that it is only in the buildings of the 1 5th and 1 6th centuries that the
supposed imitation of twigs appears.
I 4
120 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
297. 3. From the framed construction of timber buildings. — This is an hypothesis which
it would be loss of time to examine, inasmuch as all the forms and details undoubtedly arise
from the vault and arch; and a close examination of the buildings of the 13th century
proves that the ancient ecclesiastical style involves the scientific construction of stone
vaulting, all timber construction being limited to the framing of the roof.
298. 4. From the imitation of the aspiring lines of the pyramids of Egypt. — This hypo-
thesis is the fancy of Murphy, the ingenious and useful editor of a work on the convent of
Batalha, in Portugal, and also of some of the finest edifices of the Moors in Spain. The fol-
lowing is the reasoning of the author : — The pyramids of the Egyptians are tombs ; the
dead are buried in churches, and on their towers pyramidal forms are placed ; consequently,
the pyramids of the towers indicate that there are graves in the churches ; and as the pyra-
midal form constitutes the essence of the pointed arch style, and the pyramids of the towers
are imitations of the Egyptian pyramids, the pointed arch is derived from the latter. The
reader, we are sure, will not require from us any examination of the series of syllogisms
here enumerated.
299. 5. From the intersection of semicircular arches which occurs in late instances of the Ro-
manesque style. — This was the hypothesis of the late Dr. Milner, a Catholic bishop of great
learning and most amiable bearing, and a person so intimately acquainted with the subject
on which he wrote, that we regret his reasons for the conjecture are not satisfactory to
us, albeit the combination (fig. 153.) whereof he speaks is, in the Romanesque style, of
frequent occurrence. The venerable prelate seems
to have lost sight of a principle familiar to every
artist — that in all art the details of a style are
subordinate to and dependent on the masses, and
that the converse never occurs ; how, then, could
the leading features of a style so universal have
had their origin in an accidental and unessential
OK,CIN OK THK TO1NTKD ARcH. decoratioi^ like that of the theory in question ?
.None ot the above hypotheses are satisfactory ;
and Mbller well observes, that the solution of the question, whether the pointed style be-
longs to one nation exclusively, is attended with great difficulties. And it may be said
that the problem for solution is not, who invented the pointed arch, but, in what way its
prevalence in the 13th century is to be accounted for.
300. We are not of opinion that it is of much importance that this vexata qucestio should be
settled ; and that it will now satisfactorily be done, we consider very much out of the limits
of probability. But we suppose that the reader will be inclined to ask for our own bias on
the subject ; and, as we are bound to answer such a question, the reply is, that we are of the
faith of the Rev. Mr. Whittington, to whose work we have before referred, that the pointed
arch was of Eastern extraction, and that it was imported by the first crusaders into the
West. " All eastern buildings," says that ingenious writer, " as far back as they go (and
we cannot tell how far), have pointed arches, and are in the same style ; is it not fair to
suppose that some of these are older than the 12th century, or that the same style existed
before that time? Is it at all probable that the dark ages of the West should have given a
mode of architecture to the East ? " Lord Aberdeen, whose taste and learning in matters of
this nature well qualified him for the posthumous introduction to the public of the author
we are using, observes, in his preface to Whittington's work, that, " if we could discover in
any one country a gradual alteration of this style [the Romanesque], beginning with
the form of the arch, and progressively extending to the whole of the ornaments and general
design ; — after which, if we could trace the new fashion slowly making its way, and by de-
grees adopted by the other nations of Europe ; — the supposition of Mr. Walpole [that it
arose from what was conceived to be an improvement in the corrupt specimens of Roman
taste then exhibited, and was afterwards gradually carried to perfection] would be greatly
confirmed. Nothing, however, of this is the case. We find the Gothic [pointed] style,
notwithstanding the richness and variety it afterwards assumed, appearing at once with all
its distinctive marks and features, not among one people, but, very nearly at the same period
of time, received and practised throughout Christendom. How will it be possible to account
for this general and contemporary adoption of the style, but by a supposition that the taste
and knowledge of all on this subject were drawn from a common source ? and where can we
look for this source but to the East, which, during the crusades, attracted a portion of the
population, and, in a great degree, occupied the attention, of the different states of Europe ? "
This was an opinion of Sir Christopher Wren, at least greatly so, his leaning being rather
to deducing the origin of the style from the Moors in Spain. It is the fashion of modern
half-educated critics to place little reliance on such authorities as Wren. We have, from ex-
perience, learned to venerate them. The noble author whom we have been quoting proceeds
by stating that " the result receives confirmation from the circumstance of there being no
specimen of Gothic [pointed] architecture erected in the West before the period in ques-
tion." Exception, however, is to be made for the rare occurrence of a very few examples,
CHAP. II. POINTED. 121
whose construction may perhaps be placed higher than the 1 2th century, and the cause of whose
existence may be satisfactorily explained. " It may be sufficient here to observe, that no
people versed in the science of architecture could long remain ignorant of the pointed form
of the arch, the most simple and easy in construction, as it might be raised without a centre
by the gradual projection of stones placed in horizontal courses ; and, whether produced by
accident or necessity, we may reasonably expect to meet with it occasionally in their works."
It is certain that, though neglected in their general practice, the ancients were acquainted
with this mode of building • and the occurrence of an arch merely pointed and unaccom-
panied with any other characteristic of the style, is no better evidence of the prevalence of
Gothic (pointed) architecture, than that the appearance of Corinthian capitals in Romanesque
buildings must give them the right to be called classical edifices. It is not easy to answer
the question, — In what part of the East are we able to point to buildings constructed in
the pointed style, of a date anterior to those erected in the West ? A little reflection,
however, will solve the difficulty ; and here we must again trespass on the author we have
so copiously used, though our limits will not allow us to follow him in his own words. It
is manifest that the frequent wars and revolutions of the East entailed the same fate on
works of art and utility as attended the princes and chiefs of the states subverted. Thus
the number of architectural examples, and especially those of early date, was greatly di-
minished. Again, the people of the East with whom we are best acquainted, in a great
measure sacrificed their less durable mode of building to that which they found established
by the Greeks. Thus, the church of Santa Sophia was a model, after the conquest of Con-
stantinople, for all the mosques that were erected, with the addition occasionally of minarets
more or less lofty, as the piety and magnificence of the sultans might dictate. Previously
to the conquest of the metropolis of the East, such a practice was prevalent, and in the
cities of the empire many Christian edifices were adapted to the purposes of Mohammedan
worship. Yet, notwithstanding these causes, which form an impediment to full information
on the state of the early architecture of the East, there is an abundance of facts to give
probability to our notion, except in the eyes of those who view the subject through the
medium of prejudice and established system ; at least so we opine.
301. " If a line," says our author, "be drawn from the north of the Euxine, through
Constantinople to Egypt, we shall discover in every country to the eastward of this boun-
dary frequent examples of the pointed arch, accompanied with the slender proportions of
Gothic [pointed] architecture ; in Asia Minor, Syria, Arabia, Persia ; from the neigh-
bourhood of the Caspian, through the wilds of Tartary ; in the various kingdoms, and
throughout the whole extent of India, and even to the furthest limits of China. It is true
that we are unable, for the most part, to ascertain the precise date of these buildings ; but
this in reality is not very important, it being sufficient to state the fact of their comparative
antiquity, which, joined to the vast diffusion of the style, appears adequate to justify our
conclusion. Seeing, then, the universal prevalence of this mode in the East, which is satis-
factorily accounted for by the extensive revolutions and conquests effected by Eastern
warriors in that part of the world, it can scarcely appear requisite to discuss the probability
of its having been introduced from the West, or, still less, further to refute the notions of
those who refer the origin of the style [as some have very ignorantly done] to the in-
vention of English artists. Had it been adopted from the practice of the West, such a
peculiarity of taste and knowledge must have been imparted by some general communi.
cation : this has only occurred at one period, during which no building of the species ir
question existed in Europe. The inhabitants of the West could not convey a knowledge
which they did not possess ; but, as it became pretty general amongst them shortly after
the epoch alluded to, it is reasonable to infer that they acquired it from those nations they
are said to have instructed. On the whole, it is probable that the origin of the Gothic
style, notwithstanding the occasional imitation of a corrupt and degraded species of Roman
architecture, is sufficiently indicated by the lofty and slender proportions, by the minute
parts, and the fantastic ornaments of Oriental taste."
302. Mbller, a writer for whose opinions we entertain the highest respect, is not,
however, of opinion that the pointed arch originated with the Arabs ; and he observes that
a scrutiny of their buildings will exhibit nothing that bears upon the Gothic, or pointed,
style. He says that their arches are in the shape of a horseshoe ; that the columns are
low, that they stand single, and are not connected in groups ; that the windows are small,
the roofs flat, and that the prevalent general forms are horizontal : that, in the ancient
churches of the 13th century, the arches are pointed, the pillars high and composed of several
columns, windows large, and roofs and gables high. But at the end of his argument he admits
that the solution of the question, " which of the European nations first introduced or im-
proved the pointed style is not so easy, for we find this style of building almost con-
temporary in all parts of Europe." Now, though we are not about to use the argument
which is not always valid, post hoc ergo propter hoc, we must observe, that the introduction of
the pointed arch immediately after the first Crusade, and not before, is a most singular
occurrence ; and we are inclined to give it the same force as that used by old Bishop
122 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
Latimer on the subject of the Goodwin Sands and Tenterden steeple. One of the points of
M oiler's reasoning we do not think at all fortunate ; it is that on the forms of the Moresque
arches. Now, it must immediately occur to the reader that one of the forms (as at
Othe side), and that a common one, is to be found in their arches, that of contrary
flexure ; a form in the architecture of this country in the time of the Tudors uni-
versally adopted, though, it must be allowed, much flattened in the application. Ano-
ther point seems to have been altogether overlooked by Mbller, namely, the practice of
diapering the walls, whereof an instance occurs in Westminster Abbey; and one which has a
very strong affinity to the practice of the Moors, who left no space unornamented. The
higher-pitched gables of the northern roofs, we admit, fostered the discovery, by the in-
troduction of forms from necessity, which were admirably calculated to carry out to their
extreme limits the principles of which the Crusaders had acquired some notion for practice
on their return to their respective countries. As to the objection that the Arabs had no
original architecture, it is admitted. They must, however, have had that of the tent,
whose form inverted would give all that is sought. These observations we do not throw
out, however, as partisans ; because, as we have before said, the satisfactory settlement of the
origin involves nothing more than a silly antiquarian controversy, of importance to no one,
and, if decided, gratifying only to little minds ; and we ought, perhaps, to apologise, under
such circumstances, to the reader, for having so long delayed his entry to the acquaintance
with its examples. We cannot, however, proceed to that part of our duty without ob-
serving that the hypothesis adopted by us is sanctioned, in addition to the intelligent author
upon whom we have drawn so much, by Warburton, and T. Warton, and Sir Christopher
Wren ; and though none of these had the opportunity of basing their opinions upon the
labours of the recent travellers whom we have been able to use, we do not think, upon this
mooted question, either of them would be reduced to the necessity of retracting what he
has respectively written. The reader who is inclined to read the lucubrations of
Mr. Kerrich of Cambridge, which deduce the forms of churches, arches, and perhaps
many other objects, from the bladder of a fish (vesica piscis), may consult the Archaeologia ;
in which, as respects that subject, much money was uselessly and ridiculously expended in
text and plates, to illuminate the world on a subject whereof the writer was most pro-
foundly ignorant. In the Appendix, page 825., will be found a short inquiry into this
singular infatuation of a quasi sect, and it is hoped that the examination of the various
vesica? piscium, will have some tendency to put to rest one of the most singular theories
ever propounded. Where the object of speculation is to eliminate truth, much allowance
may be made for the vagaries of an enthusiast ; but when possible principles are altogether
abandoned, one is not inclined to be over merciful to an offender.
303. The golden age of pointed architecture was from the middle of the 13th to the
latter end of the 14th century, and one of the first churches in which it appeared, so as to
allow it to be quoted as a fair specimen of the style, is that of Gelnhausen, in Swabia, an
edifice which, it may safely be said, rose in the beginning of the 13th century. On the
plan it is a Latin cross, terminating in three sides of an octagon at the eastern end, where
it is flanked by two octagonal towers with plain buttresses at the angles. There is a
similarity in the long narrow windows at the eastern extremity to those of the churches of
Constantinople ; but they are sharply pointed like the end of a lancet, and, from the cir-
cumstance, are universally denominated lancet-headed windows. Over these windows are
ornamental semicircular recesses ; and again above these is a tier of small columns attached
to the wall which support arches of trefoil formation. In the wall between the columns
quatrefoil windows are introduced inscribed in circles, and above the arcade each face of the
octagon is pierced with a small window of two apertures, both ending in trefoil heads.
Each side is crowned by a rectilinear gable, under whose sloping sides occurs the nebule
or wavy ornament, bearing some resemblance to small arcades, with their imposts rounded.
The octagon is crowned generally by a lofty pyramidal roof, without ornament. The
two towers on the flanks are divided horizontally, by means of rectangular panels, into five
horizontal parts, each of them at the upper part being decorated with small semicircular
corbel-formed ornaments. The faces are crowned by small pediments, and the tower is
terminated by a plain pyramidal spire. The central tower of the edifice is octagonal on
the plan, containing two tiers of windows ; whereof those in the lower tier have some
double, others triple, apertures, formed by mullions, over which are trefoil heads ; whilst those
in the upper tier have double apertures with pointed heads. The central opening of the
three-light windows in the lower tier rises above those on the sides ; but they are enclosed
under one semicircular arch. This tower is also crowned with a simple pyramidal spire.
304. The beautiful church at Oppenheim, dedicated to St. Catherine, is, like that
just described, a Latin cross on its plan, and consists of a nave and transepts. Its chancel
is five sides of an octagon. As in many of the churches of Germany, it has a second
chancel for the canons at the western extremity, terminating in three sides of an
octagon. The entrances are on the north and south sides of the transepts. From a
MS. chronicle of the church, quoted by Mbller, it is ascertained that the nave and
CHAP. II. POINTED. 123
eastern chancel were begun in 1262, and finished in 1317. The western chancel was not
consecrated till 1439. The total length of the church, including the two chancels, is
268 ft. ; whereof the western chancel, whose breadth is 46 ft., occupies 92 ft. The nave is
l 02 ft. in length, and its breadth 86, that breadth comprising the two side aisles which are
separated from the nave by clustered columns. The transept is 102 ft. long, and 31 ft.
broad. In the side aisles are small chapels. In the western front, at the extremity of the
nave, are two towers, standing on square bases, each of four stories, and crowned by an
octagonal spire. In their three upper stories are round-headed windows, which, where
double, are separated by pilasters. The windows of the aisles occupy the whole space
between the buttresses, are without mullions, and have pointed arches. The buttresses,
whose faces are ornamented with panels, are without pinnacles. The upper windows are
surmounted by rectilinear pediments, with crockets and slender pinnacles between them.
The doorway of the south transept is with a pointed arch, having one lancet-headed
window above. The transept terminates in a gable, within which seven small pediments
are placed. Buttresses are placed at the angles of the transepts terminating in pinnacles.
Buttresses without pinnacles flank the angles of the hemi-octagon at the east end, whose
sides are pierced with lancet-headed apertures. In the western facade is an elegant rose
window of twenty small leaves in groups of five. Over the intersection of the transepts
with the nave stands an octagonal tower, in each face of which is a pointed window.
The centre is covered with a small cupola. On a visit to this beautiful church about four
years since, we were pleased to find it under repair, and likely to be preserved.
305. The two churches of Germany whose fame makes it necessary to notice them here
are those of Strasburg and Cologne. The first was begun in 1277, by Erwin de Steinbach,
and was carried on under various architects till 1439, since which nothing has been done
towards its completion. Among the examples of pointed architecture, this is the most
stupendous. There is a similarity of style between it and the cathedrals of Paris and
Rheims, except that the ornaments are more minute. The plan is a Latin cross, whose
eastern end terminates interiorly in a semicircle, but on the exterior in a straight line. The
length of the church is 324ft., that of the transept 150 ft. : the height of the vault of the
nave is 98 ft. The nave has one aisle on each side of it. The western fa9ade is in three
vertical divisions separated by buttresses. In the central one is the principal portal, and
thereover, we believe, the largest rose window in Europe. The portal just mentioned, as
well as that on each side, has a rectilinear pediment highly decorated. The sides and sofites
of the portals are filled with canopies and statues. The two stories of windows above the
ground are pointed ; those in the first story having slender bar divisions in front of them,
and those above being subdivided into three parts by a species of thin buttresses. On the
north side of the facade, being the north-west angle of the edifice, rises the spire, whose
height has been so variously represented, that some authors have made it 100 ft. higher than
others : we believe the correct height to be 466 ft., being greater than that of any church
in Europe. To a certain height the tower is square and solid, being formed by one of
the vertical divisions of the western fa9ade. Above the solid part, the tower rises to a
certain height octangularly, open on all sides, and flanked by four sets of open spiral stair-
cases, which are continued to the line whence the principal tower rises conically in seven
stories or steps, crowned at the summit with a species of lantern. In the interior of
this church, near one of the large piers of the transept, is a statue of the architect Erwin,
in the attitude of leaning over the balustrades of the upper corridor, and looking at the
opposite piers. John Hiiltz of Cologne succeeded Erwin as architect of the fabric : he
continued the tower which we have just described, and which was only finished in 1449.
306. We propose to close our view of the pointed architecture of Germany with some
short account of that which, had it been completed, would have been the most magnificent
and exquisitely ornamented ecclesiastical edifice the world ever saw, we mean the cathedral
at Cologne, whose plan (fig. 154.) exhibits a symmetry not surpassed by the buildings of
ancient Greece and Rome. A church had been erected on the present site of this
cathedral in the time of Charlemagne. This was destroyed by fire in 1248, at which time
Conrad filled the archiepiscopal throne of the city. Before fire had destroyed the former
cathedral, this prelate had resolved on the erection of a new church, so that in the year
following the destruction of the old edifice, measures had been so far taken, that the first
stone of the new fabric was laid with great solemnity on the 14th of August, being the
eve of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin. Collections were made throughout Europe
for carrying on the works, and the wealth of Cologne itself seems to have favoured the
hope that its founder had expressed of their continuation. The misfortunes of the times
soon, however, began to banish the flattering expectation, that the works would be continued
to the completion of the building. Gerard, who was the architect of the works in 1257,
suffered the grief of seeing the archbishops of Cologne dissipate their treasures in un-
profitable wars, and ultimately abandoning the city altogether for a residence at Bonn.
The works do not, however, appear to have been interrupted, though they proceeded but
slowly. On the 27th of September, in the year 1322, seventy-four years after the first
124
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK T.
Fig. 154.
PLAN OF COLOGNE CATHEDRAL.
stone had been laid, the choir was consecrated. The works were not long continued witli
activity, for about 1370, the zeal of the faithful was very much damped by finding that
great abuses had crept into the disposal of the funds. The nave and southern towep
continued rising, though slowly. Under Thierry de Moers in 1437, the latter had been
raised to the third story, and the bells were moved to it. In the beginning of the 16th
century, the nave was brought up to the height of the capitals of the aisles, and the
FJg. 15.1.
HOUTH M.KVAT10N
CHAP. II.
POINTED.
125
vaulting of the north aisle was commenced ; the northern tower was carried on to the
corresponding height ; and every thing seemed to indicate a steady prosecution of the
work, though the age was fast approaching in which the style was to be forgotten. The
windows in the north aisle were decorated, though not in strict accordance with the style,
yet with some of the finest specimens of painted glass that Europe can boast, a work
executed under the patronage of the archbishop Hermann of Hesse, of the chapter, of the
city, and of many noble families who are, by their armorial bearings, recorded in these
windows. But with this the progress stopped. The works which remain are at once a
monument of the genius which conceived such an edifice, and of the civil discords that
prevented its completion. Fig. 155. exhibits the south elevation of the cathedral, in which
the darker parts show the work actually executed, and the lighter ones those which
remain, alas ! still to be developed in matter. If the reader reflect on the dimensions of
this church, whose length is upwards of 500 ft., and width with the aisles 280 ft. ; the length
of whose transepts is 290 ft. and more ; that the roofs are more than 200 ft. high, and the
towers when finished would have been more than 500 ft. on bases 100 ft. wide ; he may
easily imagine, that, notwithstanding all the industry and activity of a very large number
of workmen, the works of a structure planned on so gigantic a scale, could not proceed
otherwise than slowly, especially as the stone is all wrought. The stone of which it is
built is from two places on the Rhine, Koenigswinter and Unckel-Bruch, opposite the
Seven Mountains, from both of which the transport was facilitated by the water carriage
afforded by the Rhine. The foundations of the southern tower are known to be laid, at
least, 44 ft. below the surface.
307. The states of Europe ought to contribute towards the completion of this stu-
pendous work, which the aid, liberal as it is, of the King of Prussia, does little more than
keep in repair ; though at this moment there is a complete staff of architect, clerks of
works, masons, &c., constantly employed on the fabric. We subjoin a table of the receipts
and expenditure upon it in the ten years from 1824 to 1833 inclusive, by which it will be
seen how alive, among the sovereigns of the Continent, the late King of Prussia was to the
importance of the arts.
Years.
Koval Grant
from the
Public Trea-
sury in
Produce from
Sale of old Ma-
terials.
Amount of Con- . . •
"%%&£*] sSSK
Amount of
Presents.
Total Receipts.
Total Expen-
diture.
Rix dollar*. R. D. Silb.g. Pf.
R. D. Silb.g. Pf. R. D. Silb.g. Pf.R.D. Silb.g. Pf.
R.D. Silb.g. Pf.
R.D. Silb.g. Pf.
18247
18253
35084
361 19 1
' \ -
-
35445 19 I 31050 29 11
1826
15000
47 23 0
3998 28 8
m
— ^
19046 21 8 16930 21 9
1827
15000
4009 5 2
„
.
19009 5 2
20743 5 9
1828
15000
117 11 8
3882 21 1
.
_
19000 2 9
23229 12 0
1829
15000
149 15 0
3966 0 0
_
_ m
19115 15 0
19027 27 4
1830
10000
146 20 0
4953 0 0
565 8 0
_
156C4 28 0
15924 4 4
1831
10000
116 28 4
5750 26 5
4729 26 4
26 8 7
20623 20 8
16685 10 9
1832
10000
175 2 0
5771 8 2
3035 28 6
18 21 6
19001 0 2
18375 17 10
1833
10000
209 16 0
6010 8 8
6 14 0
11 24 6
16238 3 2
22955 13 11
135084
1324 15 I
38342 8 2
8337 16 10
56 24 7
183145 4 8 184922 23 18
308. So that the average yearly expenditure, for the ten years above named, amounts to
27 16/. sterling, a sum manifestly little more than necessary for keeping the building in
repair, and leaving us without the most distant prospect of its ever being more than
preserved. The above table is extracted from the small brochure by M. J. De Noel,
published at Cologne in 1835.
309. The cathedral at Ulm (fig. 156.) is another of the many celebrated cathedrals of
Germany: it was commenced in 1377, and
finished, the tower excepted, in 1478. It is
reputed to be the longest church in Germany,
being 416 ft. long, 166 ft. wide, and, includ-
ing the thickness of the vaulting, 141 ft.
high. The piety of the citizens of Ulm moved
them to the erection of this structure, towards
which they would not accept any contribution
from foreign princes or cities ; neither would
they accept any remission of taxes nor indul-
gences from the pope. The whole height of
the tower, had it been finished according to
the original design (still in existence), would
have been 491 feet. It does not preserve the
regularity of form for which the cathedral at
Cologne is conspicuous, but the composition
of it, as a whole, is exceedingly beautiful. At
Ratisbon is another beautiful work, of about
126
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
the same period, of which fig. 157 is a sketch; but we do not think it necessary to detain
the reader with the description of it. At Vienna
the cathedral of St. Stephen's exhibits another ex-
quisite example of the style.
310. We have mentioned a few of the churches
of France in the Byzantine or Romanesque style.
In the thirteenth century the pointed style there
reactied its highest excellence. " Every thing,"
observes Whittington, " seemed to conspire, in the
circumstances of the nation and of the world, to
produce an interval favourable for the cultivation
of the arts ; and genius and talents \vere not want-
ing to make use of the happy opportunity. The
thirteenth century found the French artists, a nu-
merous and protected body, in possession of a new
and beautiful style of building ; the religious en-
thusiasm of the times, fanned by the spirit of the
Crusades, was at its height, and the throne of
France was filled by monarchs equally distinguished
by their piety and magnificence." The chronicle
FiS. 167. BATISBOX CATHKURAI.. of the abbey of Bee in Normandy informs us that
Ingelramme, who had been employed on the church
of Notre Dame at Rouen, was, in 1212, engaged on the church of this Norman abbey, a
great portion whereof he raised in a year and a half, and in which he was succeeded by
Waultier de Meulan, who finished the work in less than three years. Little of this build-
ing remains, from the circumstance of its having been burnt twice within the century,
and renewed in its present form about 1273, by the Abbot de Caniba. At this period the
churches of France were rising in every direction. At Rheims, the cathedral (fig. 158.)
exhibited the elegant lightness of the new style ; the body of the cathedral at Lyons was
completed; the exquisite cathedral of Amiens (fig. 159.) was raised by Robert de Lu-
Fi«. 1 58.
1 ig. 159,
1 marches and his successors; and, among many other architectural beauties, the Sainte Chapelle
of the palace at Paris. Neither must we omit the celebrated Eudes de Montreuil, among
whose numerous works, after his return from the East, whither he had accompanied St.
Louis, was the church of Notre Dame de Mantes, the boldness of whose vaulting as-
tonished Soufflot and Gabriel in their scientific survey of the French churches, and of
which it is related, perhaps fabulously, that when the building was finished, the workmen
refused to remove the centering, until Eudes, by sending his nephew to assist them, quieted
their apprehensions. The height of the vaulting from the pavement is 96 feet. This
Eudes died in 1289, and of his two wives, Mahault, or Maud, attended the queen on her
voyage to Egypt and the Holy Land. Another artist, Jousalin de Courvault, is known to
have accompanied the king (St. Louis) to the crusade. The number of ecclesiastical
structures in France erected during the reign of St. Louis exceeds all former and subse-
CHAP. II. POINTED. Ifi7
quent example. Besides a great number founded by individuals, the church and abbey of
St. Antoine near Paris, those of the Filles Dieu, the Jacobins, the Carmelites, and the
Cordeliers du Faubourg St. Marcel, were built by command of the king ; and, out of the
metropolis, the abbeys of Lis near Melun, of Longchamp near St. Cloud, and St. Mathieu
near Rouen ; the greater part of the abbey of St. Denis ; the Hotels Dieu of Vernon,
Pontoise, and Compiegne ; the church and abbey of Maubuisson ; the church of the nuns
of Poissy, and the monastery and church of Royaumont by Pierre de Montereau, are re-
corded as the monuments of this munificent sovereign. At the latter end of the twelfth,
or in the beginning of the thirteenth, century, moreover, sprung up a brotherhood, known bv
the name of the Confraternity des Ponts, founded by St. Benezet, to which belongs the
honour of having erected a bridge across the Rhone at Lyons in 1244, and the Pont St.
Esprit, another vast structure. The first stone of this was laid with great ceremony in
1265 by Jean de Tianges, prior of the monastery of St. Esprit, and the whole structure,
above 3000 feet in length, was completed in 1309. The building of bridges and main-
taining of roads at this period may be almost deemed to have been as great an act of piety
as the founding of churches ; and a religious association for such a purpose affords a proof
of the previous barbarism and increasing civilisation of the age. (See Appendix, p. 819.)
311. The wars carried by the English into the very heart of France, as well as the
factions and divisions of the French nobility, put a stop to the cultivation of the fine arts,
and the fine pointed style of this country ceased about the fourteenth century. The two
succeeding ones were not distinguished by architectural efforts of excellence equal to those
whereof we have been speaking. Before the invasion, however, of Edward III. and in the
provinces at a distance from the scene of warfare, the earlier part of the fourteenth century
produced some beautiful churches, among which was that of St. Ouen at Rouen, a work
celebrated no less for the beauty of its composition than for the remarkable skill and de- "
licacy exhibited in its execution. It was begun under the abbot, Jean Marc d' Argent in
1318, but not finished till near the middle of the following century. Under Charles V., I
whose valour and policy procured for France a more favourable aspect in the affairs of the
country, many buildings of importance were undertaken and completed. The principal
edifices, however, of this monarch were of a nature civil and military rather than religious.
The Bastile and the castle of Vincennes were finished by him ; in the latter whereof he
founded, about 1379, a very beautiful chapel, on the model of the Sainte Chapelle at Paris.
The Chatelet, the walls of the city near the Porte St. Antoine, the chateaux of St. Germain
en Laye, Montargis, and Creil, were constructed by him, as also many improvements and
additions at the Louvre. Charles VI. was more interested in preparations for the invasion
of England than in the patronage of architecture : he nevertheless caused the erection of the
abbey of Bonport and some other edifices.
312. Though in the fourteenth century the style of the thirteenth did not altogether dis-
appear, its character gradually altered, especially in the continuation of the mullion work
over the heads of the windows, which, from being ornamented with six foils or roses, were
now branched out into the form of leaves ; and the compartments of the circular windows in
transepts, and at the end of naves, underwent a great change in their composition, often
extremely fanciful. The vaultings of the roofs, too, were much more highly decorated.
All these alterations took place at nearly the same period, or a short time after, in England,
whose prosperity then enabled the artist to carry them to a much higher state of perfection
and magnificence, as will hereafter be shown.
313. The fifteenth century was not more favourable to the practice of architecture in
France than the fourteenth had been. It produced few buildings, nor was it indeed pro-
bable that any of grandeur and importance could have been undertaken and carried on
during the constant and sanguinary contests which concluded with the expulsion of the
English from its shores, by which the monarchy from its most abject degradation was once
more restored to vigour and prosperity. " The architectural taste of this age," says the
author whom we have so much quoted, " resembled the contemporary style of England
and other countries. Many instances of tracery may be remarked, especially in sepulchral
monuments and chapels ; but the distracted condition of France afforded little leisure to
her inhabitants for works of piety and genius ; and prevented them from adding to the
sumptuous structures of their ancestors any great example of that superlative beauty or
richness which characterise the architecture of England at this period." The time, in fact,
had arrived when it was to be superseded altogether by the disposition which soon became
universal in Europe for returning to an imitation of the works of the ancients, which, begun
by the artists of Italy, was soon carried into every other country where civilisation had a
footing.
314. Our notice of pointed architecture in France we shall close with a short notice of '
the cathedrals of Ilheims and Amiens, which, with Mr. Whittington, we are of opinion are
two of the finest examples of the style in the world. The former, which was not quite
finished till 1440, is in the form of a Latin cross on the plan ; its length from east to west
is 492 ft., and its breadth, measured to the extremities of the arms of the transepts, is
190 ft. The interior is divided longitudinally into a nave and choir with side aisles
128
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
The width of the transepts is 98 ft, which is equal to that of the body of the church ; and
the transepts, like the nave and choir, have their side aisles. The western front is composed
as usual, with three entrances, the centre one being the largest ; the three being crowned
with pointed arches and high pediments with their crockets and finials. The buttresses of
the front rise between these pediments, terminating in slender pinnacles. Over the centre
door is a very magnificent circular window, with radiating mullions, terminated at the cir-
cumference by pointed arches. It should also be mentioned that in the head of the door-
way is a circular window, and above that (partly hidden by the pediment of the doorway
on the outside) is a tier of small windows, like niches, over which is the great window just
mentioned. Over each side portal rises a square tower, decorated in the first story with
windows, and in the second with a canopy which extends horizontally throughout the
facade ; the height of the towers being 270 ft. from the ground. The portals are of the
most superb description, the sofites of the arches being masses of canopy work, exquisitely
formed and elaborately finished. This work was planned and begun in 121 5, at which time
the pointed architecture of England was by no means so advanced towards perfection as it
was on the Continent, the cathedral of Salisbury having been commenced 15 years later.
315. The cathedral of Amiens has always been the admiration of travellers, and " claims,"
says Whittington, " our attention, as it seems to throw a very strong light on the history of
that style, which has so long been, and probably will continue to be, distinguished by the
contemptuous epithet [Gothic] it at present bears." The date of the cathedral of Amiens
having been correctly ascertained, and nearly coinciding with that of Salisbury, it is fair to
compare the contemporary styles from these two examples. They were begun in the same
year 1220, and the original plans in both were carried through without mixture of the
styles that succeeded before their completion. We entirely agree with Whittington, that of
the two, Amiens is in a more perfect and advanced state of art than Salisbury, and that the
French were before us in adding to the simple beauties of the former period many graces
which we did not adopt till the latter. In England the prominent feature of the thirteenth
century was the highly pointed arch, struck from two centres, and including an equilateral
triangle from the springing to the crown or apex of the arch ; and another, as Bentham
(Hist, of Ely} well observes, is the employment of Purbeck marble pillars, very slender, and
encompassed by marble shafts, a little detached, and a profusion of small columns of the
same stone in the ornamental parts of the building. These peculiarities are found in
Amiens, the arches of whose aisles resemble those of Salisbury and Westminster, as do the
pillars. The vaulting, moreover, is like that of Salisbury. In plan, proportion, and orna-
ment, however, the general character of the building differs very materially. As respects
the first, the aisles to the transepts, the double ones on each side of the choir whose end is
so beautifully terminated by a semicircular colonnade, are differences from Salisbury ; the
number of columns, too, exceeds that used in our churches of the same date, and produces
an infinitely richer effect. The dissimilarity is continued in the proportions of the whole
cathedral, and especially in the height in relation to the width, that of the pillars to the
width of the arches, and in many other details. It is nevertheless in the ornamental part
that the chief difference exists, and most particularly in the hosts of saints, prophets, mar-
tyrs, and angels, which line the doors, cover the walls, and cluster round the pinnacles.
There is nothing in the church of Salisbury which approaches this. We have not, however,
space to pursue the subject, and shall therefore close it with a comparison of the respective
dimensions of the French with the English church.
Direction of Dimensions.
Salisbury.
Amiens.
Feet.
Feet.
Length from east to west -
452
444
— from the west door to the choir -
246
235
— of the choir -___.-
140
139
— of the space behind the choir to the Lady Chapel
I r
19
— of the Lady Chapel -
j 1
48
— of the transepts from north to south
210
194
Breadth of the nave -..._-
341
46
— of the transept -
46
— of the side aisles -
17*
19
— of the windows -
48
44
— of the nave and side aisles -
102
84
— of the west front -
115
160
Height of the vaulting of the nave -
84
141
— of the side aisles of the nave -
— of the side aisles of the choir -
} -1
65
62
— to the soffit of the grand arches ...
78
83
316. A more amusing instance of the value of the investigation of architectural subjects
by literary men cannot be referred to, than that of Gray the poet having compared the
CHAP. II.
POINTED.
129
cathedral of Amiens with that of Canterbury ; between which structures there is not the
smallest point of resemblance, except in their both being built for religious purposes. The
church at Amiens suffered during the Revolution considerably less than any of the other
French churches of importance.
317. In closing the view of the pointed architecture of France, it may be useful to add a
list of a few of the cathedral churches in that country, with their dates and architects, before
the end of the thirteenth century.
Church.
Date.
Architects.
Chartres ...
1029
Fulber.
Charite sur Loire
1056
Gerard.
Clugny ...
1070
Hugues.
Notre Dame, Paris
1161
Mauricede Sully. Finished by Jean de
Ravy, 1257 ; and Pierre de Montereau,
1270.
Bee -
1212
Ingelramme. Finished by Walter de
Meulan, 1216.
Rheims Cathedral
1215
Hugues Libergier. Completed by Ro-
bert de Coucy.
Rouen ditto
1216
Ingelramme. Finished by W. de Meulan.
Amiens ditto
1220
Robert dc Luzarches.
Sainte Chapelle de Paris
1245
Pierre de Montereau.
Lyons -
1270
Robert de Luzarches
Notre Dame de Mantes
1280
Eudes de Montreuil.
St. Germain des Pros, Paris
Chapel of our Lady -
1288
Finished. Foundations laid by Pierre
de Montereau in 1227.
318. The pointed arch is found throughout Italy. We do not believe there was any
great difference in the times of its introduction into the various countries of Europe ; the
earliest example in Italy is believed to be the church of San Francesco at Assisi. The
cathedrals at Orvieto and Sienna, and some beautiful examples at Verona, Vicenza, and
Viterbo, show that it prevailed in Italy with many modifications. It is not necessary to
pursue its history merely with reference to this country ; and we shall therefore content
ourselves with a short account of the principal structure in it which exhibits the style.
The cathedral at Milan (fg. 160.) was begun in 1336, and finished in 1387. It is con-
structed of white marble. The plan is
a Latin cross, the transepts extending
but little beyond the walls of the church.
From west to east its length is 490 ft., and
its extreme breadth 295. Each extremity
of the western front has a small square
tower 43 ft. wide in each direction. The
length of the nave is 279 ft., and its width
197 ft. It is divided longitudinally into
a central and four side aisles, and lighted
by five cupolas. The transepts are also
divided into a central and two side aisles,
in the direction of their length. The
eastern end of the church is terminated
by three sides of an octagon. The ar-
chitecture of the doors and windows of
the western front is of Italian or Roman
style, and was executed at a late pe-
riod ; but the whole of it ends upwards in a great gable or pediment, taking in the ex-
treme width of t.'ne elevation. Its apex is 170 ft. from the pavement, and the sloping sides
are ornamented with tabernacle work. The central pinnacles are 195 ft. high, and are hori-
zontally divided into six stories, which, as they rise, gradually diminish in breadth, the last
forming a small pyramidal spire. The faces of the towers are encrusted with tabernacle
work, and canopied statues standing on corbels. In the third story from the bottom
a painted window, separated into three divisions by mullions, is introduced. The rest of
the facade is vertically divided by buttresses into five parts, the buttresses being orna-
mented with statues on corbels, and terminating in lofty pinnacles. The central tower,
which stands over the intersection of the transepts with the nave, rises to the height of
400 ft., being in general form similar to those which appear in the western faa^de. All
the towers and pinnacles are crowned with statues. The roof is covered entirely with
.
130
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
blocks of marble, which are fitted together with such exactness that they are like one piece.
The principal architect of the fabric was Zamodia, a German. It must be here remarked,
that the interior of the cathedral of Milan, which is of the close of the 14th century, is in
the same character of style as that which prevailed in France and Germany during the
aera. Kerrich (MSS. Brit. Mus.) has very truly said, that "we have nothing which might
authorise a strict comparison with the cathedral at Milan, as to the immensity of the work,
or the astonishing and endless labour which has been expended upon it. Without ascending
the roof, no idea can be formed of the vast profusion of elegantly carved ornaments, the
Gothic work, or the astonishing number of statues and alto-rilievos which are found there ;
some very small, others of a gigantic size — generally speaking good. They possess, of
course, different degrees of merit, as having been made in different ages. There is a sin-
gular application of them, which is seen I believe no where else — they stand upon the
very summit of pinnacles and finials. The louvre in the centre of the church is very large,
and of grand effect, but is disfigured by a wooden spire. The flying arches are literally
feathered with crockets." We subjoin a table, with the dates and architects, of some of the
principal cathedrals of Italy, in which the pointed arch is found : —
Place.
Date.
Architect or Founder.
Genoa -
Messina -
Palermo, Monte Reale
Benevento
Padua -
1125
11801
1185J
1198
1231
Founded by Martino Doria.
Founded by Ruggiero, Count of Sicily, in 1100.
Bishop Ruggiero, nephew of the last.
Nicola da Pisa.
Arezzo -
Orvieto -
f 1 240 to \
{_ 1 260 J
1290
Lapo, a German.
Lorenzo Maitani.
Naples -
Sienna -
Milan -
1260
1338
1387
Giovanni da Pisa.
Lapo da Sicaa.
Zamodia.
319. In the church of San Lorenzo at Genoa appears a strange mixture of styles : the
nave is separated from the aisles by Corinthian columns, connected by pointed arches, and
bearing an horizontal entablature, above which reigns an arcade, whose supports are alter-
nately columns and piers. The internal appearance of the church is singular, from the
courses of the masonry being alternately of white and black marble. The cathedral at
Palermo seems to indicate a Moresque as well as pointed style, and is a curious example,
whereof the representations will convey a much better idea than a description here, which,
however, we should not decline, if the subject had not already been placed fully before the
reader. Every example within the range of Moorish dominion unites to prove the hypo-
thesis on which we have relied.
320. In the splendid cathedrals of Spain a style prevails wherein we find almost an
amalgamation of Saracenic with that which prevailed in Europe after the introduction
of the pointed arch. That at Seville, which was raised near the end of the 13th century,
is 420 ft. long, 273 ft. broad, and 1 26 ft. high. The choir is in the centre of the church ;
and the interior, though as respects the plan unintelligibly split into small parts, pos-
sesses features of extraordinary beauty. The celebrated Giralda, or bell-tower, seated at
one angle of it, is perhaps the most picturesquely designed campanile in Europe. The
lower part, being 200 of the 300 ft. in height to which it rises, was built by the Moors to-
wards the end of the 10th or beginning of the 1 1th century. It contains a staircase of so
easy ascent that two horsemen may mount abreast more than half way towards its summit.
The cathedral at Burgos is another exquisite specimen of the art in Spain, and has always
been considered among the best examples of Europe in the pointed style, which on the
Continent was always more exuberant in ornament than in this country. It has two towers
ending in spires at its west end ; and from the central part of the edifice a square tower of
great beauty rises, whose sides are ornamented with eight pinnacles. The parts of this
cathedral are elaborate, and finished with extraordinary attention to detail. At the eastern
end an octagonal building is seated, crowned with a pyramidal roof. This church is said
to have been executed on the designs of John and Simon of Cologne, after 1442.
321. Portugal produces a number of examples of the pointed style, one whereof, the
church of Batalha (fig- 161. ), is of the most magnificent description. We always differ with
reluctance from Dr. Milner, and especially in the case of the Batalha, which he considers only
a pleasing variety of Gothic architecture, and not to be put in competition with many of the
contemporary buildings in other parts of Europe on the general principles of sublimity and
beauty. Our opinion is directly the reverse. The church at Batalha is 416 ft. in length, and
541 ft. from north to south including the monastery. Its plan is that of a Latin cross, and the
CHAP. If.
ITALIAN.
131
interior is divided by columns into a nave, with an aisle on each side, the eastern end ter-
minating in three sides of an octagon. The aisles
are equal in height to the nave ; the vaults of both
being groined, and springing from clustered pillars.
The side walls have two tiers of pointed windows;
those of the lower tier having their radii of curva-
ture equal to two thirds of their span, and those
above equal to three fourths of it. The windows
are splayed towards the interior, their sides being
ornamented with a number of small columns,
wherefrom stems are produced which meet at the
top of the aperture. Each window is in three divi-
- sions, separated by upright mullions, and ending in
[I iifnt! Pi! trefoil heads. Six quatrefoils are introduced be-
•IK.a3UIIHi tween the tops of the last and the intrados of the
arch. In the chancel the windows are narrow in
proportion to their height, and terminate in lancet
heads. The main walls are crowned by pierced
battlements with pinnacles. The tower is oc-
tagonal on the plan, and receives a small open-
worked pyramidal spire. Attached to this church,
•which is constructed entirely of white marble, is the extremely beautiful mausoleum of
King John (Jig. 162.), whose pierced spire reminds one of those in Normandy and Ger-
many, and gives another instance of the universal
consent of the age in carrying pointed architec-
ture to the utmost limits of decoration ; a desire
which, connected with the changes of the times,
led to its abandonment very soon after it seems
to have reached the acme of perfection.
322. We here leave the subject of pointed ar-
chitecture, not without regret, because we are
well aware that a much more extended notice
than the limits here prescribed is necessary to
do justice to it ; but that regret is lessened on
reflecting that in a subsequent section we shall
have to consider it under the head of architec-
ture in the British Isles. The first crusade, it
is to be observed, was in 1096, about a century
after which the pointed style was approaching
perfection on the Continent ; the last, or eighth
crusade, was in 1 270 ; and it is curious enough
to observe that in about a century thereafter
the expiring effort in that style appears in the
cathedral at Milan. There seems to have been
a series of waves of art impinging, like those of
the sea on the shores of a continent, on the taste of Europe, and not felt immediately,
but in, as it were, the distance of the original wave from its destination ; for it is certain
that the British Isles were behind the rest of Europe in its adoption. And this we think
another satisfactory reason for assigning the origin of the pointed arch to the East.
Kig. 162. HAusoiJtuu OK KINO JOHN.
SECT. XVI.
ITALIAN ARCHITECTURE.
323. The period to which we have advanced in the architecture of Italy is seen in the
last section : we have now to commence a new era in the art, which, dawning in Florence,
soon spread its meridian light over Italy and the rest of Europe. The French have well
applied the term renaissance to its commencement. It is with us denominated that of the
revival of the arts. The Florentines had at an early period, according to Villani, de-
termined to erect in their city a monument which should surpass all that had before
appeared ; and in 1 2J/8 Arnolfo di Lapo, according to Vasari, but according to Molini
Arnolfo di Cambio da Colle, to whom they confided its execution, had so prepared his
plans that its foundations were in that year laid, on the day of the feast of the Nativity,
and the name of Sta. Maria del Fiore w'as then given to it. This edifice, though com-
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132
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
"BOOK I.
menced long before the revival of the arts, seems to have been conceived by its architect in
an original style, forming, as it were, a mean between the pointed and ancient style.
It is therefore one of particular interest and instruction in the history of architecture, and
one wherein we find a construction in which preparation was made for changing the style
then prevalent into one sanctioned by the ancient principles of the art ; and it is certain that
it was the first which gave the hint for the grandest monuments of modem architecture.
Fig. 163. shows the plan, and./fy. 164. the half section and half elevation of it. The walls
Fig. 163.
PLAN 0V SANTA MARIA DEI, FIORB AT FLORENCE.
are almost entirely cased with marble. The whole length of it is 454 feet ; from the pave-
ment to the summit of the cross is nearly 387 feet ; the transept is nearly 334 feet Jong ;
the height of the nave 153 feet, and that of the sides aisles 96^. Between the period
of the beginning of the edifice and that in which its completion was entrusted to Brunel-
leschi, many architects of great talent had been employed in carrying on the works : among
whom we find the names of Giotto; Taddeo Gaddi; Andrea Orgagna, a man of extra-
ordinary powers, as his Loggia in the Piazza at Florence amply testifies ; and Filippo di
Lorenzo. The revival of architecture is so connected with the life of Brunelleschi, that a
few passages in the latter will assist us in giving information on the former. He was
born in 1377, and by his father Lippo Lippi, a notary of Florence, was intended to succeed
him in his own profession ; but the inclination of the youth bent towards the arts, and the
parent with reluctance yielded to it, and placed him with a goldsmith, an occupation then
so connected with sculpture that the greatest artists of the time applied themselves to the
chasing and casting ornaments in the precious metals. Brunelleschi, though skilful as a
sculptor, had many rivals ; and ambitious, it would seem, to be the first in the art to which
he should apply his powers, determined to devote himself entirely to architecture, in which
the field was then unoccupied. In company with Donatello he therefore visited Rome,
and applied himself with ardour to the study of the ruins in the Eternal City ; and what was
said by Constantius on seeing the forum of Trajan, as related by Ammianus Marcellinus,
might be truly said of Brunelleschi : — " Haerebat attonitus per giganteos contextus cir-
cumferens mentem, nee relatu affabiles, nee rursus mortalibus appetendos." It was in
Rome, though he never communicated his thoughts on the subject to his friend Donatello,
that he began to meditate upon the scheme of uniting by a grand cupola the four naves of
the Duomo at Florence ; a project which till his time was considered almost impossible.
During his residence, also, he traced and settled in his mind the proportions of the orders
of architecture from the classic examples which the city afforded. Here it was that he
studied the science of construction as practised by the ancients : from them he learnt that
perfect accordance which always exists between what is useful and what is beautiful, both
of which are reciprocally subordinate to each other. Here he discovered the principles of
that nice equilibrium, equally requisite for the beauty no less than for the solidity of an
edifice. In short, throughout he found " sermons in stones ; " and, having thus qualified
himself for the great work he sought, returned to Florence in 1407. In this year the
citizens convoked an assembly of architects and engineers to deliberate upon some plan for
finishing the Duomo, as Sta. M. del Fiore is usually called ; a name given to the cathedrals
of the cities of Italy. To this assembly Brunelleschi was invited, and gave his advice for
raising the base drum or attic story upon which the cupola should be placed. It is not
important here to detail the jealousies of rivals which impeded his project ; nor, when the
CHAP. II.
ITALIAN.
133
Fig. Ifil.
OF SANTA MARIA
commission was at length confided to him, the disgraceful assignment to him of Lorenzo
Ghiberti as a colleague, whose incapacity for such a task our architect soon made manifest.
Suffice it to say, that before his death he had the satisfaction to see the cupola finished,
with the exception of the exterior of the drum under the cupola ; for whose decoration, as
well as for the lantern with which he proposed to crown the edifice, he left designs, which,
however, were lost. One of the directions he left on his death particularly insisted upon
the necessity of following the model he had prepared for the lantern, and that it was es-
sential that it should be constructed of large blocks of marble so as to prevent the cupola
from opening ; an advice which experience has since proved in other cases to be far from
sound. This cupola is octagonal on the plan, as will be seen by reference to the figures,
and is 138 feet 6 inches in diameter, and from the cornice of the drum to the eye of the
dome of the height of 1 33 feet 3 inches. Before it nothing had appeared with which it
could be fairly put in comparison. The domes of St. Mark and that at Pisa are far below
it in grandeur and simplicity of construction. In size it only yields to St. Peter's at
Rome, for which it is probable it served as a model to Michael Angelo ; for in both, the inner
and outer cupolas are connected in one arch at their springing. It is moreover well
known that Buonarroti's admiration of it was so great that he used to say that to imitate
it was indeed difficult, to surpass it impossible. Vasari's testimony of it shall close our
account of this magnificent structure : — " Se puo dir certo che gli antichi, non andarono
mai tanto alto con lor fabriche, ne si messono a un risico tanto grande, che eglino volessino
combattere col cielo, come par veramente ch' ella combatta, veggendosi ella estollere in
tant' altezza che i monti intorno a Fiorenza paiono simili a lei. E nel vero pare, che il
cielo ne abbia invidia poiche di continuo le saette tutto il giorno la percuotono." It might
be supposed that such a work was sufficient to occupy the whole of Brunelleschi's time ;
not so : the Duke Filippo Maria engaged him on the fortifications at Milan, besides which
K 3
134 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
he was employed on several other military works; a proof of the great diversity of talent he
possessed. It is, therefore, from the extensive employ he enjoyed, not only in Florence,
but in many other parts of Italy, quite certain that he infused a new taste into its buildings,
and that he is justly entitled to the title of the Restorer of Architecture in Europe. He
died, and was buried in the church he had raised in 1444. He left a number of scholars,
among whom Luca Fancelli and Michelozzo were perhaps the ablest. These pupils spread
throughout Italy the effects of the vast change that had been thus begun ; a taste for archi-
tecture was excited ; its true principles became known ; and in a short space of time, as if
the matter had been one of arrangement between them, the illustrious house of Medici, the
dukes of Milan, and the princes and nobility of the country contended who should most
patronise its professors. The learned began to expound to artists the books of Vitruvius,
the only writer among the ancients whose works on that subject have come down to us.
324. 'Leo Battista Alberti, of the ancient and illustrious family of the Albert! of
Florence, succeeded Brunelleschi in carrying on the great change of which we have been
speaking, and was, indeed, a great contributor to the art, not only by his literary labours
on architecture, in which he displays profound erudition, knowledge of construction, and
an intimate acquaintance with the works of the ancients, but also by the distribution, ele-
I gance, grace, and variety, which his designs exhibit. His book, De Re Edificatorid, is the
I foundation of all that has been since written on the art, and deserves careful perusal by
every one who studies for the purpose of practice. We shall here present a short account
of it, which, in imitation of Vitruvius, he divided into ten books.
325. The first book treats on the origin and utility of architecture ; the choice of the
soil and situation for placing buildings ; the preparation, measurement, and suitable divi-
sion according to their nature, of the edifices to be erected ; of columns and pilasters ; of
the different kinds of roofs, doors, and windows, their number and size ; of the different
sorts of staircases and their landings ; of the sewage or drains, and of suitable situations for
them respectively. In the second book the subjects are, the choice of materials ; the pre-
cautions to be taken before beginning a building ; the models, of whatever description, that
should be made ; the choice of workmen ; the trees fit for use, and the season in which they
should be felled ; the methods for preventing rot, and susceptibility of fire ; of stone in its
varieties; the different sorts of bricks, tiles, lime, sand, and mortar. The third book
treats of construction ; foundations according to the varieties of soil ; encroachments ; the
carrying up and bond of masonry ; rough and rubble work ; on the different sorts of
masonry ; on the inlaying and facing of walls ; on beams, joists, and the method of
strengthening them ; on floors, arches, and vaults ; the covering of roofs, pavements, and the
season for beginning and completing certain works. The fourth book is confined to the phi-
losophy of the art, showing the causes which influence mankind in the adoption of modes
of building according to the climate, the soil, and the habits or government of a people. It,
however, treats of the proper position of a city ; of the size to be given to it ; of the form
of the walls ; of the customs and ceremonies of the ancients as applied to this point ; of
fortifications, bastions or towers, gates and ramparts ; bridges, both of timber and stone ;
sewers, ports, harbours, and squares requisite in a city. The fifth book contains in-
structions for the erection of palaces for peaceable, and castles for absolute princes ; for the
houses required by a republic ; large and small religious edifices ; academies, public
schools, hospitals, and palaces for senators. In it are given some hints on military and
naval architecture, on farm buildings, and country houses. In the sixth book Alberti
treats on architectural ornament, columns, and the method of adjusting their proportions.
After some observations on the principles of beauty, on taste, and on the mode of im-
proving it, he enters shortly on the history of architecture. These are followed by several
chapters on the doctrine of mechanics, machines, the method of raising and working
columns, polishing them, imitations in stucco and incrustation in thin layers, and matters
of that nature. The seventh book continues the discussion on ornaments in architecture,
but chiefly in respect of columns, showing the edifices in which the use of them is suitable ;
and, in imitation of Vitruvius in his directions relative to temples, our author dilates on
buildings for ecclesiastical purposes. He shows what sorts of columns and pilasters are
best suited to them, how far the employment of statues is proper, and how they should be
sculptured. The eighth book is on roads and their decorations, tombs, pyramids, columns,
altars, epitaphs, &c. In it he turns to the subjects of streets, cities, ornaments appropriate
to gates, ports, arches, bridges, crossways, markets, public squares, walks, porticoes, theatres,
amphitheatres, circi, libraries, colleges, baths, &c. ; and the style in which public buildings
should be constructed and decorated. The ninth book is a continuation of the preceding
one ; but in this he speaks in addition of the appropriate decoration of royal palaces, and of
the ornaments respectively suitable to city and country dwellings, and of the paintings and
sculpture that should be employed in them. In the tenth and last book the principal sub-
ject is the finding a supply of water for buildings both in town and country, and it closes
with some useful hints on the aid of architecture to domestic economy. This truly great
man constructed many \vorks in different cities of Italy, some of which still remain to
CHAP. II. ITALIAN. 135
attest his skill. We are not to examine them with the eye of an architect flourishing even
half a century later, though under that category they do him honour, but with the eye
of an artist of his own day, and we shall then find our veneration for his memory cannot be
too strongly expressed. In Florence he finished the Ruccellai palace, and built the choir
of the Anmmziata. At Mantua he built a church of singular beauty, consisting of a simple
nave, crowned with a vault decorated with caissons, which rivals the works of the ancients.
The additions he made to the church of St. Francesco at Rimini, a pointed church, though
not in the same style, because it then came into disrepute, show an extraordinary aptitude
for overcoming the most difficult and repulsive subjects with which an architect has to deal,
and that work alone would stamp him as a man of genius. On his other acquirements it is
not within our province to dwell ; we shall merely sum them up by saying that he was poet,
painter, sculptor, philosopher, mathematician, and antiquary. Such was Alberti, in whom
was concentrated more refinement and learning than have hardly since appeared in a single
individual of our species. The time of his death is not accurately known ; some place it at
the end of the fifteenth, and others at the beginning of the sixteenth century.
326. About the time that Alberti was engaged on the practice and literature of the art,
a very extraordinary volume, written by a member of the Colonna family, was published by
Aldus, at Venice, in 1499, folio. Its title is as follows : — Polyphili Hypnerotomachia ;
opus italics, lingua conscriptum ; ubi humana omnia non nisi somnium esse docet. This work
deserves to be better known than we fear its rarity will ever permit. With the singularity
of the plan, it unites the advantage of placing before the reader many elevated and elegant
ideas, and, under the veil of a fable, of inculcating precepts of the greatest utility to artists
and those that love the art. The testimony of Felibien in favour of this work runs so fa-
vourably, that we must transcribe it: — " Sans prejudice," says that author, " du grand profit
qu'on peut tirer de la lecture de Vitruve, et de 1'etude qu'on doit faire de ses principes et de
ses regies, il ne faut pas moins examiner les tableaux curieux de plusieurs superbes Edifices,
monumens ou jardins, que 1'imagination riante et feconde de 1'auteur du Songe a mis sous
les yeux de ses lecteurs." When it is recollected that the manuscripts of Vitruvius were
extremely rare, and that when Colonna wrote (1467) that author had not been translated, —
when we reflect that in his descriptions he rears edifices as magnificent and regular as
those which Vitruvius presents to us, we cannot withhold our surprise at the genius and pene-
tration of the author. With him architecture appears in all her majesty. Pyramids,
obelisks, mausolea, colossal statues, circi, hippodromi, amphitheatres, temples, aqueducts,
baths, fountains, noble palaces, delicious gardens, all in the purest taste and of the most
perfect proportion, attend in her train, and administer to the pomp with which the author
attires her. With him all these ideal productions of the art were not merely the result of
an ardent imagination, but were the fruit of an intimate acquaintance with its rules, which
he explains to his reader, and inspires him at the same time with a taste for the subject of
his pages. He often breaks out against the gross ignorance of the architects of his day,
and endeavours to inculcate in them the sound principles of the art. He demonstrates
that it is not enough that an edifice possesses stability and solidity, but that it must be
impressed with a character suitable to the purpose for which it is destined ; that it is not
enough that it be well decorated, but that the ornaments used arise from necessity, or at
the least from utility. Architecture thus treated in fiction was much more pleasantly
studied than it would have been by mere application to the dry rules of Vitruvius. The
impression made by the work was increased by the poetic glow with which the precepts
were delivered ; the allegories it contained warmed the imaginations of a people easily excited,
and Italy soon saw realised what Polyphilus had seen in a dream. This work is decorated
with wood engravings of singular beauty, in which the details and accessories are strictly
classical ; it is written with great spirit and elegance, and we are not amazed at the magical
effect which, with the accompaniment of Alberti's book above mentioned, it every where
produced.
327. The Italian school, which ultimately appropriated and adapted the ancient Roman
orders and their details to comparatively modern habits, was for a long while engrafted
on or amalgamated with what is4called Gothic. We here (fig. 165.) place before the reader
an instance of this, in the celebrated Loggia at Florence, designed by Orgagna. The same
feeling appears, indeed, in what Brunelleschi did in his Duomo, and in many other buildings
in Florence, in Pisa, Sienna, and other cities. Brunelleschi doubtless made a strong effort to
emancipate himself altogether from the mixture of two discordant styles, and in some mea-
sure succeeded. Still there continued, as is evident in the Ricardi, Strozzi, and other palaces
in Florence, a lingering love for the mixture, which the architects had great apparent diffi-
culty in shaking off. It is, however, extraordinary that with all this lingering love for the
ancient style, in which there was much littleness, when the architects of this period came
to the crowning members of their edifices, they placed on them such massive and finely
composed cornices that the other parts are quite lost; and in this member it is evident they
were influenced by those feelings of unity and breadth that gave so much value to the bes^
works of the ancients.
K 4
136
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
Fig. 165.
LOGGIA OK ORG
328. The revival of the arts in Italy was vastly assisted by the commerce and riches of
the country ; and with the decay of that commerce, nearly 300 years afterwards, their palmy
days were no more : from that time they have never thriven in the country that gave
them birth. It is our intention, in this view of Italian architecture, to consider it under
the three schools which reigned in Italy — 1. The Florentine; 2. The Roman; 3. The
Venetian.
329. 1. Florentine School. — Climate and the habits of a people are the principal agents
in creating real style in architecture; but these are in a great measure controlled, or it is
perhaps more correct to say modified, by the materials which a country supplies. Often,
indeed, these latter restrict the architect, and influence the lightness or massiveness of the
style he adopts. The quarries of Tuscany furnish very large blocks of stone, lying so close
to the surface that they are without other difficulty than that of carriage obtained, and
removed to the spots where they are wanted. This is probably a circumstance which will
account for the solidity, monotony, and solemnity which are such commanding features in
the Florentine school ; and which, if we may judge from the colossal ruins still exist-
ing, similarly prevailed in the buildings of ancient Etruria. In later times another cause
contributed to the continuation of the practice, and that was the necessity of affording places
of defence for the upper ranks of society in a state where insurrection continually occurred.
Thus the palaces of the Medici, of the Pitti, of the Strozzi, and of other families, served almost
equally for fortresses as for palaces. The style seems to have interdicted the use of columns
in the fa9ades, and on this account the stupendous cornices that were used seem actually
necessary for the purpose of imparting grandeur to the composition. In the best and most
celebrated examples of their palaces, such as the Strozzi, Pandolfini, and others in Florence,
and the Picolomini palace at Sienna, the cornices are proportioned to the whole height of
the building considered as an order, notwithstanding the horizontal subdivisions and small
interposed cornices that are practised between the base and the crowning member. The
CHAP. II.
ITALIAN.
137
courts of these palaces are usually surrounded by columns or arcades, and their interior is
scarcely ever indicated by the external distribution. From among the extraordinary palaces
with which Florence abounds, we place before the reader the exquisite facade of the Pan-
doliini palace, the design whereof (fig. 16G.) is attributed to the divine Ratfaelle d'Urbino.
Fig. 166.
PANDOI.K1M PAI.ACB
In it almost all the requisites of street architecture are displayed. It is an example
wherein the principles of that style are so admirably developed, as to induce us to recom-
mend it, in conjunction with the facade of the Farnese palace hereafter given, to the
elaborate study of the young architect.
3 SO. Without further allusion to the double cupola of the Duomo, already noticed,
the first of its species, and the prototype of that of St. Peter's at Rome afterwards reared
by Michael Angelo, the principles and character of the Florentine school are not so
manifest in its churches as in its palaces. These nevertheless possess great interest ; for
they were the bases on which those of the Roman school were formed, as well as of those
examples which, with different degrees of purity, were afterwards erected in many of the
capitals of Europe. Besides the plan of the Duomo, those of St. Michele, Sta. Maddelina,
St. Pancrazio, St. Lorenzo, and St. Spirito, are the key to all 'excellence in modern art, as
respects real church architecture. It is unfortunate that of this school few of the churches
have been finished, so that their fa9ades are generally imperfect. The interior was pro-
perly, with them, a matter to be first considered and brought to perfection.
331. Amongst the many extraordinary architects of the Florentine school, whereof a
list will hereafter be given, was Bartolorneo Ammanati, whose bridge, " della Santissima
Trinita" sufficiently proves that the greatness of the Florentine school does not alone
depend on its palaces and churches. This, one of the most beautiful examples, as well
for design as constructive science, in which was obtained for the waters of the Arno a
maximum of waterway, combined with a beauty of form inappreciable through graphic
means, still strides the river of Florence, to attest the consummate skill of Ammanati.
The bridge in question consists of three arches : the middle one is 96 ft. span, and each of the
others 86 ft. ; the width of the piers is 26 ft. 9 in., and the breadth of the bridge between
the parapets is 33 ft. The arches are very slightly pointed, the cusp being hidden by the
rams' heads sculptured on the keystones ; their rise above the springing is very little,
hence they have been mistaken by some writers for cycloidal arches. Alfonso and Giulio
Parigi, who assisted in constructing the work, left an account of the mode in which it was
carried on, and the manuscript is still preserved in the Florentine Library. More recently,
a description of this bridge has been published by Ferroni, under the title of " Delia vera
Curva degli Archi del Ponte della Santissima Trinita di Firenze." The Pitti palace had
been begun in the time of Brunelleschi, in 1435, for Luca Pitti, a wealthy citizen of Florence.
Remaining long unfinished, it was at last sold to Eleonora, wife of Cosmo I., who pur-
chased the adjoining ground, and planted the Boboli Gardens. About the middle of the
16th century, Nicolo Bracciani, surnamed Tribolo, made designs for finishing the building;
and was succeeded by Bernardo Buontalenti. After him came our Ammanati, who left
other designs for finishing, which was accomplished by Alfonso and Giulio Parigi. It is
now the residence of the grand duke, and has served as a model for imitation to many modern
architects, though there is in it much to condemn. The details, however, and proportions
of the orders used in it by Ammanati, are very beautiful. This architect died in 1586, at
the age of seventy-five. He was a pupil of Baccio Bandinelli, and during his life composed
a large work, entitled La Citta, which contained designs for all the fabrics belonging to
a regular and well-arranged city, beginning with the gates, then proceeding to the palaces
of the prince and magistrates, the churches, the fountains, the squares, the loggia for the
138 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
merchants, the bridges, theatres, &c. This work appears to have been lost, the last possessor
of it known having been the prince Ferdinand of Tuscany. Though in the higher re-
finement of finished details the Florentine school did not reach the extreme elegance of the
Roman and Venetian schools, yet for bold imposing masses of architecture we think no
city presents such a collection of highly picturesque architectural examples as Florence.
The Pitti palace indeed, just mentioned, is more imposing by its broad parts than almost
any other building with which we are acquainted, though it becomes poor when translated
into French, as at the Luxembourg.
332. So late as 1454, we find in the Strozzi and other palaces semicircular-headed win-
dows, wherein are half columns at the sides, and a column in the middle, resembling those
in the Byzantine or Romanesque edifices. The two apertures thus formed are crowned by
semicircular heads, which are circumscribed by the outer semicircle, andlBpfepandrel formed
by the three curves is occupied by a patera.
333. The period of the Florentine school, which must be taken as commencing with
Brunelleschi, includes the names of Michelozzo, Leo Battista Alberti, Pollaiuolo (who ob-
tained the soubriquet of Chronaca, from his constant recital of his travels), the architect
of the Strozzi palace, Raffaelle Sanzio, Benedetto da Majano, Baccio d'Agnolo, Baccio
Bandinelli, Buontalenti, Ammanati, and others: it extends from A. D. 1400 to A. D. 160O.
The works of Michael Angelo, though a Florentine, do not belong to this school ; neither
do those of San Gallo and some others, who have been improperly classed as Florentine
architects.
334. 2. Roman School. — Though the city of Rome, during the period of the rise and
progress of the Roman school of architecture, was not altogether free from insurrectionary
troubles, its palatial style is far less massive than that of Florence. None of its buildings
present the fortress-like appearance of those in the last-named city. Indeed, the Roman
palaces, from their grace and lightness, indicate, on the part of the people, habits of a much
more pacific nature, and an advancing state of the art, arising from a more intimate ac-
quaintance with the models of antiquity which were on every side. The introduction of
columns becomes a favourite and pleasing feature, and great care and study appear to have
been constantly bestowed on the fa9ades of their buildings ; so much so, indeed, in many,
that they are but masks to indifferent interiors. In them the entrance becomes a principal
object ; and though in a great number of cases the abuses which enter into its compo-
sition are manifold, yet the general effect is usually successful. The courts in these
palaces are most frequently surrounded with arcades, whence a staircase of considerable
dimensions leads to the sala or principal room of the palace. The general character is that
of grandeur, but devoid altogether of the severity which so strongly marks the Florentine
school. The noblest example of a palace in the world is that of the Farnese family at
Rome, to which we shall afterwards have occasion to return.
335. Bramante, born in 1444 at some place, but which is still in doubt, in the duchy of
Urbino, must be considered the founder of the Roman school. Though educated as a
painter under Fra Bartolomeo, and likely to have ranked in that occupation as a master
of no ordinary powers, his great love of architecture induced him at an early period to
quit painting as a profession. In Lombardy he wandered from city to city for the purpose
of obtaining employment as an architect, but there is no evidence that his exertions in
that part of Italy were rewarded with great success. The dry style which afterwards cha-
racterised his works has been said to have had its origin in his protracted stay at Milan,
while the works of the Duomo were carrying on there under Bernardino di Trevi, a
builder of such skill as to have gained the esteem of Leonardo da Vinci. Be this as it
may, it was in this city his determination to follow our art became irrevocable. From
Milan he went straightway to Rome ; where, however, he was obliged to make himself
known by some works in his first profession of a painter in the church of St. Giovanni
Laterano. Naturally of hospitable and social disposition, and a lover of expense and
luxury, so intense was his ardour to become great in the art he adopted that he refrained
from all society, holding commerce only with the monuments of antiquity by which he
was surrounded, studying with the utmost diligence, and drawing them for his future ap-
plication of the principles upon which they were founded. He even extended his researches
to Naples, losing no opportunity of noting all the ruins from which instruction in his art
could be drawn. Oraffa (Cardinal of Naples), who had remarked his zeal, gave him his
first commission in Rome, which was the construction of the cloister of the Convent della
Pace ; and this, from the intelligence and speed with which he executed the task, brought
him at once into repute. At this period Rome could boast but of few architects, and
those that were established there were of small account. The Florentine school seems to
have sprung in the most decided manner from the habits of the people and the massiveness
of their materials, modified by some knowledge of the buildings of the ancients ; that
of Rome seems to have been founded upon the principle of making the ancient architecture
of Rome suit the more modern habits of a very different people, though living on the
same spot. To explain more immediately our meaning, we cite the small circular chapel
CHAP. II. ITALIAN. 139
of St. Pietro in Montorio, wherein we find a jump at once in the adaptation of the circular '
peripteral temple of the Romans to the purpose of Christian ceremonies. And again, it
is impossible to look at the Palazzo della Cancelleria without being struck by the base-
ment and two orders, which would be suggested by a contemplation of the Colisseum,
though afterwards the Roman architects had the good sense to see that the orders of
architecture placed against the walls of a building where the use was not required by the .
interior distribution was a tasteless and useless application of them. The architect of the
Palazzo Farnese only uses them for the decorations of his windows. In this respect we
hope good sense is once more returning to this country ; and that the absurd practice in :
almost every case of calling in the orders to aid the effect of a fa9ade, will be abandoned
for the better plan of obtaining an imposing effect from the simplicity and arrangement of
the necessary parts. We must, however, return to Bramante, whose other employment we
pass over to come to his great work, — one which, after the continued labour upon it of his
successor Michael Angelo, seems to have exhibited the great canons of art ; one which
has regulated all the modern cathedrals of Europe, for they are, in fact, but repetitions
of it ; and one, therefore, which requires a lengthened notice in this place, as intimately
connected with the rapid progress of the Roman school. The ancient Basilica of St.
Peter had become so ruinous that Pope Nicholas V.,a man who delighted in magnificent
undertakings, a lover of architecture, and of more than ordinary genius, had conceived the
project of rebuilding it, and under the designs of Bernardo Rosellini had actually seen a
portion of the design rise from the ground before his death. The project seemed then to
be forgotten and abandoned, until Michael Angelo Buonarroti, seeking a place for the
erection of the mausoleum of Julius II., upon which he was engaged, thought that the
tribune of Rosellini's projected new basilica would be well suited for its reception, and
accordingly proposed it to the pontiff. Julius, pleased with the suggestion, immediately
sent for San Gallo and Bramante to examine into it. In these cases, one project generally
suggests another, and the rearing a new St. Peter's became a fixed object in the mind of
Julius II. The tribune of Nicholas V. was no longer thought of, except as a space to
be included within the new works. He consulted several architects upon the subject ; but
the fact is, that the only real competition lay between Giuliano di San Gallo and Bra-
mante. The last was the successful artist ; and from a great number of projects the pope
at last chose that upon which St. Peter's was afterwards commenced. The real design of
Bramante can scarcely be traced in the basilica of the Vatican as executed. The changes
it was doomed to undergo before completion, more than perhaps any other building was
ever subjected to, have been drawn into a history by the Jesuit Bonanni. When Bramante
died, his designs, if indeed he made any, were dispersed ; and for what we do know of them
we are indebted to Raffaelle, who took much pains in collecting the ideas of our architect,
as they afterwards appeared in Serlio's Treatise on Architecture. The original plan of
Bramante was simple, grand, and in its parts harmonious, and would doubtless have
been effective, far beyond the edifice as executed. It has been well observed by Q. de
Quincy, in his Life of Bramante, " Le Saint Pierre d'aujourd'hui parait moins grand qu'il
ne Test en effet. Le Saint Pierre de Bramante aurait certainement etc plus grand encore
en apparence qu'en realite." There would moreover have been an accordance between
the interior and exterior. The peristyle was to have three ranks of columns in depth,
which would have necessarily had unequal intercolumniations. The cupola was rather
that of the Pantheon, ornamented exteriorly with an order of columns. Bramante carried
his imitation even to the steps round the springing of that monument. From the
medals of the design struck about the period, it seems that the facade was to have been
decorated at its extremities with two campanili ; but the authority of a medal may be
doubtful. The idea, therefore, which is said to have originated with Michael Angelo,
of placing the dome of the Pantheon upon the vaulting of the Temple of Peace emanated
from Bramante, though the honour of actually carrying such a project into execution
belongs to Michael Angelo da Buonarroti. It is not, however, probable that if Bra-
mante had lived he could have strictly executed the design he produced ; for it has been
well proved that the piers which carry the dome would not have been sufficiently sub-
stantial for the weight to be placed upon them, inasmuch as Bramante's cupola would
have been much heavier than that executed by Michael Angelo, and that architect con-
sidered it necessary to make his piers three times as thick as the former had proposed
for his cupola. Bramante's general design having been adopted by Julius II., was imme-
diately commenced with a boldness and promptitude of which few but such men as Julius
and Bramante were capable. One half of the ancient basilica was taken down ; and on the
18th of April, 1506, the first stone of the new fabric was laid by the pope in the pier of the
dome, commonly called that of Sta. Veronica. The four piers soon rose ; the centres were
prepared for connecting them by vaults, which were actually turned. The weight and
thrust of the vaults, however, bent the piers, and cracks and fissures made their ap-
pearance in every direction. Thus, without more than their own weight, much less
that of the cupola, the works threatened ruin. The great haste used in carrying on the
140 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
works had doubtless much contributed to this catastrophe. Bramante in the meantime
dying, Raffaelle, Giocondo, and Giuliano di San Gallo, and afterwards Baldazzare Peru/zi
and Antonio San Gallo, were engaged on the edifice, and severally used the proper means
for remedying the defects that had arisen, and for fortifying the great piers of the dome.
To do this, as well as to push forward its completion, Michael Angelo was employed ; and
the rest of that great man's life was chiefly devoted to carrying on, under his own designs,
the works of the fabric. From the death of Bramante in 1513 to 1546, when Antonio
San Gallo died, the architects above named, all of whose names are almost sacred, had been
more or less employed upon it. It was during this period that Bramante's original plan
of a Latin was changed into a Greek cross by Peruzzi. The works had at this time become
the source of much jobbing ; every body that had any employment on them seemed bent on
providing for himself, when Michael Angelo consented, for he was far from desirous of being
employed, to superintend the future progress of the fabric. The first use made of his au-
thority by Michael Angelo was that of discharging all the agents and employes of the place ;
he may be said to have again driven the money-lenders out of the temple. That he might
have more moral power over this worthless race, he set the example of declining to receive
the salary of 600 crowns attached to his appointment as architect, and gratuitously super-
intended the works during the period of seventeen years, — a disinterestedness that afterwards
found a parallel in one of the greatest architects that this or any other country ever saw :
ipe needly scarcely mention the name of Inigo Jones. Michael Angelo began by undoing
what his predecessor San Gallo had executed ; and after having accomplished that, his
whole powers were directed towards carrying on the structure to such a point that no
change could possibly be made in his plans ; so that after having strengthened the great
piers, vaulted the naves, and carried up the exterior pedestal of the cupola, at the death
of Paul III. in 1549 the form of these parts of the basilica was unchangeably fixed.
Under Julius III., the successor of Paul, the intrigues which had always been carried on
against Michael Angelo were renewed. He was accused of having contrived the arrange-
ment without sufficient light, and of having changed every thing his predecessors had
done. Thus proceeded this great work ; but notwithstanding the severe trials he had to
undergo from the envy of his contemporaries, — rivals he could not encounter, — Buonarroti
steadily pursued his course. He felt that his own destiny and that of the fabric were
identical ; and, notwithstanding all the disgusting treatment to which he was exposed,
determined to stand to his post while life remained. Writing to Vasari, he says, " For me
to leave this place would be the cause of ruin to the church of St. Peter, which would be
a lamentable occurrence, and a greater sin. As I hope to establish it beyond the possibility
of changing the design, I could first wish to accomplish that end ; if I do not already
commit a crime, by disappointing the many cormorants who are in daily expectation of
getting rid of me." And in another letter to Messer Lionardo Buonarrotti, in reply to the
pressing instance of the grand duke to have him at Florence, he says, " I would prefer
death to being in disgrace with the duke. In all my affairs I have endeavoured to adhere
to the truth ; and if I have delayed coming to Florence as I promised, the promise should
have been construed with this condition, that I would not depart hence until the fabric of
St. Peter's was so far advanced as to prevent its being spoiled by others, and my design
altered ; nor to leave opportunity for those thieves to return and plunder, as has been their
custom, and as is still their hope. Thus placed by Divine Providence, I have exerted
myself to prevent those evils. As yet, however, I have not been able to succeed in ad-
vancing the building to that point which I desire, from want of money and men ; and being
old, without any one about me to whose care I could leave the work, as I serve for the love of
God, in whom is all my hope, I cannot abandon it." At this period, with the letter, to which
we have not done sufficient justice in the translation, it is impossible not to sympathise, nor
to be unaffected by the simple and unbending honesty of this honour to the race of man, in-
dependent of all our admiration of his stupendous power as an artist. At the age of eighty-
seven, the pedestal being then ready for the reception of the cupola, he made a small
model in clay for that important feature of his work, which was afterwards, to a scale, ac-
curately under his direction, executed in wood ; but deficiency in the funds prevented the
progress of the building. To the height of upwards of 28 ft. above the exterior attic the
cupola is in one solid vault, whose diameter is near 139 ft. at its springing, at which place
its thickness is near 10 ft. exclusive of the ribs. As the inner and outer vaults are not con-
centric, the interval between them increases as they rise. Where they receive the lantern
they are 10ft. 7 in. apart. The construction of this dome proves the profundity of the
architect's knowledge as a scientific builder to have equalled his superiority as an architect.
336. After the death of Michael Angelo, this cupola with its lantern was rigorously ex-
ecuted, upon the model he had left, by Jacopo della Porta and Domenico Fontana. His
intentions were religiously respected, in the completion of the fabric, until the time of Pirro
Ligorio, whom Pius IV. deprived of his situation for attempting to swerve from the model
and substitute his own work.
337. Between the foundation of the church by Bramante, and its entire completion by
CHAP. II. ITALIAN. 14 1
Carlo Maderno, as seen vnjigs. 167. and 168., a century had elapsed , but during that century
Fig. 16S.
Ait ELEVATION AND HALF SUCTION OF ST. PKTER'g.
architectural as well as graphical and plastic taste had undergone great changes ; and
though the first was still far from the vicious point to which Borromini carried it, the
great principles of order and authority, as founded on the models of antiquity, were passed
away, and no longer occupied the attention of the architect. The spirit of innovation, too
often mistaken for genius, had made such inroads, that regularity of plan, simplicity of form,
142 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
and the happy union of taste with common sense had altogether disappeared. The part
added to the edifice by Maderno appears in the plan in a darker tint, by which it is seen
that he added three arcades to the nave, in which the same ordonnance is continued.
338. Respecting the alteration in, or rather addition to the plan, it is, and is likely to
continue, a moot point, whether this change by Maderno has injured the effect of the
church. " There are," says De Quincy, "in the method of judging of works of archi-
tecture, so many different points of view from which they may be judged, that it is quite
possible to approve of even contrary things." We are not ourselves disposed to censure
the application of Maderno, though it cannot be denied that the symmetry of the fabric
was in some measure destroyed by it. It is possible that the constant habit of seeing
cathedrals with a prolonged nave, before we first saw St. Peter's, may have disposed us to
look leniently at a point which so many better judges than ourselves have condemned.
Michael Angelo's plan was, doubtless, one of great simplicity and unity. According to his
intention, the cupola was the principal feature, the four arms of its cross being accessaries
which would not interfere with or lessen the effect of its grandeur, whose points of view
could not be much varied. On the other hand, the edifice, enlarged according to the first
project of Bramar.te, has acquired an immensity of volume, which, observes the author
before quoted, one would be now sorry to see it deprived of. " Ce sont deux grandeurs
voisines sans etre rivales." In its exterior, however, it must be admitted that the pro-
longation of the nave has not improved the effect ; and that arose from the necessity of
strictly conforming to the forms that existed. It is manifest that the number of divisions
which resulted from the mixtilinear plan of Michael Angelo would not well sort with the
extended mass which the nave created. It was absolutely necessary that it should be
conformable with what had been completed ; and the effect of this was lessening the
elevation of the cupola in an almost fatal manner. The fa9ade of entrance cannot in any
way be defended ; and it is much to be regretted that the fine entrance designed by the
great master was lost to the world.
339. St. Paul's is, perhaps, the only great instance in Europe wherein the design was
made and wholly carried into execution by the same architect. Works of this nature
usually exceed the span of man's life. St. Peter's was altogether a century and a half in
building. The change of architects is not the least inconvenience of such a state of things ;
for during so long a period such a change of taste arises that the fashion and style of an
art are from accident scarcely the same at its commencement and end. Thus the church
of the Vatican, which was begun by Bramante in a comparatively pure style, was, in the
end, defaced by the vicious bizarreries of Borromini. It was fortunate Michael Angelo, so
far foreseeing accidents of this nature, had fixed unchangeably the main features of his com-
position.
340. That the first idea of this stupendous fabric owes its origin to Bramante cannot be
disputed ; but its greatness, as conceived by him, is confined to the boast of placing the
cupola of the Pantheon upon the vaulting of the Temple of Peace. The sketch of it given
by Serlio is nothing like the cupola which was executed. On the other hand, what was
executed by Michael Angelo was scarcely new after what Brunelleschi had accomplished
at Sta. Maria del Fiore. This, however, was a chef d'reuvre of construction ; that of St.
Peter's was a chef d'oeuvre of construction and architecture combined. What was new
in it was, that it was the loftiest and largest of all works, ancient or modern, uniting in its
vast volume the greatest beauties of proportion to simplicity and unity of form ; to mag-
nificence and richness of decoration a symmetry which gives harmony to the whole, con-
sidered by itself, and not less so when considered in relation to the mass of which it is
the crown. The great superiority of this cupola over all others is visible in another point
of view, which we shall more particularly notice in the account of St. Paul's in a sub-
sequent page : it is, that the same masonry serves for the exterior as well as the interior,
whereby an immense additional effect is gained in surveying it from the inside. All is
. fair ; there is no masking, as in other cupolas that followed it.
341. Whatever opinions may be formed on the other works of Michael Angelo, no
difference can exist respecting the cupola of St. Peter's. " Si tout," observes De
Quincy, " ce qui avait ete fait et pense, ou projete" avant lui, en ce genre, ne peut lui
disputer le prix de 1'invention et de 1'originalite, et ne peut servir qu'a marquer la
hauteur de son genie, il nous semble que les nombreuses coupoles elevees dans toute
1'Europe depuis lui et d'apres lui, ne doivent se considerer encore que comme autant
d' echelons, propres a faire mieux sentir et mesurer sa superiorite." The bungling of Carlo
Maderno at St. Peter's is much to be regretted. The arches he added to the nave are
smaller in dimensions than those which had been brought up immediately adjoining the
piers of the cupola ; and, what is still more unpardonable, the part which he added to the
nave is not in a continued line with the other work, but inclines above 3 ft. to the north :
in other words, the church is not straight, and that to such an extent as to strike every
educated eye. His taste, moreover, was exceedingly bad.
CHAP. IT.
ITALIAN.
143
342. In the principal churches of Rome there is great similarity of plan ; they usually
consist of a nave and side aisles, in which latter, chapels are ranged along the sides. The
separation of the nave and aisles is effected by arcades. The transepts are not much
extended, and over the intersection of them with the nave and choir a cupola generally rises.
The chapels of the Virgin and of the Holy Sacrament are commonly in the transepts ;
and the great altar is at the end of the choir, which usually terminates semicircularly on
the plan. Unlike those of the Florentine school, the interiors of the Roman churches
are decorated to excess. Pictures, mosaics, and marbles of every variety line the walk.
A profusion of gilding imparts to them a richness of tone, and the architectural details
are often in the highest state of enrichment. They are, indeed, temples worthy of the
worship of the Deity. Yet, with all this magnificence, the fapades are often mean ; and
when a display of architecture is exhibited in them, it is produced by abuses of the worst
class. They are generally mere masks ; for between the architecture of these false fronts
and that of the interior there is no architectural connection. In very many instances the
sides of the churches are actually hidden by adjacent buildings, so that they are altogether
unseen ; a circumstance which may have conduced to the repetition of the abuse. Faulty,
however, as these edifices are, to them is Europe indebted as models, which have in
modern times been more purified. We have not space to enumerate or criticise the
churches with which Rome abounds. St. Carlo on the Corso, by Onorio Langhi, is a fine
example of them, and gives a fair notion of the general distribution we have described.
Those of a later date, especially those by Borromini, may be considered as indices rerum
vitandarum in architecture ; and though we are, perhaps, from the cupidity of upholsterers
and house decorators, likely to be doomed to sit in rooms stuffed with the absurdities of
the taste prevalent in the time of Louis XV., we can hardly conceive it necessary in these
days to recommend the student's abhorrence of such freaks of plan and elevation as are to
be found in the church of St. Carlo alle quattro Fontane, by that architect.
343. The palaces of Rome are among the finest architectural works in Europe ; and of
those in Rome, as we have before observed, none equals the Farnese, whose fj^ade is
given in Jig. 169. " Ce vaste palais Farnese, qui a tout prendre, pour la grandeur
FARNESB PALACE.
de la masse, la regularite de son ensemble, et 1'excellence de son architecture, a tenu
jusqu'ici, dans 1'opinion des artistes, le premier rang entre tous les palais qu'on renomme,"
is the general description of it by De Quincy, upon whom we have drawn largely, and must
continue to do so. This edifice, by San Gallo, forms a quadrangle of 256 ft. by 185 ft.
It is constructed of brick, with the exception of the dressings of the doors and windows,
the quoins of the fronts, and the entablature and loggia in the Strada Giulia, which are of
travertine stone. Of the same stone, beautifully wrought, is the interior of the court.
The building consists of three stories, including that on the ground, which, in the elevations
or fa9ades, are separated by impost cornices. The only break in its symmetry and sim-
plicity occurs in the loggia, placed in the centre of the first story, which connects the
windows on each side of it by four columns. On the ground story the windows are decorated
with square- headed dressings of extremely simple design ; in the next story they are flanked
by columns, whose entablatures are crowned alternately with triangular and circular
pediments ; and in the third story are circular-headed windows, crowned throughout with
triangular pediments. The taste in which these last is composed is not so good as the
lest, though they were probably the work of Michael Angelo, of whose cornice to the edifice
Vasari observes, " E stupendissimo il corniccione maggiore del medesimo palazzo nella
144
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
facciata dinanzi, non si potendo alcuna cosa ne piii bella ne piu magnifica desiderare."
The facade towards the Strada Giulia is different from the other fronts in the centre only,
wherein there are three stories of arcades to the loggia, each of whose piers are decorated
with columns of the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders in the respective stories as they
rise, and these in form and dimensions correspond with the three ranks of arcades towards
the court. It appears probable that this central arrangement was not in the original
design of San Gallo, but introduced when the third story was completed. Magnificent as
from its simplicity and symmetry is the exterior of this palace, which, as De Quincy observes,
" est un edifice toujours digne d'etre le sejour d'un prince," yet does it not exceed the beauty
of the interior. The quadrangle of the court is 88 ft. square between the columns of
the arcades, and is composed with three stories, in which the central arrangement above
mentioned towards the Strada Giulia is repeated on the two lower stories, over the upper
whereof is a solid wall pierced in the windows. The piers of the lower arcade are orna-
mented with Doric columns, whose entablature is charged with triglyphs in its frieze, and
its metopae are sculptured with various symbols. The imposts of the piers are very
finely profiled, so as to form the entablatures when continued over the columns of the
entrance vestibule. In the Ionic arcade, over this, the frieze of the order is decorated
with a series of festoons. The distribution of the different apartments and passage is
well contrived. All about the building is on a scale of great grandeur. Though long
unoccupied, and a large portion of its internal ornaments has disappeared, it still com-
mands our admiration in the Carracci Gallery, which has continued to serve as a model
for all subsequent works of the kind. The architecture of the Farnese palace, more
especially as respects the arcades of its court, is the most perfect adaptation of ancient ar-
rangement to more modern habits that has ever been designed. We here allude more
particularly to the arcades, upon whose piers orders of columns are introduced. This
species of composition, heavier, doubtless, less elegant, yet more solid than simple colon-
nades, is, on the last account, preferable to them, where several stories rise above one
another. The idea was, certainly, conceived from the practice in the ancient theatres and
amphitheatres ; and in its application at the Farnese palace rivals in beauty all that
antiquity makes us in its remains acquainted with. San Gallo, its architect, died in 1546.
344. It would be impossible here to enumerate the palaces with which Rome abounds ;
but we must mention another, that of St. Giovanni Laterano, by Domenico Fontana,
as a very beautiful specimen of the palatial style. Milizia censures the detail of this edifice,
and there is some truth in his observations in that respect ; but the composition is so simple
and grand, and the cornice crowns it with so much majesty, that the detail is forgotten in
the general effect, and its architect well deserves the rank of a great artist.
345. The villas, Ocelli <? Italia, as they have been called, round the suburbs of Rome,
are in a style far lighter than the palaces whereof we have just been speaking. They are
the original models of the modern country houses of this island, and exhibit great skill in
their plans and elegance in their fafades. Generally they rose from the riches and taste of
a few cardinals, who studded the environs of the Eternal City with some of the fairest gems
of the art. MM. Percier and Fontaine published a collection of them at Paris, from
which we extract the Villa Pia (fig. 170.). It was designed by Pirro Ligorio, a Neapolitan
CHAP. II. ITALIAN. 145
architect, who died in 1 580, and is thus described by the authors whose view of it we have
borrowed. " It was built," say they, " in imitation of the houses of the ancients, which
Ligorio had particularly studied. This clever artist, who to his talent as an architect
joined the information of a learned antiquary, here threw into a small space every thing
that could contribute to render it a delightful dwelling. In the midst of verdant thickets,
and in the centre of an amphitheatre of flowers, he constructed an open lodge, decorated
with stuccoes and agreeable pictures. The lodge is raised upon a base, bathed by the water
of a basin, enclosed with marbles, fountains, statues, and vases. Two flights of steps,
which lead to landings sheltered by walls ornamented with niches and seats of marble, offer
protection from the sun's rays by the trees that rise above them. Two porticoes, whose
interior walls are covered with stuccoes, lead on each side to a court paved in mosaic work.
This is enclosed by a wall, round which seats are disposed. Here is a fountain spouting
up from the centre of a vase of precious marble. At the end of the court facing the lodge
an open vestibule, supported by columns, fronts the ground floor of the principal pavilion ;
and is decorated with mosaics, stuccoes, and bassi-relievi of beautiful design. The apartments
on the first floor are ornamented with fine pictures. Finally, from the summit of a small
tower, which rises above the building, the view extends over the gardens of the Vatican, and
the plains through which the Tiber takes its course, and the splendid edifices of Rome."
For further information on the Roman villas, we refer the reader to the work we have
quoted.
346. The Roman school of architecture, founded by Bramante, includes San Gallo,
Buonarroti, Sansovino, Peruzzi, Vignola (whose extraordinary palace at Caprarola de-
serves the study of every architect), and many others. It ends with Domenico Fontana,
the period of its duration being from 1470 to 1607, or little more than 130 years.
347. Before we proceed to the Venetian school, it will, however, be proper to notice
two architects, whose works tended to change much for the worse the architecture of
their time ; we mean Borromini and Bernini, though the latter was certainly purer in his
taste than the former. Borromini, whose example in his art was followed throughout
Europe, and who, even in the present day, has his returning admirers, was the father of all
modern abuses in architecture ; and the reader must on no account confound his works with
those of the Roman school, which had ceased nearly half a century before the native of
Bissona had begun to practise. He inverted the whole system of Greek and Roman
architecture, without replacing it by a substitute. He saw that its leading forms, sprung
from a primitive type, were, by an imitation more or less rigorous, subjected to the prin-
ciples of the model from which its order and arrangement emanated. He formed the
project of annihilating all idea of a model, all principles of imitation, all plea for order and
proportion. For the restriction in the art resultant from the happy fiction, or perhaps
reality of a type, one whose tendency was to restrain it within the bounds of reason, he
substituted the anarchy of imagination and fancy, and an unlimited flight into all species of
caprice. Undulating flexibility supplanted all regularity of form ; contours of the most
grotesque description succeeded to right lines ; the severe architrave and entablature were
bent to keep up the strange delusion ; all species of curves were adopted in his operations,
and the angles of his buildings were perplexed with an infinite number of breaks. What
makes this pretended system of novelty more absurd is (and we are glad to have the oppor-
tunity here of observing that the remarks we are making are applicable to the present
fashionable folly of decorating rooms a la Louis XIV. and XV.), that its only novelty was
the disorder it introduced, for Borromini did not invent a single form. He was not scru-
pulous in retaining all the parts which were indicated by imitating the type ; he decom-
posed some, transposed others, and usually employed each member in a situation directly
the reverse of its proper place, and, indeed, just where it never would be naturally placed.
Thus, for example, to a part or ornament naturally weak, he would assign the office of
supporting some great weight ; whilst to one actually capable of receiving a great load, he
would assign no office whatever. With him every thing seems to have gone by contraries;
and to give truth the appearance of fiction, and the converse, seems to have been his greatest
delight. Out of all this arose a constant necessity for contrivance, which marked Borromini
as a skilful constructor, in which respect he attained to an extraordinary degree of intelli-
gence. It seems, however, not improbable that one of his great objects in studying con-
struction was, that he might have greater facility in carrying his curious conceits into
execution ; for it may be taken almost as an axiom in architecture, so great is the relation
between them, that simple forms and solid construction are almost inseparable ; and it is
only necessary to have recourse to extraordinary expedients in construction when our pro-
ductions result from an unrestrained imagination. Further notice of this architect is not
necessary ; one of his most celebrated works is the restoration of the church of St.
Giovanni Laterano, — after St. Peter's, the greatest in Rome. His purest work is the
church of St. Agnese ; whilst that of St. Carlo alle quattro fontane, which we have here-
tofore noticed, is the most bizarre. Borromini died in 1667.
348. Bernini, the other artist whom we have mentioned, was equally painter, sculptor,
146
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
and architect ; his principal work is the colonnade in front of St. Peter's. He was, notwith-
standing the abuses to be found in his works, a man of great talent. In their general
arrangement his buildings are good and harmonious ; his profiles are graceful ; his orna-
ments, though sometimes profuse, are usually elegant. Bernini, however, was no check
upon the pernicious character of his cotemporary Borromini ; instead, indeed, of relieving
architecture of some of her abuses, he encumbered her with fresh ones. He was also fond
of broken pediments, and of placing them in improper situations. He employed undulations,
projections innumerable, and intermixtures of right lines with curves; for beautiful simplicity
he substituted elegant fancy ; and is to be imitated or admired by the student no farther
than he followed nature and reason. He made some designs for the Louvre at Paris, which
are exceedingly good. His death occurred in 1680.
349. 3. The Venetian School is characterised by its lightness and elegance ; by the con-
venient distribution it displays ; and by the abundant, perhaps exuberant, use of columns,
pilasters, and arcades, which enter into its composition. Like its sister school of painting,
its address is more to the senses than is the case with those we have just quitted. We
have already given an account of the church of St. Mark, in the 12th century ; from
which period, as the republic rose into importance by its arms and commerce, its arts were
destined to an equally brilliant career. The possession in its provinces of some fine monu-
ments of antiquity, as well as its early acquaintance Avith Greece, would, of course, work
beneficially for the advancement of its architecture. That species of luxury, the natural
result of a desire on the part of individuals to perpetuate their names through the medium
of their habitations, though not productive of works on a grand or monumental scale, leads,
in a democracy (as were the states of Venice), to a very general display of moderately
splendid and elegant palaces. Hence the extraordinary number of specimens of the
building art supplied by the Venetian school.
350. San Michel i, who was born in 1484, may, with propriety, be called its founder.
Having visited Rome at the early age of sixteen for the purpose of studying its ancient
monuments of art, and having in that city found much employment, he, after many years
of absence, returned to his native country. The mode in which he combined pure and
beautiful architecture with the requisites called for in fortifications may be seen displayed
to great advantage at Verona, in which city the Porta dell Pattio is an instance of his
wonderful ingenuity and taste. But his most admired works are his palaces at Verona ;
though, perhaps, that of the Grimani family at Venice is his most magnificent production.
The general style of composition, very different from that of the palaces of Florence and
Rome, is marked by the use of a basement of rustic work, wherefrom an order rises, often with
arched windows, in which he greatly delighted, and these were connected with the order after
the manner of an arcade, the whole being crowned with the proper entablature. As an
example, we give, in jig. 171., the fagade of the Pompei palace at Verona. The genius of
FiK. 171.
San Micheli was of the very highest order ; his works are as conspicuous for excellent con-
struction as they are for convenience, unity, harmony, and simplicity, which threw into
shade the minor abuses occasionally found in them. If he had no other testimony, it would
be sufficient to say, that for his talents he was held in great esteem by Michael Angelo ;
and our advice to the student would be to study his works with diligence. San Micheli
devoted himself with great ardour to the practice of military architecture ; and though the
invention was not for a long time afterwards assigned to him, he was the author of the
CHAP. II.
ITALIAN.
147
system used by Vauban and his school, who, for a long period, deprived him of the credit of it.
Before him all the ramparts of a fortification were round or square. He introduced a new
method, inventing the triangular and pentangular bastion, with plain fosses, flanks, and
square bases, which doubled the support ; he moreover not only flanked the curtain, but
all the fosse to the next bastion, the covered way, and glacis. The mystery of this art
consisted in defending every part of the inclosure by the flank of a bastion ; hence,
making it round or square, the front of it, that is, the space which remains in the triangle,
which was before undefended, was by San Micheli provided against. We cannot,
however, further proceed on this subject, which belongs to military, which at that period
was intimately connected with civil architecture. The Porta del Pallia at Verona has
been mentioned ; that city, however, contains another gate of great architectural merit by this
master, the Porta Nuova, a square edifice, supported within by a number of piers of stone,
with enclosures or apartments for the guards, artillery, &c. The proportions, as a whole,
are pleasing ; it is of the Doric order, devoid of all extraneous ornament, solid, strong, and
suitable to the purposes of the building. Except in the middle gate and the architectural
parts, the work is rusticated. The exterior facade stands on a wall, with two large pyra-
midal pilasters of marble rising from the bottom of the fosse ; at the top are two round
enclosures approaching almost to towers. In the interior, to the two gates near the angles
are two corresponding long passages, vaulted, leading to a number of subterraneous galleries
and rooms. For beauty, however, we do not think this gate so beautiful as that of del Pallio,
which we here give (fig. 172.). But the gem of this great master is the little circular
chapel .at San Bernardino, whose beauty, we think, has scarcely ever been surpassed, and
which exhibits, in a striking degree, the early perfection of the Venetian school. It was not
finished under San Micheli, and blemishes are to be found in it ; it is nevertheless an exqui-
site production, and, in a surprisingly small space, exhibits a refinement which elsewhere we
scarcely know equalled. The works which he designed surpass, we believe, in number
those of all the masters of Italy, Palladio, perhaps, excepted. He gave a tone to his art
in the Venetian states, which endured for a considerable period. His death occurred in
1549.
351. Contemporary with San Micheli, was another extraordinary genius of this school,
born at Florence, — Jacopo Tatti by name, but more usually called Sansovino, from the
country of his master, Andrea Contucci di Monte Sansovino. Such was the respect for
this artist in Venice, his adopted city, that at a moment when it became necessary to raise
by means of taxation a large sum on the citizens, the senate made a special exemption in
favour of him and Titian. The Roman school might lay claim to him, if the works he
executed at Rome, and not his style, would justify it ; but that is so marked, so tinctured
with the system of arcades with orders, its distinguishing feature, that an inspection of
his works will immediately satisfy even a superficial observer. He was a great master of
his art ; and though he does not in so great a degree appear to have profited by the ex-
amples of antiquity as the architect last named, he has left behind buildings, which, for
picturesque effect, leave him little inferior in our rating. He was the architect of the
library of St. Mark at Venice, a portion whereof is given in fig. 173. ; a building of
noble design, notwithstanding the improprieties with which it is replete. It consists of
two orders ; the lower one of highly ornamented Doric, and the upper one Ionic and very
graceful in effect. Of both these orders, as will be seen in the figure, the entablatures are
of inordinate comparative height. The upper one was expressly so set out for the purpose
of exhibiting the beautiful sculptures with which it is decorated. The cornice is crowned
with a balustrade, on whose piers statues were placed by the ablest scholars of Sansovino.
A portico occupies the ground floor, which is raised three steps from the level of the
piazza. This portico consists of twenty-one arcades, whose piers are decorated with
columns. In the interior are arches corresponding to the external ones, sixteen whereof,
with their internal apartments, are appropriated for shops. Opposite the centre arch is a
magnificent staircase leading to the hall, beyond which is the library of St. Mark The
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HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
faults of this building, which are
very many, are lost in its grace
and elegance, and it is perhaps
the chef d'oeuvre of the master.
Whilst Sansovino was engaged
on it he propounded an archi-
tectural problem, which re-
minds us very much of the egg
of Columbus : " How can the
exact half of a metope be so
contrived as to stand on the
external angle of the Doric
frieze ? " The solution, clumsy
as that of the navigator with
his egg, practised in this build-
ing, is, however, a bungling
absurdity ; namely, that of
lengthening the frieze just so
much as is necessary to make
out the deficiency. Sansovino
was invited to pass into France,
where he gave some designs,
which tended to the advance-
ment of the art in that coun-
try. On his return he built
the Zecca, or mint, one of his
finest works. Another of his
extraordinary productions is
the palace of the Comari, on the
Grand Canal at San Maurizio.
Fig'173- The church of San Fantino,
among the finest of Venice, is also by him ; as is that of San Martino and many others.
Jacopo was fertile in invention : his architecture was full of grace and elegance ; but he
was deficient in a thorough knowledge of construction, which, in the library of St. Mark,
brought him into disgrace, of which, from all accounts, the builders ought to have suffered
the principal share. He continually introduced the orders, and especially the Doric and
Composite. The members of his entablatures were much sculptured ; but his ornaments
were extremely suitable and correct. In statues and bassi relievi he greatly indulged, thereby
adding considerably to the effect and majesty of his buildings. Scamozzi mentions a
work by him on the construction of floors, and particularly describes a method adopted
by him for preventing dust falling through the joints of the boards. The work has been
lost. Sansovino died in 1570.
352. After such artists as San Micheli and Sansovino, it would have seemed to an ordinary
mind difficult to have invented new forms, or rather so to have modified the old ones as to
be original. Andrea Palladio, however, not only knew how to be original, but to leave his
works as models for the countries of Europe, in which the style which bears his name has
had no rival ; so true is it, in all the arts, that there is always room to be found for a man
on whom nature has bestowed the faculty of seeing, feeling, and thinking for himself. In
the case of the architect something more than genius is necessary : it is requisite that cir-
cumstances should exist by which his art may be developed, or, in other words, that what
he is capable of producing may at the time be suitable to the wants of society. Such
circumstances existed for a long period in Italy, where, up to the time at which we are
arrived, the rich and great had been contending with the governments which should be
the greatest patrons of the art. Hence sprung the multitude of extraordinary works in
the country named, which still point out the greatness in art at which it had arrived, when
it was one of the really necessary arts. Neither in the Venetian states, nor at the time
when he rose into reputation, which was about the middle of the sixteenth century, had
Palladio that opportunity of signalising himself which had occurred to many former
masters. Venice had risen into power and wealth by its arms and commerce ; was the
natural protectrix of the art ; and although the works she required were not on scales of
the grandest dimensions, yet those which her citizens required kept pace in luxury with the
increasing wealth of the families by whom they were required. This was the career open
to the genius of Palladio. Architecture in these states was not called upon to furnish
churches of colossal dimensions, nor palaces for sovereigns, nor immense public monu-
ments left for posterity to finish. The political state of the country, very luckily for
his talents, furnished a numerous class of citizens who contended which should procure for
himself the aid of this great man in rearing a villa or palace, and which might serve the
CHAP. II. ITALIAN. 149
double purpose of a present dwelling for, and a future memorial of, his family, — a passion
that covered the banks of the Brenta with edifices which, of their class, form a complete
school of civil architecture.
353. The taste of Palladio was tempered by the care he bestowed on accommodating ex-
terior beauty to interior convenience, and by suiting the art to the wants of persons with
moderate means, througli the medium of greatness without great dimensions, and richness
of effect without great outlay. In the imitation, or rather appropriation, of the architecture
of the ancients, none of his predecessors of any of the schools had so luckily hit on that just
medium of exactness without pedantry, of severity without harshness, of liberty without
licentiousness, which have since made the architecture of ancient Greece popular, and so
modified it as to be practicable and convenient in all countries. We here speak, of course,
of the elements, and not the combinations, of Greek art, and of it changed by a passage
through an intermediate state during the existence of the Roman empire. No architect can
consider himself thoroughly educated who has not studied the works of Palladio. " De
fait," says De Quincy, in his Life of this architect, " il n'est point d'architecte qui, apres
avoir forme ou reforme son style sur les grands modeles de 1'art des anciens, et des premiers
maitres de 1'Italie moderne, ne se croie pas oblige d'aller encore etudier dans la patrie et
les oeuvres de Palladio, un genre d'applications plus usuelles, et plus en rapport avec 1'etat
de nos moeurs : c'est-a-dire, le secret d'accommoder tour-a-tour, et nos besoins aux plaisirs
d'une belle architecture, et 1'agrement de celle-ci aux sujetions que de nouveaux besoins
lui imposent." It was from the peculiar properties of Palladio's taste and style, suited as
they are to more moderate fortunes, that they found in England a seconu native country
(if such an expression may be allowed), where Inigo Jones, Wren, Gibbs, Taylor, Cham-
bers, and many others, have naturalised the plans, facades, distribution, and details which
were originally planted in the provinces of the Venetian republic. Indeed, the style of
Palladio could not be prevented from spreading through Europe, as a mean between
the severe use of ancient forms and the licentious style of those who reject all rules
whatever. The buildings by him exhibit great good sense, simple means of accom-
plishing the end, a satisfactory agreement between the demands of necessity and pleasure,
and such an harmony between them that it is hard to determine which has submitted to
the other. The interior distribution of his palaces and villas in respect of plan would,
without considerable modification, be but ill suited to modern habits. We give, in Jig. 174.
(see next page), a plan and elevation of the Villa Capra, one of his most celebrated works of
that class. Convenience changes as the mode of life varies ; indeed, except in a private build-
ing of large extent, the large quadrangular court of the houses of Italy is here unknown.
Palladio's plans, however, were convenient to those for whom they were executed ; and in
that way they must be judged. With his eyes constantly turned to the practice and detail
of the ancients, he acquired a bold, simple, and agreeable style ; and. his churches excepted,
the beauties of the master are to be sought in his fa£ades, and the quadrangles of his palaces.
Pedestals, either with panels or raisings, were always avoided by him ; his architraves were
rarely sculptured ; and the upper ornaments of his entablatures were always carefully
centred above each other. His doors, windows, and niches are composed with great
simplicity ; and pediments, when used, are unbroken. In the members of his cornices he
never lost sight of the character of the order employed, and was extremely particular in
duly adjusting its profiles. He, however, did not scruple to vary the proportions of an
order according to the nature of the building to which it was applied ; and in the propor-
tions of his churches and apartments he seems to have delighted, as afterwards did Sir
Christopher Wren, in arithmetical, geometrical, and harmonic proportions. Though ex-
tremely partial to the use of the Ionic order, ytt the others were not unfrequently used by
him. His Corinthian capital is not to be praised ; it is profiled very clumsily, and ought
not to be followed. The domes which he erected are almost invariably hemispherical.
It is not to be supposed that his buildings are perfect, though they approach perfection ;
but it is more than probable that many of the abuses we see in them arose either from
want of sufficient superintendence, the number he designed being very great, or that they
were introduced after his death. This, we think, may be safely assumed, because the
instructions in his work on architecture are very peremptory on the subject of abuses.
So well based upon the practice of the ancients does the style of our master appear to be, that
it is, with but few modifications, suited to all nations, and just such as the ancients themselves
would have adopted. " Les fermes," observes Le Grand in his parallele, " que dirigeait
Palladio et qu'il couvrait de tuiles on d'un chaume rustique, 1'emportent de beaucoup sur
les palais somptueux de Borromini, ou sur les riches et bizarres productions de Guarino
Guarini." Certain, indeed, it is that simplicity, unity, and style are more powerful means
of producing grandeur, than great volume or large masses unskilfully handled. A fine in-
stance of this is seen in the fa9ade of the Thiene palace at Vicenza, fig. 175. ( See next page. )
354. The number of palaces and villas with which Palladio enriched the Venetian and
Vicentine territories is almost incredible : the variety of plan and elevation in them seems
as inexhaustible as their number. To the buildings above referred to may be added the
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HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
Fig. 175. EI.BV
CHAP. II. ITALIAN. 151
Carita at Venice, which is a lovely specimen of his style. His grandest church is that Del
Redentore at Venice. Generally in the fa9ades of his churches there are abuses, whereof it is
scarcely credible he would have been guilty : such are the two half pediments in the church
we have just mentioned. The theatre built upon the ancient model for the Olympic
Academy at Vicenza gained great reputation for him. Palladio died in 1 580.
355. The last architect of the Venetian school who obtained celebrity was Vincenzo
Scamozzi. The son of an architect, and born in a country which had become the nursery
of the art, his powers were exhibited at an early age. Like Palladio and other great
masters, he selected for his principal guides the antiquities of the Eternal City, and the
precepts of Vitruvius, whose work at that period was considered of high importance, as in
truth it really was. There is no doubt that Scamozzi was much indebted to the works
of Palladio, although he affected occasionally to decry them ; but, in opposition to De
Quincy, we think that his style is more founded on that of San Micheli or Sansovino.
This is, however, of little importance ; for his natural talents were of a very high order.
At a very early period of his career, so great was his reputation that he was employed by
the canons of San Salvadore in opening the lantern to the cupola of their church ; a task in
which it appears that he acquitted himself with great ability. For the upper order of the
Procurazie Nuove at Venice he has often been unjustly reproached, because he did not
confine himself to two stories, so as to complete the design of Sansovino. The design of
Scamozzi, had it been continued in the Piazza San Marco, would have placed in the back
ground every other piazza in Europe. The two lower stories of the Procurazie Nuove
are similar in design to the Library of S. Marco ; and it is greatly to be regretted that
Scamozzi was so much otherwise occupied that he had not the opportunity of watching
the whole of its execution, which would have extended to thirty arcades, whose whole
length would have been 426 feet. Scamozzi only superintended the first thirteeen ; the
three built by Sansovino excepted, the rest were trusted to the care of builders rather than
artists, and, from the little attention bestowed upon preserving the profiles, exhibit a neg-
ligence which indicates a decline in the arts at Venice. Scamozzi is placed in the first
rank as an architect by his design for the cathedral at Saltzburg, whither he was invited by
the archbishop of the see. This church, which was not completed till after his death in
1616, is 454 ft. long, and 329 ft. wide, being in the form of a Latin cross on the plan, over
whose centre a cupola rises. The distribution of the interior is with a nave and two side
aisles ; the former whereof is 64 ft. wide, and 107 ft. high. Scamozzi's employment
was very extended, and his country has to lament it ; for fewer commissions would have
insured greater perfection in their execution, which, in those that exist, is often unworthy
of the name of the master. Scamozzi published a work on the art, which will be found in
our list of authors at the end of this work. He died in 1616.
356. Besides Giovanni da Ponte and Alessandro Vittoria, the Venetian school contains the
names of few more than those we have named : they appear to have commanded the whole
of the employ of the states and neighbourhood of Venice for a period of about 11O years,
ending in 1616. When, however, it no longer continued to grow and flourish in its native
soil, its scions, grafted throughout Europe, spreading their branches in every country,
prospered wherever they appeared. On the former of the two architects just named, a few
observations are necessary. He died in 1597, at the age of eighty-five years. Principally
occupied in the reparation and re- establishment of the buildings of the city that had fallen
into decay, he was nevertheless engaged on some considerable works ; among which was
the great hall of the arsenal at Venice, 986 feet long, and the more celebrated work of the
Rialto Bridge, whence he obtained the sobriquet Da Ponte, and for the execution whereof
he competed with Palladio and Scamozzi. The span of the single arch of which the work
consists is about 72 ft., and the thickness of the arch stones about 4 ft. 4 in. It is seg-
mental, and the height from the level of the water is about 22 ft. 9 in. The width of the
bridge is equal to the span of the arch, and this width is divided longitudinally into five
divisions, that is, into three streets or passages, and two rows of shops. The middle street
or passage is 21 ft. 8 in. wide, and the two side ones near 11 ft. The number of shops on
it is twenty-four. The last work of Da Ponte was the construction of the prisons away
from the ducal palace. This edifice is a quadrilateral building, with a portico of seven
arcades. A story rises out of it pierced by seven great windows decorated with pediments,
and it is joined to the palace by the bridge so well known under the name of // Ponte del
Sospiri. The work was not carried to completion during Giovanni's life, but was finished
by his nephew Contino. In his church on the Grand Canal, constructed for the nuns of
Santa Croce, there is little merit except that of solidity ; indeed, he does not appear to
have possessed much taste, as may be inferred from the two ranks of columns in the hall of
the arsenal above mentioned, which cannot be said to belong to any of the species of co-
lumns usually employed. The solid character of the great prison is appropriate, and more
in consonance with the rules of the art.
L 4
152 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
SECT. XVII.
FRENCH ARCHITECTURE.
357. The architecture of Europe from the middle of the sixteenth century was founded
on that of Italy. Of its value, the French and the English seem to have a stronger per-
ception than the rest of the nations. We shall therefore now consider the architecture of
France : that of England from a much earlier date will be separately considered in the
succeeding chapter. Philibert Delorme was among the first of the architects of France
who promoted a taste for good architecture ; and though in some respects he may have been
surpassed by other artists of his time, in others, whether connected with theory or practice,
he has left his rivals a great distance behind him. Although he might not have had the
purity of detail of Jean Bullant, nor the richness of invention and execution of P. Lescot,
he has acquired by his talent in construction a reputation which has survived his buildings.
The Queen Catherine of Medicis having resolved upon the construction of a palace at Paris,
which should far surpass all that had previously been done in France, resolved upon placing
it on a spot then occupied by some tile kilns (Tuileries) in the faubourg St. Honore, and
committed the design and erection to Delorme. It is, however, contended by some that
Jean Bullant was joined with him in the commission. If that was really the case, it is
probable that the labours of the latter were confined to details of ornament and execution,
rather than to the general design and disposition. What, if it was so, belonged to each
is not now to be discovered ; but the genius of Delorme has survived all the revolutions
the celebrated building in question has undergone. Catherine seems not to have been
satisfied with the works ; for she appears to have begun another palace on the site of the
Hotel Soissons, that of the present Halle au Bleds, and to have entrusted this to the care of
Jean Bullant. That of the Tuileries was in the end continued by Henri IV.; enlarged by
Louis XIII. on the same line, after the designs of Du Cerceau,with two main bodies and two
composite pavilions; all which were in the time of Louis XIV. afterwards brought
together by the designs of Leveau and Dorbay. In the centre pavilion all that now
remains of Delorme's work is the lower order of Ionic columns. This morsel of Delorme
exhibits a good Ionic profile in the order, and is one of his best works. Generally speaking,
the profiles of this master, which Chambrai has admitted into his Paralldle, make one ac-
knowledge the justice of that author's observation, that he had " un peu trop vu les plus
belles choses de Rome, avec des yeux encore preoccupes du style Gothique. Le talent de
cet architecte consistait principalement dans la conduite d'un butiment, et de vrai il t-tait
plus consomme en la connaissance et la coupe des pierres que dans la composition des
ordres ; aussi en a-t-il ecrit plus utilement et bien plus au long." Delorme was the
author of two works on architecture: one, Un Traite complete de V Art de Bdtir, on architecture
generally; the other, Nouvelles Inventions pour bien bdtir et a petitsfrais. The last relates
more especially to a practice in carpentry, which, on the Continent, has been put into
execution with great success, its principle being still constantly applied. The method
of carpentry invented by Delorme, and which still goes in France by his name, consists in
substituting for the ordinary system of framing and rafters, curved ribs, in two thicknesses,
of any sort of timber, three or four feet long, and one foot wide, of an inch in thickness, and
which are connected in section and tie according to the form of the curve, whether pointed,
semicircular, or segmental. These arches, in order to be strong and solid, should be fixed
at their feet on plates of timber framed together, lying very level on the external walls ;
and the planks which are to form the principal curve are to be placed accurately upright
on their ends, in which situation they may be kept by braces morticed into them at con-
venient distances, and retained in their places by wedges, for it is essential to the strength
of this species of carpentry that it should be kept in a vertical position. In this country
the species of carpentry just mentioned has never been practised to the extent it deserves.
Delorme died in 1570. With him was cotemporary Jean Bullantr whose name has been
just mentioned, and who, whilst San Gallo was occupied on the Palazzo Farnese, was
raising the Chateau d'Ecouen, in which the prelude to good taste is manifest, and in whose
details are exhibited the work of an architect very far advanced above his time, and capable
of raising the art to a much higher pitch of excellence than it enjoyed, had not the habits
of the nation restrained him in his useful course. A considerable portion of the facade of
the Tuileries towards the Carousel is suspected to have been the work of Bullant ; but the
chateau of Ecouen, built, or rather begun, about 1540, for the constable Montmorency, was
almost the first step to the establishment of pure architecture in France, and its architect
may fairly be named the Inigo Jones of the French
358, By the wars in Italy under Charles VIII., Louis XII., and Francis I., the French
had become intimately acquainted with the architecture of Italy, and the taste of the
monarch last named induced him to bring from that country some of their most celebrated
artists ; so that in France there was almost a colony of them. Among them, fortunately
CHAP. II.
FRENCH,
153
for the quicker working of good taste, was the celebrated Vignola, who resided in France
many years ; a circumstance which may, with some probability, account for the high esteem
in which that great master's profiles have always been held, and indeed in which they are
still held there, though, generally speaking, the French have invariably been more attached
in their practice to the Venetian than to the Roman school. Serlio, another Italian archi-
tect of note, was employed in the country by Francis, and actually died at Fontainebleau.
At the period whereof we are now treating there appears to have been a number of able
artists ; for to Delorme and Bullant must be added Lescot, who, with Jean Gougeon as his
sculptor, was many years employed upon the building usually called the Vieux Louvre,
to distinguish it from the subsequent additions which have quadrupled the original project
of Lescot. To judge of the works of the French architects of this period, a relative, and
not an abstract view, must be taken of them ; relative, we mean, to the general cultivation of
the arts when any individual artist appears. In this respect Lescot's works at the Louvre are
entitled to the greatest praise ; and from the examples he as well as Bullant and Gougeon
afforded, it might have been expected that pure architecture would have proceeded with-
out check until it reached a point as high as that to which it had been carried in Italy.
Such was not, however, to be the case. Mary de Medicis, during her regency, having de-
termined on building the Luxembourg palace, was anxious to have it designed in the style
of the palaces of Florence, her native city. Jacques de Brosse, her architect, was therefore
compelled to adopt the character required : his prototype seems to have been the Pitti
palace, and his version of it is a failure. The gigantic palaces of Florence well enough bear
out against the rustic and embossed work employed upon them ; but when their scale is re-
duced, the employment of massive parts requires great caution. The palace, however, of the
Luxembourg became a model for the fashion of the day, and produced an intermediate style,
which lasted many years in France, and arrested the arrival at perfection whereof the above
work of Bullant and others had opened a fair prospect. De Brosse was an able artist, and
his design for the fa9ade of St. Gervais of three orders is, under the circumstances, entitled
to our praise. This architect acquired much honour by the aqueduct of Arcueil, the com-
pletion whereof, in 1624, it is supposed he did not long survive.
359. Under Louis XIV. the art remained for the most part in the intermediate state
just noticed ; and yet that monarch and his minister Colbert lost no opportunity of em-
bellishing the kingdom with its productions. He employed Bernini to make designs for
the palace of the Louvre ; and for that purpose induced the artist to visit France, where he
was received with the highest respect. He left a design for a fa9ade of the building in
question, which, though in a corrupt style, exhibits nevertheless marks of grandeur and
magnificence which would have been worthy of the monarch. Bernini, disgusted, as he
alleged, with the workmen of Paris, departed from the country without leaving any ex-
ample of his architectural powers. That he did so France has no reason to lament, since it
gave Perrault the opportunity of ornamenting the capital with one of the most splendid monu-
ments of the art which Europe can boast. To Perrault is the credit due of having given
an impulse to French architecture it has never lost, and of having changed the heavy style
of his time into the light and agreeable forms of the Venetian school. The beauties of the
fagade of the Louvre (fig. 176.) are so many and great that its defects are forgotten. The
FiK. 176.
HAIjr KACADE AND HALF fLAN OK LOUVRE.
154 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
proportions are so exquisite, that the eye cannot rest on the coupled columns and the arch
of the principal gate rising into the story of the colonnade. The original profession of
Perrault was that of medicine, which, however, he only exercised for the benefit of his
friends and the poor ; hence the design he made with others in competition for the above
work having been successful, he was associated for its execution with Louis le Veau, the
king's principal architect. From the variety of sciences in which Perrault excelled, it is
not probable that the assistance of a practical architect was actually necessary ; indeed the
four volumes which he published under the title Essais de Physique, and the collection of
machines for raising and removing great weights, which he also published, show that he
was, without assistance, quite competent to the charge which was committed to him with
others. He built the observatory at Paris, possessing an originality of character
which Milizia says is very conformable to its purpose. But however suitable it may have
been considered at the time of its erection, and it cannot be denied there is a fine masculine
character about it, it is for its purpose in the present age altogether ill adapted for the ob-
jects of astronomy. Perrault died in 1688. Cotemporary with him was Le Mercier, the
architect of the church de 1'Oratoire, in the Rue St. Honore. Le Mercier died, however,
in 1 660 ; eight and twenty years, therefore, before the decease of Perrault. Among the
architects whose practice was exceedingly extended was Jules Hardouin Mansart, the
architect of Versailles, and the especial favourite of Louis XIV. He was principally em-
ployed between the years 1675 and his death in 1708. His ability, as Milizia observes,
was not equal to the size of his edifices ; though it is hardly fair for that author to have
made such an observation on the architect of the cupola of the Invalides at Paris. Of this
church and dome De Quincy has most truly stated, that though nothing that can be called
classic is to be noticed about it, yet it contains nothing in dissonance with the principles of
the art. It is a whole in which richness and elegance are combined ; in which lightness
and solidity are well balanced ; in which unity is not injured by variety ; and whose general
effect silences the critic, however he may be disposed to find fault. In Versailles, the taste
which we have above noticed as introduced by De Brosse is prevalent ; but the interior
of the chapel displays to great advantage the great genius of Mansart, and shows that he
was not incapable of the most refined elegance.
360. Jacques Ange Gabriel was the relation and worthy pupil of Mansart. The colon-
nades to the Garde Meuble in the Place Louis XV. (now the Place de la Concorde) exhibit
a style which, with the exception only of Perrault's fa9ade of the Louvre, not all the
patronage of Louis XIV. was capable of eliciting. To Gabriel almost, if not perhaps as
much as to Perrault, the nation is under a debt of gratitude for the confirmation of good
taste in France. He has been accused of pirating the Louvre ; but reflection and com-
parison will show that there is no real ground for such an accusation. The difference be-
tween the two works is extremely wide. The basement of Perrault is a wall pierced with
windows ; that of Gabriel is an arcade : in the upper stories the columns are not coupled,
which is the case at the Louvre. From these circumstances alone the character of the two
works is so different, that it is quite unnecessary to enter into other detail. Architecture
in France at this period, the commencement of the eighteenth century, was in a palmy
state, and has never before or since risen to higher excellence ; though the French are still,
from the superior method of cultivating the art there, and the great encouragement it re-
ceives, the first architects in Europe. The great extent of the Place Louis XV. (744 ft.
long, and 522 broad) is injurious to the effect of the Garde Meuble, which, as the reader
will recollect, is rather two palaces than one. Its basement is perhaps, speaking without
t, reference to the vast area in front of it, too high, and the intercolumniations too wide, for
the order (Corinthian) employed ; _but it is easier to find fault than to do equally well ; and
we cannot leave the subject without a declaration that we never pass away from its beauties
without a wish to return and contemplate their extreme elegance. They are to us of that
class to which Cicero's expression may be well applied : " pernoctant nobiscum, peregri-
nantur/' Gabriel died in 1742. Antoine, the architect of the Mint at Paris, was another of
the choice spirits of the period : he continued the refined style whereof we are speaking ;
and though the age of Louis XV. was not destined to witness the erection of such stupendous
edifices as that of Louis le Grand, it displayed a purer and far better taste. This architect
was the first who employed in his country the Grecian Doric, which had then become known,
though not perfectly, by the work of Le Roy. Antoine used it at L1 Hospice de la Charite ;
and De Quincy cites it as a circumstance which called forth the approbation of people of
taste, and observes that the attempt would have attracted more followers, if, instead of exciting
the emulation of architects in the study of it and its judicious application to monuments, to
which the character of the order is suitable, fashion had not applied it to the most vulgar
and insignificant purposes. Antoine lived into the present century, having died in 1801, at
the age of 68.
361. Louis XV., during a dangerous illness at Metz, is reported to have made a vow
which led to the erection of the celebrated church of St. Genevieve, or, as it has since been
called, the Pantheon ; the largest modern church in France, and second to none in simplicity,
CHAP. II.
FRENCH.
155
elegance, and variety. Another cause may, however, with as much probability, be assigned ;
the inadequacy of accommodation for the religious wants of the population, and especially
of that appertaining to the patroness Saint of Paris. Many projects had been presented
FIR. 177.
PLAN 0» PANTHEON, PARIS.
cranU
OF PANTHEON, PAIU3.
156 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
for the purpose, but that of Soufflot received the preference. This talented artist, who was
born in 1713, at Irancy near Auxerre, after passing some time in Italy, had been settled at
Lyons, and there met with considerable and deserved employment. In that city the great
hospital had deservedly brought him into notice, for his knowledge in providing against the
miseries of mankind, not less than had his beautiful theatre for providing for its pleasures.
The plan (-fig. 1 77.) of the Pantheon (so it is now usually called) is a species of Greek cross.
The interior is divided transversely into two equal parts on each side, and a central one
much larger, by isolated columns, instead of the plans previously in use of arcades decorated
with pilasters. It is, however, strictly, in its internal as well as external character, to be
classed as belonging to the Venetian school. Its west front and transverse section are
given in fig. 178. The light effect, which is so striking in the interior, produced by the
employment of columns instead of the old system of arcades, is extremely pleasing, though,
as has often been truly urged, they have no office to perform. Objections, moreover, have
been taken to the wide intercolumniations of the portico, and to some other parts, which
here it is unnecessary to particularise. It is, notwithstanding all that has been written
against it, most certainly entitled to take the fourth place of the modern great churches in
Europe; which are, Santa Maria del Fiore at Florence, St. Peter's at Rome, St. Paul's at
London, and then the church in question. Its greatest fault is instability about the piers
of the cupola, — the old fault, from which not one is altogether free, and one which gave
Soufflot so much uneasiness that it is said to have hastened his death. This failure was
afterwards rectified by his celebrated pupil Rondelet, who, with consummate skill, imparted
perfect and lasting security to the edifice.
362. We ought perhaps before to have mentioned the name of Servandoni, as eminently
influencing, in his day, the taste of Paris, which, as the world knows, is that of France. A
Florentine by birth, and a scholar of the celebrated Pannini. he, in 1731, exhibited a model
for the fa9ade of St. Sulpice ; and after a year's probation before the public, it was adopted.
On an extended front of 1 96 ft. he succeeded in imparting to it, as a whole, an air of great
majesty, and of giving to the church a porch of vast extent without injury to the general
effect. Servandoni was very extensively employed: his style was that of the Venetian
school ; and his death occurred in 1766.
363. To write an history of the modern architecture of France, and at the same time to
do its professors justice, would require a much larger volume than that under our pen :
we profess to give no more than a bird's-eye view of it, so as to bring the reader generally
acquainted with its progress ; and it is not without much regret that we propose closing our
account of it in the person of Jacques Gondouin, who died at Paris in 1818, at the age of
eighty-one; an architect whose veneration for the works of Palladio was so unbounded, that
for the study of them exclusively he performed a second journey into Italy : a strange
infatuation in a man of great acquirements, if the opinions of some of our anonymous
critics are of any value. When Gondouin was employed, the heavy style of Louis XIV. had
passed away, and the suitable and elegant style of the Venetian school had been adopted.
The pupils of Blondel, among whom he was eminent, were stimulated by the patronage of
the whole capital ; and even in the present day, so far capable are its inhabitants of appre-
ciating the merits of an architect, regret as we may to record it, that it is from that circum-
stance alone likely to maintain its superiority over all others in Europe. The most celebrated
work of Gondouin is the Ecole de Medecine, whose amphitheatre for lectures, capable of
holding 1200 persons, is a model for all buildings of its class, without at all entering on
the great merits of the other parts of the building. He was one of those upon whom the
effects of the French Revolution fell with particular force, though, upon the re-establish-
ment of order, he in some measure recovered his station in society. He was entrusted with
the erection of the column in the Place Vendome, but merely as respected its preparation for
the sculpture.
464. In Paris is to be found some of the most beautiful street architecture in Europe,
That of Rome and Florence is certainly of a very high class, and exhibits some examples
which will probably never be equalled. These, moreover, have associations attached to
them which spread a charm over their existence of which it is not easy to divest one's self,
and which, perhaps, contain some of the ingredients which enter into our high admiration
of them. But, on a great and general scale, the most beautiful street architecture in
Europe is to be found in Paris; and so great in this respect do we consider that city, that
we are certain the education of an architect is far from complete if he be not intimately
acquainted with the examples it affords. In that, as in most of the cities of Europe, the
requirements of the shopkeeper interfere with the first principles of the art; but in this the
violation of the rules of sound building, so as to connect them with his accommodation, are
less felt by the critical observer than elsewhere. The spirit which seems to actuate the
French nation is to produce works which may properly be called monumental; in this country,
the government has never applied itself to a single work worthy of that epithet. The prin-
cipal care of an English minister seems to be that of keeping his place as long as the nation
will endure him. Commerce and politics are the only subjects which such a personage
CHAP. II. GERMAN. 157
seems to think worthy his attention, and the sciences have only been patronised by the
government in proportion to their bearing on those two absorbing points. But we shall
perhaps revert to this in the following chapter.
SECT. XVIIL
GERMAN.
365. No country exhibits more early, beautiful, or interesting specimens of Romanesque
and pointed architecture, than Germany. The Rhine, and the southern parts of it which
were under the sway of the Romans, are those, as we have already observed, in
which these are principally to be found. Their history, however, has, sufficiently for
general purposes, been traced under the sections of Byzantine or Romanesque and Pointed
Architecture. The revival of the arts in Italy, as it did in other nations, here equally brought
in the styles of the Italian schools, which, as elsewhere throughout Europe, have lasted to
the present period ; and will certainly endure until some general change in the habits of
its different nations renders necessary or justifies some other style as a worthy successor to
them. On this to speculate were a waste of time ; though there be some, and those men of
talent, who contemplate a millennium of architecture, by making every thing in style de-
pendent on the new materials (cast-iron for instance) which it is now the practice to employ,
and often, it must be conceded, most usefully. Whilst the pointed style lasted in Europe,
Italy was occasionally indebted to the Germans for an architect. Thus, notwithstanding the
denial of Milizia, Lapo, a German architect, was employed in the early stages of construction
of Santa Maria del Fiore ; and it is well authenticated that Zamodia a German, Annex of
Friburg, and Ulric of Ulm, were employed on the cathedral at Milan. Franchetti ( Storia
e Descrizione del Duomo di Milano, 4to. Milan, 1821) asserts, that the first of these was
engaged on it about 1391, the period of the golden age of pointed architecture in Germany;
and the reputation of the Germans in this respect was at that time so great, that John
and Simon of Cologne were actually carried into Spain for the purpose of designing and
carrying into execution the cathedral at Burgos. It is at this period difficult to assign
the cause of the nation so completely dropping astern, to use a nautical phrase, in the fine
arts, and more particularly architecture. It was most probably the result of their political
condition, and the consequent relative position they occupied in the affairs of Europe.
But, whatever the cause, it is, in fact, most certain, that from the revival of the arts in Italy
until near the end of the 18th century, Germany furnishes the names of few, if any, architects
who are known beyond the limits of the country. Italy during the time in question seems
to have repaid the nation for the early assistance received from them. At Fulda and Vienna,
Carlo Fontana was extensively engaged ; Guarini on the church of Santa Anna at Prague ;
Scamozzi on the cathedral at Salzburg ; Andrew Pozzo, who died at Vienna in 1 709, was
there employed on several of the churches : Martinelli of Lucca was another of the number
that were solicited to decorate the country with their works. Fischers, indeed, was a na-
tive ; but his works, and especially his palace at Schonbrun, begun in 1696 for the Emperor
Joseph, though not altogether without merit, is but a repetition of the extravagances of the
school of Borromini ; and equally so was the palace built by the same artist for Prince
Eugene at Vienna, in 1711. (Essai d1 Architecture Historique, Leipsig, 1725.) Pietro
Cart, who built the bridge at Nuremberg, Neuman, Bott, and Eosander of Prussia, are the
only native architects of the period recorded by Milizia.
366. But it was not only from Italy that the Germans drew their architects : France
contributed a supply to the country in the persons of Blondel, who was there much em-
ployed towards the end of the 17th century ; Robert de Cotte and Boffrand in the first part
of that following. It is therefore, from what has been stated, impossible to give any
independent account of the architecture of Germany. The Germans had none. Whoso
were their architects, they were the followers of a style which contemporaneously existed
in France and Italy even down to the bizarreries of that which prevailed in the time of
Louis XV. ; and it is a very curious fact, that whilst Germany was seeking the aid of
architects from France and Italy, England could boast of professors of the art whose fame
will endure while printing remains to spread knowledge amongst mankind. During the
last century, Germany appears to have risen in this respect from its slumber, and to have
produced some men of considerable architectural abilities. Of these was Carl. Gotthard
Langhans, who was born in 1732, and built the celebrated Brandenburg gate at Berlin,
which, though formed much on the model of the Propylea at Athens, and therefore on the
score of originality not entitled to that praise which has been so unsparingly exhausted upon
it, proves that a vast change had begun in Germany as respected matters of taste in ar-
158 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
chitecture. Copies prove sad poverty of imagination on the part of the artist copying ; and
all, therefore, that can be said in favour of such an expedient as that under consideration
is, that better forms being submitted in this example to the Germans, it created a dawn of
taste to which they had long been strangers. The inaccurate work of Le Roy, which had
preceded that of Stuart and Revett on the antiquities of Athens, was the means through
which Langhans wrought and tried his successful experiment. In France, as we have
already observed, Antoine had tried the employment of the Grecian Doric at Paris, but
without the impression produced by Langhans. This architect died at Berlin in 1808,
and is, perhaps, entitled to be considered as the father of good architecture in Germany,
where he met the highest patronage and encouragement. Knoblesdorff, who died in 1753,
had, it must be allowed, prepared in some measure the change which was effected ; but
neither he nor his successor are known in the world of art beyond the confines of their
own country. The names of Boumann, Goutard, Naumann, and others of much merit,
occur to us ; but the examples which they have left are not of the class that justify
specimens for presentation to the reader in a general work of this nature. None of them
rise so high as to be put in competition with the examples of the French school ; and from
the circumstance of the principal works of Germany at Munich, Berlin, &c. having been
executed by artists still living, we feel precluded here from allusion to them ; because, if
we were to enter on an examination of them, we must detail their defects as well as their
beauties. An extraordinary species of bigotry has laid hold on some in relation to them,
which time will temper ; and the world, as it always does, will ultimately come to a right
judgment of the rank they are entitled to occupy as works of art. In the other branches
of the arts the Germans are rising fast; but there is withal an affectation of the works of
the middle ages in their productions, which, impressed as they are with great beauties,
are not sufficiently pure to prognosticate the establishment of schools which will sweep all
before them, as did those of Italy.
SECT. XIX.
SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.
367. What has been said in the preceding section on the architecture of Germany is
equally applicable to that of Spain and Portugal, whose architects were educated, if not in
the schools of Italy, yet on the principles that guided them. Still, the pre-eminence in
architecture on the revival of the arts must be given to these countries over the con-
temporaneous buildings erected in Germany, and more especially to those of Spain.
Under Ferdinand and Isabella, both greatly attached to the fine arts, the pointed style
gave way to the architecture then in esteem in Italy ; and Giovanni de Olotzaga, a native
of Biscay, is, we believe, entitled to the merit of having first introduced it in the great
college of Santa Croce at Valladolid, which was commenced in 1480, and finished in
1492. About the same period appeared Pietro de Gumiel, supposed to have been the
architect of Santa Engracia at Saragossa ; but known as the artist who designed the
college of Alcala, a splendid building in a mixed and impure style. In this the orders
were employed. The edifice consists of three courts : the first Doric, with an arcade and
two orders above, in the lower whereof the Doric was repeated, and the upper was Ionic ;
the second court has thirty-two Composite columns, with arcades ; and the third is de-
signed with thirty-six Ionic columns, beyond which is the theatre. The church is of the
Ionic order, and contains the monument of Cardinal Ximenes, the founder, considered one
of the finest in Spain. The names of Giovanni, Alonso, and Fra Giovanni d'Escobado
continue in their works the history of the art in Spain, wherein a style between the pointed
and Italian prevailed during the greater part of the reign of Charles V. Giovanni Gil de
Hontanon, at the end of the 15th century, appears in Spain as an architect of much
celebrity. He made a design for the cathedral at Salamanca, which was submitted to the
judgment of four of the then most eminent architects of the country, — Alonzode Cobarrubias,
the architect of the church at Toledo ; Mastro Filippo of that of Seville ; Giovanni di
Badajos of that of Burgos ; and Giovanni Balleso, by whom Hontanon's design was approved
and commended. This church is 378 ft. long, and has a nave and two series of aisles on each
side. The nave is 130 ft. high, and 50 ft. wide. Rodrigo Gil, son of the above-named
architect, had the execution of this church, which commenced in 1513. It was probably
this Rodrigo who, in 1525, erected the church of Segovia, very similar to that of Salamanca,
except that it is more simple, and in a purer style. The cathedral of Segovia, equal in
size and grandeur to those of Toledo and Seville, was, after 1 577, carried on by Francesco
de Campo Aguero, who died in 1660; to whom succeeded Biadero, who died in 1678.
Respecting Hontanon, Don Ant. Ponz observes, in the 10th volume of his Travels in
Spain, that he must have been a clever architect, and well acquainted with the Greek and
CHAP. II. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 159
Roman styles, which in his time were beginning to revive ; but that, like many other artists,
he was obliged in some measure to humour the taste of those who employed him : he
therefore adopted the Gothic style, without the ornaments and details. The efforts of the
architects of this period were not confined altogether to church building; for in 1552
Pietro de Uria constructed a bridge at Almaraz over the Tagus, which may vie with the
most extraordinary works of that class. Two large pointed arches form the bridge, which
is 580 ft. long, 25 ft. wide, and 134 ft. high. The opening of one of the arches is 150 ft.,
that of the other 119 ft. The piers are lofty towers, that in the centre standing on a high
rock. Another pier has a semicircular projection between the arches, forming a piazza at
the top.
368. Alonzo de Cobarrubias, the architect of the church of Toledo, seems to have used
in it a Gothic sort of style, though when he flourished the Roman orders had become
known and used. This Alonzo was in considerable employ, as was his assistant, Diego
Siloe, who built the church at Granada, with the monastery and church of San Girolamo
in that city. This cathedral has a nave and two aisles ; and in it the Corinthian order,
though defective in height, is used. The cupola is well designed. Both Siloe and his
master loaded their buildings with sculptures to excess, from a seeming notion that beauty
and richness were the same or inseparable. Alonzo Berruguette was another architect of
the 16th century who was deservedly employed. He went to Italy in 1500, there to
pursue his studies in the arts of painting and sculpture as well as architecture, and was
at Florence when Michael Angelo and Leonardo da Vinci exhibited their cartoons.
He was the architect of Charles V. ; and it is supposed that he designed the palace at
Madrid, begun by Henry II., continued by Henry III., and splendidly rebuilt by
Charles V., but no longer in existence. Berruguette erected the gate of San Martino,
which is the principal one at Toledo. It is of the Doric order, with the royal arms on
the exterior, and a statue of Santa Leocadia in the interior. There are great simplicity
and elegance in the composition of this work. The palace of Alcala, the residence of the
archbishop of Toledo, is attributed to him ; a building not wanting in magnificence,
though defective in its detail. A great portion of the cathedral of Cuen^a is said to be
by Berruguette ; but not the fa9ade, which was erected in 1 699 by Guiseppe Arroyo, and
afterwards continued by Luigi Arriaga. There is considerable effect about the cloister,
which is well and ingeniously decorated. This architect, it is thought, had some part in the
Pardo, which was rebuilt in 1547 ; where are still allowed to remain, — notwithstanding the
additions by Philip II. of the miserable eastern and western fa9ades — the porticoes of Ionic
columns, with their low stone arches. Though the windows are greatly too far apart, and
too small in the lower story, the stairs difficult of ascent, yet, upon the whole, the edifice
is not ill arranged or executed. At the period whereof we here speak there was a pro-
digious passion among the Spaniards for large screens and altars in the churches ; in these
the taste of Berruguette was most conspicuous. In the use of the orders, which he fully
understood, he was remarkably fond of employing them over one another. The cathedral
at Seville was principally rebuilt by Ferdinando Ruiz, who was much engaged in the city,
and especially on enlarging or raising the well-known tower called the Giralda. This
singular edifice was begun in the llth century, the original idea of it being given by the
architect Geber, a native of Seville, to whom the invention of algebra is attributed ; and
also the design of two other similar towers, one in Morocco, and the other at Rabata.
The tower of which we are now speaking was at first 250 ft. high, and 50 ft. wide, and
was without diminution as it rose. The walls are 8 ft. thick of squared stones from the
level of the pavement ; the rest for 87 ft. is of brick. In the centre of this tower is a
smaller one, the interval between the two towers being 23 ft., which serves for the ascent,
one so convenient that two persons abreast can mount it on horseback. The central tower
does not diminish ; but as the edifice rises in height the walls gather over, so a$ to allow
the passage of only one person. Upon the Moors of Seville negotiating their surrender,
one of the conditions of it was, that this tower should not be destroyed ; to which Don
Alphonso, the eldest son of the king, answered, that if a portion of it were touched, not
a man in Seville should survive. In the earthquake of 1 395 it was partially injured, and
remained in the state of misfortune that then occurred until 1568, when, by the authorities,
Ferdinando Ruiz received the commission to raise it 100 ft. higher. This height he
divided into three parts, crowning it with a small cupola or lantern : the first division of
his addition is of equal thickness with the tower on a plinth, whence six pilasters rise 011
each facade, between which are five windows, over which is an entablature surmounted by
balustrades; the second division is lower, with the same ornament; and the third is
octagonal with pilasters, over which the cupola rises, crowned with a bronze statue of
Faith, vulgarly called " La Giralda." Ruiz by this work augmented his fame; and not-
withstanding the earthquakes which have since occurred, it has, fortunately enough, been-
preserved. We have, however, to apologise to our readers for this, which is anecdote, and
not quite in order to be placed here, because partly connected with a period we have long
since left. Pictorially speaking, the tower of the Giralda is a splendid object, and the
160 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
apology was, perhaps, unnecessary. The age of Charles V. in Spain was Augustan for
its architecture. By his mandate the palace was raised at Granada, a work of Machuca,
another architect of this period. The principal facade is rustic, with three large gates, and
eight Doric columns on pedestals sculptured with historical bassi-rilievi. The second
story is Ionic with eight columns, over which are pilasters. The internal vestibule is on
a circular plan, with a portico and gallery on columns of the same order. Milizia, from
whom we have extracted all our notices on the architecture of Spain in this age, regrets
that the arches spring from the columns. Though we cannot commend such a practice,
we should be sorry, in certain cases, to see a veto put upon it ; because the practice is
occasionally compatible with fine effect.
369. Towards the end of the sixteenth century appears in Spain an artist, by name Do-
menico Testocopoli, by birth a Grecian, and a disciple of Tiziano Vecelli. He became,
under his master, a good painter ; but is known in Spain rather as a celebrated architect
in his day. At Madrid, and in Toledo, he executed many works of merit ; but his grand
work was the church and monastery of the Bernardine monks of San Dominico di Silos, in
which he employed his talents in architecture, painting, and sculpture, the whole being
from his hand.
370. Garzia d'Emere and Bartolomeo di Bustamente, the latter especially, would re-
quire an extended notice in the history of the art in Spain, if our limits permitted us to
enter on their merits. The latter was the architect of the hospital of San Giovanni Battista,
founded by its archbishop in 1545, near Toledo. We should continue the account if works
existed from which a feature different from the contemporaneous works in the rest of
Europe could be extracted ; but the fact is, that the progress of the art has already been
told in other countries, and its success in Spain would be but a repetition in minor degree
of what has already been said. Still we consider some notice must be taken of Giovan-
batista of Toledo, who died in 1567, an architect and sculptor of surpassing merit;
and as he was the architect who gave the designs for the fa9ade of the Escurial, we shall
not apologise for transcribing the account of him given by Milizia.
371. Having studied at Rome, he was invited to Naples by Don Pietro di Toledo,
then viceroy there, who employed him as architect to the Emperor Charles V. in
many important works in that city, whence he was called by Philip II. to become
architect of all the royal works in Spain, and especially of the Escurial, which that
monarch was anxious to erect in the most magnificent style. For this purpose he left Na-
ples, and in 1563 commenced, upon his own design, the Escurial, which he continued to
superintend till his death in 1567. In this great undertaking he was succeeded by Gio-
vanni d'Herrera, his pupil, who finished it. Those, therefore, says the author whom we
quote, that attribute this work to Luigi de Foix, to Bramante, to Vignola, and other archi-
tects who may have given designs for it, are unacquainted with the subject. The wonders
related of the Escurial, as to the number of its doors and windows, are not tales to be here
recounted ; and the attempt, indeed, at exaggeration is vastly silly, because it is on so grand
a scale that the simple truth imparts quite sufficient knowledge for conveying an idea of its
splendour. The motives of Pnilip II. in founding this structure were twofold, — first,
the injunction of his predecessor Charles V., who was desirous of constructing a tomb for
the royal family of Spain ; and secondly, of erecting an edifice of colossal dimensions to
commemorate the famous victory of S. Quintin, achieved on the festival of San Lorenzo,
the saint to whose interposition the king attributed his success. The situation chosen to
receive it was beautiful. It is at the distance of a few miles from Madrid, at the foot of the
Carpentani mountains, by which the two Castiles are divided. The plan of the edifice is
said to resemble a gridiron, the instrument of martyrdom of Saint Lawrence, of which the
handle is the projection in the eastern fa9ade ; we confess, however, we have some difficulty
in tracing the resemblance. It is divided internally into fifteen courts, varying consider-
ably in size ; many of them are decorated with porticoes and galleries, and contain in all
upwards of eighty fountains. The materials are granite very well wrought ; the roofs
partly covered with lead and partly with slate. The cupola of the church is stone. The
four angles of the main plan are distinguished by towers rising four stories, besides those
in the roofs, above the general fronts ; besides which there are four others flanking the cu-
pola. Parts of the building are in much better taste than others ; but such an enormous
pile of building cannot be otherwise than imposing, more especially, too, if there be any-
thing like symmetry and regularity in the parts. Towards the west the principal fa9ade
is 740 feet long and 60 feet in height. The towers at the angles just mentioned rise to the
height of 200 feet. This fa9ade, like the others, has five stories of windows, which neces-
sarily of themselves, from the way in which they are arranged, have the effect of cutting
it up into minute divisions. The central compartment of it is 140 feet in leng'h, and con-
sists of two orders of half columns ; the lower has eight semi-columns, which are Doric
standing on a plinth, and in the central intercolumniation is the door ; the other inter-
columniations are filled with niches and windows in three stories. The upper order con-
sists of four Ionic columns on pedestals, and is surmounted by a pediment. This upper
CHAP. II. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 161
order has two stories of niches in its intercolumniations, in the upper central one whereof
is placed the statue of St. Lawrence. The two minor doors in this fa9ade are also made
features in the design. The fa9ade towards the east has the projecting handle of the grid-
iron to which we have alluded, in which part is contained the palace ; and westward of it
the great chapel or church, with its cupola rising above the mass, to complete the com-
position. Towards the south the length is 580 ft., similar to the length on the north. On
entering from the central gate of the western fa9ade, the monastery is divided from the col-
lege by a large vestibule, from which three large arched openings lead into the king's court :
this is 230ft. long, and 136 ft. wide, surrounded by buildings of five stories, and orna-
mented with pilasters. At the eastern end of this court is the entrance to the church, over
whose vestibule or pronaos are the libraries. To it a flight of seven steps crosses the whole
width of the court ; and from the landing rises a Doric arcaded porch of five openings, three
whereof belong to the central compartment and lead to the church, the other two leading
to the monastery and the college. Behind the porch the fa9ade of the church rises, and is
flanked by two towers, which respectively belong to the monastery and college, and are
ornamented above the general height of the buildings of the court with two orders of
pilasters, being terminated by small cupolas. The interior of the church is Doric, and is in
plan a Greek cross. The nave is 53 ft. and the aisles are 30 ft. wide. Its whole length
is 364 ft., its width 230, and height 170. From the intersection of the nave and transepts
the cupola rises, 66 ft. in diameter, and 330 ft. in height from the pavement to the cross.
Its exterior is composed with a square tambour or drum, if it may be so called, from which
the order rises. The choir is only 30ft. high, and its length but 60ft. In point of taste
and dimensions, the church is inferior to several in other parts of Europe. The pres-
bytery, we should have stated, is raised, so as to form almost another church, and seemingly
without relation to the principal one. The staircase which leads to the Pantheon, and
which possesses considerable magnificence, is placed between the church and the ante-
sacristy : we are not aware why this name has been given to the sepulchre of the kings of
Spain. It is nearly under the high altar. The chamber appropriated to the reception of
the kings is 36 ft. diameter, and 38 ft. in height, richly encrusted with various marbles and
metals, and ornamented with sixteen double Corinthian pilasters on pedestals, arranged
octagonally ; and between them are recesses, with the sarcophagi, amounting to twenty-six,
that is, four in each of six sides, and two over the entrance which faces the altar of the Re-
surrection. This is a fair specimen of the style which prevailed in Spain under the reigns
of Philip IV. and Charles II. The college, the seminary, and the royal palace occupy the
rest of the building. In 1773, many additions were made to the buildings about the Es-
curial for the Infants Don Antonio and Don Gabriele, by Villaneuva, an Italian architect,
and by them the palace was much improved. Giovanni d'Herrera, who died in 1597, besides
his employment at the building just described, contributed greatly to the advancement of
the art by the execution of the many commissions with which he was entrusted. The bridge
of Segovia, at Madrid, is by him ; as is the royal pleasure-house at Aranjuez, begun under
Philip II. and finished by Charles III., — a work which, though far from pure, exhibits
great architectural ability. His successor at the Escurial was Francesco de Mora, by
whom, at Madrid, is the Palace de los Consejos, the most splendid edifice which that
capital can boast. Instead of a central doorway, it has two at its flanks, of the Doric order,
with appropriate decorations. In the beginning of the seventeenth century, the great
square of Madrid was erected after the designs of Giovanni Gomez de Mora, and is ad-
mirable for its grandeur and symmetry. This architect built at Alcala the church and
college of the Jesuits, which, Milizia says, is a magnificent and well-proportioned edifice.
It is of two orders, and the material employed in the fa9ade is granite. The royal convent
of the Augustins, at Madrid, is also attributed to him.
372. In the beginning of the eighteenth century, Filippo Ivara, a native of Messina,
had very great employ, we might almost say throughout Europe. He became the pupil
of Fontana, and afterwards, on his visiting Spain, seems to have established a school there.
He built the fa9ade of the royal palace of St. Ildefonso, looking towards the gardens.
Ivara died in 1735, at Madrid, whither he had been invited by Philip V. to rebuild the
palace, which had been consumed by fire. The work was afterwards intrusted to Sacchetti.
a pupil of Ivara. It is on a very large scale, and was most solidly constructed.
373. We have thought it necessary to give the above succinct account of the architecture
of Spain, which did not, however, produce, after the revival of the arts in Europe, any
works, except in respect of dimensions, comparable with those of Italy. The abuses in
them are almost universally carried to an extent scarcely credible ; it is, therefore, useless to
refer the reader or student to them as models. It almost seems as if from Italy pure
architecture had not had time to spread itself before it became tinctured with the corrup-
tions of Borromini ; which, not only in Spain and Portugal, but throughout Germany, and
even France, were diffused with incredible rapidity.
M
lf?2 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK t.
SECT. XX.
RUSSIAN ARCHITECTURE.
374. WE scarcely know whether we are justified in making a short section with this
heading, inasmuch as there is not known to us, up to the end of the eighteenth century,
the name of a single Russian architect. English, French, Italian, and German artists have
been employed in the decoration of the city of Petersburg, though we believe that the
nation is now beginning to produce persons capable of conducting their public works.
Russia has received all its improvement from abroad, and has used every exertion to com-
municate it to an uncivilised people.
375. The ecclesiastical architecture of Russia is of course coeval with the introduction of
Christianity into the country, which was not earlier than the time of Vladimir the Great,
although the Princess Olga had been baptized at Constantinople as early as the year 964.
Vladimir, to display his zeal in behalf of Christianity, had a church, supposed to be the
first built by him, erected at Cherson ; a year after which the church of St. Basi1, which, as
well as the first named, was of timber, was erected under his command. This prince also
built a church at Kief, where, it is said, there were already at the time 500 churches.
After Vladimir, Prince Yaroslaf appears to have bestowed great attention on the erection
of ecclesiastical edifices. At Kief he founded a church, dedicated to St. Sophia, and at No-
vogorod another to the same saint : these partly exist in the present day. By him also
were reared the convents of St. George and St. Irene. The celebrated convent of
Petchorsky, at Kief, was erected in 1075, subsequent to which period the Russian metro-
politans continued subject to those of Constantinople till the capture of that city by Mahomet
the Second. Between this last capital and Kief the bonds of amity of their rulers were
drawn closer by many intermarriages; but in the year 1 124 a fire desolated the latter city,
which must have risen into great importance, inasmuch as 600 churches and monasteries
were destroyed in the conflagration. Afterwards, again, in the civil war under Yisaslaf,
Kief was taken and fired; a calamity to which it was again subject at the same period that
Constantinople was taken by the Venetians. After this Kief never again recovered its
ancient magnificence. In 1 154, at which period Moscow is first mentioned in history, it was
but an insignificant village. It received great additions under Daniel of Moscow; and in
1304, under John Danielowitz, it became the capital of the empire. On the 4th of August,
1326, the first stone was laid of a church in the Kremlin there in honour of the Assumption
of the Virgin. The palace of the Kremlin was a timber structure until the reign of Demetri
Donskoi, when it was reconstructed of stone. On the capture of Constantinople by Mahomet
the Second, the Russian church ceased to be dependent on that of Constantinople. The
palace of the Kremlin, known by the name of the granite palace, rose in 1487; and, in
twelve years afterwards, the Belvedere palace was raised. Ivan IV., whose sway was of
extended duration, was a great patron of the arts; his decease took place circa 1584. He
renewed the laws relative to the paintings in the new churches, whence arises their so close
resemblance to each other that it is difficult to judge of the epochs of their execution. The
celebrated clock tower Ivan Valiki, at the Kremlin, was erected by the Czar Boris, in 1 GOO,
at which time Moscow contained 400 churches, whereof 35 stood in the Kremlin alone.
After the time of Peter the Great, a change of style was introduced.
376. The Church of the Assumption above mentioned, as respects the plan, is an oblong
square divided ; the vaulting whereof is supported by six columns in the interior. Though
at the first glance it be not perceived, the arrangement of the cupolas soon points to the
form of a Greek cross. In the earlier churches the plan was a square, with a porch in
front of it ; but, in the Church of the Assumption, the porch is a portion of the church,
the arches of the cupolas being placed in the same way as if the church were of the ancient
form. The six columns just mentioned divide the church into four parts, — from east to
west, and then from north to south. At the eastern sides are three apsides, divided by the
width of a column, the middle one being of larger dimensions than the other two ; an
arrangement which prevails in most, of the Greek churches. The apsides contain altars,
which are frequent, except in the small chapels. The altar in the Greek church is not
exposed to public view ; it is concealed or covered by the iconostasis (image-bearer), a very
large screen, which, from occupying the whole width of the church, divides it into two parts.
This screen has a central principal and two side smaller doors ; behind which latter, on each
side, stands a second and smaller iconostasis, of the width only of the smaller apsis, but
whose plan with three doors and an altar behind is similar to the great one. This was the
distribution in the early churches ; but, in the more modern ones, there are, at nearly the
extremity of the edifice, three distinct iconostases. The place for the choristers is on each
side in front of the iconostasis, between its principal and side doors. The principal cupola
rises in front of the iconostasis ; and, in cathedral churches, at the foot of the apsis on the
left a canopy is placed for the emperor, opposite whereto is one for the metropolitan.
CHAP. II. RUSSIAN. 163
There is generally one principal and four subordinate cupolas round it, which stand on the
four feet of the Greek cross. The iconostasis is a principal object in every church. It is
usually in four or five horizontal compartments, each containing an unequal number of
pictures of saints painted on tablets or long square panels, whose places are fixed with great
precision. In the first story, if we may so call it, are the three doors ; the centre one, being
in two foldings, is decorated with the subject of the Annunciation, accompanied with the
heads of the four Evangelists or their emblems. To the right of the door is a picture of
Christ, and of the Madonna on the left. To the right of the Christ is the saint or festival
of the church, after which the doors are inserted. Above the doors, on the left hand, is
placed a Greek cross ; on the right hand the cross of Moses, — as symbols of the Ohj and
New Testaments. The paintings are all on a ground of gold. In the middle of the second
story is Christ on a throne ; on the right Saint John the Baptist ; on the left the Madonna
without Child ; then, on each side, two archangels and six apostles. In the third story or
horizontal compartment, the Madonna is introduced with the Infant on her knees, sur-
rounded on each side by the prophets. In the fourth story is painted God the Father on
a throne, with the Infant Jesus, surrounded on each side by patriarchs of the church.
Occasionally a fifth story appears, upon which is painted the history or Passion of our
Saviour. Paintings on a gold ground abound in the other parts of the church. The
exteriors of these churches are extremely simple ; cornices or other horizontal crownings
are not to^found, but the coverings follow the cylindrical forms of the arches to which they
are the extradoses, and are variously painted. The Russian churches built in the eleventh
century, which from the number of their cupolas resemble, and indeed were imitated from
those of the East, give a peculiar effect to the architecture. The forms of these cupolas
are varied, but they generally stand on an octagonal tambour ; some are hemispherical,
others in curves of contrary flexure, and a number of other figures.
377. The type of the Russian church, which is on plan a Greek cross, is to be found in
Santa Sophia at Constantinople. After the disputes between the Iconoclasts and Iconolaters,
which, at the close of the seventh century, ended in the separation of the Eastern and
Western churches, sculpture of statues disappeared from the Greek church, statues of angels
excepted. Again, at this period, the altars on the side of the principal one were established,
not, as in the Catholic churches, at the extremities of the transepts ; their place is always in
a niche or apsis. This arrangement is found in the churches of the eleventh, twelfth, and
thirteenth centuries, at Bari, Trani, Malfetta, Otranto, &c., while the Greek worship existed;
and a similar disposition is even seen at Palermo and other places where the worship has
been Catholic. In the Catholic churches a sacristy, for the use of the priests in robing,
&c., is always provided on the side of the church ; in the Greek church, however, the priests
robe themselves behind the iconostasis on the left of the altar, another altar being placed on
the right for the consecration of the elements ; and this arrangement exists in the present day.
The Greek church has no gynaeceum, or separate place for the women For the above we
are indebted to the researches of M. Hallmann, an ingenious architect of Hanover.
378. It is in Saint Petersburg principally that we are to look for edifices which deserve
mention. The foundation of the city was laid in 17O3, by the Czar Peter, when he con-
structed a fort on an island in the Neva for defence against the Swedes. Buildings, both
public and private, were soon erected ; and the nobility and merchants being induced to
settle there, the place quickly assumed the appearance of a considerable city. In the reigns of
Catherine the Second and Alexander it reached a degree of great magnificence, from which
it has not declined, but has rather advanced. Magnitude, rather than beauty of form, marks
the public buildings of the city. The church of our Lady of Kevan is of great dimensions :
for which, and its fifty-six granite columns with bronze capitals, it has obtained more cele-
brity than it will acquire for the beauty of its composition. Some of the palaces in the
city are of colossal dimensions ; that of Michailoff, built by Paul, is said to have cost ten
millions of rubles. It was under the reign of Peter the Great that the great change took
place in the national character of Russian church architecture by the introduction of the
classical orders. The bulbous cupola, though at this period not entirely laid aside, fell into
comparative disuse, being replaced by a green painted dome of which the Italian form was
the model. The tasteless custom of painting the exteriors of buildings with bright and in-
congruous colours was retained ; and, though well enough suited to the barbaric structures
of the Muscovite czars, it ill accorded with the purer style of Italy. It is unnecessary fur-
ther to detain the reader by any observations on the churches of the modern capital. In
point of style or of history, they possess little or no interest for an English reader. To
those who wish to become better acquainted with the architecture of Russia, we recommend
a reference to Geissler's Tableaux Pittoresques des Meeurs, fyc. des Busses, Tartares, Mongohs,
et autres Nations de V Empire Russe.
M 2
764 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
CHAP. III.
ARCHITECTURE OF BRITAIN.
SECT. I.
•
EARLY HOUSES AND ARCHITECTURE OF THE BRITONS.
379. On the invasion of Britain by Julius Caesar, in the year 55 B. c., the inhabitants
dwelt in houses resembling those of Gaul ; and in Kent, and other southern parts of the
island, their houses were more substantial and convenient than those in the north. Caves
or earth houses seem to have been their original shelter ; to which had preceded the wicker
enclosure, whose sides were incrusted with clay. These were thatched with straw. The
wooden houses of the ancient Gauls and Britons were circular, with high tapering roofs,
at whose summit was an aperture for the admission of light and emission of smoke. These,
where the edifices were grander than ordinary, were placed upon foundations of stone.
There is no instruction to be derived from pursuing this subject further. That the arts at
the period in question scarcely existed, is quite certain ; and Caractacus may, when carried
prisoner to Rome, have well expressed surprise that the Romans, who had such magnificent
palaces of their own, should envy the wretched cabins of the Britons.
380. If the Britons were so uninformed in architecture as to be satisfied with such
structures for their dwellings as we have named, it will hardly be contended that they were
the builders of so stupendous a fabric as Stonehenge. On this subject we have already
stated our opinion in Chap. II. From the distant period at which we believe this and
similar edifices to have been erected up to that of which we are speaking many cen-
turies must have elapsed, during which the mechanical knowledge which was employed in
their erection might have been lost, and indeed must have been, from the condition of the
inhabitants, of which mention has been made.
381. The Romans, after their invasion of the island, soon formed settlements and planted
colonies ; and it is not difficult to imagine the change which took place in its architecture.
The first Roman colony was at Camalodunum. This, when it was afterwards destroyed
by the Britons in the great revolt under Boadicea, appears to have been a large and well-
built town, adorned with statues, temples, theatres, and other public edifices. ( Tacit.
Annul, lib. xiv. c. 32. ) In the account given of the prodigies said to have happened at
this place, and to have announced its approaching fall, it is mentioned that the statue of
Victory fell down without any visible violence ; in the hall of public business, the confused
murmurs of strangers were perceived, and dismal bowlings were heard in the theatre. At
Camalodunum the temple of Claudius was large enough to contain the whole garrison,
who, after the destruction of the town, took refuge in it ; and so strong was it, that they
were enabled to hold out therein against the whole British army for a period of two days.
London, however, exhibited a more striking example of the rapid progress of Roman
architecture in Britain. At the time of the first Roman invasion it was little more than a
British town or enclosed forest ; and there seems to be ground for supposing that at the
time of the second invasion, under Claudius, it was not much improved. But when, about
sixteen years afterwards, it came into the possession of the Romans, it became a rich, po-
pulous, and beautiful city. Not only did the Romans raise a vast number of solid and
magnificent structures for their own accommodation, but they taught the arts to the Britons,
and thus civilised them. Agricola, of all the Roman governors, took means for that pur-
pose. That they might become less and less attached to a roaming and unsettled life, and
accustomed to a more agreeable mode of living, he took all opportunities of rendering them
assistance in erecting houses and temples, and other public buildings. He did all in his
power to excite an emulation amongst them ; so that at last they were not content without
structures for ornament and pleasure, such as baths, porticoes, galleries, banqueting houses,
&c. From this time (A. D. 80) up " to the middle of the fourth century," says Henry
(Hist, of England), " architecture, and all the arts immediately connected with it, greatly
nourished in this island ; and the same taste for erecting solid, convenient, and beautiful
buildings which had long prevailed in Italy, was introduced into Britain. Every Roman
colony and free city (of which there was a great number in this country) was a little Rome,
encompassed with strong walls, adorned with temples, palaces, courts, halls, basilica1, baths,
markets, aqueducts, and many other fine buildings both for use and ornament The
country every where abounded with well-built villages, towns, forts, and stations ; and the
whole was defended by that high and strong wall, with its many towers and castles, which
reached from the mouth of the river Tyne on the east to the Solway Firth on the west.
CHAP. III.
ANGLO-SAXON.
165
This spirit of building, which was introduced and encouraged by the Romans, so much
improved the taste and increased the number of the British builders, that in the third
century this island was famous for the great number and excellence of its architects and
artificers. When the Emperor Constantius, father of Constantine the Great, rebuilt the
city of Autun in Gaul, A. n. 296, he was chiefly furnished with workmen from Britain,
which (says Eumenius ) very much abounded with the best artificers. It was about the
end of the third century that in Britain, as well as all the other provinces of the Western
empire, architecture began to decline. It may have been that the building of Constanti-
nople drew off' the best artists ; or that the time left for the peaceful culture of the arts may
have been broken in upon by the irruptions of invaders from the north. According to the
Venerable Bede (Hist. Ecclcs., lib. i. c. 12.), the Britons had become so ignorant of the art
before the final departure of the Romans that they, from want of masons, repaired the wall
between the Forth and Clyde with sods instead of stone. Henry observes, however, on
this, that " we cannot lay much stress on this testimony ; because it does not refer to the
provincial Britons, but to those who lived beyond the Wall of Severus, where the Roman
arts never much prevailed ; and because the true reason of their repairing that wall with
turf, and not with stone, was that it had been originally built in that manner. Besides, we
are told by the same writer, in the same place, that the provincial Britons, some time after
this, with the assistance of one Roman legion, built a wall of solid stone, 8 ft. thick and
12 ft. high, from sea to sea."
382. The departure of the Romans, and that of the fine arts which they had introduced,
were occurrences of almost the same date. We must, however, recollect that architecture
was beginning to decline at Rome itself before the departure in question. The inhabitants
of the country who remained after the Romans were gone had not the skill nor courage
to defend the works with
which the Romans had pro-
vided them ; and their
towns and cities, therefore,
were seized by invaders,
who plundered and de-
stroyed them, throwing
down the noble structures
with which the art and in-
dustry of the Romans had
adorned the country. The
vestiges of Roman architec-
ture still remaining in Bri-
tain are pretty numerous ;
but scarcely any of them
are of sufficient interest to
be considered as studies of
Roman architecture. Even
in its best days, nobody
would study the works of
art in the colonies in preference to those in the parent state. We have here (fig. 179.)
inserted a representation of a small portion of the Roman wall at Leicester, as an example
of the construction. Temples, baths, and villas of the time have, moreover, been brought
to light not unfrequently.
383. The arrival of the Saxons in this country, A. D. 449, soon extinguished the very
little that remained of the arts in the island. This people were totally ignorant of art ; like
the other nations of Germany, they had been accustomed to lire in wretched hovels formed
out of the earth, or built of wood, and covered with reeds, straw, or the branches of trees.
It was not, indeed, until 200 years after their arrival that stone was employed by them for
their buildings. Their cathedrals were built of timber. The Venerable Bede says there
was a time when not a stone church existed in all the land ; the custom being to build
them of wood. Finan, the second bishop of Lindisfarne, or Holy Island, built a church in
that island, A. n. 652, for a cathedral, which yet was not of stone, but of wood, and covered
with reeds ; and so it continued till Eadbert, the successor of St. Cuthbert, and seventh
bishop of Lindisfarne, took away the reeds, and covered it all over, both roof and walls,
with sheets of lead. Of similar materials was the original cathedral at York, a church of
stone being a very rare production, and usually dignified with some special historical
record. Bede, for instance, says of Paulinus, the first bishop of York, that he built a
church of stone in the city of Lincoln, whose walls were standing when he wrote, though
the roof had fallen down. Scotland, at the beginning of the eighth century, does not seem
to have had a single church of stone. Naitan, king of the Picts, in his letter to Ceolfred,
abbot of Weremouth, A. D. 710, intreats that some masons may be sent him to build a
church of stone in his kingdom, in imitation of the Romans.
M 3
Fig. 179.
LEICESTER.
166 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
384. We here think it necessary to notice that we have thought proper, under this
chapter, to preserve the periods, or rather styles of the periods of architecture, according to
their ordinary arrangement in English works, namely, the Anglo-Saxon and Norman, in
distinct sections. It is a matter of little importance to the reader how he acquires his
knowledge, so that his author do not unnecessarily prolong the acquisition of it. Though,
therefore, the Anglo-Saxon arid Norman architecture are neither of them anything more
than Romanesque or Byzantine, to which we have appropriated rather a long section, we
have here separated them into two distinct periods.
385. About the end of the seventh century masonry, as well as some other arts con-
nected with it, was once more restored to England, by the exertions of Wilfred, bishop of
York, and afterwards of Hexham, and of Benedict Biscop, the founder of the abbey of Were-
mouth. The former, who was an indefatigable builder, and one of the most munificent
prelates of the seventh century, erected edifices, which were the admiration of the age, at
Ripon, York, and Hexham. The cathedral of the latter place obtained great celebrity.
Eddius, speaking of it ( Vita Wilfridi}, says, that Wilfrid " having obtained a plot of ground
at the place from Queen Etheldreda, he there founded a very magnificent church, and dedi-
cated it to the blessed apostle St. Andrew. The plan of this holy structure appears to have
been inspired by the spirit of God; a genius, therefore, superior to mine is wanting to de-
scribe it properly. Large and strong were the subterraneous buildings, and constructed of
the finest polished stones. How magnificent is the superstructure, with its lofty roof rest-
ing on many pillars, its long and lofty walls, its sublime towers, and winding stairs ! ' To
sum all up, there is not on this side of the Alps so great and beautiful a work." Biscop
was a zealous cotemporary and companion of Wilfrid, and had also a great love for the
arts. He travelled into Italy no less than six times, chiefly for the purpose of collect-
ing books and works of art, and of endeavouring to induce workmen to come over to Eng-
land. An estate of some extent having been obtained by him from Ecgfrid, king of
Northumberland, near the mouth of the river Were, he founded a monastery there in 674.
Relative to this monastery of Weremouth, thus writes Bede : — " About a year after laying
the foundations, Benedict passed over into France, and there collected a number of masons,
whom he brought over with him to build the church of his monastery of stone, after the
Roman manner, whereof he was a vast admirer. Such was his love for the apostle Peter, to
whom the church was to be dedicated, that he stimulated the workmen so as to have mass
celebrated in it but a little more than a year from its foundation. When the work was
well advanced, he sent agents into France for the purpose of procuring, if possible, glass
manufacturers, who at that time were not to be found in England, and of bringing them
over to glaze the windows of his monastery and church. His agents were successful, having
induced several artisans to accompany them. These not only executed the work assigned
to them by Benedict, but gave instructions to the English in the art of making glass for
windows, lamps, and other uses."
386. The Bishop Wilfrid, as we learn from William of Malmesbury, with the assistance
of the artificers that had been brought over, effected great reparations in the cathedral at
York, which was in a decayed and ruinous state. He restored the roof, and covered it
with lead, cleansed and whited the walls, and put glass into the windows ; for, before he
had introduced the glass makers, the windows of private dwellings as well as churches
were filled with linen cloth, or with wooden lattices. It will be observed that the improve-
ments we here mention were introduced by the bishops Wilfrid and Biscop towards the
end of the seventh century ; but, from our ancient historians, it would appear that, in the
eighth and ninth centuries, stone buildings were rarely met with, and, when erected, were
objects of great admiration. The historian Henry observes, that " when Alfred, towards
the end of the ninth century, formed the design of rebuilding his ruined cities, churches,
and monasteries, and of adorning his buildings with more magnificent structures, he was
obliged to bring many of his artificers from foreign countries. Of these (as we are told by
his friend Aperius) he had an almost innumerable multitude, collected from different na-
tions ; many of them the most excellent in their several arts. Nor is it the least praise of
this illustrious prince, that he was the greatest builder and the best architect of the age in
which he flourished." His historian, who was an eyewitness of his works, speaks in the
following strain of admiration of the number of his buildings, " What shall I say of the towns
and cities which he repaired, and of others which he built from the foundation ? " Henry
continues, — " Some of his buildings were also magnificent for that age, and of a new and
singular construction ; particularly the monastery of ^Ethelingay. The church, however,
was built only of wood ; and it seems probable that Alfred's buildings were, in general,
more remarkable for their number and utility than for their grandeur ; for there is suf-
ficient evidence that, long after his time, almost all the houses in England, and the far
greatest part of the monasteries and churches, were very mean buildings, constructed of
wood and covered with thatch. Edgar the Peaceable, who flourished after the middle of
the tenth century, observed (see William Malms, lib. ii. p. 32.), that, at his accession to
the throne, all the monasteries of England were in a ruinous condition, and consisted only
CHAP. III.
ANGLO-SAXON.
167
of rotten boards." The taste, however, of the Anglo-Saxons was not indulged in mag-
nificent buildings ; and the incursions of the Danes, who destroyed wherever they came,
together with the unsettled state of the country, may account for their revenues being ex-
pended on mean and inconvenient houses.
387. Under the circumstances mentioned, it may be safely inferred that the art was not
in a very flourishing state in the other parts of the island. Indeed, the ancient Britons,
after retiring to the mountains of Wales, appear to have lost it altogether ; and, as the
Honourable Daines Barrington ( Archceologia) has thought, it is very probable that few, if
any, stone buildings existed in Wales previous to the time of Edward I. The chief palace,
called the White Palace, of the kings of Wales, was constructed with white wands, whose
bark was peeled oft', whence its name was derived ; and the price or penalty, by the laws of
the country, for destroying the king's hall or palace, with its adjacent dormitory, kitchen,
chapel, granary, bakehouse, storehouse, stable, and doghouse, was five pounds and eighty
pence, equal, in quantity of silver, to sixteen pounds of our money, or 1 60/. The castles
appear also to have been built of timber ; for the vassals, upon whom fell the labour of
building them, were required to bring with them no other tool than an axe.
388. Neither do the arts of building appear to have been better understood in Scotland
at the former part of the period whereof we are speaking. The church built at Lindis-
farne by its second bishop, Finan, in 652, was of wood, — more Scotorum : and it has already
been mentioned that, for the stone church which Naitan, king of the Picts, built in 710, he
was under the necessity of procuring his masons from Northumberland. In Scotland, there
are still to be seen some stone buildings of very high antiquity, which Dr. Henry seems
inclined to attribute to this period ; we, however, are inclined to place them in an age far
anterior, later (but not much so) than Stonehenge. We have never seen them, and there-
fore form our opinion from the description given in Gordon's Itinerarium Septentrionale.
These buildings are all circular, though of two different kinds, so different from each other
that they seem to be the works of different ages and of different nations. The four prin-
cipal ones are in a valley, called Glenbeg. Of a different period, too, we consider the
circular towers which are found as well in Scotland as in Ireland. It is true that in both
countries these are found in the neighbourhood of churches ; but that does not the more
convince us that they were connected with them.
389. Ducarel, in his Norman Antiquities, enumerates some of the churches in England
which belong to the ages anterior to the Norman conquest. Among them are those of
Stukely in Buckingham-
shire, Barfreston (Jig, 1 80. )
in Kent, and Avington in
Berkshire. Other exam-
ples exist in Waltham Ab-
bey ; the transept arches
at Southwell, Nottingham-
shire; the nave of the abbey
church of St. Alban's, Herts;
the nave of St. Frides-
wide, Oxford, &c. &c. The
Anglo- Saxon aera, though
it, perhaps, properly com-
prised the time between
A. D. 600 to A. D. 1066 ;
that is, from the conversion
of the Saxons to the Nor-
man conquest, is not known
with any thing approaching
to certainty, from the reign
of Edgar in 980 to the last-
named event ; immediately
previous to which Edward
the Confessor had, during
his lifetime, completed
Westminster Abbey in a
style then prevalent in Nor-
mandy, and with a magni-
ficence far exceeding any
other then extant. No less
than eighteen of the larger
monasteries, all of them Be-
nedictine, had been founded
bv the Saxon kings in
M 4
Fig. 180.
IURKHESTON Cli
168
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
BOOK I,
their successive reigns ; and it is evident that the churches attached to them were the most
decorated parts, as respected their architecture. The six principal of these were, St.
Germain's, in Cornwall; Col-
chester, in Essex ; Tewkes-
bury, in Gloucestershire ; St.
Frideswide and St. Alban's,
already mentioned ; and Glas-
tonbury, in Somersetshire.
King selects the western por-
tion of Tewkesbury as the
grandest in England for effect
and extent. The characteris-
tics of Anglo-Saxon Architec-
ture are detailed in the follow-
ing subsection.
390. Arches. — Always se-
micircular, often plain ; some-
Fig, isi. SAXON ARCH. times decorated with a variety
of mouldings on the sofite as
well as on the face, the former being often entirely occupied by them. They are found
double, triple, or quadruple, each springing from two columns, and generally cased with a
different moulding, which is frequently double, thus
making six or eight concentric circles of them ; and
as each of them projects beyond that under it, a
moulding is placed under them, generally the same as
that used upon the face. ( See Jiff. 181.) Columns. —
Single, cylindrical, hexagonal or octagonal, on square
plinths ; very few diameters in height. Shafts often
ornamented with spiral or fluted carving, with lo-
zenge, herring-bone, zigzag, or hatched work. ( Fig.
1 82. ) Capitals. — Indented with fissures of different
lengths and forms, and in different directions. The
divisions thus formed are variously sloped off, or
hollowed out towards the top. (See the two exam-
ples,^. 183., from the conventual church at Ely.)
Occasionally the capitals have rude imitations of
some member of a Grecian order, as in the crypt at
Lastringham in Yorkshire, where volutes are used.
(Fig. 184.) In their ornaments much variety is dis-
played, but the opposite ones are mostly alike.
Windows. — Semicircular- headed, extremely narrow
in proportion to their height, being sometimes not
more than six or eight inches wide to a height
of more than three feet, and splayed or bevelled
off on the inside through the whole thickness of
the wall. Watts. — Of very great thickness, and
Masonry of solid construction. Ceilings and Roofs.
In crypts, as at York, Winchester, and a few other
Fig. 182. ARCH, CONVENTUAL CHURCH, BLY.
without any buttresses externally.
— Almost always open timbering.
Fig. 183. TWO CA
CAPITAL FROM LASTRINGIIAM
places, vaulting is to be found. Ornaments, except in capitals, in arches and on
shafts of columns are very sparingly employed. (See Norman Ornaments also, in
the following section on Norman Architecture, subsect. 397. ) Plans. — Rectangular
and parallelogrammic ; being usually divided into a body and chancel, separated by an
ornamented arch. The chancel sometimes of equal, and sometimes of less breadth than
CHAP. III. NORMAN. 169
the nave, and terminated towards the east in a semicircle. In larger churches, there
is a nave and two side aisles, the latter being divided from the former hy ranks of co-
lumns; but no transepts appear till towards the latter part of the period. " Whe-
ther," observes Mr. Millers, in his account of Ely Cathedral, whose system we adopt,
" their churches were ever higher than one tier of arches and a range of windows
above (as at Ely), may be questioned. Richard, prior of Hcxham, speaks of three stories,
which implies another tier of arches ; but if he is rightly so understood, this seems an ex-
ception from a general rule, for the church at Hexham is spoken of by all writers who
mention it, as the glory of Saxon churches in the seventh century. Afterwards, about 970,
a considerable change took place ; transepts came into general use, with a square tower at
the intersection, rising but little above the roof, and chiefly used as a lantern to give light
to that part of the church. Towers were also erected at the west end : the use of them
coincides with the introduction of bells, at least of large and heavy ones. " The churches
of this period were of small dimensions, and the comparative sizes of the Saxon and the Nor-
man churches which followed is almost a criterion of their age.
391. King (Munimenta Antiqua, vol. iv. p. 240.) gives three asras of the Saxon style.
1. From Egbert, 598 to 872. 2. From Alfred to Canute and Harold, 1036. 3. To the
Norman conquest. He selects no less than thirty-seven examples of Saxon ornaments from
mouldings on doorways only. As examples of the periods he adduces, of the first, Bar-
freston in Kent ; of the second, the nave and choir of Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford, and
Canute's great entrance gate at St. Edmundsbury ; of the third, Southwell, Notts, and Waltham
Abbey, Essex. It has been questioned by antiquaries whether any Saxon remains actually
exist in the country ; but, admitting their arguments, which are founded on references to
records — no mean authorities, — it must be recollected that, on their own showing, some
of these trench so close upon the period of the Conquest as to show that the Saxon style
might have prevailed in them, for the general change of style in any art is not effected in a
day. If we look for examples coeval with the Saxons themselves, and without controversy
to be attributed to them, they will, perhaps, be found only in crypts and baptismal fonts ;
for many churches were rebuilt by the Normans, who left these parts untouched. The
castles of Roman or Saxon foundation were, Richborough, in Kent ; Castletown, in Derby-
shire ; Porchester, in Hampshire ; Pevensey, in Sussex ; Castor, in Norfolk ; Burgh, in
Suffolk ; Chesterford, in Essex ; Corfe, Dorset ; Exeter Castle gateway ; Dover, in Kent ;
and Beeston, in Cheshire.
SECT. II.
NORMAN ARCHITECTURE.
392. From the landing of William in 1066, architecture received an impulse, indicated '
in various styles, which lasted till the time of the Tudors ; when, as we shall hereafter see,
it gave way to one altogether different. That called the Norman style, which continued
from 1066 to nearly 1200, comprised the reigns of William I., William II., Henry I.,
Stephen, Henry 1 1., and Richard I. The twelfth century exhibited a rage for building j
in Britain more violent than has been since seen. The vast and general improvements that
were introduced into fabrics and churches in the first years of this century are thus de-
scribed by a contemporary writer ( Orderic. Vital. Hist. Eccles., lib. x. p. 788.) : — " The
cathedrals, and abundance of churches, newly built in all parts of the country, the great
number of splendid cloisters and monasteries, and other residences for monks, that were
there raised, sufficiently prove the happiness of England under the reign of Henry I.
Peace and prosperity were enjoyed by the religious of all orders, who lent their whole power
to increase the magnificence and splendour of divine worship. The ardent zeal of the faithful
prompted them to rebuild their houses, and especially their churches, in a more suitable
manner. Thus the ancient edifices raised in the days of Edgar, Edward, and other Chris-
tian kings, were taken down, and others of greater magnitude, beauty, and more elegant
workmanship, were reared in their stead to the glory of God. " As an example of the fervour
with which these objects were carried into effect, we cite the following instance, quoting
from Dr. Henry, upon whom we have drawn, and shall draw, rather largely. " When Jofired,
abbot of Croyland, resolved to rebuild the church of his monastery in a most magnificent
manner (A.D. 1106), he obtained from the archbishops of Canterbury and York a bull dis-
pensing with the third part of all penances for sin to those who contributed any thing
towards the building of that church. This bull was directed not only to the king and
people of England, but to the kings of France and Scotland, and to all other kings, earls,
barons, archbishops, bishops, abbots, priors, rectors, presbyters, and clerks, and to all true
believers in Christ, rich and poor, in all Christian kingdoms. To make the best use of
170 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
this bull, he sent two of his most eloquent monks to proclaim it over all France and Flan-
ders ; two other monks into Scotland ; two into Denmark and Norway ; two into Wales,
Cornwall, and Ireland; and others into different parts of England. By this means (says
the historian) the wonderful benefits granted to the contributors to the building of this
church were published to the very ends of the earth ; and great heaps of treasure, and
masses of yellow metal, flowed in from all countries upon the venerable abbot Joffred, and
encouraged him to lay the foundations of his church. Having spent about four years in
collecting mountains of different kinds of marble from quarries, both at home and abroad,
together with great quantities of lime, iron, brass, and other materials for building, he fixed
a day for the great ceremony of laying the foundation, which he contrived to make a very
effectual mean of raising the superstructure ; for on the long-expected day, the feast of
the holy virgins Felicitas and Perpetua, an immense multitude of earls, barons, and
knights, with their ladies and families, of abbots, priors, monks, nuns, clerks, and persons
of all ranks, arrived at Croyland to assist at this ceremony. The pious abbot Joffred began
by saying certain prayers, and shedding a flood of tears on the foundation. Then each of the
earls, barons, knights, with their ladies, sons, and daughters, the abbots, clerks, and others,
laid a stone, and upon it deposited a sum of money, a grant of lands, tithes, or patronages,
or a promise of stone, lime, wood, labour, or carriages for building the church. After this
the abbot entertained the whole company, amounting to five thousand persons, to dinner.
To this entertainment they were well entitled ; for the money and grants of different kinds
which they had deposited on the foundation stones were alone sufficient to have raised a
very noble fabric." This spirit extended throughout the island ; for, in Scotland, David I.
raised thirteen abbeys and priories, some of them on a scale of considerable magnificence,
besides several cathedrals and other churches.
393. The common people of the country, and the burgesses in the towns, were not
much better lodged than in the previous age ; their condition, indeed, was not improved.
In London, towards the end of the twelfth century, the houses were still built of timber,
and covered with reeds or straw. The palaces, however, or rather castles, of the Anglo-
Norman kings, nobility, and prelates, were on a very superior construction. William of
Malmesbury says that the Anglo-Saxon nobility squandered their ample means in low and
mean dwellings ; but that the French and Norman barons lived at less expense, though
dwelling in large and magnificent palaces. The fact is, that among these latter the rage for
erecting fortified castles was quite as great as that of erecting ecclesiastical buildings
among the prelates. The system became necessary, and was induced as well by the pre-
vious habits of the country they had left, as by their situation in the island. Surrounded
by vassals whom they held in subjection, and whom they depressed and plundered in every
way, they were so detested by them that deep fosses and lofty walls were necessary for
their security. The Conqueror himself, aware that the want of fortified places had no less
assisted his conquest than it might his expulsion, resolved to guard against such a contin-
gency by the strong castles which he placed within the royal demesnes. Matthew Paris
observes that William excelled all his predecessors in the erection of castles, in executing
which he harassed his subjects and vassals. So much was the practice a matter of course,
that the moment one of the nobility had the grant of an estate from the crown, a castle was
built upon it for his defence and residence ; and this spirit was not likely to be diminished
by the disputes relative to the succession in the following reigns. William Rufus, accord-
ing to the statement of Henry Knighton, was as much addicted to the erection of royal
castles and palaces as his father, as the castles of Dover, Windsor, Norwich, and others
sufficiently prove ; and it is certain that no monarch before him erected so many and noble
edifices. Henry I. followed in his taste; but in the reign of Stephen, 1135 to 1154, says
the author of the Saxon Chronicle, every one who had the ability built a castle, and the
whole kingdom was covered with them, no fewer than 1115 having been raised from their
foundations in the short space of nineteen years ; so that the expression is by no means
stronger than is justified by the fact.
394. It will be proper here to give the reader some concise general description of these
structures, which served for residence and defence. The situation chosen for a castle was
usually on an eminence near a river. Its figure on the plan was often of great extent, and
irregular in form ; and it was surrounded by a deep and broad ditch, called the fosse,
which could be filled with water. An outwork, called a barbican, which was a strong and
lofty wall, with turrets upon it, and designed for the defence of the great gate and draw-
bridge, was placed before the latter. Within the ditch, towards the main building, was
placed its wall, about 8 or 10 ft. thick, and from 20 to 30 ft. high, with a parapet and
embrasures, called crennels, on the top. At proper intervals above the wall square towers
were raised, two or three stories in height, wherein were lodged some of the principal
officers of the proprietor of the castle, besides their service for other purposes ; and, on the
inside, were apartments for the common servants or retainers, granaries, storehouses, and
other necessary offices. On the top of the wall, and on the flat roofs of the towers, the
defenders were placed in the event of a siege ; and thence they discharged arrows, darts,
CHAP. III.
NORMAN.
171
and stones on their assailants. The great gate was placed in some part of the wall flanked
with a tower on each side, with rooms over the entrance, which was closed with massive
oak folding doors, frequently plated with iron, and an iron grate, or portcullis, which, by
machinery, was lowered from above. Within this exterior wall, or ballium, was, in the
more extensive castles, the outer ballium, which was a large open space or court, wherein
a church or chapel was usually placed. Within the outer ballium was another ditch, with
wall, gate, and towers, inclosing the inner ballium or court, in which was erected the
large tower, or keep. It was a large fabric, some four or five stories high, whose enormously
thick walls were pierced with very small apertures, serving barely as windows to the gloomy
apartments upon which they opened. This great tower was the dwelling of the owner of
the castle ; and in it was also lodged the constable, or governor. It was provided with
underground dismal apartments for the confinement of prisoners, whence the whole build-
ing received the appellation of dungeon. In the keep was also the great hall, in which the
friends and retainers of the owner were entertained. At one end of the great halls of
castles, palaces, and monasteries, a low platform was raised a little above the rest of the
floor, called the dais, on which stood the principal table whereat persons of higher rank
were placed. The varieties which occurred in the arrangement and distribution of castles
were, of course, many, as circumstances varied; but the most magnificent were erected nearly
on the plan we have just described, as may be gathered as well from their ruins as from an
account by Matthew Paris of the taking of Bedford Castle by Henry III., A.D. 1224.
This castle, we learn from him, was taken by four assaults. In the first was taken the bar-
bican ; in the second, the outer ballium ; in the third attack, the miners threw down the
wall by the old tower, where, through a chink, at great risk, they possessed themselves of
the inner ballium ; on the fourth assault, the miners fired the tower, which thereby became
so injured and split that the enemy thereon surrendered. The keeps of which we have
spoken are such extraordinary edifices, that we think it right to place before the reader,
from the Discourses upon Architecture of our late much esteemed and learned friend, the
Rev. James Dallaway, the following table of some of the principal ones of the Norman
sera.
Internal Square, or Oblong.
Names. Length. Breadth. Height.
Division of Rooms.
Dates and Founders.
Tower of London
Porchester - •
116ft. 96ft. —ft.
115 65 —
By semicircular arches.
Four floors.
William the Conqueror.
Canterbury
88 80 50
Two walls continued
from the base to the
top.
Rochester
75 72 104
By semicircular arches.
Gundulph (Bishop).
Dover - - -
— — 92
Colchester
140 102 —
Three large rooms on
each floor.
Norwich
Ludlow
110 92 70
— — 110
Four stories.
Roger Bigod.
Roger de Laci.
Hedingham
62 55 100
Three tiers above base-
ment.
Guildford
42 47 —
Oxford
Bamborough -
-
-
Robert D'Oiley.
1070.
Richmond
...
Vault supported by a
1100.
single octangular pil-
lar.
Newcastle upon Tyne
82 62 54
By internal arches and
1080. Robert Curthoise.
door cases in Nor-
man style.
Corfe
72 60 80
Round, or Polygonal.
Arundel
69 57 —
Roof open in the centre,
1070. Roger Montgo-
Conisburgh -
23 diameter.
straight buttresses.
Three floors, two of
meri.
1070. W.de Warren.
them state apart-
ments.
York
64 45
Four segments of
1068. William the Con-
circles
queror.
Tunbridge
64 50 —
Berkeley
Circular, flanked by
1120. Rob. Fitzharding.
four small towers.
r * i
1086. William the Con-
queror.
Oxford
-
Polygon, flanked by
Windsor
90 85 —
three square towers.
Rebuilt by Edw. III.
Durham
63 61 —
-
Heightened in 1830.
395. Gundulph is said to have introduced the architectural ornaments of the Norman
style into the interior as well as on the exterior of castles. The use of battlements, loop-
172
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
holes, and open galleries, or machicolations, was certainly, as our author above quoted re-
marks, known to the Romans.
Troes contra, defendere saxis
Perque cavas densi tela intorquere fenestras. JEn. 1. ix. 533.
The architects and artificers by whom the Norman works were planned and executed were
men of great science and skill, and the names of several have most deservedly obtained a
place in history. Gervaseof Canterbury records that William of Sens, the architect of Arch-
bishop Lanfranc in building his cathedral, was an artist of great talents ; and that he not
only made a complete model of the cathedral upon which he was employed, but of all the
details of sculpture necessary for its execution, besides inventing machines for loading and
unloading the vessels, and conveying the heavy materials, many whereof were brought from
Normandy. Of Walter of Coventry, another architect of the age, Matthew Paris speaks in
the highest terms, saying that " so excellent an architect had never yet appeared, and pro-
bably never would appear in the world." Dr. Henry on this very properly observes,
" That this encomium was undoubtedly too high ; but it is impossible to view the remains
of many magnificent fabrics, both sacred and civil, that were erected in this period, without
admiring the genius of the architects by whom they were planned, and the dexterity of the
workmen by whom they were executed."
396. Of the twenty-two English cathedrals, fifteen retain parts of Norman erection,
whose dates are pretty well ascertained ; and by them the Norman manner was progressively
brought to perfection in England. We subjoin the following enumeration of Norman
bishops, who were either patrons of the art, or practising it themselves.
A. D.
Bishop, or Architect.
Works.
1059 to 1089
1077 to 1107
1086 to 1108
1093 to 1133
1080 to 1100
1107 to 1140
11 15 to 1125
1123 to 1147
1129 to 1169
1158 to 1181
1
Aldred, Bishop of Worcester.
Gundulph, of Rochester.
Maurice, of London.
William de Carilepho.
Lanfranc, of Canterbury.
Roger, of Salisbury.
Ernulf, of Rochester.
Alexander, of Lincoln.
Henry of Blois, Bishop of Winchester.
Boger, Archbishop of York.
St. Peter's, Gloucester.
Rochester, Canterbury, and Peterborough.
Old St. Paul's Cathedral.
Cathedral of Durham, but completed by Ra-
nulph Flambard.
Cathedral at Old Sarum.
Completed Gundulf 's works at Rochester.
Rebuilt his cathedral.
Conventual churches of St. Cross and Rum-
sey, in Hampshire.
Of Norman architecture the principal characteristics are subjoined in the following sub-
section.
397. Arches — Generally semicircular, as in the nave of Gloucester, here given (Jig. 185. ).
Of larger opening than the
Saxon, and their ornaments
less minute ; often bound-
ed by a single moulding,
though sometimes by more
than one; occasionally with-
out any moulding at all ;
the soffitt always plain.
In the second story, two
smaller equal arches under
one larger, with a column
of moderate size, or even
comparatively slender, be-
tween them. In the third
story (see fa. 186.), gene-
rally three together, the
centre one higher and
broader than the others, and
opened for a window ; but
the whole three only oc-
Fig. 185. ARCH KBOM NAVB OF GLOUCESTER. 1 _. ,
cupy a space equal to that
of the lower arch. Arches of entrance are profusely decorated
(fiy. 187-, from Ely) with mouldings, foliage, wreaths, masks,
figures of men and animals in relief, and all the fancies of the
wildest imagination, in which every thing that is extravagant,
grotesque, ludicrous, nay, even grossly indecent, is to be found.
i Before the end of the period — and we may almost say early in
lit — it exhibits examples of pointed arches. They are, how-
ever, sparingly introduced : one or more tiers appear in the up-
per stories of a building, whilst all the lower ones are circular. Sometimes they are intro-
Fig. 186. THREE STORIES C
NORMAN CATHEDRAL.
CHAP. III.
NORMAN.
173
duced alternately, sometimes we find one capriciously inserted between several round ones ;
these are, for the most part, obtusely pointed, though occasionally they are the reverse.
They are always wide, stand on
i , ~~ heavy columns, or are decorated
with mouldings, or both. The
approaches to the pointed style
were not strongly marked, but
they were indicated ; for the
pointed style cannot be pro-
nounced to have commenced
until the sharp-pointed arch
sprung from a slender column
graced with a capital of carved
foliage, and this it is not safe
to place earlier than the reign
of John. The arch which rises
more than a semicircle does
not very often occur ; but it
must be mentioned as exhibit-
ing one of the varieties of the
period. Columns. — These are
of very large diameter relative
to their heights and intervals.
Their shafts are circular, hexa-
gonal, and sometimes octago-
nal, on the plan ; fluted, lo-
zenged, reticulated, and other-
wise sculptured. Sometimes
they are square on the plan,
and then accompanied by por-
tions of columns or pilasters
applied to them. Sometimes
four columns are connected
together, with or without an-
gular pieces. They are much
higher in proportion to their
diameters than the Saxon co-
lumns heretofore described ;
and though their capitals are
not unfrequently quite plain,
they are more commonly deco-
rated with a species of volute,
or with plants, flowers, leaves, shells, animals, &c. The bases stand on a strong plinth,
adapted on its plan to receive the combined and varied forms of the columns. Windows, are
still narrow, and semicircular-headed ; but they are higher, and often ingroupsof two or three
together. Ceilings, usually, if not always, of timber, except in crypts, in which they are
vaulted with stone, with groins mostly plain, yet sometimes ornamented on the edge, but uni-
versally without tracery. The White Tower of London, however, exhibits an example of a
centre aisle covered with vaulting. Our belief is, and in it we are corroborated by the Rev.
Mr. Dallaway, whose judgment we hold in no small esteem, that there is no instance of a
genuine Anglo-Norman building which was intended to be covered with a stone roof or
ceiling. This is not only indicated by the detail, but by the circumstance of the walls
being insufficient (thick as they are) in solidity to resist the thrust. Peterborough, Ely,
St. Peter's, Northampton, Steyning, Romsey, &c. are calculated and constructed to receive
wooden roofs only. Walls, are of extraordinary thickness, with but few buttresses, and
those of small projection ; flat, broad, and usually without ornament. Ornaments. — Among
these must be first named the ranges of arches and pilasters which had nothing to support,
already incidentally mentioned, and which were intended to fill up void spaces, internally
as well as externally, for the purpose of breaking up large masses of surface ; they are
very common on the inside of north and south walls, sometimes intersecting each other so
as to produce those compartments that are alleged to have given rise to the pointed arch.
The mouldings of the Saxon period continued much in use, and we ought, perhaps, to
have given some of them, as belonging to the preceding section ; and, indeed, should have
so done, if, in the Norman style, they had not increased in number and variety, and had
not also been employed in profusion about the ornamental arches just named, especially in
conspicuous places on the outside, as in the west front especially. The most usual orna-
ments {Jig. 188.) were, 1. The chevron, or zigzag moulding; 2. The embattled frette ;
Fig. 187
PRIOR'S F.NTRANCK AT BT.Y.
174
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
Fig. 188.
3. The triangular frette ; 4. The nail-head; 5. The billet; 6. The cable; 7. The hatched;
8. The lozenge; 9. The wavy; 10. The pellet moulding; 11. The nebule. The torus was
used, as was also the cavetto, which were both of Grecian extraction. The chief of these
ornaments, perhaps all, were used in the Saxon age, besides others which were oc-
casionally employed, and which to designate by name would be difficult ; such, for in-
stance, as the corbel-table (12), which consists of small ranges of arches, resting on consoles
sometimes decorated with carved heads, often introduced along the whole building im-
mediately below the eaves or battlement. Sometimes carved heads are observed in the
spandrels of arches, and are also used as capitals of the ornamental pilasters, or as cor-
bels, to support what is called the canopy, or exterior semicircle of moulding on arches
of entrance, or above the keystones of those arches. There are instances of whole figures
over doors in mezzo-rilievo, which Millers observes was the nearest approach the Normans
seem to have made to a statue. Plans. — The churches of this period are always with
transepts, and a tower at the intersection, loftier than heretofore, but without spires over
them. There are rising from them stories of arches, one above the other ; and the eastern
ends are semicircular. Though much of the Saxon style is retained, there is, from the
larger dimensions of the edifices of this period, a much more impressive air of mag-
nificence than had before appeared. Millers very truly says, that the churches were
" in all dimensions much ampler, with a general air of cumbrous massive grandeur.
The Normans were fond of stateliness and magnificence ; and though they retained the
other characteristics of the Saxon style, by this amplification of dimensions they made such
a striking change as might justly be entitled to the denomination which it received at
its first introduction among our Saxon ancestors, of a new style of architecture." The
criterion between the Saxon and Norman styles, of enlarged dimensions, is too vague
to guide the reader in a determination of the age of buildings of this period ; for it is only in
large edifices, such as cathedral and conventual churches, with their transepts, naves, side
aisles, and arches in tier above tier, that this can be perceptible. There are many parish
churches of this age, whose simplicity of form and small dimensions have been mistaken
for Saxon buildings ; and which, from not possessing any of the grander Norman features,
have been assigned to an earlier age. The distinction ascertainable from heights of co-
lumns,— namely, taking the height of the Norman column at from four to six diameters,
and that of the Saxon at only two, — will, we fear, be insufficient to decide the question in
cases of doubt ; but it must be admitted this is one of the means which, in some measure,
would lead us to an approximate judgment of the matter, and a careful observation and
comparison of specimens would make it more definite. We shall here merely add, that the
first Norman architects, by the lengthened vista of the nave, uninterrupted by any choir
screen, produced a sublime and imposing effect by the simple grandeur and amplitude of
dimensions in their churches.
I 398. Examples. — Examples of Norman architecture in English cathedral churches are to be
found at Ely, in the western towers and nave ; at Bristol, in the elder Lady Chapel, and Chap-
ter House; at Canterbury in the choir, and the round part called Becket's Crown; at Norwich,
CHAP. III. EARLY ENGLISH. 175
in the nave and choir ; at Hereford, in the transept tower and choir ; at Wells, in the nave
and choir ; at Chester, in the Chapter House ; at Chichester, in the presbytery ; at Peter-
borough, in the transept. In the conventual churches, for examples we may refer the reader
to Llantony, near Monmouth ; the nave and west front of Fountains, Yorkshire ; the nave
and chapel of St. Joseph, at Glastonbury ; the west front at Selby, in Yorkshire ; many parts
at St. Alban's ; the choir at Wenlock, in Shropshire ; Cartmell, in Lancashire ; Furness ,• West
End, at Byland, with the wheel window, and the south transept ; parts of Bolton, in York-
shire ; part of Brinkbourn, in Northumberland ; part of Edmondsbury , in Suffolk ; and St.
John's Church, at Chester. For examples of parochial churches, Melton, Suffolk ; Sotterton
and Sleaford, Lincolnshire ; Christchurch, Hampshire ; Sherbourn Minster, Dorset ; Win-
chelsea, Steyning, and New Shoreham, Sussex ; chancel of St. Peter's, Oxford ; Earl's Barton
Tower, Northamptonshire ; West Walton Tower, Norfolk ; Iffley, Oxfordshire ; Castle Rising,
Norfolk ; St. Margaret's Porch, at York ; St. Peter's Church, Northampton ; besides several
round or polygonal bell-towers, both in Suffolk and Norfolk, — may be referred to. Ex- *
amples of military Norman architecture, from 107O to 1270, were at Launceston, Cornwall;
Arundel, Sussex ; Windsor, in Berks (rebuilt) ; Tower of London ; the square keeps of
Hedingham, Essex ; Caerphitty, Glamorgan ; Carisbrook, Isle of Wight ; Porchester, Hants
(1160); Guildford, Surrey; Bamborough, Northumberland; Kenilworth, Warwickshire;
Richmond, Yorkshire; Cardiff, Glamorganshire; Canterbury, Kent; Oxford (1071);
Newcastle, Northumberland (1120); Gisborough, Yorkshire (1120); Cattle Rising, Nor-
folk; Middleham, Yorkshire ; Cockermouth, Cumberland ; Durham (1153) ; Lincoln (1086) ;
Berkeley, Gloucestershire (1153); Lancaster; Orford, Suffolk, polygonal (1120); Ludlow,
Salop (1120) ; Kenilworth, enlarged (1220) ; Warkworth, Northumberland, square, with the
angles cut off; Denbigh ; Beeston, Cheshire ; Hawarden, Pembrokeshire.
SECT. III.
EARLY ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE.
399. The next period of architecture in Britain which comes under our consideration,
following, as we consider it, the sensible classification of the Rev. Mr. Millers, is that
which he has denominated the early English style, whose duration was from about 1 200 to
1300 ; extending, therefore, through the reigns of John, Henry III., and Edward I., during
which the building of churches and monasteries was still considered one of the most
effectual means of obtaining the pardon of sin, and consequently the favour of Heaven. In
the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the churches built in Britain were almost
innumerable.
400. We have already noticed (chap. ii. sect. xv. ) the introduction of the pointed arch into
architecture ; a feature which completely changed, from all that previously existed, the cha-
racter of the edifices to which it was applied. If any service could be rendered to the history
of the art, or if the solution of the problem, " who were its inventors ? " could throw any
useful light on the manners and customs of the people that first adopted it, we should be the
last to relinquish the investigation. The question has furnished employment to many literary
idlers, but the labour they have bestowed on the subject has not thrown any light on it ;
and excepting the late Mr. Whittington and the present Mr. Willis, of Cambridge, on whose
valuable inquiries into every matter connected with the early architecture of England we
cannot sufficiently enlarge, they might have been more usefully engaged. (See Appendix,
p. 820.)
401. During the reign of Henry III. alone, no less a number than 157 abbeys, priories,
and other religious houses were founded in England. Several of our cathedrals and con-
ventual churches in a great part belong to this period, in which the lancet or sharp-pointed
arch first appeared in the buildings of this country, though on the Continent it was used
nearly a century earlier. The great wealth of the clergy, added to the zeal of the laity,
furnished ample funds for the erection of the magnificent structures projected ; but it was
with extreme difficulty that workmen could be procured to execute them. With the popes
it was, of course, an object that churches should be erected and convents endowed ; hence
they granted by their bulls many indulgences to the Society of Freemasons, which had
greatly increased in its numbers. These Freemasons appear to have ranged from one
nation to another ( Wren's Parentalia), as they found churches to be built : their govern-
ment was regular, and when they fixed near the building in hand they made a camp of
huts. A surveyor governed in chief; every tenth man was called a warden, and over-
looked each nine. " Those who have seen the account in records of the charge of the
fabrics of some of our cathedrals, near 4OO years old, cannot but have a great esteem for
their economy, and admire how soon they erected such lofty structures." It was in the
17G
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
course of this period that sculpture was first made extensively available for architectural
decoration. The cathedral, conventual, and other churches built in Britain, began to be
ornamented on the outside with statues of various dimensions in basso and alto rilievo.
They were not equal in execution to those of France, which have also had the additional
good .fortune to have been better preserved, from their exposure to seasons less inclement,
and to an atmosphere unimpregnated with the smoke of coal.
402. Great improvements seem to have taken place in the castles of the time ; they still
continued to serve for the dwelling and defence of the prelates and barons of the country.
The plans of them were generally similar to those already described ; but it must still be
conceded that the inhabitants and owners of them sacrificed their convenience to their
security, which seems to have been the chief concern in the construction of their castles,
whose apartments were gloomy, whose bed-chambers were few and small, whose passages
were narrow and intricate, and their stairs steep and dark. The plan, however, as
Mr. Dallaway observes, " which allowed of enlarged dimensions, and greater regularity and
beauty in the architecture of the
towers, owes its introduction into
England to King Edward I. We
may, indeed, consider his reign as
the epoch of the grand style of
accommodation and magnificence
combined in castle architecture.
When engaged in the Crusades, he
surveyed with satisfaction the supe-
rior form and strength of the castles
in the Levant and in the Holy
CA^AR™ CAW™. Land." Of the five castles erected
by him in Wales, Caernarvon (fig. 189.), Conway (fig. 190.), Harlech, and Beaumaris still
retain traces of their ancient magnificence ; but that of Aberystwith has scarcely a feature left.
Caernarvon Castle consisted
of two distinct parts: onemili-
tary, and suited to the recep-
tion of a garrison ; the other
palatial. The ground plan
was oblong, unequally divided
into a lower and an upper
ward. Of the towers, which
are all polygonal, the largest,
from some tradition called the
Eagle Tower, has three small
angular turrets rising from
it ; the others having but one
of the same description. "The
enclosing walls," continues
Mr. Dallaway, " are seven feet
thick, with alures and para-
pets pierced frequently with
ceillet holes. A great singularity is observable in the extreme height both of the great
entrance gate and that which is called the Queen's. Leland observes of the portcullises at
Pembroke, that they were composed ex solido ferro. In confirmation of the opinion that the
royal founder adopted the form of such gates of entrance from the East, similar ones are
almost universal in the castles, mosques, and palaces of the Saracens, which he had so fre-
quently seen during the Crusades. The tower of entrance from the town of Caernarvon is
still perfect, and is the most handsome structure of that age in the kingdom. It is at
least 100 ft. high; and the gateway, of very remarkable depth, is formed by a succession
of ribbed arches, sharply pointed. The grooves for three portcullises may be discovered ;
and above them are circular perforations, through which missile weapons and molten
lead might be discharged upon the assailants. In the lower or palatial division of the
castle stand a large polygonal tower of four stories, which was appropriated to Queen
Eleanor, and in which her ill-fated son was born, and another which was occupied by
the king, of a circular shape externally, but square towards the court. The apartments in
the last mentioned are larger, and lighted by windows with square heads, and intersected
with carved mullions. There is a singular contrivance in the battlements, each of which
had an excavation for the archers to stand in, pointing their arrows through the slits ;
and, a curious stratagem, the carved figures of soldiers with helmets, apparently looking
over the parapet. This device is repeated at Chepstow." The ornamental character of
the architecture at Caernarvon and Conway is rather ecclesiastical, or conventual, than
military. At Conway, as has been well observed by an anonymous author, " what is
CHAP. III.
EARLY ENGLISH.
177
Fig. 191.
SR-PHILLY CASTLE.
called the Queen's Oriel is remarkable for the fancy, luxuriance, and elegance of the work-
manship. Nor is the contrivance of the little terraced garden below, considering the
history of the times, a matter of small
curiosity, where, though all the sur-
rounding country were hostile, fresh
air might be safely enjoyed ; and the
commanding view of the singularly
beautiful landscape around, from both
that little herbary or garden, and the
bay window or oriel, is so managed as
to leave no doubt of its purpose."
403. The model of Conway Castle
has little resemblance to that we have
just left. It resembles rather the
fortresses of the last Greek emperors,
or of the chieftains of the north of
Italy. The towers are mostly cir-
cular, as are their turrets, with a
single slender one rising from each ; and machicolations, not seen at Caernarvon, are in-
troduced. The greater part of the castles of Wales and Scotland for the defence of the
marches were built
in the reign of Ed-
ward I. On the
subjugation of the
former country, and
its partition into
lordships among
Edward's follow-
ers, many castles
were reared upon
Fig. 192. TREFOIL AND ciNQUEKoiL HEADS, fa general plan of
those he had erected, though varying in dimensions
and situation, according to the means of defence pro-
posed to be secured to their founders and possessors.
We may here observe, that in the castle at Conway
Edward I. erected a hall 129 ft. by 31, and 22ft.
high, which is formed to suit the curvature of the
rock ; and that from that period no residence of
consequence, either for the nobility or feudal lords,
was erected with-
out one, varying,
however, of course,
in their minuter
parts, according to
circumstances, and
in degree of mag-
nificence,
404. Caer-Phil-
ly Castle, in Gla-
morganshire (fiy. '
191.), was another
Fig. 191. PLAN OF COLUMN.
Fig. 193.
JNS OK WESTMINSTER ABIIKY.
of the castles of this period. It was the strong-hold of the De Spencers in the reign of
the second Edward. Its vallations and remains are very extensive. The hall was much
larger than that at Conway.
405. The characteristics of this style are, that the arches are sharply (lancet) pointed, and
lofty in proportion to their span. In the upper tiers
two or more are comprehended under one, finished in
trefoil or cinquefoil heads (fig. 192.) instead of points, the
separating columns being very slender. Columns on which
the arches rest (fig. 193.) are very slender in proportion
to their height, and usually consist of a central shaft sur-
rounded by several smaller ones (fig. 194.). The base
takes the general form of the cluster, and the capital (fig.
195.) is frequently decorated with foliage very elegantly
composed. The windows are long, narrow, and lancet
shaped, whence some writers have called this style the
FIR. 195. CAPITAL OF COLUMN. Lancet Gothic. They are divided by one plain mullion,
N
J78 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
or in upper tiers by two at most, finished at the top with some simple ornament, as a lozenge
or a trefoil. They have commonly small marble shafts on each side, both internally and ex-
ternally ; two, three, or more together at the east or west end, and tier above tier. Roofs
are high pitched and the ceilings vaulted, exhibiting the first examples of arches with cross
springers only, which in a short period diverged into many more, rising from the capitals of
the columns, and almost overspreading the whole surface of the vaulting. The longitudinal
horizontal line which reigned along the apex of the vault was decorated with bosses of flowers,
figures, and other fancies. Walls much reduced in thickness from those of the preceding pe-
riod : they are, however, externally strengthened with buttresses, which, as it were, lean
against them for the purpose of counteracting the thrust exerted by the stone vaults which
form the ceilings, and which the walls and piers by their own gravity could not resist. The
buttresses are moreover aided in their office by the pinnacles, adorned with crockets at their
angles, and crowned with finial flowers, by which they are surmounted. The ornaments now
become numerous, but they are simple and elegant. The mouldings are not so much varied
as in the Norman style, and are generally, perhaps universally, formed of some combination
of leaves and flowers, used not only in the circumference of arches, especially of windows,
but the columns or pilasters are completely laid down with them. Trefoils, quatrefoils,
cinquefoils, roses, mullets, bosses, paterae, &c. in the spandrils, or above the keystones of
the arches and elsewhere. The ornamental pinnacles on shrines, tombs, &c. are extremely
high and acute, sometimes with and sometimes without niches under them. In east and
west fronts the niches are filled with statues of the size of life and larger, and are
crowned with trefoil, &c. heads, or extremely acute pediments, formed by the meeting of
two straight lines instead of arcs. All these ornaments are more sparingly introduced into
large entire edifices than in smaller buildings or added parts. The plans are generally
similar to those of the second period ; but that important feature the tower now begins to
rise to a great height, and lanterns and lofty spires are frequent accompaniments to the
structure. It will naturally occur to the reader, that in the transition from the second to
the third style, the architects left one extreme for another, though it has been contended
that the latter has its germ in the former. However that may be, the period of which we
are now speaking was undoubtedly the parent of the succeeding styles, and that by no
very forced or unnatural relationship.
406. The principal examples of the early English style in the cathedral churches of
England are to be seen at Oxford, in the chapter-house. Lincoln, in the nave and arches
beyond the transept. York, in the north and south transept. At Durham, in the additional
transept. Wells, the tower and the whole western front. Carlisle, the choir. Ely, the
presbytery. Worcester, the transept and choir. Salisbury, the whole cathedral ; the only
unmixed example. At Rochester, the choir and transept. " It is well worthy of observa-
tion," says Mr. Dallaway, " that though the ground plans of sacred edifices are, generally
speaking, similar and systematic, yet in no single instance which occurs to my memory do
we find an exact and unvaried copy of any building which preceded it in any part of the
structure. A striking analogy or resemblance may occur, but that rarely."
407. The examples of conventual architecture of this period, to which we beg to refer
the reader, are those of Lanercost, in Cumberland ; Rivaulx, Yorkshire ; Westminster Abbey.
At Fountains, the choir and east end ; Tinterne Abbey, in Monmouthshire ; Netley, Hamp-
shire ; Whitby, in Yorkshire ; Voile Crucis, in Denbighshire ; Ripon Minster and the
south transept of Beverley Minster, in Yorkshire ; Milton Abbey, Dorsetshire ; part of the
nave of St. Alban's ; Tinemouth and Brinkbourn, Northumberland ; Vale Royal, in Cheshire ;
and the eastern fa9ade of Howden, in Yorkshire.
408. Among the examples of parochial churches in this style are Grantham, in Lincoln-
shire, whose tower is 180ft. high; Attelborough, in Norfolk; Hiaham Ferrars, in North-
amptonshire; St. Michael, Coventry ; Truro, in Cornwall; Witney, in Oxfordshire; Strat-
ford upon Avon, in Warwickshire ; St. Peter Mancroft, Norwich ; Boston, Lincolnshire,
remarkable for its lantern tower rising 262 ft. from the ground, and perhaps almost
belonging to the succeeding period ; St. Mary, Edmund's Bury, Suffolk ; Maidstone, in
Kent ; and Ludlow, in Shropshire.
SECT. IV.
ORNAMENTED ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE.
409. The fourth period in the architecture of Britain is that which Mr. Millers calls the
Ornamented English Style, which begins about 1300 and lasts till 1460, and comprises,
therefore, the latter portion of the reign of Edward I., and the reigns of Edward II.,
Edward III., Richard II., Henry IV., Henry V., and Henry VI.
410. This sera has by Dallaway and others been subdivided into two parts, viz. first
CHAP. III. • ORNAMENTED ENGLISH. 179
from 1300 to 1400, which they call that of the Transition Style or pure Gothic, and from
1400 to 1460, called the Decorated Gothic ; but the change between the latest examples
of the first and the earliest of the last is marked by such nice and almost imperceptible
distinctions, that it is next to impossible to mark their boundaries with precision ; and we
have therefore preferred adhering, as we have in the other ages of the art, to the arrange-
ment adopted by Mr. Millers. In the early part of the period the change, or rather pro-
gress, was extremely slow, and marked by little variation, and, indeed, until 1400, the
style can scarcely be said to have been perfected ; but after that time, it rapidly attained all
the improvement whereof it was susceptible, and so proceeded till about 1460 ; after
which, as we shall hereafter see, it assumed an exuberance of ornament, beyond which as
it was impossible to advance, it was in a predicament from which no change could be
effected but by its total abandonment.
411. Notwithstanding the wars of the rival houses of York and Lancaster, which occu-
pied a considerable portion of the interval whereof we are speaking, and deluged, as the
reader will recollect, our land with the blood of the bravest of men, the art did not appear
to suffer ; a circumstance apparently extraordinary, but satisfactorily accounted for by the
zeal of both the contending parties for the religion they in common professed. True it is
that the taste for founding and building monasteries and churches was not so universal as
in the period last described ; the decline, however, of that taste might in some measure
have arisen not only from the unhappy state of the country just alluded to, but also from
the doubts raised in the minds of many persons of all ranks by Wickliffe and his followers
as to the merit attached to those pious and expensive works. " It cannot," says Henry,
" be denied that the style of sacred architecture commonly called Gothic continued to be
greatly improved, and in the course of this period was brought to the highest perfection."
To account in some measure for this, it must be recollected that during the civil wars the
superior ecclesiastics were confined to their cloisters, as few of them had taken an active
part in the dispute which agitated the realm ; and, indeed, some of the finest structures now
remaining were reared from the accumulation of wealth amassed by instigating the noble
and affluent to contribute to churches built .under their own inspection. The choir at
Gloucester, a most beautiful example, was completed during these turbulent times by
Abbot Sebroke, together with the arcade that supports the magnificent tower of that
cathedral.
41 2. During this period the efforts of painting and sculpture were superadded to those
of architecture ; and to these must be joined the enchanting effects produced by expanded
windows glowing with the richest colours that stained glass could bestow on them. To
enter into a history of the rise, progress, and perfection of this art, would here be out of
place. A separate work would be required to trace it from its introduction in this country
as connected with our art in the reign of Henry III., to that point when it reached its
zenith in the fifteenth century. Dallaway observes, with much truth, that it is a vulgar
error to suppose the art was ever lost, inasmuch as we had eminent professors of it in the
reign of Charles I.
413. In military architecture, from the reign of Edward III. to the close of the con-
tention between the houses of York and Lancaster, many improvements were effected.
Within that period a great number of the castellated edifices of which the country could
boast were erected or renewed. Their style is marked by turrets and hanging galleries
over the salient angles and gateways, of great variety in design. In the fortress at Am-
berley, in Sussex, built by William Rede, Bishop of Chichester, about 1370, and one of
the ablest geometricians of the age, the ground plan is nearly a parallelogram with four
large towers at the angles, not projecting externally, but inserted into the side walls. Of
this zera is also, at Swansea Castle, the lofty perforated parapet or arcade, through which
the water was conveyed from the roof. Upon this plan Henry Gower, Bishop of
St. David's, in 1335, improved, in his magnificent castellated palace at Llanphey Court.
414. From the circumstance of the circuit of many of the castles encompassing several
acres of ground, the base court was proportionably spacious ; hence the halls and other
state apartments were lighted by windows, smaller, but similar in form to those used in
churches* The rest of the apartments were unavoidably incommodious, defence being the
chief consideration. In the castles and palaces of the period, the halls, which formed a
principal feature in them, require some notice. The earliest whereof mention is made was
that built by William Rufus in his palace at Westminster. Hugh Lupus erected one at
Chester, and one was executed for Robert Consul at Bristol. Others we find erected by
Henry I. at Woodstock and Beaumont in Oxford ; probably of rude construction, and
divided into two aisles by piers of arcades or timber posts. In the following century,
when castles began to be constantly inhabited, and space became requisite for holding the
numerous feudal dependents on various occasions, the size of the hall was of course in-
creased, and internal architecture and characteristic ornaments were applied to it. At the
upper end, where the high table was placed, the floor was elevated, forming a haut pas or
dais, a little above the general level of the floor. The example afforded by Edward III. at
N 2
180 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
Windsor was followed during his own and the succeeding reign. The halls of Westminster
and Eltham were rebuilt by Richard II. ; Kenilworth by John of Gaunt ; Dartington, in
Devonshire, by Holland Duke of Exeter. Crosby Hall, in London, was finished by the
Duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard III. We here subjoin the dimensions of some
of the principal halls in castles and palaces before the end of the fifteenth century, ranged
in order of their size : —
Length Breadth Height
in feet. in feet. in feet.
Westminster (1397) - - 228 66 92
Durham Castle - - - 18O 50 36
Conway (roof laid on stone ribs) - - 129 31 22
Bristol (divided by upright beams of timber) 108 50 —
Windsor (ancient) - - - 108 35 —
Eltham (1386) - - 100 36 55
Chester ... 99 45
Kenilworth (1300) - - 90 50 —
Raby - 90 36
Lumley . .... 90 — —
Swansea 88 30 —
Castle Hall, Leicester - - -78 51 24
Spofforth - - 76 36
Dartington (1476) - 70 40 44
Caerphilly - -70 — 35
Crosby Place - 69 27 38
Goodrich - 65 28 —
Warwick ----- 62 35 25
Second one at Swansea - 58 33
Berkeley ----- 51 32 —
415. Generally, in respect of plan, the internal arrangement of these halls was very
similar. The high table, as we have observed, was elevated on a platform above the level
of the floor, and was reserved for the lord and his family, with the superior guests. Round
the walls separate tables and benches were distributed for the officers of the household and
dependents. The centre was occupied by the great open fire-place, directly over which
in the roof was placed a turret, denominated a louvre, for conveying away the smoke. At
Bolton Castle we find the chimneys in the walls ; but, perhaps, those at Conway and
Kenilworth are earlier proof of the alteration. The roofs with which some of these halls
are spanned exhibit mechanical and artistic skill of the first order. The thrust, by the
simplest means, is thrown comparatively low down in the best examples, so as to lessen
the horizontal effect against the walls, and thus dispense with considerable solidity in
the buttresses. Fig. 1 96. is a section of the celebrated Hall of Westminster, by which
our observation will be better understood. These roofs were framed of oak or ches-
nut. Whether, when of the latter, it was imported from Portugal and Castile, is a
question that has been discussed, but not determined, by antiquaries. Large stone corbels
and projecting consoles were attached to the side walls, and were disposed in bays called
severeys between each window. Upon their ends, demi-angels were generally carved,
clasping a large escochion to their breasts. Near to the high table, a projecting or bay
window, termed an oriel, was introduced. It was fully glazed, frequently containing
stained glass of the arms of the family and its alliances. Here was the standing cupboard
which contained the plain and parcel-gilt plate. The rere-dos was a sort of framed canopy
hung with tapestry, and fixed behind the sovereign or chieftain. The walls were generally
lined to about a third of their height with panelled oak or strained suits of tapestry. It
was during this aera that privy chambers, parlours, and bowers found their way into the
castle. Adjoining to, or nearly connected with the hall, a spacious room, generally with a
bay window, looking on to the quadrangle, was planned as a receiving- room for the guests,
as well before dinner as after. This was decorated with the. richest tapestry and cushions
embroidered by the ladies, and was distinguished by the name of the presence or privy-
chamber. The females of the family had another similar apartment, in which their time
was passed in domestic occupations and amusements. This last room was called my lady's
bower or parlour, and here she received her visitors. Bay windows were never used in
outer walls, and seldom others, excepting those of the narrowest shape.
41 6. The dawn of improvement in our domestic architecture opened in the latter part of
the period, during which also brick came very much into use inEngland as a building material.
" Michael de la Pole," as we learn from Leland's Itinerary, " marchant of Hull, came into
such high favour with King Richard II. that he got many privileges for the towne. And
in hys tyme the toune was wonderfully augmented yn building, and was enclosyd with
ditches, and the waul begun ; and in continuance endid, and made all of brike, as most
part of the houses at that time was. In the waul be four principal gates of brike." After
CHAP. III.
ORNAMENTED ENGLISH.
181
Fig. 196.
SECTION OK WESTMINSTER HALL
enumerating twenty-five towers, " M. de la Pole," we find from Leland, " buildid a goodlie
house of brike, against the west end of St. Marye's churche, lyke a palace, with goodly
orcharde and garden at large, also three houses besides, every on of which hath a tower of
brik." (Itin. vol. i. p. 57.) This was the first instance of so large an application of brick
in England.
417. One of the most important parts of the castle was the great gateway of entrance,
in which were combined, at the same time, the chief elements of architectural beauty and
military defence. It usually occupied the central part of the screen wall, which had the
aspect whence the castle could be most conveniently approached. Two or more lofty towers
flanked either side, the whole being deeply corbelled ; a mode of building brought by the
Arabs into Europe, and afterwards adopted by the Lombards and Normans. The corbel
is a projecting stone, the back part whereof, which lies in the wall, being balanced by the
superincumbent mass, it is capable of supporting a parapet projecting beyond the face of the
wall rising from the horizontal course laid immediately on the corbels, between which the
said horizontal course was pierced for the purpose of enabling the besieged to drop missiles
or molten metal on the heads of the assailants. The corbel is often carved with the head
of a giant or monster, which thus seems attached to the walls. In John of Gaunt's entrance
gateway at Lancaster, the arch is defended by overhanging corbels with pierced apertures
between them, and on either side are two light watch-towers crested with battlements.
418. Of the military architecture of this time, a perfect idea may be obtained from
the two remarkable towers of Warwick Castle (fig. 197.), which were erected (in
1395) by Thomas de Beauchamp Earl of Warwick. The taller one rises 105 ft. above
its base, and is 38 ft. diameter, having five stories, which are separated from each other
by groined ceilings. In the interior, the walls of the state chambers were painted ; a prac-
tice introduced into England in the beginning of the thirteenth century ; and they were
N 3
182
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
Fig. 197-
WARWICK CASTLE.
sometimes lined with wain-
scot of curious carved bois-
serie on the panels, which
afterwards became more
adorned, and were hung
with tapestry. At War-
wick was a memorable suit
of arras whereon were re-
presented the achievements
of the famous Guy Earl of
Warwick.
41 9. The period of which
we are treating was as ce-
lebrated for its bridge as
for its military architecture,
and exhibits as one of its
examples that famed curiosity the triangularly formed bridge of Croyland in Lincolnshire,
erected over the confluence of three streams. Bridge architecture was in many instances
so necessarily connected with the construction of
a fortress, that it may almost, in this age, be taken
as a branch of military architecture.
420. This style exhibits Arches, less acute and
more open (fig. 198. from York Minster), the
forms varying. Columns. — The central and de-
tached shafts now worked together into one, from
experience of the weakness of those of the pre-
vious style, exceedingly various in their combina-
tions. The Windows are larger, divided by mul-
lions into several lights spreading and dividing at
top into leaves, flowers, fans, wheels, and fanciful
forms of endless variety. These marks are con-
stant, but in the proportionate breadth there is much
variation, for after having expanded in the reigns
of Edward I. and II., they grew narrower again in
proportion to their height in that of Edward III.
and also sharper. The head was then formed of lines
just perceptibly curved, sometimes even by two
straight lines, sometimes just curved a little above
the haunches, and then rectilinear to the apex.
Eastern and western windows very lofty and ample,
and splendidly decorated with painted glass. Roof
or Ceiling The vaulting more decorated. The
principal ribs spread from their imposts running
over the vault like tracery, or rather with transoms
divided into many angular compartments, and orna-
mented at the angles with heads, orbs, historical or
legendary pictures, &c., elaborately coloured and
gilded. Ornaments. — More various and laboured,
but not so elegant and graceful in character, as
in the preceding style. Niches and tabernacles with statues in great abundance. Tiers
of small ornamental arches are frequent. The pinnacles are neither so lofty nor tapering,
but are more richly decorated with leaves, crockets, &c. Sculpture is introduced in much
profusion, and is frequently painted and gilt. Screens, stalls, doors, pannelled ceilings,
and other ornaments, in carved and painted wood.
421 . The principal examples of the ornamented English style in cathedral churches, are
at Exeter, the nave and choir. Lichfield, uniformly. At Lincoln, the additions to the
central tower. At Worcester, the nave. Fork, nave, choir, and western front. At Canter-
bury, transept. At Gloucester, transept and cloisters begun. Norwich, the spire and tower.
Salisbury, spire and additions. Bristol, the nave and choir. Chichester, the spire and choir.
Ely, Our Lady's Chapel and the central louvre. Hereford, the chapter-house and cloisters,
now destroyed. In the later part of the period, the choir at Gloucester ; the nave at Can-
terbury Bishop Beckington's additions at Wells, and from the upper transept to the great
east window at Lincoln. In conventual churches, for the earlier part of the period, the
western fa9ade of Howden (1320.), Ckapel of Merton College, Oxford. Gisborne Priory,
Yorkshire. Chapel at New College, Oxford. St. Stephen's Chapel, Westminster. The ad-
ditions to the pediments of the choir at Kirkstall, Yorkshire. St. Mary's in York.
Kirkham in Yorkshire, and the choir of Selby, in the same county. For the later part of
Fig. 198.
ARCH OF YORK MINSTER.
CHAP. III. FLORID ENGLISH OR TUDOR. 183
the period, at Tewkesbury, the choir. At Ely Cathedral, St. Mary's Chapel Croyland
fagade in Lincolnshire. Beverle.y Minster in Yorkshire. Chapel of Magdalen College, Oxford.
Eton College Chapel, Bucks. Chapel on the Bridge at Wahefidd in Yorkshire, built by
Edward IV. in memory of his father Edward Duke of York; and the Beauchamp Chapel
at Warwick. In parochial churches, for the early part of the period, examples may be
referred to at Grantham, Lincolnshire. Attelborough, Norfolk. Higham Ferrers, North-
amptonshire. St. Michael, Coventry. Truro, Cornwall. Witney, Oxfordshire. Stratford-
upon-Avon, Warwickshire. St. Peter Mancroft, Norwich. Boston, Lincolnshire ; its re-
markable lantern tower, which is 262 ft. high, was begun in 1309, and was in progress
of execution during the whole reign of Edward III. The expense of it having been
chiefly defrayed by the merchants of the Hanse Towns. St. Mary, Edmunds Bury, Suffolk.
Maidstone, Kent ; and Ludlow, Salop. For the later part of the period, St. Mary Overy,
Southwark. Thaxted and Saffron Walden, Essex. Lowth and Stamford, Lincolnshire.
Campden, Gloucestershire. St. Mary Redcliff and the tower of St. Stephen, Bristol.
Taunton and Churton Mendip, Somersetshire. Lavenham, Suffolk. Manchester College.
St. Mary's, Oxford. Whittlesea, Cambridgeshire. Wakefield, Yorkshire. Doncaster,
Yorkshire. Newark-upon- Trent. Heckington, Lincolnshire. Mould Gresford and Wrex-
ham in Flintshire. Melton Mowbray, Leicestershire. Octangular towers of St. Margaret's,
Norwich, and All Saints, York.
SECT. V.
FLORID ENGLISH OR TUDOR STYLE.
422. " There is," as Dr. Henry observes, " a certain perfection in art to which human
genius may aspire with success, but beyond which, it is the apprehension of many, that
improvement degenerates into false taste and fantastic refinement. The rude simplicity of
Saxon architecture was (ultimately) supplanted by the magnificence of the ornamental
Gothic ; but magnificence itself is at last exhausted, and it terminated during the present
period in a style, which some, with an allusion to literature, denominate 'the Florid.' It
is a style censurable as too ornamental, departing from the grandeur peculiar to the Gothic,
without acquiring proportional elegance ; yet its intricate and redundant decorations are
well calculated to rivet the eye, and amaze, perhaps bewilder, the mind." The period of
the style is from 1460, to the dissolution of the religious houses in 1537, and comprehends,
therefore, the reigns of Edward IV. and V., Richard III., Henrys VII. and VIII.
423. The ecclesiastical buildings of this sera, are few. Somersetshire, a county devoted
to the cause of the House of Lancaster, from the gratitude or policy of Henry VII., boasts
perhaps more churches than any other county in the florid style ; still they are very few,
and the superb chapel which that monarch erected at Westminster is the best specimen
that can be adduced for giving the reader a proper and correct idea of the Florid or Tudor
style. There is doubtless an abundance of examples in oratories, porches, and small
chapels, sepulchral sacella and the like ; but beyond them we could cite very few entire
sacred buildings ; and those will be hereafter appended to this section as in the preceding
ones. In civil, or rather domestic architecture, the case was far different : a very great
change took place ; and we shall endeavour to place a succinct account of it from the Rev.
Mr. Dallaway's work, to which we have already been much indebted. The fifteenth cen-
tury exhibits to us a number of vast mansions of the noble and opulent, wherein the cha-
racteristic style of the immediately preceding castles was not entirely abandoned, but
superseded and mixed up with a new and peculiar one. The household books of the
nobility which have come to our knowledge, indicate a multitudinous set of servants and
retainers, for the reception of whom a great area of ground must have been covered, and in
which provision, by the number of apartments, was made for a noble display of hospitality.
This circumstance, of course, induced a gorgeous style peculiar to the earlier Tudor sera, of
most of whose splendid mansions no memorial now exists but in the records of the times.
But for the purpose of bringing a view of the whole subject under the eye of the reader, a
brief recapitulation will here be necessary. The first palace of the Norman kings was the
Tower of London, which was a strictly military residence. At Westminster was a palace
of William Rufus, to whom Westminster Hall owes its original foundation. At Oxford
a palace was built by Henry I., and at that place he kept his Christmas in 1115, as in
1'229 and 1267 Henry III. did in the vicinity at Woodstock. It was at this place that
Henry II. built a house of retirement, which has furnished the subject of some well-known
legends. Henry III. is said to have refounded the palace at Westminster, which was
much enlarged by Edward III. This, from the time of Rufus, its founder, to the reign of
Richard II., to whom it owed its completion in the state apartments, with its magnificent
hall and bijou of a chapel (St. Stephen's), had attained a greater extent than any contem-
N 4
184 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
porary palace in Europe. Edward III., besides erecting his suburban palace at Kennington,
had re-edified and greatly extended Windsor Castle as a habitable fortification. Henry IV.
inherited John of Gaunt's castle of Kenilworth and the Savoy in London, to both of which
he made great additions. His gallant and victorious son was too much occupied with his
military affairs to pay much attention to such matters ; but many of his commanders, by
the exorbitant ransoms they exacted of their French prisoners, were enabled to construct
mansions of vast extent in those counties where their revenues commanded influence. Of
these, as signal examples, may be cited Hampton Court in Herefordshire by Sir Rowland
Lenthal ; and Ampthill, Bedfordshire, by Sir John Cornwal Lord Fanhope. At Greenwich,
a palace of great beauty, in the early part of the reign of Henry VI., was built by the
regent Humphrey Duke of Gloucester, which, from its superiority over others, was by its
founder called Placentia or Plaisance. This was completed by Edward IV., and is now
remembered as the birthplace of Queen Elizabeth. The Lord Treasurer Cromwell
expended a large sum on his residence at Tattershall in Lincolnshire, and at Wingfield
Manor in Derbyshire, as did Lord Say and Sele, and Lord Boteler, respectively, at Sudley
in Gloucestershire, and Hurstmonceaux in Sussex, all of which are now either destroyed
or only in ruins. Additions were made by Edward IV. to Nottingham Castle, and by his
brother Richard III. to Warwick Castle and that of Middleburg in Yorkshire.
424. Upon the establishment of the Tudor dynasty, Henry VII., on the ruins of a
former palace at Shene in Surrey, which after the repairs he bestowed upon it was destroyed
by fire, built a palace, whereto he gave the name of Richmond, in allusion to his former
title, a name which was afterwards given to the beautiful town on the Thames, in its
vicinity. The dimensions of the state apartments in this splendid building, whereof not a
vestige now remains, are to be found in the Survey of 1649, when it was offered for sale by the
Commissioners of Parliament. They abounded with bay windows of capricious formation,
with rectangular and semicircular projections, producing a picturesque effect ; and to add
to its fantastic appearance, there were many octangular towers, surmounted with cupolas of
the same plan, whose mitres as they rose were fringed with rich crockets. They were
bulbous in their general form, thus bearing a resemblance in contour to the royal crown of
the period.
425. The Tudor style, in domestic architecture, is thus divided by Mr. Dallaway. " 1.
That just alluded to ; 2. The variations under Henry VIII. ; 3. The Elizabethan style"
(which will form a separate section), " as it admitted of Italian ornament in the designs
of John of Padua and his followers, until the time of Inigo Jones.
426. The reign of Henry VIII. supplies numberless instances of the gorgeous expense
to which the nobility and gentry proceeded in the productions of our art. The example
set by the monarch himself was witnessed in no less than two royal mansions, each large
enough to contain his numerous retinue. The following are the palaces that were built
or repaired by Henry VIII. : —
1. Beaulieu, or Newhall, Essex.
2. Hunsdon, Herts, originally built by Sir John Oldhall, temp. Edw. IV
3. Ampthill, Bedfordshire.
4. Nonsuch, Surrey.
5. York Place, Whitehall, Westminster.
6. Bridewell and Blackfriars, London, for the reception of the emperor Charles V.
7. St. James's, Westminster.
8. Kimbolton, Huntingdonshire, the jointure of the divorced Queen Catharine of A rragon.
9. Sheriff Hutton, Yorkshire, given for the residence of Henry Duke of Richmond, the king's
natural son.
10. King's Langley, Herts.
It was natural that the courtiers of such a monarch should vie with each other in erect-
ing sumptuous houses in the provinces where they were seated. Wolsey, besides the
progress he had made, at the time of his fall, in his colleges at Christchurch, Oxford, and
Ipswich, had completed Hampton Court, and rebuilt the episcopal residences of York
House (afterwards Whitehall), and Esher in Surrey. Edward Stafford, Duke of Buck-
ingham, in his palace at Thornbury, Gloucestershire, almost rivalled the cardinal, and
perhaps might have done so entirely if he had not been hurried to the scaffold before his
mansion was completed. Grimsthorpe, in Lincolnshire, rose under the orders of the Duke
of Suffolk ( Charles Brandon). The Duke of Norfolk and his accomplished son, the Earl
of Surrey, were, as appears from the descriptions of Kenninghall, Norfolk, and Mount
Surrey, near Norwich, magnificent in the mansions they required for their occupation. We
shall merely add the following list (which might, if it were necessary, be much augmented)
of some other mansions of note. They are — 1 . Haddon Hall, Derbyshire. 2. Cow-
dray, Sussex, destroyed by fire in 1793. 3. Hewer Castle, Kent. 4. Gosfield Hall,
Essex, perfect. 5. Hengreave Hall, Suffolk, perfect, and whereof a beautiful work has
been published by John Gage, Esq. (now Rookwode), a descendant of its ancient possessors.
6. Layer Marney, Essex, now in ruins. 7. Raglan Castle, Monmouthshire, in ruins.
8. Hunsdon House, Herts, rebuilt. 9. South Wingfield, Derbyshire, dilapidated.
10. Hill Hall, Essex, built by Sir Thomas Smyth, in 1542. 11. Wolterton (see/^. 199.)
CHAP. III. FLORID ENGLISH OR TUDOR STYLE. 185
in East Barsham, Norfolk, in ruins. 12. Harlaxton, Lincolnshire, perfect. 13. West-
wood, Worcestershire, perfect.
Fig. 199. WOLTBRTON HOUSE.
427. In a very curious tract, entitled, " A Dyetorie or Regiment of Health," by
Andrew Boorde, of Physike Doctor, 8vo., first printed in 1547, the following directions
are given how a man should build his house or mansion ; from which it appears that there
were certain leading points for the guidance of the architect, founded, of course, they were
on the habits of the time. " Make," says our friend Andrew, " the hall of such fashion
that the parlor be annexed to the head of the hall, and the buttyre and pantrye at the lower
ende thereof; the cellar under the pantrye sett somewhat at a base ; the kechyn sett some-
what at a base from the buttrye and pantrye ; coming with an entrie within, by the wall
of the buttrie ; the pastrie house and the larder annexed to the kechyn. Then divyde the
logginges by the circuit of the quadrivial courte, and let the gatehouse be opposite, or
against the hall doore ; not directly, but the hall doore standyng abase of the gatehouse, in
the middle of the front enteringe into the place. Let the prevye- chamber be annexed to
the great chamber of estate, with other chambers necessary for the buildinge ; so that
many of the chambers may have a prospecte into the chapell." Some of the principal in-
novations in the early Tudor style, were the introduction of gatehouses, bay windows, and
quadrangular areas, matters rather incompatible with buildings constructed for defence. The
materials of these palaces and mansions were of freestone and brick, according to the facility
with which from the situation they could be procured. Sometimes, indeed often, these
materials were mixed. Moulded brickwork and terra cotta were introduced for ornamental
parts by Trevigi and Holbein towards the end of the period, or, perhaps strictly speaking,
at the end of it. The brickwork was occasionally plastered and pointed as at Nonsuch.
At Layer Marney and other places, bricks of two colours highly glazed were used for
variegating the surface, and were formed into lozenges. The chimney shafts seem to have
exhausted invention in the twisted and diapered patterns into which they were wrought, and
decorated with heads and capitals and cognizances of the founders. The gateways were
prominent features in these edifices, and the most expensive ornaments were lavished on
them. That at Whitehall, designed by Holbein, was constructed with differently coloured
glazed bricks, over which were appended four large circular medallions of busts, still
preserved at Hatfield Peveril, Herts. This gateway contained several apartments, among
which not the least remarkable was the study wherein Holbein chiefly received his sitters.
The gateways at Hampton Court and Woolterton were very similar to this.
428. We will here digress a little on the bay window which, as generally understood,
was simply a projecting window between two buttresses (whence its name, as occupying a
bay of the building), and almost universally placed at the end of the room. It was invented
about a century before the Tudor age, in which it usually consisted on the plan of right
angles intersected by circles, as in the buildings at Windsor by Henry VIII., and at
Thornbury Castle. When placed at the end of a great hall, it extended in height from the floor
to the ceiling, and was very simple and regular in its form. In a MS. at the Herald's College
relating to an entertainment given at Richmond by Henry VII., the following passage
occurs, and may be taken as descriptive of one of the purposes to which it was applied.
" Agaynst that his grace had supped : the hall was dressed and goodlie to be seene, and a
rich cupboord sett thereup in a baye window of IX or X stages and haunces of hight,
furnissed and fulfilled with plate of gold, silver, and regilte." Carved wainscotting in
186
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
panels, generally of oak, lined the lower part of the halls with greater unity of design and
execution than heretofore ; and it now found its way into parlours and presence chambers
with every variety of cyphers, cognizances, chimeras, and mottoes, which in the castles of
France about the age of Francis I. were called Boisseries. Of these some curious speci-
mens still' remain in the hall and chambers of the dilapidated mansion of the Lords de La
Warre at Halnacre in Suffolk. The area or court was quadrangular, and besides the great
staircase near the hall, there were generally hex angular towers containing others: indeed,
they were usually to be found in each angle of the great court, rising above the parapets,
imparting a pleasant and picturesque effect to the mass of building, and grouping well with
the lofty and ornamented chimneys of which we have above spoken.
429. It is melancholy to reflect upon the dis-
appearance of these mansions which were once
the ornaments of the provinces, and now one by
one falling fast away by the joint operation of
what is called repair and by decay. Most of their
remains have been removed to raise or to be in-
corporated with other buildings for which they
might have well been spared.
430. The characteristics of the style are arches,
universally flat, and wide in proportion to their
height (fig. 200. ). Windows, much more open than
in the last period, flatter at the top, and divided in
the upper part by transoms, which are almost con-
stantly crowned with embattled work in miniature.
The ceilings or vaultings spread out into such a
variety of parts, that the whole surface appears
covered with a web of delicate sculpture or
embroidery thrown over it ; and from different
intersections of this ribbed work, clusters of pen-
dant ornaments hang down, as Mr. Millers ob-
serves, like "stalactites in caverns." The Jiy-
ing buttresses are equally ornamented, and the
external surfaces of the walls are one mass of deli-
cate sculpture. The ornaments, as may be de-
duced from the above particulars, are lavish
and profuse in the highest degree. Fretwork,
figures of men and animals, niches and taber-
nacles, accompanied with canopies, pedestals, and
traceries of the most exquisite workmanship,
carried this style to the summit of splendour ;
and all these combined, had, perhaps, no small
share in producing the extinction it was doomed
to undergo.
431. Before proceeding to give the examples in this style, to which the reader will be
referred, it may be as well to mention that Scotland boasts of many fine specimens of eccle-
siastical architecture. The abbeys of Melrose and Kelso, founded by David I., as well as
those in Dryburgh and Jedburgh, all in Roxburghshire, prove that the art advanced to as
great perfection north of the Tweed, as it did in England. Roslin and Holyrood chapels,
the first whereof was erected by Sir William St. Clair, for richness and variety of orna-
mental carvings cannot be exceeded. Its plan is without parallel in any other specimen of
the fifteenth century. The latter was finished by James, the second of that name, in 1440,
and is a beautiful example with flying buttresses, which are more ornamented than any
even in England.
432. Examples of the Florid Gothic or Tudor style are to be seen at the cathedral
churches — of Gloucester, in the chapel of Our Lady ; at Oxford, in the roof of the choir ;
at Ely, in Alcock's chapel ; at Peterborough, in Our Lady's chapel and at Hereford, in
the north porch. In conventual churches, at Windsor, St. George's chapel ; at Cambridge,
King's College chapel ; at Westminster, King Henry VII. 's chapel; at Great Malvern,
in Worcestershire, the tower and choir ; at Christ Church, Oxford, the roof of the choir,
and at Evesham Abbey, in Worcestershire, the campanile and gateway.
433. For parochial churches, except in some very few specimens in Somersetshire, and
there perhaps only in parts, we are unable to refer the reader to a complete specimen, in
all its parts, of the Tudor style. The pulpit and screen at Dartmouth, in Devonshire, are
worthy of his notice.
434. We shall close this section by a tabular view of the founders and dimensions of
the different cathedrals of England, extracted from Dallaway and other authors.
Fig. 200. TUDOR ARCH, ST. OKOROB's CHAPKt.
CHAP. III. ENGLISH CATHEDRALS.
BATH — CONVENTUAL CHURCH OF THE BENEDICTINES.
187
Dates.
Founders.
Nave.
Choir.
Aisles.
Transept.
Tower.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
1495 "I
to I
Oliver King, bishop -
.
75 35 73
:
46 48 74
2030150
1502J
1532-T
Bird "1 . 1
Gibbes )PnorS ' j
136 72 78
-
Of the nave.
112 21 38
46 28 74
1570J
Inhabitants of Bath ~)
Sir John Harrington J.
and others
-
-
Of the choir.
80 21 38
1609
James Montague, bishop
Completed the building
Building unfinished at the Reformation, and completed by Bishop Montague and the executors of
the Lord Treasurer Burleigh. Total length, 210 ft. ; breadth, 126 ft.
BRISTOL — CONVENTUAL CHURCH OF ST. AUGUSTINE.
Dates:
Founders.
Nave.
Choir.
Aisles.
Transept.
Tower.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
Height.
1160
Robert Fitzharding
1230
Robert third Lord^l
1 Q 1 1 1
Berkeley, Maurice J
Loll 1
v 1
fourth Lord Berke- >
75 73 43
Originally included.
128 - 43
to •>
ley, and Edmund
1332 1
Knowles, abbot - J
1463 |
Elliot and William!
Hunt, abbots - J
-
100 - 43
-
N. trans.
127
1481 to
1 John Newland, abbot,
*i r
Our Lady's
1500
J completed -
J " I
Chapel.
The church displays two distinct styles. The Chapter House and Elder Lady Chapel were erected
at the beginning and close of the twelfth century, and the existing nave and choir in the beginning
of the fourteenth. It is probable it was not completed after the plan of the Abbot Knoles.
The tower was intended to receive a spire. The aisles and nave are of the same height, which is
only 43 ft.
CANTERBURY — CATHEDRAL CHURCH.
Dates.
Founders.
Nave.
Choir.
Aisles.
Transept
Towers.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
1070
Archbishop Lanfranc
-
.
-
.
N.W.lOOft.
1090
Archbishop Anselme
1100 j
S±'r>—
The second church destroyed by fire in 1 1 74.
1122
Archbishop W. Corboil.
1174-f
W. Senensis 1 archi- f
W. Anglus J tects \
Present "|
church. J
150 40 71
Included
Upper 154
1304
Henry de Estrey, prior.
1379 f
to J
1431 1
S. Sudburyl f
W. Courte- I arch- I
nay [bishops 1
T. ArundelJ L
Improved
and orna-
mented.
}•
-
Lower J
124 1
N.W. spire
of lead added
100 ft. high ;
taken down
1705;
S.W. 130ft.
1449 |
T. Chittenden "1 .
T.Goldstone j Prlors
214 94 8O
1468
W. Sellinge.
r
r
Central 234
1490 -I
W. Morton, archbishop
~
—
;
- (
high, 35
diameter.
The original Anglo-Saxon structure of Lanfranc was rebuilt after the canonisation of Thomas a Berket.
The very elegant central tower was completed in 1500 by Archbishop Morton. This cathedral
188
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
has a lofty crypt of greater extent than, we believe, any other in England. At the eastern end of
this cathedral, and projecting eastward of the general line of the plan, is an apartment open to the
rest of the church, and consisting of a segment equal to about three fourths of a circle, called
" Becket's Crown." The internal length of this church is 514 ft., and breadth 154 ft.)
CARLISLE — CATHEDRAL CHURCH.
Dates.
Founders.
Nave.
Choir.
Aisles.
Transept.
Towers.
1150f
1270 X
Bishops.
Henry Murdac, abbot"!
of Fountains - J
L. B. H.
82 - 71
Originallyl64
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
Included.
L. B. H.
Height.
1353")
to I
1363J
Gilbert de Wilton, "|
bishop - - J
-
137 - 71
71 - -
124 28 71
1363"!
to [
T. de Apylby -
1397J
1400"|
to I
Z. de Strickland
.
_
.
.
128ft.
1419J
The total length, 219 ft. ; breadth, 124 ft.
CHESTER — CONVENTUAL CHURCH OF BENEDICTINES.
Dates.
Founders.
Nave.
Choir.
Aisles.
Transept.
Tower.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
Height.
1128
Ranulf Earl of Chester
r
Transept dis-
1320
.
-
-
-\
similar.
North, a pa-
rish church.
180 - -
1485
Simon Ripley, abbot ~\
Oldham, abbot j
- 73 73
-
-
127ft.
1508
- - 'I
The west-
ern front
} -
-
-.{
Finished
in 1508.
The Chapter House was built by Ranulf Earl of Chester, and in it many of his descendants are
interred. A north transept only in this church. Length, 348 ft. ; breadth, 180 ft.
CHICH ESTER— CATHEDRAL CHURCH.
Dates.
Founders.
Nave.
Choir.
Aisles.
Transept.
Tower.
Bishops.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
1094
Ralph
First church.
1125-T
Siffrede - "1
Abbot of Glastonbury J
105 95 61
- (
Included
- 91 -
f There are
| four aisles.
1217
Ralph de Warham
-
100 64 61
J. The only
J instance in
c
North J
95 ft. high
W.end.
1282
Gilbert de St. Leofard
(. England.
107ft. high
1329
John de Langton
-
-
- (
bell tower ;
spire added
to tower
271 ft. high.
1520
Robert Sherbourne
Repairs and embellishment of the choir, &c.
It may be right to consider the present church as founded by Siffrede upon that built bv Ralph in
1094. Total length, 407 ft. ; width, 131 ft
CHAP. III.
ENGLISH CATHEDRALS.
DURHAM— CATHEDRAL CHURCH.
189
Dates.
Founders.
Nave.
Choir.
Aisles.
Transept.
Tower.
Bishops.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
1093
William de Carilelpho -
260 74 69
1128
Ralph Flambard.
1230
Richard Poose and
m
_
Included.
176 57 -
1233
Melsonby, prior
-
-
-
- [
Western
towers 143 ft.
Bertram Middleton, ~j
and Hugh Darling- >
ton, priors - - J
-
120 74 71
-
90 18 -
Nicholas de Farnham,
bishop.
1 QQ*? J
Richard de Houton,!
r
Central
i — ytj -\
prior - - J
•
[
tower 214.
The Lady Chapel was built in 1390, forming a sort of transept at the end of the choir. This cathedral
is remarkable from the pillars of its nave, which are curiously striated. The Galilee, or chapel, at
the western end, is 50ft. by 78ft., and was finished by Bishop Langley in 1430. Total length of the
church, 420 ft.; width, 176ft.
ELY — CATHEDRAL CHURCH.
Dates.
Founders.
Nave.
Choir.
Aisles.
Transept.
Tower.
Bishops.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. K H.
Length.
1109")
to [
Herney
-
-
-
N. 178£
1133 J
Nigillus
Erected the cloisters.
r
Centre of
1174
Id. Geoff. Ridal
203 - 104
_
_
- \
West front
I
210 ft. high.
1235']
to I
Hugh Northwold
Presbytery, which was made the choir in 1769.
1252J
1337
Simon Montacute
Octagon Louvre.
I. Wisbich, prior
101 34£70
A spire of wood was added to the tower by Bishop Northwold, but it no longer exists • a gable
built by Eustachius, a Bishop of Ely. The octagon, from which rises the louvre, is 142 ft. high
from the floor, and is 71 ft 6 in. diameter. It was designed by Alan de Walsingham, a monk of
Ely, in 1328. The diameter of the lantern is 30 ft., and its external height 170 ft. Total length
517 ft. ; breadth, 178 ft. 6 in.
EXETER — CATHEDRAL CHURCH.
Dates.
Founders.
Nave.
Choir.
Aisles.
Transept.
Tower.
Bishops.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
1100")
,0
1128 J
W. Warlewast -
-
-
. -
-
28 28 145
1280;
to
Peter Quivil
.
.
.
140 32 68
1293
1293"
to
Thomas Bytton -
180 40 68
.
148 20 35
1307
1307"
to
Walter Stapylton
.
132 34 68
132 20 35
1318
1340
Edmund Lacy
Built the chapter hou$:e.
The cloisters, which are only perfect on one side, were added by Thomas Brentinghan. The towers
stand at the ends of the transept. The general plan of the church is that designed by Bishop
Quivil, from which none of his successors deviated. The total length is 390ft.; width, 140ft.
Bishop Grandison's screen in this cathedral is celebrated among antiquaries as displaying a series
of statues more numerous and entire than are to be found in any other cathedral.
190
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
GLOUCESTER — CONVENTUAL CHURCH OF BENEDICTINES.
BOOK I.
Dates.
Founders.
Nave.
Choir.
Aisles.
Transept.
Tower.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
1057")
to I
I089J
Aldred, Bishop ~\
of Worcester -J
171 41 671
1089
Id. - - -
.
.
N. 1712140J
1310
Abbot, J. Thokey
.
.
S. 171 22 -
1330
Abbot, J. Wygmore
-
-
.
S. 66 43 1 78
1330
to 1
1357
Adam Staunton "j
to Walter Fro-
cester, and to >
Thomas Se-
Cleres- ]
tory and |
vault- f
140 34£ 86
I
broke - -J
ing. J
1369"!
to
Ut supra
-
_
.
N. 66 43J 78
1375J
1457 f
to J
1518 1^
W. Ferleigh to^
Thomas Bra- 1
mish, and to f
W. Parker -J
-
-
-
-
24 22 224!
The Lady Chapel was built by W. Ferleigh about 1498. The western facade and two arches were
added to the nave about 1370 by T. Horton. The tower rises from the intersection of the nave
and choir with the transepts. The cloisters are the most perfect and beautiful of any in England,
and are unusually situated, being on the north side of the church. Total length, 426 ft. ;
width, 152 ft.
HEREFORD— CATHEDRAL CHURCH.
Dates.
Founders.
Nave.
Choir.
Aisles.
Transept.
Tower.
Bishops.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
1079 to
1095
1101 to
1115
> Robert de Losinge -
> Rainelm
144 68 68
125 20 64
144 - -
140 - -
1131 to
f Robert de Bethune, \
Lower, f
Ancient
1148
\ prior of Llanthony J
111 1
spire
240 ft. high.
1200 to
1216
1 Giles de Bruse
-
-
-
- {
West tower
was 130 ft.
1492 to
1502
1- Edmund Audley
-
-
-
- j
The spire,
which was
taken down
in 1790.
Restored in 1786.
The great west tower fell in 1786, and destroyed the greater part of the nave and aisles, which
were rebuilt shorter by 15 ft. The architecture of the chapter house, which was octagonal, with
a single central pillar, and 37ft. diameter, was unnecessarily taken down by Bishop Egerton.
Total length, 325 ft. ; width 100 ft.
LICHFIELD — CATHEDRAL CHURCH.
Dates.
Founders.
Nave.
Choir.
Aisles.
Transept.
Tower.
Bishops.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
1295 f
to 4
1430 (_
Walter de Louton, or~|
Langton - - >
And his successors - J
213 67 67
120 33 67
Included.
88 [
West spires
183 ft. high.
William Hewworth,1
who died in 1447 J
W. front.
78 - -
} -
-
- f
Total of the
central spire.
258.
The church is very uniform, having been, like Salisbury and Exeter, completed upon one plan. The
arches in the Triforia here show the dog-tooth moulding in great perfection. Total length, 411 ft. ;
breadth, 88 ft.
CHAP. III.
ENGLISH CATHEDRALS.
191
LINCOLN— CATHEDRAL CHURCH.
Dates.
Founders.
Nave.
Choir.
Aisles.
Transept.
Towers
and Spires.
Bishops.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
1184
f Alexander Nor- \
\_ mannus - -J
Rebuilt.
1186 to
1200
1- Hugh de Grenoble
240 80 80
140 40 72
Included.
1240
Robert Grostete
f
Central
1254
Henry Lexington
-
-
-
' {
288 ft. hiph
W. 260 ft.
1286 to
1300
1306
> Hugh Burgundus
John D'Alderby
-
Presbytery.
106 82 72
-
W. 220 63 74
E. 1666372
f W. fron
•< 173 ft. wide
C 83 ft. high.
1438
William Alnewick -
Built the great west window and porch.
The central spire of this cathedral was higher than that of Salisbury, and was blown down in 1547.
The others were removed in 1808. Total length, 498 ft. ; breadth, 227 ft.
LONDON — OLD ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL CHURCH.
Dates.
Founders.
Nave.
Choir.
Aisles.
Transept.
Towers.
Bishops.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
1086
Mauritius
335 91 102
1120
Richard de Beaumes -
_
_
Included.
297 - -
1220
William de St. Maria -
-
163 - 88
-
-{
Height 260
ft., ditto of
spire 274 ft.
Burnt down
L
in 1561.
The Chapter House was built by William de St. Maria, and was octangular. The cloisters, which
were only 91 ft. square, were erected by Henry de Wingham in 1260 ; and the Lady Chapel by
Henry de Lacy, Earl of Lincoln, in 1312. The area which this cathedral covered in 1309 was
3 acres, 3 roods, and 26 perches. The cloisters were removed by the Protector Somerset, to build
his palace in the Strand. Inigo Jones commenced his restorations upon the fabric in 1633, and
placed, in 1636, a most beautiful but incongruous Corinthian portico at the western end, the
expense of which was borne by Charles I. The whole of the church was taken down and removed
by Sir Christopher Wren in 1675. The following are the dimensions assigned to the cathedral in
1309 : — Length, 631 ft. ; breadth, 130. The height of the vaulting of the western part, 102 ft. ; of
the eastern, 188 ft.: of the tower, 260 ft. : and of the spire, which was timber-framed and covered
with lead, 274 ft. Dugdale's history of the church is embellished with numerous plates by Hollar,
and is a most interesting work.
NORWICH— CATHEDRAL CHURCH.
Dates.
Founders.
Nave.
Choir.
Aisles.
Transept.
Tower.
Bishops.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
1096
Herbert Losinga
_
,
Tower
1171
Eborard -
140 71 -
1197
John of Oxford -
_
165 - -
Included.
191 - -
1361
f Ralph Walpole ")
|_ Thomas Percy J
-
-
-
Spire 317 ft.
This church has no Lady Chapel. The cathedral, before 1272, was so dilapidated, that it was nearly
rebuilt by succeeding bishops and priors. The cloisters, erected by Bishop Wakering in 1420, are
the most spacious in England, being 174 ft. square. Length of cathedral, 414 ft. ; breadth. 191 ft.
OXFORD — CONVENTUAL CHURCH OF ST. FRYDESWIDE AUG. CANONS.
Dates.
Founders.
Nave.
Choir.
Aisles.
Transept.
Tower.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
1050
1120
f Guymond, prior of "1
(_ St. Frydeswide J
74 54 41 £
80 37 -
Included.
1122
-
_
.
_
102 - -
Tower.
1528
Cardinal Wolsey
_
_
1545
Robert King, first bishop
-
Clerestory
-
-
Spire.
The Chapter House here is of perfect Anglo-Norman architecture, built in the reign of Henry II.
Length of church, 154 ft. ; breadth, 102ft.
192 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
PETERBOROUGH— CONVENTUAL CHURCH OF THE BENEDICTINES.
Dates.
Founders.
Nave.
Choir.
Aisles.
Transept.
Tower. !
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
'
11601
tern. I
Hen. (
II. 1
William deWatteville,"!
21st abbot - - J
-
138 78 78
1175
Benedict, 22nd abbot -
231 78 -
..
Included.
1272
Richard de London, "
32nd abbot -
-
- '
-
203 69 78
1295
1300
WilliamdeParys,prior "
orW.deWoodford, -
abbot -
-
-
-
• f
Two spires
156 ft. high.
1330
Geoffry Croyland, "
34th abbot - -J
-
-
-
- f
Unfinished
tower, 120 ft.
1496
Robert Kirton, 44th abbot, built the chapels at the end of the choir.
Length, 480 ft. ; breadth, 203 ft.
ROCHESTER — CATHEDRAL CHURCH.
Dates.
Founders.
Nave.
Choir.
Aisles.
Transept.
Tower.
Spire, 156ft.
1080
1115
1227
1270
Bishops.
Gundulphus
Ernulph -
Henry Sanford -
W. de Hoo, prior, built
L. B. H.
150 75 -
a chapter h
L. B. H.
156 - -
ouse.
Included.
L. B. H.
122 - -
When the choir was rebuilt, in 1227, it was extended to a greater length by several feet than the
nave itself. The choirs of Norman churches were all disproportionately short. Total length, 306 ft. ;
breadth, 122 ft.
SALISBURY— CATHEDRAL CHURCH.
Dates.
Founders.
Nave.
Choir.
Aisles.
Transept.
Tower.
Bishops.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
1217
Richard Poore -
229 76 81
-
-
-
To the Pa-
rapet, 207 ft.
1230
Robert Bingham ^
_
140 - 84
Included.
1274
Robert Wykehampton
•
-
-
230 60 84
Spire, 404 ft.
This is the most uniform of the cathedrals of England. It was ascertained, in 1737, that the roof
altogether contained 2641 tons of timber. According to the account delivered to Henry III., it
appeared that 40,000 marks (22,666Z. 13s. 4d.) had, up to that time, been expended on the fabric.
The original plan was given by Bishop Poore, and from it no variation was made by his successors.
The church was twice consecrated. The Chapter House is octangular, with a central column, and
the cloisters are 160 ft. square. The spire is of masonry only 7 in. thick, and would hence seem to
be scarcely adequate to support its own weight. The total length is 474 ft., and the western front
is 112 ft. wide. Great repairs were made to it by Sir Christopher Wren.
WELLS — CATHEDRAL CHURCH.
Dates.
Founders.
Nave.
Choir.
Aisles.
Transept.
Tower.
Bishops
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H
1205")
to I
1239J
Josaline Troteman
191 67 67
108 67 -
Included.
135 - 67
12Q3
W. de March
1366
John Harwell
1450
Thomas Beckington -
.
-
-
- {
Western.
234 - 130
1465
Robert Stillington
-
-
-
' *
Central.
- - 160
This is a very extraordinary example. Its western facade is decorated with statues in a more perfect
state than is seen in any cathedral excepting that of Lincoln. The subjects are kings, bishops,
CHAP. III.
ENGLISH CATHEDRALS.
193
and warriors. The original plan seems to have been strictly followed to its completion by Bishop
Stillington. Speed says that Ralph de Shrewsbury, who died in 1363, was a great benefactor
to the church, and prosecuted the original plan. The support of the central tower is assisted
by the principle of the inverted arch as at Salisbury, and is a good example of constructive skill.
Tola) length, 371 ft. ; breadth, 185 ft.
WESTMINSTER— CONVENTUAL CHURCH.
Dates.
Founders.
Nave.
Choir.
Aisles.
Transept.
Tower.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
1250
King Henry III.
16638 101
Extreme
15538 101
)
166 16 101
f Height to
1 the top of
breadth of
1 the west-
1300
the Nave
[ -
_
136 40 78
I ern turrets,
1 addition
and Aisles,
1
I 102ift.,
225ft. in
1490
King Henry VII. -
f Chapel, 103 ft. long, 35 ft. broad, 60ft.
\ high ; aisles, 62ft. long, 17ft. broad.
L the whole.
The flying buttresses of Henry VII.'s chapel are among the most beautifully decorated in England.
The triforia of the church are lighted from a range of windows in the back wall, which are seen
externally, each consisting of three circles, inscribed within a triangle, equilaterally composed of
three segments of circles. The architect was Thomas Fitz-Otho, the king's Master of the Mint.
WINCHESTER— CATHEDRAL CHURCH.
Dates.
Founders.
Nave.
Choir.
Aisles.
Transept
Tower.
Bishops.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
1070
1190-f
Wakelyn -
Godfrey de Laci, the
Cloisters
-
"
186 - -
150ft. high.
1350-f
William de Edynton,
the Lady Chapel
1394
William de Wykeham -
300 86 78
Cardinal Beaufort
-
Presbytery
1493
T. Langton
-
93 86 78
Included.
The western front was finished by Edynton. The nave, which was finished by William of Wykeham,
is longer than that of York, and considered one of the finest in England. The exterior of the
clioir is of the finest Gothic of the fifteenth century. The choir, as at Gloucester, is under the tower.
Total length, 545 ft. ; breadth, 186 ft.
WORCESTER— CATHEDRAL CHURCH.
Dates.
Founders.
Nave.
Choir.
Aisles.
Transept.
Tower.
Bishops.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
12181
Lower,
to L
William de Blois
212 78 72
80 36 61
Included.
128 32 -
1224J
1327 1
T. Cobham, Lady
Chapel
1372
W. de Lynne
-
.
.
h
172 ft. high.
13741
to I
1380J
Henry Wakefield
-
-
{
Upper,
120 25 -
1
The Chapter House here, a decagon 58 ft. diameter, and the cloisters, 120 ft. long and 125 ft. in breadth,
were crested in the time of W. de Wynne. The original church was built before 1150, and parts
of it may still be traced. The refectory of the convent, 120 ft. by 38 ft., is still perfect. The nave
is, for style and proportions, well worthy the attention of the student. The total length of the
church is 410 ft. ; its breadth, 130 ft. '
o
194
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
YORK— CATHEDRAL.
BOOK I.
Dates.
Founders.
Nave.
Choir.
Aisles.
Transept.
Tower.
Archbishops.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H.
L. B. H
1227
Walter Grey -
.
-
-
222 - 103
1291
John Remain
250 103 92
-
250 - 47
W. de Melton -
.
_
- {
Facade and
western
L
lowers 196 ft
1361
J. Thoresby
.
15043 101
13001
to L
1420J
J. Birmingham, trea- ~|
surer, completed I
the fa9ade - J
-
-
-
- {
L. B. H.
Central.
44 42 182
Octagonal Chapter House, erected by W. de Melton. The foundations of the church were laid in 1 171 ,
by Roger, then archbishop. The central lantern or steeple, built by Le Komain, was taken down
in 1380 by Walter Skirlawe. The aisles surround the church in every part, are of similar dimen-
sions, and were built at the same time. The open central tower, or louvre, is 188 ft. from the
floor. The Rose Window, the finest in England, is 22 ft. 6 in. diameter. Total length, 498 ft. ;
breadth, 222 ft.
435. The following synoptical view of the general dimensions of the above cathedrals, we
think, may prove occasionally useful to the reader, by enabling him to compare the whole
of them and their parts with each other. The equality of the proportions is striking ; and,
in another part of this work, we hope to place before the reader some principles which
tend to prove that there was a much more established practice founded on the laws of
statics than has hitherto been conjectured. Dallaway, without the remotest idea of the
principles in question, has observed, with his usual sagacity, that there appears in them " a
distribution of parts which will hold almost generally, that the width of the nave is that of
both the aisles, measured on the plan to the extremity of the buttresses externally ; and
that the breadth and height of the whole building are equal. In the more ancient churches,
the aisles are usually of the width of the space between the dividing arches." Some idea
of the principle is conveyed in the plates of Milan cathedral, curiously introduced into
the very early translation of Vitruvius by Caesar Cesarianus, a work of great curiosity, and
of which copies are now rarely met with.
A SYNOPTICAL VIEW OF THE LEADING DIMENSIONS OF THE ENGLISH CATHEDRALS.
Cathedral.
Total
internal
Length.
Naves and Aisles.
Choirs.
Transepts
Spires and Towers.
Length. Breadth. Height.
Length. Breadth. Height.
Breadth.
Height.
Winchester
545
247 86 78
138 - 73
186
Ely -
517
327 73 70
101 73 70
178
Tower - .210
Canterbury
514
214 70 80
150 74 80
154
Do. - - 235
Old St. Paul's
500
335 91 102
165 42 88
248
Spire - 534
York -
498
264 109 99
131 - 99
222
Tower - 234
Lincoln
498
83 83
227
Do. - 260
Westminster
489
130 96 101
152 . 151
189
Peterborough
480
231 78 78
138 - 78
203
Louvre - 150
Salisbury
Durham
452
420
246 76 84
140 . 84
117 33 71
210
176
Spire - 387
Tower - 214
Gloucester
420
174 84 67
140 - 86
144
Do. - 225
Lich field
411
213 67
110 - 67
Spire - 258 W 183
Norwich
411
230 71
165
191
Do. - 317
Worcester
410
212 78
126 . 74
130
Tower - 196
Chichester
401
205 91 61
100
131
Spire - - 267
Exeter -
390
173 74 69
131 - 69
140
Tower - .130
Wells -
371
191 67 67
106 . 67
135
Do. - - 160
Hereford, anct.
370
144 68 68
105 - 64
140
Chester -
348
73 73
- •• .
Tower - - 127
Rochester
306
150 65
156
122
Spire - -156
Carlisle
213
71 71
137 71
Bath -
210
136 72 78
- »
126
Tower - - 162
Bristol -
175
100 75 73
100
128
Do. - .127
Oxford
154
74 54 41
80 . 37*
102
Spire - .184
To the above we subjoin the correspondent dimensions of the several component parts of
some of the cathedral churches enumerated, which we consider useful to the student as well
as the general reader.
Total Length.
Chichester cathedral church - - 410 ft.
Norwich cathedral church - 41 1 .
Worcester cathedral church - 410
Durham cathedral church - - 420
Gloucester conventual church - - 420
CHAP. III. ELIZABETHAN. 195
Heights of Naves. Style.
Salisbury cathedral church - 84 feet Pointed arch.
Lincoln cathedral church - 83 — Pointed arch.
Canterbury cathedral church - 80 — Pure Gothic.
Peterborough conventual church - 78 — Norman.
Winchester cathedral church - 78 — Pure Gothic.
Durham cathedral church - 71 — Norman.
Ely cathedral church - - 70 — Norman.
Exeter cathedral church - 69 — Pointed arch.
Gloucester conventual church - 67 — Norman.
Wells cathedral church - 67 — Pointed arch.
Breadths of Naves and Aisles.
Norwich - 71 ft.
Bristol - 73 Canterbury - 74 ft. Peterborough 78 ft. Lincoln - 83 ft.
Chester - 73 Exeter - 74 Worcester - 78 Gloucester - 84
Ely - 73 Salisbury - 76 Durham - 80 Winchester - 85
The author just quoted, in reference to the tables here given, says of them, that " the
parallel will afford us, at one view, authentic information concerning the proportion of one
constituent part to another of every cathedral in England which is worthy the notice of an
architect. Such," he continues, " a coincidence of dimensions as that which is found in
many of them, can scarcely be supposed to be the effect of chance, especially where the
buildings are contemporary and of an exactly correspondent style." It appears that the
equality of proportions is confined to each era and style of ecclesiastical architecture in so
remarkable a degree as to lead us to conjecture that they might have been designed by the
same architect. " The constant rivalry," says Dallaway, " which subsisted between the
magnificent prelates, was excited upon the erection of any part of a cathedral of superior
beauty, and imitated in those of the same kind which were then undertaken ; and the
architect who had once displayed great talents was invited to repeat the more perfect per-
formance, upon which he had rested his professional fame." We have not considered it
necessary to devote a special portion of our work to the conventual architecture of England,
because it followed the style of the time. It was of great splendour. The ground plans
of their habitable portions were usually, though not always, quadrangular, and in the later
ages partook of the improvements in domestic architecture, as in the colleges built by
Wykham and Waynflete, and many of the episcopal residences. Glastonbury and Reading
presented exceedingly fine examples of it ; the former comprised within its walls sixty
acres of ground.
SECT. VI.
ELIZABETHAN ARCHITECTURE.
436. The revival of the arts in Italy has furnished the subject of Chap. II. Sect. XVI.
It commenced, as we have there seen, with its author Brunelleschi, who died in 1444 ; and it
was not till more than a century afterwards that, notwithstanding our constant intercourse
with the Continent, its influence began to be felt in this country. The accession of
Elizabeth, it will be recollected, took place in 1558.
437. Whilst the art here, though always, as respected its advancing state, much behind
that of the Continent, was patronised by the clergy, it flourished vigorously ; but when
that body was scattered by the dissolution of the religious houses, no one remained to foster
it ; and though Henry VIII. delighted in spectacle, and a gorgeous display of his wealth, he
was far too great a sensualist to be capable of being trained to refinement in the arts.
Neither, moreover, are the English, as a people, susceptible of high feeling in respect of the
productions of art. Even to the present hour so low in the scale do they stand, that a
lady's cap finds no adoption, receives no sanction among the higher classes, unless moulded
and previously sanctioned in the capital of our lively neighbours. In short, the only period
in which the arts seemed likely to take root here was under that unfortunate monarch
Charles I. ; since whose time they have languished, giving way to politics, which engross the
attention of the higher class, and to commerce, which engrosses the attention of the mer-
chants. There is here no general pervading love of the arts, as among all classes on the
Continent, though we believe the time for it approaches. The Elizabethan, or, as some have,
perhaps more properly, called it, the last Tudor style, is an imperfectly understood adapta-
tion of classic forms to the habits of its day in this country. It is full of redundant and
unmeaning ornament, creating a restless feeling in the mind of the spectator, which, in the
cinque cento work, the renaissance of Italy, was in some degree atoned for by excellence of
design, by exquisite execution of the subject, and by a refinement in the forms which some
of the first artists the world ever saw gave to its productions. In Italy, the orders almost
O 2
196 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK 1.
instantaneously rose in their proper proportions, soon leaving nothing to be desired ; but
in England they were for a long time engrafted on Gothic plans and forms, producing
nothing but heterogeneous masses of absurdity. It was, nevertheless (strange to say), in
this style and the Gothic, that the wisdom of the legislature thought proper to solicit designs
from the architects of the country, in the year 1836, for new houses of Parliament, a pro-
ceeding which has excited the smiles of the artists of the Continent at our absurdity in
matters of art.
438. The work of Andrew Borde has been before mentioned ; but the earliest publication
in England relative to practical architecture was, " The first and chiefe Grounds of Archi-
tecture used in all the ancient and famous Monyments, with a farther and more ample
Discourse uppon the same than has hitherto been set forthe by any other. By John Shute,
paynter and architecte." " Printed by John Marshe, fol., 1563." This John Shute had
been sent by Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, to Italy, probably with the intention of
afterwards employing him upon the works which he was projecting. From this and many
other circumstances, it is easy to discover that domestic architecture under Elizabeth had
assumed a more scientific character. Indeed, there is ample evidence that no building was
now undertaken without the previous arrangement of a digested and regulated plan ; for
early in the reign of this sovereign the treatises of Lomazzo and Philibert de Lorme were
translated into English ; and in the construction of the palatial houses of the aristocracy,
the architects had begun to act upon a system. The principal deviation from the plans of
the earlier Tudor houses was in the bay windows, parapets, and porticoes, whereof the two
latter were intensely carved with all the forms that the most fantastic and grotesque
imagination could supply. The exteriors of these porticoes were covered with carved
entablatures, figures, and armorial bearings and devices. The galleries were lofty, wide,
and generally more than a hundred feet in length ; and the staircases were spacious and
magnificent, often occupying a considerable portion of the mansion. Elizabeth herself does
not appear to have set, during the passion of the period for architecture, any example to
her subjects. She might have thought her father had done sufficient in building palaces ;
but, however, be that as it may, she encouraged the nobles of her court in great expenditure
on their residences. With the exception of the royal gallery at Windsor, she herself did
actually nothing ; whilst on Kenilworth alone, Lord Leicester is supposed to have expended
no less a sum than 60,OOOZ., an almost royal sum of money.
439. Before proceeding further, it becomes our duty here to notice a peculiar construction
which prevailed in the large manor houses of the provinces, and more especially in the
counties of Salop, Chester, and Stafford, the memory of many whereof, though several are
still to be seen, is chiefly preserved in engravings ; — we allude to those of timber frame-
work in places where the supply of stone or brick, or both, was scanty. The carved
pendants, and the barge-boards of the roofs and gables, which had, however, made their
appearance at a rather earlier period, were executed in oak or chesnut with much beauty
of design, and often with a singularly pleasing effect. The timbered style reached its
zenith in the reign of Elizabeth, and is thus illustrated in Harrison's description of
England : — "Of the curiousnesse of these piles I speake not, sith our workmen are grown
generallie to such an excellence of devise in the frames now made, that they farre passe the
finest of the olde." And, again : " It is a worlde to see how divers men being bent to
buildinge, and having a delectable view in spending of their goodes by that trade, doo
dailie imagine new devises of their owne to guide their workmen withall, and those more
curious and excellent than the former." (p. 336.) The fashion was no less prevalent in
cities and towns than in the country ; for in them we find that timber-framed houses
abounded, and that they also were highly ornamented with carvings, and exhibited in their
street fronts an exuberance of extremely grotesque figures performing the office of corbels.
The fashion was imported from the Continent, which supplies numberless examples,
especially in the cities of Rouen, Bruges, Ulm, Louvaine, Antwerp, Brussels, Nurem-
burg, and Strasburg, which very far surpass any that this country can boast. We have,
however, sufficient remains of them in this country to prove that the wealthy burgess
affected an ornamental display in the exterior of his dwelling, rivalling that of the
aristocracy, and wanting neither elegance nor elaborate finishing, whilst it was productive
of a high picturesque effect in the street architecture of the day. " This manner," says
Dallaway, " was certainly much better suited to the painter's eye than to comfortable
habitation ; for the houses were lofty enough to admit of many stories and subdivisions,
and being generally placed in narrow streets were full of low and gloomy apartments, over-
hanging each other, notwithstanding that they had fronts nearly composed of glass, with
the projecting windows and the interstices filled for nearly the whole space." Fig. 201. is
a representation of Morton Hall, an example of the style in question.
440. A better idea of the architecture of this age cannot be obtained than by a notice
of the principal architects who have furnished materials for the foregoing observations ;
and for this purpose we shall use with freedom the notes to Walpole's anecdotes, by our
late much valued friend Mr. Dallaway. A MS., belonging to the Earl of Warwick
CHAP. HI.
ELIZABETHAN.
197
in the time of Walpole, enabled him to bring to the knowledge of the world, and
perpetuate the memory of, an artist of no mean powers, whose name, till that author's
time, was almost buried in oblivion, though he was the architect of most of the principal
and palatial edifices erected during the reigns of Elizabeth, and James, her successor.
His name was John Thorpe ; and at the sale of the library of the Hon. Charles
Greville in 1810, the MS. in question came into the possession of the late Sir John
Soane, Professor of Architecture to the Royal Academy. It is a folio, consisting of
280 pages, wherein the plans, often without a scale, are nevertheless accurately executed.
Several of the subjects were merely designs for proposed mansions. The elevations are
neatly drawn and shadowed. The general form of the plans is that of three sides of a
quadrangle, the portico in the centre being an open arcade finished by a turreted cupola.
When the quadrangles are perfect, they are, for convenience, surrounded by an open
corridor. The windows, especially in the principal front, are large and lofty, and mostly
alternated with bows or projecting divisions, and always so at the flanks. The ornaments are
of the cinque cento school, as far as it was understood here, and are universally rude
imitations of the works of Lescot and Vignola, — of the latter, of course, much debased.
Great efforts were made by Thorpe to group the chimneys, which were embellished with
Roman Doric columns, and other conceits. The contents of the volume are as follow ; —
1 . The ground plan of Old Somerset House.
2. Buckhurst House in Sussex, whereof are a ground plan and elevation. The front
extends 230 ft. The quadrangle is 100 ft. by 80 ft., and the hall 80 ft. by 50 ft.
3. (Page 24.) The garden front of a nobleman's house, probably only a design.
4. " The way how to drawe any ground plot into the order of perspective," with dia-
grams and written descriptions.
5. A design for a large house with three sides of a quadrangle.
6. An elevation of a house for Sir Thomas Dorrell in Lincolnshire.
7. Godstone. An open corridor of the Doric order.
8. Copthall in Essex, built for Sir Thomas Heneage, to whom the manor was granted
by Queen Elizabeth. The gallery, of extraordinary length, as compared with its
height and width, was 168 ft. long, 22 ft. high, and the same wide; and the inner
court of the mansion was 83 ft. square.
9. Wollaton Hall, Nottinghamshire, the inscription whereon runs thus: '; En has Fran-
cisci Willoughb&i JEdes, rara arte constructas Willoughb&is relictas. Inchoatce, 1580 —
1588. Mr. Dallaway observes, on this inscription, that the monument of Robert
Smithson in Wollaton Church appears to invalidate Thorpe's claim to this design.
It runs thus : " Mr. Robert Smithson, architector and surveyor unto the most worthy
house of Wollaton, with divers others of great account, ob. 1614." He was probably
Thorpe's pupil and successor.
O 3
198
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK 1
10. A design of a quadrangle intersected by a corridor.
11. Sir John BagnalPs house, with a gallery above 60 ft. in length.
12. Burleigh House, built for Cecil the Lord Treasurer : but it exhibits only the plans
of the ground and first floors, with designs and sketches for the scroll parapet.
13. Some details for Sir George St. Poole.
14. Thornton College, with a gallery 100 ft. long, for Sir Vincent Skinner.
15. A ground plan for Sir Thomas Holte.
16. A design.
17. The house called Holland House, at Kensington, for Sir Walter Coapes. This was
finished by Thorpe in 1607, and afterwards received alterations and additions from
the hands of Inigo Jones and Stone.
18. Giddea Hall, Essex ; altered for Sir Anthony Coke, who there entertained Queen
Elizabeth.
19. For Sir George Coppen.
20. Burghley on the Hill. Garden front.
21 . "A front or garden side for a nobleman, three breadths of ordinary tenements ; "
supposed to have been for Sir Robert Greville's (Lord Brooke) house, near Gray's
Inn.
22. " A London house for Mr. Darby."
23. Wimbledon. " A house stands upon the edge of a hill," built for Sir Thomas Cecil
in 1588. Fuller says it was nearly equal to Nonsuch. It was rebuilt by Sarah
Duchess of Marlborough, and was consumed by fire.
24. '* Queene Mother's House," altered by I. Thorpe.
25. " Monsieur Jammet in Paris, his house, 1620. All his offices are under grounde."
26. Jannin's house, five leagues from Paris, an. 1600.
27. An elevation for Sir William Haslerigg.
Fin. '2
I.ONGFOHD CASTI.B.
30.
31.
28. Longford Castle, Wiltshire (Jig. 202.). A most singular production. A diagram
of the Trinity drawn in the centre of a plan of the triangular court. It was erected
for Sir Thomas Gorges and his lady, the Marchioness Dowager of Northampton,
in 1591, and is now the seat of the Earl of Radnor.
29. A plan for Sir Percival Hart, Lullingstone, Kent.
A house for Mr. Panton.
Holdenby, built for Sir Christopher Hatton in 1580, and now in ruins. Two large
quadrangles in the plan, and an elevation of the front.
32 and 33. Plans for Mr. William Fitzwilliam and Sir Henry Neville.
34. Audley End; plan of the two courts. Thorpe's part completed about 1616.
Much reduced in size since, and now the property of Lord Braybroke.
35. A design.
36. Mr. Taylor's house at Potter's Bar.
37. Sir Walter Covert's in Sussex, whereof the ruined walls are still standing.
38. Hatiield Lodge, a plan.
39 and 40. Drawings relating to Ampthill.
41. " Kirby, whereof I laid the first stone." This was a house for John Kirby, citizen
of London, whose death is mentioned by Fleetwood, Recorder of London, in a
letter to the Lord Treasurer Burleigh. He had built a fair house on Bethual
CHAP. III.
ELIZABETHAN.
199
Green, whose loftiness and similitude to a castle, caused some ridicule of him by
the rhymesters of the day
441. Walpole, upon Thorpe's Compositions, observes, that the taste of this master's man-
sions was that " bastard style which intervened between Gothic and Grecian architecture,
or which, perhaps, was the style that had been invented for the houses of the nobility when
they first ventured, on the settlement of the kingdom after the termination of the quarrel
between the Roses, to abandon their fortified dungeons, and consult convenience and mag-
nificence." The same author continues, " Thorpe's ornaments on the balustrades, porches,
and outsides of windows are barbarous and ungraceful, and some of his vast windows
advance "outwards in a sharp angle ; but there is judgment in his disposition of apartments
and offices, and he allots more ample space for halls, staircases, and chambers of state. He
appears, also, to have resided at Paris, and even seems to have been employed there."
Among the designs he made is that of a whimsical edifice, designed for himself, forming on
the plan the initial letters of his name [^f, which are joined by a corridor, the (] being
the situation of the offices, and the "if1 being skilfully distributed into large and small
apartments. The epigraph to the design is as follows : —
" Thes 2 Letters I and T "
" Joyned together as you see "
" Is meant for a dwelling house for mee "
" JOHN THORPE "
Walpole truly observes of this volume, that " it is a very valuable record of the magnifi-
cence of our ancestors, and preserves memorials of many sumptuous buildings of which no
other monument remains." We ought, perhaps, to have suffered our account of Thorpe
to have been preceded by those of others, but the conspicuous rank he holds in the list
of English architects of this period induced us to place him before another, for a little
time his predecessor in the works of the country. We allude to the name of Robert
Adams, who translated Ubaldini's account of the defeat of the Spanish Armada from the
Italian into Latin ; a feat which we fear but few architects of the present day would easily
accomplish, such is the fall of education for artists, notwithstanding all the boasts of march
of intellect. This translation appeared in 4to., 1589. He was surveyor of the queen's
buildings, and appears to have been a man of considerable ability. His place of sepulture
was in an aisle on the north side of the old church at Greenwich, with this inscription,
" Egregio Viro, Roberto Adams, operum regiorum supervisor! architecture, peritissimo,
ob. 1595. Simon Basil, operationum regiarum contrarotulator, hoc posuit inonumentum
1601."
Fig. 205.
200
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
442. Bernard Adams and Lawrence Bradshaw were also eminent among the architects
of the period under our consideration ; but we must notice more particularly Gerard
Christmas, who was associated with Bernard Jansen in the erection of Northampton, after-
wards Suffolk, and now Northumberland House, not strictly belonging in time, though in
style, to the reign of Elizabeth. Both of these architects had acquired considerable fame,
and were, deservedly, much employed. In Northumberland House the cyphers of Christ-
mas, C. JE. (Christmas aedificavit), were used in the street front. The letters H. N. were
originally in the balustrade here, standing for Howard Earl of Northampton, and were
frequently repeated, a practice then much in vogue, for there are many examples of inscrip-
tions of letters enclosed within the balustrade, as if within lines, and pierced so that the sky
seen through them renders them distinct from almost every point of view. Bernard
Jansen was probably the architect first employed at the splendid mansion of Audley Inn in
Essex, for Thomas Howard Earl of Suffolk ; and, besides the association with Christmas
above mentioned, was joined with Moses Glover in completing Northumberland House,
and was probably the architect who finished Sion House in Middlesex, for Henry Earl of
Northumberland, who had at the time expended 9000/. in the work.
443. Robert and Huntingdon Smithson, father and son, were engaged on Wollaton Hall
(jft(/' 203. at the foot of the preceding page), in Nottinghamshire, as also at Bolsover in
Derbyshire. The former died in 1614, at the age of seventy- nine, and the latter in 1648,
but it is pretty certain that Thorpe was consulted in this splendid work, for among his de-
signs, as the reader will recollect, are some for Wollaton.
444. Thomas Holte, a native of York, was the architect of the public schools at Oxford
Fig. 204.
JUBLIC SCHOOLS AT OXFORD.
(fig» 204. ), of which the hint might have been taken from the Campanile of Santa Chiara at
Naples, and of the quadrangles of Merton and Wadham colleges. He was the first in this
country who introduced the classical orders in series above each other. He evidently bor-
rowed the practice from Philibert Delorme, who had done the same thing at the Chateau
d'Anet, near Paris, one of the victim edifices of the Revolution. We apprehend any
argument to prove the absurdity of such conceits is unnecessary.
445. Many of the grandest works of what is termed the Elizabethan, or, in truth, the
CHAP. III.
ELIZABETHAN.
201
last Tudor style, were not completed before the middle of the reign of James I. ; so that it
may be said to have been practised until the days of Inigo Jones, in whose early works it
may be traced. " This fashion," says Dallaway, " of building enormous houses was ex-
tended to that period, and even to the civil war. Audley Inn, Hatfield, Charlton, Wilts,
and particularly Wollaton, are those in which the best architecture of that age may be
seen. Others of the nobility, deserting their baronial residences, indulged themselves in a
rivalship in point of extent and grandeur of their country-houses, which was, of course,
followed by opulent merchants, the founders of new families. Sir Baptist Hickes, the
king's mercer (afterwards ennobled), built Campden House, Gloucestershire, which was
scarcely inferior to Hatfield, afterwards burnt down. There is scarcely a county in
England which cannot boast of having once contained similar edifices ; a very few are still
inhabited ; others may be traced by their ruins, or remembered by the oldest villagers, who
can confirm the tradition ; and the sites, at least, of others are pointed out by descriptions as
having existed within the memory of man."
446. The following is a list of some of the principal palatial houses finished before 1600.
Others of the reign of Elizabeth's successors will hereafter be noticed. Of so many of
them are the names of the architects undetermined, though many are assigned to those we
have already mentioned, that we shall not attempt to assign a column to the artists in
question, for fear of misleading our readers.
Name.
Date.
County.
Founder.
Present State.
Catledge -
1560
Cambridge
Lord North
Taken down.
Basinghouse
-
Hants
Marquis of Winton
In ruins.
Kelston -
-
Somerset -
Sir J. Harrington
Rebuilt.
Gorhambury
1565
Herts
Sir N. Bacon
In ruins.
Buckhurst
_
Sussex
Lord Buckhurst -
Destroyed.
Knowle
1570
Kent - -
Lord Buckhurst
Perfect.
Penshurst
_
Kent
Sir H. Sydney
Perfect.
Kenilworth
1575
Warwick -
Earl of Leicester
In ruins.
Hunsdon -
_
Warwick -
Lord Hunsdon
Rebuilt.
Wanstead
1576
Essex
Earl of Leicester
Destroyed.
Burleigh
1577
Lincoln
Lord Burleigh
Perfect.
Osterley
_
Middlesex -
Sir Thomas Gresham
Rebuilt.
Longleat
1579
Wilts
Sir J. Thynne
Perfect.
Stoke Pogis
1580
Bucks
Earl of Huntingdon
Rebuilt.
Toddington
.
Beds
Lord Cheyney
Destroyed.
Theobalds
_
Herts
Lord Burleigh
Destroyed.
Wimbledon
1588
Surrey
Sir T. Cecil
Rebuilt.
Westwood
1590
Worcester -
Sir J. Packington
Perfect.
Hardwick Hall - 1597
Derby -
Countess of Shrewsbury -
In ruins.
447. Relative to Osterley, in the above table, a curious anecdote has been preserved by
Fuller, in his Worthies of Middlesex. Queen Elizabeth, when visiting its magnificent
merchant, the owner, observed to him that the court ought to have been divided by a wall.
He immediately collected so many artificers, that before the queen had risen the next
morning, says the historian, a wall had been actually erected.
448. Many of these houses possessed terraces of imposing grandeur, which were con-
nected by broad or double flights of steps, with balustrades, whereof, if we may judge from
Winstanley's print of Wimbledon-, the seat of Sir Edward Cecil, it was a very fine example.
The following extracts from the parliamentary survey of it in 1649 will convey some
notion of its extent. " The scite of this manor-house being placed on the side slipp of a
rising grownde, renders it to stand of that height, that betwixt the basis of the brick wall of
the lower court, and the hall door of the sayd manor-house, there are five several ascents,
consisting of three score and ten stepps, which are distinguished in a very graceful manner.
The platforms were composed of Flanders brick, and the stepps of freestone, very well
wrought. On the ground floor was a room called the stone gallery, 108 foot long, pillared
and arched with gray marble." The ceiling of the hall " was of fret or parge work, in the
middle whereof was fixed one well- wrought landskip, and round the same, in convenient
distances, seven other pictures in frames, as ornaments to the whole roome ; the floor was
of black and white marble."
449. As we have above observed, the Elizabethan style is a mixture of Gothic and Italian.
It is characterised by orders very inaccurately and rudely profiled ; by arcades whose openings
are often extravagantly wide, their height not unfrequently running up into the entabla-
ture. The columns on the piers are almost universally on pedestals, and are often banded
in courses of circular or square blocks at intervals of their height ; when square, they are
constantly decorated with prismatic raisings, in imitation of precious stones, a species of
?O2
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
ornament which is of very frequent recurrence. Nothing like unbroken entablatures
appear ; all is frittered away into small parts, especially in scrolls for the reception of in-
scriptions, which, at their extremities, are voluted and curled up, like so many pieces of
scorched leather. All these ec-
centricities are so concentrated
in their sepulchral monuments,
that no better insight into the
leading principles of the style
can be afforded than an example
from Westminster Abbey, here
given in the monument of Queen
Elizabeth herself (fig. 205.).
In this it will be seen that the
taste is cumbrous and confused ;
and to add to the anomalies, the
figures were coloured, and the
different sorts of marbles and
alabasters of numberless hues.
The general composition consists
in a large altar tomb under an
open arcade,with a rich and com-
plicated entablature. The co-
lumns are usually of black or
white marble, of the Doric or
Corinthian order. Small pyra-
midal figures, whose sides were
richly veneered with variously
coloured pieces, disposed in or-
namented squares or circles sup-
porting globes, are of continual
occurrence. Armorial bearings
in their various colours were in-
troduced to excess. When the
monument is placed against a
wall, which is more usually the
case, the plan was accommodated
to it, and the alcove with its
columns universally retained.
Among the best examples are
those of Ratcliffe Earl of Surrey at Boreham, and of his countess in Westminster Abbey ;
of Dudley Earl of Leicester at Warwick, and of Carey Lord Hunsdou in Westminster
Abbey.
450. It seems droll in this age, when throughout Europe the principles of good taste in
architecture are so well understood, that fashion, induced by the cupidity and ignorance of
upholsterers and decorators, — the curses of the art, — should again sanction an adoption of
the barbarous forms and unmeaning puerilities which it might be supposed Jones and Wren
had, by their example, consigned to a merited oblivion. We fear our warning voice will
do little to suppress the rage till its cycle is completed. We have, in the prolongation of
the subject, sacrificed our own feelings to the rage in the present day for designs of this
class, and have assigned to it a far longer description than it deserves. The wretched
cockney imitations of it perpetrated for retired shopkeepers in the insignificant villas of the
suburbs of the metropolis, and occasionally for the amusement of country gentlemen a
little more distant, as well as the use of what is called Gothic, appear to us in no other
light than mockeries of a style which is repudiated by the manners of the nineteenth century.
The style called Elizabethan we consider quite as unworthy of imitation as would be the
adoption in the present day of the model of the ships of war, with their unwieldly and top-
heavy poops, which encountered the Armada, in preference to the beautiful and compact
form of a well-moulded modern frigate.
JKKN ELIZABETH'S MONUJ
SECT. VII.
JAMES I. TO ANNE.
451. The first of the reigns that heads this section has, in some measure, been anticipated
in our notice of Elizabethan architecture, which it was impossible to keep altogether distinct
CHAP. III.
JAMES I. TO ANNE.
203
from the following reign. The angular and circular bay windows now disappeared entirely,
and were supplanted by large square ones, of very large dimensions in their height,
unequally divided by transoms, and placed in lengthened rows, so as to form leading
features in the several stories of the building. Battlements were now entirely omitted,
and the general effect of the pile became one of massive solidity, broken by a square turret
loftier than those at the angles. The houses built in the reign of James I. are deficient in
the picturesque beauty found in those of his predecessors. Many of them were finished by
the architects named in the last section, and they were on a larger scale than even those of
the age of Elizabeth. Audley Inn in 1616, Hatfield in 1611, and Charlton House in
Wiltshire for Sir Henry Knevett, were, perhaps, the best specimens. The house at
Campden, Gloucestershire, built by Sir Baptist Hickes, and which was burned down during
the civil wars, consisted of four fronts, the principal one being towards the garden, upon the
ground terrace ; at each angle was a lateral projection of some feet, with spacious bay
windows ; in the centre a portico, with a series of the columns of the five orders (as in the
schools at Oxford), and an open corridor. The parapet was finished with pediments of a
capricious taste, and the chimneys were twisted pillars with Corinthian capitals. A very
capacious dome issued from the roof, which was regularly illuminated for the direction
of travellers during the night. This immense building was enriched with friezes and
entablatures, most profusely sculptured ; it is reported to have been erected at the expense
of 29,0007., and to have occupied, with its offices, a site of eight acres."
452. The use of the orders became more general. In Glamorganshire, at Beaupre
Castle (1600), which has a front and porch of the Doric order, we find a composition in-
cluding that just named, the Ionic and the Corinthian, wherein the capitals and columns
are accurately designed and executed. The following table exhibits some of the principal
houses of the period : —
House.
Date.
County.
Founder.
Present
State.
Architect.
Holland House -
1607
Middlesex -
Sir Walter Cope
Perfect
John Thorpe
Bramshill
_
Hants
Edward Lord Zouche -
do.
Uncertain.
Castle Ashby
_
Northampton
Herbert Lord Compton
do.
do.
Summer Hill
_
Kent
Earl of Clanricarde
do.
do.
Charlton
_
Wilts. - -
Sir Henry Knevet - Restored
do.
Hatfield -
1611
Herts.
Robert Earl of Salisbury Perfect
do.
Longford Castle -
1612
Wilts.
Sir T. Gorges
do.
John Thorpe.
Temple Newsham
.
Yorkshire -
Sir Arthur Ingram
do.
Uncertain.
Charlton -
-
Kent
Sir Adam Newton
do.
do.
Bolsover
1613
Derby - -
Sir Charles Cavendish |
Dilapi-
dated
{Hunting-
don and
Smithson.
Audley Inn
1616
Essex
T. Earl of Suffolk - Perfect
B. Jansen.
fj. Thorpe
Wollaton -
-
Notts. - -
Sir Francis Willoughby
do.
j and
|_ Smithson.
i
453. Under James, the pride and magnificence of the aristocracy was as equally dis-
played in the sumptuous monuments erected to the memory of the departed as in their
stately palaces ; and we can scarcely point to a county in England whose parish churches
do not attest the fact by the gorgeous tombs that exist in villages where the mansions of
those thus commemorated have not long since passed from the memory of man. A year's
rental of an estate, and that frequently under testamentary direction, was often squandered
in the sepulchral monument of the deceased lord of a manor.
454. In the reign of James I. properly commences the career of Inigo Jones, to which
we hasten with delight, as indicating the dawn of true architecture (for the Gothic had irre-
trievably passed away) in England. It resembles the arrival of a traveller at an oasis in the
desert, after a parching and toilsome journey. " Jones, if a table of fame," says Walpole,
" like that in the Tatler, were to be formed for men of real and indisputable genius in
every country, would save England from the disgrace of not having her representative
among the arts. She adopted Holbein and Vandyck, she borrowed Rubens, she produced
Inigo Jones. Vitruvius drew up his grammar, Palladio showed him the practice, Rome
displayed a theatre worthy his emulation, and King Charles was ready to encourage,
employ, and reward his talents. This is the history of Inigo Jones as a genius." Gene-
rally speaking, we are not admirers of Walpole, who often sacrificed truth to fancy, and the
character of an artist to a prettily-turned period ; hence we are disinclined to concur in his
criticisms without many qualifications ; but in this case he has so well expressed our own
204 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
feelings, that we regret we cannot add force to the observations in which we so fully
concur.
455. Inigo Jones was the son of a clothworker, and was born about 1572. From the
most probable accounts he appears to have been apprenticed to a joiner, in which state he
was, from some accounts, discovered by the Earl of Arundel, from others by William Earl
of Pembroke, and by one or other of these noblemen sent to Italy, rather, however, accord-
ing to Walpole, to study the art of painting, than that of architecture, for the former of which,
the author named says, Nature appears not to have fitted him, inasmuch as " he dropped the
pencil, and conceived Whitehall. " But our own belief is, that though he might have after-
wards been patronised by both the noblemen above mentioned, he owed this part of his
education to neither of them ; for, considering that at his first visit to Italy, before 1605,
Lord Pembroke was but just of age, and that Lord Arundel was somewhat younger,
there is no great probability that either of them thus assisted him in his studies on the
Continent.
456. Of his employment as an architect nothing can be traced previous to the visit of
James I. to the University of Oxford, in 1605, at which time he was thirty- three years old ;
and then, according to Leland ( Collectanea, App. vol. vi. p. 647. ), " They " (the Univer-
sity) " hired one Mr. Jones, a great traveller, who undertook to further them with rare
devices, but performed little to what was expected. He had for his pains, I have con-
stantly heard, 50/. ; " from which it is certain that his earliest visit to Italy was before
1605. At Venice he became acquainted with the works of Palladio ; and there, as
Walpole observes, " learned how beautifully taste may be exerted on a less theatre than
the capital of an empire." In this city his reputation was so great, that Christian IV.
appointed him his architect, though of the buildings erected by him in Denmark we know
nothing. In this country's capital, however, he was found by James, and by his Queen
(Anne) was removed from Copenhagen to Scotland, in the quality of her architect. By
Prince Henry he was employed in the same capacity, and about this time had the grant in
reversion of surveyor general of the works. On the untimely and lamented death of that
prince, he once more visited Italy, where he perfected his taste and ripened his judgment.
It appears more than probable that it was previous to his second journey that he designed
those of his buildings that partake of a bastard style. These buildings, however, are such
as could, under the circumstances, have been designed only by a great master in a state of
transition from one style to another ; such, for instance, are the north and south sides of
the quadrangle at St. John's College, Oxford, in which he seems to have copied all the
faults of the worst examples of his great master Palladio ; still the composition is so
picturesque, that, though reluctantly, we cannot avoid admiring it. In the garden front of
the same college (Jig. 206.), notwithstanding its impurity, there is a breadth and grandeur
which subdue criticism, and raise our admiration; and we by no means subscribe to Horace
Walpole's dictum, that " Inigo's designs of that period have a littleness of parts and a
weight of ornament." Previous to his second return to England, the surveyor's place had
fallen in, and finding the office in debt, he prevailed, as Walpole observes, with an air of
CHAP. III.
JAMES I. TO ANNE.
205
Roman disinterestedness, and showing that architecture was not the only thing he had
learned in Rome, on the comptroller and paymaster of the office, to give up, as he did, all
the profits of the office till the arrears were cleared.
457. By the Fcedera, vol. xviii. p. 99., we find that there was issued to him, in conjunction
with the Earl of Arundel and others, a commission to prevent the building on new found-
ations within two miles of London and the palace of Westminster ; and in 1620 he was, if
possible, more uselessly employed by James I. in guessing, for it was no more, who were
the builders of Stonehenge. For this last, the necessary preliminary information had not
even dawned, although Walpole, in his usual off-hand manner, loses not, in alluding to it, the
opportunity of displaying his own dreadful ignorance on the subject. (See Chap. II. Sect. II.,
where this monument has been examined. ) In the year last named, Jones was one of the
commissioners for the repair of old St. Paul's, though the repairs were not commenced till
1633, in which year Laud, then Bishop of London, laid the first stone, and Inigo Jones
the fourth. Our architect was now too much disinclined to Gothic to bend his genius to
Front to
the Park
Fig. 207.
PLAN OX WHITEHAI
206
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
anything in the shape of a restoration ; and though the Roman portico which he placed
before the church was magnificent, the application of Roman to Gothic architecture of
course ruined the cathedral. The reader will find a representation of this portico in
Dugdale's St. Paul's. Abstractedly considered, it was a fine composition ; and its dimen-
sions, of a length of 200 ft., a depth of 50 ft., and a height of 40 ft., were calculated to give
it an imposing effect.
458. The Banqueting House at Whitehall, which we have pride in quoting as one of
the most magnificent works in Europe, has generally been supposed to have been erected in
the reign of Charles I.; but there is sufficient reason for assigning the period of its execution
to the preceding reign. It was begun in 1619, and finished in two years. The designs
for the palace of Whitehall, whereof fig. 207. at the foot of the preceding page, exhibits a
block plan, on which the banqueting-house (at A), it will be seen, forms a very inconsi-
derable portion, would, had they been executed, have formed, beyond all comparison, the
finest in the world. In magnitude it would have exceeded even the palace of Diocletian.
The form, as will be observed, was an oblong square, and consisted of seven courts, whereof
six were quadrangular. The central one was larger than the other two chief divisions ;
and these were again subdivided into three courts, the centre one of which, on the north
side, had two galleries with arcades, and that on the south a circular Persian court, as it
was called, whose diameter was 210ft. Surrounded on the ground floor by an open
arcade, the piers between the arches were decorated with figures of Persians, with what
propriety it is useless to discuss ; and the upper story was ornamented between each
window with caryatides, bearing Corinthian capitals on their heads, surmounted by an
entablature of that order, and the whole was finished by a balustrade. Towards West-
minster, the front extended 1152ft.; and that towards the park, in which the length of
the banqueting-house is included, would have been 720ft. With the exception of
Westminster Hall, the banqueting-house (now used as a chapel) is the largest room in
England, its length being 115 ft., breadth 60ft., and height 55 ft.
459. In 1623, Jones was employed on Somerset House, to the garden front whereof he
executed (Jig. 208. ) a facade of singular beauty, lost to the world by its demolition on the
Fig. 208.
CATER FRONT OF
ERSKT HOUSE.
rebuilding of the edifice for its present purposes. On the ascent of Charles I. to the
throne, our architect seems to have been very much employed. As surveyor of the public
buildings, his stipend was 8s. 4d. a day, besides an allowance of 46/. per annum for house-
rent, a clerk, and incidental expenses.
460. In the passion for masques which prevailed during the reign of Charles I., Jones was
a principal contributor to their splendour. They had been introduced into this country by
Anne of Denmark ; and Walpole gives a list of thirteen to which he furnished the scenes
and machinery.
461. They who have seen Wilton can appreciate Inigo's merit for having introduced into
England, in the seats of our aristocracy, a style vying with that of the villas of Italy.
Some disagreement appears to have arisen between him and Philip Earl of Pembroke,
which here it would be irrelevant to dwell on ; we will merely mention that in the
Harleian library existed an edition of Jones's Stonehenge, which had formerly be-
longed to the nobleman in question ; and that its margins are filled by the former
CHAP. Ill-
JAMES I. TO ANNE.
207
possessor with notes, not on the substance of the work itself, but on its author, and anything
else that could be injurious. He calls him " Iniquity Jones," and says he had 16,OOO/.
a year for keeping the king's houses in repair. The censures were undeserved ; and the
accusations, unwarranted by facts, are extremely discreditable to the memory of Earl
Philip.
462. The works of Jones
were exceedingly numerous ;
many, however, are assigned to
him which were the productions
of his scholars. Such buildings
as the Queen's house at Green-
wich (much altered, and, indeed,
spoiled, of late years, for the pur-
pose of turning it into a public
naval school); Coleshill,in Berk-
shire, built in 1650; Shaftes-
bury House, in Aldersgate
Street ; the square, as planned,
and Church of St. Paul, Covenl
Garden ; and many other works,
are strong proofs of the advance-
ment of architecture during his
career. York Stairs (fig. 209. ),
another of his examples, exhibits
a pureness and propriety of cha-
racter which appears to have
been afterwards unappreciated
by his successors, with Wren at
their head, whose mention by
the side of Jones is only justified by the scientific and constructive skill he possessed.
463. Jones was a follower of the Venetian school, which we have described in a previous
section. His respect for Palladio is evinced by the circumstance of a copy of that great
master's works being his companion on his travels through Italy. It is filled with his
autograph notes, and is now deposited in the library of Worcester College, Oxford. Lord
Burlington had a Vitruvius noted by him in a similar manner. It is curious to see the
amateurs and pseudo-critics of the present day decry these two authors, whom Jones, a
genius of the first order, thought his best instructors. The class in question are, however,
no longer considered worthy of being listened to on matters of the art ; and the public
taste is, in this respect, turning once more into the proper channel. Palladian architecture,
thus introduced by Jones, would have reached a splendour under Charles I. perhaps equal
to that which Italy can boast, had not its progress been checked by public calamities, in
which it was the lot of the artist to share the misfortunes of his royal master. In addition
to being the favourite of the king, he was a Roman Catholic ; and for this (as it was then
curiously called) delinquency, he had to pay 5451. in the year 1646. Grief, misfortunes,
and a consequent premature old age, terminated the life of this great man at Somerset
House on the 21st of July, 1651.
464. The plans of houses introduced from Italy by this master were not, perhaps, alto-
gether suited to the climate or habits of the English. One of his greatest faults was that of
aiming at magnificence under circumstances in which it could not be attained. Thus, his
rooms were often sacrificed to the show and effect resulting from a hall or a staircase, or
both ; sometimes, to gain the appearance of a vista of apartments, they were made too small
for the scale of the house. His distribution of windows is purely Italian, and the piers
between them consequently too large, so that the light is occasionally insufficient in
quantity. The habits of Italy, which enabled Palladio to raise his principal floor, and to
have the farm offices and those for the vintage in the same range of building as the
mansion, impart an air of great magnificence to the Italian villa. Jones saw that this
arrangement was not required for English convenience, and therefore avoided the Palladian
practice ; " but," says Mitford, " the architects who followed him were dazzled, or dazzled
their employers. To tack the wings to the centre with a colonnade became a phrase to
express the purpose of plan of the most elegant effect ; and the effect, provided the com-
bination be harmonious, will be elegant ; but the arrangement is very adverse to general
convenience, and especially in the moderate scale of most general use. Where great
splendour is the object, convenience must yield to it. Magnificence must be paid for in
convenience as well as money. " Webb and Carter were the pupils of Jones. The former
will furnish us presently with a few remarks. During the time of the Commonwealth, the
history of architecture in this country is a complete blank. We know of no public work
of consequence that was designed or executed in the interregnum. On the restoration of
208
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
the monarchy, however, the art began to revive; but it was much tinctured with the
contemporary French style, which Lord Burlington, on its reappearance many years after-
wards, had the merit of reforming, and of bringing back the public taste to the purity
which Jones had introduced : but this we shall have to notice hereafter.
465. John Webb was nephew as well as scholar of Inigo Jones, whose only daughter
he married. He built a large seat for the Bromley family at Horseheath, in Cambridgeshire ;
and added a portico to the Vine, in Hampshire, for Challoner Chute, the Speaker to
Richard Cromwell's parliament. Ambresbury, in Wiltshire (Jig. 210.), was only executed
Fig. 210. AMBRESBURY.
by him from the designs of his master, as also the east side of the court of Greenwich
Hospital. Captain William Winde, a native of Bergen-op-Zoom, and pupil to Sir Balthazar
Gerbier, was, soon after the Restoration, in considerable employ as an architect. He built
Cliefden House, Bucks, which was destroyed by fire in 1795 ; the Duke of Newcastle's, in
Lincoln's Inn Fields ; Combe Abbey, Warwickshire, for Lord Craven ; and for the same
peer he finished Hempsted Marshall, which had been begun by his master. But the chief
and best work of Winde was Buckingham House, in St. James's Park, on whose site now
stands a palace, larger, indeed, but unworthy to be its successor. It is known from prints,
and not a few of our readers will probably recollect the building itself. It was erected for
John Sheffield, Duke of Buckingham ; and on its frieze was the inscription " sic SITI
L^ETANTUR LARES." The arrears in the payments for this house, according to an anecdote
in Walpole, were so distressing, that when it was nearly finished, " Winde had enticed his
Grace to mount upon the leads to enjoy the grand prospect. When there, he coolly locked
the trap-door, and threw the key to the ground, addressing his astonished patron, ' I am
a ruined man, and unless I have your word of honour that the debts shall be paid, I will
instantly throw myself over.' ' And what is to become of me,' said the duke ? ' You shall
come along with me.' The promise was given, and the trap-door opened (upon a sign
made) by a workman in the secret, and who was a party to the plot." We do not vouch
for the truth of the tale.
466. An architect of the name of Marsh is said, by Vertue, to have designed the additional
buildings at Bolsover, as also to have done some considerable works at Nottingham Castle ;
and Salmon, in his account of Essex, mentions a Doctor Morecroft, who died in 1677, as
the architect of the manor-house of Fitzwalters. Of the works of the French taste about
the middle of the period under discussion, a better notion cannot be obtained than from
Montague House, late the British Museum (fig. 211.), the work of a Frenchman here
whose example had followers ; indeed, Wren himself, in some of his works, has caught the
vices of the French school of the day, though he was a follower of the Venetian and Roman
schools. The fire which destroyed London in 1666, a few years after the death of Jones,
brought into notice the talents of Sir Christopher Wren, whose career was opened under
CHAP. III.
JAMES I. TO ANNE.
209
'Mil
J^T'llr -; ifr^iil" •- £'; '- -!M1I^ — '
yQQQEl
Fig. 211.
BRITISH MUSEUM.
the reign of Charles II. " The length of his life enriched the reigns of several princes and
disgraced the last of them." (At the advanced age of 86 he was removed by George I. from
the office of Surveyor General. ) " A variety of knowledge proclaims the universality, a mul-
tiplicity of works the abundance, St. Paul's the greatness, of Sir Christopher's genius. The
noblest temple, the largest palace, the most stupendous hospital, in such a kingdom as
Britain, are all works of the same hand. He restored London and recorded its fall." As
the boast of England is the Cathedral Church of St. Paul, it will be necessary to dwell a
little on a description of it.
467. The larger portion of this cathedral stands on part of the site of the old one, as
shown by the annexed diagram {Jig. 212.), which also exhibits their comparative sizes. It is
PLAN OF OLP AN!) NEW ST. P,
copied from a drawing by Sir Christopher in the library of All Souls College at Oxford.
The instructions to the surveyor, according to the compiler of the Parentalia, were — " to
contrive a fabric of moderate bulk, but of good proportion ; a convenient quire, with a
vestibule and porticoes, and a dome conspicuous above the houses : " and in conformity with
them, a design was made which, from various causes, does not appear to have given satis-
faction ; whereon the compiler observes, that " he endeavoured to gratify the taste of the
connoisseurs and criticks with something coloss and beautiful, with a design antique and
well studied, conformable to the best style of the Greek and Roman architecture." The
model made from this design is still preserved in the cathedral. This however was, unfor-
tunately, not approved, and, as our informant continues, " the surveyor then turned his
thoughts to a cathedral form, so altered as to reconcile as near as possible the Gothic to a
better manner of architecture." These last designs were approved by Charles, who issued
his warrant under privy seal on the 1st of May, 1675, for the execution of the works.
468. Much trouble was experienced in removing the immense ruins of the old church, for
the destruction whereof recourse was had to many expedients. On the north side, the founda-
tions are placed upon a stratum of hard pot earth about 6 ft. in thickness, but not more
P
210 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
than 4 ft. thick on the south side ; and upon this stratum, from the experience of the old
church having firmly rested, the architect wisely determined to place the new one. The
work was commenced on the western side, driving eastward to the extremity of the site ;
at which, on the northern side, a pit was discovered whence the hard pot earth had
been extracted, and the vacuity so made filled up w.ith loose rubbish. The length of this
hole in the direction of the foundation was not more than 6 or 7 ft., and from the fear of
piles, if driven, becoming rotten, the surveyor determined to excavate through the sand,
and to build up from the stratum solid for a depth of 40 ft. The pit sunk here was 18 ft.
wide; in this he built up a pier, 10ft. square, till it rose to within 15 ft. of the present
surface. At this level he introduced an arch from the pier to the main foundation, and on
this arch the north-eastern quoin of the choir is founded.
469. On the 21st of June, 1675, the first stone was laid; and, within ten years, the walls
of the choir and its side aisles, and the north and south circular porticoes, were finished ; the
piers of the dome also were brought up to the same height. The son of the architect laid
the last stone in 1710. This was the highest stone on the top of the lantern. Thus the
whole edifice was finished in thirty-five years, under the remarkable circumstances of having
only one architect, one master mason (Mr. Strong), and the see being occupied the whole
time by one bishop, Doctor Henry Compton.
470. The plan of St. Paul's is a Latin cross, and bears a general resemblance to that of
St. Peter's. A rectangular parallelogram, 480 ft. from east to west (measuring from the
top of the steps of the western portico to the exterior of the eastern wall of the choir), is
crossed by another parallelogram, whose extremities form the transepts, 250 ft. in length
from north to south. At the eastern end of the first parallelogram is a hemicylindrical
recess, containing the altar, and extending 20 ft. further eastward ; so that the whole length
is 500 ft., exclusive of the flight of steps. At the north and south ends of the transepts
are porticoes, segmental on the plan, and projecting 20 ft. The centre of the intersection
of the parallelograms is 280 ft. from the western front. The width of each parallelogram
is 125 ft. At the western end of the edifice, on the north and south extremities, are towers
whose western faces are in the same plane as the general front, but whose northern and
southern faces respectively project about 27 ft. from the walls of the aisles of the nave ; so
that the whole width of the western front is about 180ft. In the re-entering angles on
each side, between the towers and the main building, are two chapels, each 50 ft. long and
20 ft. broad, open to the aisles of the nave at their western end. Externally two orders
reign round the building. The lower one Corinthian, standing on a basement 10 ft. above
the level of the ground, on the western side, where a flight of steps extending the whole
breadth of the front, exclusive of the towers, leads to the level of the church. The height
of this order, including the entablature, is 50 ft. ; and that of the second order, which is
composite, is one fifth less, or 40 ft. ; making the total height 100 ft. from the ground to the
top of the second entablature. The portico of the western front is formed with the two
orders above mentioned, the lower story consisting of twelve coupled columns, and the
upper one of eight ; which last is surmounted by a pediment, whose tympanum is sculp-
tured with the subject of the Conversion of St. Paul, in pretty high relief. Half of the
western elevation, and the half transverse section, is given in fig. 213. At the northern
and southern ends of the transepts the lower order is continued into porticoes of six fluted
columns, standing, in plan, on the segment of a circle, and crowned with a semi-dome abut-
ting against the ends of the transepts.
471. The porch of the western front is 50ft. long and 20ft. wide : the great doorway,
being in the centre of it, leads to a vestibule 50 ft. square, at whose angles are four piers
connected at top by semicircular arches, under which are placed detached coupled columns
in front of the piers. The body of the church is divided into a nave and two side aisles,
decorated with pilasters supporting semicircular arches ; and on each side of the porch and
vestibule is a passage which leads directly to the corresponding aisles. The choir is similarly
disposed, with its central division and side aisles.
472. The entrances from the transepts lead into vestibules 25 ft. deep, and the whole
breadth of the transept in length, each communicating with the centre by a central passage
and its aisles formed between two massive piers and the walls at the intersections of the
transepts with the choir and nave. The eight piers are joined by arches springing from
one to the other so as to form an octagon at their springing points, and the angles between
the arches, instead of rising vertically, sail over as they rise and form pendentives, which
lead, at their top, into a circle on the plan. Above this a wall rises in the form of a trun-
cated cone, which, at the height of 168 ft. from the pavement, terminates in a horizontal
cornice, from which the interior dome springs. Its diameter is 100 ft., and it is 60 ft. in
height, in the form of a paraboloid. Its thickness is 18 in., and it is constructed of brick-
work. From the haunches of this dome, 200 ft. above the pavement of the church, another
cone of brickwork commences, 85 ft. high, and 94 ft. diameter at the bottom. This cone
is pierced with apertures, as well for the purpose of diminishing its weight as for distri-
buting light between it and the outer dome. At the top it is gathered into a dome, in the
CHAP. III.
JAMES I. TO ANNE.
211
1 ig. 213.
HAIJT ELEVATION AND HAI.K SECTION OF
form of a hyperboloid, pierced near the vertex with an aperture 12 ft. in diameter. The
top of this cone is 285 ft. from the pavement, and carries a lantern 55 ft. high, terminating
in a dome, whereon a ball and cross is raised. The last-named cone is provided with
corbels, sufficient in number to receive the hammer beams of the external dome, which is
of oak, and its base 220 ft. from the pavement, its summit being level with the top of the
cone. In form, it is nearly hemispherical, and generated by radii 57 ft. in length, whose
centres are in a horizontal diameter, passing through its base. The cone and the interior
dome are restrained in their lateral thrust on the supports by four tiers of strong iron
chains, placed in grooves prepared for their reception, and run with lead. The lowest
of these is inserted in the masonry round their common base, and the other three at different
heights on the exterior of the cone. Externally the intervals of the columns and pilasters
are occupied by windows and niches, with horizontal and semicircular heads, and crowned
with pediments. In the lower order, excepting modillions under the corona, the entabla-
ture is quite plain, and there are also console modillions in the upper order. The edifice,
in three directions, is terminated with pediment roofs ; and at the extremities, on each of
those faces, are acroteria, supporting statues 25 ft. above the roof of the edifice. Over the
intersection of the nave and transepts for the external work, and for a height of 25 ft. above
the roof of the church, a cylindrical wall rises, whose diameter is 1 46 ft. Between it and
the lower conical wall is a space, but at intervals they are connected by cross walls. This
cylinder is quite plain, but perforated by two courses of rectangular apertures. On it
stands a peristyle of thirty columns of the Corinthian order, 40 ft. high, including bases
and capitals, with a plain entablature crowned by a balustrade. In this peristyle, every
fourth intercolumniation is filled up solid, with a niche, and connection is provided between
it and the wall of the lower cone. Vertically over the base of that cone, above the
peristyle, rises another cylindrical wall, appearing above the balustrade. It is ornamented
with pilasters, between which are a tier of rectangular windows above, and one of blanks
below. On this wall the external dome is posited. As will be seen by reference to the
section, the lantern which we have before noticed receives no support from it. It is merely
ornamental, differing entirely in that respect from the dome of St. Peter's.
473. The towers in the western front are 220 ft. high, terminating in open lanterns,
covered with domes formed by curves of contrary flexure, and not very purely composed*
though perhaps in character with the general facade.
P 2
212
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
474. The interior of the nave and choir are each designed with three arches longitu-
dinally springing from piers, strengthened, as well as decorated, on their inner faces, by an
entablature, whose cornice reigns throughout the nave and church. Above this entabla-
ture, and breaking with it over each pilaster, is a tall attic from projections, on which
spring semicircular arches which are formed into arcs doubleaux. Between the last pen-
dentives are formed, terminated by horizontal cornices. Small cupolas, of less height than
their semi- diameter, are formed above these cornices. In the upright plane space on the
walls above the main arches of the nave, choir, and transepts, a clerestory is obtained over
the Attic order, whose form is generated by the rising of the pendentives. The inner
dome is plastered on the under side, and painted by Sir James Thornhill, with subjects
relating to the history of St. Paul.
475. For external elegance, we know no church in Europe which exhibits a cupola
comparable with that of St. Paul's, though in its connection with the church by an order
higher than that below it there is a violation of the laws of the art. The cost of the church
was 736,7527., exclusive of the stone and iron enclosures round it, which cost 11,2O2Z.
more ; in all 747,9547. About nine- tenths of that sum were raised by a tax on coals im-
ported into London. As compared with St. Peter's, we subjoin a few of the principal di-
mensions of the two churches.
Direction of Measure.
St. Peter's in En.
ghsh Feet.
St. Paul's in En-
glish Feet.
Excess of the former
in Feet.
Length within
669
500
169
Breadth at entrance
226
100
126
Principal fa9ade
395
180
215
Breadth at the cross
442
223
219
Cupola, clear diameter
139
108
31
Cupola, height of, with lantern
432,
330
102
Church in height
146
110
36
476. If we suppose sections to be made through the transepts of the four principal
churches of Europe, we have their relative sizes in the following ratio : —
St. Peter's, Rome - .... i -0000
Santa Maria del Fiore, at Florence - - *5358
St. Paul's, London - - . . - '4166
St. Genevieve (Pantheon), Paris - .... -3303
477. Notwithstanding its imposing effect as a whole, and the exhibition in its construc-
tion of a mechanical skill of the very highest order ; notwithstanding, also, the abstract
beauty of the greater number of its parts, it is our duty to observe that many egregious
abuses are displayed in the fabric of St. Paul's, the first and greatest whereof is the great
waste of interior effect as compared with the total section employed. If we suppose, as
before, sections from north to south to be made through the transepts of the four prin-
cipal churches, the following table will exhibit the proportion of their clear internal to their
external areas : —
St. Peter's, Rome -
Santa Maria del Fiore, Florence
St. Paul's, London
St. Genevieve (Pantheon), Paris
8,325
8,855
6,865
6,746
10,000
10,000
10,000
10,000
Whence it is seen how highly in this respect the Duomo of Florence ranks above the others.
The defect of St. Paul's in this respect is mainly induced by the false dome ; and though
we may admire the ingenuity that provided for carrying a stone lantern on the top of a
truncated cone, deceitfully appearing, as it does, to stand on the dome from which it rises,
we cannot help regretting that it afforded the opportunity of giving the building a cupola,
liable to the early attack of time, and perhaps that, more to be dreaded, of fire.
478. In the skill required for raising a building on a minimum of foundation, Sir Chris-
topher Wren appears to have surpassed, at least, those who preceded him. In similarly
or nearly so formed buildings, some criterion of the comparative skill employed in their
construction may be drawn from comparing the ratio between the area of the whole plan,
and that of the sum of the areas of the horizontal sections of the whole of the piers,
walls, and pillars, which serve to support the superincumbent mass. The similarity of the
four churches already compared affords, therefore, a criterion of their respective merits in
this respect. We hardly need say that one of the first qualifications of an architect is to
produce the greatest effect by the smallest means. The subjoined table is placed before the
reader as a comparison of the four churches in reference to the point in question.
CHAP. III.
JAMES I. TO ANNE.
213
Church.
Whole Area in
English Feet.
Area of Points of
Support.
Ratio.
St. Peter's at Rome
Sta. Maria del Fiore, Florence
St. Paul's, London
St. Genevieve( Pantheon), Paris
227,069
84,802
84,025
60,287
59,308
17,030
14,311
9,269
1 0-261
1 0-201
1 0-170
1 0-154
The merit, therefore, shown in the construction of the above edifices will be nearly as 1 5,
17, 20, 26, or inversely proportional to the numbers in the last column.
479. We must here mention one of the most unpardonable defects, or rather abuses,
which this church exhibits, and which must be learnt from reference to Jig, 214. Therein is
Fig. 214.
ST. PAIJt'S. SECTION WITH BUTTRESSES.
given a transverse section of the nave and its side aisles. From this it will be seen that the
enormous expense of the second or upper order all round the church was incurred for no
other purpose than that of concealing the flying buttresses that are used to counteract the
thrusts of the vaults of the nave, choir, and transepts, — an abuse that admits of no apology.
It is an architectural fraud. We do not think it necessary to descend into minor defects
and abuses, such as vaulting the church from an Attic order, the multiplicity of breaks,
and want of repose ; the general disappearance of tie and connection, the piercing, as
practised, the piers of the cupola, and mitering the archivolts of its great arches, and the
like, because we think all these are more than counterbalanced by the beauties of the edi-
fice. We cannot, however, leave the subject without observing that not the least of its
merits is its freedom from any material settlement tending to bring on premature dilapida-
tion. Its chief failures are over the easternmost arch of the nave, and in the north transept,
for the remedy whereof (the latter) the architect left written instructions. There are also
some unimportant failures in the haunches of most of the flying buttresses, which are
scarcely worth notice.
480. The wretchedly naked appearance of the interior of this cathedral is a disgrace
neither to the architect nor to the country, but to the clergy, Terrick, bishop of London,
and Potter, archbishop of Canterbury, who refused to sanction its decoration with pictures,
gratuitously proffered by artists of the highest reputation ; and this after the cupola itself
had been decorated. The colour of the sculpture is of no use in heightening the effect of
the interior.
481. The Parentalia contains a description of the manner in which the walls of the old
P 3
214 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
cathedral were destroyed, and those of the present one raised ; which should be read hy all
those engaged in the practice of architecture.
482. Wren, having lived to see the completion of St. Paul's, died in 1723, at the age of
9 ! , and was buried under the fabric, " with four words," says Walpole, " that comprehended
his merit and his fame.
« SI QU^ERAS MONUMENTUM CIRCUMSPICE."
483. It will be impossible, consistently with our space, to describe the works of Sir Chris-
topher Wren. One upon which his fame is as justly founded as upon St. Paul's itself, is
St. Stephen's Church in Wallbrook, in which, on a plot of ground 80^ ft. by 59^ ft., he
has contrived a structure whose elegance is not surpassed by any one we know to have
been raised under similar restrictions. The church in question is divided longitudinally
into five aisles by four ranks of Corinthian columns standing on pedestals ; the places of
four columns near the centre being unoccupied ; the surrounding central columns form the
angles of an octagon, 45 ft. diameter, on which arches are turned, and above which, by
means of pendentives, the circular base of a dome is formed, which is in the shape of a seg-
ment of a sphere, with a lantern thereon. The ceiling of the middle aisle from east to
west is vaulted in groins. The rest of the ceiling is horizontal. The interior of St. James's,
Westminster, is another beautiful example of the master, though recently underrated by
an ignorant critic.
484. One of the peculiarities remarkable about Wren's period is the investment of the
form of the Gothic spire with a clothing of Italian architecture, by which the modern
steeple was produced. If any example could reconcile us to such a practice, it might
be found in that of Bow Church, another of Wren's works, which rises to the height
of 1 97 ft. from the ground, the sides of the square from which it rises being 32 ft. 6 in.
There are in the leading proportions of this tower and spire, some extraordinary examples
in relative heights as compared with widths sesquialterally, which would almost lead one
to suppose that, in this respect, our architect was somewhat superstitious.
485. In St. Dunstan in the East, Wren attempted Gothic, and it is the least offensive
of his productions in that style. It is an elegant composition, but wants the claim to ori-
ginality. St. Nicholas, Newcastle, and the High Church, Edinburgh, are its prototypes.
486. The Monument of London is original, notwithstanding columns of this sort had
been previously erected. Its total expense was 8856/., and it was commenced in 1671,
completed in 1677. The height is 202ft. ; hence it is loftier than any of the historical co-
lumns of the ancients. The pedestal is about 21 ft. square, standing on a plinth 6 ft.
wider. The lower diameter of the column on the upper part of the base is 15 ft., and the
shaft incloses a staircase of black marble, consisting of 345 steps. It was fluted after the
work was carried up. The quantity of Portland stone whereof it is composed is 28,196
cubic feet. The Antonine column at Rome is 175, and that of Trajan 147 ft. high. That
erected by Arcadius at Constantinople, when perfect, was of the same height as that last
mentioned. The structure of which we are speaking loses much by its situation, which
has neither been improved nor deteriorated by the streets consequent on the rebuilding of
London Bridge : and though it cannot compete with the Trajan column in point of in-
trinsic beauty, it is, nevertheless, an exquisite and well-proportioned work, and seems much
better calculated with propriety to record the object of its erection, than the other is to be
the monument of a hero. In these days, it is singular to see that no other mode than the
erection of a column could be found, to record the glorious actions of a Nelson. Such was
the poverty of taste that marked the decision of the committee to whom that object was most
improperly entrusted.
487. Among the works of Wren not to be passed without notice is the Library of
Trinity College, Cambridge. It is one of his finest productions, and one with which he
himself was well satisfied. It consists of two orders ; a Doric arcade below, open to a
basement supported by columns, which has a flat ceiling, exceedingly convenient as an ambula-
tory, and itself simple and well proportioned. The principal story is decorated with three-
quarter columns of the Ionic order, well proportioned. From their volutes, festoons are
pendent, and the key-stones of the windows are carved into cherubs' heads, &c. This is
the elevation towards Nevill's Court ; that towards the garden has three Doric doors below,
but above is without columns or pilasters in the upper stories. Without ornament, it
is not the less graceful and imposing. The interior, as a single room, is designed with great
grandeur and propriety.
488. We cannot further in detail continue an account of the works of this extra-
ordinary architect, but shall now proceed to submit a list of his principal works, together
with a catalogue of those of his principal churches whose estimates exceeded the cost of
50001
CHAP. III.
JAMES I. TO ANNE.
215
Begun. Completed.
Palace at Greenwich, for Charles II. - 1663
Theatre at Oxford ----- 1668 1669
The Monument - - 1671 1677
Temple Bar - - - - - 1670 1672
St. Paul's Cathedral -1675 1710
Library at Trinity College, Cambridge - - 1679
Campanile at Christ Church, Oxford - 1681 1682
Ashmolean Library - 1682
Palace at Winchester - - - 1683 Unfinished.
College of Physicians - 1689
College at Chelsea - -1690
Palace at Hampton Court - - 1690 1694
Towers of Westminster Abbey - - 1696
Greenwich Hospital - 1698 1703
Churches : —
Allhallows the Great
Allhallows, Lombard Street
St. Andrew Wardrobe
St. Andrew, Holborn
St. Antholin
St. Bride -
Christ Church, Newgate Street
St. Clement Dane's
St. Dionis Back church
St. Edmund the King
St. Lawrence Jewry
St. James, Garlick Hill
St. James, Westminster
St. Michael Royal -
St. Martin's, Ludgate
St. Margaret, Lothbury
St. Mary, Somerset
St. Mary, Aldermanbury
St. Mary le Bow
The steeple
St. Nicholas, Coleabbey
St. Olave Jewry - - -
St. Peter, Cornhill -
St. Swithin's, Cannon Street
St. Magnus, London Bridge
489. We must here close our account of Wren. Those of our readers who desire further
information on the life and works of this truly great man will do well to consult the
Parentalia, or Memoirs of the Family of the Wrens, compiled by his son, and published by his
grandson Stephen Wren. Fol. Lond. 1750.
490. Among the architects of Wren's time, there was a triad of amateurs who would
have done honour to any nation as professors of the art. The first of these was Henry
Aldrich, D.D., Dean of Christ Church, Oxford, who died in 1710. He was attached to the
Venetian school, as we may see in the three sides of Peckwater quadrangle, and the garden
front of Corpus Christi College, a fa$ade which for correct taste is not surpassed by any
edifice in Oxford. The second of these amateurs was Dr. Clarke, one of the Lords of the
Admiralty in the reign of Queen Anne. This distinguished amateur sat for Oxford in
fifteen sessions. The Library of Worcester College, to which he bequeathed his valuable
architectural collection of books and MSS., was from his design. He built the library at
Christ Church. The third was Sir James Burrough, Master of Caius College, Cambridge;
by whom, in 1703, the chapel of Clare Hall in that University was beautifully designed
and executed.
491. We now approach the works of a man who, whatever some have thought of them,
has a stronger claim on our notice as an inventor than any of his predecessors. It
must be anticipated that we allude to Sir John Vanbrugh. Upon no other artist has
Walpole delivered criticisms more unworthy of himself, nor is there any one of whose
genius he had less capacity to appreciate the powers. The singular mind of Vanbrugh
was distracted by control : his buildings are the result of a combination of forms and anti-
cipation of effects, originating solely from himself; effects which none before had seen nor
P 4
Time of erection.
Cost.
_
1697
5,641 /.
9s.
9d.
.
1694
8,058
15
6
_
1692
7,060
16
11
.
1687
9,000
0
0
.
1682
5,685
5
10
-
1680
11,430
5
11
-
1687
11,778
9
6
_
1680-82
8,786
17
0
-
1674-84
5,737
10
8
-
1690
5,207
11
0
-
1677
11,870
1
9
-
1683
3,357
10
8
circa
1689
8,500
0
0
-
1694
7,555
7
9
_
1684
5,378
9
7
_
1690
5,34O
8
1
_
1695
6,579
18
1
-
1677
5,237
3
6
-
1673
8,071
18
1
_
1680
1,388
8
7
.
1677
5,042
6
11
„
1673
5,580
4
10
_
1681
5,647
8
2
_
1679
4,687
4
6
-
1676
9,579
18
10
216
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
contemplated. As a wit, he was inferior to none that levelled its shafts at him, and hence
his novel compositions in architecture became among the professed critics of the day so
much the more an object of derision, as, in their puny notions, his only assailable point.
Attacked from party feeling, the public allowed itself to be biassed by epigrams and smart
verses from the pens of Pope and Swift ; and when the former, in his fourth epistle, in allu-
sion to Vanbrugh's works, exclaims, —
" Lo ! what huge heaps of littleness around,
The whole a laboured quarry above ground," —
he little thought he was leaving to posterity a record of his consummate ignorance of art,
and of his total insensibility to grandeur, in all that relates to composition in architecture.
492. The opinion of Sir Joshua Reynolds first enlightened the public upon the thitherto
condemned works of this extraordinary architect. " I pretend," says Reynolds, in his fifth
discourse, " to no skill in architecture. I judge now of the art merely as a painter. When
I speak of Vanbrugh, I speak of him merely on our art. To speak, then, of Vanbrugh
in the language of a painter, he had originality of invention, he understood light and
shadow, and had great skill in composition. To support his principal object, he produced
his second and third groups of masses ; he perfectly understood in his art what is most dif-
ficult in ours, the conduct of the backgrounds by which the design and invention is (are)
set off to the greatest advantage. What the background is in painting is the real ground
upon which the building is erected ; and as no architect took greater care that his work
should not appear crude and hard, — that is, that it did not abruptly start out of the ground,
without expectation or preparation, — this is the tribute which a painter owes to an
architect who composes like a painter." The testimony of Mr. Payne Knight, a person of
a taste highly refined and cultivated, in his Principles of Taste, is another eulogium on
the works of this master. And again we have the concurrence therein of another able
writer on these subjects, who, though frequently at variance in opinion with Mr. Knight,
thus expresses himself in his Essay on the Picturesque, vol. ii. p. 211. : " Sir J. Reynolds
is, I believe, the first who has done justice to the architecture of Vanbrugh, by showing it
was not a mere fantastic style, without any other object than that of singularity, but that he
worked on the principles of painting, and that he has produced the most painter-like effects.
It is very probable that the ridicule thrown on Vanbrugh's buildings, by some of the
wittiest men of the age he lived in, may have in no slight degree prevented his excellencies
from being attended to ; for what has been the subject of ridicule will seldom become the
object of study or imitation. It appears to me, that at Blenheim, Vanbrugh conceived and
executed a very bold and difficult design, that of uniting in one building the beauty and
magnificence of the Grecian architecture, the picturesqueness of the Gothic, and the mas-
sive grandeur of a castle ; and that, in spite of many faults, for which he was very justly
reproached, he has formed, in a style truly his own, and a well-combined whole, a mansion
worthy of a great prince and warrior. '' His first point appears to have been massiveness,
as the foundation of grandeur : then, to prevent the mass from being a lump, he has made
n.AX OF BLF.MIF.IM
CHAP. III.
JAMES I. TO ANNE.
217
.arious bold projections of various heights, which seem as foregrounds to the mam build-
ino- • and lastly, having been probably struck with a variety of outline against the sky in
man'v Gothic and other ancient buildings, he has raised on the top of that part where the
slanting roof begins in any house of the Italian style, a number of decorations of various
haracters These, if not new in themselves, have, at least, been applied and combined
bv him in' a new and peculiar manner, and the union of them gives a surprising splendour
and magnificence, as well as variety, to the summit of that princely edifice. _ The study,
therefore, not the imitation, might be extremely serviceable to artists of genius and dis-
principal work was Blenheim (whereof we give, in figs. 215. and 216.,
Fig. 216.
the plan and principal elevation), a monument of the victories of Marlborough raised by a
grateful nation. Its length on the north front from one wing to the other is 348 ft. The
internal dimensions of the library are 130 by 32ft. The hall is perhaps small compared
with the apartments to which it leads, being only 53 ft. by 44, and 60 ft. high.
494. The execution of his design for Castle Howard, in Yorkshire, was commenced in
1 702, and, with the exception of the west wing, was completed by him. The design possesses
much greater simplicity than that of Blenheim. There is a portico in the centre, and a
cupola of considerable height and magnitude. The galleries, or wings, are flanked by
pavilions. The living apartments are small ; but for the comfort and convenience of the
house, as an habitation, many improvements have been made since the time of Vanbrugh
495. At Eastbury, in Dorsetshire, he built a spacious mansion for Mr. Doddington.
The front of it, with the offices, extended 370 ft. We regret to say that it was taken down
by the first Earl Temple, about the middle of the last century.
496. King's Weston, near Bristol, erected for the Honourable Edward Southwell. A
beautiful feature in the house is the grouping of the chimneys, in which practice no artist
has surpassed, nor perhaps equalled, him. This house is not, however, a favourable spe-
cimen of our architect's powers.
497. In the front which he executed to Grimsthorpe, in Lincolnshire, he indulged him-
self in an imitation of Blenheim and Castle Howard. The hall here is of noble dimen-
sions, being 1 1 0 ft. in length, and 40 ft. in height, surmounted by a cupola.
498. Charles Howard, the third Earl of Carlisle, Deputy Earl Marshal in 1 703, appointed
Vanbrugh, Clarenceux king of arms, over the heads of all the heralds, who remonstrated,
without effect, against the appointment. The cause of such an extraordinary promotion is
supposed to have had its origin in the Earl's satisfaction with the works at Castle Howard.
It was, however, altogether unjustifiable, for Vanbrugh was, from all accounts, totally ig-
norant of heraldry. He held the situations of surveyor of the works at Greenwich Hos-
pital, comptroller general of the works, and surveyor of the gardens and waters. Though
perhaps out of place in a history of architecture, we cannot resist the opportunity of men-
tioning that our artist was a dramatist of genius. The Relapse, The Provoked Wife, The
Confederacy, and .^Esop, according to Walpole, will outlast his edifices. He died at
Whitehall, March 26. 1726. Vanbrugh can hardly be said to have left a legitimate fol-
lower ; he formed no school. Archer, indeed, attempted to follow him, and seems the only
one of his time that could appreciate the merit of his master. But he was too far behind
him to justify our pausing in the history of the progress of British architecture to say more
than that his best works are Heythrop, and a temple at Wrest. St. Philip's Church at
Birmingham is also by him. " A chef d'ceuvre of his absurdity," says Dallaway, " was the
church of St. John's, Westminster, with four belfries," a building which has not inaptly been
likened to an elephant on his back, with his four legs sprawling in the air.
218
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I
SECT. VIII.
499. Though the example of Wren was highly beneficial to his art, he does not seem to
have been anxious to propagate his doctrines by precepts, for he had but one pupil who
deserves a lengthened notice. That pupil was Nicholas Hawksmoor, who, at the age of
eighteen, became the disciple of Sir Christopher, " under whom," says Walpole, " during
life, and on his own account after his master's death, he was concerned in erecting many
public edifices. Had he erected no other than the church of St. Mary Woolnoth, Lom-
bard Street, his name would have deserved with gratitude the remembrance of all lovers of
the art. This church has recently (on the opening of King William Street) been unfor-
tunately disfigured on its southern side by some incompetent bungler on whom the patron-
age of the churchwarden lucklessly fell. Such is the fate of our public buildings in this
country. The skill displayed by Hawksmoor in the distribution and design of St. Mary
^. Woolnoth is not more than
rivalled by the best productions
of his master and instructor.
We here give, in Jigs. 217. and
21 8., a half section, elevation, and
plan of it. It was commenced
in 1716, and finished in 1719.
Not until lately was it seen to
advantage. Lombard Street, in
which one side still stands, was
narrow, and its northern eleva-
tion, the only one till lately pro-
perly seen, required, from its as-
pect, the boldest form of detail to
give it expression, because of its
being constantly in shade, and
therefore experiencing 119 play
of light except such as is re-
flected. This is composed with
three large semicircular rusti-
HALV BLKVAT1UN HALT SECTION OF ST. MARY WOOLNOTH.
cated niches, each standing on a
lofty rusticated pedestal, relieved with blank recesses, which are repeated in the intervals
below between the niches. The whole rests on a basement, whose openings, of course,
correspond to those above. The
niches in the recesses are de-
corated with Doric columns
on pedestals, and the top of
the entablature of the order is
level with the springing of each
niche head running through on
each side, so as to form an im-
post. The front is crowned
with a block cornice, continued
=SV' round the building, and the cen-
Fig. 218. PLAN OF ST. MART WOOLNOTH. traj part Qf the nOrthem front
is surmounted by a balustrade. We are not prepared to maintain that the whole of
the details are in the purest taste ; but the masses are so extremely picturesque, and
so adapted to the circumstances of the aspect and situation, that their faults are forgotten.
Not so the interior, which needs no apology. It is a combination of proportions,
whose beauty cannot be surpassed in any similar example. The plan is nearly a square,
whose north-west and south-west angles are truncated at angles of forty-five degrees,
for the introduction of stairs. The leading lines are an inscribed square whose sides
are equal to two thirds of the internal width, the remaining sixth on each side being
assigned to the intercolumniations between the columns and the pilasters on the in-
ternal walls. The columns, twelve in number, are placed within the sides of the inscribed
square, and at the angles are coupled at intervals of one diameter. The order is Corinthian ;
the columns are fluted, and crowned by an enriched entablature one quarter of their height.
The space thus enclosed by the columns continues in a clerestory above, pierced on the
four sides by semicircular windows, whose diameters are equal to one of the wide interco-
lumniations below. The height of this, including its entablature, is one half that of the
lower order ; thus, with its pedestal, making the total height of the central part of the
CHAP. III. GEORGE I. 219
church, equal to its extreme width. A sesquialteral proportion is thus obtained in section
as well as plan. The eastern end is recessed square for an altar piece, and arched with a
semicircular ceiling enriched with caissons. The galleries are admirably contrived, and in
no way interfere with the general effect, nor destroy the elegance and simplicity of the
design. The ceilings throughout are horizontal, and planned in compartments, whose
parts are enriched. As regards construction, there is a very unnecessary expenditure of
materials, the ratio of the superficies to the points of support being 1:0-263. Hawksmoor
was not so happy in the church of St. George's, Bloomsbury, in which he has really made
King George I. 'the head of the church by placing him on the top of the steeple, which we
must with Walpole, term a master-stroke of absurdity. But many parts of the building
are highly deserving the attention of the student ; and if the commissioners for new churches
in these days had been content with fewer churches constructed solidly, like this, instead
of many of the pasteboard monstrosities they have sanctioned, the country, instead of re-
gretting they ever existed, which will at no very remote period be the case, would have
owed them a deep debt of gratitude. The only gratification we have on this point is, that
a century, and even less, will close the existence of a large portion of them. Hawksmoor
was deputy surveyor of Chelsea College and clerk of the works at Greenwich, and in that
post was continued by William, Anne, and George I., at Kensington, Whitehall, and St.
James's. Under the last named he was first surveyor of all the new churches and of West-
minster Abbey, from the death of Sir Christopher Wren. He was the architect of the
churches of Christ Church, Spitalfields, St. George, Middlesex, and St. Anne, Limehouse ;
rebuilt some part of All Souls, Oxford, particularly the new quadrangle completed in 1 734,
and was sole architect of the new quadrangle at Queen's. At Blenheim and Castle
Howard he was associated with Vanbrugh, and at the last-named place was employed on
the mausoleum. Among his private works was Easton Neston, in Northamptonshire, and
the restoration to perpendicularity, by means of some ingenious machinery, of the western
front of Beverley Minster. He gave a design for the Itadcliffe Library at Oxford, and of
a stately front for Brazenose. His death occurred on the 25th of March, 1736, at the
age of near seventy.
500. Those acquainted with the condition of the country will be prepared to expect that
the arts were not much patronised by George I. The works executed during his reign
were rather the result of the momentum that had been imparted previous to his accession
than of his care for them ; and it is a consolation that the examples left by Inigo Jones had
an effect that has in this country never been entirely obliterated, though in the time of
George III., such was the result of fashionable patronage and misguided taste, that the
Adamses had nearly consummated a revolution. That reign, however, involved this country
in so many disasters that we are not surprised at such an episode.
501. After the death of Hawksmoor, succeeded to public patronage the favourite architect
of a period extending from 1720 to his death in 1754, whose name was James Gibbs, a
native of Aberdeen, where he first drew breath in 1683. Though he had no claims to the rank
of exalted genius, he ought not to have been the object of the flippant criticism of Walpole,
whose qualifications and judgment were not of such an order as to make him more than a
pleasant gossip. He certainly had not sufficient discernment properly to estimate the talent
displayed in Gibbs's works. Every critic knows how easily phrases may be turned and
antitheses pointed against an artist whom he is determined to set at nought ; of which we
have before had an instance in the case of Sir John Vanbrugh ; and we shall not here
further dilate upon the practice. We will merely observe, that on the appearance of any
work of art the majority of the contemporary artists are usually its best judges, and that in
ninety-nine cases out of a hundred the public afterwards sanction their decision ; and we
will add, in the words of old Hooker, that " the most certaine token of evident goodnesse is,
if the generall perswasion of all men doe so account it ; " and again, " although wee know
not the cause, yet this much wee may know, that some necessarie cause there is, whenso-
ever the judgement of all nun generally or for the most part runne one and the same way."
We do not, therefore, think it useful in respect of an artist of any considerable talent to
repeat a criticism more injurious to the writer than to him of whom it was written.
502. The church of St. Martin's in the Fields is the most esteemed work of our archi-
tect. It was finished in 1 726, as appears from the inscription on the frieze, at the cost of
33,01 11. 9s. 3d. The length of it, including the portico, is twice its width, one third where-
of, westward, is occupied by the portico and vestibule. The portico is hexastyle, of the
Corinthian order, and surmounted by a pediment, in whose tympanum the royal arms are
sculptured. The intercolumniations are of two diameters and a half, and the projection of
the portico of two. Its sides are flanked by antae in their junction with the main building,
one diameter and a half distant from the receiving pilaster. The north and south eleva-
tions are in two stories, separated by a fascia, with rusticated windows in each. Between
the windows the walls are decorated with pilasters of the same dimensions as the columns
of the portico, four diameters apart ; but at the east and west ends these elevations
are marked by insulated columns coupled with antae, The flanks are connected with the
220
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK I.
prevailing lines in the portico by columns placed on the walls, recessed for the pur-
pose, and coupled with antae, whereby a play of light is produced, which imparts great
effect to the other parts. The interior is divided into three unequal portions by a range
on each side of four Corinthian columns, and two pilasters placed on pedestals, raised to
the height of the pewing. From their insulated entablatures rises an elliptical ceiling,
covering what may be called the nave. This ceiling is formed by arcs doubleaux, be-
tween which the vault is transversely pierced in the spaces above the intercolumniations
by semicircular arches springing from the top of the entablature of each column. Over
what may be called the aisles, from the entablatures of the columns, semi-circular arches
are turned and received northward and southward on consoles attached to the walls, and
by their junction with the longitudinal arches from column to column pendentives are
evolved, and thereby are generated small flat domes over the galleries. The altar is
recessed from the nave in a large niche formed by two quadrants of circles, whose radius
is less than one fourth of the whole width of the niche. It is vaulted semi-elliptically.
Galleries are introduced on the north, south, and west sides of the church. On the two
former sides they extend from the walls to the columns, against which the continuity of
their mouldings is broken. The interior is highly decorated, perhaps a little too theatri-
cally for the sombre habits of this country ; but its effect is, on the whole, extremely light
and beautiful. The tower and spire are, as in all the English churches of the Italian style,
a sad blemish ; but the taste of the day compelled their use, and we regret that the clergy
still persist in considering them requisites. The length from the front upper step to the
east wall (inclusive) is 159ft. 6 in., and the breadth from north to south 79ft. 4 in. The
total area of the church is 12,669 ft., whereof the points of support occupy 2803 ft. The
ratio, therefore, of the former to the latter is a 1 : 0-220, from which we may infer that the
edifice exhibits no very extraordinary constructive skill. The span of the roof (fig. 696. ),
which is of the common king-post form, is 38 ft. Gibbs, unlike Wren, does not appear to
have been guided in his leading proportions of this work by a series of ratios. The only
point in which we perceive an approximation to such a system is in the length from the
plinths of the columns of the portico, being just double the width of the church measured at
the same level. The portico is well designed, and hitherto has not been equalled in London.
503. In the church of St. Mary le Strand, Gibbs was not so successful. There is no
portion of its space on which the eye rests with pleasure. It is cut up into littlenesses,
which, though not individually offensive, destroy all repose or notion of mass in the fabric.
He built the new church at Derby, and executed some works at King's College, Cam-
bridge, which last were not calculated to raise his reputation ; but in the senate house of
that university, he was more successful. In the Radcliffe Library at Oxford, his fame was
maintained. It was completed in 1747, and thereon he was complimented with the degree
of Master of Arts. This library is on the plan circular in general form, and rises in the
centre of an oblong square, 370ft. long, by 110 in width. Its cupola is 100ft. in dia-
meter, and 140 ft. high. It possesses no features of striking beauty, and yet is a most
valuable addition to the distant view of Oxford, from whatever point of view it is seen.
The interior is pleasing, and the disposition good. The books are arranged in two circular
galleries, round a large central area. A description of this celebrated building was pub-
lished with plans and sections, fol. 1747. Gibbs was the architect also of St. Bartholo-
mew's Hospital. In 1728, he published a large folio volume of designs, including several
of his works.
i
CHAP. Ill
GEORGE II.
221
504. Some works of considerable importance were erected during the reign of George I.,
by a countryman of the last-named architect, Colin Campbell, who is, however, more
esteemed for three volumes he published of the principal buildings in England, under the
name of the Vitruvius Britannicus. Of this work Lord Burlington was the original pro-
jector and patron. Afterwards, in 1767 and 1771, it was continued in two volumes, under
the superintendence of Wolfe and Gandon, two architects of considerable reputation.
Campbell's talents were not of a very high order, though Mereworth, in Kent, an imitation
of the Villa Capra, built for Mildmay Earl of Westmorland, and Wansted House, in
Essex, built in 1715, and pulled down in 1815, the latter especially, entitle him to be con-
sidered an artist of merit. Foreigners, whilst this last was in existence, always preferred
it to any other of the great mansions of the country. Gilpin says of it, " Of all great
houses, it best answers the united purposes of grandeur and convenience. The plan is
simple and magnificent. The front extends 260 ft. A hall and saloon occupy the body of
the house, forming the centre of each front. From these run two sets of chambers. No-
thing can exceed their convenience. They communicate in one grand suite, and yet each,
by the addition of a back stair, becomes a separate apartment. It is difficult to say whe-
ther we are better pleased with the grandeur and elegance without, or with the simplicity
and contrivance within. Dimensions : Great hall, 51 ft. by 36 ; ball room, 75 by 27 ;
saloon, 30ft. square." As the building no longer exists, we give, in Jigs, 219. and 220., a
Fig. 2m. ELEVATION OF WANSTKAD HOUSE.
ground plan and elevation of it. Campbell was surveyor of the works of Greenwich Hos-
pital, and died in 1734.
505. The church at Greenwich, and a very large mansion at Blackheath for Sir Gregory
Page, in the latter whereof much is said to have been borrowed from Houghton, but which
has many years since disappeared, were, about 1718, erected by John James, of whom very
little more is known than these works, and, in London, the churches of St. George, Hanover
Square, and St. Luke's, Middlesex, the latter whereof has a fluted obelisk for a steeple.
We ought, besides, to mention that he was employed by the Duke of Chandos, at Cannons,
another building no longer in existence, and showing the frail tenure upon which an
architect's reputation and fame is held. At the latter place, however, it may be questioned
whether the remark strictly applies, inasmuch as he is said to have therein set taste and
expense equally at defiance.
SECT. IX.
GEORGE II.
506. We do not altogether agree with Walpole in the observation that architecture
resumed all her rights during this reign, though there is no doubt that the splendid (for the
time) publications of Palladio, Jones, and examples of the antique recalled the taste of
artists and their patrons the public. Men of genius were doubtless found to support the
arts by their practice, and some high-minded patrons to encourage them in their labours.
"Before," observes Walpole, "the glorious close of a reign that carried our arms and
victories beyond where Roman eagles ever flew, ardour for the arts had led our travellers
to explore whatever beauties of Grecian or Latin skill still subsisted in provinces once
subjected to Rome, and the fine additions, in consequence of those researches, have esta-
blished the throne of architecture in Britain while itself languishes in Rome."
507. Among the earliest of the architects of this reign was Thomas Ripley, a native of
Yorkshire, at whom Pope sneers in the lines —
222 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
" Who builds a bridge that never drove a pile ?
Should Ripley venture, all the world would smile."
Imit. Horace, Ep. ii. S. 186.
Ripley, it must be confessed, failed at the Admiralty, which was afterwards veiled by Mr.
Adam's beautiful skreen since cruelly " cheated of its fair proportions " by the late architect
to that Board, in order to make two coach entrances, which might, with the exercise of a
little ingenuity, have been managed without defacing the design. It is difficult, now, to
decide the exact share that Ripley had in the house for Lord Orford, at Houghton, for
which Campbell appears to have furnished the original design. Walpole, whom we mav
presume to have known something about the matter, says they were much improved by
Ripley. He published them in two volumes, folio, 1755 — 60. It is to be regretted that
scarcely a single line of Pope, in matters of taste relative to the artists of his day, is of the
smallest worth, so much did party and politics direct the shafts of the poet's malice. The
plain truth is, that Ripley was the rival of Kent, the favourite of Lord Burlington, whose
patronage it was absolutely necessary to enjoy before he could ensure the smiles of Pope.
Ripley was comptroller of the Board of Works, and died in 1758.
508. Henry Herbert, Earl of Pembroke, an amateur of this reign, cannot pass unnoticed
in the History of its Architecture. He much improved Wilton, where he built the Pal-
ladian Bridge ; and it is highly honourable to his memory that, owing to his exertions, the
qualifications of Labelye for building Westminster Bridge were acknowledged in opposition
to Hawksmoor and Batty Langley, the latter of whom was an ignorant pretender. Of
this bridge Earl Henry laid the first stone in 1739, and the last in 1747. His works,
besides those at Wilton, were, the new lodge in Richmond Park, the Countess of Suffolk's
house at Marble Hill, Twickenham, and the Water House at Lord Orford's Park at
Houghton. He died in 1751.
509. Before advancing our history another step, we have to notice another noble-
man, whom to enrol among the number of her artists is an honour to England ; and in
speaking of Richard Boyle, the third Earl of Burlington and fourth Earl of Ossory,
we so entirely agree in Walpole's eulogy of him, that we shall not apologise for tran-
scribing it from that author's pages : — " Never was protection and great wealth more
generously and judiciously diffused than by this great person, who had every quality of a
genius and an artist, except envy. Though his own designs were more chaste and classic
than Kent's, he entertained him in his house till his death, and was more studious to extend
his friend's fame than his own." Again, he continues, " Nor was his munificence confined
to himself and his own houses and gardens. He spent great sums in contributing to
public works, and was known to chuse that the expense should fall on himself, rather than
that his country should be deprived of some beautiful edifices. His enthusiasm for the
works of Inigo Jones was so active that he repaired the church of Covent Garden, because
it was the production of that great master, and purchased a gateway at Beaufort Gardens,
in Chelsea, and transported the identical stones to Chiswick with religious attachment.
With the same zeal for pure architecture, he assisted Kent in publishing the designs for
Whitehall, and gave a beautiful edition of the ' Antique Baths, from the Drawings of
Palladio,' whose papers he procured with great cost. Besides his works on his own estate,
at Lonsborough, in Yorkshire, he new-fronted his house in Piccadilly, built by his father,
and added the great colonnade within the court." This liberal-minded nobleman gave the
credit of this design to Kent, though, as Kent did not return from Italy before 1729, it is
certain that architect could have had little to do with it. His villa at Chiswick, now that
of the Duke of Devonshire, was an original design, and not, as is generally supposed, an
imitation of Palladio's Villa Capra at Vicenza. It was, however, too much in the Italian
taste to be suitable to an English climate or to English comforts ; hence its great external
beauty extracted from Lord Chesterfield the well-known verses —
" Possessed of one great house of state,
Without one room to sleep or eat,
How well you build let flatt'ry tell,
And all mankind how ill you dwell."
Lord Hervey also sported his little wit upon this little bijou, which its subsequent
additions have not much improved, saying " that it was too small to inhabit, and too large
to hang one's watch in."
. 510. The dormitory of Westminster School, ruined by the present dean, and the Assembly
Room at York, are beautiful examples of the great powers of Lord Burlington; but the
house for Lord Harrington at Petersham, the Duke of Richmond's at Whitehall (pulled
down), and General Wade's house in Great Burlington Street were not well planned, the
latter especially, on which it was said by Lord Chesterfield, on account of its beautiful
front, that " as the general could not live in it to his ease, he had better take a house over
against it, and look at it." The Earl of Burlington was born in 1695, and died in 1753.
511. William Kent, a native of Yorkshire, where he was born in 1685, if he did not ad-
vance the art, was at least far from retarding or checking any progress it seemed likely
CHAP. III. GEORGE III. 223
to make. Kent was a painter as well as an architect, though as the former very inferior to
the latter; and to these accomplishments must be added those of a gardener, for he was the
father of modern picturesque gardening. Kent's greatest, and, out of many, also his best work,
was Holkham, in Norfolk, for the Earl of Leicester, the plan and elevations whereof were
published in folio, 1761, by the late Mr. Brettingham, who had the unparalleled assurance
to send them to the world as his own. The noble hall of this building, terminated by a vast
flight of steps, produces an effect unequalled by anything similar to it in England. During,
and, indeed, previous to, Kent's coming so much into employment, a great passion seems
to have existed with the architects for ill-shaped, and, perhaps, almost grotesque, urns and
globes, on every part where there was a resting-place for them. Kent not unfrequently
disfigured his works in this way, but more especially so at the beginning of his career.
The pile of building in Margaret Street, which will shortly have to make way for part of
the new parliament houses, now, however, containing the law courts, a house at Esher for
Mr. Pelham, the Horse Guards, and other buildings, which it is needless here to particu-
larise, were erected under the designs of Kent, upon whom unbounded liberality and
patronage were bestowed by Lord Burlington during the life of this artist, which terminated
in 1 748.
512. About 1733 appeared, we believe, the last of the stone churches with steeples,
which the practice of Wren had made common in this country ; this was the church of
St. Giles's in the Fields, erected by Henry Flitcroft. The interior is decorated with Ionic
columns resting on stone piers. The exterior has a rusticated basement, the windows
of the galleries have semicircular heads, and the whole is surmounted by a modillion
cornice. The steeple is 165 feet high, consisting of a square tower, the upper part deco-
rated with Doric pilasters ; above, it is formed into an octagon on the plan, the sides being
ornamented with three quarter Ionic columns supporting a balustrade and vases. Above
this rises an octangular spire. Besides this, Flitcroft erected the church of St. Olave,
Southwark, and the almost entire rebuilding of Woburn Abbey was from the designs and
superintendence of that master, who died in 1 769.
513. During the reign under our consideration, the city of Bath may be said to have
almost arisen from the designs of Wood, who built Prior Park for Mr. Allen, the friend of
Pope, and Buckland was erected by him for Sir John Throckmorton. Wood died in 1 754,
To him and to his scholars Bath is indebted for the designs of Queen Square, the Parades,
the Circus, the Crescent, the New Assembly Room, &c. The buildings of this city possess
various degrees of merit, but nothing so extraordinary as to call for more than the mere
notice of them. We are by no means, for instance, disposed to agree with Mitford, who
reckons the crescent of Bath among " the finest modern buildings at this day existing in
the world ! "
SECT. X.
GEORGE III.
514. Though the works of the architects about to follow, belong partially to the
preceding reign, they are only properly to be noticed under that of George III. Without
a lengthened account of them, we commence with the mention of the name of Carr of York,
who was much employed in the northern counties, where he built several noble residences,
particularly that for Mr. Lascelles, afterwards Lord Harewood, and a mausoleum in York-
shire for the late Marquis of Rockingham. Paine was engaged at Worksop Manor, War-
dour Castle, and Thorndon ; and Hiorne, whose county sessions-house and prison at
Warwick exhibit considerable genius, was a promising artist, prematurely cut off. His
talent was not confined to the Italian style, as may be learnt from reference to the church
at Tetbury in Gloucestershire, and a triangular tower in the Duke of Norfolk's park at
Arundel.
515. At a early part of the reign of George III., architecture was cultivated and prac-
tised here with great success by Robert Taylor, afterwards knighted. His best compositions
were designed with a breadth and intimate knowledge of the art, that prove him to have
been abundantly acquainted with its principles. That he was not always successful, the
wings of the Bank, now removed, were a proof. Of his works sufficient would remain to
corroborate our opinion, if only what is now the Pelican Office in Lombard Street existed.
We believe it was originally built for Sir Charles Asgill, and ruined by the directors of the
Pelican when they took to the place. There are, however, also to attest the ability of Sir
Robert Taylor, Sir Charles Asgill's villa at Richmond, and his own house in Spring Gardens.
After his visit to Italy he commenced his practice in sculpture, in which branch of the arts
he has left monuments in Westminster Abbey and elsewhere; but he afterwards devoted
himself to architecture alone. Among his works were a dwelling house for Sir P. Taylor,
224 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
near Portsdown Hill, a house in Piccadilly for the Duke of Grafton, a mansion in Herts for
Lord Howe ; Stone Buildings, Lincoln's Inn ; Ely House, Dover Street, a very clever
composition ; Sir John Boyd's at Danson, near Shooter's Hill ; the beautiful bridge at
Henley on Thames, and Lord Grimstone's at Gorhambury. He had for some time a seat
at the Board of Works, was surveyor to the Admiralty, the Bank, and other public bodies.
His reputation was unbounded, and met with reward from the public. Sir Robert Taylor
died in 1788 at the age of seventy-four.
516. Cotemporary with the last-named artist, was one to whom the nation is indebted for
first bringing it to an intimate acquaintance with the works of Greece, to which he first led
the way. The reader will, of course, anticipate us in the name of James Stuart, who began
his career as a painter. After some time passed in Greece, he, in conjunction with Nicholas
Revett, about the year 1762, published the well-known Antiquities of Athens, from which
he acquired the soubriquet of Athenian. The public taste was purified by a corrected
knowledge of the buildings of Greece, especially in respect of the form, composition, and
arrangement of ornament ; but we doubt whether mischief was not for a time induced by
it, from the absurd attempt, afterwards, to adapt, without discrimination, the pure Greek
porticoes of the temples of Greece to public and private buildings in this country, often
with buildings with which they have no more natural relation than the interior arrange-
ment of a church has with that of a theatre. The architects of our own time seem, however,
at last to be aware of the impossibility of applying with success the forms of Grecian temples
to English habitations ; and a better system has been returned to, that of applying to every
object a character suitable to the purposes of its destination. We consider Stuart's best
work the house, in St. James's Square, which he built for Lord Anson. Among other
works, he executed Belvedere, in Kent, for Lord Eardley ; a house for Mrs. Montague, in
Portman Square ; the chapel and infirmary of Greenwich Hospital ; and some parts of the
interior of Lord Spencer's house, in St. James's Place. Stuart died in 1788, at the age of
seventy-five. His coUdborateur, Revett, shared with him a portion of the patronage of the
public. He survived him till 1804, when he died at the advanced age of eighty- two years.
He was employed on the eastern and western porticoes of Lord De Spencer's house at
West Wycombe, and on some temples. For Sir Lionel Hyde he built the church of Ayot
St. Lawrence, Herts, the front whereto is a Doric portico crowned with a low Grecian
pediment, and on each side an Ionic colonnade connects the centre with an elegant
cenotaph. He also built a portico to the eastern front of Standlinch, in Wiltshire, for
Mr. Dawkins.
517. The chasteness and purity which the two last-named architects had, with some
success, endeavoured to introduce into the buildings of England, and in which their zeal
had enlisted many artists, had to contend against the opposite and vicious taste of Robert
Adam, a fashionable architect, whose eye had been ruined by the corruptions of the
worst period of Roman art. It can be scarcely believed, the ornaments of Diocletian's
palace at Spalatro should have loaded our dwellings contemporaneously with the use among
the more refined few of the exquisite exemplars of Greece, and even of Rome, in its better
days. Yet such is the fact ; the depraved compositions of Adam were not only tolerated,
but had their admirers. It is not to be supposed that the works of a man who was content
to draw his supplies from so vitiated a source will here require a lengthened notice. Yet had
he his happy moments ; and that we may do him strict justice, we not only mention, but
Fig. 221. BI.BVATION OF KKDLKSTONB.
present to the reader, in figs. 221. and 222., the ground plan and elevation of Kedlestone, in
Derbyshire, which he erected for Lord Scarsdale. The detail of this is, indeed, not
exactly what it ought to have been ; but the whole is magnificently conceived, and worthy
of any master. Adam died at the age of ninety-four, in 1792 ; and, besides the Adelphi,
in the Strand, which he erected on speculation, he was engaged at Luton Park, in Bedford-
shire, for the Earl of Bute ; at Caenwood, near Hampstead, for Lord Mansfield ; at Shel-
burne House, in Berkeley Square, now Lord Lansdowne's, well planned, but ill designed,
a meagre affair ; the disgraceful gateway at Sion, near Brentford ; and on part of the
Register Office at Edinburgh. None, however, would now do credit to a mere tyro in the
art except the first named.
CHAP. Ill
GEORGE III.
225
Fig. 222. PLAN OF KKDLESTONE.
518. Previous to the accession of George III. it had been considered by his tutors
necessary to complete his education by the study requisite to give him some acquaintance
with the art. We venerate the memory of that monarch as an honest good man, but are
compelled to say that the experiment of inoculating him with a taste for it was unsuccess-
ful, for during his reign all the bizareries introduced by Adam received no check, and
seeing that Adam and Bute were both from the north, we are rather surprised that his
education was not in this respect committed to the former instead of Sir William Chambers,
whom, as one of the first architects of the day, it is incumbent upon us now to introduce.
We believe that whatever was done to forward the arts, owes a large portion of its effect
to that celebrated man ; and it is probable, with the worthy motives that actuated the
monarch, and the direction of his taste by that individual, much more would have been
accomplished, but for the heavy and disastrous wars which occurred during his reign, and
the load of debt with which it became burthened. The works of Chambers are found in
almost every part of England, and even extended to Ireland ; but we intend here chiefly to
restrict ourselves to a short account of Somerset House, his largest work, in which, though
there be many faults, so well did he understand his art, that it is a matter of no ordinary
difficulty, and indeed requires hypercriticism, to find anything offensive to good taste in the
detail.
519. This work was commenced in 1776, and stands on an area of 500 ft. in depth, and
800 ft. in width. The general interior distribution consists of a quadrangular court,
343 ft. in length, and 210ft. in width, with a street or wide way running from north to
south, on its eastern and western sides. The general termination towards the river is a
terrace, 50 ft. wide, whose level is 50 ft. above that of the river, and this occupies the whole
length of the fa9ade in that direction. The front towards the Strand is only 1 35 ft. long.
It is composed with a rustic basement, supporting ten Corinthian columns on pedestals,
crowned by an attic, extending over the three central intercolumniations, flanked by a
balustrade on each side. The order embraces two stories. Nine large arches are assigned
to the basement, whereof the three central ones are open for the purpose of affording an
entrance to the great court. On each side of them, these arches are occupied by win-
dows of the Doric order, decorated with pilasters, entablatures, and pediments. The key
stones are carved in alto-relievo, with nine colossal masks, representing the ocean, and the
eight principal rivers of Great Britain. The three open arches of entrance before men-
tioned lead to a vestibule, which connects the Strand with the large quadrangular court,
and serves also as the access to those parts of the building, till lately occupied by the Royal
Academy, and on the opposite or eastern side to the Royal Society and the Society of
Antiquaries, the entrances whereto are within the vestibule. This is decorated with
columns of the Doric order, whose entablature supports a vaulted ceiling. The front of
this pile of building towards the quadrangle, is 200 ft. in extent, being much more than
the length of that towards the Strand ; the style, however, of its decoration is correspondent
with it, the principal variation being in the use of pilasters instead of columns, and in the
226 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.
doors and windows. The front next the Thames is ornamented in a similar manner to
that already described. It was originally intended that the extent of the terrace should
have been 1100ft. This last is supported by a lofty arcade, decorated towards the ends
with coupled Tuscan columns, whose cornice is continued along the whole terrace. The
edifice was at the time the subject of much severe criticism, and particularly from the pen
of a silly engraver of the name of Williams, under the name of Antony Pasquin ; but
the censures he passed on it, the author being as innocent of the slightest knowledge of
the art as most of the writing architectural critics of the present day, were without founda-
tion, and have long since been forgotten.
520. In the year 1 759, Sir W. Chambers published a Treatise on the decorative part of
civil architecture, whereof it was our agreeable task to publish an enlarged edition in
1 825. This work, as far as it goes, still continues to be a sort of text-book for the student ;
but as it is merely what its title imports, without touching on the historical or practical
parts of the art, it is so far incomplete. Chambers held the office of surveyor general, and
died in 1796.
521. Among the architects of George III.'s reign, we must not forget Robert Mylne,
the architect of Blackfriar's Bridge, constructed between 1760 and 1768 ; Holland, who
erected Carlton House for George IV. when Prince of Wales, and Drury Lane Theatre,
neither of which buildings now exists ; Dance, the architect of Newgate, St. Luke's Hos-
pital, and many buildings about the city of London, to whose corporation he was architect ;
and, lastly, Willey Reveley, a pupil of Chambers, who followed the steps of Stuart and
visited Athens and the Levant. He was the editor of the third volume of the Antiquities
of Athens, and died prematurely in 1799. He built the new church at Southampton, and
offered some beautiful designs for the new baths at Bath, which, however, were not adopted.
We have now concluded a general view of the history of the art, from its dawn in this
country to the end of the reign of George III. ; having enumerated the professors of later
days most worthy to be recorded. Further we should not be able to pursue our inquiry
without coming so into contact with our cotemporaries and their connections, that our
office, if not dangerous and fearful, might be unpleasant, and we must here close. We re-
gret we cannot think our national architecture advances in the same ratio that the facilities
of study in the present day would indicate. This is not to be imputed so much to the
professors of the art as to the way in which it is treated by Government and the public ;
witness the National Gallery, made a job by a minister for an incompetent artist. " It is
a national, a social misfortune," says the late James Spiller, " that to the scientific study of
this noble art, there is no reasonable, much less liberal encouragement. It is degraded and
crushed under the most despicable spirit of calculation and parsimony !" If ever a death-
blow was aimed at the art, that was done by the commissioners for building the recent new
churches. What artist could hope to become celebrated under their pinching ordinances,
competitions, and contracts, with their accompanying legal din and " smithery ? " Far dif-
ferent was the conduct of those commissioners to whom Queen Anne entrusted the building
of her churches, or their existence would have been matter only of history, a category that
we are certain will apply, at the end of a century, to many of those of the present day.
CHAP. I. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 227
BOOK II.
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
CHAP. I.
ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA.
SECT. I.
INTRODUCTION.
522. THE abstract relations of quantity and figure ought to be thoroughly understood by
the architect, that he may be able to prepare the designs which he has conceived, in a
manner suitable for execution, and, when executed, to possess stability. The form and
mechanical effect of each single block in a building depends on its position, and the form of
one of its parts limits the forms of others. In groups of bodies, these limitations are still
more perplexing ; hence we must have recourse to the most easy and accurate means of
ascertaining the practicable conditions which will produce the desired effect. To this end
we propose to give a short and simple course of the elements of arithmetic and analysis, as
our own experience informs us that occasions arise in the practice of architecture which
require all the aid that science can afford. Those who have studied most closely, know
that they have not acquired too much ; whilst those who have not studied at all have to
depend on the skill of others, and, like all similar dependents, become more or less the
dupes of those they employ.
523. That which is capable of increase or diminution is called magnitude or quantity,
Hence the different kinds of magnitude must be many. Mathematics, generally speaking,
is the science of quantity, or that which investigates the means of measuring quantity. Now
we cannot measure or determine any quantity except by pointing out its relation to some
other known quantity, so that the determination or the measure of magnitudes of all kinds
is the making any one known magnitude of the same species the measure or unit for deter-
mining the proportion of the proposed magnitude to this known measure. This propor-
tion being always expressed by numbers, a number is but the proportion of one magnitude
to another, arbitrarily assumed as the unit. Hence all magnitudes may be expressed by
numbers, and the foundation of all mathematical science must be laid in a study of the
science of numbers, and in an examination of the different methods of calculation involved
in it. In Algebra, or analysis numbers, which represent quantities, are alone considered,
without respect to the different kinds of quantity. The latter are the subject of other
branches of mathematics. Arithmetic is the science of numbers properly so called, extending
only to certain methods of calculation which occur in common practice. Algebra com-
prehends all the cases that can exist in the calculation of numbers.
SIGNS + AND — .
524. (1.) When one number is to be added to another, the sign + (plus) is used, and is
placed before the second number. Thus, 5+3 denotes that 3 is to be added to the number
5, the sum whereof every body knows to be 8. The same sign may be used to connect
several numbers, thus 7 + 9+12 + 81 signifies that to the number 7 we must add 9, 12,
and 81, which make 109. All this is evident, but in Algebra, in order to generalise
numbers, they are represented by letters as a, b, c, d, &c. ; thus a + 6 + c + d signifies the
sum of the numbers represented by those letters.
525. (2.) To subtract one number from another the sign — (minus) is used, which is
placed before the number to be subtracted; thus 10 — 6 signifies that the number 6 is to be
taken from the number 10, so that the expression is equivalent to the number 4. So of
several numbers; as, for instance, 62—6 — 15—31 signifies that 6 is to be take from 62,
Q, 2
228 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
the remainder is 56 ; 15 taken from that remainder leaves 41 ; lastly, take from this 3i, ana
the remainder is 10, which is the value of the expression. We might, however, have taken
the sum of the numbers 6, 15, and 31 or 52 at once from 62, and the remainder is 10, as
before.
526. It is easy, therefore, to determine the value of expressions in which both the signs
+ plus and — minus are found ; for example, 16—4 — 7+3 — 1 is the same as 7. For we
have only to collect the numbers with the sign + before them, and subtract from their sum
those that have the sign — . Thus, the sum of 16 and 3 is 19 ; that of 4, 7, and 1 is 12 ;
and 1 2 being taken from 1 9 the remainder is 7. It must be remembered that in the ex-
pression the sign + is supposed to stand before the number 1 6 ; and that the above expres-
sion might have been arranged thus : 16 + 3 —4 — 7 — 1, or 3 — 1 —4 — 7 + 16, or 3 + 16 — 1
— 7 — 4. If, instead of numbers, we use letters, no more difficulty occurs ; for example —
a—b—c+d—e
signifies that certain numbers are expressed by a and d, and that from them or their sum
the numbers expressed by the letters b, c, and e, having the sign — before them, are to be
subtracted. Hence attention is necessary to the sign prefixed to each number, for in
algebra simple quantities are numbers considered with respect to the signs which affect
them. Those quantities before which the sign + is found are called positive quantities,
and those affected by the sign — are called negative quantities. To illustrate this, let us
suppose a man having 1000Z., but owing 400?., it is evident his real wealth is only 1000/. —
400Z., 600Z. Thus, negative numbers may be considered as debts, because positive numbers
represent real possessions, and we may, indeed, say that negative numbers are less than
nothing. For, take a man having nothing, and at the same time owing 100 pounds, it is
clear he has 1 00 pounds less than nothing ; for, if he had a present of 1 00 pounds made
him to pay his debts, though he would be richer than before, he would still be at the point
nothing. So, therefore, as positive numbers are clearly greater than nothing, negative
numbers are less than nothing. Now, positive numbers are obtained by adding 1 to 0, that
is, to nothing, and by thus increasing them from unity. This is the origin of the series
called natural numbers, of which the following are the leading terms of the series :
0 + 1 +2 + 3+4 + 5 + 6+7+8+9 + 10, and so on to infinity. But if, instead of adding,
we perpetually subtract unity, we have a series of negative numbers, thus : 0 — 1—2—3—4
— 5 — 6—7—8—9 — 10, &c. to infinity. These numbers, whether positive or negative, are
called whole numbers or integers, either greater or less than nothing. They are so called
to distinguish them from fractions and other kinds of numbers, which will be hereafter
noticed. Thus, between 2 greater by a unit than 1, it is easy to conceive an infinity of
numbers greater than 1, yet all less than 2 ; for imagine a line of 2 ft. long and another 1,
it is evident that an infinite number of lines may be drawn, all longer than 1 ft., but not so
long as 2 ft. That a precise idea may be formed of negative quantities, the reader must
keep in mind that all such expressions as +1—1, +2 — 2, +3 — 3, &c. are equal to 0,
and that +2 — 5 is equal to — 3. For, if a person has 2 pounds and owes 5, he has not
only nothing, but still owes 3 pounds ; and the same observation holds true with respect
to letters, which represent numbers, thus +a — a is 0. But, if the value of +a — b is
wanted, two cases are to be considered : first, if a is greater than b it must be subtracted
from a, and the remainder, with the sign + placed or understood before it, is the value
sought ; secondly, if a is less than b, a is to be subtracted from b, and the remainder must
have the negative sign placed before it.
MULTIPLICATION OF SIMPLE QUANTITIES.
527. (3.) In the multiplication of simple quantities, where two or more equal quantities
are added together, the expression of their sum may be abridged thus : —
a + a is the same as 2 x a,
a + a+a ...... 3xa,
. . .4xa, and so on ;
where x is the sign of multiplication.
Thus we obtain an idea of multiplication ; for in the above, it must be observed that
2 x a signifies 2 times a, 3 x a signifies three times a, 4 x a four times a. But this form
is abbreviated by simply putting the number before the letter ; thus, a multiplied by 3 is
expressed 3a : b multiplied by 5 is 56 : c taken but once, or 1 c, is no more than c. Hence
the multiplication of such products by other numbers is simple enough, for
2 times 3a is equal to 6a
3 times 46 ...... 126
7 times 1x ...... 49ar
and these products may be further multiplied at pleasure.
CHAP. I. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 229
528. Suppose both the numbers be represented by letters, we have only to place one
before the other, and the process is complete ; thus a multiplied by b is ab ; and if again we
multiply this product by pq, the result is abpq. The order of the letters is of no consequence ;
for suppose a to represent 5, and b 6, then ba or ab equally represent 6x5 and 5x6, which
give the same product. But in the use of common numbers this cannot be done ; for were
we to write 34 for 3 times 4, we should have 34 instead of 1 2. If the sign x is omitted, it
is usual to place a point between the figures ; thus, 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 is 1 20, as is 1 x 2 x 3 x
4x5. Hence, if we meet with the expression 2.3.4 xyz, it means that 2 is to be mul-
tiplied by 3, and the product by 4 ; and that product first by x, then by y, and lastly by z,
hence this may be abridged into 24 ayz.
529. The result arising from the multiplication of two numbers is called a product, and
the numbers or letters are called factors.
530. In the case of positive numbers being multiplied into each other, no doubt can
remain of the products being positive, for + a x +b must necessarily give ab. But the
multiplication of + a by — b, or of — a by — b, requires examination. Suppose — a multi-
plied by 3 ; now, as — a may be taken as a debt, if multiplied by 3 it is three times
greater ; hence the product must be — 3a. And if that, be multiplied by + b, it is evident
the debt is still increased by the action of b upon it; it becomes — ba, or, which is the same
thing, — ab. On this account it is evident that if a positive be multiplied by a negative
quantity, the product becomes worse, or, if the expression might be allowed, more negative.
From this follows the rule, that + by + is always plus, and that + by — , on the contrary,
gives a minus quantity. But the case in which — is multiplied by minus, that of —a by —b,
requires consideration. There can be no doubt that the product is ab ; the sign, however,
to be prefixed to it is at first sight not so clear. Now we have seen that it cannot be — ,
for —a multiplied by + 6 gives — ab, and —a by —b, cannot produce the same result as
— a by +b; hence it must produce a contrary result, that is +ab, and hence results the
following rule : — multiplied by — produces + just in the same manner as + by + .
This is more briefly expressed in the following terms, Like signs multiplied together give + ,
unlike. or contrary signs give —, whereof take as an example the multiplication of the follow-
ing numbers, + a, —b, — c, +d. First + a multiplied by — b makes — ab, this by c gives
+ abc, and this last by + d gives + abed.
531. It remains only to show how to multiply numbers that are themselves products.
Now, to multiply the number ab by the number cd, it is manifest, from what has been said,
that the product is abed, and that it is obtained by first multiplying ab by c, and the product
by d. Or, if we had to multiply 36 by 1 2, 1 2 being equal to 3 times 4, we should first
multiply 36 by 3, and the product 108 by 4, in order to have the whole product of the
multiplication of 12 by 36, or 432. But, if we have to multiply Sab by 3xy, we may write
3xy x Sab ; but, as the order of the numbers is indifferent, it is better, and is the custom,
to place the common numbers before the letters, and to express the product thus : 5 x Sabxy,
or 1 Sabxy ; 5 times 3 being 1 5, so 6abc by 7 xy gives 42abcxy.
WHOLE NUMBERS IN RESPECT TO THEIR FACTORS.
532. A product, as we have seen, is generated by the multiplication of two or more
numbers. These are called factors. Thus, abed are the factors of the product abed.
All whole numbers cannot result from such a multiplication : those which are in that pre-
dicament have not any factors. Thus, 4 is produced by 2 x 2, 6 by 2 x 3, 8 by 2 x 2 x 2,
27 by 3x3x3, &c. But the numbers 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, &c. cannot be represented by
factors, unless, for the purpose, we make use of unity, and represent, for instance, 2 by 1 x 2.
Now, as numbers which are multiplied by 1 remain the same, unity cannot be reckoned as
a factor. Hence, all numbers, such as 2, 3, 5, 7, &c., which cannot be represented by fac-
tors, are called simple, or prime numbers, whereas others, as 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18,
&c., which can be represented by factors, are called compound numbers : simple or prime num-
bers consequently deserve particular attention, inasmuch as they do not result from the
multiplication of two or more numbers ; and it is worthy of observation, that in writing
these numbers in succession as they follow each other, thus, 2, 3, 5, 7, 1 1 , 1 3, 1 7, 1 9, 23,
29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, &c., no regular order is perceptible, their increments being sometimes
greater, sometimes less, and, as yet, no law which they follow has been discovered.
533. All compound numbers which may be represented by factors have prime numbers for
their factors ; for if a factor is found which is not a prime number, it may be decomposed
and represented by two or more prime numbers. Thus, if we represent the number 30 by
5 x 6, 6, not being a prime number, might have been represented by 2 x 3, that is 5 x 2 x 3,
in which the numbers are all prime, and equally represent 30.
There is much difference between compound numbers, which maybe resolved into prime
numbers ; some have only two factors, others three, and others still more. Thus we have
seen that
230 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
4 is the same as . . . . 2x2
8 2x2x2
10 2x5
14 . .2x7
6 is the same as . . 2x3
9 3x3
12 2x3x2
15 3x5
and so on.
16 2x2x2x2
The analysis, therefore, of any number, or the resolution of it into simple factors, is easily
accomplished. Take, for instance, the number 360. First, it may be represented by
-2 x 1 80. Then 180 is equal to 2 x 90, and
90 ~| f2x45
45 Us the same as< 3 x 15
15 J ^3x5
So that the number 360 may be represented by these simple factors, 2x2x2x3x3x5,
since these numbers multiplied together produce 360. This shows that prime numbers
cannot be divided by other numbers, and that the simple factors of compound numbers are
most conveniently found by seeking the prime numbers, by which compound numbers are
divisible.
DIVISION OF SIMPLE QUANTITIES.
534. The separation of a number into two or more equal parts is called division, which
enables us to determine the magnitude of one of those parts. For instance, suppose we
wish to separate 1 2 into three equal parts, we find, by division, that each of those parts is
equal to 4. The number to be divided is called the dividend, the number of equal parts
into which it is to be separated is called the divisor, and the magnitude of one of the
parts determined by the division is the quotient : thus, in the example, —
12 is the dividend,
3 is the divisor,
4 is the quotient.
From this it is evident that if we divide the number 2 into two equal parts, one of
those parts, or the quotient taken twice, is exactly the number proposed ; and so, if a
number is to be divided by 3, the quotient thrice taken must again give the same number.
Hence follows the general rule that the quotient multiplied by the divisor reproduces the
dividend. The dividend, indeed, may be considered a product, whereof one factor is the
divisor and the other the quotient. For, if we have 40 to divide by 8, we have to find a
product in which one of the factors is 8, and another factor which multiplied by it may
give 40. Now 5 x 8 is a product which answers the hypothesis, and therefore 5 is the
quotient of 40 divided by 8.
535. Generally, a number ab divided by a gives a quotient b, because a multiplied by b
gives the dividend ab. So, if we have to divide ab by b, the quotient must be a. In short,
the whole operation of division consists in representing the dividend by two factors whereof
one is equal to the divisor and the other to the quotient ; thus the dividend abc divided by
a gives be, for a multiplied by be produces abc ; and, similarly, abc divided by b gives ac,
and abc divided by ac gives b. So 1 6xy divided by 4x gives 4y, inasmuch as 4 times x
multiplied by 4 times y produces 1 6xy ; but had 1 6xy been divided by 1 6, the quotient
must have been xy.
536. A number a is the same as la ; hence, if a or la is to be divided by 1 the quotient
must be the same number a ; but if the same number a or 1 a be divided by a, the quotient
must be 1.
537. The dividend cannot always be represented as the product of two factors, whereof
one is equal to the divisor ; in which case other expressions must be had recourse to. Thus,
in dividing 1 9 by 6, it is obvious that the number 6 is not a factor of 1 9, for 6 x 3 is but
1 8, and therefore too small, and 6x4 produces 24, which is too large ; from which it is
evident that the quotient is greater than 3 and less than 4. To determine this exactly, a
species of numbers called fractions is used, whereof we shall hereafter treat. But previous
to that, let us investigate the number which nearest approaches to the true quotient, with
attention to the remainder left, thus : —
6)19(3
18
where the dividend is 1 9, the divisor 6, the quotient 3, leaving a remainder of 1 . Now,
if we multiply the divisor 6 by the quotient 3, and thereto add the remainder, we have the
dividend, and this proves the correctness of the division ; for 3 multiplied by 6 produces
18, to which, if the remainder 1 be added, we have 19, the dividend.
CHAP. I. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 231
538. Here it must be observed, in respect of the signs + and — , that + ab divided by
+ a must be + 6 ; for it is evident that + a multiplied by +6 gives + ab. But, if + ab
be divided by —a, the quotient must be — b, because — a multiplied by —6 produces +ab,
Suppose the dividend —ab divided by -f- a, the quotient must be —b, because —6 multiplied
by +a makes —ab. Lastly, the dividend —ab divided by —a must have for its quotient
+ 5, for the dividend — ab is produced by —a by +b.
539. In division, therefore, the same rules hold respecting the signs + and — as in
multiplication ; namely, —
+ by + give + and + by — give — ,
— by + give — and — by — give + ,
or, as it is usually expressed, like signs give plus, and unlike signs give minus.
Thus, dividing 21 xy by — 3y, the quotient is — 7ar; and
— 40pq divided by +4p gives — ICty ;
and — 72xyz divided by — 8y gives + 9xz;
for -8y multiplied by +9xz makes -9 x 8zyz, or -f72xyz.
THE PROPERTIES OF INTEGERS AS RESPECTS THEIR DIVISORS.
540. Some numbers are, it has been seen, divisible by certain divisors, others are not
so. Let us look to this difference between them. Take the divisors 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
10, &c.
541. Now in the divisor 2 the numbers it will exactly divide are manifestly 2, 4, 6, 8,
10, 12, &c., in which the series increases uniformly by 2, and they are called even numbers.
But in the numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, &c. there is an uniformly less or greater
number by unity than in the former not divisible by 2 without a remainder 1 : these are
called odd numbers.
542. The general expression 2a includes all the even numbers, for they are obtained
by successively substituting the integers 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, &c. ; and for this reason the odd
numbers are comprehended in the expression 2a + 1, because 2a + 1 is greater by unity than
the even number 2a.
543. In the second place, suppose 3 to be the divisor, the numbers it will exactly divide
are 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, &c., which numbers are comprehended in the expression 3a, for
dividing 3a by 3 the quotient is a without a remainder. All other numbers that we would
divide by 3 will give 1 or 2 for a remainder ; and hence they are of two kinds : first, those
leaving the remainder 1 after the division, which are 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, &c., and are con-
tained in the expression 3a + 1 ; second, those in which 2 is the remainder, and these are
2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, 20, and these may be expressed 3a + 2 ; so that all these numbers may
be expressed by 3a, 3a + 1, or by 3a + 2.
544. Suppose 4 to be the divisor, it will divide the following numbers, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20,
24, &c., which increase uniformly by 4, and are comprehended in the expression 4a. All
other numbers not divisible by 4 may leave the remainder 1, or be greater by 1 than the
former, as 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, &c., and may be comprehended in the expression 4a -f 1 :
or they may give 2 as a remainder, as 2, 6, 10, 14, 18, 22, &c., and be expressed by
4a + 2 ; or, lastly, they may give the remainder 3, and as 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, 23, &c., and be
represented by the expression 4a + 3. All possible integer numbers are hence contained in
one or other of the four expressions 4a, 4a + 1, 4a + 2, 4a + 3.
545. If the divisor is 5 it is nearly the same, for all numbers divisible by it are com-
prehended in the expression 5a, and if not divisible by 5 they may be reduced to one
of these expressions, 5a + l, 5a + 2, 5a + 3, 5a + 4, and so we may go on to the greatest
divisors.
546. It is necessary to keep in mind, as we have noticed in a previous passage on the
resolution of numbers into their simple factors, that all numbers among whose factors are
found 2 or 3, or 4, or 5 or 7, or any other number, are divisible by those numbers. For
example, 48 being equal to 2x2x3x4, it is clear that 48 is divisible by 2 and by 3
and by 4.
547. As the general expression abed is not only divisible by a and b, and c and d, but
also by
ab, ac, ad, be, bd, cd ;
and by abc, abd, acd, bed ;
and, lastly, by abed, which is its own value :
it is clear that 48, or 2 x 2 x 3 x 4, may be divided not only by those simple numbers, but
by those composed of two of them, that is, by 4, 6, 8, 12; and also by those composed of
three of them, that is, by 12, 16, 24; and, lastly, by 48 itself. From this it follows, that
when a number has been represented by its factor it is easy to find all the numbers by
which it is divisible.
Q4
232
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
548. It is necessary to observe, that every number is divisible by 1 and by itself, so that
there is no number that has not at least two factors or divisors, the number itself and
unity ; but if a number have no other than these two it belongs to the class of numbers
called prime numbers. With the exception of those, all numbers have other divisor besides
unity and themselves, as may be seen from the subjoined table, wherein all its divisors are
placed under each number, and the prime numbers marked with a P.
Numbers -
1
<7
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
1
i
!
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
I
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
3
2
5
2
7
2
3
2
11
2
13
2
3
2
17
2
19
2
4
3
6
4
8
9
5
10
3
4
7
14
5
15
4
8
3
6
4
5
6
16
9
10
12
18
20
Number of divisors -
1
2
2
3
2
4
2
4
3
4|2
6
2
4
4
5
2
6
2
6
P|P
P
IP
P
|P| IP
P
P
We must here observe, that 0, or nothing, may be considered a number having the property
of being divisible by all possible numbers, because by whatever number aO is divided, the
quotient must be 0 ; for the multiplication of any number by nothing produces nothing,
hence Oa is 0.
FRACTIONS.
549. When a number is said not to be divisible by another number, it only means that
the quotient cannot be expressed by an integer number. For if we imagine a line of 7 feet
in length, it is impossible to doubt that it may be divided into three equal parts, of the length
of each whereof a notion may be formed. But as the quotient of 7 divided by 3 is not an
integer number, we are thus led to the consideration of a particular species of numbers
called fractions or broken numbers. If we have to divide 7 by 3 the quotient may be con-
ceived and expressed by |, placing the divisor under the dividend, and separating them by
a stroke or line.
550. Generally, moreover, if the number a is to be divided by the number b, the quotient
is |, and this form of expression is called a fraction. In all fractions the lower number is
called the denominator, and that above the line the numerator. In the above fraction of £,
which is read seven thirds, 7 is the numerator and 3 the denominator. In reading fractions
we call | four fifths, js seven eighteenths, ,'^j fifteen hundredths, and £ one half.
551. In order to become thoroughly acquainted with the nature of fractions it is proper
to begin by considering the case of the numerator being equal to the denominator as -
Now as this is a representation of the quotient obtained by dividing a by a, it is evident
it is once contained in it, that is, the quotient is exactly unity, hence - is equal to 1 .
and for the same reason all the following fractions, f, §, |, f, §, £, &c., are equal to one
another, each being equal to unity. It is evident, then, that fractions whose numerators
are less than the denominators have a value less than unity, for if a number be divided by
another which is greater, the result must necessarily be less than 1. Thus, if a line one
foot long be cut into three parts, two of them will undoubtedly be shorter than a foot ; it
is evident, then, that § is less than 1, for the same reason that the numerator 2 is less than
the denominator 3.
552. But if, on the contrary, the numerator be greater than the denominator, the value
of the fraction is greater than unity. Thus (j is greater than 1, for ^ is equal to § together
with £. Now | is exactly 1 , consequently ^ is equal to 1 + £, that is, to an integer and a
third. So f is equal to If, or li ; \ is equal to 1^ ; and J-| is equal to 2|. Generally, if we
divide the upper member by the lower, and add to the quotient a fraction whose numerator
expresses the remainder and the divisor the denominator, we shall in other terms represent
the fraction. For example, in the fraction f§ the quotient is 3 and the remainder 3, hence
f§ is the same as 3^.
553. Fractions, then, whose numerators are greater than their denominators, consist of
two numbers ; one of which is an integer, and the other a fractional number, in which the
numerator is less than the denominator ; and when fractions contain one or more integers,
they are called improper fractions, to distinguish them from fractions properly so called, in
which the numerator is less than the denominator, whence they are less than unity, or than
an integer. There is another way of considering fractions, which may illustrate the sub-
CHAP. I. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 233
ject. Thus, in the fraction T55 it is evident that it is five times greater than ^. This last
fraction expresses one of the 10 parts into which 1 may be divided, and that in taking five
of those parts we have the value of the fraction -^j.
554. It is from this mode of considering a fraction that the terms numerator and denomi-
nator are derived ; that is to say, the lower number expresses or denotes the number of
parts into which the integer is divided, and is therefore called the denominator, the upper
number, or that above the line numbers the quantity of those parts, and is thence called the
numerator. It follows, then, that as the denominator is increased the smaller the parts be-
come, as in |, ^, \, £, |, ^, |, and so on ; and it is evident that if the integer be divided into two
parts, each of those parts is greater than if it had been divided into eight. In this division
of the integer it is impossible to increase the denominator so that the fraction shall be re-
duced to nothing ; for into whatever number of parts unity may be divided, however small
they be, they still preserve some definite magnitude. Indeed, to whatever extent we con-
tinue the series of fractions just named, they will always represent a certain quantity.
From this has arisen the expression that the denominator must be infinitely great, or infinite,
to reduce the fraction to 0, or nothing, which in this case means nothing more than that it
is impossible to reach the end of the series of the fractions in question. This idea is ex-
pressed by the use of the sign oo , which indicates a number infinitely great, and we may
therefore say that £ is really nothing, because a fraction can only be lessened to nothing
when the denominator has been increased to infinity. This, moreover, leads us to another
view of the matter, which is important. The fraction, 1, as we have seen, represents the
quotient resulting from the division of 1 by oo . Now, if 1 be divided by ± or 0, the quo-
tient will be again oo , and a new idea of infinity is thus obtained, arising from the division
of 1 by 0 ; and thus we are justified in saying that 1 divided by 0 expresses oo , or a number
infinitely great. From this, moreover, we learn that a number infinitely great is sus-
ceptible of increase, for having seen that {, denotes a number infinitely great, §, the double
of it, must be greater, and so on.
PROPERTIES OF FRACTIONS.
555. It has been seen that |, |? 4? ^ &c are equai to 1, and thence equal to one another ;
the same equality obtains in the fractions |, 4, ^ ^ &c ? which, from what has been said, it is
obvicus are each equal to 2, and to one another, so the fractions f, |, |, ^ are, from their
common value, being 3 each, equal to one another. In the same way, a fraction may be
represented in an infinity of ways by multiplying the numerator and denominator by the
same number, be that number what it may ; thus, ', |, £, lg, $, &c. are equal, the common
value being 1. So, to give another example, j, £, £, fe £, are all equal to f Hence, we
arrive at the general conclusion that the fraction |, may be equally represented by the
following expressions, each equal to |> viz. ~> ||> |jt ~> &c. That this is the case we
may see by substituting a certain letter c for the fraction |» which letter we will consider
as representing the quotient of a divided by b ; recollecting, then, that the multiplication
of the quotient c by the divisor b must give the dividend ; for by the hypothesis, as c
multiplied by b gives a, it is evident that c multiplied by 26 must give 2a, that c multiplied
by 36 will give 3a ; and that in general c multiplied by mb (m representing any given
number) must give ma. The converse brings us to the division of a by 6, in which, if we
divide the product ma by mb one of the factors, the quotient is equal to c, the other factor.
But ma divided by mb gives also the fraction ^> which is therefore equal to c, which was
the matter to be proved ; for c was assumed as the value of the fraction |« and hence this
fraction is equal to the fraction ~g> whatever the value of m.
556. The infinite forms in which fractions may be represented, so as to express the same
value, has been before shown ; and it is obvious, that of those forms, that which is given
in the smallest numbers is more immediately understood. Thus the fraction \, or one
quarter, is more easily comprehended than ^, ^, 56?, 575, &c. It therefore becomes a matter
of convenience to express a fraction in the least possible numbers, or in its least terms.
This is a problem not difficult of resolution when we recollect that all fractions retain their
value if the numerator and denominator are multiplied by the same number, from which
we also learn that if they are divided by the same number their value is not altered. As
an example in the general expression ^|> if both numerator and denominator be divided
by the number m, we obtain the fraction ?' which has before been seen to be equal
ma
557. From the above, then, it is evident that to reduce a fraction to its least terms, we
234 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
have only to find a number which will divide the numerator and denominator, and this num-
ber is called a common divisor, which if we can find, the fraction may be reduced to a lower
form ; but if we cannot find such a number, and unity is the only common divisor that can
be found, the fraction is already in its simplest form. Thus, taking the fraction 39565, we
may immediately perceive that 2 will divide both the terms, whereof the result is T4g8n ; this
result is again divisible by 2, by which the fraction is reduced to |jj, in which we again find
2 as a common divisor, and the result of that is Jf. In this we may perceive that, as 2 will
no longer divide the terms, another number must be sought, and by trial that number will
be seen to be 3, by using which we obtain the fraction T45, the simplest expression to which
it can be reduced, for 1 is the only common divisor of the numbers 4 and 15, and division by
unity will not reduce those numbers. This property of the invariable value of fractions
leads to the conclusion that in the addition and subtraction of them, the operations are per-
formed with difficulty, unless they are reduced to expressions wherein the denominators are
equal. And here it will be useful to observe that all integers are capable of being represented
by fractions ; for it is manifest that 9 and f are the same, 9 divided by 1 giving a quotient
of 9 ; which last number may also be equally represented by ]58, 35, ?|, l*gt &c. &c.
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OP FRACTIONS.
558. When the denominators of fractions are equal they are easily added to and sub-
tracted from one another: thus, f + | is equal to f or l,and g— g is equal to § or ^. In
this case, either for addition or subtraction, it is only necessary to change the numerators and
place the common denominator under the result, thus : —
} + f - f « i
§ — | + g = 5 or nothing.
If fractions have not the same denominator, they must, for the purpose in question,
be changed into others that are in that condition. For an example, let us take the frac-
tions 3 and ^ ; it is evident that ^ is the same as |, and that ^ is equivalent to | ; the frac-
tions for adding together therefore become f + §, whose sum is §. If the latter is to be
subtracted from the former, or, in other words, to be united by the sign — , as 3 — 3, we shall
have §-§, or£.
559. It often becomes necessary to reduce a number of fractions to a common deno-
minator : thus, suppose we have the fractions £, |, |, |, |. We have here only to find a
number divisible by all the denominators of those fractions. In the above case, that
number will, by trial, be seen to be 60, which therefore will be the common denominator.
Substituting this, we shall have go instead of | ; |§ instead of § ; |§ instead of \ ; |$ instead
of | ; and f g instead of f. The addition of all these fractions thus becomes simple enough,
for we have only to add the numerators together, and place under that sum the common
denominator, that is to say, we shall have |U3, which is equal to 3|§ or 3^. Thus, all that is
necessary is to change two fractions whose denominators are unequal into two others whose
denominators are equal. For the performance of this generally, if g and | be the fractions,
first multiply both the terms of the first fraction by d, and we shall have ^ equal to ^ .
then multiply both the terms of the second fractions by b, and we have its equivalent value
in whereby also the two denominators are become equal. The sum of these fractions
is now readily obtained, being a ^ c, and their difference is evidently ^j^. Suppose the
fractions ^ and | proposed, we have in their stead jfy and ||, whereof the sum is t°r3, and
the difference ||. It is by the method just mentioned that we are enabled to ascertain
which is the greater and which the less ; thus, in the two fractions | and $, it is evident
that the last is smaller than the first, for, reduced to the same denominator, the first is ??,
and the second fS, whence it is evident that £ is less than f by ^.
560. To subtract a fraction from an integer, it is only necessary to change one of its units
into a fraction having the same denominator as that which is to be subtracted : thus to sub-
tract § from 1 we write f instead of 1, from which iff be taken f remain. Again, suppose
| is to be subtracted from 2, we may either write | or 1|, from which ^ subtracted leave f
or 1£. It is only necessary to divide the numerator by the denominator, to see how
many integers it contains. We have nearly the same operation to perform in adding
numbers composed of integers and fractions ; thus, let it be proposed to add 5{| to 3A, then
taking ^ and £, or, ^hich is the same, § and §, their sum is f ; the sum total, therefore, will
be8|.
CHAP. I. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 235
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF FRACTIONS.
561. For the multiplication of a fraction by an integer, or whole number, the rule is to
multiply the numerator only by the given number, the denominator remaining unchanged :
thus —
2 times or twice \ makes | or 1 integer,
2 times or twice \ makes f,
3 times or thrice \ makes § or ^,
4 times T55 makes $ or 1T82 or If.
But when it can be done, it is preferable to divide the denominator by the integer,
inasmuch as the operation is shortened by it ; for example, in multiplying | by 3, by the
rule above given, we have 2^, which is reduced then to |, and, lastly, to 2§. But if the
numerator remain and the denominator is divided by the integer, we have at once § or 2|
for the product sought. Likewise $ multiplied by 5 gives ^ or 3|, that is 3i.
562. Generally, then, the product of the multiplication of a fraction | by c is -|, and
it is to be observed that when the integer is exactly equal to the denominator, the product
must be equal to the numerator. So that —
i taken twice gives 1,
§ taken thrice gives 2,
| taken 4 times gives 3.
and, generally, if the fraction £ be multiplied by the number 6, the product, as has already
been seen, must be a, for as | represents a quotient resulting from the division of the dividend
a by the divisor 6, and since we have seen that the quotient multiplied by the divisor will
give the dividend, it is evident that | multiplied by 6 must produce a. We are next to
consider how a fraction can be divided by an integer before proceeding to the multiplica-
tion of fractions by fractions. It is evident, if I have to divide the fraction | by 3, the
result is \> and that the quotient of § divided by 4 is | : the rule is therefore to divide the
numerator by the integer, and leave the denominator unchanged. Thus —
% divided by 2 gives ?5,
^| divided by 7 gives ^, &c. &c.
563. The rule is easily applied if the numerator be divisible by the number proposed ;
as this is not always the case, it is to be observed that a fraction may be transformed into
an infinite number of similar expressions, in some of which the numerator might be divided
by the given integer. Thus, for example, to divide \ by 2, we may change the fraction into
|, in which the numerator may be divided by 2, and the quotient is therefore |.
564. In general, to divide the fraction ~b by c, it is changed into ^ and then dividing
the numerator ac by c, write r- for the quotient sought.
565. Hence, when a fraction | is to be divided by an integer c, it is necessary merely
to multiply the denominator by that number, leaving the numerator as it is. Thus, §
divided by 3 gives T5ff, and | divided by 6 gives ,7g. When, however, the numerator is
divisible by the integer, the operation is still simpler. Thus, T^ divided by 3 would give
according to the first given rule ^g, but by this last rule we at once obtain ^5, an expres-
sion equivalent to, but more simple than, ^.
566. We now perceive, then, in what way one fraction | may be multiplied by another
^. Here ^ means that c is to be divided by d, and on this principle we must first multiply
| by c, the result whereof is y, after which we divide by d, which gives ~.
From this arises the rule for multiplying fractions, which is, to multiply the numerators
and denominators separately. Thus —
\ multiplied by \ gives the product 5\,
§ multiplied by ^ produces 1|,
£ multiplied by -^ produces |5, &c. &c.
567. We are now to see how one fraction may be divided by another. And, first, it is to
be observed, that if the two fractions have similar denominators, the division is performed
only with respect to the numerators, for it is manifest that ^ are as many times contained
in f5 as 3 in 9, that is, three times ; and in the same manner in order to divide -f5 by $, we
have only to divide 7 by 9 which is g. So we shall have |5 in $ 3 times, -^ in ^
7 times.
2a6 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
568. If the denominators of the fractions are not equal, they must, by the method before
given, be reduced to a common denominator. Thus, if the fraction | is to be divided by
g, we have |f to be divided by b~ ; whence it becomes evident that the quotient will be re-
presented simply by the division of ad by be or 0. Hence the following rule : multiply
the numerator of the dividend by the denominator of the divisor, and the denominator of
the dividend by the numerator of the divisor, the first product will be the numerator of the
quotient and the second its denominator.
569. If this rule be applied to the division of f by | we have §f or l£, and ff by § gives
5TO °r !•
570. There is a rule which operates the same results, and is more easily recollected ;
it is, to invert the fraction which is the divisor, that is, place the denominator for the nu-
merator and the numerator for the denominator ; then multiply the numerators together
for a new numerator, and the denominators for a new denominator, and the product will be
the quotient sought. Thus, £ divided by f is the same as \ multiplied by £, which make |.
Also f divided by § is the same as f multiplied by f, which is {§ ; that is, in general terms,
to divide by the fraction \ is the same as to multiply by f or 2, that division by \ is the
same as multiplication by ^ or by 3.
571. Thus, the number 100 divided by \ is 200, and 1000 divided by \ will give 3000.
So also if 1 be divided by -^ the quotient would be 1000 ; and 1 divided by lgjft()0 gives
100,000. This view is useful in enabling us to conceive that, when any number is divided
by 0, the result must be a number infinitely great ; for the division of 1 by the small frac-
tion TpoooidMo Sives for a quotient 1,000,000,000.
572. As every number, when divided by itself, produces unity, a fraction divided by
itself must also give 1 for a quotient. For to divide f by f , we must, by the rule, multi-
ply | by $, by which we obtain {2, Or 1 ; and if it be required to divide ~ by |, we multiply
| by - ; now the product -jg is equal to 1.
573. There remains to explain an expression in frequent use, — such, for instance, as the
half of fs : this signifies that we must multiply -fa by £, which is ^j. So, if it be required
to know the value of -^ of |, they are to be multiplied together, which produces g70; and
f of ^ is the same as fg multiplied by f , which produces §£.
574. We have, in a previous section, laid down for integers the signs of + and — , and
the same rule holds with regard to fractions. Thus + \ multiplied by —\ makes — £; and
—\ multiplied by — f gives +^§. Further, — \ divided by + § makes — §, or — 1J; and
— I divided by —\ makes + 2g8, or 3|, that is, 3|.
SQUARE NUMBERS.
575. If a number be multiplied by itself, the product is called a square, in relation to
which the number itself is called a square root. Thus, if we multiply 1 2 by 1 2, the pro-
duct 144 is a square whose root is 12. The origin of this term is borrowed from
geometry, by which we learn that the contents of a square are found by multiplying its
side by itself.
576. Square numbers, therefore, are found by multiplying the root by itself. Thus, 1
is the square of 1 ; since 1 multiplied by 1 makes 1 . So 25 is the square of 5, and 64 the
square of 8. 7, also, is the root of 49, and 9 is the root of 81. Beginning with the
squares of natural numbers, we subjoin a small table, in the first line whereof the roots or
numbers are ranged, and on the second their squares.
Numbers . . .
Squares ....
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
121
12
13
1
4
9
16
25
36
49
64
81
100
144
169
577. A singular property will be immediately perceived in this table, which is, that in
the series of square numbers, if the preceding one be subtracted from that following, the
remainders always increase by 2, forming the following series, —
3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21, &c.,
which is that of the odd numbers.
578. The squares of fractions are found in the same manner as those of whole numbers,
that is, by multiplying any given fraction by itself; thus the square of i is J,
The square
CHAP. I.
ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA.
237
Hence we have only to divide the square of the numerator by that of the denominator, and
the fraction expressing that division is the square of the given fraction. Thus || is the
square of §, and, reciprocally, J is the root of $.
579. If the square of a mixed number, or one that is composed of an integer and a
fraction, be sought, no more is necessary than to reduce it to a single fraction, and then
take the square of that fraction. Thus, to find the square of 2\, it must first be expressed
by the fraction | ; and, taking its square, we have f|, or 5^ for the value of the square of
2|. And so of any similar numbers. The squares of the numbers between 3 and 4, sup-
posing them to increase by one fourth, are as follow : —
Numbers .
Squares . .
3
31
3*
3! | 4
9
10T95
»i
14*
16
From this small tabular view it may be inferred that if a root contain a fraction, its
square also contains one. Thus, let the root be l-[35, its square is f||, or 1$4, that is, rather
more than half as great again as the integer 1 .
580. Generally, when the root is a the square must be aa ; if the root be 2a the square
will be 4aa ; from which it is evident that by doubling the root the square becomes 4 times
greater; for if the root be 4a, the square is 16oa. If the root be aft, the square is aabb;
ifabc, the square is aabbcc.
581. Thus, then, if the root be composed of more factors than one, their squares must
be multiplied together ; and, reciprocally, if a square be composed of more than one factor
whereof each is a square, it is only necessary to multiply the roots of these squares to ob-
tain the complete square of the root proposed. Thus, as 5184 is equal to 9 x 16 x 36, the
square root of it is 3 x 4 x 6, or 72 ; and 72, it will be seen, is the true square root of 5184 ;
for 72x72 gives 5184.
582. Here we must for a moment stop to see how the signs + and — affect our opera-
tions : and, first, it cannot be doubted that if the root is a positive quantity, that is, with
the sign + before it, its square must be a positive quantity ; for + by + makes + : thus,
the square of + a will be +aa. So, also, if the root be a negative number, as — a, the
square will still be positive, for it is + aa ; from which it follows that of + a, as well as
— a, the square is +aa; hence every square has two roots, one positive and the other
negative. For example, the square root of 16 is both +4 and —4, because —4 multiplied
by —4 gives 16, as well as + 4 by + 4.
SQUARE ROOTS, AND THE IRRATIONAL NUMBERS THAT RESULT FROM THEM.
583. In the last section it has been seen that the square root of any number is but one
whose square is equal to the given number, and that to those roots the positive or negative
sign may be prefixed ; so that if we could remember a sufficient number of squares, their
roots would at the same time present themselves to our mind. Thus, if 144 were the
given number, we should at once recollect that its square root is 1 2.
584. For the same reason fractions would be easily managed ; for we at once see that
% is the square root of f f, inasmuch as we have only to take the square root of the numerator
and that of the denominator to be convinced of it.
If we have to deal with a mixed number, we have only to put it in the shape of a single
fraction : for example, 1 2\ is equivalent to 49 ; and we see by inspection that | or 3| must
be the square root of 12$. But when the given number is not a square, as, for example, 12,
it is not possible to extract its square root, that is, to find a number multiplied by itself
whose product is 1 2. It is, however, clear that the square root of 1 2 is greater than 3 ;
for 3 x 3 produces only 9 ; and it must be less than 4, because 4x4 produces 16, which is
greater than 12. From the table just given we may see that the square of 3£ or | is 12\ ;
hence the root must be less than 3|. We may, however, come nearer to this root by com-
paring it with S£ ; for the square of 3^, or of ff, is <%$, or 12^, a fraction only greater
by 2^3 than the root required. Now, as 3i and 3^ are both greater than the root of 12, it
might be possible to add to 3 a fraction a little less than ^3, precisely such that the square
of such sum should be exactly equal to 12. Trying, therefore, with 3f, f being a little
less than 75, we have 3f, equal to |4, whose square is 5$, and consequently less than 1 2 by
g; because 12 may be expressed by ||8. Hence we perceive that 3| is less and 3^ is
greater than the root required. Trying a number, 3T5T, which is a little greater than °32,
but less than 3^, its equivalent is ff, and it will have for its square ^ ; and as 1 2 re-
duced to the same denominator is !^2, we thus find that 3^ is as yet less by ^ than the
root of 1 2. If for ^ the fraction T6g, which is a little greater, be substituted, we have the
square of 3^, equal to 2$jf ; and 12 reduced to the same denominator, or multiplied by
169, equal to *ffi ; so that 3T65 is yet too small, though only by fe, whilst 3^ has been
L too great. From this it is evident that whatever fraction be joined to 3, the
238
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK IT.
square of that sum will always contain a fraction, and will not be equal exactly to the
integer 12. For, knowing that the square root of 12 is greater than 3T6g, and less than
3^, we are nevertheless unable to assign between the two an intermediate fraction, which,
added to 3, precisely expresses the square root of 1 2. But it must not therefore be said
that the square root of 12 cannot be absolutely determined, but only that it cannot be
expressed by fractions.
585. We hence find that there exists a species of numbers which, though not expressible
by fractions, are yet determinate quantities, and of this the square root of 12 furnishes an
example. This species of numbers are termed irrational numbers, and occur as often as we
attempt to find the square root of a number which is not a square. Thus, 2 not being a
perfect square, its square root, or the number which, multiplied by itself, would produce 2,
is an irrational quantity. Such numbers are also called surd quantities, or incommen-
surables ; and though they cannot be expressed by fractions, they are, nevertheless, magni-
tudes of which an accurate idea may be formed. In the case of the number 12, for
example, though its square root is not apparent, we know that it is a number which,
multiplied by itself, would exactly produce 1 2 ; and this is a property which, by the power
of approximating to it, is enough to enable us to form some idea of it.
586. Having now obtained a distinct idea of the nature of these irrational numbers, we must
introduce to the reader the use of the sign V (square root), which is used to express the
square roots of all numbers that are not perfect squares. Thus \/ 1 2 signifies or represents
the square root of 12, or that number which, multiplied by itself, produces 12. So V2 re-
presents the square root of 2, \/§ that of §, and, generally, V 'a represents the square root of
the number a. If, therefore, we have at any time to express the square root of a number,
all that is necessary is, to prefix to it the sign V. This explanation of irrational numbers
enables us to apply to them the known methods of calculation. For, inasmuch as the
square root of 2 multiplied by itself must produce 2, we know that V2 x \/2 will produce
2, and that \/§ x A/§ makes § ; and so of any other number, and, generally, that A/ a x </«
produces a.
587. When, however, it is required to multiply Va by V6, the product is Jab, for it
has been heretofore shown that when a square has two or more factors, its root is com-
posed of the roots of those factors. Hence we find the square root of the product ab,
which is */ab, by multiplying the square root of a, or */a, by the square root of b, or Vb.
And from this it is evident that if b were equal to a, */aa would be the product of */a by
V&. Now, there can be no doubt that \faa must be a, for aa is the square of a.
588. In division, if it be required to divide ^/a by «/b, the quotient must be v'f *n
which it may be, that the irrational number may vanish in the quotient. Thus, in the case
of dividing VI 8 by A/8, the quotient is Vl\, which is reduced to -v/f, and, consequently,
to 2, \ being the square of f .
589. When the number to which the radical sign J is prefixed happens to be a square,
the expression of the root follows the ordinary course. Thus, A/ 4 is equivalent to 2 ;
V 9 is the same as 3 ; V81 the same as 9 ; and 12^ the same as \ or 3\ ; in which instances
the irrationality is but apparent, and vanishes.
590. No difficulty occurs in multiplying irrational by ordinary numbers. Thus 2
multiplied by V5 produces 2^/5, and 3 multiplied by */2 produces 3^2, In the last
instance, however, as 3 is equal to V9, the expression is also 3 times J2 by */9 multi-
plied by V 2 or by VI 8. In the same way of considering this matter, 2 \/a is the same as
«/4a, and 3 Ja is equivalent to \/9a. Generally, b A/a is equivalent to the square root of bba
or Vabb ; and, reciprocally, when the number preceded by the radical sign contains a square,
the root of the square may be prefixed to the sign, as in writing b Va instead of Jbba.
From this it will be easy to comprehend the following expressions : —
V 8 or A/2-4
A/12 or
A/18 or
A/24 or
A/32 or A/2-16
A/75 or A/3-25
is equivalent to
2 A/2
2 A/3
3 A/2
2 A/6
4 A/2
5 A/3
On the foregoing principles the operations of division are based, for \/a divided by \/b must
be ~ or \/7» and t^us —
-V/2
yis
is equal to
v| or v/4, that is, 2
^/g8 or ^/9, that is, 3
<S or A/4, that is, 2
CHAP. I. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 239
And again —
or V24, or V6 x 4 ; or, lastly, 2y<6.
591. It is unnecessary to follow this out in division and subtraction, because the numbers
are merely connected by the signs + and -. For example, */2 added to V3 is expressed
A/2 + V3 ; and */6 subtracted from V10 is written V10 — */6.
592. For the purpose of distinguishing these numbers from all others not similarly cir-
cumstanced, the latter, as well integral as fractional, are denominated rational numbers ; and
thence, when we speak of rational numbers, it is to be understood that we speak of integers
or fractions.
IMPOSSIBLE OR IMAGINARY QUANTITIES.
593. The squares of numbers, Avhether negative or positive, as we have shown above, are
always affected by the + or positive sign, for it has been seen that —a multiplied by —a
produces + aa, in the same way as + a by + a produces the same result ; and it was on
this account that in the preceding section all the numbers whose roots were to be extracted
were considered positive. If, however, the root of a negative number is to be extracted, a
difficulty arises, because there is no assignable number whose square would be a negative
quantity. If, for instance, we wanted the root of —4, we have to search for a number
which, multiplied by itself, will produce —4. This number can be neither +2 nor —2,
because the squares of both will be + 4, and not — 4. Hence we must conclude that the
square root of a negative number is neither positive nor negative, inasmuch as that the
squares of negative numbers are affected by the sign -f . The root must, therefore, belong
to a species of numbers entirely distinct from all others, for it cannot be placed among
either positive or negative numbers.
594. It has been observed that all positive numbers are greater than 0, and that all
negative numbers are less than 0 ; hence whatever exceeds 0 is a positive number, and that
which is less than 0 must be expressed by negative numbers. Thus the square roots of
negative numbers are neither greater nor less than nothing. But they are not 0, because
the product of 0 multiplied by 0 is 0, and does not, therefore, produce a negative number.
But as all conceivable numbers are greater or less than 0, or are 0 itself, the square root
of a negative number cannot be ranked among possible numbers ; hence it is said to be an
impossible quantity ; and it is this which leads us to an idea of numbers which are na-
turally impossible. They are usually called imaginary quantities, from their existing only
in imagination. Such expressions, therefore, as V-l, -/-2, A/ -3, 7 -4, &c. are
impossible or imaginary numbers, because they represent roots of negative quantities ; and of
such numbers it may be said that they are neither nothing nor greater nor less than nothing ;
they are, therefore, imaginary or impossible. Though existing only in our imagination,
we may form a sufficient idea of them, for we k^now that V — 4 expresses a number which,
multiplied by itself, produces — 4. For this reason there is nothing to prevent, in cal-
culation, the use of these imaginary numbers.
595. The most obvious idea on the above matter is, that the square of A/^3, for
instance, or the product of V-3 by V-3 will be -3; that the product of V-1 by
A/ — 1 is — 1 ; and, in general, that by multiplying J — a by \/ — a we obtain — «. Now
consequently the whole impossibility of an imaginary quantity may be always reduced to
Thus V — 4 is equal to V4 multiplied by V — 1, and equal also to 2 V — 1» for the
N/4 is equal to 2; and so also V — 9 is reduced to A/9 x V-1 or 3 \/-l, and similarly
V-16 is equal 4V- 1. Thus, also, as \/a multiplied by \/b produces \/ab, we have \/b
tor the value of V-2 multiplied by V-3 ; and V4 or 2 for the value of the product of
V — l by V — 4. Hence we see how two imaginary numbers multiplied together produce
which is real or possible. But, on the other hand, a possible number multiplied by an
possible one always produces an imaginary product : thus, V — 3 by \/ + 5 gives V — 15.
596. The same species of results prevail in division ; for, as V« divided by \/b makes
-^V it is clear that V~4 divided by V—l will make V + 4 or 2, that V + 3 divided by
\/-3 gives V-l; and that 1 divided by V-l gives V^j or -v/-l, because 1 is equal
to V + 1 . It has been already stated that the square root of a number has universally two
ralues, one positive and the other negative; that V4, for example, is both +2 and -2;
that, generally, ~^/a as well as +V" exhibit equally the square root of a. It is
240
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
the same in the case of imaginary numbers, for the square root of -ra is both +\/ — a and
— \/ — a, but the signs + and — before the radical sign \/ must not be confounded with
the signs that come after it.
597. However, on first view, it may seem idle speculation thus to dwell on impossible
numbers, the calculation of imaginary quantities is of the greatest importance, for ques-
tions constantly arise wherein it is impossible to say whether anything real or possible is
or is not included, and when the solution of such a question leads to imaginary quantities,
we are certain that what is required is impossible. Thus, suppose it were required to divide
the number 1 2 into two such parts that the product of them may be 40. In resolving this
question by the ordinary rules we find, for the parts sought, 6 +V~ 4 and 6— \/ — 4, both
imaginary numbers ; hence we know that it is impossible to resolve the question. The
difference is manifest in supposing the question had been to divide 1 2 into two parts whose
product should produce 35, for it is evident that those parts must be 7 and 5.
598. A number twice multiplied by itself, or its square multiplied by the root, pro-
duces a cube or cubic number. Thus the cube of a is aaa, for it is the product of a mul-
tiplied by a, and that square aa again multiplied by a.
The cubes of the natural numbers are placed in the subjoined table : —
Numbers
1
2
g
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Cubes
1
8
27
64
125
216
343
512
729
1000
Analysing the differences of these cubes, as we did those of the squares, by subtracting
each cube from that following, the following series of numbers occur : —
7, 19, 37, 61, 91, 127, 169, 217, 271,
And in these there does not appear any regularity ; but, taking the differences of these,
we shall have the following series : —
12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48, 54, 60;
On the inspection of which it will be seen that the terms increase regularly by 6.
599. From the definition of a cube the cubes of fractional numbers are easily found :
thus, | is the cube of ^, ^ is the cube of ^, and -jfr is the cube of §. Thus, also, we have
only to take the cube of the numerator and that of the denominator separately, and for
the cube of \ we have |^. To find the cube of a mixed number it must be reduced, first
to a single fraction, and the process is then conducted in a similar manner. Thus, to find
the cube of 1{ we must take the cube of |, which is ^ or 1|J, and the cube of 1| is that
of f, or 2^, or 3§.
As aaa is the cube of a, that of ab will be aaabbb ; from which we learn, that if a number
has two or more factors, its cube may be found by multiplying together the cubes of those
factors. For instance, as 1 2 is equal to 3 x 4, the cube of 3, which is 27, if multiplied by
the cube of 4, which is 64, gives us 1728, the cube of 12. Again, the cube of 2a is 8aaa,
that is to say, 8 times greater than the cube of a ; so the cube of 4a is 64aaa, that is to
say, 64 times greater than the cube of a. *
600. The cube ©f a positive number will, of course, be positive : thus, that of + a will
be +aaa; but the cube of a negative will be negative, for —a by —a gives +aa, and
that again multiplied by —a gives —aaa. So that it is not the same as with squares, for
these are always positive.
CUBE ROOTS AND THE IRRATIONAL NUMBERS THAT RESULT FROM THEM.
601. As we can, by the mode above given, find the cube of any given number, so may
we find one which, multiplied twice by itself, will produce that number. With relation
to the cube this is called the cube root, or that whose cube is equal to the given number.
When the number proposed is a real cube the solution is easy enough. For there is no
difficulty in seeing that the cube of 1 is 1, that that of 2 is 8, that of 4 is 64, and so on : and
equally that the cube root of —27 is —3, and that of —216 is —6. Similarly, if the
proposed number be a fraction, as -jfj, the cube root is §, and that of $3 is f. And last, in
the case of a mixed number, as 2$, the cube root will be ^ or 1 ^, because 2$ is equal to |4.
602. If, however, the proposed number be not a cube, its cube root cannot be expressed
either in integers or fractional numbers. Thus, 43 is not a cube number ; hence it is im-
possible to assign any number, integer or fractional, whose cube shall be exactly 43. We
may, however, assert that the cube root of that number is greater than 3, for the cube of
3 is only 27, and less than 4, because the cube of 4 is 64. The cube root required lies,
therefore, between 3 and 4. The cube root of 43 being greater than 3, by adding a
fraction to 3 we may approach nearer to the value of the root, but we shall never be able
to express the value exactly, because the cube of a mixed number can never be exactly
equal to an integer, as 43 for instance. If we suppose 3£ or | to be the cube root required,
CHAP. I.
ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA.
241
the error would be |, for the cube of | is only ?|2 or 42^. Thus we see that the cube root
of 43 can be expressed neither by integers nor fractions. We obtain, however, a distinct
notion of its magnitude, and, for the purpose of representing it, a sign %/ is placed before
the number which is read cube root, to distinguish it from the square root, which is fre-
quently merely called the root. Thus 3/43 expresses the cube root of 43, that is, the
number whose cube is 43.
603. It is evident that such expressions cannot belong to rational quantities, and that,
indeed, they form a particular species of irrational quantities. Between them and square
roots there is nothing in common, and it is impossible to express such a cube root by a
square root, as, for example, by */l 2, for the square of *J 1 2 being 1 2, its cube will be 1 2 */\ 2,
consequently irrational, and such cannot be equal to 43.
604. If the proposed number be a real cube the expressions become rational : $/\ is equal
to 1 ; \/8 is equal to 2 ; -^27 is equal to 3 ; and, generally, tyaaa is equal to a.
605. If it be proposed to multiply one cube root by another, /v^a, for example, by $/b,
the product must be %/db ; for it has already been seen that the cube root of a product ab is
found by multiplying together the cube root of its factors. Whence, also, if \/a be divided
by tyb, the quotient will be <v/|. And, further, 2.^a is equal to &8a, for 2 is the same
as ^8 ; 3 tya is equal to v^Ta, and b 3/a is the same as tyabbb. So, reciprocally, when
the number under the radical sign has a factor which is a cube, we may always get rid of
it by placing its cube root before the sign. Thus, instead of \/64a we may write 4$'a, and
7 $/a instead of &343a. Hence ^16 is equal to 2^2, because 16 is equal to 8 x 2. When
a number proposed is negative, its cube root is not subject to the difficulties which we
observed in speaking of square roots ; for, as the cubes of negative numbers are negative,
it follows that their cube roots are but negative. Thus %/ — 8 is equal to — 2, and $/ — 27
to — 3. So also $/ — 1 2 is the same as — $/\ 2, and 3/ — a may be expressed by — \/a. From
which it may be deduced that the sign — , though found after the sign of the cube root,
might have been as well placed before it. Hence we do not herein fall upon impossible
or imaginary quantities, as we did in considering the square roots of negative numbers.
OP POWERS IN GENERAL.
606. A power is that number which is obtained by multiplying a number several times
by itself. A square arises from the multiplication of a number by itself, a cube by
multiplying it twice by itself, and these are powers of the number. In the former case we
say the number is raised to the second degree or to the second power ; and in the latter, the
number is raised to the third degree or to the third power.
607. These powers are distinguished from one another by the number of times that the
given number has been multiplied by itself. Thus the square is called the second power,
because it has been removed to the second product by multiplication by itself; another
multiplication by itself brings it to the third power or cube. When multiplied again by
itself it becomes the fourth power, which is commonly called the bi-quadrate. From this
will be readily comprehended what is meant by the fifth, sixth, seventh, &c. power of a
number. After the fourth degree the names of the powers have only numeral distinc-
tions. For the purpose of illustration, we may observe, that the powers of 1 must always
be 1 , decause how often soever we multiply 1 into itself the product must be 1 . The
following table shows the powers of 2 and 3.
Powers.
Of the number 2.
Of the number 3.
I
2
3
II
4
9
III
8
27
IV
16
81
V
32
243
VI
64
729
VII
128
2187
VIII
256
6561
IX
512
19683
X
1024
59049
XI
2048
177147
XII
4096
531441
XIII
8192
1594323
XIV
16384
4782969
XV
32768
14348907
XVI
65536
43046721
XVII
131072
129140163
XVIII
262144
387420489
R
242
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
608. Of powers, those of the number 1 0 are the most remarkable, as being the foundation
of our system of arithmetic. We will range in order a few of them, as under : —
I, II, III, IV, V, VI,
10, 100, 1000, 10000, 100000, 1000000, &c.
To consider which more generally, we may take the powers of any number a, as placed in
the following order : —
I, II, III, IV, V, VI,
a, aa, aaa, aaaa, aaaaa, aaaaaa, &c.
But in this mode of writing powers there is much inconvenience, because of the trouble of
counting the figures and letters ; for the purpose of ascertaining the powers intended to be
represented, as, for example, the inconvenience of representing the hundredth power would
be so great as to incumber almost to impossibility the expression of it. To avoid this
inconvenience, an expedient has been devised which is sufficiently convenient, and which we
have now to explain. To express, for example, the hundredth power of a, we write just
above it to the right the power in question; thus, a100 means, conventionally, a raised to the
hundredth power. The number thus written above that whose power or degree it repre-
sents is called an exponent, from its expounding the power or degree to which the number is
to be raised, which, in the example we have adduced, is 100. Thus, then, a2 represents the
square or second power of a, which, as we have seen, may be also represented by aa, either
of these expressions being understood with equal facility. To express the cube or third
power of a or aaa, a* is written, by which mode less room is occupied. So a4, a5, a6, &c.
respectively represent the fourth, fifth, and sixth powers of a. We may in this manner
represent a by a1, which, in fact, shows nothing more than that this letter is to be written
only once. Such a series of powers as we here have noticed is called also a geometrical
progression, because each term is once greater than the preceding.
609. As in this series of powers each term increases by multiplying the preceding term
by a, thereby increasing the exponent by 1, so where any term is given the preceding one
may be found if we divide by a, because it diminishes the exponent by 1 : thus showing
that the first term a1 must necessarily be ^ or 1 ; hence, if we proceed according to the
exponents, we immediately perceive that the term which precedes the first must be a°, from
which follows this remarkable property, that «° is always equal to 1, however great or
small the value of the number a may be, even if a be nothing.
610. The series of powers may be continued in a retrograde order, and in two different
ways : first, by dividing continually by a ; and, secondly, by diminishing the exponent by
unity. In either mode the terms will be equal. The decreasing series, exhibited in
both forms, is shown in the subjoined table, which is to be read from right to left.
1
1 j 1
1
1 i 1
1
aaaaaa
aaaaa
aaaa
aaa
aa
a
First
I
1
1
1
1
1
a«
a°
a4
a3
a* | a
Second -
a-e
a-5
a-4
a-3
a-S | a-
a° I a I
I
Thus we come to the knowledge of powers whose exponents are negative, and are able to
assign the precise value of those powers. And hence, from what has been said, it will be
apparent that
is equal to
a2.
a4 &c.
This gives us the facility of finding the powers of a product db ; for they must be evidently
ab, or a1^1, a-b", a363, a4?*4, a5&5, &c. ; and the powers of fractions are found in the same
manner ; for example, those of ^ are
CHAP. I. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 243
The only matter remaining, then, is the consideration of the powers of negative numbers.
Take, for example, the powers of -a, and they will form the following series : —
— a, +aa, — a3, + a4, — a5, + a6, &c. ;
in which we immediately perceive that those powers are negative whose exponents are odd
numbers, and that the powers with even numbers for exponents are positive. Thus the
third, fifth, seventh, ninth, &c. powers have the sign — ; and the second, fourth, sixth,
eighth, &c. powers are affected by the sign + .
CALCULATION OF POWERS.
611. The addition and subtraction of powers is effected by means of the signs + and —
when the powers are different ; for example, a3 + a- is the sum of the third and second
powers of a ; and a5— a4 is the remainder when the fourth power of a is subtracted from
the fifth ; neither of which results can be abridged. If the powers are of the same kind
or degree it is not necessary to connect them by signs, thus a3 + a3 makes 2a3, &c.
612. But in the multiplication of powers, we must observe, first, that any power of a
multiplied by a, gives the succeeding power, that is to say, the power whose exponent is one
unit greater. Thus a2 multiplied by a produces a3 ; and a3 multiplied by a produces a4.
Similarly, if it be required to multiply by a, the powers of that number having negative
exponents, 1 must be added to the exponent. Thus, a ~ 1 multiplied by a produces a° or 1 ;
and this becomes most clearly seen by considering that a~ is equal to- and that the
product of - being -, it is consequently equal to 1. So a— 2 multiplied by a produces
u~~l or -, and a~5 multiplied by a produces a"4, and so on.
61 3. If it be required to multiply a power of a by aa or the second power, the exponent
then becomes greater by 2. Thus the product of a2 by a2 is a* ; that of a2 by a3 is a5 ;
that of a2 by a4 is a6 ; and, generally, an multiplied by a2 makes ara+2. In the case of ne-
gative exponents, a1 or a is the product of a"1 by a2. For a""1 being the same as i, it is
just the same as if we had divided aa by a ; hence the product required is — or a. In the
same way, a~~2 multiplied by a2 produces a° or 1, and a""3 multiplied by a2 produces a~1.
It is equally clear that to multiply any power of a by a3, its exponent must be increased by
three units, consequently the product of an by a3 is an+3. And as often as it is required
to multiply two powers of a, the product must be a power of a whose exponent is equal to
the sum of those of the two given powers. For instance, a4 multiplied by a5 will make a!J,
and a12 multiplied by a? produces a19, &c.
614. On the principles here exhibited, it is easy to determine the highest powers. Thus,
to find the twenty-fourth power of 2, multiply the twelfth power by the twelfth power ;
because 224 is equal to 212 x 212. But we have already seen that 2 12 is equal to 4096 ;
hence the number 16777216, being the product of 4096 by 4096, is 224, or the required
power of 2.
61 5. In division we must observe that to divide a power of a by a the exponent must be
diminished by unity. Thus a5 divided by a gives a4 ; a° or 1 divided by a is equal to a""1
or - ; a divided by a gives a . So, if we have to divide a given power of a by a ,
the exponent must be diminished by 2, and if by a3, three units must be subtracted from
the exponent of the power proposed ; and, generally, if it be required to divide any power
of a by any other power of a, the rule is to subtract the exponent of the second from the
exponent of the first of those powers. Thus a16 divided by a9 gives a7 ; «5 divided by a6
will give a . So a ° divided by a will give a .
616. It is not difficult, then, from what has been said, to find the powers of powers,
for it is effected by multiplication. Thus, if we have to seek the square or second power
of a3, we find a6, and for the cube or third power of a4 we have a12. To obtain the square
of a power it is only necessary to double the exponent ; for its cube, to triple the exponent,
and so on. Thus a2" is the square of an, a3n is the cube of an, and the seventh power of
an is a'n. The square of a , or square of the square of a, being a4, is hence called bi-
quadrate. The square of a3 is a6 ; hence the sixth power has received the name of the
square-cubed. To conclude, the cube of a3 being a9, the ninth power has received the
name of the cubo-cube.
ROOTS RELATIVELY TO POWERS IN GENERAL.
617. The square root of a given number is a number whose square is equal to that
number ; the cube root, that whose cube is equal to the given number : hence, whatever
number be given, such roots of it will exist that their fourth, their fifth, or any other
power, will be equal to the given number. For distinction sake, we shall call the square
R 2
u
244 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
root the second root, the cube root the third root, the bi-quadrate the fourth root, and so on.
As the square or second root is marked by the sign V, and the cubic or third root by the
sign ty ; so the fourth and fifth roots are respectively marked by the signs ty and ^, and
so on. It is evident, according to this method of expression, the sign of the square root
should be %/ ; but by common consent the figure is always left out ; and we are to recol-
lect that when a radical sign has no number prefixed to it, the square root is always meant.
To give a still better explanation, we here subjoin some different roots of the number a, with
their respective values : —
f2d
3d
•is the-J 4th
5th
. 6th.
And so, conversely,
The2d •)
The 3d
The 4th [-power of
The 5th
The 6th J
61 8. Whether a be a small or a great number, we know what value to affix to all these
roots of different degrees. If unity be substituted for a the roots remain constantly 1 ; for
all powers of 1 have unity for their value. But if the number a be greater than 1 , the
roots will also all exceed unity ; and further, if a represent a less number than 1 , all the
roots will be less than unity.
61 9. When the number a is positive, from what has been before said of square and cube
roots, we know that all the other roots may be determined, and that they will be real and
possible numbers. But if the number a is negative, its second, fourth, sixth, and all even
roots become impossible, or imaginary numbers ; because all the powers of an even order,
whether of positive or of negative numbers, are affected by the sign + ; whereas the third,
fifth, seventh, and all odd roots become negative, but rational, because the odd powers of
negative numbers are also negative. Hence an inexhaustible source of new kinds of surd
or irrational quantities ; for, whenever the number a is not a power represented by some
one of the foregoing indices, it is impossible to express the root either in whole numbers or
fractions, and it must therefore be ranked among the numbers called irrational.
THE REPRESENTATION OF POWERS BY FRACTIONAL EXPONENTS.
620. In the preceding subsections we have seen that the square of any power is found by
doubling its exponent, and that in general the square or second power of an is o . Hence
the converse, that the square root of the power a2* is found by dividing the exponent of
that power by 2. Thus the square root of a2 is a1 ; that of a6 is a3 ; and as this is general,
the square root of a3 is necessarily a5, and that of a? is cP. Thus we have a5 for the square
root of a1, and hence at is equal to Va ; a new method of expressing the square root, which
requires our particular attention.
621. To find the cube of a power, as a", we have already shown that its exponent must
be multiplied by 3, hence its cube becomes a3n ; and, conversely, to find the third or cube
root of the power a3n, we have only to divide the exponent by 3 ; hence the root is a".
Thus, also, a1 or a is the cube root of a3, a2 that of a6, a4 that of a12, and so on. The
same reasoning is applicable to those cases in which the exponent is not divisible by 3 ; for
it is evident that the cube root of a2 is a^, as the cube root of a4 is a3 or a1^. Hence the
third or cube root of a or a1 will be a*, which is the same as 3/a.
622. The application is the same with roots of a higher degree : thus the fourth root of
a will be a', which expression is of the same value as */a. The fifth root of a will be
a5, which is equivalent to fya, and so on in roots of higher degree. It would be possible,
therefore, to dispense altogether with the radical signs, and to substitute fractional ex-
ponents for them ; but as custom has sanctioned the signs, and as they are met with in all
works on algebra, it would be wrong to banish them altogether from calculation. There
is, however, sufficient reason to employ, as is frequently done, the other method of calcu-
lation ; because it clearly corresponds with the nature of the thing. Thus, in fact, it is
manifest that a* is the square root of a, because we know that its square is equal to a1 or a.
623. What has been said will be sufficient to show how we are to understand fractional
exponents ; thus, if a3 should occur, it means that we are first to take the fourth power of
a and then extract its cube or third root, and hence a3 is the same as A3/a4. Again, to find
CHAP> L ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 245
the value of a* the cube or third power of a or a3 must first be taken, and the fourth root
of that power extracted, so that a* is the same as 4/a3. So a3 is the same as */"•*, &c. But
when the fraction which represents the exponent is greater than unity, the value of the
given quantity may be otherwise expressed. Let it, for instance, be a? ; now this quantity is
equivalent to a2^ which is the product of a2 by a?. Now a^ is equal to </a, wherefore
cP is equal to a?^/a. So a3, or a83, is equal to a*&a; and a*, that is a**, expresses
a34/«3. From these examples the use of fractional exponents may be properly appreciated.
This, however, extends also to fractional numbers, as follows.
624. Suppose -^ is given, we know that it is equal to ; now we have already seen
that a fraction of the forman may be expressed by a~n; and instead of -^, we may use
the expression a~~^. Also, ~ya is equal to a~*. So let the quantity -^-3 be proposed,
it is transformable into — , which is the product of a2 by a~~*, and this is equivalent to
a|
of, or to a1*, or, lastly, to Va~°. These reductions will be facilitated by a little practice.
625. Each root may be variously represented, for -/a is the same as a*, and \ being equi-
valent to the fractions f, f, |, fa T62, &c., it is clear that Va is equal to 4/a2, to &a\ to
v'a4, and so on. Similarly, 3/a is equal to c^, and to -v/a2, to^a3, and to tya4. It is,
moreover, manifest, that the number a, or a1 might be represented by the following radical
expressions :
#a2, &a.3, Va*, f/a'°, &c.
a property of great use in multiplication and division ; for, suppose we have to multiply
2/a by &a, we write #^3 for &a, and #a2 instead of tya, thus obtaining the same
radical sign for both, and the multiplication being now performed, gives the product Va5.
A similar result arises from a*"*"*, the product of a* multiplied by a*, for \ + \ is |, and, con-
sequently, the product required is aB , or $/a*. If it were required to divide */a or a3 by
A/a or aj, we should have for the quotient a2~~3, or aB~s, that is, a\, or tya.
METHODS OF CALCULATION AND THEIR MUTUAL CONNECTION.
626. In the foregoing passages have been explained the different methods of calculation
in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, the involution of powers, and the
extraction of roots. We here propose to review the origin of the different methods, and to
explain the connection subsisting among them, in order that we may ascertain if it be
possible or not for other operations of the same kind to exist ; an inquiry which will illus-
trate the subjects that have been considered. We shall, for this purpose, here introduce a
new sign =, which means that equality exists between the quantities it is used to join,
and is read equal to. Thus, if I write a = 6, it means that a is equal to 6; and so 3 x 8
= 24.
627. Addition, the process by which we add two numbers together and find their sum,
is the first mode of calculation that presents itself to the mind. Thus if a and b be two
given numbers whose sum is expressed by c, we shall have a + 6 = c. So that, knowing the
two numbers a and 6, we are taught by addition how to find the number c. Recollecting
this comparison a-rb = c, the question may be reversed by asking in what way b can be
found when we know the numbers a and c. Let us, then, ascertain what number must be
added to a that the sum may be c. Now, suppose, for instance, a = 3, and c = 8, it is
evident we must have 3 + 6 = 8, and b will be found by subtracting 3 from 8. So, gene-
rally, to find 6, we must subtract a from c, whence arises b = c — a ; for, by adding a to both
sides again, we have b + a = c — a + a, that is, as was supposed, =c. And this is the origin
of subtraction, being, indeed, nothing more than an inversion of the question from which
addition arises. Now it is possible that it may be required to subtract a greater from a
lesser number ; as, for example, 9 from 5. In this case we are furnished with the idea of
a new kind of numbers, which are called negative numbers, because 5 — 9= — 4.
628. If several equal numbers are to be added together, their sum is found by multipli-
cation, and is called a product. Thus ab expresses the product of the multiplication of a
by 6, or from a being added to itself b times. If this product be represented by c, we have
ab = c, and we may, by the use of multiplication, determine the number c where the num-
bers a and 6 are known. Suppose, for example, a = 3, and c = 15, so that 36 = 15, we
have to ascertain what number 6 represents, merely to find by what number b is to be
multiplied, in order that the product may be 15, for to that is the question reduced: and
this is division ; for the number sought is found by dividing 15 by 3 ; hence, in general,
the number b is found by dividing c by a, whence results the equation 6=^.
R 3
246 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
But, frequently, the number c cannot be actually divided by the number a, the letter 6
having a determinate value; hence a new kind of numbers, called fractions, arises. For,
suppose a = 4, c = 3, so that 46 = 3, in this case b cannot be an integer, but must be a fraction,
and we shall find that 6 can be no more than f . Multiplication, then, as we have seen, arises
from the addition of equal quantities ; so, from the multiplication of several equal quantities
together, powers are derived, and they are represented in a general manner by the expres-
sion a\ which signifies that the number a must be multiplied by itself as often as is pointed
out by the number 6, which is called the exponent, whilst a is called the root, and ab the
power. If this power be represented by the letter c, we have ab = c, an equation in which
are found the letters a, b, c. In treating of powers, it has been shown how to find the
power itself, that is, the letter c, when the root a and its exponent b are given. Suppose,
for instance, a = 4, and b = 3, we shall have c = 43, or the third power of 4, which is 64,
whence c = 64. If we wish to reverse this question, we shall find that there are two modes
of doing it. Let, for instance, two of the three numbers a, 6, and c be given. If it be
required to find the third, it is clear that the question admits of three different supposi-
tions, and hence, also, of three solutions. The case has been considered in which a and b
were the numbers given ; we may therefore suppose, further, that c and a or c and b are
known, and that it is required to determine the third letter. Now, it must be observed,
that between involution and the two operations which lead to it there is a great difference.
For when, in addition, we reversed the question, there was only one way of doing it, and it
was of no consequence whether we took c and a or c and b for the given numbers, for it
is quite indifferent to the result whether we write a + b or b + a. And it is quite the same
with multiplication ; the letters a and b might be placed in each other's places at pleasure,
the equation ab — c being exactly the same as ba — c. But in the calculation of powers, we
cannot change the places of the letters ; for instance, we could on no account write b" for
a6. This we will illustrate by one example. Thus, let a = 4, and 6 = 3, we have a6 = 43
=64. But 6° = 34=81, two very different results.
629. We may propose two more questions ; one to find the root a by means of the given
power c, and the exponent 6 ; the other to find the exponent 6, the power c and the root a
being known. The former of these questions has been answered in the subsection which
treats of the extractions of roots : since, if 6 = 2, and a2 = c, we know that a is a number
whose square is equal to c, and consequently a = Vc. So, if 6 = 3 and a3 = c, we know that the
cube of a is equal to the given number c, and hence that a = v/c. We conclude, generally,
from this, how the letter a may be determined by means of the letters c and 6 ; for a must
necessarily be —^/c.
630. We have already seen that if the given number is not a real power (a contingency
of frequent occurrence), the required root a can be expressed neither by integers nor frac-
tions ; nevertheless, as it must have a determinate value, the same consideration led us to
the numbers called surd or irrational numbers, which, on account of the great variety of
roots, are divisible into an infinite number of kinds. We were also, by the same enquiry,
led to the knowledge of imaginary numbers.
631. Upon the second question, that of determining the exponent by means of the
power c and the root a, is founded the very important theory of logarithms ; an invention so
important that without them scarcely any long calculation could be effected.
LOGARITHMS,
632. Resuming, then, the equation aJ> = c, we in the doctrine of logarithms assume for
the root a number taken at pleasure, but supposed to preserve its assumed value without
variation. This being the case, the exponent 6 is taken, such that the power a* becomes
equal to a given number c, and this exponent 6 is said to be the logarithm of the number c.
To express this, we shall use the letter L or the initial letters log. Thus, by 6=L.c or
6^ log.c, we mean that 6 is equal to the logarithm of the number c, or that the logarithm
of c is 6.
633. If the value of the root a is once established, the logarithm of any number c is but
the exponent of that power of a which is equal to c. So that c being =• a, 6 is the loga-
rithm of the power of a . If we suppose 6 = 1, we have 1 for the logarithm of a1 ; hence
L.a = l. Suppose 6 = 2, we have 2 for the logarithm of a2 ; that is L.a2 = 2. Similarly,
L.«3 = 3, L.a4 = 4, L.a5 = 5, and so on.
634. If 6 be made =0, 0 must be the logarithm of a° ; but a°=l ; consequently,
L.I =0, whatever the value of the root a. If 6= — l,then —1 will be the logarithm of a~~ .
Now a~l = i ; therefore, L.^ = -l. So, also, L. I = - 2 ; L.i=-3; L.~=-4;&c.
635. Thus, then, may be represented the logarithms of all the powers of a, and even those
of fractions wherein unity is the numerator, and the denominator a power of a. W"e see,
also, that, in all those cases, the logarithms are integers : but if 6 were a fraction it would
be the logarithm of an irrational number. For suppose 6 = i, then A is the logarithm of a*,
or of \fa ; consequently we have L. Va — £ ; and in the same way, L. \/a = J, L. £/a = J., &c.
CHAP, I. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 247
636. If it be required to find the logarithm of another number c, it will be readily seen
that it can neither be an integer nor a fraction. However, there must be such an ex-
ponent b, that the power a* may become equal to the number proposed ; we have, there-
fore, 6 = L.c, and, generally, aL'c = c.
637. If we consider another number d, whose logarithm is represented in a similar man-
ner by L.cf ; then a^-d—d ; and multiplying this expression by the preceding one aL'c=:c,
we have aL"c+L"d = cd. The exponent being always the logarithm of the power L.c + L.d
= L.cJ. If, instead of multiplying, we divide the former expression by the latter, we
obtain aL-c~L'd= £ ; hence L.c-L.d=L.t
d d
638. From this we are led to the two principal properties of logarithms which are contained
in the equations L.c + L.d=Lcd, and L.c — L.d=L. |: by the former whereof we learn
that the logarithm of a product, as cd, is found by adding together the logarithms of the
factors ; by the last, that the logarithm of a fraction is determined by the subtraction of
the logarithm of the denominator from that of the numerator. Whence it follows that to
multiply or divide t\vo numbers by one another, we have only to add or subtract their
logarithms. This constitutes the immense advantage of logarithms in calculation ; for when
a question is incumbered with large quantities, it is, of course, much easier to add or
subtract than to multiply and divide. In the involution of powers and the extraction of
roots, logarithms are yet more useful. Thus, if d = c, we have by the first property L.c +
L.c — L.cc; consequently, L. cc = 2L. c. Similarly, we have L.c3 = 3L.c, L.c4 = 4L.c, and,
generally, L.cn = wL.c.
Substituting fractional numbers for n, we shall have, for example, L.c8, that is L-v/c
-^L.c. Lastly, if n represents negative numbers, we have L.c~~* or L. -=— L.c; L.c~2
orL. — = 2L.c, and so on. For this not only follows from the equation L.cn = n L. c, but
also from L.I =0, as we have before shown.
In tables of logarithms which are calculated for all numbers, great assistance is rendered
in performing the most prolix calculations. Suppose, for instance, the square root of the
number c is sought, having found the logarithm ofc, which is L.c, we have only to divide
it by 2, that is, take the i? of it, and we have the logarithm of the square root required ;
and the number in the table answering to that logarithm is the number required.
We have seen that the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, &c., that is, all positive numbers, are
logarithms of the root a, and of its positive powers, and consequently logarithms of numbers
greater than unity; and, on the other hand, that negative numbers, —1, —2, &c., are
logarithms of the fractions -, -aa, &c,, which are less than unity, but, nevertheless, greater
than nothing ; from whence it follows, that if the logarithm be positive, the number is
always greater than unity, but, if negative, the number, though less than one, is yet greater
than 0. Thus we cannot express the logarithms of negative numbers, and must conclude
that they are impossible, and belong to the class of imaginary quantities. That this may
be better understood, let us fix on a determinate number for the root a, such, for instance,
as the number 1 0, on which the common logarithmic tables are formed, and which is, more-
over, the basis of our arithmetic. Any other number, however, provided it be greater
than unity, would answer the same purpose. The reason why the a = 1 would not suit is,
that all the powers would be but equal to unity.
LOGARITHMIC TABLES NOW USED.
639. We set out with the supposition that the root a = 10. Then the logarithm of
any number c is the exponent to which the number 10 must be raised, so that the power
resulting from it may be equal to the number c ; or if we denote the logarithm of c by L. c,
we shall always have 10L.c = c.
The reader will recollect that the logarithm of 1 is always 0, and we have 10° = 1.
Hence —
L.l=0, L.10 = l, L.100 = 2, L.1000 = 3, L.10000=4, L.100000 = 5, L. 1000000= 6, &c.
Further, that
L4= -1, L.^= -2, L.^= -3, L.T5^5= -4, 1*™^= -5, 1*™^ = -6, &c.
The logarithms of the principal numbers are therefore readily determined ; but those
between them, as inserted in the tables, are not so easy to find. Our object here, however,
is only a general view of the subject, with which we shall proceed. And, first, since
L.I =0 and L. 10 = 1, it is manifest that the logarithms of all numbers between 1 and 10
lie between 0 and 1, that is greater than O and less than 1. Let us, then, consider the
number 2, whose logarithm is certainly greater than 0, and yet less than unity. Now, if
we represent this logarithm by the letter x, so that L.2 = ar, the value of x must be such as
R 4
248 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
to give exactly 10.r = <2. We immediately see that x must be considerably less than i, or,
which is the same thing, 10^ is greater than 2. For, squaring both sides, the square
of 10^= 101, and that of 2 = 4, which latter is much less than the former. So ^ is still too
great a value of x, that is to say, 10^ is greater than 2 ; for the cube of 10^ is 10, and that
of 2 only 8. On the contrary, by making x = 5, we give it too small a value ; for the fourth
power of 10^ being 10, and that of 2 being 16, it is evident that 10* is less than 2 : x then,
or L.2, is less than £, and yet greater than \. In the same way we may determine, with
respect to every fraction contained between \ and ^, whether it be too great or too small.
Trying, for example, with f, which is a trifle less than J, and greater than \, ; 10* or 10*
must =2, or the seventh power of 10', that is to say, 102 or 100 must be equal to the
seventh power of 2 ; now the latter = 1 28, and is consequently greater than the former.
Hence we infer that lof is also less than 2, and therefore that | is less than L.2, and that
L.2, which was found less than $, is, however, greater than f. We might proceed in this
investigation, but it is here unnecessary ; because, from what has been shown, we prove
that L.2 has a determinate value ; but continuing to represent it by x, so that L.2 = ar, we
will show that when once known, the logarithms of an infinity of other numbers may be
deduced. For this purpose we will use the equation already mentioned, L.cd=L.c+ Lrf,
which comprehends the property, that the logarithm of a product is found by adding the
logarithms of the factors.
640. First, as L.2 = a: and L.10 = l, we have L.20 = .r + l ; L.200 = ar + 2, L.2000=
* + 3; L. 20000 = x + 4 and L. 200000 = x + 5, &c.
Further, as L.c2 = 2L.c, and L.c3 = 3L.c, and L.c4 = 4L.c, &c., we have L.4 = 2ar;
L,.S = 3x; L.16 = 4or; L.32 = 5:r; L.64 = 6ar, &c. ; and from this it follows, that L.40 =
2# + l; L.400 = 2or + 2; L.4000 = 2# + 3 ; L. 400OO = 2x + 4, &c. Also, L.80 = 3o:+l,
L.800 = 3# + 2, L.8000 = 3# + 3, L.8000O=3a: + 4,&c. So L.160=4:r + 1, L.16OO = 4* + 2,
L. 1 6000 = 4x + 3, &c. Resuming the other fundamental equation L. ^ = L. c — L. d, let us
suppose c = 10, and d=2. Since L.10 = l, and L.2=ar, we shall have L.1^1 or L.5 = l — xt
from which the following equations are deduced : —
L.50 = 2-ar; L.500 = 3-ar; L.5OOO-4-*, &c.
L.25 = 2-2ar; L.125=3-3x; L.625 = 4-4r, &c.
L.250=3-2#; L.2500 = 4-2#; L.25OOO=5-2x, &c.
L.1250 = 4-3a:; L.12500=5 -3x ; L. 125000 =6 -3x, &c.
L.6250=5-4ar; L.62500=6 -4x ; L.62500O=7-4or, &c.
and so on.
If we knew the logarithm of 3, we could determine another vast number of loga-
rithms. For example: let the L.3 be expressed by y. ThenL.30=y+l ; L.300 = y
+ 2; L.3000=y + 3, &c. ; and L.9 = 2y ; L.27 = 3y; L.81 =4y ; L.243 = 5y, &c. : as also
L.6 = x+y; L.12 = 2#+y; L.18 = a- + 2y, and L.15 = L.3 + L.5 =y + 1 — x.
From all this it is evident, that once knowing the logarithms of the prime numbers,
the logarithms of all other numbers may be found by simple addition. Take, for example,
the number 210, which is formed by the factors 2, 3, 5, 7, its logarithms will be L.2 + L.3
+ L.5 + L.7. In the same manner the number 360=2 x2x2x3x3x5 = 23x32x5;
hence the L.360=3L.2 + 2L.3 + L.5. It is therefore to the logarithms of the prime num-
bers that we must first apply ourselves, if we desire to construct tables of logarithms.
METHOD OF EXPRESSING LOGARITHMS.
641. It has been shown that the logarithm of 2 is greater than ^ and less than ^, and
that therefore the exponent of 10 lies between those two fractions, in order that the power
may become = 2. But, although this is known to us, whatever fraction is assumed on this
condition, the power resulting from it will always be an irrational number greater or less
than 2 ; the logarithm, therefore, of 2 cannot be accurately expressed by such a fraction :
hence we must be content with such an approximation to it as will render the error of no
importance. For this purpose decimal fractions are used, which we shall now explain.
642. In the ordinary way of writing numbers by means of the ten figures or characters
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
the first figure on the right hand is the only one which has its natural signification ; the
figures in the second place have ten times the value they would have had in the first ;
those in the third place have a hundred times the value, and those in the fourth a thousand
times, and so on ; so that in proportion as they advance towards the left, they acquire a
value ten times greater than they had in the preceding rank. Thus, in the number 1 849,
the figure 9 is in the first place on the right, and is just equal to 9. That in the second
place is 4, but this figure, instead of 4, represents 10 x 4 or 40. The figure 8 in the third
CHAF. I. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 249
place is equal to 100 x 8, or 800. Lastly, the 1, which is the fourth to the left, is equal to
1000, hence the number is read as follows, —
One thousand eight hundred and forty-nine.
643. As the value of figures becomes in each rank always ten times greater as we go from
the right towards the left, and as it continually becomes less as we proceed from the left
to the right, we may by this law advance still further towards the right, and obtain figures
whose value may continually decrease and become ten times less ; but where this occurs,
the place where the figures cease to have their natural value will continue to become ten
times less. In this case, however, the place where the figures have their natural value is
marked by a point placed after that rank. Thus, if, for instance, we meet with the number
54-76938, it must be thus understood : — the figure 4 in the first place has its natural
value, and the second 5 means 50 ; but the figure 7 which comes after the point expresses
only ^5 ; the figure 6 is equal only to T^ ; the figure 9 is equal to -j^ ; the figure 3 to
-P^g, and the figure 8 to rmoJi 5 ^us the more these figures advance towards the right, the
more their values diminish, till at last those values become so small, that they may at last be
considered as nothing. This species of numbers, then, are what are called decimal fractions,
and in this way logarithms are represented in the tables. Thus the logarithm of 2 is ex-
pressed by 0-3010300, wherein we perceive, as the logarithm does not contain an integer,
that its value 18^+-^+^ + -^ + ^m + ^^ + Toom^ The last two ciphers might
have been omitted ; they, however, serve to show that the logarithm quoted contains no
parts which have 1000000 and 10000000 for the denominator. It is possible, however,
that by continuing the series, smaller parts might have been found, which are neglected,
except in extraordinary cases, on account of their extreme minuteness.
644. The logarithm of 3 is known by the tables to be 0-4771213, and, containing no in-
teger, consists of the following fractions : — ^ + -^ + ^ + TO^ + ^Vo + TUUM55 + Ti><«5-
This logarithm is, however, not expressed with the utmost exactness ; we are only certain
that the error is less than IQQOOOOO' one so small, that there are few calculations in which it
may not be neglected.
645. By this method of expressing logarithms, that of 1 will be represented by
O -0000000, since it is really =0. The logarithm of 10 is 1 OOOOOOO, or exactly =1. The
logarithm of 100 is 2-0000000, or exactly =2. Hence the logarithms of all numbers
between 10 and 100, and, consequently consisting of only two figures, must be compre-
hended between 1 and 2, and are, therefore, expressed by 1 + a decimal fraction. Thus
L.50 = 1 -6989700 ; its value, therefore, is unity added to f0 + -^ + ^ + -^Q + To^m- So it
must be evident that between 100 and 1000 the logarithms of numbers are expressed by
two integers with a decimal fraction; the logarithms of numbers between 10000 and
100000 by four integers joined to a decimal fraction, and so on. The log. 600, for example,
is =2-7781513 ; that of 2460 is 3-3909351, &c. But the logarithms of numbers less than
10, or those expressed by a single figure, do not contain an integer, and for this reason we
find an 0 before the point. Hence there are two parts of a logarithm which require con-
sideration : the former, that which precedes the point, and denoting the integers, if any ;
the other, the decimal fractions to be added to the integers. The first part, or integer, of
a logarithm, usually called the characteristic, is easily determined from what has been
already shown, — that is, it is 0 for all the numbers having but one figure; 1 for those
which have two ; 2 for those which have three, and generally less by one unit than the
number of figures. Hence, if the logarithm of 5682 be required, we immediately perceive
that the first part, or that of the integers, must be 3. So, reciprocally, when we see the
integers of a logarithm, since the number it expresses is greater by one unit than the
integer of the logarithm, we know, at once, the number answering to it. Thus, having
4-4771213 for the logarithm of an unknown quantity, it is evident that the number must
have five figures, and exceed 10000. Now this number is 30000 for log. 30000 = L. 3 + L.
10000. Now the logarithm of 3 is known to be equal 0-4771213, and the logarithm of
10000 = 4, and the sum of those logarithms = 4-4771 21 3.
646. From this it will be seen that the first object in considering a logarithm is the
decimal fraction following the point, because, when that is known, it will serve for several
numbers. For the proof whereof let us take the number 456. Its first part must be 2 ;
and if we represent the decimal fraction which follows it by x, we have L. 456 = 2 +x.
If we continue to multiply by 10, we find L. 4560 = 3 +x; L. 45600 = 4 + x ;
L. 456000 = 5 +x, and so on. But, if we divide instead of multiply by 10, we shall
have 45-6 = 1 + x ; L.4'56 = 0 + x ; L.0-456 = -1 + x ; L.0'0456 = -2 + x j
L.0-00456 = -3 +x, and so on.
647. Thus, all the numbers arising from the figures 456, whether preceded or followed
by ciphers, have the same decimal fraction for the second part of the logarithm, and
their differences lie in the integer before the point, which becomes negative when the
number is less than 1. As ordinary calculators have difficulty in the use of negative
numbers, it is customary to increase the integers of the logarithm by 10, or to write 10
250 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
instead of 0 before the point : by which process, instead of — 1 we have 9 ; instead of — 2
we have 8 ; instead of — 3 we have 7, &c. But, under these circumstances, it must be
recollected that the characteristic has been made ten units too great ; nor must we assume
that the number consists of ten, nine, or eight figures. We may easily see, in the case in
question, that if the characteristic be less than 10, the figures of the number must be
written after a point. If the characteristic be 9, we must begin at the first place after a
point ; if it be 8, we must also place a cipher in the first row, and not begin to write the
figures till the second. Thus 9*6589648 would be the logarithm of 0-456, and 8-6589648
the logarithm of 0-0456. This manner of using logarithms is, however, chiefly confined
to the use of tables of sines.
648. Ordinary tables do not carry the decimals of logarithms further than seven places
or figures, the last whereof must consequently represent the ToU^jSq*0 Part' an^ we know
that they do not err even by so small a part ; the error, therefore, is of no importance in
ordinary cases. But there are cases, though of no importance in our application of their
use, in which still greater exactness is required, and in such cases ordinary tables are not
suited to the case.
649. From the circumstance of the characteristic being known at a glance, the tables
never give it, but are restricted to the seven figures of the decimal fractions. There are
tables wherein the logarithms of all numbers from 1 to 100000 and even those of greater
numbers are given, by means of small additional tables, showing what is to be added in
proportion to the figures which the proposed numbers have more than those in the tables.
But from what has been said, we think the use of them will not be difficult; and, supposing
such tables before the reader, we propose the multiplication of the numbers 2401 and 343.
The addition of the logarithms of these numbers will, from what has been shown, give the
product, as follows : —
L. 343 = 2 -5352 94 1"! ,, ,
L. 2401 =3 -3803922 Jac
16
Hence the number sought is 823543. For the sum is the logarithm of the product
required, and its characteristic 5 exhibits a product composed of 6 figures, and they are
found, by the decimal product and the fraction, to be 823543.
650. But it is in the extraction of roots that logarithms are most serviceable ; for
example, if we have to extract the square root of 10, we have only to divide the logarithm
of 10, which is 1-0000000, by 2, the quotient 0-5000000 is the logarithm of the root
required, which, in the tables, answers so nearly to 3 '16228, that its square is only one
hundred thousandth part too great.
651. The operation, in addition, of expressions consisting of several terms is frequently
represented merely by signs, each expression being placed between two parentheses and
connected with the rest by means of the sign + . Thus, to add the expressions a + 6 + c
and d + e +f the sum is thus represented : —
(a + b + c) + (d + e +/).
This, however, is rather representing than performing addition ; but, if. the parentheses
are left out it is then actually performed ; for, as the number d + e +/ is to be added to the
other, it is to be done by joining to it + d, then + e, and then +f. If any term is
affected by the sign — , it must be joined in the proper way with that sign. To illustrate
this, let us consider an example in pure numbers ; for example, 16— 9 to 13 —5. If we
begin by adding 16, we shall have 13—5+16. But this was adding too much, since
what was to be added was 16 — 9, and it is therefore clear that we have added too much
by 9 ; we must, therefore, take away the 9 by writing it with the negative sign, and thus
we shall have the true sum —
13-5 + 16-9,
which shows that the sums result from writing all the terms each with its proper sign.
652. If, therefore, it were required to add the expression d — e—f to a — b+c, the sum
must be expressed as under : —
a — & + c +d — e—f;
wherein it is of no importance in what order we write the terms, if their proper signs be
preserved ; the sum, for example, might be written
c — e + a—f+d — b.
Hence it will be seen that addition is attended with no difficulty, be the forms of the terms
to be added together what they may. Thus, suppose we wished to add the expressions
2a3 +6v^-4L.c, and 5-v/«-7c, they would be written
CHAP. I. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 251
2a3 + 6\/b - 4L.c + 5 -v/a - 7c,
or in any other order, provided the proper signs are retained.
653. But it is often possible to abridge the representation of these, as when two or
more terms destroy each other ; thus, if in the same sum are found the terms + a — a, or
3a — 4a + a, or when two or more terms may be reduced to one : thus, —
3u + 2a = 5a; 76 — 36= +46;
— 6c+ 10c = + 4c;
5a-8a=-3a; _76 + 6=-66;
-3c-4c= — 7c;
2a — 5a + a = — 2a ; — 36 — 56 + 26 = — 61).
If, therefore, two or more terms are the same with regard to letters, their sum may be
abridged ; but such cases must not be confounded with such as 2aa + 3a or 263 _ &4} which
cannot be abridged.
654. By considering some more examples of reduction, we shall be led to the discovery
of an important point, — namely, that if we add together the sum of two numbers a + b
and their difference a — b, we obtain twice the greater of those two numbers. For, in
adding a + 6 and a—b, our rule gives a -t- 6 + a — b. Now a + a = 2a and 6 — 6 = 0; the sum,
therefore, is 2a. We here subjoin two examples : —
3a - 26 - c a3 - 2aa6 + 2a66
56 — 6c+a —
Sum . . 4a + 36 — 7c Sum . . a3 — 3aa6 + 4a66 + &3
THE SUBTRACTION OF COMPOUND QUANTITIES.
655. To represent subtraction each expression is inclosed within two parentheses joining,
by the sign — , the expression to be subtracted to that from which it is to be subtracted.
Thus, if d — e +f is to be subtracted from a — b + c, the remainder is written thus : —
and this method sufficiently shows which of the two expressions is to be subtracted from
the other.
656. But if actual subtraction is to be performed, we must observe, first, that when we
subtract a positive quantity + 6 from another quantity +a, we obtain a — 6; and, secondly,
when we subtract a negative quantity — 6 from a, we obtain a + b ; for, to discharge the
debt of a person is the same as to give him something. Suppose the expression 6 — d is to
be subtracted from the expression a — c, we must first take away 6, which gives a — c — b.
We have, however, taken away too much by the quantity d. Since we had to subtract only
b~d, restoring, then, the value of d, we shall have
a — c — 6-f d:
from which it is evident that the terms of the expression to be subtracted must change
their signs, and with such contrary signs be joined to the terms of the other expressions.
657. It is therefore, by means of this rule, easy to perform subtraction; for it is only
necessary to write the expression from which we are to subtract, and join the other to it,
without any change but that of the signs. Thus, in the first example, where it was
required to subtract the expression d — e +f from a — b + c, we obtain a — b + c — d+e— /.
This will be rendered quite clear by an example in numbers. If, for example, we subtract
5-3 + 6 from 7 - 2 + 3, we obtain
7-2+3-5+3-6;
for 7—2 + 3 = 8, also 5 — 3 + 6 = 8, now 8 — 8 = 0.
658. Subtraction being then thus easily performed, we have only to observe that if, in
the remainder, two or more terms are found entirely similar with regard to the letters, the
remainder may be reduced to an abridged form by the rules for a similar purpose given in
addition. Suppose we have to subtract from a + 6 or the sum of two quantities their
difference, or a — 6, we shall have a + 6 — a + 6 : now a — a = 0 and 6 + 6 = 26 ; the remainder
is therefore 26, that is to say, double the least of the quantities. The following examples
will further illustrate what we have said : —
aa + ab + bb 3a — 46 + 5c a3 + 3aa6 + 3a66 + 63
bb + ab — aa 26 + 4c — 6a a3 — 3aa6 + 3a66 — 63
+ 2aa
THE MULTIPLICATION OF COMPOUND QUANTITIES.
659. Merely to represent compound quantities, each of the expressions to be multiplied
together is placed within parentheses, and they are then to be joined together either with
252 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK IT.
or without the sign x between them. Thus, to represent the product of the two expres-
sions a — b + c and d— e+/when multiplied together, we write
and this mode of expressing products is much used, because it shows the factors whereof
they are composed. To show, however, how any multiplication is to be actually conducted,
let us take for example such a quantity as a — 6 + c to be multiplied by 2 ; here each term
is separately multiplied by that number, so that for the product we have
and the same takes place with all other numbers. Suppose, for example, d had been the
number by which we had been required to multiply,
ad — bd + cd
would have been the product obtained.
660. We have here supposed that d was a positive number, but had the factor been
negative, as — e, the rule formerly given must have been applied, namely, that unlike
signs multiplied together produce — , and like signs produce +. We should therefore
have had
— ae + be— ce.
661. To show the mode of multiplying a quantity A by a compound quantity d— e, it
will be convenient to take for example one in common numbers : let A, for instance, be
multiplied by 7 — 3. Here it is manifest we have to take 4 A ; for if we first take A seven
times, it will be necessary to subtract 3 A from that product. In general, therefore, if we
have to multiply by d— e, A must be farst multiplied by d and then by e, and the last
product must be subtracted from the first, whence we shall haverfA — eA. Suppose A = a
— 6, and that this quantity is to be multiplied by d— e, we shall have
dA=ad-bd
eA=ae—be
The product required — ad— bd— ae + be.
Since, then, we know without doubt the product (a — &) x (d— e), we may now give the
same example of multiplication under a different form ; thus
a-b
d-e
ad—bd—
from which we learn that each term of the upper expression must be multiplied by each
term of the lower ; and that, with regard to the signs, the rule often before given must be
strictly observed. From what has been said, we presume no difficulty will arise in calcu-
lating the following example, namely, to multiply a + b by a — b.
a + b
a-b
aa + ab
-ab-bb
Product =aa — bb
For a and b any determinate numbers may be substituted, so that out of the above ex-
amples arises the following theorem ; viz. the product of the sum of two numbers multi-
plied by their difference is equal to the difference of the squares of those numbers ; which
may be thus expressed —
(a + 6) x (a — Z») = aa — bb
From this last follows another theorem ; namely, the difference of two square numbers is
always a product, and divisible both by the sum and the difference of the roots of those
two squares, consequently the difference of two squares can never be a prime number. We
will now present to the reader some other examples : —
(I.) 2a-3 (II.) 4aa-6a + 9 (HI.) 3aa-2ab-bb
a + 2 2a + 3 2a-46
i — 3a 8a3 — 12aa + 18a 6a3 — 4aab — 2abb
+ 4a— 6 +12aa-18a + 27 — I2aab + 8abb + 4b*
8a3+27 6a3-16aa& +6abb + 463
CHAP. I. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 253
(IV.) a« + 2a6 + 266 (V.) 2aa — Safe — 4lb
aa — 2ab + 2bb 3aa
+ 2a36 + 2aabb . 6a4 — 9a36 — 1 2aa66
— 2a36 — 4aabb - 4a&3 _ 4a3fc + 6aabb + Sab*
+ 2aa66 + 4a63 + 46* + 2aabb — Sab* -46*
— 13a36 — 4aa66 + 5a63 — 46*
(VI.) aa + bb + cc — ab — ac —
a + b + c
a3 + abb + ace — aab — aac — abc
+ aab + 63 + bcc — abb — abc — bbc
+ aac + bbc + c3 — abc —ace— bcc
a3 — 3a6c + 63 + c3
When more than two quantities are to be multiplied together, it will be obvious that,
having multiplied two of them together, their product must be multiplied by one of
the remaining ones, and so on. The order in which they are multiplied is a matter of no
importance. Thus, suppose in common numbers the four following factors : —
(I.) (II.) (III.) (IV.)
(1+2) (1 + 2 + 4) (2-1) (2+1+4)
Multiplying the factors I. and II., we have 3 x 7 = 21. From factors III. and IV. we have
1 x 7 = 7. Now, multiplying the product of I. and II. by the second product of III. and
IV., we have 21 x 7 = 147. Let us now change the order by multiplying first I. and III.
together, and then II. and IV. The first product will be that of 3x1=3, the second
that of 7 x 7=49. Then 3 x 49 = 147, as in the first operation : and the same result will
be produced in whatever order they are multiplied.
THE DIVISION OF COMPOUND QUANTITIES.
662. To represent division, we either use the ordinary mark of fractions, which is to
separate by a line the dividend or numerator from the divisor or denominator : thus, to
divide a + b by c + d, the quotient is thus represented ^^ ; or, the two quantities being
enclosed within parentheses, we place two points between the divisor and the dividend :
thus, (a + 6) : (c + d). Each of these expressions is read a + 6 divided by c + d.
663. If it be required to divide a compound quantity by a simple one, each term must be
divided separately. Thus, 1 Oa — 66 + 8c divided by 2 gives 5a — 36 + 4c ; and (aa — 4a6) : (a )
gives a — 46. So, also, (a3 — 2aa6 + 3a66) : (a) = aa-2a6 + 366 ; (4aa6 — 6aac + 8a6c) : (2a)
= 2a6 — 3ac + 46c; (9aa6c— 12a66c + 15a6cc) I (3a6c) = 3a-46 + 5c, &c.
664. If a term in the dividend is not divisible by the divisor, the quotient is represented
by a fraction, as in the division of a + 6 by a the quotient is 1 + - ; so also,
Likewise, if we divide 2a + 6 by 2, we obtain the quotient of a + g ; and here we must ob-
serve, that, instead of g we may write ^6, because \ times 6 is equal to |. And, similarly, |
is the same as £6, and 3- the same as §6, &c.
665. When the divisor is a compound quantity, division is not so easily performed ; and
when it cannot be so performed, we can do no more than represent the quotient by a frac-
tion in the manner already described. We will, however, begin with some examples in
which actual division will succeed. Suppose we have to divide ac — bc by a — 6: the
quotient must, of course, be such that, when multiplied by the divisor a — b, it will produce
the dividend ac — bc. Now, this quotient must contain c, for, without it, we could not ob-
tain ac. In order, then, to try whether c is the whole quotient, we have only to multiply
it by the divisor. Now, in the present case, if we multiply a — 6 by c, we have ac — bc,
which is the exact dividend, so that c is the whole quotient. It is equally clear that
(aa + a6) : (a + 6) = a; (3aa — 2a6) : (Sa — 26) = a; (6aa — 9a6) : (2a — 36) = 3a, &c. Thus,
then, we cannot fail to find a part of the quotient ; and if what we have found when multi-
plied by the divisor does not exhaust the dividend, we have only to divide the remainder by
the divisor, to obtain a second part of the quotient; and so proceed till we have found the
whole of it.
666. Let us, as an example, divide aa + 3a6 + 266 by a + 6. In the first place, it is clear
that the quotient will contain a, for without that term we could not obtain aa. Multiply-
254 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
ing, then, the divisor a + J> by a, we have act + a&, which quantity subtracted from the divi-
dend leaves the remainder 2ab + 266. Dividing this by a + 6, it is evident the quotient
must contain the term 26. Now, 26 multiplied by a + 6 produces exactly 2a6 + 266, and
therefore a + 26 is the quotient required, which, multiplied by the divisor a + 6, ought to
produce the dividend aa + Sab + 266. Below, the operation will be seen more strikingly,
aa + ab
2ab + 266
2a6 + 266
The operation is facilitated by choosing one of the terms of the divisor to be written first,
and then, in arranging the terms of the dividend, begin with the highest powers of the
first term of the divisor. This term was a in the preceding example ; and in the following
examples it will be seen that the system is followed.
(I.) a-6)a3-3aa6 + 3a66-63(aa-2a6 + 66 (II.) a + 6)aa-66(a-6
a3 — aab aa + ab
— 2aab + 3abb —ab — bb
— 2aab + 2abb —ab — bb
a&6-63
a66-63
(III.) 3a-26)18aa-866(6a + 46 (IV.) a+
1 8aa — 1 2a6 a3 + aab
I2ab — Sbb
I2ab-8bb -aab -abb
+ abb + 63
+ a66 + 63
(V.) 2a-
8a3 — 4aab
4aa6 — 63
4aa& — 2a66
2a66-63
2a66-63
O
( VI. ) aa - 2ab + 66) a* - 4a36 + 6aa66 - 4a&3 + &4 (aa - 2ab + 66
aa66 -
aa&& -
O
( VII. ) aa - 2ab + 466) a* + 4aa&& + 1 664 (aa + s«6 + 466
4aa66 -
CHAP. L ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 255
(VIII.) aa - 2ab + 2&6) a4 + 4M (aa + 2ab + 2bb
a4 — 2a3b + 2aabb
(IX.) 1 -
l-2x+ xx
THE RESOLUTION OF FRACTIONS INTO INFINITE SERIES.
667. We have already said that when the dividend is not divisible by the divisor, the
quotient is expressed by a fraction. Thus, if we have to divide 1 by 1 — a, we obtain the frac-
tion 1 — i. We may, however, attempt the division and continue it at pleasure according
to the rules given, and, though under other forms, the true quotient will be found. Thus —
I—a I—a
remainder a
remainder aa
To find a greater number of forms we need only continue dividing aa by 1 — a.
(III.) l-a)aa (aa + j (IV.) then 1 -a)a3 («3 + _
aa — a3 a3+a4
a3 a*
( V. ) and, again, 1 - a) a4 (a4 + ^
a4— as
All which shows that the fraction is equally represented under the following . forms :
ra* (HI.)
( V. ) 1 + a + aa + a3 + a4 + y^ &c. Now, considering the first of these expressions, which is
1 + j-^, and remembering that 1 is the same as j^|, we have
, a 1— a a _l— a+a 1
+ l-a~l— a"*" \-a~ I— a ~l-a»
and following the same process with respect to the second expression, 1 + a + r^-, that is,
if we reduce the integer part 1 +a to the same denominator 1 —a, we have -^~, to which
if + ^~ be added, we shall have I~"^fla, that is y^.
668. In the third expression, 1 + a + eta + j£^ the integer reduced to the denominator
1 —a make }~, and if to that be added the fraction ~ we have ~ ; whence all these
expressions are equal in value to j— , the proposed fraction. Hence, without tho trouble of
further division, we may continue the series to any extent, for we shall have r^-~ =
1 + a + aa + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6 + a? + ~-^ • it may, indeed, be continued without end. On
256 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE, BOOK II.
this account it may be said that the proposed fraction has been resolved into an infinite
series ; and we arrive at the same time at the conclusion, that the value of this infinite
series is the same as that of the fraction j^-. However astonishing this may seem, upon
the consideration of some particular cases, it will be easily understood. Let us suppose
that o = l. The series will then become 1+1 + 1 + 1 + 1+1+1, &c., and the fraction —^
to which it must be equal, become ^, which, we have before seen, is a number infinitely great,
and herein it is satisfactorily confirmed. If a be equal to 2, the series becomes =1 + 2 + 4
+ 8 + 1 6 + 32 + 64, &c. to infinity, and its value must be -j^ that is to say •— p = — 1 , which
will perhaps appear absurd, until it is recollected that if we want to stop at any term of
the series we must join the fraction which remains. Thus, if we stop at 64, after having
written 1+2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 64, we must join the fraction |^ or _^, or — 1 28 ; we
should therefore have 1 27 — 1 28, which is — 1 .
669. These properties must be therefore considered when for a numbers greater than
unity are assumed. But when a is less than 1 the whole becomes more intelligible. Thus,
let a = £, we then have ~-a=^n = T = 2> which will be equal to the following series,
1 + 1 + \ + 5 + "re + m + 55 + T55> &c- to infinity. Now, taking only two terms of this series,
we have 1 + i, and it wants 2 that it may be equal to ^- = 2. Take three terms, and it
will want ^, for the sum is then 1|. Taking four terms, we have 1J, and the deficiency is
only |. Hence it is evident the more terms taken the less the difference becomes, and
that if we continued on to infinity no difference would exist between the sum of the series
and 2, the value of the fraction j^-.
670. Leta=£; the fraction j^ will be =^^ = 3 = 1^, which, reduced to an infinite
series, becomes 1 + % + $ + yj + &\ + 553* &c. , and to which r^- is consequently equal. Taking
two terms, we have 1 g» g being still wanting. If three terms are taken, we have 1 *,, and -^
will still be wanting. Four terms give us li|, and the difference is ^. Since, then, the
error continually becomes three times less, it will vanish at last.
671. Let o=§; we shall have — = ^==3, and the series is 1 +§ + | + £ + £? + |^, &c.
Taking 1 1, the error is 1 ^ ; if we take three terms, which are equal to 2^, the error is | ;
with four terms, or 2 i|, the error is ±f.
672. If a=\, the fraction is 1^i = £ =ly and tne series is 1 + 3 + 15 + ^1 + 335' &c- The
two first terms =1 +\ give -^ for the error, and if we take one term more we have 1 -f5, or
an error of only ^.
673. Tn the same manner, the fraction r^r~ niay be resolved into an infinite series by
an actual division of the numerator 1 by the denominator 1 + a, as follows : —
l+a)l (1 — o + aa —
1+a
— a
— a — aa
aa
aa + ai
— a5, &c,
So that the fraction j^ is equal to the series 1 — o + oo— «3 + a4— a5 + a6 — a7, &c.
674. If o = l, we have the following singular result: j^=^ = l — 1 + 1 — l + l — l +
1—1, &c. to infinity. The result appears contradictory, because, if we stop at — 1 , the
series gives 0, and if we finish by + 1 , it gives 1 . This, however, solves the difficulty, for as
we must neither stop at —1 nor + 1, the sum can neither be 0 nor 1, but some quantity
lying between these two, and therefore =£.
675. If we make o=^, the fraction will be J^T = §, which, consequently, expresses the
value of the series, 1 — 3 + ! — g + Vs — 35"*"^?' &c* *° mfinity- If we take only the two lead-
ing terms of this series, we have |, which is too small by ^. If three terms be taken, we
CHAP. I. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 257
have f, which is too much by -^ Of four terms, we have f , which is too small by ^ &c.
If a = |, the fraction will be j^p^, to which is equal the series 1 — g + g— 5V + A~5?3 + 755>
&c. continued to infinity. Taking only two terms, we have §, which is too small by -^ ;
three terms are equal to J, which is too much by j'g. Four terms are equal to f^, which is
too small by jJ5, and so on.
676. The fraction j-^ may be resolved by another method into an infinite series,
namely, by dividing 1 by a + 1 , thus : —
aa
w + a?
__ 1
^, &c.
Thus we find also that the fraction ~| is equal to the infinite series \— JL + J5 — £4 +
J, — ^6, &c. If, then, we make a = 1 , we shall have the series 1 — 1 + 1 — 1 + 1 — 1 , &c. = £, as
before ; and if a = 2, we shall have the series 5—^ + 8—^ + 32—^ &c. —\.
677. So, generally, by resolving the general fraction — ^ into an infinite series, we have
be
be , bbc
.**?
aa
bbc
aa
bbc bbbc
From which it appears that we may compare -—^ with the series ^— ~a+ -^j— -~ , &c.
to infinity. Let a = 2, b = 4, c = 3; we shall then have ^ = ~2 = | = i=|» — 3 + 6 — 12, &c.
678. Ifa = 10,6 = l, and c = ll, wehave j^ = 10+-j — I =|g — -nfe + iUu" T5Mo' &c> Taking
only one term of this series, we have j^, which is too great by -^ ; if we take two terms, we
have ^5, which is too small by ^ ; if three terms, jggj, which is too great by TOLj, &c. If the
divisor contain more than two terms, the division may, in the same manner, still be con-
tinued to infinity. Thus, suppose the fraction i_a+aa proposed ; the infinite series to
which it is equal would be found as follows : —
S
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK 11.
a + aa)l (1 + a — a3 — a* + a6 + a7, &c.
1— a + aa
a — aa
a — aa + a3
-a3
— a6
Hence we have the equation 1_J+fla=1 + a— «3 — «4 + a6 + a7— a9— qio, &c. ; in which,
if we make a = l, we have 1=1 + 1—1—1 + 1 + 1—1 — 1+1 + 1, &c., which series contains
twice that of 1 — 1 +1—1 +1, &c. found above ; and as that has been found equal to i, it is
to be expected that we should find §, or 1 for the value of that just determined. If
a=| we shall have the equation f = 3 = 13— 5— TS+ <h— Tib + 3T5' &c- ^ a~\ we shall nave
the equation j=2 = l +5—37— 51 + 755* &c-> °f which series, if the four leading terms be
taken, we have $*, which is only -^ less than f-. Again, if a = §, we have i=9 = l+§ — 58T —
•
is + ^, &c., a series which is equal to the preceding one, and subtracting one from the
other, g — 27f— gf + 7%' &c- must=°- The f°ur terms added together make — |p
679. The method of resolving generally all fractions into infinite series which has been above
given, is often of great utility, and though it never ceases, an infinite series may have a de-
terminate value. Many discoveries of the highest importance have been derived from this
branch of mathematics, which, on that account, well deserves the study and comprehension
of the reader.
THE SQUARES OP COMPOUND QUANTITIES.
680. To find the square of a compound quantity, it is only necessary to multiply by
itself, and it is the square required ; thus the square of a + b is found in the following
manner : —
a + 6
a + 6
aa + ab
ab + bb
aa + 2ab + 66
From which we learn that the square of any number comprising two terms consists, first, of the
squares of each term, namely aa and 66, and twice the product of the two terms, that is 2ab.
In figures, suppose a = 1 2 and 6 = 4, that is, let it be required to find the square of 1 6, we have
144+96 + 16, or 256. This formula then gives us the power of finding the squares of
numbers, however great, if we divide them into two parts. Thus, to find the square of 49,
recollecting that this number is equal to 40 + 9, its square is =1600 + 720 + 81=2401.
From the same cause it is evident that the square of a + 1 will be aa + 2a + 1 ; and since
the square "of a is ao, we find the square of a + 1 by adding to it 2a + 1 , wherein it is ob-
servable that this 2a+ 1 is the sum of the two roots a and a+ 1. Hence, the square of 10
being 100, that of 1 1 will be 100 + 21 (that is, 100 + 2 x 10.+ 1 ). The square of 49 being
2401, that of 50 is 2401 + 99 = 2500 ; the square of 50 being 2500, that of 51 =2500 + 101
= 2601, &c.
681. The square of a compound quantity, as a + 6, is thus represented (a + 6)2. We have
then (a + 6)2 = oa + 2a6 + 66, whence result the following equations : —
(a+l)2=oa+2a+l ; (a+ 2)^=aa + 4a + 4; (a + 3)2 = aa + 6a+ 9;
, &c.
682. If the root is a — 6, the square of it is aa — 2a6 + 66, which also contains the squares
of the two terms, but in such a manner, that from their sum must be taken twice the pro-
duct of those terms; thus, let a = 10 and 6= — 1, the square of 9 will be found to be
100-20+1=81.
CHAP. I. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 259
683. Having then the equation (a — ft)2 = aa — 2ab + 66, we shall have (a — 1 )2 = act — 2a + 1 .
From which it is evident that the square of a— 1 is found by subtracting from aa the sum
of the two roots a and a — 1, that is, 2a— 1. Let a =50, then aa = 2500; and a— 1 =49;
hence 492 = 2500—99 = 2401.
064. The rule is moreover confirmed and illustrated by fractions ; for, taking as the root
§ + § (which make 1 ), the square will be
53 + 53 + 3i = it>thatis> !-
And further, the square of i-£ (or of £) will be J-J+ 1 = ^.
685. If the root consists of a greater number of terms, the square is determined in a
similar manner ; take, for instance, the square of a + b + c.
a + b + c
a + b + c
aa + ab +ac +bc
ab +ac +bb + bc + cc
aa + 2a6 + 2ac -f 66 + 26c + cc
686. It will be perceived that the product includes the square of each term of the roots,
and, besides that, the double products of those terms multiplied two by two. To exhibit
this in figures, divide the number 345 into three parts, 300 + 40 + 5 ; its square will then be
composed of the following parts : —
345
90000 = 3002 345
1600 = 402 —
25 = 52 1380
1035
24000 = 2x300x40
3000 = 2 x 300 x 5
400 = 2x 40 x 5 119025
119025, which is equal to the product of 345 x 345.
687. Though some of the terms of the root be negative, the rule still holds good, only that
we must be careful in prefixing the signs to the double products. For instance, the square
of a - b - c being aa + bb + cc - 2ab - 2ac + 2bc, if the number 345 be represented by 400 -
50 — 5, we shall have
Positive parts. Negative parts.
+ 160000 -40000
2500 4000
+ 163025
- 44000
1 1 9025, the square of 345, as before.
EXTRACTION OF ROOTS OF COMPOUND QUANTITIES.
688. For the extraction of the roots of compound quantities, and the rule by which the
operation is guided, we must consider with attention the square of the root a + b, which is
aa + 2a6 + 66. It will be seen that it is composed of several terms ; and that, therefore, the
root will comprise more than one term, and that if the square be written so that the powers
of one of the letters, as a, may continually diminish, the first term will be the first square
of the root ; and as, in the instance adduced, the first term of the square is aa, it is certain
that the first term of the root is a. Having thus found the first term of the root, that is, a,
we have to consider the rest of the square, namely 2a6 + 66, and endeavour to ascertain from
it the second part of the root, which is 6. Now as the remainder 2a6 + 66, which may be
represented by the product (2a + 6)6, has two factors, 2a + 6 and 6, it is evident that the
latter 6, which is the second part of the root, will be found by dividing the remainder
2a6 + 66 by 2a + 6. The quotient then arising from the division of the above remainder by
2a + 6, is the second term of the root required. In the division, it is to be observed that
2a is the double of the first term a, which is already determined, and as the second term is
yet unknown, though for the present its place must be left empty, the division may be
attempted, since in it we attend only to the first term 2a. When, however, the quotient is
found, which is here 6, it must be put in the empty place, by which the division is rendered
complete. The operation is thus represented : —
S 2
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK IT.
aa + 2a6 + bb (a + 6
aa
2a + 6) 2a6 + 66
2a6 + 66
0
689. In a similar manner may be found the square root of other compound quantities,
provided they are squares, as may be seen by the following examples.
(I.) aa + 6a6 + 966(a + 36 (II.) 4aa-4a6 + 66(2a-6 (III.) 9pp + 24pq + 1 6qq (3p + 4q
aa 4aa 9pp
2a + 36) 6a6 + 966 4a — 6) — 4a6 + 66 6p + 4q) 24pq + 1 6qq
6ab + 966 — 4a6 + 66 24pq + 1 6gq
(IV.)
25xx
1 Ox- 6) -60x + 36
-60.r+36
0
690. If a remainder occurs after division, it proves that the root is composed of more
than two terms. In which case, the two terms already found are considered as forming the
first part, and we must try to obtain the other from the remainder in the same manner as
the second part of the root was found. The following examples will show the mode of
operation.
(I.) aa + 2a6-2ac-26c + 66 + cc(a + 6 + c (II.) a* + 2a3 + 3aa + 2a + l(aa + a + 1
aa a4
2a + 6)2a6 — 2ac — 26c + 66 + cc 2«a + a)2a3 + 3aa
2a6 +66
2a + 26 -c) - 2ac - 26c + cc 2aa + 2a + 1 )2aa + 2a + 1
— 2ac — 2&c + cc 2aa + 2a+l
( III. ) a6 - 6a5& + 1 5a46& - 20a?b* + 1 Saab4 - 6db5 + &6 (a3 - 3aa& + 8066 - 63
- 3aa6) - 6a*6 + 1 5a466
9a466
- 6aa6 + 3a66) 6a466 -
- 6aa& + 6a66 - 63) - 2a3&3 + 6aa64 -
691 . From this method of extracting the square root, it is easy to deduce the rule given
for that purpose in common books of arithmetic ; as in the following examples in numbers.
529(23 9409(97 15129(123 1522756(1234
4 81 1 1
43)129 187)1309 22) 51 22) 52
129 1309 44 44
~0~ 0 243) 729 243) 827
729 729
0 2464) 9856
9856
0
692. If there be a remainder after the whole operation, it proves that the number is not an
exact square, and therefore its root cannot be assigned. When this is the case, the radical
sign before mentioned must be written before the quantity, and the quantity itself is placed
between parentheses, or under a line. Thus, the square root of aa + V is represented by
CHAP. I. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 261
\/(aa + bb\ or by ^aa+bb, and */(l—xx) or ^\ — xx expresses the square root of
1 — xx. Instead of the radical sign the fractional exponent £ may be used, thus (aa + b'b)^
and aa + bb~^ equally represent the square root of aa + bb.
CALCULATION OF IRRATIONAL QUANTITIES.
693. The addition of two or more irrational quantities is performed by writing all the terms
in succession, each with its proper sign. They may often be abbreviated thus : for Va + Va
we may write 2 A/a, and A/a — A/a = 0, because the terms destroy one another. Thus the
quantities 3 + A/2 and 1 + A/2 added together, make 4 + 2 A/2 or (590.) 4 + A/8. The sum
of 5 + A/3 and 4 - A/3 is 9, and that of 2 A/3 + 3 A/2 and A/3 - A/2 is 3 A/3 + 2^/2.
694. Subtraction is equally simple, since we have only to change the signs of the
numbers to be subtracted, and then add them together, thus : —
Subtract from 4 - A/2 + 2 A/3 - 3 A/5 + 4 A/6
The numbers 1 +2V2-2V3-5V5 + 6V4
3-3 A/3 + 4 A/3 + 2 A/5 + 2 A/6
695. In multiplication it must be remembered that A/a multiplied by Va produces a,
and that if the numbers which follow the sign A/ are different, as a and b, we have Vab for
the product of A/a multiplied by Vb. From due observance of this, the following examples
are easily calculated.
l+A/2 4 + 2A/2
1+ A/2 2- A/2
l+A/2 8+4A/2
+ A/2 + 2 -4 A/2 -4
8-4 = 4
The rules apply also to imaginary quantities, and it will only be necessary to mention that
A/ — a multiplied by A/ — a produces —a.
696. To find the cube of — 1 -f A/ — 3, we take the square of that number, and multiply
such square by the number, as follows : —
-1 + A/-3
-1+ A/-3
1-A/-3
-A/-3-3
1 _2A/-3-3= -2-2A/-3
-1+ A/-3
2 + 2A/-3
-2A/-3 + 6
2+6 = 8
697. To divide surds, we have only to express the quantity in the form of a fraction,
which may then be changed into another expression having a rational denominator. Thus,
for instance, if the denominator be a + Vb, and it as well as the numerator be multiplied
by a — */b, the new denominator will be aa — b, in which no radical sign occurs. Let it,
then, be required to divide 3 + 2 A/2 by 1 + A/ 2, we have ^r^-. Multiplying both terms
of the fraction by 1 — A/2, we have for the numerator, —
3 + 2A/2
1- A/2
3 + 2A/2
-3A/2-4
3--A/2-4=-A/2-l;
and for the denominator, —
1 + A/2
l-A/2
1 + A/2
-A/2-2
1-2= -1.
S3
262 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
The new fraction is therefore ~^_1~i ; and if the terms be again multiplied by — 1 , we
shall have for the numerator A/2+1, and +1 for the denominator. It is easy to show
that A/2+1 is equal to the proposed fraction -£$j ; for A/2 + 1 being multiplied by
the divisor 1 + A/2, thus —
1 + A/2
1 + A/2
1 + A/2
+ A/2 + 2
we have
698. Fractions may be transformed into others which have rational denominators. Thus,
in the fraction j^r^r/s ' ^y multiplying both numerator and denominator by 5 + 2 A/6, it
becomes 5+^ =5 + 2 A/6. When the denominator contains several terms, the radical
signs may, in the same manner, be made to vanish one by one. Thus, in the fraction
Z/To— V2-V3' tne tw° terms may ke multiplied by A/10+ A/2+ A/3, by which is obtained
the fraction -*^i3j\76~"* Then> multiplying its numerator and denominator by 5 + 2 A/6,
we have 5 A/1 0 + 1 1 A/2 + 9 A/3 + 2 A/6O.
OF CUBES, AND THE EXTRACTION OF THEIR ROOTS.
699. The cube of a root a + 6 is found by multiplying its square aa + 2ab + bb again by
a + 6, thus : —
aa + 2o6 + 66
a + 6
a3 + 2aa6 + a66
aab + 2abb + 63
a3 + 3aa6 + 3a66 + &3 =to the cube of a + 6.
The cube, then, contains the cubes of the two parts of the root, and, besides that, 3aa6 + 3abb,
a quantity equal to (3a6) x (a + 6), that is, the triple product of the two parts a and b mul-
tiplied by their sum. From which we learn, that when a root is composed of two terms,
its cube is easily found. Thus, the number 5 = 3 + 2; its cube, therefore, is 27 + 8 + 18x5
= 125.
700. When the cube, as a3 + 3aa6 + 3a66 + 63, is given to find the root, the following is
the process, the cube being arranged according to the powers of one letter. By the first
term a3 we perceive that a, whose cube is a3, is the first term of the root ; if, then, that
cube be subtracted from the cube proposed, the remainder, 3aa6 + 3a66 + 63, will furnish
the second term of the root. Now, knowing that the second term is + 6, our object is to
find how it may be derived from the above remainder. This remainder may be expressed
by two factors, — namely, (3aa + Sab + 66) x (6) ; if, therefore, we divide by the first of them,
we obtain + 6, the second part of the root required.
701. But the second term, as well as the divisor, are supposed to be unknown ; we know,
however, the first term of that divisor, — that is, 3aa, or thrice the square of the first term,
already found ; and that is sufficient, for by that it is easy to find the other part 6, and then
complete the divisor before performing the division. For this purpose we must join to
3aa thrice the product of the two terms, or 3a6 and 66, or the square of the second term oi
the root. We subjoin two examples : —
(I.) a3 + 12aa + 48a + 64(a + 4
a3
3aa + 12a + 16) 1 2aa + 48a + 64
1 2aa + 48a + 64
(II.) a6-
a6
- 6a3 + 4aa) - 6a5 + 1 5a4 - 20o3
- 8a3
3a4-12a3 + 15a2-6a + l
O
On this analysis is founded the common rule for the extraction in numbers of the cube
root. Take, for example, the number 4096.
CHAP. I.
ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA.
263
3 times 102 =300
3 times 10x6 =180
6- (second term) = 36
516
4096(10+6=16
1000
3096
3096
We will further extract the cube root of 82881856.
3 times 4002 - - =480000
3 times 4OO x 30 - - = 36000
302 (square of second term) = 900
516900
3 times 430* - - ^554700
3 times 430 x 6 - - = 774O
62 (square of third term) = 36
562476
82881856(400 + 30 + 6
64000000
18881856
15502000
13374856
THE HIGHER POWERS OF COMPOUND QUANTITIES.
702. Powers of a greater number of degrees than squares and cubes are now to be
considered. We have already explained the method in which they are represented by
exponents. It will be found convenient to keep in mind that, in dealing with a compound
root, it is inclosed in a parenthesis. For instance, (a + 6)4 signifies that a + b is to be raised
to the fourth power or degree, and that (a — 6)7 expresses the seventh power of a — 6 ; the
subject of this section is to explain the nature of these powers, in which some peculiarities
will be noticed.
703. If the root or first power be a + 6, all the higher powers will be found by multiply-
ing the last power found again by the root, as in the following example : - —
a + 6
aa + a6
(a + 6)2 =aa + 2a6 + 66
a + 6
a66
+ aab + 2a66 + 63
(a + 6)3 = a3 + 3aa6 + 3a66 + 63
a + 6
a4 + 3a3& + 3aa&& + a&3
+ a3& + 3aa&6 + 3a63 + 64
(a + 6)4 = a4 + 4a3& + 6aa&& + 4a&3 + 6*
a + 6
a* + 4a46 + 6a366 + 4aa63 + a64
(a + 6)5 = a& + 5a*6 + 10a3&& + 10«a&3 + 5a&4 + 6&
a + 6
a6 + 5a&6 + 10a466 + 10a3&3 + 5a264 +
la + 6)6 = a6 + 6a5& + 1 5a466 + 20a3&3 + 15a*64 + 606* + 66, &c.
S 4
264
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
704. In a similar manner are found the powers of the root a — 6, the only difference
being that the even or 2d, 4th, 6th, &c. terms will be found to be affected by the sign
minus.
(a-6)i=0-6
a-b
ad — ah
-a& + 66
(a —6)2 = aa -206 + bb
a—b
a3 — 2aab + abb
— 006 + 2066 — 63
(a - 6)3 = a3 - Saab + 3066 - &3
a-b
a4- 3036 + 30066- ab$
- 036 + 30066 -3063 + 6<»
(a - 6)4 =04 - 4o36 + 60066 - 4a&3 + 64
a-6
a5 — 4046 + 60366 - 40063 + «&4
- a46 + 40366 - 6aab3 + 40&4 - 6»
(a - 6)5 = 05 - 5046 + 10a3&6 - 1000&3 + 5a&4 -fc5
a-b
06-5056+100466-1003&3 + 50064- 06*
- a56 + 50466 -1003&3 + 100064 -5065 +66
(a - 6)6 = 06 - 6a56 + 1 501&6 - 20a363 + 1 5aa64 - 6a&& + 66, &c.
705. In this last example all the odd powers of 6 have the sign — , while the even powers
retain the sign + . The reason is, that the powers of that letter ascend in the following
series, —6, +66, — 63, + 64, —b5, 4-66, &c., which sufficiently indicates that the even
powers must be affected by the sign + , and the odd ones by the sign — . The labour of
the calculation being considerable, it is important to find a mode of performing the opera-
tion in an abridged manner. Now, if in the powers above determined we take away the
numbers, or coefficients preceding each term, we shall observe the following order : first, in
each succeeding term the powers of a decrease by unity, whereas the powers of 6 increase
in the same proportion, so that the sum of the exponents of a and 6 is always the same, and
always equal to the power of the exponent required ; and, lastly, we find the term 6 by
itself raised to the same power. Hence we know that if the tenth power of 6 were re-
quired, the terms without their coefficients would stand in the following order : a10, a°6,
0863, 0763, a664, a565, a466, a36?, a268, 069, 610. To determine the coefficients or numbers by
which these are to be multiplied, we may observe that, with regard to the first term, its
coefficient is always unity ; and that, in respect of the second, its coefficient is always the
exponent of the power ; but the order of the other coefficients is not so manifest, though
there is a law by which they are governed, which the following table will show.
Powers. Coefficients.
I .... 1,1
II - - - - 1, 2, 1 -
III - - - 1, 3, 3, 1 -
IV - - - 1, 4, 6, 4, 1 - - - 16 = 24
V - - 1, 5, 10, 10, 5, 1 - - - 32 = 25
VI - - - 1, 6, 15, 20, 15, 6, 1 - - - 64 = 26
VII - - 1, 7, 21, 35, 35, 21, 7, 1 - - - 128 = 2?
VIII - - 1, 8, 28, 56, 70, 56, 28, 8, 1 - - 256 = 28
IX - 1, 9, 36, 84, 126, 126, 84, 36, 9, 1 - - 512 = 29
X 1, 10, 45, 120, 210, 252, 210, 120, 45, 10, 1 .. 1024 = 2io
From which we may see that the tenth power of « + 6 will be 010 + 10096 + 45a866 + 120
0763 + 210a6&4 + 2520565 + 21004&6 + 12003&7 + 450068 + 10069 + &io.
706. The sum of the coefficients in each power is equal to the number 2 raised to the
same power, as will be seen by reference to the above table, and they increase from the
beginning to the middle, and then decrease in the same order. In the even powers the
greatest coefficients are exactly in the middle, but in the odd powers two coefficients equal
and greater than the others are found in the middle belonging to the mean terms. We
shall hereafter touch upon the reason of the following rule for determining the coefficients
Sum of the coefficients.
2 = 21
- 4 = 22
8 = 23
CHAP. I. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 265
in all powers proposed. Let the power proposed be the seventh, then placing the exponent
of the power as the numerator, and letting the denominator follow in the natural order of
the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., we have the following fractions, "{, | ;j, \, §, §, j. Now, as the
first coefficient is always 1, the first fraction gives the second coefficient, the product of the
two first fractions multiplied together gives the third coefficient, the product of the three first
fractions represents the fourth coefficient, and so on ; thus, for instance, the fifth coefficient
will be the product of \ x \ x § x ^ = 35, &c. This rule renders it unnecessary to find the
preceding coefficients, and enables us to discover immediately the coefficients which belong
to any power ; and we can, by its aid, express any power of a + b however high ; thus, the
hundredth power of a + b, will be (a + 6)ioo = aioo+ ^ x a^b+ 120||9 + a9862 + I00xj|x 98
a97&3 + 108x97a9664 + , &c. ; from which the law of the preceding terms is evident
ON THE TRANSPOSITION OF LETTERS, WHEREON THE LAST RULE RESTS.
707. In the coefficients we have just been considering it will be found that each term is
presented as many times as the letters whereof the term consists can be transposed ; or, in
other words, the coefficient of each term is equal to the number of transpositions that its
letters admit. Thus, in the second power the term ba is taken twice, that is to say, its
coefficient is 2, for the order of its letters ab or ba can be changed only twice. The term aa,
whose letters can undergo no change, is hence only found once. In the third power of a + b
the term aab can be written in three different ways, aab, aba, baa, and here the coefficient
is 3. In the fourth power the coefficient of a36 must be 4, because aaab admits of four
different arrangements, aaab, aaba, abaa, baaa, and so on. It thence becomes desirable to
know in how many different ways a given number of different letters may be arranged.
Now, beginning with the simplest case, namely, a and b, we see at a glance that only two
transpositions, namely ab and ba, can take place. If we have three letters, we see that each
of the three may take the first place, while the two others admit of two transpositions.
Thus, making a the first letter, we have abc, acb ; if b is the first, we have bac, bca ; but if c
is made the first, we have cab, cba. Hence the whole number of arrangements is 3 x 2 = 6.
If four letters, abed, occur, each may be placed first, and we know the three others are
capable of six different arrangements ; hence the whole number of transpositions is 4 x 6 = 24,
or 4 x 3 x 2 x 1. If the number of letters be five, we have 5 x 24 = 120, or 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1.
Whatever, then, the number of letters, provided they be different, the number of trans-
positions is easily determined, and, up to the number ten, are subjoined in the following
table : —
Number of letters.
I - -
Number of transpositions.
II -
_
_
2x
__
2
III -
.
_
.
3x2x
=
6
IV -
.
_
_
4x3x2x
=
24
V -
_
_
5
x 4 x 3 x 2 x
=
120
VI -
.
- 6
x5x
4x3x2x
= 720
VII -
_
7
x6
x5
x
4x 3 x 2 x
_
5040
VIII -
8
x 7
x6
x5
X
4x3x2x
„
40320
IX -
- 9x8
x7
x6
x5
x
4 x 3 x 2 x
C5
362880
X - 10x9 x8x7 x6 x5 x4x3x 2x 1=36288OO
The numbers, however, in this table car* only be used when the letters are all different;
and if two or more of them are alike, the number of transpositions becomes much less ; as,
if the letters were all alike, there could be but one arrangement. Our next object, then, will
be to find how the numbers in the table diminish from similarity of letters. We have seen
that when two similar letters occur, only one arrangement can be made, consequently the
number above found is reduced one half, or must be divided by 2. If these letters are
alike, the six transpositions are reduced to one, whence the number in the table must be
divided by 6 = 3x2x1. And, in the same way, when four letters are alike, we must divide
the number in the table by 24 = 4x3x2x1, &c.
708. Thus there is no difficulty in ascertaining the number of transpositions the letters
aaabbc may undergo ; for, if they were all different, they would admit of 6x5x4x3x2x1
transpositions. But as a occurs three times, we must divide the number of transpositions
by 3 x 2 x 1 ; and as 6 occurs twice, we must again divide by 2 x 1 ; the numbers required,
therefore, will be 6- ' = 5x 4 x 3 = 60.
709. We shall now apply the rule in the example of the seventh power of a+b, or
(a + 6)7. The first term is a 7, which only occurs once; and, as all the other terms have
seven letters, the number of transpositions for each term would be 7x6x5x4x3x2x1 if
the letters were all different. But the second term afi& contains six letters alike, hence
266 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
the product last mentioned must be divided by 6x5x4x3x2x1, whence the coefficient
7x6x5x4x3x2x1 5040 7 ^ „
•n
WlU
6x5x4x3x2x1 = 720=T
710. In the third term a566, the same letter a occurs five times and the same letter b
twice, the total number of letters being seven all through the power. We have here, then,
to divide the number which seven transpositions give by 5x4x3x2x1, and then by 2 x 1,
whence we have the coefficient =5x4x3x2x^x2xi=:: W = T or 2L Jt wil1 be unices-
sary to proceed with the remaining terms, the mode of finding the coefficient must be
obvious. From what has been already said we shall find that the above rule enables us to
find all the powers of roots consisting of more than two terms. Let us, for instance, apply
them to the third power of a + b + c, the terms whereof must be formed by all the possible
combinations of the three letters, each term having for its coefficient the number of its
transpositions as above. The third power of a + b + c will be found by multiplication to
be a3 + Saab + 3aac + 3a66 + 6abc + Sacc + 63 + 366 + 36cc + c3.
711. Now, suppose a = l, 6 = 1, c=l, the cube of 1 + 1 + 1 or of 3 will be 1 + 3 + 3 + 3
+ 6 + 3 + 1+3 + 3 + 1= 27, and the rule is thereby confirmed.
THE EXPRESSION OF IRRATIONAL POWERS BY INFINITE SERIES.
712. If we had supposed a = l, 6 = 1, and c= — 1, we should have found for the cube of
1+1-1, that is, of 1, 1+3-3 + 3-6 + 3 + 1-3 + 3-1=1.
713. In subsection 705. we have shown the method of finding any power of a + 6. Suppose
the exponent undetermined, but expressed by n, we shall have the rule there laid down —
,.
If the same power of the root a — 6 were required, we should have only to change the
signs of the even terms, and should have
(a-6)»= a»-pa"-16 + ^+B-^a«-262_5 x^ x ^V"3*3 +? x "—' x ^
x^a"-464, &c.
714. These formulae are useful from the facility they afford in expressing all kinds of
radicals. It has already been seen that all irrational quantities may assume the form of
powers whose exponents are fractional, and that %/a=cfc\ ty=ofc\ and &a=d*. We have,
also, then V(a + 6) = (a + 6)* ; ^(a + 6) = (a + 6)* ; and ^(a + 6) = (a + &)*, &c. Whence, if
the square root of a + 6 is required, we have only in the general formula to substitute the
fraction \ for the exponent n, and we shall have, first, for the coefficients —
?=.;^=_.; SJ?.-!, •£— |; 5^—fts ^5= -ft. Then, «•_.». ^ and
aw~1=- ; an~2=dr^ 5 °^~^=/a? &c> : or tae Powers of a may be expressed as follows:
.-'-^i a»-=S=^; *-*-$-£; rf-«-5-£ fto.
The square root, then, of a + 6 may be expressed in the following manner,
715. Hence, if a be a square number, the value of Va may be assigned, and the square root
of a + 6 may also be expressed by an infinite series,, without any radical sign. Suppose, for
instance, a=cc, we shall have Va = c ; then V (cc + 6) = c + \ x -c-£$ + ^ x ~—^ x ^, &c.
So that there is no number whose square root may not be extracted in the same way ; for
every number may be resolved into two parts, one whereof is a square, represented by cc.
Thus, if we require the square root of 6, make 6=4+2, then cc=4, c = 2, 6 = 2,
whence results V6 = 2 + ^— ^ + M~TM?' &c- > and> taking only the two leading terms of this
series, we find 2* = |, whose square ^ is \ greater than 6 ; . but if we take three terms, we
shall have 27S=^|, whose square \gfl is still ^ too small. As | in this example approaches
very nearly to the true value of A/6, we will take for 6 its equivalent quantity 2^5— \. Thus
cc = 2,5 ; c=f ; 6=} ; and using the two leading terms, we find //6=| + ^ x — f =jj— £ x \ =
l~ 55 = l§' anc^ the S(luare of tnis fraction being 2^, exceeds the A/6 only by ^
716. Now, taking 6 = 2^°5' — ^, so that c = |g and 6 = ^ and still confining ourselves to the
two leading terms, we have A/6=|§ + ^ x -=|§-^x=^-T^5=j|^, the square
whereof is f!^/. Now 6, when reduced to the same denominator, is=233$r9s6g000 ; the error,
therefore, is only ^4\6W.
717. In a similar way may be expressed the cube root of a + b by an infinite series. For, as
CHAP. I. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 267
<v/(a + 6) = (a + 6)^, we shall have in the general formula »=$, and the coefficients will be
n . n — 1 i n — 2 - n — 3 9 n — 4 no j f .1. &
j= §', -g~= — 3> ~lT='~i; ~~jT—~l> -5-=— is> &c., and for the powers of a we have
an=y<i; an~l=&; an-2=^ a"-3=§[, &c. Then #(a + 6) = ^a + ' x 6^? + ' x 66
If + A * 63fr - $5 x 64^, &c. But if a be a cube or a = c\ we have &a = c and the radi-
cal signs will vanish, for we shall have <?/(c3 4- 6) = c + £ x *c — £ x -^ + ^ x ^— Jj03 x j£ + &c.
718. Thus we arrive at a formula, enabling us by approximation, as it is called, to find
the cube root of any number, because every number may be resolved into two parts, as c3 + 6,
whereof the first is a cube. If, for example, we are required to determine the cube root of
2, we represent 2 by 1 + 1, so that c = l and 6 = 15 consequently A/2 = l + g— g + ^p &c.
The two leading terms of which series make 1^=|, the cube of which, ||, is too great by
$. Let us then make 2=f4,— i^; we shall now have c = £, and 6 =—^2, and therefore
-18
#2=£ + £x g. These two terms give S-^fi, the cube whereof is ^jff^. But 2 =
so tnat t*16 error is guslis- Thus we may approximate the root ; and the faster, as a
greater number of terms is taken.
RESOLUTION OF NEGATIVE POWERS.
719. It has already been seen that - may be expressed by a"1. For the same reason,
j^j may be represented by (a + 6)"1 ; hence the fraction ^^ may be considered as a
power of a + 6, namely, that whose exponent is — 1 ; hence we conclude that the series
already found as the value of (a + 6)n will extend to this case.
720. As j^ is the same as (a + 6)—1 , let us assume, in the general formula, n = — 1 ; then
for coefiicients we shall first have " = - 1 ; ^ = - 1 ; ^=? = - 1 ; — = - 1 , &c. For the
powers of a we shall then have an=a~l=^ ; an~ 1=o~2=^2 ; a"~2=^ 5 a"~3=a<" &c-
So that (a + ft)-1 =^6=4 - J» + |s-i? + 55 -S» &c-» which is the same series before found
by division.
721. Now, (fl^d)g being the same as (a + 6)— 2, let us reduce it to an infinite series; for
which purpose we must suppose n = —2, and we have for the coefficients " = — \ ; ^p^ =
_3;^==_4;!^=_5}&c. And for the powers of a ; a"=i; an-l=^=; an~2=^;
a«-3=4,&c.^ Wetherefore obtain (a + 6)-2 = (-^ = l_f x jUfx |x»_f x | x | x g
+ 1 xixlxlS' &c' Nowf = 2; fxi = 3; fx|x|=4; f x |x ^ x f =5, &c. We have,
therefore, ^—^ = ^ - 2^ + 3^ - 4§ + 5^ - 6^ + 7^, &c. To proceed, let us take n = - 3,
and we have a series expressing the value of ^^3, or of (a + fc)"3. The coefficients will
be ?= -? ; 2^? = -4; «^= _|. ^= _e} &c>> and the powers of a become an= j-5; a71"1
-i; «"-2=i' &c., which gives
722. If we make n=-4, we have for the coefficients " = -f; ^=1 = _»; ^=?= _ 6 .
5^=1 &c.; and for the powers a»=^4; a»~1 = i;a»-2=l6; a«-3=^;a»-*=^, &c.;
whence we obtain
723. From the cases considered, we are able to conclude that for any negative power
of a + 6, we shall have
m b m m + 1 62 m m+l m + 2 63
by means of which formula all such fractions may be transformed into infinite series, sub-
stituting also fractions or fractional exponents for m, in order to express irrational quantities.
724. In further illustration of this subject, we recal to mind that -^b=\-& + %-^
+ o5~a<s + > &c- > now ^is series, therefore, multiplied by a + b, ought to produce 1 ; which
is found to be the truth by performing the multiplication thus —
268 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
1 ft .ft3 #» ft* ft*
a-^
a + b
b , 62 53 64 55
fl+^-p + a4-^
6 62 63
1
725. It has also been shown that ^=±-™ + ™-^ + ™--%, &c. If, as before,
this series be multiplied by (a + ft)2 or aa + 2ab + bb, the product will be found to be = 1 .
726. If the series found for the value of r^jigp be multiplied by a + b only, the product
ought to be the fraction -_r T, or be equal to the series already found, namely, --- 2 + ~s —
^5, &c. ; and that, on multiplication, will be found to be the case.
ARITHMETICAL RATIO.
727. The relation which one quantity bears to another, with respect to magnitude, is
called a ratio. It is evident that no relation can exist between quantities that are not of a
similar kind ; as, for example, a number must be compared with a number, a line with a
line, &c. The magnitudes of quantities may be compared in two ways. In the first, they
may be compared with regard to their difference; and then the question asked is, how
much one quantity is greater or less than another ? The relation in this respect, which
quantities bear to each other, is called their arithmetical ratio. The other way in which
they may be compared is, by inquiring how often one quantity is greater than another ?
and this relation between quantities is called their geometrical ratio. The term ratio, when
simply applied, is generally understood in the latter sense ; and we shall reserve the word
ratio and relation to express geometrical ratios.
728. By subtraction, the difference is found between two numbers ; hence the question,
how much the one is greater than the other, is easily resolved. Thus, between two equal
numbers, the difference being nothing, if we are asked how much one of the numbers is
greater than the other, the answer is, by nothing. Thus, 8 being =2x4, the difference
between 8 and 2 x 4 is 0.
729. When two numbers, as 5 and 3, are not equal, and we require to know how much
5 is greater than 3, the answer is 2, and it is obtained by subtracting 3 from 5. So 1 7 is
greater than 7 by 10, and 25 exceeds 8 by 17. There are therefore three things relative
to the subject for our consideration : 1 st, the greater of the two numbers ; 2d, the less ;
and 3d, the difference ; which, three quantities are so connected, that two of the three being
given, the third may also be determined. Suppose the greater number = a, the less = b, and
the difference =d, the difference will be found by subtracting b from a, so that d=a—b,
whence we find d, if a and b are given.
730. But if the difference and the less 6 of the two numbers are given, the greater
number is determined by adding the difference to the less number, which givesa = 6 + d;
for if we take from b + d the less number b, there remains rf, which is the known difference.
Let the number =12 and the difference = 8, then the greater number = 20. Lastly, if a
the greater be given, and d the difference, 6 will be found by subtracting the difference from
the greater number, that is, b=a — d.
731. The connection, then, among the numbers is of such a nature as to give these
results: — 1st. d=a — b; 2d. a = b + d; 3d. b — a — d; and, generally, if z = x + y, then
y=z — x and x = z — y. It must here be remarked, with respect to arithmetical ratios, that
if any number, as c, be added to the numbers a and b, the difference is still the same.
Thus, d being the difference between a and b, that number d will also be the difference
between a + c and b + c, and between a— c and &— c. Thus, the difference between 20 and 8
being 1 2, such difference will remain the same whatever numbers we add to 20 and 1 2, and
whatever numbers we subtract from them ; for if a — b = d, we must have (a + c) — (6 + c)=rf,
as also (a— c) — (6— c)=e?. So, if the numbers be doubled, the difference will be double,
and, generally, na — nb = nd, whatever be the value of a.
ARITHMETICAL PROPORTION.
732. When two arithmetical ratios or relations are equal, the equality is called an
arithmetical proportion. Thus, if a — b =p — q, the difference between/) and q being the same
as that between a and 6, these four numbers are said to form an arithmetical proportion,
which is thus written, a—b=p—q. An arithmetical proportion, then, consists of four terms,
which are such that, subtracting the second term from the first, the remainder is the same as
when we subtract the fourth from the third; thus the numbers 24, 9, 23, 8, form an
CHAP. I. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 269
arithmetical proportion, because 24 — 9 = 23 — 8, which by some is written 24 ! 9: 123 ; 8.
In any arithmetical proportion, as a — b=p — q, the second and third quantities may change
places without changing the equality; for as a — b=p — q, add b to both sides, and we have
a = b+p-q; and now subtracting p from both sides, we have a—p — b—q. In numbers
as 24 — 9 = 23 — 8, so 24 — 23 = 9—8. In an arithmetical proportion, the second term may
take the place of the first, if the fourth be made to take the place of the third ; thus,
if a — b=p — q, we have b — a = q—p. For b — a is the negative of a — b, and q— p is the
negative ofp — q. But the great property of every arithmetical proportion is this, that the
sum of the second and third terms is always equal to the sum of the first and fourth; a
property which deserves particular consideration, and is expressed by saying that the sum.
of the means (middle terms) is equal to the sum of the extremes (extreme terms). Thus,
since 24 — 9 = 23 — 8, we have 9 + 23 = 24 + 8, both being 32. The demonstration of this
is as follows : Let a — b=p — q, add to both b + q, and we have a + q = b+p, that is, the sum
of the first and fourth is equal to the sum of the second and third ; and inversely, if four
numbers, a, b, p, q, be such that the sum of the second and third is equal to that of the first
and fourth, that is, if b+p=a + q, we may be sure that those numbers are in arithmetical
proportion, and that a — b —p — q ; for if a + q = b + p, subtracting from both sides b + q, we
obtain a—b=p—q. Thus the numbers 24, 12, 27, 15, being such that the sum of the
means (12 + 27 = 39) is equal to the sum of the extremes (24+ 15 = 39), we are certain that
they form an arithmetical proportion, and consequently that 24—12 = 27 — 15.
733. By this property, the following question is resolved : — The three first terms of an
arithmetical proportion being given, to find the fourth, let a, b, p be the three first terms,
and let the fourth, which is that sought, be represented by q. Then a + q = b+p', by sub-
tracting a from both sides we have q = b+p — a. Hence it appears that the fourth term is
found by adding together the second and third, and from their sum subtracting the first.
Thus, suppose the three first terms are 24, 12, 27, the sum of the second and third is
= 39, from which subtract 24, the first, and we have 15 for the fourth term sought. When
therefore we have what is called an arithmetical proportion, the property of the numbers
whereof it is composed is such that there is a common difference between the several
terms ; that between the first and second term being equal to that between the third and
fourth term, and so on. Of this kind, as an example, are the numbers 23, 18, 13, since
23—18 = 18 — 13. Three such numbers, as 23, 18, 13, are said to form a continued arith-
metical proportion, called an arithmetical progression, particularly when a great number of
such terms follow each other according to the same law. An arithmetical progression may
be either increasing or decreasing; that is to say, the former when the terms go on in-
creasing, as 5, 9, 13, and the latter when they go on diminishing, as 12, 9, 6.
734. Let us suppose the numbers a, b, c to be in arithmetical progression ; then a — b =6 — c;
hence from the equality between the sum of the extremes and that of the means, 2& = « + c,
if we subtract a from both, we have c = 26 — a : hence, when the two first terms a b of an
arithmetical progression are given, the third is found by taking the first from twice the
second. Thus let 2 and 5 be the two first terms of an arithmetical progression, the third
will be 2x5 — 2 = 8; and the three numbers 2, 5, 8 give the proportion 2—5=5 — 8. This
method enables us to obtain, to any extent, an arithmetical progression ; for we have only to
find the fourth by means of the second and third in the same way as the third was deter-
mined by means of the first and second, and so on. Let a be the first term and 6 the
second, the third will be =26— a, the fourth 46— 2a— 6 = 36— 2a, the fifth will be
66-4a-26 + a = 46-3a, the sixth =86-6a-36+ 2a = 56-4a, &c
ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION.
735. Having in the preceding subsection seen the nature of arithmetical progression, we
may perceive that the natural numbers written in their order (as 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 1 0, &c. )
form an increasing arithmetical progression, because they increase constantly by unity ; and
the series 23, 21, 19, 17, 15, 13, 11, 9, 7, 5, 3, 1 is also such a progression wherein the
numbers constantly decrease by 2. The number or quantity by which an arithmetical pro-
gression increases or decreases is called the difference. Hence, if the first term and differ-
ence be given, we may continue it to any extent. For instance, let the first term =3, and
the difference =4, we shall have the following increasing progression, 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, 23,
27, 31, 35, &c., wherein each succeeding term is found by adding the difference to the pre-
ceding one. It is usual to write the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. above the term of such
an arithmetical progression, in order that we may perceive the rank held by any term in the
progression. The numbers so written above the terms are called the indices, as in the fol-
lowing example : — .
Indices - - -1234567 89 10 11
Arithmetical progression 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, 23, 27, 31, 35, 39, 43, &c. ;
in which we see 43 is the eleventh term.
270 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
736. Let a be the first term, and d the difference, the following will be the order of
it: —
1234 5 6 7
a, a + d, a+2d, a+3d, a + 4d, a + 5d, a + 6d, &c.
Whence it is evident, that any term of the progression may be found without the necessity
of finding the intermediate ones merely by the first term, and the difference d ; for example,
the twelfth term, =a + lid, the thousandth term, =a + 999d, and generally the last term
=a+(n—l)d; hence it is only necessary to multiply the difference by the number of
terms minus one, and to the product to add the first term. Thus, suppose an arithmetical
progression of a hundred terms whose first term is =6, and the difference = 5, then the last
term will be =99 x 5 + 6 = 501.
737. Knowing the first term a, and the last z, the number of terms n, we can find the
difference d. For since the last term z=a+(n— l)e?, if we subtract a from both sides,
we obtain z — a = (»— l)d. Then, by subtracting the first term from the last, we have the
product of the difference multiplied by the number of terms minus 1. And dividing z~ a
by n — 1, the required value of the difference will be =^^; from which results the follow-
ing rule : subtract the first term from the last, divide the remainder by the number of terms
minus 1, and the quotient will be the difference, by which the whole progression may be
written —
Example. — Let the first term =2, the last 26, to find the difference,
^Y = 254 the quotient = 3 will be equal to the difference, and the progression will
be as under : —
123456789
2,5,8, 11, 14,17,20, 23, 26.
738. Another example. — Let the first term = 2|, the last = 1 21, the number of terms = 7 ;
then the difference will be
J21 _ 2i 101
— 75— ^ = — ?=|jl = l§§, and the progression will be
12345 67
739. If the first term a, the last term z, and the difference d be given, we may from
these find the number of terms n. For, inasmuch as z— a = (n — \}d, if we divide the two
sides by d, we have ^~=n— 1, and n being greater by 1 than n—1, we have n = %~^\
the number of terms is therefore found by dividing the difference between the first and last
terms, or z— a by the difference of the progression, and adding unity to the quotient -^-.
740. Thus, for example, let the first term =4, the last = 100, and the difference = 1 2 ; the
number of terms will be • * +1=9, and these nine terms will be
1234567 8 9
4, 16, 28, 40, 52, 64, 76, 88, 10O.
Another example. — Let the first term = 3^, the last = 7§, and the difference = 1 $ ; the number
ya _ 31
of terms will be -^ 4 +1 =4> which are 3£, 4J, 6f, 7{j.
741 . It must, however, be remarked, that the number of terms being necessarily an in-
teger, if such a number had not been obtained for n in the foregoing examples, the ques-
tions would have been absurd ; and if an integer number be not obtained for the value
^p, the question cannot be resolved ; hence, in order that such questions may be possible,
z — a must be divisible by d.
742. It may now be concluded, then, that there are always four quantities for considera-
tion in an arithmetical progression. 1 . The first term, a. . 2. The last term, z. 3. The
difference, d. 4. The number of terms, n ; and the relations of these to each other are
such, that, if we know three of them, the fourth may be found. For, 1 . If a, d, and n are
known, we have z = a + (n — 1 ) d. 2. If z, d, and n are known, we have a = z — (n — 1 ) d.
3. If a, z, and n are known, we have e/=^— ^. 4. If a, z, and d are known, we have
SUMMATION OF ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSIONS.
743. To find the form of an arithmetical progression by adding all the terms together
would be troublesome when the number of terms is very great ; a rule has therefore been
found by which the operation is much shortened. Let us first consider a particular givt-n
CHAP. I. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 271
progression, whose first term = 2, difference = 3, the last term = 29, and the number of
terms =10.
12345 6 7 8 9 10
2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, 20, 23, 26, 29.
744. In this progression, the sum of the first and last term = 31 , the sum of the second and
last but one =31, and so on ; from which we conclude that the sum of any two terms equally
distant, the one from the first, the other from the last term, is always equal to that of the
first and last. It will not be difficult to discover the cause of this ; for. suppose the first
= a, the last = z, and the difference = d, the sum of the first and last is = a + z, and the
second term being =a + d, and the last but one =z—d; the sum of these two terms is also
= a + z. Again, the third term being a + 2d, and the last term but two = z — 2d, it is evi-
dent that the sum of these two terms also makes a + z. From this, the demonstration for
the rest is obvious. Now, if we write the progression term by term twice over, but in one
line, invert the order of the terms, and add the corresponding terms together, we shall have
as follows : —
2+ 5+ 8 + 11+14+17 + 20 + 23 + 26 + 29
29 + 26 + 23 + 20 + 17 + 14 + 11+ 8+ 5 + 2
31 + 31 + 31 + 31 + 31 + 31 + 31 + 31 + 31 + 31
A series of equal terms, evidently equal to twice the sum of the given progression, whose
number of terms being 10, the sum here exhibited will be =10 x 31 =310. Hence, as this
is twice the sum of the arithmetical progression, the sum required must be 155.
745. Treating in the same manner any arithmetical progression whose first term =a,
last term =z, and number of terms =n, and writing as above shown, the progression
direct and inverted, the one under the other, and adding term to term, we have a
series or n terms each =a + z, whose sum will consequently be =n(o + z), which will be
twice the sum of the proposed arithmetical progression, and therefore =^~-\ From
which flows a simple rule for finding the sum of an arithmetical progression. Multiply the
sum of the first and last terms by the number of terms, and half the product will be the
sum of the whole progression. We will illustrate this rule by an example. Let it be re-
quired to find the sum of the progression of the natural numbers, 1, 2, 3, &c. to 100.
This, by the rule, will be = -^^1 =50 x 101 =5050.
746. Let it be required to find the sum of an arithmetical progression whose first term
is =5, the difference =3, and the number of terms =32: we must begin by using the
rules in subsections 735. et seq., by which we determine the last term to be
= 5 + 31 x3 = 98, after which the sum is immediately seen to be =^£— = 103x16
= 1648. Generally, to find the sum of the whole progression, let the first term be =«, the
difference =d, and the number of terms =». Now, as by the preceding subsection the last
term must be = a + (n — I ) d, the sum of the first and last will be 2a + (n — 1 ) d ; multiplying
this sum by the number of terms n, we have 2na + »(«— l)d; the sum required, therefore,
will be = na + " g , and this formula, applied to the preceding example, gives 1648,
as before.
747. Suppose it required to add together all the natural numbers from 1 to n, we have
for resolving the question the first term =1, the last term =n, and the number of terms
=«, the sum required is =«^!±=^(±hl)> Let n jje =175^ then the sum of all the num-
bers from 1 to 1766 = 883 x 1767 = 1560261.
748. If a progression of uneven numbers be proposed, 1, 3, 5, 7, &c. continued to n
terms, and the sum be required. We have the first term =1, the difference =2, the
number of terms =ra; the last term will therefore be =!+(»— 1)2 = 2« — 1, and, conse-
quently, the sum =nn. Hence, whatever number of terms of this progression are added
together, the sum will always be a square, namely, the square of the number of terms, as a
view of the following table will render manifest : —
Indices - - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10, &c.
Progression - 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19, &c.
Sum - - - 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, &c.
The subjoined table exhibits formula? for differences up to 10 : — -
If d=l the sum will be
d=2
d=4 —
272 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
If J=5 the sum will be =
d=6 —
d=9
d=10
GEOMETRICAL RATIO.
749. We have before observed that the geometrical ratio of two numbers is found by an-
swering the question how many times is one of those numbers greater than the other, the
quotient being the ratio required. Three things here present themselves for consideration.
Firstly, the first of the two given numbers, which is called the antecedent / secondly, the
other number, which is called the consequent ; thirdly, the ratio of the two numbers, or
quotient arising from the division of the antecedent by the consequent. Thus, if the relation
of the numbers 1 8 and 1 2 be sought, 1 8 being the antecedent, and 1 2 the consequent, the
ratio will be ^ = ^jy whence we see the antecedent contains the consequent once and a half.
Geometrical relations are generally represented by a point placed above another between
the antecedent and the consequent. Thus a : b signifies the geometrical relation of these
two numbers, or the ratio of 6 to a. The sign just mentioned has, in a previous page, been
given as indicating division, and it is on that account here used, because, in order to know
the ratio, we divide a by b. The relation is merely read a is to 6. On this account rela-
tion is expressed by a fraction whose numerator is the antecedent and denominator the
consequent. It is hardly necessary to say that this fraction should, for perspicuity sake,
appear in its lowest terms. Thus |f , if both terms be divided by 6, becomes |.
750. Hence relations differ as their ratios are different ; and there are, of course, as
many kinds of geometrical relations as we can imagine different ratios. The first kind is
that wherein the ratio becomes unity, which, of course, happens when the two numbers are
equal, as in 3 I 3, 4 ; 4 ; a '. a, and because the ratio here is 1 , it is called the relation of
equality. The relation then follows in which the ratio is another whole number ; in 4 : 2
the ratio is 2, and is called a double ratio ; in 1 2 : 4, the ratio being 3, it is called a triple
ratio ; in 24 ; 6 the ratio is 4, and is called a quadruple ratio. It is necessary, also, to
notice those relations whose ratios are expressed by fractions, as 1 2 : 9, where the ratio is
£, or 1£; 18 : 27, where the ratio is J, &c. Those relations, as 6 : 12, 5 : 15, &c., wherein
the consequent contains exactly twice, thrice, &c. the antecedent, are sometimes called
subduple, subtriple, &c. ratios. The term rational is applied to ratios that are expressible
numbers, the antecedent and consequent being integers, as 11 : 7, 8 : 15, &c. ; and that
of irrational, or surd, is applied to ratios neither expressible by integers nor by fractions,
as V5 : 8, 4 : V3.
751. If a be the antecedent, 6 the consequent, and d the ratio, d= | . Were the con-
sequent 6 given with the ratio, we should find a=bd, for bd divided by b gives d.
Finally, when the antecedent a is given, and the ratio d the consequent, 6 = ^ ; for, dividing
the antecedent a by the consequent (or its equivalent) |, we obtain the quotient d, that is,
the ratio. In whatever way we multiply or divide the consequent and antecedent by the
same number, every relation a \ b remains the same, because the ratio is the same. Let d
be the ratio of a : b, we have then rf=| : now the relation na : nb is still ^ =d, and likewise
^ : ^ is still %=d. So, also, when a ratio has been reduced to its lowest terms, the relation
is easily perceived and enunciated ; for, let the ratio ^ be reduced to its lowest terms |>
we say, a ; b=p ', q, a \ b\ \p \ q, which is read a is to b as p is to q. Thus the ratio of
the relation 6 : 3 being f, or 2, we say, 6 I 3 = 2 : 1. So, 18 ' 12 = 3 : 2, and 24 : 18
= 413, &c. But if the ratio be not susceptible of abridgment, the relation does not
become more evident, and we do not simplify a relation by saying 9 ; 7 = 9 '. 7. We may,
however, change the relation of two large numbers into one more simple and evident
by reducing both to their lowest terms, for we may say, 14484 : 7242 = 2 : 1, or 15819
; 10546 = 3 : 2, or 57600 : 25200 = 16 : 7. All relations, therefore, should be reduced
to the lowest possible numbers, which is readily done by dividing the two terms of the
relation by their greatest common divisor. Thus, to reduce the relation 57600 : 25200 to
that of 16 : 7, we have only to perform the single operation of dividing the numbers 576
and 252 by their greatest common divisor, 36. The method of finding a common divisor
of two given numbers will be given in the following subsection.
CHAP. I. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 273
GREATEST COMMON DIVISOR.
752. There are many numbers whose only common divisor is unity, and where the nu-
merator and denominator belong to this class, the fraction cannot be reduced to a more
convenient form. Such is the case with the numbers 48 and 35 ; hence, as the division of
48 : 35 can only be divided by 1 , their relation cannot be more simply expressed. But if
two numbers have a common divisor, the greatest they have is found by the following rule.
Divide the greater by the lesser number, and divide the preceding divisor by the re-
mainder ; the remainder resulting from the last division again becomes the divisor for a
third division wherein the preceding divisor is to be the dividend. This operation being
repeated till we arrive at a division to which no remainder is left, the last divisor will be
found to be the greatest common measure or divisor of the two given numbers. Now, let
us apply this to the two numbers 504 and 312, whereof we require the greatest common
divisor.
312)504(1
312
192)312(1
192
120)192(1
120
72)120(1
72
48)72(1
48
24)48(2
48
Here we perceive that the last divisor is 24, and dividing 504 and 312 by it, we find that
the relation 504 ; 312 is reduced to the form 21 : 13.
Let the relation 456 : 721 be given to find the greatest common divisor.
456)721(1
456
265)456(1
265
191)265(1
191
74)191(2
148
~43)74(1
43
s7)43(l
31
12)31(2
24
"7)12(1
7
7)7(1
5
2)5(2
1)2(2
274 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
In this case 1 is the greatest common divisor, and we cannot express the relation 721 ; 456
by less numbers, nor reduce it to less terms, than those in which it appears.
753. To demonstrate this rule, let a be the greater and b the less of the given numbers,
and let d be one of their common divisors ; it is evident that a and b being divisible by d,
we may also divide the quantities a—b,a — 2b, a — 36, and, in general, a — nb, by d. Equally
true must be the converse, that is to say, if the numbers b and a — nb are divisible by d, the
number a will be also divisible by d. Farther, if d be the greatest common divisor of two
numbers 6 and a — nb, it will also be the greatest common divisor of the two numbers a
and b : for if a greater common divisor than d could be found for the numbers a and b, it
would also be a common divisor of 6 and a — nb, and consequently d would not be the
greatest common divisor of these two numbers. But we have supposed d the greatest
divisor common to b and a — nb, wherefore it must also be the greatest common divisor of
a and b. With these considerations before us, let us, according to the rule, divide the
greater number a by the lesser 6, and let us suppose the quotient = n ; the remainder will
be a — nb, which must be less than b. This remainder a — nb having the same greatest
common divisor with b as the numbers a and 6, it is only necessary to repeat the division,
dividing the preceding divisor b by the remainder a — nb; and the new remainder which is
obtained will still have with the preceding divisor the same greatest common divisor, and
so on. Proceeding in this way till we arrive at a division without a remainder, that is, in
which the remainder is nothing, let p be the last divisor contained exactly a certain
number of times in its dividend, which will therefore be divisible by p, and will have the
form mp ; so that the numbers p and mp are both divisible by p, and as no number can be
divided by a number greater than itself, it is clear that they have no greater common
divisor. Therefore the last divisor is the greatest common divisor of the given numbers
a and b, and the rule laid down is thus demonstrated.
GEOMETRICAL PROPORTION
754. When their ratios are equal, geometrical relations are equal, such equality of re-
lations being called a geometrical proportion : thus we write a : b = c '. d, or a '. b '. '. c '. d,
thereby indicating that the relation a : b is equal to the relation c I d, which is expressed
m language a is to ft as c to d. Such a proportion is 4 : 1=12: 3, for the relation of 4 : 1
is |, and this also is the relation of 12:3. Thus, a ; b = c : d being a geometrical propor-
tion, the ratio is the same on both sides, and | =|; and, reciprocally, if the fractions
| and ^ are equal, we have a ; b : : c ; d. Hence, a geometrical proportion consists of
four terms, such that the first divided by the second gives the same quotient as the third
divided by the fourth ; and hence, also, is deduced an important property common to all
geometrical proportion, namely, that the product of the first and last term is always equal
to the product of the second and third, or, in more simple language, the product of the ex-
tremes is equal to the product of the means.
755. To demonstrate this last named property, let us take the geometrical proportion
a : b = c : d, so that g =^- Multiplying both these fractions by b, we obtain a = 6^; and
again multiplying both sides by d, we have ad = be. Now, ad is the product of the ex-
tremes, be that of the means, and these two products are found to be equal. Reciprocally,
when a, b, c, d are such numbers that the product of the extremes a and d are equal to
the product of the means b and c, we may be certain that they form a geometrical pro-
portion. For, since ad = bc, we have only to divide both sides by bd, which gives us
ad be a c j ,, /.
bd=bd> or * =d' and therefore a :b = c : d.
756. The transposition of the four terms of a geometrical proportion, as a '. c = b ; d, does
not destroy the proportion, for the rule being that the product of the extremes is equal to
the product of the means, or ad=bc, we may also say, 1st, b ; a = d : c; 2d, a : c = b : d;
3d, d I b = c : a ; 4th, d : c = & : a. Besides these, some others may be deduced from the
same proportions a I b = c : d; thus we may say a + b : a = c + d ; c; that is, the first term
added to the second is to the first as the third added to the fourth is to the third. So, also,
a — b : a — c — d \ c. For, taking the product of the extremes, we have ac — bc = ac — ad,
which leads to the equality ad = bc.
757. All the proportions deduced from a : 6 = c : d may be generally represented as
follows : —
m-:i + nb I pa + qb = mc + nd I pc + qd;
For the product of the extremes is mpac + npbc + mqad + nqbd, which, because ad— be, be-
comes mpac + npbc + mqbc + nqbd. Farther, the product of the means is mpac + mqbc +
npad + nqbd; or, as ad — be, it is mpac + mqbc ; npbc + nqbd; so that the two products are
equal. It is therefore evident that from anj geometrical proportion an infinite number of
others may be deduced : take, for example, 9 : 3 = 18 : 6, and we may have
CHAP I. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 275
3:9 = 6:18; 9 : 18 = 3 : 6; 12 ; 9 = 24 : 18 ;
3 : 3 = 6 : 6; 12 : 24 = 3 : 6; 12 : 3=«24 ; 6;
besides many others.
758. Since in every geometrical proportion the products of the extremes and of the means
are equal, we may, when the three first terms are known, find the fourth from them. Thus,
suppose the three first terms to be 9 : 3 = 18 : the quantity sought. Now the product of
the means is 3 x 18, or 54 ; the fourth term must therefore be one, which multiplied into the
first will produce that number ; if, then, the product 54 of the means be divided by the
first term 9, we shall have 6 for the fourth term, and the whole proportion will stand
9 I 3 = 18 : 6. In general, therefore, if the three first terms are a '. b = c l ..... we
put d for the unknown fourth letter; and since ad=bc, we divide both sides by a, and
have d = -£; so that the fourth term = -^, or is found by multiplying the second and
third terms and dividing the product by the first term. This is the foundation of the cele-
brated RULE OF THREE in arithmetic, wherein three numbers are given to find a fourth
in geometrical proportion, so that the first may be to the second as the third is to the
fourth. And here we must note some peculiar circumstances which follow.
759. If in two proportions the first and third terms are the same, as in a ' 6 = c : d, and
a I f—c : g, then the two second and the two fourth terms will also be in geometrical pro-
portion, and b '. d=f '. g. For the first proportion being transformed into a '. c = b : dt and
the second into a : c =f \ g, the relations b : d and / : g must be equal, since each of them
is equal to the relation a \ c. In numbers, if 5 : 25 = 3 : 15, and 5 : 40 = 3 : 24, we must
have 25 : 40 = 1 5 : 24. But if the two proportions be such that the means of both are the
same, then the first terms will be in an inverse proportion to the fourth terms. Thus, if
a : b = c '. d, and/* : 6 = c : g, then a : f=g I d. In numbers, for example, 24 : 8 = 9 : 3, and
6 : 8 = 9 : 12, we have 24 : 6 = 12 ; 3. And the reason is evident, for the first proportion
gives ad = bc; the second fg = bc ; therefore ad=fg, and a \ f=g '. d, or a : g : \f \ d.
760. If two proportions are given, a new one may always be produced by separately
multiplying the first term of the one by the first term of the other, the second by the se-
cond, and so on with respect to the other terms. Thus, a '. b = c I d and e \f=g : h will
furnish ae '. bf=cg '. dh. For the first gives ad=bc, and the second eh=fg, we have also
adeh = bcfg. But adeh is the product of the extremes, and bcfg is the product of the means,
in the new proportion. So that the two products are equal, and the proportion is true.
Let them, for example, be 8 I 2 = 20 I 5 and 6 : 9 = 14 : 21 ; the combination will be
6x8 : 2x9 = 20x14 : 5 x 21, or 48 : 18 = 280 : 105.
761. Lastly, if two products are equal, ad=bc, the equality may be converted into
geometrical proportion, for we shall always have one of the factors of the first product in
the same proportion to one of the factors of the second product, as the other factor of the
second product is to the other factor of the first product ; that is, in the present case,
a l c=b : d, or a : b = c : d. In numbers, 3x8=4x6; and this proportion may be formed
8 : 4 = 6 : 3, or 3 : 4 = 6 : 8.
762. We do not think it necessary to pursue the subject here by examples of the use of
proportion, without which the occurrences of common life could scarcely be carried on. Its
basis is here explained, and the application must be obvious to the readers of this work.
COMPOUND RELATIONS.
763. If we multiply the terms of two or more relations, antecedents by antecedents,
and consequents by consequents, compound relations are obtained ; that is, the relation be-
• tween the two products is compounded of the relations given. Thus the relations a : 6,
c : d, e :f, give the compound relation ace I bdf. Each of these three ratios is said to be
one of the roots of the compound ratio,
764. As a relation continues the same if both its terms are divided by the same number,
in order to abridge it, we may greatly facilitate the above composition by observing whether
among the first terms some are not found having common divisors with some of the
second terms : for if so, those terms are destroyed, and the quotient arising from the divi-
sion by that common divisor substituted, of which the following is an example. Let the
relations given be 12 ; 25, 28 : 33, and 55 : 56.
2 : 5
Whence we see that 2 : 5 is the compound relation required.
765. The same operation is performed if we are calculating by letters ; and a remarkable
case occurs, when each antecedent is equal to the consequent in the preceding relation :
thus, if the given relations are
T 2
276 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK 1 1.
a: b,
b:c,
eld,
die,
e : a,
The compound relation is 1 I 1.
766. We may perceive the utility of these principles by applying them, for instance, to
the relation between two rectangular fields, which is compounded of the relations of the
lengths and breadths. Let one of them, A, be 500 ft. long and 60 ft. wide, and the other,
B, be 360 ft. long and 60 ft. broad ; then the relation of the lengths is 5OO : 360 ; that of
the breadths 60 : 100. Thus we have
5 : 6
Whence the field A is to the field B as 5 to 6.
767. So, again, if we wish to compare two rooms with respect to their space or contents,
we are to recollect that here the relation between them is compounded of three relations,
namely, that of the lengths, that of the breadths, and that of the heights. Let the room
A be 36 ft. long, 16 ft. broad, and 14 ft. high ; and the room B be 42 ft. long, 24 ft. broad,
and 10 ft. high ; we have the relations as follow : —
A B
For the length ^,
For the breadth 2, ^, X :
For the height 2, >^ : X>, -5
So that the capacity of the room A is to that of the room B as 4 to 5.
768. When the relations thus compounded are equal, multiplicate relations result ;
namely, two equal relations give a duplicate ratio or ratio of the squares. Three equal rela-
tions produce the triplicate ratio, or ratio of the cubes, and so on. Thus the relations a : b
and a '. b give the compound relation aa '. bb ; whence we say that the squares are in the
duplicate ratio of the roots ; and the ratio a '. b multiplied thrice, giving the ratio a3 ; &3,
shows that the cubes are in the triplicate ratio of the roots.
769. From a knowledge of Geometry, we learn that two circular spaces are in the
duplicate relation of their diameters ; which means, that they are to each other as the
squares of their diameters. Suppose A to be such a space, having a diameter =45 ft. ;
B another circular space, whose diameter =30 ; then the first space will be to the second as
45 x 45 to 30 x 30, or, compounding the two equal relations,
, 2
9 : 4
Whence we see the two areas are as 9 to 4.
770. Again, it is known that the solid contents of spheres are in the ratio of the
cubes of the diameters. Thus, the diameter of a globe, A, being ] ft., and the diameter of
another globe, B, being 2ft. ; the solid contents of A will be to those of B as I3 r 23, or as
1 to 8. If, therefore, the spheres are composed of similar substances, the sphere B will •
weigh 8 times as much as the sphere A.
771. The ratio of two fractions | : ^ may always be expressed in integer numbers, since
we have only to multiply the two fractions by bd to obtain the ratio ad '. be, which is equal
to the other ; and if ad and be have common divisors, the ratio may be reduced to less
terms. For instance, £ I §| = 15 x 36 : 24 x 25 = 9 : 10.
772. Suppose we sought the ratio of the fractions - and ^, it is evident we should have
1 I i = 6 I a, which is expressed by saying that two fractions which have unity for their de-
nominator are in the reciprocal or inverse ratio of their denominators. So when any two
fractions have a common numerator, for £ : j) = b : a. When, however, two fractions have
their denominators equal, as - : -, they are in the direct ratio of their numerators, that is,
as a I 6. Thus, | : -ft=T6s : $=6 : 3 = 2 : 1 and ]? : If = 10 : 15 or 2 : 3.
773. It is upon the principles here laid down that we are enabled to resolve questions in
what is called in books of arithmetic, THE RULE OF FIVE, as, for example, in the follow-
ing question : — If 25 pence per day be given to a labourer, and it is required to know
what must be given to 24 labourers who have worked 50 days, we state it thus : —
CHAP. I. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA 277
1 : 24 labourers.
1 : 50 days.
1 : 1200:: 25 (pence) :
25
12)30000
20)2500
125
GEOMETRICAL PROGRESSION.
774. When the numbers of a series increase or decrease by becoming a certain number of
times greater or less, the series is called a geometrical progression, because each term is to the
following one in the same geometrical ratio. The number expressing how many times
each term is greater than the preceding is called the exponent : thus, if the first term = 1
and the exponent = 2, the geometrical progression becomes,
Terms 12345 6 7 8 9&c
Progression 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, &c.
In which the numbers 1, 2, 3, &c. mark the place which each term holds in the progres-
sion. Generally, if the first term =a and the exponent =b, we have the following geome-
trical progression —
Terms 12345678 n
Progression a, ab, a&2, a&3, aft4, a&5, ab6, aW . . . abn—1.
Thus, when the progression proceeds to n terms, the last term is =abn~ l. If the ex-
ponent b be greater than unity, the terms continue to increase ; if the exponent 6 = 1, the
terms are all equal; and, lastly, if the exponent b be less than 1, or a fraction, the terms
continually decrease. So if a — 1 and b = i, we have the geometrical progression 1 , \, \, |, ^,
S3- 53' T55> &c>> wnerem we nave f°r consideration,
FIRST — The first term, which has been called a.
SECOND — The exponent, which has been called b.
THIRD — The number of terms n.
FOURTH — The last term, which has been found =abn~^.
Hence, if any three of these be given, the last term may be found by multiplying the n — 1
power of b, or bn~l, by the first term a.
775. If, therefore, in the geometrical progression 1,2, 4, 8, &c. the fiftieth term be re-
quired, we have a = l, 6 = 2, and n = 50, consequently the fiftieth term is = 24y. Now
2^ = 512, and 2^ = 1 024. Wherefore the square of 220 = 1048576, and the square of this
number or 1099511627776 = 2*0; and multiplying this value of 24o by 2^ or 512, we have
2^ = 562949953421312.
776. One of the most usual questions which occur relative to geometrical progression
is to find the sum of the terms, the mode of doing which we shall now explain. Let the
following progression of ten terms be given : —
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512.
We will represent the sum by s, that is, s = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 64 + 1 28 + 256 + 51 2.
Double both sides and we have 2s = 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 64+1 28 + 256 + 512+1 024. Sub-
tracting from this the progression represented by s we have s = 1 024 — 1=1 023 ; wherefore
the sum required is 1023.
777. Suppose in the same progression the number of terms is undetermined and =n, so
that the sum in question or s = l + 2 + 2^+ 23 + 2* . . . . 2n—1. If we multiply by 2 we
have 2s = 2 + 22+23 + 24 . . . . 2n, and subtracting the preceding from the last equation
we have s = 2w . Hence we see that the sum required is found by multiplying the last
term 2n~~l by the exponent 2 in order to have 2n, and subtracting unity from that product.
778. Suppose, generally, the first term =a, the exponent =6, the number of terms =n,
and their sum =s, so that
s = a + o& + a&2 + a&3 + afc4 + .... a&»»— l.
Multiply by 6, and we have
6s = a6 + a&2 + a&3 + a&4 + a&5 + .... at",
and subtracting the first equation, the remainder is (6 — I)* = a6* — a, whence is easily
deduced the sum required, s = ^fp. Whence it follows that the sum of any geome-
trical progression may be found by multiplying the last term by the exponent of the pro-
gression, subtracting the first term from the product and dividing the remainder by the
exponent minus unity.
T 8
278 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
779. Let there be a geometrical progression of seven terms, whereof the first =3 and
the exponent = 2. Then a = 3, 6 = 2, and n = 7. The first term will =3 x 26, or 3 x 64
= 192, and the progression will be
3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, 192.
Multiplying the last term 1 92 by the exponent 2 we have 384 ; subtracting the first term
the remainder is 381 ; and dividing this by 6 — 1 or by 1, we have 381 for the sum of the
whole progression.
780. When the exponent is less than 1, and the terms of the progression consequently
diminish, the sum of such a decreasing progression, which would go on to infinity, may
nevertheless be accurately expressed. Thus, let the first term = 1 , the exponent i, and the
sum =s, so that
Multiply by 2, and we have
25 = 2 + 1+^ + 1 + 1 + ^ + ^, &e. adinfinitum;
subtracting the preceding progression, the remainder is s = 2 for the sum of the proposed
infinite progression. In general, suppose the first term = a and the exponent of the pro-
gression =- (a fraction less than 1), and consequently c greater than 6; the sum of the
progression will be found thus :
multiplying by - we shall have
* ab , 062 , aft3
c s =7 + c2~ + ~& +
subtracting, the remainder is(l-*)s=a. Hence s = ^fi . Multiplying both terms of the
fraction by c we have s=~:b- The sum, therefore, of the progression is found by dividing
the first term a by 1 minus the exponent, or by multiplying a by the denominator of the
exponent, and dividing the product by the same denominator, diminished by the numerator
of the exponent.
781. So are found the sums of progressions whose terms are alternately affected by the
signs + and — . For example :
Multiplying by - we have
b ab ab2 alP ab* s
7s — ~7 —~rt + Ttf ~~^fy &c-
Adding to this equation that preceding we obtain (l+^)s—a. Whence the sum required is
s = YTJ, or s = ~~b. Thus, if the first term a = f, and the exponent =| ; that is to say, 6 = 2
and c = 5, we shall have for the sum of the progression f + 565 +T^ + ^ + , &c. = 1 : for by
subtracting the exponent from 1 there remains j? ; and by dividing the first term by that
remainder the quotient is 1.
782. Suppose the terms were alternately positive and negative, thus —
§
the sum will be
,t=H
In the infinite progression,
TO + T55 + T$5U + TM(JS + TT5MJO> &«-
the first term is T35, and the exponent ^ Subtract this last from 1, and the remainder
is $5. If we divide the first term by this fraction the quotient is £ for the sum of the pro-
gression ; so that by taking only one term of the progression, namely, -^, the error is
only ^L. But taking two terms, -^ + ^5=^, there would still be ^ wanting to make the
sum =$.
We shall conclude with another example in the infinite progression : —
Here the first term is 9 and the exponent ^ Then 1 minus the exponent =T9g and
| = 10, the sum required. This series is thus expressed by a decimal fraction 9'9999999, &c.
CHAP. I. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 279
INFINITE DECIMAL FRACTIONS.
783. It has already been seen that decimal fractions are used in logarithmic calculations,
in which vulgar fractions would be useless and cumbersome. In other calculations they
are of such importance that we shall here dwell upon them, and show how to transform a
vulgar fraction into a decimal, and the converse.
784. Generally let it be required to change the fraction | into a decimal fraction. Now,
as this fraction expresses no more than the quotient of a divided by 6, instead of a let us
write a '0000000, whose value does not at all differ from a, since it contains neither tenth
nor hundredth parts. Let us divide this by 6 by the common rules of division, taking care
to put in the proper place the point which separates the decimals and the integers, and the
operation is performed. Let the fraction, for example, be equivalent to i, the division in
decimals will then stand thus : —
2)1-0000000_1
0 -5000000 ~5'
From this it appears that | =0-5000000 or 0-5; which is sufficiently manifest, since
this decimal fraction represents -fa, which is the same as £.
785. Let the given fraction be £, and we have
3)1 -0000000 __f
O -3333333 ~3'
786. From this it is seen that the decimal fraction equivalent to ^ cannot be discontinued,
but that the number 3 is repeated ad infaiitum. Indeed, it has been already seen, in the
preceding article, that the fractions •$, + ^ + .^ + ^3.^ added together make \, In the
same way, the decimal fraction which expresses the value of § is 0*6666666, evidently the
double of \.
787. Suppose \ to be the proposed fraction, we have
4)1-0000000_,>
~0 -2500000 ='J
so that |=0 -2500000 or 0 -25. The proof wh ereof is that ^ + lib = 1% = *•
788. In the same way for the fraction |, we have
4)3-0000000 ,
0 -7500000 ~v
Thus we see $=0-75, that is,
789. The fraction | is changed into a decimal fraction by making
4) 5 -0000000 _5
1-2500000"*'
for 1+ -255=5.
7 90. So I will be found = 0 -2, § = 0 -4, f = 0 -6, f = 0 -8, f = 1 , | = 1 -2, &c. In the occurrence
of the denominator 7, the decimal fractions become a little more complicated ; thus we have
^=0-142857142857, &c., in which the six figures are continually repeated. By transform-
ing this decimal fraction into a geometrical progression, we may see that it precisely expresses
the value j, the first term of this progression = Tg^j7o» and the exponent =To6t>OoO- Hence
the sum =— ^ — «=$$& (multiplying both terms by 10000000) = ^. There is, how-
ever, a simpler mode of proving that this decimal fraction is exactly %, by substituting for its
value the letter s, as under : —
s = 0-142857142857, &c.
10s = 1-428571428571, &c.
100s = 14-285714285714, &c.
1000s = 142-857142857142, &c.
10000s = 1428-571428571428, &c.
100000s = 14285-714285714285, &c.
1000000s = 142857-142857142857, &c.
Subtracts 0-142857142857, &c,
999999s = 142857
Now, dividing by 999999, we shall have s=^f||=|; hence s=f
791. The same will be seen by trial upon other fractions whose denominator is 7, the
decimal fraction being infinite and six figures continually repeated. The reason is, that in
continuing the division, we must return to a remainder which has already been had ; and in
T 4
280 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II
that division only 6 different numbers can form the remainder, namely, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; so
that after the sixth division the same figures must return.
792. With the denominator 8 we have the following decimal fraction : | = 0'125, f = 0-25,
|=0-375, |=0-5, f=0-625, f =0-75 |=0'875, &c. With 9 for the denominator, we have
£ = 0-11111, &c.; § = 0-22222, &c.; § = 0'33333, &c. With 10 for the denominator, we
have -^ = 0-1, ^ = 0-2, T35 = 0-3, which, indeed, is manifest from the nature of the thing; as
also that fa must be 0-01, and ^=0-37 ; that ^=0-472, and that r^ss = 0-0015. If
the denominator be 11, then ^=0-0909090, &c. Suppose we desired to know the value of
this decimal fraction, call it s, then
s = 0-0909090, &c.
10s = 0-9090909, &c.
100s = 9-0909090, &c.
Subtract s, and we have 99 s = 9; consequently s = ^=-^: so with •$, &c.
793. There are many of these decimal fractions which are called recurring, sometimes
with two, and at other times with more, figures. Their values may be found without
difficulty. Thus in the case of a single figure constantly repeated, let it be represented
by a, so that s=Q-aaaaaaa, we have
10s = a'aaaaaaa
subtracting * = 0-aaaaaaa
we have 9s = a, so that s = ?.
794. In the case of two figures, as ab, we shall find s =55- In the case of three figures,
as abc, we shall have s =^5, and so on.
yyy
795. So that if a decimal fraction occurs, it is easy to find its value ; for instance, of
O -2 96 296, the value will be §§§=^, which fraction, it may easily be proved, will give again
the decimal fraction required.
796. We shall close this section with a curious example of changing into a decimal
fraction the vulgar fraction i x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x6 x 7 x 8 x 9 x 10' the °Perat^on whereof is as follows ; —
2) 1 -00000000000000
3)0-50000000000000
4)0-16666666666666
5)0-04166666666666
6)0-00833333333333
7)0-00138888888888
8)0-00019841269841
9)0-00002480158730
10)0-00000275573192
0-00000027557319.
CALCULATION OF INTEREST.
797. Interest, or the value of the use of money, is usually expressed per cent., or after
the rate per hundred on the principal lent. Thus, if we put out 500 pounds sterling at
5 per cent., it signifies that for every hundred pounds the lender is to receive five pounds
per annum during the continuance of the loan. The solution of this question, which is
one merely of simple interest, is so obvious, that it is unnecessary further to detain the reader
upon it ; and we therefore pass on to compound interest, or interest upon interest, which
arises from the principal and interest taken together, as it becomes due at the end of each
stated time of payment.
798. In the resolution of this question, we are to consider that 100Z. at the end of a year
becomes 1051. Let a = principal. Its amount at the end of the year is found by saying,
if 100 gives 105, what will a give; and we answer \°^ = -^, which may be also expressed
|t x a, or a + ^ x a.
799. Thus, by adding its twentieth part to the original principal, we have the principal
at the end of the first year ; adding to this last its twentieth, we know the amount of the
given principal in two years, and so on. Hence the annual increases to the principal may
be easily computed. Suppose, for instance, the principal of 10OOI. Expressing the values
in decimal fractions, it will be worth —
CHAP. I. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 281
After 1 year - - - £1050
52-5 One year's interest on .£1050.
After 2 years - - - 1102-5
55-125 — 1102-5
After 3 years - - - 1157-625
57-881 — 1157-625
After 4 years - - - 1215-506
60-775 — 1215-506
After 5 years - 1276-281 &c.
The method above exhibited would, however, in calculations for a number of years, become
very laborious, and it may be abridged in the following manner.
800. Let the present principal = a ; now, since a principal of 20Z. will amount to 21 1. at
the end of a year, the principal a will amount to fi x a at the end of that time. At the end
of the following year the same principal will amount to ^p x a = (|^)2 x a. This principal
of two years will, the year after, amount to (|g)3 x a, which will therefore be the principal
of three years ; increasing in this manner, at the end of four years the principal becomes
(la)4 x a- After a century it will amount to (|g)100 x a, and in general (§£)" x a is the
amount of the principal after n years ; a formula serving to determine the amount of prin-
cipal after any number of years.
10 i. The interest of 5 per cent., which has been taken in the above calculation, de-
termined the fraction f±. Had the interest been reckoned at 6 per cent, the principal a
would at the end of a year be (}§§) x a ; at the end of two years to (yg§)2 x a ; and at the end
of n years to ({28) n x a. Again, if the interest be at 4 per cent, the principal a will, after »
years, be ({§$) n x a. Now all these formulae are easily resolved by logarithms ; for if,
according to the first supposition, the question be (|J) n x a, this will be L.(f^)71 + L.a, and
as (|^) n is a power, we have L.(|^) w = nL. |^ : so that the logarithm of the principal re-
quired is = n x L.2£+ L.a, and the logarithm of the fraction f£=L.21 — L.20.
802. We shall now consider what the principal oflOOOZ. will amount to at compound
interest of 5 per cent, at the end of 100 years. Here n = 100. Hence the logarithm of
the principal required will be = 100L.f£ + L.I 000, calculated as under : —
L. 21 =1-32221 93
Subtracting L. 20 = 1 -301 0300
L
Multiply
100
Add L.I 000
5 -11 8 9300 = Logarithm of the principal
required ; from the characteristic whereof the principal must be a number of six figures,
and by the tables it will appear to be 131, 501 L In the case of a principal of 3452Z. at
6 per cent, for sixty-four years, we have a = 3452 and n = 64. Principal at the end of the
first year therefore =!$ = ™. Hence the logarithm of the principal sought = 64 x L.M +
L.3452, which will be found to amount to 143,763Z.
803. When the number of years is very great, errors of considerable magnitude may
arise from the logarithms not being sufficiently extended in the decimal places ; but as our
object here is only to show the principle on which these calculations are founded, we do
not think it necessary further to pursue that subject.
804. There is another case which now requires our consideration ; it is that of not only
adding the interest annually to the principal, but increasing it every year by a new sum
= b. The original principal a would then increase in the following manner : —
After 1 year, |ia + 6
After 2 years, (f^)2a + |J6 + 6
After 3 years, (fi)3« + (fi )26 + |i& + b
After 4 years, (fl^a + (fi)3& + (31)25 + p + &
After » years, (i)"a + (|£)n-]& + (if -26 + ffl + b
This principal evidently consists of two parts, whereof the first =(§)"a, and the other,
taken inversely, forms the series b + fi& + (fi) 26 + (^)s& + . . . . (|i )»- ^. This last series is
evidently a geometrical progression, whose exponent = fi. Its sum, therefore, will be found
by first multiplying the last term (^)n~lb by the exponent f£, which gives (^)nb. Sub-
tract the first term b, and we have the remainder ($)nb — b-, and lastly, dividing by the ex-
282 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
ponent minus 1, that is, by ^j, we have the sum required, = 20(f£)w6 — 206. Wherefore the
principal sought is (§£)"« + 20(|i) "6-206 = (i)w x (a + 206) -206.
805. To resolve this formula we must separately calculate its first term (|i)w x (a+ 206),
which is »L. f J + L.(a + 206), for the number which answers to this logarithm in the tables
will be the first term, and if from this we subtract 206 we have the principal sought.
806. Suppose a principal of 1O007. placed out at 5 per cent, compound interest, and to it
there be annually added 1O07. besides its compound interest, and it be required to know to
what it will amount at the end of 25 years. Here a = 1000, 6 = 100, n = 25; and the
operation is as follows : —
L.f£=0-021189299
Multiply by 25 we have 25L.fi = 0-5297324750
L. (a + 206) = 3 -477 121 31 35
= 4-0068537885
The first part or number which answers to this logarithm is 101 59 -I/. ; from which if we
subtract 206 = 2000 we find the principal in question to be after 25 years 8159-17.
807. If it be required to know in how many years a principal of 10007. Tinder the above
conditions would amount to 1,000,0007. ; let n be the number of years required, and since
a = 10OO, 6 = 1OO, the principal at the end of n years will be (§) n (3000) — 20OO, which sum
must make 1,OOO,OO07. ; whence results this equation: —
3000 (f£)n- 2000 = 10OOOOO
Adding to both sides 2000 we have 30OO (fj) n = 1002000
Dividing both sides by 30OO we have (f£) = 334
Using logarithms we have nL.f£ = L.334, and dividing by L.fl, we obtain n= ~^. Now
L. 334 =2-5237465 and L. f£=OO21 1893, wherefore n= j^us!);*- If' lastlv> the two terms
of this fraction be multiplied by 10OOOOOO, we shall have n = ^ff||f-' equal to one hun-
dred and nineteen years one month and seven days, which is the time wherein the prin-
cipal of 10OOZ. will be increased to 1,000,0007. In the case of an annual decrease in-
stead of increase of the capital by a certan sum, we shall have the following gradations as
the values of a, year after year, the interest being at 5 per cent., and, representing by 6 the
sum annually abstracted from the principal,
After 1 year it would be f^z — 6
After 2 years — ($fa ~W)~b
After 3 years — (f£) a-(^fb-^b-b
After n years — Q^-tW*** -<$?-** • • • • ~(&-b.
This principal evidently consists of two parts, one whereof is (fg)wa5 and the other to be sub-
tracted therefrom, taking the terms inversely, forms a geometrical progression, as follows : —
The sum of this progression has already been found = 20 (|£)n6— 206 ; if, therefore, this
be subtracted from (fj)wo, we have the principal required after n years = (f£)n(a — 206) + 206.
808. For a less period than a year, the exponent n becomes a fraction ; for example, 1 day
= ,1^, 2 days = 353, and so on. It often happens that we wish to know the present value of
a sum of money payable at the end of a number of years. Thus, as 20 pounds in ready
money amount in a twelvemonth to 21 pounds, so, reciprocally, 21 pounds payable at the
end of a year can be worth only 20 pounds. Therefore, if a be a sum payable at the end
of a year, the present value of it is |£a. Hence, to find the present value of a principal a
at the end of a year, we must multiply by f| ; to find its present value at the end of two
years, it must be multiplied by (|i)2a ; and, in general, its value n years before the time of
payment will be expressed by (|£)re«.
809. Thus, suppose a rent of 1007. receivable for 5 years, reckoning interest at 5 per
cent., if we would know its value in present money, we have
For ,£100 due after 1 year, the present value is ,£95-239
after 2 years 90-704
after 3 years — 86-385
after 4 years — 82-272
after 5 years 78-355
Sum of the five terms £432 -955
So that in present money, the value is 4327. 19s. Id.
810. But for a great number of years such a calculation would become laborious. It
may be facilitated as follows: — Let the annual rent =a, commencing directly and con-
CHAP. i. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 283
firming n years, it will be worth a + ($)a + (|?)2a + ($)8a + (§?)4a + ($)"«, which
is a geometrical progression whose sum is to be found. We have therefore only to multiply
the last term by the exponent, the product whereof is (ff)ra+1a, then subtract the first term,
and the remainder is (|f)M+1a-a. Lastly, dividing by the exponent minus 1, that is,-^,
or, which is the same, multiplying by — 21, we have the sum required, = — 21(ff)n+1o + 21a,
or 21 a— 21 (!§)"'*' *«, the value of which second term is easily calculated by logarithms.
SOLUTION OF PROBLEMS.
811. The object of algebra, as well as of mathematics generally, being the determination
of quantities which were before unknown, this is obtained by an attentive consideration of
the conditions given, which are always expressed in known numbers.
812. When a question is to be resolved, the numbers sought are usually represented by
the last letters of the alphabet, and the object is then to find, under the conditions, an
equality between two quantities. This equality, represented by a formula, is called an
equation, and enables us to determine the value of the number sought, and thence to resolve
the equation. More than one number is often sought, but they are found by equations in
the same manner.
813. To illustrate this, let us take the following example : — Twenty persons, men and
women, go to a tavern. The men spend 24 shillings, and the women as much ; but each
man, it appears, has spent 1 shilling more than each woman. What was the 'number of
men and the number of the women ?
Let the number of the men «=ar ;
That of the women then will be =20 -a:.
Now, these x men having spent 24 shillings, each man's share must be ^ shillings.
Again, the 20 — x women having also spent 24 shillings, the share of each woman is
gjgL shillings.
But we know that each woman's share is 1 shilling less than that of each man ; if,
therefore, we subtract 1 from each man's share, we must obtain that of each of the
women ; consequently 1 = -^ — .
From this last equation we have to find the value of x. We shall hereafter see that
x = 8, which value will correspond to the equation, for "~l=f|> includes the
equality 2 = 2.
814. It is thus seen that an equation consists of two parts separated by the sign of
equality =, showing that the two quantities are equal to one another. It is often neces-
sary to submit them to a great number of transformations, hi order to deduce the value of
the unknown quantity, and these are founded on the following principles : —
That two quantities remain equal, whether we add to them or subtract from them
equal quantities.
That the same obtains whether we multiply or divide them by the same number, or
extract their roots of the same degree.
And lastly, if we take the logarithms of the quantities, as in the preceding section.
815. The equations most easily resolved are those in which the unknown quantity does
not exceed the first power after the terms of the equation have been properly arranged.
These are called simple equations, or of the first degree. If after the reduction and ordering
of an equation, the second power of an unknown quantity is still found, it is called an
equation of the second degree, and is more difficult to resolve. When the cube of the un-
known quantity appears in an equation, it is called one of the third degree, and so on.
RESOLUTION OF SIMPLE EQUATIONS, OR OF THE FIRST DEGREE.
^ 816. When the number sought, or unknown quantity represented by x, is such that one
side only contains that letter, and the other a known number, as x = 12, the value of x is
already found. The object is therefore to arrive at that form, however complicated the
equation may be when first formed.
817. To begin with the simplest cases: suppose we have brought an equation to the
form x + 9 = 1 6 ; inspection alone here shows us that x = 7 ; and, in general, if we find
x + a = b, where a and 6 express known numbers, we have only to subtract a from both sides
to obtain the equation a = b — a, which indicates the value of x.
818. If the equation found be x — a = 6, by adding a to both sides we obtain the value of
x = b + a.
819. So, if the equation has the form x — a = aa + 1 , by adding we have x = aa + a + 1 .
820. In the equation a — 8a = 20 — 6a, we find x = 20 — 6a + 8a, or x = 20 + 2a. And in
= 20 + 3a, we have .r = 20 + 3a - 6a, or z = 20-3a.
284 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
821. If the original equation has the form x — a + b = c, we may begin by adding a to
both sides, which gives #+fe=c+a; and then subtracting b from both sides, we have
# = c+a-6. Or we might add +a-b to both sides, by which we immediately obtain
x = c + a - b. So in the following examples : —
If x — 2a + 36=0, we have # = 2a — 3b.
If x— 3a + 2b = 25 + a + 2b, we have # = 25 + 4a.
If # — 9 + 6a = 25 + 2a, we have # = 34 — 4a.
When the equation found has the form ax = 6, it is only necessary to divide the two sides
by a, and we have *=-• But when the equation has the form ax + b—c = d, the terms
that accompany car must be made to vanish by adding to both sides — b + c, and then,
dividing the new equation ax=d— b + c by a, we have x= d~b+c -j^g same value would
have been found by subtracting +b—c from the given equation, for we should have had in
the same form ax=d—b + c and # = d~^+c-. Hence,
If 2x + 5 = 1 7, we have 2x= 1 2 and x=6.
If 3x— 8 = 7, we have 3# = 15 and x=5.
If 4# — 5 — 3a = 1 5 + 9a, we have 4x = 20 + 1 2a, consequently x —5 + 3a.
When the equation has the form | =b, multiply both sides by a, and we have x = ab. But
if ^ +6— c=tf, we first make ^=d— b + c, and then x = (d— b + c)a=ad— ab + ac.
Let \x— 3=4; then \x=4 + 3 = 7 and # = 14.
Let \x—\ + 2a = S + a, we have £z = 4— a, and # = 1 2 — 3a.
Let ~ — l=a> we have =a+ ], and # = cta — 1.
When we have such an equation as ^=c, multiply first by 6, which gives ax = bc, and then
dividing by a, we have * = -£• If ^—c=d, the equation must first be made to take the
form y=d+c; after which, multiplying by 6, we have ax = bd+bc, and then #— **±*?.
Let \x — 4 = 1, we have §#=5 and 2x = l5 ; whence ^ = 125, or 7|.
If $# + i=5, we have |r=5 — £ = 2; whence S#=18, and # = 6.
In the case of two or more terms containing the letter x either on one or both sides of the
equation, the process is as follows : —
822. First. If they are on the same side, as in the equation x + |# + 5 = ll, we have
# + l# = 6, or 3# = 12; and, lastly, # = 4.
Let x + \x + \x = 44, to find the value of x. Multiplying by 3 we have 4# + |r
= 132. Multiply both sides by 2, and we have 11 # = 264; whence a: = 24. This
might have been effected more shortly by beginning with the reduction of the three
terms which contain x to the single term y#, and then dividing the equation 1S'# =
44 by 1 1 , we should have had |# = 4, whence x = 24.
Generally, let ax — bx + cx=d. It is the same as (a— b + c)x=d, whence # = ~g+- •
823. Second. If there be terms containing x on both sides of the equation, they must be
made to vanish from that side in which it can most easily be done, that is to say, in which
there are fewest of them; thus, in the equation 3x + 2 = # + 10, x must be first subtracted
from both sides, which gives 2x+ 2 = 10 ; whence 2x = 8, and x = 4.
Let a: + 4 = 20— x, it is evident that 2^ + 4 = 20, and thence 2x = I6, and x = 8.
Let x + 8 = 32— 3x, we have 4x + 8 = 32, then 4x = 24, and x =6.
Let I5 — x = 20—2x, we have then 15 + # = 20, and x=5.
Let 1 +x=5— \x, we have 1 +|r=5, and |r = 4; 3# = 8; and, lastly, #=| = 2|.
If i __£#=£— \x, we must add \x, which gives \ — \ + -&x; subtracting |, there will
remain ^# = g, and multiplying by 12, we have x = 2.
If an equation occurs wherein the unknown number x is a denominator, we must make the
fraction vanish by multiplying the whole equation by that denominator. Thus in the
equation — — 8 = 12, we must first add 8, and we have — = 20 ; then, multiplying by x, we
have 100 = 20o:, and dividing by 20, x=5,
Let *^j- = 7. Multiplying by x — 1 , we have 5ar + 3 = 7# — 7.
Subtracting 5x, there remains 3 = 2x — 7. Adding 7, we have 2x = lO; whence x=S.
Radical signs are not unfrequently found in equations of the first degree. For example, a
number x below 1 00 is required such that the square root of 1 00 — x = 8, or A/( 1 00 — x) = 8 ,
the square of both sides is 100— # = 64; adding x we have 100 = 64 + #, whence we have
# = 100-64 = 36.
824. The unknown number # is sometimes found in the exponents ; in this case, recourse
must be had to logarithms. Thus 2* =51 2 ; taking the logarithms on both sides we have
#L.2 = L.512, and dividing by L.2, we find x=^~ . We shall here subjoin a few ex-
amples of the resolutions of simple equations.
CHAP. I.
ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA.
285
(1.) Divide 7 into two such parts that the greater may exceed the less by 3.
Let the greater part =x,
The less will be = 7 — x.
So that x = 7 — x + 3, or x = 10 — x.
Adding x, we have 2x = lO, and dividing by 2, x = 5.
The greater part is 5, and the less is 2.
(2.) Divide the number 1600 into three such parts that the greatest shall be 200 more than
the second, and the second 100 more than the third.
Let the third part =x, then the second will be = x + 100, and the greatest — x+ 300.
These parts, then, make up the number 1 600 ; we have therefore —
3.r + 400 = 1600; 3^ = 1200; and x = 400.
The third part, therefore, is 400, the second 500, and the greatest 700.
(3.) Divide 32 into two such parts that if the less be divided by 6, and the greater by 5,
the two quotients taken together may make 6.
Let the less of the two parts sought =x. The greater will be 32 — x.
The first, divided by 6, gives *•; the second, divided by 5, gives 3~L.
Now, | + ^~ = 6 ; multiplying them by 5, we have |ar + 32 — x = 30, or — £ar + 32 = 30.
Adding Jar, we have 32 = 30 + \x.
Subtracting 30, there remains 2—\x.
Multiplying by 6, we have x = 1 2. Wherefore the lesser part = 1 2, the greater = 20.
(4.) Divide 25 into two such parts that the greater may contain the less 49 times.
Let the less part =x, then the greater will be 25 — x.
The latter, divided by the former, ought to give the quotient 49 ; therefore
Multiplying by x we have 25 - x = 49x. Adding x, 25 = 50x.
Dividing by 50, x = ^. Hence the less of the two numbers sought is £, and the
greater 24\.
(5. ) To find such a number that if 1 be subtracted from its double, and the remainder be
doubled, 2 subtracted, and the remainder divided by 4, the number resulting from
these operations shall be 1 less than the number sought.
Suppose the number to be =x', the double = 2z.
Subtracting 1, the remainder is 2x— 1 ; doubling this, we have 4x— 2.
Subtracting 2, the remainder is 4x — 4 ; dividing by 4 we have x—l, and this must
be 1 less than x, so that x— l=x — 1. But this is what is called an identical
equation, showing that x is indeterminate, or that any number whatever may be
substituted for it.
(6.) What sum is that, into how many equal parts is it divided, and what is the amount of
each part, wherein
The first part =100, and one tenth of the remainder ;
The second part = 200, and one tenth of the then remainder ;
The third part = 300, and one tenth of the then remainder ;
The fourth part =400, and one tenth of the then remainder ; and so on ?
Suppose the total sum =z. Then, since all the parts are equal, let each =x, by which
means the number of parts will be expressed by -. This being established, the solution is
as follows : —
Amount of each part.
Total sum.
z
Order of the parts.
First
Z— X
Second
z-2x
Third
z—3x
Fourth
z-4x
Fifth
z-5x
Sixth
•=100 +
Differences.
ioo-^«=o
^0
100-
and so on.
The differences in the last column are obtained by subtracting each part from that which
follows, and all the portions being equal, the differences should be =0 ; and as they are
expressed exactly alike, it will be sufficient to make one of them equal to nothing, and we
have the equation 100 -£^2 = 0. Multiplying by 10, we have 1000 -x -100 = 0, or
900 — a: = 0 ; consequently # = 900. From this, therefore, we know that each part is 900 ;
and taking any one of the equations in the third column, the first for example, it becomes,
by substituting the value of x, 900 = 1 00 + 5lll2?, whence the value of z is obtained ; for we
286 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
have 9000 = 1 000 + z - 1 00, or 9000 = 900 + z ; whence z = 8 1 00, and consequently ~ = 9 .
Hence the number 8100, and each part =900 and the number of the parts =9.
RESOLUTION OF TWO OR MORE EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST DEGREE.
825. It often occurs that we are obliged to introduce two or more unknown quantities
into algebraic calculations, and these are represented by the letters x, y, z. If the question
is determinate, we arrive at the same number of equations from whence to deduce the un-
known quantities. Considering only those equations which contain no powers of an un-
known quantity higher than the first, and no products of two or more unknown quantities,
it is evident that these equations will have the form az + by + cx = d.
826. Beginning with two equations, we will endeavour to find from them the values of
x and y ; and that the case may be considered in a general manner, let the two equations be
— I. ax + by=:C', and, II. fx + gy = h, in which a, 6, c, and/, g, h, are known numbers ; it is
required from these two equations to obtain the two unknown quantities x and y. The
most obvious way of proceeding is to determine from both equations the value of one of the
unknown quantities, x for example, and to consider the equality of the two values ; for
then we obtain an equation in which the unknown quantity y appears by itself, and may be
determined by the rules we have already given. Knowing y, we have only to substitute
its value in one of the quantities that express x.
827. According to this rule we obtain from the first equation x = c-=^, from the second
x = J^y, Stating these two values equal to one another, a new equation appears, —
c— by _h— gy
a f '
Multiplying by a, the product is c — by=aA~~?gy ; multiplying by/, the product is fc—fby
= ah— agy. Adding agy, we have fc —fby + agy = ah ; subtracting fc, there remains
—fby + agy = ah —fc ; or (ag — bf)y = ah —fc ; lastly, dividing by ag — bf, we have y = ^— -"rL
828. In order to substitute this value of y in one of those we have found of x, as in the
first, when x =c-=, we shall first have -&y=5±/; whence c-by=c. - «±
, and dividing ,*==|^.
829. To illustrate this methcd, let it be proposed to find two numbers whose sum may
be =15, and difference =7.
Let the greater number =x, and the less y ; we shall then have,
I. x+y = 15, and II. x—y=7.
The first equation gives x = 15— y, and the second x=7 +y ; whence there results the new
equation 15— y = 7 +y. So that 15 = 7 + 2y, 2y = 8, and y = 4 ; by which means we find
a: = 11. The less number, therefore, is 4, and the greater is 11.
830. When there are three unknown numbers, and as many equations, as, for example,
I. x + y— z = 8; II. x+z— y = 9; III. y + z — x=10; a value of x is to be deduced
from each : and from I. we have x = 8 + z — y ; from II., x=9+y— z; and from III. x=y
+ z — 10. Comparing them together, we have the following equations :
I. 8 + z—y = 9 + y—z. II. 8 + z— y=y + z— 10.
The first gives 2z— 2y = l ; the second, 2y = 18, or y = 9. Substitute this value of y in
2z — 2y = , and we have 2z — 18 = 1, and 2z = 19, so that z = 9%. We have, therefore, only
to determine x, which is found =8£. The letter z thus vanishes in the last equation, and
the value of y is immediately found ; otherwise we must have had two equations between
z and y to have been resolved by the preceding rule.
831. Suppose we had found the three following equations —
I. 3x + 5y — 4z = 25. II. 5x — 2y + 3z = 46. III. 3y + 5z — x = 62.
Deducing from each the value of x, we have
And comparing these three values together, and the third with the first, we have 3y + 5z
_62 = ^^±^?. Multiplying by 3, 9y + 15z-186 = 25-5y + 4z; so that 9y+15z = 211
— 5y + 4z, and 14y +112 = 211. Comparing the third with the second, we have 3y+5z
-62 = ^±^r~3z, or 46 + 2y-3z = 15y + 25z-310, which, reduced, is 356 = 13y+28z.
From these two new equations the value of y may be deduced.
I. 21 l=14y+llz; whence 14y = 211-llz, and y = ^=— .
II. 356 = 13y + 2S2 ; whence 13y=356 — 28z, and y=356~llz.
CHAP. I. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 287
These two values form the new equation 211~llg=356~28i?!, which becomes 2743 — 143*
= 4984 — 392z, or 249z = 2241 ; whence z = 9. This value being substituted in one of the
two equations of y and z, we find y = 8, and by a similar substitution in one of the three
values of x, x = 1.
832. If more than three unknown quantities are to be determined, and as many equa-
tions to be resolved, the same manner must be pursued ; but the calculations are often
teuious ; and it is to be observed that in each particular case means r$ay be resorted to for
facilitating the resolution. These consist in introducing, besides the principal unknown
quantities, some new one, arbitrarily assumed ; such, for instance, as the sum of all the rest.
But practice only can teach this ; and the architect is in this, and remaining pages of this
chapter, as much informed on the subject as his practice is likely ever to require.
RESOLUTION OF PURE QUADRATIC EQUATIONS.
833. If an equation contains the square or second power of the unknown quantity with-
out any of the higher powers, it is said to be of the second degree. An equation contain-
ing the third power of the unknown quantity belongs to cubic equations, and its resolu-
tion requires particular rules. There are only three kinds of terms in an equation of the
second decree.
I. The terms which do not contain the unknown quantity at all, or which contain
only known numbers.
II. The terms wherein only the first power of the unknown quantity is found.
III. The terms which contain the square, or second power of the unknown quantity.
Thus, x signifying an unknown quantity, and the letters a, b, c, d, &c. being known num-
bers, the terms of the first kind will have the form a, those of the second kind will have
the form bx, and those of the third kind will have the form cxx.
834. It has been already seen that two or more terms of the same kind may be united
together and considered as a single term; thus the formula axx—bxx + cxx may be con-
sidered as a single term if thus represented (a — b + c)xx; since, in fact, (a — 6 + c) is a
known quantity. When such terms are found on both sides the sign =, we have seen
they may be brought to one side, and then reduced to a single term. For example, in the
equation
2xx—3x + 4 = 5xx — 8x + 11 ;
We first subtract 2xx, and the remainder is
— 3x + 4 = Sxx — 8x + 11.
Then adding 8x, we have
Lastly, subtracting 11, the remainder is 3xx = 5x — 7.
835. All the terms may also be brought to one side of the sign = , leaving only 0 on the
other. Thus, the above equation, remembering to change the signs, will assume this form,
3xx— 5x + 7 = 0. Hence, the following general formula represents all equations of the
second degree —
axx ±bx± c=0,
wherein the sign ± is read plus or minus, and shows that the terms to which it is prefixed
may be positive or negative. To this formula all quadratic equations may be reduced.
Suppose, for instance, the equation
ax+b _ ex+f
cx+d~~gx+h'
The fractions must be first destroyed. Multiplying for this purpose by ex + d, we have
eix + b = — r+Cg*+j~- ; then, by gx + h, we have agxx + bgx + ahx + bh = cexx + cfx f edx +fd,
an equation of the second degree, and one which may be reduced to the three following
terms, which are transposed by arrangement in the usual manner : _
0 = agxx + bgx + bh
— cexx + ahx— fd
-cfx
-edx.
This equation is, perhaps, more clearly exhibited in the following form : _
0 = (ag — ce}xx + (bg + ah — cf— ed)x + bh —fd.
83G. Equations of the second degree are called complete when the three kinds of terms are
found in them, and their resolution is more difficult ; on which account we shall first con-
ider those in which one of the terms is wanting. If the term xx be not found in the
equation, it is not a quadratic, but belongs to those whereof we have already treated. If
the term containing known numbers only were wanting, the equation would have the form
axx±bx = 0, which, being divisible by x, may be reduced to ax±b = Q, which, also, is a
simple equation, not belonging to the present class.
288 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
837. When the middle term which contains the first power of x is wanting, the equa-
tion assumes the form axx±c=0, or axx= Tc, as the sign of c is positive or negative.
Such an equation is called a pure equation of the second degree, since its resolution is with-
out difficulty, for we have only to divide by a, which gives ##=*; and, taking the square
root of both sides, we have x= */c-, which resolves the equation.
838. Three cases are however to be considered ; I. when c- is a square number (whereof,
therefore, the root can be assigned) we obtain for the value of a: a rational number, either
integer or fractional. Thus, xx= 144 gives z=12; and xx=^ gives x=\. II. When
£ is not a square, in which case the sign V must be used. If, for example, xx= v/12,
the value whereof may be determined by approximation, as heretofore shown. III. When
£ becomes a negative number, then the value of x is altogether impossible and imaginary ;
this result, indeed, proves the question, that such an equation is in itself impossible.
839. It must be here observed, that whenever the extraction of the square root is re-
quired the root has two values, the one negative, the other positive. Take the equation
xx = 49, the value of x is as well —7 as +7, which is expressed by ± 7. Hence all these
questions admit of a double answer ; but it will easily be perceived that there are many
cases in which a negative value cannot exist.
840. In such equations as axx = bx, where the known quantity c is wanting, two values
of x may exist, though dividing by x we only find one. Thus, in the equation xx=3x,
wherein a value of x is required, such that xx may become = 3x. This is done by suppos-
ing ar = 3, a value found by dividing the equation by x. Besides this value, however, there
is another equally satisfactory, namely, x=0, for then xx = 0, and 3x=0. Thus equations
of the second degree admit of two solutions, whilst simple equations admit only of one.
841 . We here submit three examples for the illustration of pure equations of the second
degree.
I. Find a number the half whereof multiplied by the third produces 24.
Let the number =x. \x multiplied by \x must produce 24. Therefore ^xx = 24.
Multiplying by 6 we have xx = 1 44, and the root extracted gives x = ± 1 2. We put
±12; for if x= +12, we have \x =6 and ^x = 4, and the product of these quantities is
24. If x = — 12, we have \x = — 6, and ^x = — 4 ; the product of which is likewise 24.
II. Find a number such that by adding 5 to it and subtracting 5 from it the product
of the sum by the difference would be 96.
Let the number be x. Then x + 5 multiplied by x — 5 must give 96. Therefore
a-*- 25 = 96.
Adding 25 we have ax =121, and extracting the root we have a: = 11.
Thus x + 5 = 16, and ar-5 = 6, and lastly, 6 x 16 = 96.
III. Find a number such that by adding it to 10 and subtracting it from 10 the sum
multiplied by the remainder or difference will give 51.
Let the number =x. Then 10 + ar multiplied by 10 — a: must make 51. So that
1OO— xx = 51.
Adding xx, and subtracting 51, we have a:ar=49 ; the square whereof gives x = 7.
RESOLUTION OF MIXED EQUATIONS OF THE SECOND DEGREE.
842. If three kinds of terms are found in an equation of the second degree, namely, —
I. That which contains the square of the unknown quantity, as axx ; II. That in which
the unknown quantity is only known in the first power, as bx; III. The kind of terms
composed of known quantities only, — such an equation is said to be mixed or complete ;
since two or more terms of the same kind may be brought into one, and all the terms may
be brought to one side of the sign =. The general form of a mixed equation of the second
degree will be
And we now propose to show how the value of x may be derived from such an equation ;
which may be done in two ways.
843. Such an equation may be by division reduced to such a form that the first term
may contain only the square xx of the unknown quantity x. Leaving the second term on
the same side with x, we will transpose the known term to the other side of the sign =.
Thus the equation assumes the form xx±px= ± q, in which p and q represent any known
numbers, positive or negative ; and all we have to do is to find the true value of x. Now
if xx+px were a real square, no difficulty would attend the solution; because it would
only be required to take the square root on both sides. It is, however, evident that xx+px
cannot be a square ; for we have already seen that if a root consists of two terms, for
example x + n, its square must contain three terms, namely, twice the product of the two
parts, besides the square of each part ; that is, the square of x + n is xx + 2nx + nn. Having,
CHAP. I. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 289
then, already on one side xx + px, we may consider xx as the square of the first part of the
root, and in this case px must represent twice the product of the first part of the root by the
second part, whence the second part must be £p ; and indeed the square of x + \p is found
to be xx + px + \pp. Now this last being a real square, which has for its root x -r ip, if we
resume the equation xx+px = q, we have only to add \pp to both sides, and we obtain
xx+px + \pp = q + \ppi the first side being a square and the other containing only known
quantities. Taking, therefore, the square root of both sides, we find x + ^p = V(\pp + q) ;
and subtracting ±p, we obtain a-= _ 1 p + V\pp + q ', and as every square root is positive or
negative, we shall have for x two values, thus expressed —
This formula contains the rule whereby all quadratic equations may be resolved, and
it should be well remembered, so that it may not be necessary to repeat it. The equation
may be always arranged in such a manner that the pure square xx may be found on one
side, and the above equation have the form xx = — px + q, where it is evident that x = — £ ±
844. The general rule deduced, therefore, to resolve the equation xx= — px + q, depends
upon the consideration that the unknown quantity x is equal to half the coefficient or mul-
tiplier of x on the other side of the equation, plus or minus the square root of the square
of this number, and the known quantity which forms the third term of the equation.
845. Thus, having the equation xx = 6x + 7, we should immediately say that x = 3 ±
v/9 + 7 = 3±4, when we have for values of x, I. x =7 ; II. a: =—1. So, also, the equa-
tion xx = 10x— 9 would give x = 5± V25 — 9 = 5±4', that is, the two values of x are 9
and 1 . The rule will be better understood by the arrangement under the following cases : —
I. Let p be an even number, and the equation such that xx = 2px + q, we shall, in that
case, have x =p ± */pp + q-
II. Let p be an odd number, and the equation xx=px + q; we shall here have
x=p± \/\pp + q> and since ^pp + q—^-r- -j we may extract the square root of the
denominator, and write x = ip± ^E±^L=P± V^+4?.
III. Lastly, if p be a fraction, the equation may be resolved in the following manner ;
Let it be axx = bx + c, or xx = '^' + ^l' an(^ we shall have by the rule x =
+ V Now SS + HTSJ^ the denominator of which is a square, so
The other method of resolving mixed quadratic equations is to transform them into pure
equations, which is effected by substitution ; thus, in the equation xx =px + q, we write
another unknown quantity y, instead of the unknown quantity x, such that x=y + ±p, by
which, when y is found, the value of x may be readily determined.
846. Making this substitution of y + ^p instead of x, we have xx—yy +py + \pp, and
px=py + ^pp; hence our equation becomes yy+py + \ PP=py + \PP + q, which is first re-
duced by subtractingpy to yy + \pp = \pp + q ', and then by subtracting \pp to yy~\pp + q-
This is a pure quadratic equation, which directly gives y = ± V\pp + q- And since
x=y + ip, we have x — \p ± V\pp + q as before. We shall now illustrate the rule by some
examples.
I. What are those two numbers, one whereof exceeds the other by 6, and whose product
is 91?
If the less be =x, the other is x + 6, and their product xx + 6x = 9l.
Subtracting 6x, the remainder is xx = 91 — 6x, and the rule gives
ar= — 3± <v/9 + 91 = — 3 ±10; so that or =7, and x= — 13.
The question admits of two solutions: by one, the less number # = 7, and the greater
by the other, the less number x = — 1 3, and the greater x + 6 = — 7.
II. Find a number from whose square if 9 be taken, the remainder is a number as many
units greater than 100 as the number sought is less than 23.
Let the number sought — x. We know that xx — 9 exceeds 100 by xx— 109, and since
x is less than 23 by 23 — x, we have the equation xx— 109 = 23 — x.
Wherefore xx= -x+ 132, and by the rule x= -\± v^+132-£± */*&'= -i± 23.
So that:r = ll, and x= — 12.
If, then, a positive number be required, the number is 1 1 , the square of which minus 9 is
112, and, consequently, greater than 1OO by 12, in the same manner as 11 is less than
23 by 12.
III. To find two numbers in a double ratio to each other, such that if we add their sum
to their product we may obtain 90.
290 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II,
Let one of the numbers = x. Then the other will be = 2.r, their product also = 2xx.
If we add to this 3x, or their sum, the new sum should make 90.
So that 2xx + 3x = 90, 2xx = 90-3x, and xx^ — 5 + 45 ; whence we obtain
consequently x =6, or — 7|.
IV. To find such a number that if its half be multiplied by its third, and to the product
half the number required be added, the result will be 30.
Let the number = ar. Its half multiplied by its third will make Ixx, so that lxx +
I* = 30.
Multiply by 6, and we obtain xx + 3x = 1 80, or xx = — 3x + 1 80, which gives
#=-3± A/f+180=-f±HJ;
consequently x is either =12, or —15.
PURE EQUATIONS OF THE THIRD DEGREE.
847. An equation of the third degree is pure when the cube of the unknown quantity
is equal to a known quantity, and neither the square of the unknown quantity nor the
unknown quantity itself is found in the equation.
#3 = 125 ; or, more generally, x3=a, #3 = g are such equations.
The method of deducing the value of x from such an equation is obvious, for we have
only to extract the cube root on both sides. Thus the equation a;3 = 125 gives x=5 ; the
equation x^ = a gives x = \/a; and the equation .T3 = | gives x= $/%, or *"*fcj- To re-
solve such equations it is only necessary to know how to extract the cube root of a given
number. In this way, however, we obtain only one value for x ; but as every equation of
the second degree has two values, we have reason to suspect that an equation of the third
degree has also more than one value. To investigate this is the object of what follows.
848. Let us, then, take the example ar3 = 8 to find from it the numbers whose cube =8.
As x = 2 is such a number, a:3 — 8=0, and must be divisible by x — 2. The division is as
follows : —
- 2xx
2xx-8
2xx-4x
4or-8
4x-8
Hence it follows that the equation #3 — 8=0 may be represented by these factors, —
(x - 2) + (xx + 2x + 4) =0.
The question then is, what number is to be substituted for x in order that a:3 = 8, or
that a?3 — 8 = 0; and it is manifest that the condition is answered by supposing the product
just found to be equal to 0. This, however, occurs not only when the first factor x — 2 = 0,
whence we have x = 2; but also when the second factor xx + 2x + 4 = 0. We will there-
fore make xx + 2x + 4 = 0, and we shall have xx= — 2x — 4; and thence x=— 1± V — 3.
From which \re learn that besides the case in which x = 2, which corresponds to the
equation x3 = 8, there are also two other values of x whose cubes are also 8. These are —
I. x=— l + <v/ — 3; and, II. x= — 1 — A/ — 3; which will be evident from cubing them
Thus —
-1 + A/-3 _l_^/_3
-1 + A/-3 _l_y_3
-A/-3-3 +V-3-3
2— 2V — 3 square — 2 + 2V -3
l + V-3 -I- V-3
2+2V-3 2-2V-3
-2V-3 + 6 +2^-3+6
8 cube 8 cube
These values, it is true, are imaginary or impossible, yet they must not be neglected ; and,
indeed, what has been said applies to every cubic equation, such as .r3=«; namely, that
besides the value x= %/a we shall always find two other values. To abridge the calcu-
CHAP. I. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 291
lation, let us suppose ^a = c, so that a=cs; the equation will then assume this form,
#3_c3=0, which will be divisible by x — c, as under.
x — c) x3 — c3 (TX + ex + cc
Consequently the equation in question may be represented by the product (a:— c) x
( xx + cx + cc) = 0, which, in fact, is =0, not only when x — c = 0, or x = c, but also when
0. This expression contains two values of x, inasmuch as it gives xx —
-cx-cc, and *= _| ± ^/-f-cc, or »==£**=* that is, x==*±-==-=
Now, c having been substituted for -v^a, we conclude that every equation of the third
degree of the form x3=a furnishes three values of x, expressed thus : —
I. x=Va. II. *=-=x &a. III. x=-=x Va.
This shows that every cube root has three different values, but that one only is real, and
the other two impossible : and this is the more remarkable, since every square root has two
values ; and if we were to pursue the subject, (which is not our intention, since the sub-
ject is unnecessary for the architect, but if he wishes he must refer to books on the subject,)
we should find that every biquadratic root has four different values, and so on with fifth
roots, &c. In ordinary calculations only the first of those values is employed, the other
two being imaginary. We subjoin some examples : —
I. To find a number whose square multiplied by its fourth part shall produce 432.
Let the number =x; then the product of xx multiplied by \x must = 432 : that is,
^3 = 432, and *s = l 728.
By extracting the cube root we have x = 12. The number sought, then, is 12 for its
square multiplied by its fourth part, or by 3 = 432.
1 1. To find a number whose fourth power divided by its half, with 1 4^ added to the pro-
duct, is 100.
Let the number =x ; its fourth power will be x4.
Dividing by the half, or \x, we have 2#3 ; and adding to that 14^, the sum must be 100.
We have, therefore, 2*3 + 14^ = 100; subtracting 14^ the remainder is 2x3=^p
Dividing by 2 we have x3=^-, and extracting the cube root we find x = \.
RESOLUTION OF COMPLETE EQUATIONS OF THE THIRD DEGREE.
849. An equation of the third degree is said to be complete when besides the cube of the
unknown quantity it contains the unknown quantity itself and its square ; so that the
general formula for these equations, bringing all the terms to one side, is,
ax3 ± Ix* ±cx± d = 0.
850. We here propose to show the method of deriving from such equations the values of
x, which are also called the roots of the equation. There is no doubt, as we have seen in
the last section, that such an equation has three roots, as in respect of pure equations of the
same degree.
851. First, then, considering the equation x3 — 6xx+ liar — 6 = 0 ; since an equation of
the second degree may be considered as the product of two factors, an equation of the third
degree may be represented by the product of three factors, which in the present instance
are (x— 1) x (x — 2) x (x — 3)=0 ; for by actually multiplying them we obtain the given
equation. Thus, (x— 1) x (x — 2) gives xx — 3x + 2, and this multiplied by (a:— 3) gives
a:3 — 6xx+ llx — 6, which are given quantities, and =0. This happens when the product
(a* — 1 ) x (x — 2) x (ar — 3) becomes nothing ; and as it is sufficient for this purpose that one
of the factors =0, three different cases may give this result; namely, when x— 1=0, or
x = l ; secondly, when x — 2 = O, or, x = 2; and lastly, when x — 3=0, or, x = 3. If any
number whatever besides one of the above three were substituted for x none of the factors
would become = 0, and consequently the product would no longer = 0, which proves that
the equation can have no other root than those three. If in every other case three factors
of such an equation could be assigned in the same manner, we should immediately have
three roots. Let us, then, consider more generally these three factors, x—p, x — g, .r — r.
Seeking their product, the first multiplied by the second gives xx — (p + q)x +pq, and this
U 2
292 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
product multiplied by x — r makes ar3 _ (p + g + r) xx + ( pq + pr + qr ) x -pqr. If this for-
mula must become =0, it may happen in three cases: first, when x— p = 0 or x=p ;
second, when x — q = 0, or x = q ; third, when x — r = 0, or x = r. Let us then represent
the quantity found by the equation xs — axx + bx — c = 0. That its three roots may be,
I. x=p-, II. # = </; III. or = r, it is evident we must have, 1st. a=p + q + r; 2d. b=pq +
pr + qr; and 3d. c—pqr; from which we find that the second term contains the sum of the
three roots ; that the third term contains the sum of the products of the roots taken two by
two ; and lastly, that the fourth term consists of the product of all the three roots multiplied
together. From this last property is deduced the truth, that an equation of the third
degree can have no other rational roots than the divisors of the last term, for that term
being the product of the three roots must be divisible by each of them. Hence, to find a
root by trial, we immediately see what numbers we are to choose.
852. Let us, for instance, consider the equation x3 = x + 6, or a-3 — x — 6 = 0. As this
equation can have no other rational roots but numbers which are factors of the last term 6,
we have only the numbers 1 , 2, 3, 6 to try with, the result whereof will be as follows : —
I. If x = 1 , we have 1 — 1 — 6 = — 6.
II. If x = 2, we have 8 — 2 — 6 = 0.
III. If:r = 3, we have 27-3-6 = 18.
IV. If x = 6, we have 216 — 6 — 6 = 204.
From which we see that x = 2 is one of the roots of the given equation ; and it will now be
easy to find the other two ; for or = 2 being one of the roots, x — 2 is a factor of the equation,
and the other factor is to be sought by means of division, as follows : —
2xx — x —
2xx — 4x
3x —
853. Since, then, the formula is represented by the product {x — 2) x {xx + 2x+ 3), it will
become = 0 as well when x — 2 = 0 as when xx + 2x + 3 = 0. This last factor gives xx = — 2x
— 3; and consequently x= — 1 ± V—2. These are the other two roots of the equation,
and they are evidently impossible or imaginary.
854. The operation explained is, however, only applicable when the first term x^ is mul-
tiplied by 1, the other terms of the equation having integer coefficients. When this is not
the case, a mode must be adopted by which the equation is transformed into another having
the condition required, after which the trial mentioned may be made.
855. Let us, for instance, take the equation x$ — 3xx + *-jx — f = 0. As there are four
parts in it, let us make # = 3 '•> we shall tnen have ^- — -^ + ~]/— 2 = 0, and multiplying by
8 we obtain the equation y3 — 6yy + lly — 6=0 ; the roots of which are, as we have already
seen, y = l, y = 2, y = 3; whence in the given equation we have, I. x=r,', II. x=l;
III. * = '.
Let us take an equation in which the coefficient of the first term is a whole number,
different from 1, and whose last term is 1 : for instance, 6x3 — \}Xx + 6x— 1 =0. Di-
viding by 6 we have x^ — ^xx + x — g = 0. The equation may be cleared of fractions by
the method just shown. First, supposing x =^, we shall have F^g— -gff^ + fi~ e = 0 > an(*
multiplying by 216 the equation becomes y3—llyy + 36y — 36 = 0. It would be tedious
to try all the divisors of the number 36, and as the last term of the original equation is 1 ,
it is better, in this equation, to suppose ar = z, for we shall then have -3 — -2+ — 1 =0.
Transposing the terms z3 — 6zz+ llz — 6=0, the roots are here z= 1, z = 2, z = 3, whence
in our equation x= 1, x = \, x = \.
856. It has been heretofore shown that to have all the roots in positive numbers the
signs plus and minus must succeed each other alternately ; by this means, the equation takes
the form a3 — axx + bx— c=0 ; the signs changing as many times as there are positive roots.
Had the three roots been negative, and the three factors x f p, x + q, x + r had been multi-
plied together, all the terms would have had the sign plus, and the form of the equation
would have been a?3 + axx + bx + c = 0, wherein the same signs follow each other three times,
that is, the number of the negative roots.
857. From this we may learn that as often as the signs change the equation has positive
roots, and when the same signs follow each other the equation has negative roots ; and this
teaches us whether the divisors of the last term are to be taken affirmatively or negatively,
when we wish to make the trial that has been mentioned.
CHAP. I. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 293
In order to illustrate this, take the equation *3 + xx—34x + 56 = 0, wherein the signs
change twice and the same sign occurs only once. We see thus that the equation has
two positive roots and one negative root ; and as the roots must be divisors of the last
term 56, they must be included in the numbers ± 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 14, 28, 56.
858. Let us, then, make # = 2, and then 8 + 4 — 68 + 56 = 0; whence it would appear
that d' = 2 is a positive root, and therefore that a,' — 2 is a divisor of the equation whereby the
other two roots ma.y easily be found ; for, dividing by x — 2, we have
x — 2) *3 + xx — 34* + 56 (xx + 3x — 28
*3_ 2xx
3** -34* + 56
3xx- 6x
— 28x + 56
-28* + 56
0
Making this quotient xx+ 3* — 28 =0, we find the other two roots, which will be
x=— f + A/| + 28= — | + y, that is, x = 4 or *= — 7 (see Subsect. 843); and considering the
root beforehand, x = 2, we perceive that the equation has two positive roots and one nega-
tive. We subjoin some examples.
(I.) What numbers are those whose difference is 12, and whose product multiplied by
their sum makes 14560?
Let the less of the two numbers =x. The greater will be x + I 2.
Their product equal xx + 12*, multiplied by the sum 2* +12, gives 2z*+36xx->- 144*
= 14560.
Divide by 2, and we have x3 + 18xx + 72* = 7280.
The last term 7280 is too great to make trial of all the divisors, and it is divisible by 8,
wherefore we shall make x = 2y ; because the new equation 8y3 + 72yy + 144y = 7280,
after the substitution, being divided by 8, becomes y3 + 9yy + 18y = 910.
To solve this, we only need try the divisors 1, 2, 5, 7, 10, 13, &c. of the number 910.
Now it is evident that the first three are too small. Begin, therefore, by supposing
y = 7, and we find it is one of the roots, for the substitution gives 343 + 441
+ 1 26 = 910. It follows, then, that x = 14, and the other roots are found by dividing
y3 + 9yy + 18y— 910 by y — 7, as follows : —
y—
\6yy-\\2y
I30y — 910
130^-910
0
Supposing this quotient yy + I6y + 130 = 0, we have yy = — \6y — 130, and thence y = — 8 ±
^X — 66, which proves that the other two roots are impossible. The numbers sought,
therefore, are 14 and 26, the product of which, 364, multiplied by their sum, 40, gives
14560.
(II.) What numbers are those whose difference may be 18, and their sum multiplied
by the difference of their cubes may produce the number 275184?
Let the lesser number =*. Then the greater will be *+ 18.
The cube of the first will be = *3, and the cube of the second =*3 + 54** + 972* +
5832.
The difference of the cubes =54** + 972* + 5832 = 54 (**+ 18*+ 108) multiplied by
the sum 2*+ 18, or 2 (* + 9), gives the product 108 (*3 + 27**+ 270* + 972) = 275 184.
Dividing by 108, we have *3 + 27** + 270* + 972 = 2548, or *3 + 27** + 270*= 1576.
The divisors of 1576 are 1, 2, 4, 8, &c. Let us try * = 4, and we shall find it will
satisfy the terms of the equation.
It remains then to divide by a- — 4 to find the other two roots. The quotient will be
found to be xx + 31* + 394 ; making, therefore, xx= — Six— 394, we find *= — |' ±
V 95! — y^.5} that is, two imaginary roots.
The numbers sought, therefore, are 4 and 22.
(III.) What numbers are those whose difference is 12, and the product of this difference
by the sum of their cubes is 102144?
Let the lesser number =* ; the greater will be *+ 12.
The cube of the first is =x$ ; the cube of the second is x3 + 36xx + 432*+ 1728.
U 3
294 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
The product of the sum of these cubes by the difference 12, is 12(2x3 + 36xx+ 432.T +
1728) = 102144.
Dividing by 12 and 2, we have #3 + 1 8xx + 21 6x + 864 = 4256, or x* + I8xx+2l6x=
3392 = 8x8 x53.
Suppose x = 2y, and substituting and dividing by 8, we have y3 + 9yy + 54y =8 x 53 =
424.
The divisors of 424 are 1, 2, 4, 8, 53, &c. 1 and 2 are too small ; but making y = 4
we find 64+ 144 + 216=424 ; so that y = 4 and x=8, whence we conclude that the
two numbers sought are 8 and 20.
859. We shall here close our brief explanation of the principal rules of algebra : they
are to be considered more in the light of a preparation for reading and understanding the
analytical reasoning and formula? that we shall hereafter have to use, than as intended to per-
fect the architectural student in that whereof they treat. He that desires a more intimate
acquaintance with the analytical process will of course apply himself to works expressly on
the subject. Nevertheless our work could not have been considered complete without that
which we have supplied.
860. It remains for us to give, under this chapter, a few applications of the use ot
decimals, whose nature has already been explained, and to close it with an explanation ol
duodecimals and the mode of working ; to which we now proceed.
861. In subsect. 783. et seq. the mode of converting vulgar into decimal fractions has
been explained. We shall here more particularly apply them to the general subject of our
work. Great facilities arise from their application, though there be many fractions of com-
mon occurrence which cannot be expressed in decimals without a great number of figures.
The following table will show the mode of expressing in decimals the fractional parts of a
foot, and will further illustrate the mode of writing down numbers in decimals : —
Feet. Inches.
1 1 in vulgar fractions 1^, in decimal fractions 1 '083333
5 2 5£ 5-166666
4 3 4\ 4-25
O 4 | 0-333333
3 5 3^ 3-416666
23 6 23£ 23-5
548 7 548-^ 548-583333
We may here repeat, that the value of a decimal fraction is not altered by any ciphers on
its right hand ; thus, -2500 is of the same value as -25, but every cipher added between
the number and the decimal point decreases the value of the decimal ten times : thus '25 = \ ;
•025 = ^; and -0025=^. The mode of finding the value of recurring decimals has
already been given (subsect. 793. ) ; we shall, therefore, proceed to the reduction of a decimal
to its corresponding value in inferior denominations. For effecting this, the decimal must
be multiplied by the number of parts its integer contains of the denomination to which
it is to be reduced, and as many figures pointed off to the left in the product as there are
places in the decimal.
862. Thus, to find the inches and parts equivalent to -5417 of a foot. Remembering
that a foot contains 1 2 inches, we have —
•5417
12
6-5004 inches; and 1 inch consisting of
12 parts
6-O048 parts; hence -5417 is equal to 6 inches, and 6-0048 parts.
Again, to find the value in shillings and pence of -525 of a pound sterling, we have —
•525
20 shillings in a pound
10-500
12
6 '000; that is, 10 shillings and 6 pence.
Reciprocally, to find what decimal of a foot are 6 inches 6 -0048, we have, first, —
Parts in an inch, 12)6-0048
Parts in a foot, 1 2) 6 -5O04
•5417, the decimal required.
CHAP. I. ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 295
Again, to find what decimal of a pound sterling are ten shillings and sixpence : here we
have —
Pence in a shilling 12) 6'0
Shillings in a pound 20)10-5
•525, the decimal required.
863. The addition of decimal fractions is performed by placing the different numbers with
the points directly under each other, and then the addition is made as in whole numbers,
observing to place the point in the sum under its place in the numbers.
Example. — Add the numbers 3-5675, 21 -375, and 760-00875 together.
3-5675
21 -375
760-00875.
784-95125
864. The subtraction of decimal fractions is performed by placing the fractions with the
points directly under each other, and subtracting as in whole numbers.
Example. — From 98-735 take 12-96785.
98-735
12-96785
85-76715
865. The multiplication of decimal fractions is performed as in integers, taking care to
place the decimal point in the product to the left of as many decimals as are contained in
both factors. But if there be not as many places in the product as are contained in
both factors, ciphers must be placed to the left to make up the deficiency.
Example. — Multiply 7 -335 by 7 -5.
7-335
7-5
36675
51345
55-0125
In this case there are three decimal places in the multiplicand, and one in the multiplier.
Four decimals must therefore be cut off from the right.
Example. — Multiply -07325 by -5235.
•07325
•5235
36625
21975
14650
36625
•038346375
Here, because there are five places of decimals in the multiplicand and four in the multi-
plier, making, in all, nine places, and only eight places come from the multiplication, we
must prefix a cipher to make up the nine places.
866. The division of decimal fractions is performed as in whole numbers, pointing off
from the right of the quotient as many figures for decimals as the dividend has more
decimal places than the divisor. If the quotient have not so many figures as the decimals
in the dividend exceed those in the divisor, ciphers must be prefixed to the left to make
up the deficiency before the point be placed.
Example. — Divide 7 -375 by 5-25.
5-25)7-3750000(1 -40476
525
2125
2100
2500
2100
4000
3675
3250
3150
100
U 4
296 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
Now the dividend with the ciphers annexed has seven places of decimals, and the divisor
only two ; we must therefore cut off five places from the right hand for the decimals of the
quotient.
Example. — Divide -5675 by 72-5.
72 -5) -5675000 ( O07827
5075
6000
5800
2000
1450
425
867. The dividend has, with the ciphers that have been annexed, seven places of deci-
mals, and the divisor only one place ; hence we cut off from the right six places for the
decimal of the quotient. But on examination it is found that there are only four signifi-
cant figures obtained ; two ciphers must, therefore, be prefixed to the quotient.
DUODECIMALS.
868. Duodecimals are a series of denominations beginning with feet, wherein every inch
in the lower denomination makes twelve in that next above it, and they form a series of
fractions, whereof the denominations are understood, but not expressed. This method is
chiefly in use among measurers of artificers' works, for computing the contents of work.
The dimensions are taken in feet, inches, and twelfths of an inch, but not nearer, except in
works of the greatest nicety. Feet and inches are marked with their initial letters, but
twelfths or seconds by a double accent, thus 2", and thirds by a triple accent, thus 5"'.
869. To multiply duodecimals together, write down the two dimensions so to be multi-
plied in such way that the place of feet may stand under the last place of the multi-
plicand ; begin with the right hand denomination of the multiplier, and multiply it by
every denomination of the multiplicand, throwing the twelve out of every product, and
carrying as many units as there are twelves to the next. Placing the remainders, if any,
under the multiplier, so that the like parts in the product may be under like parts of the
multiplicand, proceed with every successive figure of the multiplier towards the left, in the
same manner, always placing the first figure of the product under the multiplier. Then
the sum of these partial products will be the whole product. In duodecimals there will be
as many denominations below feet as in both the factors taken together.
Example 1. — Multiply 7 ft. 5 in. by 3 ft. 4 in.
7 : 5
24 : 8
Example 2 Multiply 24 ft. 8 in. 8" by 3 ft. 7 in.
24:8 8
3: 7
14: 5
74 : 2
4
8
0: 8
88 : 7 0 ; 8
870. In the first example there is only one place of duodecimals in each factor ; there
are therefore two places in the product. In the second example there are two places of
duodecimals in the multiplicand and one in the multiplier, which make, together, three ;
there are therefore three denominations in the product. This method of placing the
denominations of the factors gives the correct places of the product at once ; since like
parts of the product stand under like parts of the multiplicand. It also shows the affinity
between duodecimals, decimals, and every series or scale of denominations whereof any
number divided by the radix of the scale makes one of the next towards the left hand.
The consideration is, moreover, useful in discovering readily the kind of product arising
from the multiplication of any two single denominations together.
871. When the number of feet runs very high in the factors, it will be much better to
write down the product of each multiplication, without casting out the twelve, and add
CHAP. I.
ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA.
297
together those of each denomination beginning on the right, and divide by 1 2, to carry to
the next higher place, then add these, and so on, as often as there are places in the whole
product.
Example Multiply 262ft. 5 in. by 54ft. Sin.
262 : 5
54 : 8
1048
13100
197 =
2099 : 4
: 20
; 250
2369
14345
5 : 4
Thus, under inches, the products being set down and added, they amount to 2369,
which, divided by twelve, gives 197 to carry to the place of feet, and 5 remainder. Then
adding the feet together with the quantity carried, it gives the whole number of feet ; while
the operation is extremely simple and free from the troubles of either side operations or
useless stress on the memory.
872. The division of the foot into 1 2 parts renders the application of the rules of practice
very valuable in the computation of duodecimals. The practical rule is to set down the
two dimensions one under the other, that is, feet under feet and inches under inches,
and multiply each term in the multiplicand by the feet in the multiplier, beginning at the
lowest ; and, if the numbers be large, put down the inches without carrying 1 for every 1 2
from inches to feet. Then, instead of multiplying by the inches, take such aliquot parts of
the multiplicand as the inches are of a foot ; after which add the lines together, carrying
1 for every 12 inches.
Example 1 Multiply 7ft. 5 in. by 3ft. 4 in.
Example 2.-
I in. = £.
7
5
3
4
j_
22
3
2
5 : 8
24
8 : 8
Multiply
262 ft. 5 in. by 54
ft. Sin.
8 = §
262
5
54
8
1048 :
270
1310
87
5 : 8
87
5 : 8
12
14345 : 5 : 4
The same examples have been used to show the relative advantage of the two methods.
873. The abridgment of the labours of practical men is always a matter of importance —
being identical with the saving of time which is lost in calculation, and which with the
architect is of the utmost importance, when it is recollected what multifarious duties he
has to discharge. Hence we doubt not that the following table of squares, cubes, and
roots of numbers, up to 1000, will be most acceptable to him. An inspection of the table
will at once instruct him in the method of using it. The first column shows the number,
the second the square of such number, the third exhibits its cube. In the fourth column
is found the square root of the number, and in the fifth its cube root.
Thus, looking to the number 61 in the first column, we find its square to be 3721, its
cube 226981, its square root 7 -8102497, and its cube root 3 '936497.
Again, taking the number 784, we find its square to be 613089, its cube 481890304, its
square root 28, and its cube root 9-220872. We presume that we need not further enlarge
on instructions on its use.
298
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
No.
Square.
Cube.
Square Root.
CubeRoot.
No.
Square.
Cube.
Square Root.
CubeRoot.
1
1
1
1-0
1-0
64
4096
262144
8-0
4-0
2
4
8
1-4142136
1 -259921
65
4225
274625
8-0622577
4-020726
3
9
27
1 -7320508
1 -442250
66
4356
287496
8 '1240384
4-041240
4
16
64
2-0
1 -587401
67
4489
300763
8-1853528
4-061548
5
25
125
2-2360680
1 -709976
68
4624
314432
8-2462113
4-081656
6
36
216
2-4494897
1-817121
69
4761
328509
8-3066239
4-101566
7
49
343
2-6457513
1-912933
70
4900
343000
8-3666003
4-121285
8
64
512
2-8284271
2-0
71
5041
357911
8-4261498
4-140818
9
81
729
3-0
2-080084
72
5184
373248
8-4852814
4-160168
10
100
1000
3-1622777
2-154435
73
5329
389017
8-5440037
4-179339
11
121
1331
3-3166248
2-223980
74
5476
405224
8-6023253
4-198336
12
144
1728
3-4641016
2-289428
75
5625
421875
8-6602540
4-217163
13
169
2197
3-6055513
2-351335
76
5776
438976
8-7177979
4-235824
14
196
2744
3-7416574
2-410142
77
5929
456533
8-7749644
4-254321
15
225
3375
3-8729833
2-466212
78
6084
474552
8-8317609
4-272659
16
256
4096
4-0
2-519842
79
6241
493039
8-8881944
4-290841
17
289
4913
4-1231056
2-57 J 282
80
6400
512000
8-9442719
4-308870
18
324
5832
4-2426407
2-620741
81
6561
531441
9-0
4-326749
19
361
6859
4-3588989
2-668402
82
6724
551368
9-0553851
4-344481
20
400
8000
4-4721360
2-714418
83
6889
571787
9-1104336
4-362071
21
441
9261
4-5825757
2-758923
84
7056
592704
9-1651514
4-379519
22
484
10648
4-6904158
2-802039
85
7225
614125
9-2195445
4-396830
23
529
12167
4-7958315
2-843867
86
7396
636056
9-2736185
4-414005
24
576
13824
4-8989795
2-884499
87
7569
658503
9-3273791
4-431047
25
625
15625
5-0
2-924018
88
7744
681472
9-3808315
4-447960
26
676
17576
5-0990195
2-962496
89
7921
704969
9-4339811
4-464745
27
729
19683
5-1961524
3-0
90
8100
729000
9-4868330
4-481405
28
784
21952
5-2915026
3-036589
91
8281
753571
9-5393920
4-497942
29
841
24389
5-3851648
3-072317'
92
8464
778688
9-5916630
4-514357
30
900
27000
5-4772256
3-107232
93
8649
804357
9-6436508
4-530655
31
961
29791
5-5677644
3-141381
94
8836
830584
9-6953597
4-546836
32
1024
32768
5-6568542
3-174802
95
9025
857375
9-7467943
4-562903
33
1089
35937
5-7445626
3-207534
96
9216
884736
9-7979590
4-578857
34
1156
39304
5-8309519
3-239612
97
9409
912673
9-8488578
4-594701
35
1225
42875
5-9160798
3-271066
98
9604
941192
9-8994949
4-610436
36
1296
46656
6-0
3-301927
99
9801
970299
9-9498744
4-626065
37
1369
50653
6-0827625
3-332222
100
10000
1000000
10-0
4-641589
38
1444
54872
6-1644140
3-361975
101
10201
1030301
10-0498756
4-657010
39
1521
59319
6-2449980
3-391211
102
10404
1061208
10-0995049
4-672330
40
1600
64000
6-3245553
3-419952
103
10609
1092727
10-1488916
4-687548
41
1681
68921
6-4031242
3-448217
104
10816
1124864
10-1980390
4-702669
42
1764
74088
6-4807407
3-476027
105
11025
1157625
10-2469508
4-717694
43
1849
79507
6-5574385
3-503398
106
11236
1191016
10-2956301
4-732624
44
1936
85184
6-6332496
3-530348
107
11449
1 225043
10-3440804
4-747459
45
2025
91125
6 -7082039
3-556893
108
11664
1259712
10-3923048
4-762203
46
2116
97336
6-7823300
3-583048
109
11881
1295029
10-4403065
4-776856
47
2209
103823
6-8556546
3-608826
110
12100
1331000
10-4880885
4-791420
48
2304
110592
6-9282032
3-634241
111
12321
1367631
10-5356538
4-805896
49
2401
117649
7-0
3-659306
112
12544
1404928
10-5830052
4-820284
50
2500
125000
7-0710678
3-684031
113
12769
1442897
10-6301458
4'834588
51
2601
132651
7-1414284
3-708430
114
12996
1481544
10-6770783
4-848808
52
2704
140608
7-2111026
3-732511
115
13225
1520875
10-7238053
4-862944
53
2809
148877
7-2801099
3-756286
116
13456
1560896
10-7703296
4-876999
54
2916
157464
7-3484692
3-779763
117
13689
1601613
10-8166538
4-890973
55
3025
166375
7-4161985
3-802953
118
13924
1643032
10-8627805
4-904868
56
3136
175616
7-4833148
3-825862
119
14161
1685159
10-9087121
4-918685
57
3249
185193
7 -5498344
3-848501
120
14400
1728000
10-9544512
4-932424
58
3364
195112
7-6157731
3-870877
121
14641
1771561
11-0
4-946088
59
3481
205379
7-6811457
3-892996
122
14884
1815848
11-0453610
4-959675
60
3600
216000
7-7459667
3-914867
123
15129
1860867
11-0905365
4-973190
61
3721
226981
7-8102497
3-936497
124
15376
1906624
11-1355287
4-986631
62
3844
238328
7-8740079
3-957892
125
15625
1953125
11-1803399
5'0
63
3969
250047
7-9372539
3-979057
126
15876
2000376
11-2249722
5-013298
CHAP. 1.
ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA.
299
No
Square.
Cube.
Square Root
CubeRoot
No.
Square.
Cube.
Square Root
CubeRoot.
127
16129
2048383
11*2694277
5-026526
190
36100
6859000
13-7840488
5-748897
128
16384
2097152
11-3137085
5-039684
191
36481
6967871
13-8202750
5-758965
129
16641
2146689
11-3578167
5-052774
192
36864
7077888
13-8564065
5-768998
130
16900
2197000
11-4017543
5-065797
193
37249
7189057
13-8924440
5-778996
131
17161
2248091
11-4455231
5-078753
194
37636
7301384
13-9283883
5-788960
132
17424
2299968
11-4891253
5-091643
195
38025
7414875
13-9642400
5-798890
133
17689
2352637
1 1 -5325626
5-104469
196
38416
7529536
14-0
5-808786
134
17956
2406104
1 1 -5758369
5-117230
197
38809
7645373
14-0356688
5-818648
135
18225
2460375
11-6189500
5-129928
198
39204
7762392
14-0712473
5-828476
136
18496
2515456
11-6619038
5-142563
199
39601
7880599
14-1067360
5-838272
137
18769
2571353
11-7046999
5-155137
200
40000
8OOOOOO
14-1421356
5-848035
138
19044
2628072
11-7473444
5-167649
201
40401
8120601
14-17744695-857765
139
19321
2685619
11-7898261
5-180101
202
40804
8242408
14-2126704
5-867464
140
19600
2744000
11-8321596
5-192494
203
41209
8365427
14-2478068
5-877130
141
19881
2803221
11-8743421
5-204828
204
41616
8489664
14-2828569
5-886765
142
20164
2863288
11-9163753
5-217103
205
42025
8615125
14-3178211
5-896368
143
20449
2924207
11-9582607
5-229321
206
42436
8741816
14-3527001
5-905941
144
20736
2985984
12-O
5-241482
207
42849
8869743
14-3874946
5-915481
145
21025
3048625
12-0415946
5-253588
208
43264
8998912
14-4222051
5-924991
146
21316
3112136
12-0830460
5-265637
209
43681
9123329
14-4568323
5-934473
147
21609
3176523
12-1243557
5-277632
210
44100
9261000
14-4913767
5-943911
148
21904
3241792
12-1655251
5-289572
211
44521
9393931
14-5258390
5-953341
149
22201
3307949
12-2065556
5-301459
212
44944
9528128
14-5602198
5-962731
150
22500
3375000
12-2474487
5-313293
213
45369
9663597
14-5945195
5-972091
151
22801
3442951
12-2882057
5-325074
214
45796
9800344
14-6287388
5-981426
152
23104
3511808
12-3288280
5-336803
215
46225
9938375
14-6628783
5-990727
153
23409
3581577
12-3693169
5-348481
216
46656
10077696
14-6969385
6-0
154
23716
3652264
12-4096736
5-360108
217
47089
10218313
14-7309199
6-009244
155
24025
3723875
12-4498996
5-371685
218
47524
10360232
14-7648231
6-018363
156
24336
3796416
12-4899960
5-383213
219
47961
10503459
14-7986486
6-027650
157
24649
3869893
12*5299641
5-394690
220
484OO
1O648000
14-8323970
6-036811
158
24964
3944312
12-5698051
5-406120
221
48841
10793861
14-8660687
6-045943
159
25281
401 9679
12-6095202
5-417501
222
49284
10941048
14-8996644
6-055048
160
25600
4096000
12-6491106
5-428835
223
49729
11089567
14-9331845
6-064126
161
25921
4173281
12-6885775
5-440122
224
50176
11239424
14-9666295
6-073177
162
26244
4251528
12-7279221
5-451362
225
50625
11390625
15-0
6-082201
163
26569
4330747
12-7671453
5-462556
226
51076
11543176
15-0332964
6-091199
164
26896
4410944
12-8062485
5-473703
227
51529
11697083
15-OS65192
6-100170
165
27225
4492125
12-8452326
5-484806
228
51984
11852352
15-0996689
6-109115
166
27556
4574296
12-8840987
5*495865
229
52441
12008989
15-1327460
6-118032
167
27889
4657463
12-9228480
5-506879
230
52900
12167000
15-1657509
6-126925
168
28224
4741632
12-9614814
5-517848
231
53361
12326391
15-1986842
6-135792
169
28561
4826809
13-0
5-528775
232
53824
12487168
15-2315462
6-114634
170
28900
4913000
13-0384048
5-539658
233
54289
12649337
15*2643375
6-153449
171
29241
5000211
13-0766968
5-550499
234
54756
12812904
15-2970585
6-162239
172
29584
5088448
13-1148770
5-561298
235
55225
12977875
15-3297097
6*171005
173
29929
5177717
13-1529464
5-572054
236
55696
13144256
15-3622915
6-179747
174
30276
5268024
13-1909060
5-582770
237
56169
13312053
15*3948043
6-188463
175
30625
5359375
13-2287566
5-593445
238
56644
13481272
15-4272486
6-197154
176
30976
5451776
13-2664992
5-604079
239
57121
13651919
15-4596248
6-205821
177
31329
5545233
13-3041347
5'614673
240
57600
13824000
15-4919334
6-214464
178
31684
5639752
13-3416641
5-625226
241
58081
13997521
1 5-52417 47
6-223083
179
32041
5735339
13-3790882
5-635741
242
58564
14172488
15-5563492
6-231678
180
32400
5832000
13-4164079
5-646216
243
59049
14348907
15-5884573
6-240251
181
32761
5929741
13-4536240
5-656652
244
59536
14526784
15-6204994
6-248800
182
33124
6028568
13-4907376
5-667051
245
60025
14706125
15-6524758
6-257324
183
33489
6128487
13-5277493
5-677411
246
60516
14886936
15-6843871
6-265826
184
33856
6229504
13-5646600
5-687734
247
61009
15069223
5-7162336
6-274304
185
34225
6331625
13-6014705
5-698019
248
61504
15252992
15-7480157
6-282760
186
34596
6434856
13-6381817
5-708267
249
62001
15438249
15-7797338
6-291194
187
34969
6539203
13-6747943
5-718479
250
62500
15625000
15-8113883
6-299604
188
35344
6644672
13-7 11 309215 -728654
251
63001
15813251
15-8429795
6-307992
189
35721
6751269
13-7477271 15-738794
252
63504
16003008
15-8745079
6-316359
300
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
No.
Square.
Cube.
Square Root.
Cube Hoot.
No.
Square.
Cube.
Square Root.
Cube Root.
253
64009
16194277
15-9059737
6-324704
316
99856
31554496
17-7763888
6-811284
254
64516
16387064
15-9373775
6-333025
317
100489
31855013
17-8044938
6-818461
255
65025
16581375
15-9687194
6-341325
318
101124
32157432
17-8325545
6-825624
256
65536
16777216
16-0
6-349602
319
101761
32461759
17-8605711
6-832771
257
66049
16974593
16-0312195
6-357859
320
102400
32768000
17-8885438
6-839903
258
66564
17173512
160623784
6-366095
321
103041
33076161
17-9164729
6-847021
259
67081
17373979
16-0934769
6-374310
322
103684
33386248
17-9443584
6-854124
260
67600
17576000
16-1245155
6-382504
323
104329
33698267
17-9722008
6-861211
261
68121
17779581
16-1554944
6-390676
324
104976
34012224
18-0
6-868284
262
68644
17984728
16-1864141
6-398827
325
105625
34328125
18-0277564
6-875343
263
69169
18191447
16-2172747
6-406958
326
106276
34645976
18-0554701
6-882388
264
69696
18399744
16-2480768
6-415068
327
106929
34965783
18-0831413
6-889419
265
70225
18609625
16-2788206
6-423157
328
107584
35287552
18-1107703
6-896435
266
70756
18821096
16-3095064
6-431226
329
108241
35611289
18-1383571
6-903436
267
71289
19034163
16-3401346
6-439275
330
108900
35937000
18-1659021
6-910423
268
71824
19248832
16-3707055
6-447305
331
109561
36264691
18-1934054
6-917396
269
72361
19465109
16-4012195
6-455314
332
110224
36594368
18-2208672
6-924355
270
72900
19683000
16-4316767
6-463304
333
110889
36926037
18-2482876
6-931300
271
73441
19902511
16-4620776
6-471274
334
111556
37259704
18-2756669
6-938232
272
73984
20123648
16-4924225
6-479224
335
112225
37595375
18-3030052
6-945149
273
74529
20346417
16-5227116
6-487153
336
112896
37933056
18-3303028
6-952053
274
75076
20570824
16-5529454
6-495064
337
113569
38272753
18-3575598
6-958943
275
75625
20796875
16-5831240
6-502956
338
114244
38614472
18-3847763
6-965819
276
76176
21024576
16-6132477
6-510829
339
114921
38958219
18-4119526
6-972682
277
76729
21253933
16-6433170
6-518684
340
115600
39304000
18-4390889
6-979532
278
77284
21484952
16-6733320
6-526519
341
116281
39651821
18-4661853
6-986369
279
77841
21717639
16-7032931
6-534335
342
116964
40001688
18-4932420
6-993191
280
78400
21952000
16-7332005
6-542132
343
117649
40353607
18-5202592
7-0
281
78961
22188041
16-7630546
6-549911
344
118336
40707584
18-5472370
7-006796
282
79524
22425768
16-7928556
6-557672
345
119025
41063625
18-5741756
7-013579
283
80089
22665187
16-8226038
6-565415
346
119716
41421736
18-6010752
7 -020349
284
80656
22906304
16-8522995
6-573139
347
120409
41781923
18-6279360
7-027106
285
81225
23149125
16-8819430
6-580844
348
121104
42144192
18-6547581
7-033850
286
81796
23393656
16-9115345
6-588531
349
121801
42508549
18-6815417
7-040581
287
82369
23639903
16-9410743
6-596202
350
122500
42875000
18-7082869
7'047208
288
82944
23887872
16-9705627
6-603854
351
123201
43243551
18-7349940
7-054003
289
83521
24137569
17-0
6-611488
352
123904
43614208
18-7616630
7 -060696
290
84100
24389000
17-0293864
6-619106
353
124609
43986977
18-7882942
7-067376
291
84681
24642171
17-0587221
6-626705
354
125316
44361864
18-8148877
7 '074043
292
85264
24897088
17-0880075
6-634287
355
126025
44738875
18-8414437
7 -080698
293
85849
25153757
17-1172428
6-641851
356
126736
45118016
18-8679623
7-087341
294
86436
25412184
17-1464282
6-649399
357
127449
45499293
18-8944436
7*093970
295
87025
25672375
17-1755640
6-656930
358
128164
45882712
18-9208879
7-100588
296
87616
25934336
17-2046505
6-664443
359
128881
46268279
18-9472953
7-107193
297
88209
26198073
17-2336879
6-671940
360
129600
46656000
18-9736660
7-113786
298
88804
26463592
17-2626765
6-679419
361
130321
47045881
19-0
7-120367
299
89401
26730899
17-2916165
6-686882
362
131044
47437928
19-0262976
7-126935
300
90000
27000000
17-3205081
6-694328
363
131769
47832147
1 9-0525589
7-133492
301
90601
27270901
17-3493516
6-701758
364
132496
48228544
19-0787840
7-140037
302
91204
27543608
17-3781472
6-709172
365
133225
48627125
19-1049732
7-146569
303
91809
27818127
17-4068952
6-716569
366
133956
49027896
19-1311265
7-153090
304
92416
28094464
17-4355958
6-723950
367
134689
49430863
19-1572441
7-159599
305
93025
28372625
17-4642492
6-731316
368
135424
49836032
19-1833261
7-166095
306
93636
28652616
17-4928557
6-738665
369
136161
50243409
19-2093727
7-172580
307
94249
28934443
17-5214155
6-745997
370
136900
50653000
19-2353841
7-179054
308
94864
29218112
17-5499288
6-753313
371
137641
51064811
19-2613603
7-185516
309
95481
29503629
17-5783958
6-760614
372
138384
51478848
19-2873015
7-191966
310
96100
29791000
17-6068169
6-767899
373
139129
51895117
19-3132079
7-198405
311
96721
30080231
17-6351921
6-775168
374
139876
52313624
19-3390796
7-204832
312
97344
30371328
17-6635217
6-782422
375
140625
52734375
19-3649167
7-211247
313
97969
30664297
17-6918060
6-789661
376
141376
53157376
19-3907194
7-217652
314
98596
30959144
17-7200451
6-796884
377
142129
53582633
19-4164878
7-224045
315
99225
31255875
17-7482393
6-804091
378
142884
54010152
19-4422221
7-230427
CHAP. I.
ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA.
301
No.
Square.
Cube.
Square Root.
Cube Root.
No.
Square.
Cube.
Square Root.
Cube Root.
379
143641
54439939
19-4679223
7-236797
442
195364
86350888
21-0237960
7-617411
380
144400
54872000
19-4935887
7-243156
443
196249
86938307
21-0475652
7-623151
381
145161
55306341
19-5192213
7-249504
444
197136
87528384
21-0713075
7-628883
382
145924
55742968
19-5448203
7-255841
445
198025
88121125
21-0950231
7-634606
383
146689
56181887
19-5703858
7-262167
446
198916
88716536
21-1187121
7-640321
384
147456
56623104
19-5959179
7-268482
447
1 99809
89314623
21-1423745
7-646027
385
148225
57066625
19-6214169
7-274786
448
200704
89915392
21-1660105
7-651725
386
148996
57512456
19-6468827
7-281079
449
201601
90518849
21-1896201
7-657414
387
149769
57960603
19-6723156
7-287362
450
202500
91125000
21-2132034
7-663094
3S8
150544
58411072
19-6977156
7-293633
451
203401
91733851
21 -2367606
7-668766
389
151321
58863869
19-7230829
7-299893
452
204304
92345408
21-26029167-674430
390
52100
59319000
19-7484177
7-306143
453
205209
92959677
21-2837967
7-680085
391
152881
59776471
19-7737199
7-312383
454
206116
93576664
21 -3072758
7-685732
392
153664
60236288
19-7939899
7-318611
455
207025
94196375
21 -3307290
7-691371
393
154449
60698457
19-8242276
7-324829
456
207936
94818816
21-3541565
7-697002
394
155236
61162984
19-8494332
7-331037
457
208849
95443993
21-3775583
7 -702624
395
156025
61629875
19-8746069
7-337234
458
209764
96071912
21 -4009346
7-708238
396
156816
62099136
19-8997487
7 -343420
459
210681
96702579
21-4242853
7-713844
397
157609
62570773
19-9248588
7-349596
460
211600
97336000
21-4476166
7-719442
398
158404
63044792
19-9499373
7-355762
461
212521
97972181
21-4709106
7-725032
399
159201
63521199
19-9749844
7-361917
462
213444
98611128
21-4941853
7 -7306 H
400
160000
64000000
20-0
7-368063
463
214369
99252847
21-5174348
7-736187
401
160801
64481201
20-0249844
7-374198
464
215296
99897344
21 -5406592
7-741753
402
131604
64964808
20-0499377
7-380322
465
216225
100544625
21-5638587
7-747310
403
162409
65450827
20-0748599
7-386437
466
217156
101194696
21-5870331
7-752860
404
163216
65939264
20-0997512
7-392542
467
218089
101847563
21-6101828
7-758402
405
164025
66430125
20-1246118
7-398636
468
219024
102503232
21 -6333077
7-763936
406
164836
66923416
20-1494417
7-404720
469
219961
103161709
21-6564078
7-769462
407
165649
67419143
20-1742410
7-410794
470
220900
103823000
21-6794834
7-774980
408
166464
67917312
20-1990099
7-416859
471
221841
104487111
21 -7025344
7-780490
409
167281
68417929
20-2237484
7-422914
472
222784
105154048
21-7255610
7-785992
410
168100
68921000
20-2484567
7-428958
473
223729
105823817
21-7485632
7-791487
411
168921
69426531
20-2731349
7-434993
474
224676
106496424
21-7715411
7-796974
412
169744
69934528
20-2977831
7-441018
475
225625
107171875
21 -7944947
7-802453
413
170569
70444997
20-3224014
7-447033
476
226576
107850176
21-81742427-807925
414
171396
70951944
20-3469899
7-453039
477
227529
108531333
21-8403297
7-813389
415
172225
71473375
20-3715488
7-459036
478
228484
109215352
21-8632111
7 818845
416
173056
71991296
20-3960781
7-465022
479
229441
109902239
21-8860686
7-824294
417
173889
72511713
20-4205779
7-470999
480
230400
110592000
21-9089023
7-829735
418
174724
73034632
20-445O483
7-476966
481
231361
111284641
21-9317122
7-835168
419
175561
73560059
20-4694895
7-482024
482
232324
111980168
21-9544984
7 -840594
420
176400
74088000
20-4939015
7-488872
483
233289
112678587
21-9772610
7-846013
421
177241
74618461
20-5182845
7-494810
484
234256
113379904
22-0
7-851424
422
178084
75151448
20-5426386
7-500740
485
235225
114084125
22-0227155
7-856828
423
178929
75686967
20-5669638
7-506660
486
236196
114791256
22-0454077
7-862224
424
179776
76225024
20-5912603
7-512571
487
237169
1 1 5501 303 22 -0680765
7-867613
425
180625
76765625
20-6155281
7-518473
488
238144
11621427222-0907220
7-872994
426
181476
77308776
20-6397674
7-524365
489
239121
116930169 22-1133444
7-878368
427
182329
77854483
20-6639783
7-530248
490
240100
117649000 22-1359436
7-8S3734
428
183184
78402752
20-6881609
7-536121
491
241081
118370771 22-1585198
7-889094
429
184041
78953589
20-7123152
7-541986
492
242064
119095488 22-1810730
7-894446
430
184900
79507000
20-7364414
7-547841
493
243049
11982315722-2036033
7-899791
431
185761
80062991
20-7605395
7-553688
494
244036
12055378422-2261108
7-905129
432
1 86624
80621568
20-7846097
7-559525
495
245025
121287375 22-2485955
7-910460
433
187489
81182737
20-8086520
7-565353
496
246016
122023936 22'2710575
7-915784
434
188356
81746504
20-8326667
7-571173
497
247009
122763473 22-2934968
7-921100
435
189225
82312875 20-8566536
7-576984
498
248004
123505992 22-3159136
7-926408
436
1 90096
8288185620-8806130
7-582786
499
249001
124251499 22-3383079
7-931710
437
190969
83453453
20-9045450
7-588579
500
250000
125000000 22-3606798
7-937005
438
191844
84027672
20-9284495
7 -594363
501
251001
125751501
22-3830293
7-942293
439
192721
84604519 20-9523268
7-600138
502
252004
126506008 22-4053565
7-947573
440
193600
8518400020-9761770
7 -605905
503
253009
12726352722-4276615
7-952847
441
194481
85766121 '21-0
7-611662
504 254016 128024064 22-4499443 7 '9581 14
302
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
No.
Square.
505255025
506256036
508 258064
509'259081
511 261121
512262144
Cube.
Square Root
12878762522-4722051
129554216 22-4944438 7'968627
507 257049 130323843 22-5166605 7 '973873
131096512 22-5388553 7-979112
13187222922-5610283
510 260100 132651000 22-5831796 7'989569
133432831
513 263169 135005697 22-6495033 8-005205
22-6053091
134217728 22*6274170 8'0
514 2641 96,135796744 22-6715681
Cube Root
7-963374
7-984344
7-994788
8-0104O3
515 265225 136590875:22-6936114 8-015595
51 6 266256 1 37388096 22 "71 56334 8 -020779
51 7 267289 138 18841 3^22 -7376340 8 -025957
518 268324 138991832 22 -75961 34j8-031 129
51 9 269361 11 39798359 22-7815715 8-036293
520 270400!140608000'22 -8035085 8 -041 451
521 271 441 1 41 420761 122 '8254244 ' 8 -046603
522 272484 142236648J22 '84731 93 8-051748
523 273529 143055667 22-8691933 8-056886
524 274576 14387782422-8910463 8-062018
525 2 75625 1 144703 125 22 '9128785 8-067143
526 276676,145531576^2-9346899 8-072262
527 277729,146363183 22*9564806 8-077374
528 278784 1471 97952'22 '9782506
J29 279841
530 280900
(31 281961
532 283024
'33 284089
534285156
535 286225
536 287296
<37288369
39 290521
41^92681
542 293764
544 295936
545297025
546298116
47 299209
48 300304
49' 301 401
14803588923'Q
148877000 23-0217289 8-092672
149721 291 123-0434372 8-097758
150568768|23'0651252 8-102838
8-107912
152273304:23 -1084400 8 -11 2980
1 531 30375 23 -1 300670 8 -1 1 8041
151 41 9437(23-0867928
153990656 23'1516738
8-082480
8-087579
No.
571
572
Square.
568 322624 183250432 23-8327506 8-28163
569 323761
570 324900 1 851 93000 23-8746728 8-29134
326041
327184
573!328329188132517
574329476
575 330625
576
331776
577 332929
578 334084
579335241
581J337561
582 338724
583'339889
585 342223
Cube.
184220009 23-8537209 8-28649
186169411
187149248 23-9165215
189119224
191102976
193100552
580 336400 195112000 24-0831892
196122941
198155287
Square Root.
23 -8956063 8 -2961 9(
23-9374184
23-9582971
190109375 23-9791576 8-31551
CubeRoo
8-30103
8-30586
8-31069
24-0
192100033 24-0208243
24-04163068-32995
1 94104539 24-06241 88
24-1039416
197137368 24-1246762
24-1453929
58434105619917670424-16609198-35867
20020162524-1867732
586 343396 201 230056J24 -2074369
_ 87 j 34456 9 12022 62003, 24 '2280829
588:345744 203297472 24-24871 13
589346921
590 348100 205379000; 24 -28 991 56
591 349281
20433646924-2693222
r
206425071 24-3104916
8-123096
154854153 23 '1732605 8-128144
38 289444 155720872 23-1948270 8 -1 33186
156590819 23-2163735 8-138223
40291600 15746400023 '2379001
158340421 23-2594067 8-148276
159220088 23-2808935 8'1 53293
43 294849 1601 03007:23 '3023604 8-158304
1 609891 84123-3238076
16187862523-3452351
1 62771 336,23 -3666429 8 •] 73302
16366732323-3880311
550 302500 166375000 23*4520788 8-1 93212
51 303601
52304704
53 305809
54!306916
164566592 23-4O93998 8-183269
165469149 23-4307490 8-188244
167284151
23-47338928-198175
168196608 23-4946802 8-203131
1 691 12377 23-51 59520 8-208082
1 70031 464 23 '5372046 8-21 3027
555 308025; 170953875 ,23 -5584380 8-217965
56 3091 36|1 71 87961 6 23-5796522
8-143253
8-163309
8-168308
8-178289
8-222898
557,310249 172808693 23-6008474 8-227825
)58311364|17374111223'6220236i8'232746
559 312481 1174676879'23'6431 808 8-237661
>60 31 3600 1 7561 6000 23 -66431 91 8-242570
61 314721
1 76558481 23-6854386 8-247474
J62(315844 177504328 23-7065392,8-252371
63 316969:178453547 23-7276210,8-257263
J64 31 8096^1794061 44 23-7486842, 8-262149
565J31 9225 1803621 2523 -7697286'S -267029
J66j 320356 181 321 496 23 -7907545 8 -271 903
567| 321 489 182284263 23-8117618 8-276772
592 350464 207474688 j24 '331 0501
593 ,351 649 208527857 24 '351 591 3
594 j 35283 6 209584584 24-3721152
595 354025 210644875,24-3926218
596 35521 6 21 1 708736 24-41 31 1 12
597 356409 2127761 73(24 '4335834
598 357604 2138471 92124-4540385
599 358801
21492179924-4744765
600 360000 21 6000000,24-4948974
601
602
361201
362404 21 81 67208|24 -5356883
8 -32033
'32514
8-33475
8-33955
8 -34434
8-34912,
8 -353904
8-36344
8-36820
8-37296(
8-37771
8-38246,
8-387206
8-391942
8 -39667'
8-40139
8-406118
8-410832
8-41554
8-420245
8-424944
8-429638
8-434327
21 7081 801 24 -51 5301 3 8 -439009
603J363609I21 9256227,24 -5560583 8-448360
604
605 366025 221445125 24-5967478 8'457689
606 367236 222545016 24-6170673
36481 6J220348864'24 -57641 15 8-453027
8-443687
8-462347
607 368449 223648543,24-6373700 8 '466999
369664 122475571 2 24-6576560 8-471647
609 370881 '225866529,24-6779254 8-47628S
610372100226981000'24-6981781
373321
2280991 31 124-71 841 42
612 374544 229220928, 24 -7386338 1
61 3J375769 2303463 97|24-7588368
614376996231475544,24-7790234
615 378225 23260837524 -7991 935 8'504034
616 379456 233744896 24-8193473 8-508641
617380689234885113124-8394847
61 8 381924 236029032 24-8596058
8-480926
8-485557
8-490184
8-494806
8-499423
8-513243
8-517840
619383161 2371 76659 24-8797106|8-522432
620 384400 238328000 24-8997992'8-52701 8
621 J385641J239483061J24-91 9871 6;8-531 600
622J386884 240641 848|24'9399278,8 -5361 77
623 388129241804367 24 -9599679 8 -54O749
624'389376242970624i24 -9799920 8-545317
625 390625 244140625 25-0
8-549879
626 391876 245314376 25-0199920,8-554437
627^393129 246491883 25 -0399681 ;8-558990
628^94384 247673152 25-0599282 8-563537
529 395641 ,248858 189 25 -0798724 8-568080
530 396900 250047000 25 0998008 8 '57261 8
CHAP. I.
ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA.
303
i
No.
Square.
Cube.
Square Root.
Cube Root.
No.
Square.
Cube.
Square Root.
Cube Root.
631
398161
251 239591
25-1197134
8-577152
694
481636
334255384
26-3438797
8-853598
632
399424
252435968 25-1396102
8-581680
695
483025
33570237526-3628527
8-857849
633
400689
25363613725-1594913
8-586204
696
484416
33715353626-3818119
8-862095
634
401956
254840104 25 '1793566
8-590723
697
485809
33860887326-4007576
8-866337
635
403225
25604787525-1992063
8-595238
698
487204
340068392 26-41 96896
8-870575
636
404496
257259456 25-2190404
8-599747
699
488601
34153209926-4386081
8-874809
637
405769
25847485325-2388589
8-604252
700
490000
343000000 26-45751 31
8-879040
638
407044
25969407225-2586619
8-608752
701
491401
344472101
26-4764046
8-883266
639
408321
26091711925-2784493
8-613248
702
492804
345948408
26-4952826
8-887488
640
409600
262144000
25-2982213
8-617738
703
494209
347428927
26-5141472
8-891706
641
410881
263374721
25-3179778
8-622224
704
49561 6
348913664
26-5329983
8-895920
642
412164
264609288
25-3377189
8 -626706
705
497025
350402625
26-5518361
8-900130
643
413449265847707
25-3574447
8-631183
706
498436
351895816
26-57066O5
8-904336
644
414736
267089984
25-3771551
8-635655
707
499849
353393943
26-5894716
8-908538
645
41 6025
268336125
25-3968502
8-640122
708
501264
354894912
26-6082694
8-912736
646
417316
269586136
25-4165301
8-644585
709
502681
3564O0829
26-6270539
8-916931
647
418609
270840023
25-4361947
8-649043
710
504100
357911000
26-6458252
8-121121
648
41 9904
272097792
25-4558441
8-653497
711
505521
35945*5431
26-6645833
8-925307
649
421201
273359449
25-4754784
8-657946
712
506944
360944128
26-6833281
8-929490
650
422500
274625000
25-4950076
8-662301
713
508369
362467097
26-7020598
8-933668
651
423801
275894451
25-5147016
8-666831
714
509796
363994344
26-7207784
8-937843
652
425104
277167808
25-5342907
8-671266
715
511225
365525875
26-7394839
8-942014
653
426409
278445077
25-5538647
8-675697
716
512656
367061696
26-7581763
8-946180
654
427716
279726264
25-5734237
8-680123
717
514089
368601813
26-7768557
8-950343
655
429025
281011375
25-5929678
8-684545
718
515524
370146232
26-7955220
8-954502
656
430336
282300416
25-6124969
8-688963
719
516961
371694959
26-8141754
8-958658
657
431649
283593393
25-6320112
8-693376
720
518400
373248000
26-8328157
8-962809
658
432964
284890312
25-6515107
8-697784
721
519841
374805361
26-8514432
8-966957
659
434281
286191179
25-6709953
8-702188
722
521284
376367048
26-8700577
8-971100
660
435600
287496000
25-6904652
8-706587
723
522729
377933067
26-8886593
8-975240
661
436921
288804781
25-7099203
8-710982
724
524176
379503424
26-9072481
8-979376
662
438244
290117528
25-7203607
8-715373
725
525625
381078125
26-9258240
8-983508
663
439569
291434247
25-7487864
8-719759
726
527076
382657176
26-9443872
8-987637
664
440896
292754944
25-7681975
8.724141
727
528529
384240583
26-9629375
8-991762
665
442225
294079625
25-7875939
8-728518
728
529984
385828352
26-9814751
8-995883
666
443556
295408296
25-8069758
8-732891
729
531441
387420489
27-0
9-0
667
444889
296740963
25-8263431
8-737260
730
532900
38901 7000
27-0185122
9-004113
668
446224
298077632
25-8456960
8-741624
731
534361
390617891
27-0370117
9-008222
669
447561
299418309
25-8650343
8-745984
732
535824
392223168
27-0554985
9-012328
670
448900
3007630OO
25-8843582
8-750340
733
537289
393832837
27-0739727
9 -016430
671
450241
302111711
25-9036677
8-754691
734
538756
395446904
27-0924344
9-020529
672
451584
303464448
25-9229628
8-759038
735
540225
397065375
27-1108834
9-024623
673
452929
304821217
25-9422435
8-763380
736
541 696
398688256
27-1293199
9-028714
674
454276
306182024
25-9615100
8-767719
737
543169
400315553
27-1477439
9-032802
675
455625
307546875
25-9807621
8-772053
738
544644
401 947272
27-1661554
9-036885
676
456976
308915776
26-0
8-776382
739
546121
40358341 9
27-1845544
9-040965
677
458329
310288733
26-0192237
8-780708
740
547600
405224000
27-2029410
9-045041
678
459684
311665752
26-0384331
8-785029
741
549081
406869021
27-2213152
9-049114
679
461041
313046839
26-0576284
8-789346
742
550564
408518488
27-2396769
9-053183
680
462400
314432000
26-0768096
8-793659
743
552049
410172407
27-2580263
9*057248
681
463761
315821241
26-0959767
8-797967
744
553536
411830784
27-2763634
9-061309
682
465124
317214568
26-1151297
8-802272
745
555025
413493625
27-2946881
9-065367
683
466489
318611987
26-1342687
8 -806572
746
556516
415160936
27-3130006
9-069422
684
467856
32001 3504
26-1533937
8-810868
747
558009
416832723
27-3313007
9-073472
685
469225
321419125
26-1725047
8-815159
748
559504
418508992 27*3495887
9-077519
686
470596
322828856
26-1916017
8-819417
749561001
42018974927-3678644
9-081563
687
471969
324242703
26-2106848
8-823730
750 562500
42187500027-3861279
9-085603
688
473344
325660672
26-2297541
8-828009
751 504001
423564751 27*4043792
8-089639
689
474721
327082769
26-2488095
8-832285
752 565504
425259008:27-4226184
9-093672
690
476100328509000
26-2678511
8-836556
753:567009
426957777:27-4408455
9-097701
691
477481 1329939371
26-2868789
8-840822
754568516
428661064,27-4590604
9-101726
692
478864
331373888
26-3058929
8-845085
755 570025
430368875 27*4772633
9-105748
693
480249
332812557
26-3248932
8-849344
756571536
432081 21 6!27 -4954542
9-109766
304
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
No.
Square. Cube.
Square Root.
Cube Root.
No.
Square.
Cube.
Square Root.
Cube Root.
757 573049 433798093
27*5136330
9-113781
820
672400
551368000
28-6356421
9-359901
758 574564^35519512 27-5317998 9-117793
821 674041
553387661 28-6530976 9-363704
759576081 43724547927-5499546 9-121801
822J675684
555412248 28-6705424 9 '367505
760 577600 438976000 27*5680975 9-125805
823677329
557441767
28-6879766
9-371302
761 579121 440711081 27-5862284
762,580644^4245072827-6043475
9-129806
9-133803
824 678976 559476224 28-7054002
825,680625 561 51 5625 28 -72281 32
9-375096
9-378887
763 582169444194947 27-6224546
9-137797
826 682276 563559976 28-74021 57
9-382675
764 583696 445943744 27*6405499
9-141788
827 683929 565609283
28-7576077
9-386460
765 585225 447697125 27-6586334
9-145774
828 685584 567663552
287749891
9-390241
766 586756j449455096 27-6767050
9-149757
829 687241
569722789
28-7923601
9-394020
767
588289 451217663 27*6947648
9-153737
830 688900
571787000
28-8097206
9-397796
768 589824 452984832 27'7128129
9-157713
831 690561
573856191
28-8270706
9-401569
769591361 45475660927*7308492
9-161686
832,692224
575930368
28-8444102
9-405338
770 592900 456533000 27 '7488739
9-165656
833,693889
578009537
28-8617394
9-409105
771 594441 458314011 27*7668868
9-169622
834 695556
580093704
28-8790582
9-412869
772
595984 460099648 27*7848880
9-173585
835,697225
582182875
28-89636669-416630
773
597529 461889917 27*8028775
9-177544
836 698896
584277056
28-91366469-420387
774
599076,463684824,27*8208555
9-181500
837
700569
586376253
28-93095239-424141
775
600625 465484375 27*8388218
9-185452
838
702244
588480472
28*9482297
9-427893
776
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CHAP. I.
ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA.
305
No.' Square. Cube.
I
Square Root. Cube Root.
No.
Square.
Cube.
Square Root.
Cube Root.
|
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306
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK IT.
SECT. II.
GEOMETRY.
874. Geometry is that science which treats of the relations and properties of the boun-
daries of either body or space. The invention of the science has been referred to a very re-
raote period : by some, to the Babylonians and Chaldeans ; by others, to the Egyptians, who
are said to have used it for determining the boundaries of their several lands, after the
inundations of the Nile. Cassiodorus says that the Egyptians either derived the art from
the Babylonians, or invented it after it was known to them. It is supposed that Thales,
who died 548 B. c., and Pythagoras of Samos, who flourished about 520 B. c., introduced it
from Egypt into Greece. We do not, however, consider it useful here to enter into the
history of the science ; neither is it necessary to enter into the reasons which have induced
us to adopt the system of Rossignol, from whom we extract this section, otherwise than to
state that we hope to conduct the student by a simpler and more intelligible method to
those results with which he must be acquainted.
The limits of body or space are surfaces, and the boundaries of surfaces are lines, and the
terminations of lines are points. Bounded spaces are usually called solids, whether occupied
by body or not ; the subject, therefore, is naturally divided into three parts, — lines, surfaces,
and solids ; and these have two varieties, dependent on their being straight or curved.
875. Geometrical inquiry is conducted in the form of propositions, problems, and demon-
strations, being always the result of comparing equal parts or measures. Now, the parts
compared may be either lines or angles, or both ; hence, the nature of each method should
be separately considered, and then the united power of both employed to facilitate the
demonstration of propositions. But the reader must first understand the following
DEFINITIONS.
A slab of marble, for
Fis- 223-
1. A solid is that which has length, breadth, and thickness,
instance, is a solid, since it is long, broad, and thick.
2. A surface is that which has length and breadth, without thickness. A leaf of paper,
though not in strictness, inasmuch as it has thickness, may convey the idea of a surface.
3. A line is that which has length, but neither breadth nor thickness. As in the case of
a surface, it is difficult to convey the strict notion of a line, yet an infinitely thin line,
as a hair, may convey the idea of a line : a thread drawn tight, a straight line.
4. A point is that which has neither length, breadth, nor thickness. A very fine grain of
sand may give an idea of it.
5. If a line be carried about a point A, so that its other extremity
passes from B to C, from C to D, &c. (fig. 223.), the point B,
in its revolution, will describe a curve BCDFGLB. This
curve line is called the circumference of a circle. The circle is
the space enclosed by this circumference. The point A, which,
in the formation of the circle is at rest, is called the centre.
The right lines AC, AD, AF, &c. drawn from the centre to the
circumference, are called radii. A diameter is a right line which
passes through the centre, and is terminated both ways by the
circumference. The line DAL, for example, is a diameter. An
arc is a part of a circumference, as FG.
6. The circumference of a circle is divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees ; each degree
is divided into 60 parts, called minutes, and each minute into 60 parts, called seconds.
Every circle, without relation to its magnitude, is supposed to be equally divided into
degrees, minutes, and seconds.
7. Two right lines drawn from the same point, and diverging from each other, form an
opening which is called an angle. An angle is commonly
expressed by three letters, and it is usual to place in the
middle that letter which marks the point whence the
lines diverge ; thus, we say the angle BAG or D AF
(fig. 224.), and not the angle ABC or ACB.
8. The magnitude of an angle does not depend on the lines
by which it is formed, but upon their distance from each
other. How far soever the lines AB, AC are continued,
the angle remains the same. One angle is greater than
another when the lines of equal length by which it is
formed are more distant. Thus the angle BAL (fig. 223.) is greater than the angle
CAB, because the lines AB, AL are more distant from each other or include a greater
arc than the lines AC, AB. If the legs of a pair of compasses be a little separated,
an angle is formed ; if they be opened wider, the angle becomes greater ; if they be
brought nearer, the angle becomes less.
Fig. 22-1.
Fig. 225.
CHAP. I.
GEOMETRY.
301
Fig. 226.
9. If the point of a pair of compasses be applied to the point G (fig. 225.), and a cir-
cumference NRB be described, the arc NR contained within the two lines GL, GM
will measure the magnitude of the angle LGM. If the arc NR, for example, be an
arc of 40 degrees, the angle LGM is an angle of 40 degrees.
10. There are three kinds of angles (fig. 226.) : a right angle (I), which is an angle of 90
degrees ; an. obtuse angle (II), which contains
more than 90 degrees ; and an acute angle
(III), which contains less than 90 degrees.
1 1 . One line is perpendicular to another when
the two angles it makes with that other
line are equal : thus, the line CD (fig.
227.) is perpendicular to the line AB, if
the angles CD A, CDB contain an equal number of degrees.
1 2. Two lines are parallel when all perpendiculars drawn from one to the other are equal ;
thus, the lines FG, AB (fig. 228.) are pa-
rallel, if all the perpendiculars cd, cd, &c.
are equal.
1 3. A triangle is a surface enclosed by three
right lines, called sides (fig. 229.). An
equilateral triangle (I) is that which has
three sides equal ; an isosceles triangle has
only two of its sides equal (II) ; a scalene
triangle (III) has its three sides unequal.
14. A quadrilateral figure is a surface enclosed by four right lines, which are called its
sides.
15. A parallelogram is a quadrilateral figure, which has its opposite sides parallel; thus,
i
!!
1
[
! I
! i
Fig. 227.
c o c a a c cc
Fig. 228.
Fig. 231.
Fig. 232.
Fig. 229. Fig. 230.
if the side BC (fig. 230.) is parallel to the side AD, and the side AB to the side
DC, the quadrilateral figure ABCD is called a parallelogram.
1 6. A rectangle is a quadrilateral figure all the angles
whereof are right angles, as ABCD (fig. 231.).
1 7. A square is a quadrilateral figure whose sides are
all equal and its angles right angles (fig. 232.).
18. A trapezium is any quadrilateral figure not a
parallelogram.
1 9. Those figures are equal which enclose an equal space ; thus, a circle and a triangle are
equal, if the space included within the circumference of the
circle be equal to that contained in the triangle.
20. Those figures are identical which are equal in all their parts ;
that is, which have all their angles equal and their sides equal,
and enclose equal spaces, as BAC, EDG (fig. 233.). It is
manifest that two figures are identical which, being placed
one upon the other, perfectly coincide, for in that case
they must be equal in all their parts. It must be ob-
served, that a line merely so expressed always denotes a right
line.
AXIOM. Two right lines cannot enclose a space ; that category requires at least three
lines.
RIGHT LINES AND RECTILINEAL FIGURES.
876. PROPOSITION I. The radii of the same circle are all equal.
The revolution of the line AB about the point A (fig. 234.)
being necessary (Defin. 5.) to form the circle BCDFGLB, when
in revolving the point B is upon the point C, the whole line
AB must be upon the line AC; otherwise two right lines would
enclose a space, which is impossible: wherefore the radius AC is
equal to the radius AB. In like manner it may be proved that
the radii AB, AF, AG, &c. are all equal to AB, and are there-
fore equal among themselves.
877. PROP. II. On a given line to describe an equilateral tri~
angle.
X 2
Fig.234.
308
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
Fig. 235.
C F
Fig. 236
Let AB (fig. 235.) be the given line upon which it is required to describe a triangle
whose three sides shall be equal.
From the point A, with the radius AB, describe the cir-
cumference BCD, and from the point B, with the radius BA, de-
scribe the circumference ACF; and from the point C, where
these two circumferences cut each other, draw the two right lines
CA, CB. Then ACB is an equilateral triangle.
For the line AC is equal to the line AB, because these two
lines are radii of the same circle BCD ; and the line BC is
equal to the line AB, because these two lines (Prop. 1.) are radii of the same circle
ACF. Wherefore the lines AC and BC, being each equal to the line AB, are equal to one
another, and all the three sides of the triangle ACB are equal ; that is, the triangle is
equilateral.
878. PROP. III. Triangles which have two sides and the angle subtended or contained by
them equal are identical.
In the two triangles BAC, FDG (fig. 236.), if the side DF be equal to the side AB,
and the side DG equal to the side AC, and also the angle at D 4 D
equal to the angle at A, the two triangles are identical.
Suppose the triangle FDG placed upon the triangle BAC in
such manner that the side DF fall exactly upon the side equal
to it, AB. Since the angle D is equal to the angle A, the side
DG must fall upon the side equal to it, AC; also the point F
will be found upon the point B, and the point G upon the point
C : consequently the line F G must fall wholly upon the line B C,
otherwise two right lines would enclose a space, which is im-
possible. Wherefore the three sides of the triangle FDG coincide
in all points with the three sides of the triangle BAC, and the two triangles have their
sides and angles equal, and enclose an equal space ; that is (Defin.
20.), they are identical.
879. PROP. IV. In an isosceles triangle the anyles at the base are
equal.
Let the triangle BAC (fig. 237.) have its sides AB, AC equal,
the angles B and C at the base are also equal. Conceive the
angle A to be bisected by the right line AD.
In the triangles BAD, DAC the sides AB, AC are, by sup-
position, equal ; the side AD is common to the two triangles,
and the angles at A are supposed equal. These two triangles,
therefore, have two sides, and the angle contained by them equal. Hence, they are identical
(Prop. 3), or have all ther parts equal : whence the angles B and C must be equal.
880. PROP. V. Triangles which have
their three sides equal are identical.
In the two triangles ACB, FDG (fig.
238.), let the side AC be equal to the
side FD, the side CB equal to the side
DG, and the side AB to the side FG;
these two triangles are identical.
Let the two triangles be so joined
that the side FG shall coincide with the
side AB (fig. 239.), and draw the right
line CD. Since in the triangle CAD
the side AC is equal to the side AD,
the triangle is isoceles ; whence (Defin. 1 3.) the angles m and n at the base are equal.
Since in the triangle CBD the side BC is equal to the side BD, the triangle is
sceles; whence (Defin. 13.) the angles r and s at the base are
equal.
Because the angle m is equal to the angle n, and the angle r
equal to the angle s, the whole angle C is equal to the whole
angle D.
Lastly, because in the two triangles ACB, ADB the side AC
is equal to the side AD and the side CB equal to the side DB,
also the angle C equal to the angle D, these two triangles have two
sides, and the contained angle equal, and are therefore (Prop. 3.)
identical.
881. PROP. VI. To divide a right line into two equal parts.
Let the right line which it is required to divide into two equal
• parts be AB (fig. 240.). Upon AB draw (Prop. 2.) the equi-
l.itcral triangle ADB, and on the other side of the same line
D
Fig. 237.
Fig. 239.
Fig. 240.
CHAP. I.
GEOMETRY.
309
AB draw the equilateral triangle AFB, draw also the right line DF; AC is equal to
CB.
In the two larger triangles DAF, DBF the sides DA, DB are equal, because they
are the sides of an equilateral triangle; the sides AF, BF are equal for the same reason ;
and the side DF is common to the two triangles. These two triangles, then, have their sides
equal, and consequently (Prop. 5.) are identical, or have all their parts equal; where-
fore the two angles at D are equal.
Again, in the two smaller triangles ADC, CDB the side DA is made equal to the
side DB, and the side DC is common to the two triangles; also the tw.> angles at D are
equal. Thus these two triangles have two sides and the contained angle equal ; they are
therefore (Prop. 3.) identical, and AC is equal to CB ; that is, AB is bisected.
882. PROP. VII. From a given point out of a right line to draw a perpendicular to that
line.
Let C (fig. 241.) be the point from which it is required to draw a perpendicular to the
right line AB.
From the point C describe an arc of a circle which shall cut
the line AB in two points F and G. Then bisect the line FG,
and to D, the point of division, draw the line CD : this line is /
perpendicular to the line AB. Draw the liries CF, CG. v /
In the triangles FCD, DCG the sides CF, CG are equal, be- A_X/ >_
cause (Prop. 1.) they are radii of the same circle; the sides FD
DG are equal, because FG is bisected ; and the side CD is com- Flg- 241>
mon. These two triangles, then, having the three sides equal, are identical (Prop. 5.).
Whence (Defin. 20.) the angle CD A is equal to the angle CDB, and consequently (Defin.
11.) the line CD is perpendicular to the line AB.
883. PROP. VIII. From a given point in a right line to raise a perpendicular vpon that
line.
From the point C (fig. 242.), let it be required to raise a perpendicular upon the right
line AB.
In AB take at pleasure CF equal to CG ; upon the line FG
describe an equilateral triangle FDG, and draw the line CD; this
line will be perpendicular to AB.
In the triangles FDC, CDG the sides DF, DG are equal, be-
cause they are the sides of an equilateral triangle ; the sides FC,
CG are equal by construction; and the side DC is common.
These two triangles, then, having the three sides equal, are ( Prop.
5.) identical. Therefore (Defin. 20.) the angle DC A is equal to the angle DCB, and
consequently (Defin. 11.) the line CD is perpendicular to the line AB.
884. PROP. IX. The diameter of a circle divides the circumference into two equal
parts.
Let ADBLA (fig. 243.) be a circle; the diameter ACB bisects the circumference, that
is, the arc ALB is equal to the arc ADB. G
Conceive the circle to be divided, and the lower segment
ACBLA to be placed upon the upper ACBDA; all the points
of the arc ALB will fall exactly upon the arc ADB; and conse-
quently these two arcs will be equal.
For if the point L, for instance, does not fall upon the arc ADB,
it must fall either above this arc, as at G, or below it, as at F.
If it fall on G, the radius CL will be greater than the radius
CD ; if it falls on F, the radius CL will be less than the radius CD,
which is (Prop. 1 .) impossible. The point L, then, must fall upon Fis- 243.
the arc ADB. In like manner it may be proved that all the other points of the arc ALB
must fall upon the arc ADB : those two arcs are therefore equal.
885. PROP. X. A right line which meets another right line forms with it two angles, which
together, are equal to two right angles.
The line FC (fig. 244.) meeting the line DA, and forming with
it the two angles, DCF, ACF, these two angles are together equal
to two right angles.
From the point C as a centre describe at pleasure a circum-
ference NGLMN.
The line NCL, being a diameter, divides the circumference
(Prop. 9 ) into two equal parts. The arc NGL is therefore
half the circumference, which contains (Defin. 6.) 180, or twice 90 degrees. Therefore
the angles DCF, ACF, which, taken together, are measured by the arc NGL, are twice
90 degrees, that is (Defin. 10.), are equal to two right angles.
886. PROP. XI. A line drawn perpendicularly to another right line makes right angles
with it.
X 3
Fig. 244.
RIO
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
D
If the line CD (fig. 245.) be perpendicular to the line AB, the angle CD A is a right
angle, and also the angle CDB.
For the line CD, meeting the line AB, forms
with it two angles, which are together (Prop.
10.) equal to two right angles; and these two
angles are equal, because CD is perpendicular
to AB. Wherefore each angle is a right angle.
887. PROP. XII. If two lines cut each other,
the vertical or opposite angles are equal.
Let the lines AD, BF, (fig. 246.) cut each Fig. 245. Fig. 246.
other at the point C; the angles ACB, FCD, which are called vertical or opposite angles,
are equal.
From the point C, as a centre, describe at pleasure a circumference NGLMN.
Since the line NCL is a diameter, the arc NGL is (Prop. 9.) half the circumference ;
therefore the arcs NGL, GLM are equal. From these two arcs take away the common
part GL, there will remain the arc NG equal to the arc LM. Consequently the angles
ACB, FCD, which are measured by these two arcs, are also equal.
888. PROP. XIII. If a line be perpendicular to one cf two parallel lines, it is also per-
pendicular to the other.
Let AB, CD (fig. 247.) be two parallel lines: if the line FG makes right angles with
CD, it will also make right angles with AB.
Take at pleasure GC equal to GD; at the points C and D
raise the perpendiculars CA, DB, and draw the lines GA, GB.
In the two triangles ACG, BDG, because the line AB is pa-
rallel to the line CD, the perpendiculars CA, DB are necessarily
equal, as appears from the definition of parallel lines ( Defin. 12.);
the lines CG, DG are equal by construction; and the angles
C and D are right angles. The two triangles ACG, BDG have
then two sides and the contained angle equal, they are therefore
(Prop. 3.) identical. Whence the side GA is equal to the side
GB, and the angle m equal to the angle n.
Again, in the triangles AGF, FGB the side GA is equal to the side GB, as has been
proved, and the side G F is common. Moreover, the angle r is equal to the angle s ; for
if from the two right angles FGC, FGD be taken away the equal angles m and n, there
will remain the equal angles r and s. The triangles AGF, FGB have then two sides and
the contained angle equal; they are therefore (Prop. 3.) identical. N
Wherefore the angles GFA, GFB are equal, and consequently
are right angles.
889. PROP. XIV. If one line be perpendicular to two other lines,
hese two lines are parallel.
Let the line FG (fig. 248.) make right angles with the lines
AB and CD ; these two lines are parallel.
If the line AB be not parallel to the line CD, another line,
as NH, may be drawn through the point F, parallel to the line
CD. But this is impossible ; for if the line NH were parallel to the line CD, the line
FG making right angles with CD would also (Prop. 13.) make right angles with NH ;
which cannot be, because, by supposition, it makes right angles with AB.
890. PROP. XV. The opposite sides of a rectangle are parallel.
In the rectangle ABCD (fig. 249.) the side BC is parallel to
the side AD, and the side AB parallel to the side DC. Produce
each of the sides both ways.
The line AB is perpendicular to the two lines BC, AD; the
two lines BC, AD are therefore (Prop. 14.) parallel. In like
manner, the line AD is perpendicular to the two lines AB, DC;
the two lines AB, DC are therefore (Prop. 14.) parallel.
891. PROP. XVI. The opposite sides of a rectangle are equal.
In the rectangle ABCD (see fig. 249.) the side AB is equal
to the side DC, and the side BC equal to the side AD. For, since the side BC is parallel
to the side AD, the perpendiculars AB, DC are (Defin. 12.) equal; and since the side
AB is parallel to the side DC, the perpendiculars BC, AD are equal.
892. PROP. XVII. A right line falling upon parallel lines makes the alternate angles
equal.
Let the line FG (fig. 250.) cut the parallels AB, GD ; the angles AFG, FGD, which
are called alternate angles, are equal. From the point G draw GL perpendicular to the
line AB, and from the point F draw FM perpendicular to the line GD.
Since the line GL is perpendicular to AB, it is also (Prop. 13.) perpendicular to the
Fig. 248.
B|
Fig. 219.
CHAP. I.
GEOMETRY.
311
parallel line AB. Whence the quadrilateral figure GLFM is a rectangle, its four angles
being right angles.
In the triangles GLF, FMG the sides LF, GM are equal, because they are opposite
sides of the same rectangle; the sides LG,
FM are equal for the same reason ; and the A — A
side FG is common. The two triangles
GLF, FMG have then the three sides equal,
and consequently (Prop. 5.) are identical.
Wherefore the angle LFG opposite to the
side LG is equal to the angle FGM oppo-
site to the side FM. ' " ~~ /<
Remark. In identical triangles the equal Fig. 250. Fig. 251.
angles are always opposite to equal sides, as by this proposition appears.
893. PROP. XVIII. If one right line falling upon two others makes the alternate angles
equal, these two lines are parallel.
Let the alternate angles AFG, FGD (fig. 251.) be equal; the lines AB, GD are
parallel.
If the line AB is not parallel to the line GD, another line, as NH, may be drawn
through the point F parallel to GD. But this is impossible; for if the line NH were
parallel to the line GD, the angle FGD would be (Prop. 17.) equal to the angle NFG,
since these two angles would be alternate angles between two
parallel lines ; which cannot be, because, by supposition, the angle
FGD is equal to the angle AFG.
894. PROP. XIX. If one right line falls upon two parallel right
lines, it makes the interior angle equal to the exterior.
Let the line FG (fig. 252.) meet the parallel lines BA, DC,
the interior angle r is equal to the exterior angle z. Produce
the lines BA, DC.
The angle r (Prop. 17.) is equal to the angle s, because these
are alternate angles, made by a right line falling upon two
parallel lines, and the angles s and z are (Prop. 12.) equal, be-
Fig. 232.
cause they are vertical or opposite angles ; therefore the angle r is equal to the angle z.
895. PROP. XX. If one right line falling upon two other right lines makes the internal
angle equal to the external, tliose two lines are parallel.
Let the internal angle r (fig. 253.) be equal to the external
angle z, the lines BA, DC are parallel.
The angle r is equal to the angle z by supposition, and the
angle z (Prop. 12.) is equal to the angle s, because they are
opposite angles. The alternate angles r, s are therefore equal,
and consequently (Prop. 18.) the lines BA, DC are parallel.
896. PROP. XXI. Through a given point to draw a line parallel
to a given line.
Let G be the point through which it is required to draw a line p;g- 353.
parallel to the given line MF.
From any point G (fig. 254.) describe, at pleasure, the arc FN; from the point F, in
which the arc FN cuts the line MF, with the distance GF describe the arc GM meeting
the line MF in M ; then make FL „ ^
equal to GM, and draw the line GL ; M
this line is parallel to the line MF. r/ \ F L/ A \N G
Draw the line GF.
The arcs GM, FL are equal by
construction ; therefore the alternate
angles r, s, which are measured by
these arcs (Defin. 9.), are equal; and
consequently (Prop. 18.) the lines
GL, MF are parallel.
897. PROP. XXII.
angles.
Fig. 254. Fig. 255.
The three angles of a triangle taken together are equal to two right
In the triangle BAG (fig. 255.), the three angles B, A, C are together equal to two right
angles.
Produce the side BC both ways ; through the point A draw a line FG parallel to BC ;
and from the point A, as a centre, describe any circumference LMN.
The angle B (Prop. 17.) is equal to the angle x, because these are alternate angles made
by a right line falling upon two parallel lines. For the same reason the angle C is equal
to the angle y.
Because LAN is a diameter, the arc LMN is half the circumference ; therefore the
three angles ar, A, y, which are measured by this arc, are together equal to two right angles.
312
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
C F
Fig. 256.
Fig. 257.
Triangles which have two angles and the side which lies between them
But the angle x is equal to the alternate angle B, and the angle y to the alternate
angle C.
Therefore, substituting B for x, and C for y, the three angles B, A, C are together equal
to two right angles.
COROLLARY. Hence, if two angles of any triangle be known, the third is also found ;
since the third angle is that which the other two taken together want of two right
angles.
898. PROP. XXIII. If two triangles have two angles eq^al, they have also the third angh
equal.
In the two triangles BAC, FDG (fig. 256.), if the angle B is
equal to the angle F, and the angle A equal to the angle D, the
angle C will also be equal to the angle G.
Since the angle C (Corol. to Prop. 22.) is that which the angles
B and A together want of two right angles ; and since the angle
G is that which F and D together want of two right angles ; the
angles B and A being equal to the angles F and D, the angle C
must be equal to the angle G.
899. PROP. XXIV. The exterior angle of any triangle is equal to the tivo interior and
opposite angles taken together.
In the triangle BAC (fig. 257.) produce one of the sides BC;
the angle A CD, which is called exterior, is equal to the two
interior and opposite angles B and A taken together.
The line AC meeting the line BD forms with it two angles,
which are together (Prop. 10.) equal to two right angles; the
angle ACB is therefore that which the angle A CD wants of
two right angles. But the angle ACB is (Corol. to Prop. 22.)
also that which the angles B and A together want of two right
angles. Wherefore the angle A CD is equal to the two angles
B and A taken together.
900. PROP. XXV.
tqual are identical.
In the two triangles BAC, FDG (fig. 258.), if the angle F is equal to the angle B, the
angle G equal to the angle C, and the side FG equal to the side
BC, these two triangles are identical.
Conceive the triangle FDG placed upon the triangle BAC in
such a manner that the side FG shall fall exactly upon the equal
side BC. Since the angle F is equal to the angle B, the side FD
must fall upon the side B A ; and since the angle G is equal to
the angle C, the side GD must fall upon the side CA. Thus the
three sides of the triangle FDG will be exactly placed upon the
three sides of the triangle B AC ; and consequently the two tri-
angles (Prop. 5.) are identical.
901. PROP. XXVI. If two angles of a triangle are equal, the sides opposite to those
angles are also equal.
Conceive the angle A (fig. 259.) to be bisected by the line
AD.
In the triangles BAD, D AC the angle B is equal to the
angle C by supposition, and the angles at A are also equal.
These two triangles have their two angles equal ; the third angle
will therefore (Prop. 23.) be equal; whence the angles at D are
equal. Moreover, the side AD is common to the two triangles.
These two triangles, therefore, having two angles and the side
which lies between them equal, are (Prop. 25.) identical,
to the side AC.
902. PROP. XXVII. The opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal.
In the parallelogram ABCD (fig. 260.), the side AB is equal
to the side DC, and the side BC equal to the side AD.
Draw the line BD, which is called the diagonal.
Because BC is parallel to AD, the alternate angles m and n
are equal. In like manner, because AB is parallel to DC, the
alternate angles r and s are equal. Also, the side BD is common
to the two triangles BAD, BCD. These two triangles have then
two angles and the side which lies between them equal, and
are therefore ( Prop. 3. ) identical. Wherefore the side A B op-
posite to the angle n is (Prop. 26.) equal to the side DC opposite to the angle m ;
and the side BC opposite to the angle s \s equal to the side AD opposite to the equal
angle r.
D
Fig. 5!,r>9.
Wherefore the side AB is equal
Fig. 2fiO.
CHAP. I. GEOMETRY. 318
COROLLARY. Hence, the diagonal bisects the parallelogram; for the triangles BAD,
BCD, having the three sides equal, are identical.
903. PROP. XXVIII. Parallelograms which are between the same parallels, and have the
same base, are equal.
Let the two parallelograms ABCD, AFGD (fig. 261.), be between the same parallels
BG, AM, and upon the same base AD; the space enclosed B c F (i
within the parallelogram ABCD is equal to the space en-
closed within the parallelogram AFGD.
In the two triangles BAF, CDG the side BA of the former
triangle is equal to the side CD of the latter, because they are
opposite sides of the same parallelogram. For the same reason,
the side FA is equal to the side GD. Moreover, BC is equal to
AD, because they are opposite sides of the same parallelogram.
For the same reason, AD is equal to FG. BC is therefore
equal to FG. If to both these CF be added, BF will be equal to CG. Whence the
two triangles BAF, CDG, having the three sides equal, are (Prop. 5.) identical, and con-
sequently have equal surfaces.
If from these two equal surfaces be taken the small triangle CLF, which is common,
there will remain the trapezium ABCL, equal to the trapezium LFGD. To these two
trapezia add the triangle ALD, and the parallelogram ABCD will be equal to the paral-
lelogram AFGD.
904. PROP. XXIX. If a triangle and a parallelogram are upon the same base, ana
between the same parallels, the triangle is equal to half the paral- B c F r,
lelogram.
Let the parallelogram ABCD (fig. 262.) and the triangle
AFD be upon the same base AD, and between the same pa-
rallels BG, AL; the triangle AFD is half the parallelogram
ABCD. Draw DG parallel to AF.
Because the parallelogram AFGD is bisected by the diagonal
FD (Prop. 27. Corol.), the triangle AFD is half the paral- A D
lelogram AFGD. But the parallelogram AFGD is equal to F'8' 262'
the parallelogram ABCD, because these two parallelograms are upon the same base, and
between the same parallels; therefore the triangle AFD is equal to half the parallelogram
ABCD.
905. PROP. XXX. Parallelograms which are between the same parallels, and have equal
bases, are equal. D ^
Let the two parallelograms ABCD, LFGM (fig. 263.) be
between the same parallels BG, AM, and have the equal bases
AD, LM ; these two parallelograms are equal.
Draw the lines AF, DG.
Because AD is equal to LM, and LM to FG, AD is equal
to FG; and they are parallel by construction. Also AF and
//\
DG are parallel; for if DG be not parallel to AF, another A D L J
line may be drawn parallel to it ; whence FG will become
greater or less than AD. AF and DG are therefore parallel, and AFGD a parallelo-
gram.
Now the parallelogram ABCD is (Prop. 28.) equal to the parallelogram AFGD,
because these two parallelograms are between the same parallels, and have the same base
AD. And the parallelogram AFGD is equal to the parallelogram LFGM, because these
two parallelograms are between the same parallels, and have the same base FG. The
parallelogram ABCD is therefore equal to the parallelogram LFGM.
906. PROP. XXXI. Triangles which are between the same parallels, and have equal bases,
are equal.
Let the two triangles ABD, LFM (see fig. to preceding Proposition) be between the same
parallels BG, AM, and upon the equal bases AD, LM ; these two triangles are equal.
Draw DC parallel to AB, and MG parallel to LF.
The two parallelograms ABCD, LFGM are equal (Prop. 30.), because they are between
the same parallels, and have equal bases. But the triangle ABD is (Prop. 29.) one half of
the parallelogram ABCD, and the triangle LFM is one half of the parallelogram LFGM;
these two triangles are therefore equal.
907. PROP. XXXII. In a right-angled triangle, the square of the hypothenuse, or side
subtending the right angle, is equal to the squares of the sides which contain the right
angle.
In the triangle BAG (fig. 264.), let the angle A be a right angle. Upon the hypo-
thenuse BC describe the square BDFC ; upon the side AB describe the square ALMB»
and upon the side AC the square ARNC ; the square BDFC is equal to the two squares
ALMB, ARNC taken together.
314
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK IL
Draw the right lines MC, AD, and draw AG parallel
to BD.
Because the square or parallelogram MLAB and the
triangle MCB are between the same parallels LC, MB, and
have the same base MB, the triangle MCB is (Prop. 29.)
equal to half the square ALMB.
Again, because the rectangle or parallelogram DGPB
and the triangle DAB are between the same parallels GA
and DB, and have the same base DB, the triangle DAB is
(Prop. 29.) equal to half the rectangle DGBP.
Further, since the side MB of the triangle MBC and the
side AB of the triangle ABD are sides of the same square,
they are (Defin. 17.) equal. Also, since the side BC of the
first triangle and the side BD of the second triangle are sides of the same square, they are
equal. And because the angle MBC of the first triangle is composed of a right angle and
the angle x, and the angle ABD of the second triangle is composed of a right angle and
the same angle x, therefore these two angles, contained between the equal sides MB, BC
and AB, BD, are equal. Wherefore the two triangles MBC, ABD, having two sides and
the contained angle equal, are (Prop. 3.) identical, and consequently equal.
But the triangle MBC is half the square MLAB, and the triangle ABD is half the
rectangle BDGP ; the square and the rectangle are therefore equal.
In the same manner it may be demonstrated that the square ARNC and the rectangle
CFGP are equal. Wherefore it follows that the whole square BDFC is equal to the two
squares MLAB, ARNC taken together.
908. DEFINITIONS. — 1. A right line (fig. Prop. 33. AB) terminated both ways by the
circumference of a circle is called a chord.
2. A line (fig. Prop. 39. AB) which meets the circumference in one point only is called
a tangent ; and the point T is called the point of contact.
3. An angle (fig. Prop. 33. ABD) which has its vertex in the circumference of a circle
is called an angle in the circle.
4. A part of a circle confined between two radii ( fig. Prop. 34. A CBF A) is called a sector.
5. A part of a circle (fig. Prop. 35. AGBDA) terminated by a chord is called a segment
of a circle.
909. PROP. XXXIII. To draw the circumference of a circle through three given points.
Let there be three given points, A, B, D (fig. 265.), through which it
is required to draw the circumference of a circle. Draw the right
lines AB, BD, and bisect them : from the points of the division F, G,
raise the perpendiculars BC, GC ; and at the point C with the radius
CA describe the circumference of a circle ; this circumference will pass
through the points B and D. Draw the lines CA, CB, CD.
In the triangles CFA, CFB the side FA is equal to the side FB
by construction, the side FC is common, and the two angles at F are
right angles. These two triangles, then, have two sides and the angle
Fig. 265.
Consequently the side
Wherefore the side
contained by them equal ; they are therefore (Prop. 3.) identical.
CB is equal to the side CA.
For the same reason, the triangles CGB, CGD are also identical.
CD is equal to the side CB, and consequently equal to CA.
And since the right lines CB, CD are equal to the right line C A, it is manifest (Prop. 1.)
that the circumference which passes through the point A must also pass through the
point D.
910. PROP. XXXIV. If a radius bisect a chord, it is perpendicular to that chord.
If the radius CF (fig. 266.) bisect the chord AB, the angles
CD A, CD B are right angles. Draw the radii CA, CB.
In the triangles CD A, CDB the sides CA, CB, being radii, are equal
(Prop. 1.), the sides AD, DB are equal by supposition, and the side
CD is common. These two triangles, having the three sides equal, are
therefore (Prop. 5.) identical. Wherefore the angles CD A, CDB are
equal, and consequently (Prop. 10.) are right angles.
COROLLARY. The two angles at C are also (Prop. 5.) equal.
Hence it appears, that any angle ACB may be bisected by describing
u- vertex C as the centre with any radius AC an arc AFB ; bisect-
in^ . sprd of that arc AB ; and then drawing from the point of division D the right line
CD ; for it-i^y then be shown, as in the proposition, that the triangles A CD, DCB are
identical, and consequently the angles at C equal.
Fig. 266.
CHAP. I,
GEOMETRY.
315
911. PROP. XXXV. To find the centre of a circle.
Let the circle of which it is required to find the centre be A G B F. Draw any chord A B
(fig. 267.) ; bisect it, and from the point of divi-
sion D raise a perpendicular FG : this line will
pass through the centre, and consequently, if it
be bisected, the point of division will be the
centre.
If the centre of the circle be not in the line
FG, it must be somewhere out of it ; for in-
stance, at the point L. But this is impossible,
for if the point L were the centre, the right line
LM would be a radius ; and since this line bisects
the chord AB, it is (Prop. 34.) perpendicular to AB ; which cannot be, since CD is per-
pendicular to AB.
912. PKOP. XXXVI. To find the centre of an arc of a circle.
Let ABDF be the arc of which it is required to find the centre. Draw any two chords
AB, DF (fig. 268); bisect them, and from the points of division raise the perpendiculars
MC, LC ; the point C, in which these two perpendiculars cut each other, is the centre
of the arc.
For (Prop. 35.) the perpendicular MC and the perpendicular LC both pass through
the centre of the same circle ; this centre must therefore be the point C, which is the only
point common to the two perpendiculars.
913. PROP. XXXVII. If three equal lines meet in the same point within a circle, and are
terminated, they are radii of that circle.
The lines CA, CB, CD (fig. 269.), drawn from the same point
C within a circle, and terminated by it, being equal, the point C
is the centre of the circle. Draw the lines AB, BD ; bisect them,
and let the points of division be F, G ; and draw the lines CF,
CG.
In the triangles CFA, CFB, the sides CA, CB are equal by
supposition, the sides FA, FB are equal by construction, and
the side CF is common. These two triangles, then, have the
three sides equal ; they are therefore (Prop. 5.) identical. Wherefore the two angles at
F are equal, and the line FC (Defin. 11.) is perpendicular to the chord AB. And since
this perpendicular bisects the chord AB, it must (Prop. 35.) pass through the centre of the
circle. In like manner, it may be demonstrated that the line GC also passes through the
centre. Wherefore the point C is the centre of the circle, and CA, CB, CD are radii.
914. PROP. XXXVIII. If the radius of a circle be perpendicular to a chord*the radius
bisects both the chord and the arc of the chord.
Let the radius CF be perpendicular to the chord AB (fig. 270.); the right line AD is
equal to the right line DB, and the arc AF equal to the arc FB.
Draw the right lines CA, CB.
In the large triangle ACB, the side CA (Prop. 1.) is equal to
the side CB, because they are radii of the same circle. The angle
A is (Prop. 4.) therefore equal to the angle B. The angles at D are
right angles, and therefore equal ; and the angles at C are conse-
quently (Prop. 23.) equal. Also the side CA is equal to the side
CB, and the side CD is common. These two triangles, then, having
two sides and the angle contained by them equal, are (Prop. 3.)
identical, whence the side AD is equal to the side DB. Again, since the angles ACF,
BCF are equal, the arcs AB, BF, which measure these angles, are also equal. The chord
AB and the arc AFB are therefore bisected by the radius CF.
915. PROP. XXXIX. A right line perpendicular to the extremity of a radius is a tangent
to the circle.
Let the line AB (fig. 271.) pass through the extremity of the
radius CT in such a manner that the angles CTA, CTB shall be
right angles ; this line AB touches the circumference in only one
point T. If AB touch the circumference in any other point, let
it be D, and draw the line CD.
In the right-angled triangle CTD the square of the hypothe-
nuse CD is equal to the two squares of CT and TD taken together.
The square of CD is therefore greater than the square of CT, and Fig. 271.
consequently the line CD is greater than the line CT, which is a
radius. Therefore the point D is out of the circumference. And in like manner it may be
shown that every point in the line AB is out of the circumference, except T; AB is there-
fore a tangent to the circle.
COROLLARY. It follows, therefore, that a perpendicular is the shortest line that can be
316
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II
Fig. *7i.
Fig. 273.
dra\vn from any point to a given line ; since the perpendicular CT is shorter than any other
line which can be drawn from the point C to the line AB.
916. PROP. XL. If a right line be drawn touching a circumference, a radius drawn to the
point of contact will be perpendicular to the tangent.
Let the line AB (fig. 272.) touch the circumference of a circle A—
in a point T, the radius CT is perpendicular to the tangent AB.
For all other lines drawn from the point C to the line AB must
pass out of the circle to arrive at this line. The line CT is there-
fore the shortest which can be drawn from the point C to the line
AB, and consequently (Corol. to Prop. 39.) is perpendicular to the
line AB.
917. PROP. XLI. The angle formed by a tangent and chord is
measured by half the arc of that chord.
Let BTA (fig. 273.) be a tangent and TD a chord drawn from the point of contact T;
the angle ATD is measured by half the arc TFD, and the angle BTD is measured by
half the arc TGD. Draw the radius CT to the point of contact, B T _ A
and the radius CF perpendicular to the chord TD.
The radius CF being perpendicular to the chord TD (Prop. 38.)
bisects the arc TFD. TF is therefore half the arc TFD.
In the triangle CML the angle M being a right angle, the two
remaining angles are (Prop. 22.) equal to a right angle. Where-
fore the angle C is that which the angle L wants of a right angle.
On the other side, since the radius CT is perpendicular to the tan-
gent BA, the angle ATD is also that which the angle L wants
of a right angle. The angle ATD is therefore equal to the angle C. But the angle C is
measured by the arc TF, consequently the angle ATD is also measured by the arc TF,
which is half of TFD. The angle BTD must therefore be measured by half the arc TGD,
since these two halves of arcs make up half the circumference. B T
918. PROP. XLII. An angle at the circumference of a circle is
measured by half the arc by which it is subtended.
Let CTD (fig. 274.) be the angle at the circumference; it
has for its measure half the arc CFD by which it is sub-
tended.
Suppose a tangent passing through the point T.
The three angles at T are measured by half the circumference
(Prop. 22.), but the angle ATD is measured (Prop. 41.) by half
the arc TD, and the angle ETC by half the arc TC ; conse-
quently the angle CTD must be measured by half the arc CFD, since these three halves of
arcs make up half the circumference.
919. PROP. XLIII. The angle at the centre of a circle is double of the angle at the c/r-
cumference.
Let the angle at the circumference ADB (fig. 275.) and the
angle at the centre ACB be both subtended by the same arc AB,
the angle ACB is double of the angle ADB.
For the angle ACB is measured by the arc AB, and the angle
ADB is (Prop. 42.) measured by half the same arc AB ; the angle
ACB is therefore double of the angle ADB.
920. PROP. XLIV. Upon a given line, to describe a segment of
a circle containing a given angle.
Let AB (fig. 276.) be the given line and G the given angle, it is required to draw such
a circumference of a circle through the points A and B that the angle D shall be equal to
the angle G.
For this purpose draw the lines AL, BL in such manner
that the angles A and B shall be equal to the angle G ; at the
extremities of LA, LB raise the perpendiculars AC, BC;
and from the point C in which these two perpendiculars cut
each other, with the radius CA or CB describe the circum-
ference ADB ; the angle D will be equal to the angle G.
The angle LAB, formed by the tangent AL and the chord
AB, is (Prop. 41.) measured by half the arc AFB ; and the
angle D at the circumference is also measured (Prop. 42.) by D
half the arc AFB ; the angle D is therefore equal to the angle Fig. 276.
LAB. But the angle LAB is made equal to the angle G ; the angle D is therefore equal
to the angle G.
921. PROP. XLV. In every triangle the greater side is opposite to the greater angle, and
the greater angle to the greater side.
In the triangle ABC (fig. 277.), if the side AB be greater than the side AC, the angle
Fig. 274.
CHAP. I.
GEOMETRY.
317
Draw
C opposite to the side AB will be greater than the angle B opposite to the side AC.
Draw the circumference of a circle through the three points A,
C, B.
Since the chord AB is greater than the chord AC, it is manifest
that the arc ADB is greater than the arc AFC ; and consequently
the angle at the circumference C, \rhich is measured (Prop. 42.) D
by half the arc ADB, is greater than the angle at the circumference
B, which is measured by half the arc AFC.
Again, if the angle C is greater than the angle B, the side AB
opposite to the angle C will be greater than the side AC opposite
to the angle B.
The angle C is measured (Prop. 42.) by half the arc ADB, and the angle B by half the
arc AFC. But the angle C is greater than the angle B ; the arc ADB is therefore greater
than the arc AFC, and consequently the chord AB is greater than the chord AC.
922. PROP. XLVI. Two parallel chords intercept equal arcs.
If the two chords AB, CD (Jig. 278.) are parallel, the arcs AC, BD are equal,
the right line BC.
Because the lines AB, CD are parallel, the
alternate angles ABC, BCD are (Prop. 17.)
equal. But the angle at the circumference
BCD is measured (Prop. 42.) by half the
arc AC ; and the angle at the circumference
BCD is measured by half the arc BD; the
arcs AC, BD are therefore equal.
923. PROP. XLVII. If a tangent and chord
be parallel to each other, they intercept equal arcs.
Let the tangent FG (Jig. 279.) be parallel
to the chord AB ; the arc TA will be equal to the arc TB. Draw the right line TA.
Because the lines FG, AB are parallel, the alternate angles FTA, TAB are (Prop. 17.)
equal. But the angle FTA, formed by a tangent and a chord, is measured (Prop. 41.) by
half the arc TA, and the angle at the circumference TAB is measured (Prop. 42.) by half
the arc TB. The halves of the arcs TA, TB, and consequently the arcs themselves, are
therefore equal.
924. PROP. XL VIII. The angle formed by the intersection of two chords is measured by
half the two arcs intercepted by the two chords.
Let the two chords AB, DF (fig. 280.) cut each other at the point C, the angle FCB
or A CD is measured by half the two arcs FB, AD. Draw AG
parallel to DF.
Because the lines AG, DF are parallel, the interior and exterior
angles GAB, FCB are (Prop. 19.) equal. But the angle at the
circumference GAB is measured (Prop. 42.) by half the arc
GFB. The angle FCB is therefore also measured by half the arc
GFB.
Because the chords AG, DF are parallel, the arcs GF, AD are
(Prop. 46.) equal: AD may therefore be substituted in the room
of GF ; wherefore the angle FCB is measured by half the arcs AD, FB.
925. PROP. XLIX. The angle formed by two secants is measured by half the difference of
the two intercepted arcs.
Let the angle CAB (fig. 281.) be formed by the two secants AC, AB, this angle is
measured by half the difference of the two arcs GD, CB, inter-
cepted by the two secants. Draw DF parallel to AC.
Because the lines AC, DF are parallel, the interior and exterior
angles CAB, FDB are (Prop. 19.) equal. But the angle FDB is
measured (Prop. 42.) by half the arc FB ; the angle GAB is
therefore also measured by half the arc FB.
Because the chords GC, DF are parallel, the arcs GD, CF are
(Prop. 46.) equal ; the arc FB is therefore the difference of the
arc GD and the arc CFB. Where the angle A has for its mea-
sure half the difference of the arcs GD, CFB.
926. PROP. L. The angle formed by two tangents is measured by half the difference ofth;
two intercepted arcs.
Let the angle CAB (fig. 282.) be formed by the two tangents AC, AB ; this angle is
measured by half the difference of the two arcs GLD, GFD. Draw DF parallel to AC.
Because the lines AC, DF are parallel, the interior and exterior angles CAB, FDB are
(Prop. 19.) equal. But the angle FDB, formed by the tangent DB and the chord DF, is
measured (Prop. 41.) by half the arc FD. Therefore the angle CAB is also measured by
half the arc FD.
Fig. 280.
Fig. HI.
318
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK IT.
D
Fig. 282.
Fig. 283.
Because the tangent AC and the
chord DF are parallel, the inter-
cepted arcs GF GD are (Prop.
47.) equal. The arc FD is there-
fore the difference between the arc
GLD and the arc GFD. There-
fore the angle CAB, which is mea-
sured by half the arc FD, is also
measured by half the difference of
the arcs GLD, GFD.
COROLLARY. In the same way it may be demonstrated that the angle formed by a tangent
ATC (fig. 283.) and a secant ADB is measured by half the difference of the two inter-
cepted arcs.
927. PROP. LI. To raise a perpendicular at the extremity of a given line.
At the extremity A (fig. 284.) of the given line AB let it be required to raise a per-
pendicular.
From any point C taken above the line AB describe- a circum-
ference passing through the point A and cutting the line AB in any
other point, as G. Draw the diameter DG and the right line AD;
this line AD will be perpendicular to the line AB.
The angle DAG at the circumference is measured (Prop. 42.) by
half the arc DFG, which is half the circumference, because DCG is
a diameter. The angle DAG is therefore measured by one fourth
part of the circumference, and consequently (Defin. 10.) is a right angle, whence the line
AD is (Prop. 11.) perpendicular to the line AB.
COROLLARY. Hence it follows that the angle at the circumference which is subtended
by a diameter must be a right angle.
928. PROP. LI I. From any point without a circle to draw
a tangent to that circle.
From the point A (fig. 285.) let it be required to draw a
tangent to the circle DTB.
Draw from the centre C any right line CA ; bisect this
right line, and from the point of division B, as a centre, de-
scribe the arc CTA. Lastly, from the point A, and through
the point T, in which the two arcs cut each other, draw the
right line AT ; this right line AT will be a tangent to the
circle DTB. Draw the radius CT.
The angle CTA at the circumference, being subtended by
the diameter CA, is (Corol. to Prop. 51.) a right angle ; therefore the line TA is perpendi-
cular to the extremity of the radius CT, and consequently (Prop. 40.) is a tangent to the
circle DTB.
Fig. 284.
929. DEFINITIONS. — 1. A mathematical point has neither length, breadth, nor thickness.
The physical point, now for consideration, has a supposed length and breadth exceed-
ingly small.
2. A physical line is a series of physical points, and consequently its breadth is equal to
that of the physical points whereof it is composed.
3. Since physical lines are composed of points, as numbers are composed of units, points
may be called the units of lines.
4. As to multiply one number by another is to take or repeat the first number as many
times as there are units in the second ; so to multiply one line by another is to take or
repeat the first line as many times as there are units, that is, physical points, in the
second.
930. PROP. LIII. The surface of a rectangle is equal to the
product of its two sides.
Let the rectangle be ABCD (fig. 286.). If the physical
line AB be multiplied by the physical line AD, the pro-
duct will be the surface ABCD.
If as many physical lines equal to AB as there are
physical points in the line AD be raised perpendicularly
upon AD, these lines AB, db, &c. will fill up the whole
surface of the rectangle ABCD. Wherefore the surface Fig. 286.
ABCD is equal to the line AB taken as many times as there are physical points in the line
AD ; that is, (Defin. 4.) equal to the line AB multiplied by the line AD.
931 . PROP. LIV. The surface of a triangle is equal to half the product of its altitude and bat>e.
If from the vertex of any angle A (fig. 287.) of the triangle BAC be drawn AD, per-
B b
1
\
5
J
i b b b (
j
,' ' •; — j — r
ii
!
!
CHAP. I.
GEOMETRY.
319
pendicular to the opposite side BC, this perpendicular is called the height, and the side BC
the base of the triangle. Now the surface of the triangle is
equal to half the product of the height AD and the base BC.
Produce BC both ways; through the point A draw FG
parallel to BC, and raise the two perpendiculars BF, CG.
Because the rectangle BFGC and the triangle BAG are
between the same parallels, and have the same bases, the tri-
angle is (Prop. 29.) half the rectangle. But the surface of
the rectangle is equal (Prop. 53.) to the product of BF and
BC. Wherefore the surface of the triangle is equal to half the
product of BF and BC, that is, of DA and GC.
932. PROP. LV. To measure the surface of any rectilineal figure.
Let ABCDFA {fig. 288.) be the rectilineal figure, whereof it is required to find the
surface.
Divide the whole figure into triangles by drawing the lines
CA, CF. Then, drawing a perpendicular from the point B
to the side C A, multiply these two lines ; the half of their pro-
duct will (Prop. 54.) give the surface of the triangle ABC.
In the same manner let the surfaces of the remaining triangles B
ACF, FCD be found. These three surfaces added together
will give the whole surface of the figure ABCDFA.
933. PROP. L VI. The area of a circle is equal to half the pro-
duct of its radius and circumference.
If the radius of the circle C (fig. 289.) be multiplied by Fig. 288.
its circumference, the half of the product will give the surface of the circle.
Two physical points being manifestly not sufficient to make a curve line, this must re-
quire at least three. If, therefore, all the physical points of a circumference be taken two
by two, these will compose a great number of small right lines. From
the extremities L, M of one of these small right lines if two radii LC
MC be drawn, a small triangle LCM will be formed, the surface of
which will be equal to half the product of its height ; that is, the radius
and its base.
To find the surface of all the small triangles whereof the circle is com-
posed, multiply the height, that is, the radius, by all the bases, that is, by
the circumference, and take the half of the product ; whence the area or
surface of the circle will be equal to half the product of the radius and
circumference.
934. PROP. LVII. To draw a triangle equal to a given circle.
Let it be required to form a triangle the surface of which shall be equal to that of the
circle AGFDA (fig. 290.).
At the extremity of any ra-
dius CA of the circle, raise a
perpendicular AB equal to the
circumference AGFD,and draw
the right line CB. The sur-
face of the triangle BCA will
be equal to that of the circle
AGFDA. Fig. 290.
The surface of the circle is equal (Prop. 56.) to half the product of the radius CA and
the circumference, or the line AB. The surface of the triangle is also equal (Prop. 54.)
to half the product of its height CA, or radius, and its base BA, or circumference. There-
fore the surface of the triangle is equal to that of the circle.
PROPORTION.
935. DEFINITIONS. — 1. The ratio of one quantity to another is the number of times which
the first contains the second ; thus the ratio of 12 to 3 is four, because 12 contains
3 four times ; or, more universally, ratio is the comparative magnitude of one quan-
tity with respect to another.
2. Four quantities are proportional, or in geometrical proportion, or two quantities are saia
to have the same ratio with two others, when the first contains or is contained in the
second, exactly the same number of times which the third contains or is contained ui
the fourth ; thus, the four numbers 6, 3, 8, 4 are proportionals, because 6 contains 3 as
many times as 8 contains 4, and 3 is contained in 6 as many times as 4 is contained in
8, that is, twice ; which is thus expressed : 6 is to 3 as 8 to 4 ; or 3 is to 6 as 4 to 8.
936. PROP. LVII I Parallelograms which are between the same parallels are to one an-
other as their bases.
320
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
I j
j i
L N K r> F IV
Fig. 291.
Let the two parallelograms ABCD, FGLM (fig. 291.) be between the same parallels
BL, AM, the surface of the parallelogram ABCD contains B p s c n i
the surface of the parallelogram FGLM as many times
exactly as the base AD contains the base FM. Sup-
pose, for example, that the base AD is triple of the base
FM ; in this case the surface ABCD will also be triple
of the surface FGLM.
Divide the base AD into three parts, each of which is
equal to the base FM, and draw from the points of divi-
sion the lines NP, RS parallel to the side AB.
The parallelograms ABPN, FGLM being between the same parallels and having equal
bases, the parallelogram ABPN is (Prop. 30.) equal to the parallelogram FGLM. For
the same reason, the parallelograms NPSR, RSCD are also equal to the parallelogram
FGLM. The parallelogram ABCD is therefore composed of three parallelograms, each
of which is equal to the parallelogram FGLM. Consequently the parallelogram ABCD
is triple of the parallelogram FGLM.
937. PROP. LIX. Triangles which are between the same parallels are to one another as
their bases.
Let the two triangles ABC, DFG (fig. 292.) be between the same parallels LF, AG, the
surface of the triangle ABC contains the surface of the
L B IV
I F
triangle DFG as many times as the base AC contains the
base DG. Suppose, for example, that the base AC is triple
of the base DG, in this case the surface ABC will be triple
of the surface DFG.
Divide the base AC into three equal parts, AN, NR,
/
RC, each of which is equal to the base DG, and draw the
right lines BN, BR.
A N R C i
Fig. 292.
> C
Fig. 205.
The triangles ABN, DFG being between the same parallels and having equal bases, the
triangle ABN is (Prop. 31.) equal to the triangle DFG. For the same reason, the
triangles NBR, RBC are each equal to the triangle DFG. The triangle ABC is there-
fore composed of three triangles, each of which is equal to the triangle DFG. Wherefore
the triangle ABC is triple of the triangle DFG.
938. PROP. LX. If a line be drawn in a triangle parallel to one of its sides, it will cut the
other two sides proportionally.
In the triangle BAC (fig. 293.), if the line DF be parallel to the side BC, it will cut the
other two sides in such manner that the segment AD will be to the
segment DB as the segmentAF is to the segment FC. Suppose, for
instance, the segment AD to be triple of the segment DB, the seg-
ment AF will be triple of the segment FC. Draw the diagonals
DC, FB.
The triangles AFD, DFB are between the same parallels, as will
be easily conceived by supposing a line drawn through the point F
parallel to the side AB. These two triangles are therefore to one
another (Prop. 59.) as their bases; and since the base AD is triple
of the base DB, the triangle AFD will be triple of the triangle
DFB.
Again, the triangles BFD, FDC are between the same parallels DF, BC, and upon the
same base DF. These two triangles are therefore (Prop. 31.) equal; and since the
triangle AFD is triple of the triangle DFB, it will also be triple of the triangle FDC.
Lastly, the triangles ADF, FDC are between the same parallels, as will be easily con-
ceived by supposing a line drawn through the point D parallel to the side AC. These
two triangles are therefore to one another (Prop. 59.) as their bases; and since the triangle
ADF is triple of the triangle FDC, the base AF will be triple of the base FC.
939. PROP. LXI. Equiangular triangles have their homologous sides proportional.
In the two triangles ABC, CDF (fig. 294.), if the angle A be
equal to the angle C, the angle B equal to the angle D, and
the angle C equal to the angle F; the side AC, for example,
opposite to the angle B is to the side CF opposite to the angle D
as the side AB opposite to the angle C is to the side CD opposite
to the angle F. Place the two triangles so that the sides AC, CF
shall form one right line, and produce the sides AB, FD till they
meet in G.
The interior and exterior angles GAF, DCF being equal, the
lines GA, DC are (Prop. 20.) parallel. In like manner, the alter-
nate angles GFA, BCA on the same sides being equal, the lines GF, BC are (Prop. 20.)
parallel. Wherefore the quadrilateral figure BGDC is a parallelogram, and consequently
its opposite sides are equal. In the triangle GAF the line BC, being parallel to the side
CHAP. I
GEOMETRY.
321
FG, cuts (Prop. 60.) the other two sides proportionally; that is, AC is to CF as AB b
to BG, or its equal CD.
94O. PROP. LXII. Triangles the sides of which are proportional are equiangular.
In the two triangles BAC, FDG (fig. 295.), if the A
side AB is to the side DF as the side BC is to the side
FG and as the side AC to the side DG, these two tri-
angles have their angles equal.
Let the side AB be supposed triple of the side DF;
the side AC must be triple of the side DG, and the side
BC triple of the side FG.
If the triangle FDG be not equiangular with the tri-
angle BAC, another triangle may be formed equiangular
with it ; for example, FLG. But this is impossible ;
Fig. *95.
for if the two triangles BAC, FLG were equiangular, their sides would be (Prop. 61.)
proportional; and BC being triple of FG, AB would be triple of LF. But AB is triple
of DF; whence LF would be equal to DF. For the same reason, LG would be equal
to DG. Thus, the two triangles FLG, FDG, having their three sides equal, would be
(Prop. 5.) identical; which is absurd, since their angles are unequal.
941. PROP. LXII I. Triangles which have an angle in one equal to an angle in the other,
and the sides about these angles proportional, are equiangular.
If in the two triangles BAC, NMP (fig. 296.) the angle A be equal to the angle M,
and the side AB be to the side MN as the side AC is
to the side MP, the two triangles are equiangular.
If AB be triple of MN, AC must be triple of MP.
Now, if the angle MNP, for example, is not equal to
the angle ABC, another angle may be made, as MNR,
which shall be equal to it. But this is impossible ; for
the two triangles BAC, NMR, having two angles equal,
would be equiangular, and consequently (Prop. 61.)
would have their sides proportional ; wherefore, AB
being triple of MN, AC would be triple of MR, which
cannot be, since AC is triple of MP.
942. PROP. LXIV. A right line which bisects any angle of a triangle divides the side
opposite to the bisected angle into two segments, which are proportional to the two other sides.
In the triangle BAC, let the angle BAC be bisected by the right line AD, making the
angle r equal to the angle s. The segment BD is to the segment
DC as the side BA to the side AC.
Produce the side BA, and draw CF parallel to DA.
The lines DA, CF being parallel, the interior and exterior angles
r, F are (Prop. 19.) equal, and the alternate angles s, C are (Prop. 17.)
also equal. And since the angle r is equal to the angle s, the angle F
will also be equal to the angle C ; and consequently the side AF is
equal to the side AC.
In the triangle BFC, the line AD being parallel to the side FC;
BD (Prop. 60.) will be to DC as BA is to AF, or its equal AC. B D
943. PROP. LXV. To find a fourth proportional to three given lines. Fig. 297.
Let the three lines be A, B, C (fig. 298.), it is required to find a fourth line D, such
that the line A shall be to the line B as the line C is to
the line D.
Form any angle RFG, make FM equal to the line
A, MG equal to the line B, and FN equal to the line
C ; draw the right line MN, and through the point G
draw GL parallel to MN ; NL will be the fourth pro-
portional required.
In the triangle FLG the line NM, being parallel to F M
the side LG, cuts the other two sides (Prop. 60.) proper- F%.298.
tionally. Wherefore FM is to MG as FN is to NL ; that is, A is to B as C is to D.
944. PROP. LXVI. To find a third proportional to two given lines.
Let the two lines be A, B (fig. 299.), it is required to
find a third line C, such that the line A shall be to the
line B as the line B is to the line C.
Form any angle LFG, make FM equal to the line A,
MG equal to the line B, and FN equal to the line B ;
draw the right line MN, and through the point G draw
GL parallel to MN ; NL will be the third proportional
required.
In the triangle FLG the line NM, being parallel to the side LG, cuts the other two
322 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
sides (Prop. 60.) proportionally. Wherefore FM is to MG as FN is to NL; that is, A
is to B as B is to C.
945. PROP. LXVII. If four lines be proportional, the rectangle or product of the extremes
is equal to the rectangle or product of the means.
Let the line A be to the line B as the line C is to the line D (fig. 300.) ; the rectangle
formed by the lines A and D is equal to the rectangles formed A- •
by the lines B and C. G
Let the four lines meet in a common point, forming at that c "
point four right angles ; and draw the lines parallel to them to D
complete the rectangles x, y, z. .
If the line A be triple of the line B, the line C will be triple *
of the line D. ' J~^
The rectangles or parallelograms x, z being between the same
parallels, are to one another as their bases. Since the base A is triple of the base B, the
rectangle x is triple of the rectangle z. In like manner, the rectangles or parallelograms
y, z, being between the same parallels, are to one another as their bases : since the base
C is triple of the base D, the rectangle y is therefore triple of the rectangle z. Where-
fore, the rectangle x being triple of the rectangle z, anjd the rectangle y being triple of the
same rectangle z, these two rectangles x and y are equal to one another.
946. PROP. LXVIII. Four lines which have the rectangle or product of the extremes equal
to the rectangle or product of the means are proportional.
Let the four lines A, B, C, D (fig. 301.) be such that the rectangle of A and D is equal
to the rectangle of B and C, the line A will be to the line B as A —
the line C to the line D.
Let the four lines meet in a common point, forming at that D
point four right angles, and complete the rectangles x, y, z. A
If the line A be triple of the line B, the line C will be triple
of the line D. *
The rectangles x and z, being between the same parallels, pig. 301.
are to one another as their bases : since the base A is triple of
the base B, the rectangle x will be therefore triple of the rectangle z. And the rectangle
y is, by supposition, equal to the rectangle x ; the rectangle y is therefore also triple of
the rectangle z.
But the rectangles y, z, being between the same parallels, are to one another as their
bases. Hence, since the rectangle y is triple of the rectangle z, the base C is also triple of
the base D.
947. PROP. LXIX. If four lines be proportional, they are also proportional alternately.
If the line A is to the line B as the line C to the line D (fig. 302.), A_
they will be in proportion alternately; that is, the line A will be to the
line C as the line B to the line D.
Because the line A is to the line B as the line C is to the line D, c —
the rectangle of the extremes A and D is equal to the rectangle of the D
means B and C ; whence it follows (Prop. 68.) that the line A is to the Fig. 502.
line C as the line B is to the line D.
Otherwise, — Suppose the line A to be triple of the line B, the line C will be triple of
the line D. Hence, instead of saying A is to B as C to D, we may say three times B is to
B as three times D is to D. Now it is manifest that three times B is to three times D as
B is to D. Therefore the line A (which is equal to three times B) is to the line C (which
is equal to three times D) as the line B is to the line D.
948. PROP. LXX. If four lines be proportional, they will be proportional by compost'
tion.
Let the line A be to the line B as the line C is to the line D (fig. 303.), they will be
proportional by composition ,• that is, the line A joined to the line B will
be to the line B as the line C joined to the line D is to the line D.
If the line A contain the line B, for example, three times, and the line B —
C contain the line D three times ; the line A joined to the line B will c
contain the line B four times, and the line C joined to the line D will D _
contain the line D four times. Therefore the line A joined to the line Fig. 303.
B is to the line B as the line C joined to the line D is to the line D.
949. PROP. LXX I. If four lines be proportional, they will be also proportional by
division. A
If the line A is to the line B as the line C is to the line D (fig. 304.), B
they will be proportional by division; that is, the line A wanting the c
line B is to the HneJB as the line C wanting the line D is to the line D. D _
If the line A contain the line B, for example, three times, and the line
C contain the line D three times, the line A wanting the line B will con-
tain the line B only twice ; and the line C wanting the line D will also contain the line D
CHAP. I.
GEOMETRY.
323
Fig. 305.
Fig. 306.
twice. Therefore the line A wanting the line B is to the line B as the line C wanting the
line D is to the line D.
950. PKOP. LXX £1. If three lines be proportional, the first is to the third as the square of
the first is to the square of the second.
If the line CD is to the line cd as the line cd is to a third line x (fig. 305.), the line CD
is to the line x as the square of the line CD is to the square of the
line cd. Take CF equal to the line x, and draw the perpendicular
FB.
Since the line CD is to the line cd as the line cd is to the line CF,
the rectangle of the extremes CF, CD, or CL is equal (Prop. 67.)
to the rectangle of the means, that is, to the square of cd.
Again, the square of CD and the rectangle of the lines CF, CL,
being between the same parallels, are to one another (Prop. 58.) as
their bases. Therefore CD is to CF, or x, as the square of CD is
to the rectangle of CF and CL, or to its equal the square of cd.
951. PROP. LXXIII. If two chords in a circle cut each other, the rectangle of the seg-
ments of one is equal to the rectangle of the segments of the other
Let the two chords AB, CD (fig. 306.) in the circle cut each other in the point F, the
rectangle of AF, FB is equal to the rectangle of CF, FD. Draw
the two right lines AC, DB. Because in the triangles CAF, BDF
the angles at the eircumference A and D are both measured (Prop.
42.) by half the arc CB, they are equal. Because the angles C and
B are both measured (Prop. 42.) by half the arc AD, these angles
are also equal. And the angles at F are equal, because they are
vertical. These two triangles are therefore equiangular, and conse-
quently (Prop. 61.) their sides are proportional. Wherefore the
side AF opposite to the angle C is to the side FD opposite to the
angle B as the side CF opposite to the angle A is to the side FB opposite to the
angle D. Therefore (Prop. 69.) the rectangle of the extremes AF, FB is equal to the
rectangle of the means CF, FD.
952. PROP. LXX IV. To find a mean proportional between two given lines.
Let there be two lines A, C (Jig. 307.), it is required to find a third line B, such that
the line A shall be to the line B as the line B is to the
line C.
Place the lines A and C in such manner that they shall
form one right line DGL, and bisect this right line in the
point F. From the point F, as a centre, describe the cir-
cumference of a circle DMLN ; then, at the point G, where
the two lines are joined, raise the perpendicular GM ; GM is
the mean proportional sought between the lines A and C.
Produce MG to N.
Because the chords DL, MN cut each other at the point G, the rectangle of the seg-
ments DG, GL is (Prop. 73.) equal to the rectangle of the segments MG, GN.
Because the radius FL is perpendicular to the chord MN, FL (Prop. 38.) bisects MN;
therefore GN is equal to GM.
Lastly, because the rectangle of the extremes DG, GL is equal to the rectangle of the
means GM, GN, or its equal GM, DG is to GM as GM is to GL. Therefore GM is a
mean proportional between DG and GL, that is, between the lines A and C.
953. PROP. LXXV. The bases and altitudes of equal triangles are in reciprocal or inverse
ratio.
Let the two triangles ABC, DFG (fig. 308.) be equal ; the base AC will be to the base
DG, as the perpendicular FM to the perpendicular BL; that
is, the bases and altitudes are in reciprocal or inverse ratio.
The triangle ABC (Prop. 54.) is half the product or rect-
angle of the base AC and the altitude BL. Again, the tri-
angle DFG is (Prop. 54.) half the product or rectangle of the
base DG and the altitude FM. The two triangles being
equal, the two rectangles, which are double of the triangles,
will therefore also be equal.
Again, because the rectangle of the extremes AC, BL is
equal to the rectangle of the means DG, FM ; AC (Prop.
68.) is to DG as FM is to BL.
954. PROP. LXX VI. Triangles the bases and altitudes whereof are in reciprocal or inverse
ratio are equal.
In the two triangles ABC, DFG (fig. 309.), if the base AC be to the base DG as the
perpendicular FM to the perpendicular BL, the surfaces of the two triangles are equal.
Y 2
Fig. 307.
824
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II
Fig. 309.
Fig. 310.
Because AC is to DG as FM is to BL, the product or rectangle of the extremes AC,
BL is (Prop. 67.) equal to the product or rectangle of the means DG, FM. The halves
(Corol. to Prop. 27.) of these two rectangles,
namely, triangles ABC, DFG, are therefore
equal.
955. PROP. LXXVII. Two secants drawn
from the same point to a circle are in the inverse
ratio of the parts which lie out of the circle.
Let the two secants be C A,' CB (fig. 310.);
CA is to CB as CD is to CF. Draw the
right lines FB, DA.
In the triangles CD A, CFB the angles
at the circumference A and B, being both
measured (Prop. 42.) by half the arc FD, are
equal, and the angle C is common to the two triangles. These two triangles are there-
fore (Prop. 23.) equiangular and (Prop. 61.) have their sides proportional. Wherefore
the side CA of the first triangle is to the side CB of the second triangle as the side CD
of the first triangle is to the side CF of the second triangle.
956. PROP. LXXVIII. The tangent to a circle is a mean proportional between the secant
and the part of the secant which lies out of the circle.
In the circle ABD, CB (fig. 311.) being secant, and CA tangent, CB is to CA as CA
is to CD. Draw the right lines AB, AD.
The triangles CAB, CD A have the angle C common to both. Also
the angle B is measured (Prop. 42.) by half the arc AFD ; and the
angle CAD formed by the tangent AC and the chord AD is measured
(Prop. 41.) by half the same arc AFD. The two triangles CAB, CD A,
having their two angles equal, are (Prop. 23.), equiangular, and con-
sequently (Prop. 61.) have their sides proportional. Hence the side
CB of the greater triangle opposite to the angle CAB is to the side
CA of the smaller triangle opposite to the angle D as the side CA of
the greater triangle opposite to the angle B is to the side CD of the
smaller triangle opposite to the angle A.
COROLLARY. From this proposition is suggested a new method of
finding a mean proportional between two given lines.
Take CB equal to one of the given lines, and CD equal to the other ; bisect DB ; from
the point of division, as a centre, describe the circumference DAB ; and draw the tangent
CA. This tangent is a mean proportional between CB and CD, as appears from the
proposition.
957. PROP. LXXIX. To cut a given line in extreme and mean
ratio.
Let it be required to divide the line CA (fig. 312.) in extreme and
mean ratio ; that is, to divide it in such a manner that the whole line
shall be to the greater part as the greater part is to the less.
At the extremity A of the line CA raise a perpendicular AG equal
to half the line CA ; from the point G, as a centre, with the radius G A,
describe the circumference ADB ; draw the line CB through the centre,
and take CF equal to CD ; the line CA will be divided at the point F
in extreme and mean ratio.
Because (Prop. 78.) CB is to CA as CA is to CD, by division,
(Prop. 71.) CB wanting CA or its equal DB is to CA, as CA wanting
CD or its equal CF is to CD ; that is, CD or CF is to CA, as FA is to CD or CF;
or, inversely, CA is to CF as CF is to FA, or the line AC is cut in extreme and
mean ratio.
SIMILAR FIGURES.
958. DEFINITIONS. — 1. Figures are similar which are composed of an equal number of
physical points disposed in the same manner. Thus,
the figures ABCDF, abcdf(fig. 313.) are similar, if
every point of the first figure has its corresponding
point placed in the same manner in the second.
Hence it follows, that if the first figure is, for example,
three times greater than the second, the points of
which it is composed are three times greater than
those of the second figure.
2. In similar figures, those lines are said to be homologous
which are composed of an equal number of corresponding points.
CHAP. I.
GEOMETRY.
325
Fig. 314.
Fig. 31 5.
959. PROP. LXXX. In similar figures the homologous sides are proportional.
Let the similar figures be ABCDF, abcdf (fig. 314.), and the homologous lines CA, ca,
CF, cf; CA is to CF as ca to cf.
Since the lines CA, ca are homologous, they are composed
of an equal number of corresponding points ; as are also the
homologous lines CF, cf. If, for instance, the line CA is
composed of 40 equal points, and the line CF of 30, the B<
line ca will necessarily be composed of 40 points, and the line
cf of 30 ; and it is manifest that 40 is to 30 as 40 to 30.
Therefore C A is to CF as ca to cf.
960. PROP. LXXXI. The circumferences of circles are as their radii.
The circumference DCB (Jig. 315.) is to the radius AB as the circumference deb is to
the radius ab.
All circles are similar figures, that is, are composed of an
equal number of points disposed in the same manner. They
have therefore (Prop. 80.) their homologous lines propor-
tional. Therefore the circumference DCB is to the radius
AB as the circumference deb is to the radius ab.
961. PROP. LXXXI I. Similar figures are to each other as
the squares of their homologous sides.
Let the two similar figures be A, a (fig. 316.) Upon the
homologous sides CD, cd form the squares B, b. The surface A is to the surface a as the
square B is to the square 6.
Since the figures A, a are similar, they are composed of an equal number of cor-
responding points ; and since the homologous sides CD, cd are com-
posed of an equal number of points, the squares drawn upon these lines
B, b are also composed of an equal number of points.
If it be supposed that the surface A is composed of 1000 points
and the square B of 400 points, the surface A will be also composed of
1000 points and the square b of 400. Now it is manifest that 1000
is to 400 as 1000 to 400. Wherefore the surface A is to the square B
as the surface a is to the square b ; and, alternately (Prop. 69.), the sur-
face A is to the surface a as the square B to the square b.
COROLLARY. It follows that if any three similar figures be formed upon the three sides
of a right-angled triangle, the figure upon the hypothenuse will be equal to the other two
taken together ; for these three figures will be as the squares of their sides ; therefore, since
the square of the hypothenuse is equal to the two squares of the other sides, the figure
formed upon the hypothenuse will also be equal to the two other similar figures formed
upon the other sides.
962. PROP. LXXXIII. Circles are to each other as the squares of their radii.
Let two circles DCB, deb (fig. 317.) be drawn. c
The surface contained within the circumference DCB is to /"^" ^\
the surface contained within the circumference deb as the / \,
square formed upon the radius AB to the square formed upon / \
the radius ab. A- 1
Fig. 316.
of an \ /
LB,a& \ /
ires of DX '
©'
d> /
the
The two circles, being similar figures, are composed
equal number of corresponding points, and the radii AB,
being composed of an equal number of points, the squares of
these radii will also be composed of an equal number of points. Fig- 317.
Suppose, for example, that the greater circle DCB is composed of 800 points, and the
square of the greater radius AB of 300 points, the smaller circle deb will also be composed
of 8OO points, and the square of the smaller radius of 300. Now it is manifest that 800 is
to 300 as 800 to 300. Therefore the greater circle DCB is to the square of its radius AB
as the smaller circle deb is to the square of its radius ab ; and, alternately, the greater circle is
to the lesser circle as the greater square is to the lesser square.
963. PROP. LXXXIV. Similar triangles are equiangular.
If the two triangles ABC, abc (fig. 318.) be composed of an equal number of points
disposed in the same manner, they are equiangular.
For, since the triangles ABC, abc are similar figures, they
have their sides (Prop. 80.) proportional ; they are therefore
(Prop. 62.) equiangular.
964. PKOP. LXXXV. Equiangular triangles are similar,
If the triangles ABC, abc are equiangular, they are also
similar. See fig. 318.
If the triangle ABC were not similar to the triangle abc, Fig. sis.
another triangle might be formed upon the line AC ; for example, ADC, which should be
similar to the triangle abc. Now, the triangle ADC, being similar to the triangle abct
Y 3
S26
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
c
Fig. 319.
will also (Prop. 84.) be equiangular to dbc ; which is impossible, since the triangle ABC
is supposed equiangular to abc.
965. PROP. LXXXVT. If four lines are proportional, their squares are also proportional.
If the line AB be to the line AC as the line AD is to the line AF {fig. 319,), the square
of the line AB will be to the square of the line AC A B
as the square of the line AD is to the square of the A
line AF.
With the lines AB and AD form an angle B AD ;
with the lines AC and AF form another angle CAF
equal to the angle BAD, and draw the right lines ,
BD, CF.
Because A B is to AC as AD to A F, and the con-
tained angles are equal, the two triangles BAD, CAF
have their sides about equal angles proportional ; they are therefore (Prop. 63.) equiangular,
and consequently (Prop. 85.) similar : whence they are to one another (Prop. 82.) as
the squares of their homologous sides. If, then, the triangle BAD be a third part of
the triangle CAF, the square of the side AB will be a third part of the square of the side
AC, and the square of the side AD will be a third part of the square of the side AF.
Wherefore these four squares will be proportional.
966. PROP. LXXXVII. Similar rectilineal figures may be divided into an equal number
of similar triangles.
Let the similar figures be ABCDF, abcdf, and draw the homologous lines CA, ca, CF, cf;
these two figures will be divided into an equal number of
similar triangles.
The triangles BCA, bca {fig. 320.), being composed of an
equal number of corresponding points, are similar. The
triangles AC F,«c/ and the triangles FCD,/c<2 are also, for B<
the same reason, similar. Wherefore the similar figures
ABCDF,a&crf/"are divided into an equal number of similar
triangles.
967. PROP. LXXXVIII. Similar figures are equiangular.
The similar figures ABCDF, abcdf (see fig. preced. Prop.) have their angles equal.
Draw the homologous lines CA, ca, CF, cf. The triangles BCA, bca are similar, and con-
sequently equiangular. Therefore the angle B is equal to the angle 6, the angle BAC to
the angle bac, and the angle BCA to the angle bca. The triangles ACF,ac/, FCD,/cd
are also equiangular, because they are similar. Therefore all the angles of the similar
figures ABCDF, abcdf are equal.
968. PROP. LXXXIX. Equiangular figures the sides of which are proportional are
similar.
If the figures ABCDF,afecc?f (fig. 321.) have their angles equal and their sides propor-
tional, they are similar. Draw the right lines CA, co,
CF,cf.
The triangles CBA, cba, have two sides proportional and
the contained angle equal; they are therefore (Prop. 63.)
equiangular, and consequently (Prop. 85.) similar. The
lines CA,ca are therefore (Prop. 80.) proportional.
The triangles CAF, caf have two sides proportional and
the contained angle equal; for if from the equal angles
BAF, baf be taken the equal angles BAC, bac, there will remain the equal angles CAF,
caf. These two triangles are therefore equiangular, and consequently similar. In the
same manner it may be proved that the triangles CFD, cfd are similar.
The two figures ABCDF, abcdf are then composed of an equal number of similar triangles ;
that is, they are composed of an equal number of points disposed in the same manner, or
are similar.
Fig. 321.
969. DEFINITIONS. — 1 . A plane is a surface, such that if a right
touch it in two points it will touch it in every other point.
The surface of a fluid at rest, or of a well-polished table, may
be considered as a plane.
2. A right line is perpendicular to a plane if it make right
angles with all lines which can be drawn from any point in
that plane. Thus B A (fig. 322.) is perpendicular to the plane
MLGFPN, because it makes right angles with the lines AM,
AL, AG, &c. drawn from the point A.
3. Let AB (fig. 323.) be the common intersection of two planes.
line applied to it
CHAP. I.
GEOMETRY.
327
'---...j::::^
L JD-!G
Fig. 325.
If two right lines LM, FG be drawn, in these two planes, perpendicular to the line
AB, these will form four an-
gles at the point C, which are
called the inclinations of the
two planes, or the angles
formed by the two planes.
4. If the line AB (fig. 324.)
revolve about itself, with-
out changing its place, the
line AC, which makes an M
acute angle with AB, will F1s-323' Flg-524-
describe in the revolution a concave surface LAC ; and the line AD, which makes
an obtuse angle with AB, will describe in the revolution a convex surface MAD.
5. But the line AF (fig. Defin. 2.), which makes a right angle with AB, will de-
scribe in the revolution a surface which will be neither con-
cave nor convex, but plane : and the line AB will be perpendi- w .,-- -^
cular to the plane MLGFPN, because it will make right angles
with the lines AM, AL, AG, &c. drawn from the point A in
that plane.
6. Two planes are parallel when all perpendiculars drawn from
one to the other are equal. Seefiff. 325., wherein AB, CD
are equal between the surfaces LM, FG.
970. PROP. XC. A perpendicular is the shortest line which can be
drawn from any point to a plane.
From the point B (fig. 326.), let the right line BA be drawn
perpendicular to the plane DF; any other line, as BC, will be longer than the line BA.
Upon the plane draw the right line AC.
Because the line BA is perpendicular to the plane DF, the angle BAG is a right angle.
The square of BC is therefore (Prop. 32.) equal to the squares „
of BA and AC taken together. Consequently the square of BC
is greater than the square of BA, and the line BC longer than
the line BA.
971. PROP. XCI. A perpendicular measures the distance of any
point from a plane.
The distance of one point from another is measured by a right
line, because it is the shortest line which can be drawn from one
point to another. So the distance from a point to a line is measured
by a perpendicular, because this line is the shortest which can be drawn from the point
to the line. In like manner, the distance from a point to a plane must be measured by
a perpendicular drawn from that point to the plane, because this is the shortest line which
can be drawn from the point to the plane.
972. PROP. XCI I. The common intersection of two planes is aright line.
Let the two planes ALBMA, AFBGA (fig. 327.) intersect each other; the line which
is common to both is a right line. Draw a right line from the point
A to the point B.
Because the right line AB touches the two planes in the points
A and B, it will touch them (Defin. 1.) in all other points ; this line
therefore, is common to the two planes. Wherefore the common
intersection of the two planes is a right line.
973. PROP. XCI 1 1. If three points, not in a right line, are com-
mon to two planes, these two planes are one and the same plane.
Let two planes be supposed to be placed upon one another, in such
manner that the three points A, B, C shall be common to the two
planes ; all their other points will also be common, and the two planes will be one and
the same plane. The point D, for example, is common to bo'h planes. Draw the right
lines AB, CD,
Because the right line AB (fig. 328.) touches the two planes in the points A and B, it
will touch them (Defin. 1.) in every other point; it will therefore
touch them in the point F. The point F is therefore common to
the two planes.
Again, because the right line CD touches the two pknes in the
points C and F, it will touch them in the point D ; therefore the
point D is common to the two planes. The same may be shown
concerning every other point. Wherefore the two planes coincide
in all points, or are one and the same plane.
974. PROP. XCIV. If a right line be perpendicular to two right lines which cut each other,
it will be perpendicular to the plane of these right lines.
\
M
Fig. 327.
C
Fig. 328.
328
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
Let the line AB (fig. 329.) make right angles with the lines AC, AD, it will be perpen-
dicular to the plane which passes through these lines.
If the line AB were not perpendicular to the FDCG, another plane
might be made to pass through the point A, to which the AB would
be perpendicular. But this is impossible ; for, since the angles BAC,
BAD are right angles, this other plane (Defin. 2.) must pass through
the points C, D; it would therefore (Prop. 93.) be the same with the
plane FDCG, since these two planes would have three common points
A, C, D.
975. PROP. XCV. From a given point in a plane to raise a perpen-
dicular to that plane.
Let it be required to raise a perpendicular from the point A (fig. 330.) in the plane LM.
Form a rectangle CDFG, divide it into two
rectangles, having a common section AB, and
place these rectangles upon the plane LM in
such a manner that the bases of the two rect-
angles AC, AG shall be in the plane LM, and
form any angle with each other; the line AB
shall be perpendicular to the plane LM. The
line AB makes right angles with the two lines
AC, AG, which, by supposition, are in the plane
LM; it is therefore (Prop. 94.) perpendicular
to the plane LM.
976. PROP. XCVI. If two planes cut each
other at right angles, and a right line be drawn in one of the planes perpendicular to their
common intersection, it will be perpendicular to the other plane.
Let the two planes AFBG, ALBM (fig. 331.), cut each other at right angles; if the
line LC be perpendicular to their common intersection, it is also per-
pendicular to the plane AFBG. Draw CG perpendicular to AB.
Because the lines CL, CG are perpendicular to the common in-
tersection AB, the angle LCG (Defin. 3.) is the angle of inclination
of the two planes. Since the two planes cut each other perpendi-
cularly, the angle of inclination LCG is therefore a right angle.
And because the line LC is perpendicular to the two lines CA, CG
in the plane ABFG, it is (Prop. 94.) perpendicular to the plane
AFBG.
977. PROP. XCVII. If one plane meet another plane, it makes
angles with that other plane, which are together equal to two right angles.
Let the plane ALBM (fig. 332.) meet the plane AFBG ; these planes will make with each
other two angles, which will together be equal to two right angles.
Through any point C draw the lines FG, LM perpendicular to the line
AB. The line CL makes with the line FG two angles together equal
to two right angles. But these two angles are (Defin. 3.) the angles
of inclination of the two planes. Therefore the two planes make
angles with each other, which are together equal to two right angles.
COROLLARY. It may be demonstrated in the same manner that
planes which intersect each other have their vertical angles equal, that
parallel planes have their alternate angles equal, &c.
978. PROP. XCVIII. If two planes be parallel to each other,
a right line, which is perpendicular to one of the planes, will be also perpendicular to tho
other.
Let the two planes LM, FG (fig. 333.) be parallel. If the line B A
be perpendicular to the plane FG, it will also be perpendicular to the
plane LM. From any point C in the plane LM draw CD perpen-
dicular to the plane FG, and draw BC, AD.
Because the lines B A, CD are perpendicular to the plane FG, the
angles A, D are right angles. ^ — - 4..,
Because the planes LM, FG are parallel, the perpendiculars AB, F(^ Al D}<
DC (Defin. 6.) are equal ; whence it follows that the lines BC, AD ^~~ : — ''
are parallel.
The line BA, being at right angles to the line AD, will also (Prop. 13.) be at right
angles to the parallel line BC. The line BA is therefore perpendicular to the line BC.
In the same manner it may be demonstrated that the line BA is at right angles to all
other lines which can be drawn from the point B in the plane LM. Wherefore (Defin. 2.)
the line BA is perpendicular to the plane LM.
V
R
\
\
\
A
\
\
\
G
M
Pig. 331.
CHAP. I.
GEOMETRY.
329
979. DEFINITIONS. — 1 . A solid, as we have before observed, is that which has length,
breadth, and thickness.
2. A polyhedron is a solid terminated by plane surfaces.
3. A prism is a solid terminated by two identical plane bases
parallel to each other, and by surfaces which are parallelo-
grams. (Fig. 334.)
4. A parallelopiped is a prism the bases of which are parallelo-
grams. (Fig. 335.)
5. A cube is a solid terminated by six square surfaces : a die,
for example, is a cube. (Fig. 336.)
6. If right lines be raised from every point in the perimeter of
Fig. 334.
Fig. 355.
any rectilineal figure, and meet in one common point, these lines together with the
rectilineal figure inclose a solid which
is called a pyramid. (Fig. 337.)
7. A cylinder is a solid terminated by two
bases, which are equal and parallel cir-
cles, and by a convex surface ; or it is a
solid formed by the revolution of a pa-
rallelogram about one of its sides.
(Fig. 338.) Fig. 336. Fig. 337. Fig. 338.
8. If right lines be raised from every point
in the circumference of a circle, and meet in one common point, these lines together
with the circle inclose a solid, which
is called a cone. (Fig. 339.)
9. A semicircle revolving about its diame-
ter forms a solid, which is called a
sphere. (Fig. 340.)
10. If from the vertex of a solid a perpen-
dicular be let fall upon the opposite
plane, this perpendicular is called the
altitude of the solid. In the pyramids
ACD, Acd (fig. 341.), AB, ab are
Fig. 339.
Fig. 340.
Fig. 341.
11,
their respective altitudes.
Solids are said to be equal, if they inclose an equal space : thus a cone and a pyramid
are equal solids if the space inclosed within the cone be equal to the space inclosed
within the pyramid.
1 2. Similar solids are such as consist of an equal number of physical points disposed in
the same manner.
Thus (in the fig. Defin. 10.) the larger pyramid ACD and the smaller pyramid Acd are
similar solids if every point in the larger pyramid has a point corresponding to it in the
smaller pyramid. A hundred musket balls, and the same number of cannon balls, disposed
in the same manner, form two similar solids.
980. PROP. XCIX. The solid content of a cube is equal to the product of one of its sides
tiuice multiplied by itself.
Let the lines AB, AD (fig. 342.) be equal. Let the line AD, drawn perpendicular to
AB, be supposed to move through the whole length of AB ; when it
arrives at BC, and coincides with it, it will have formed the square DABC,
and will have been multiplied by the line AB.
Next let the line AF be drawn equal to AD, and perpendicular to the
plane DABC ; suppose the plane DABC to move perpendicularly through
the whole length of the line AF; when it arrives at the plane MFGL,
and coincides with it, it will have formed the cube AFLC, and will have
been multiplied by the line AF.
Hence it appears, that to form the cube AFLC, it is necessary, first, to multiply the sido
AD by the side AB equal to AD ; and then to multiply the product, that is, the square
of AC, by the side AF equal to AD; that is, it is
necessary to multiply AD by AD, and to multiply the pro-
duct again by AD.
981. PROP. C. Similar solids have their homologous lines pro-
portional,
Let the two solids A, a (fig. 343.) be similar ; and let their
homologous lines be AB, ab, BG,bg; AB will be to BG at
ab to bg.
Because the solids A, a are similar, every point in the solid
A has a point corresponding to it, and disposed in the same
Fig. 342.
330
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
manner, in the solid a. Thus, if the line AB is composed of 20 physical points, and the
line B G of 10, the line db will be composed of 20 corresponding points, and the line bg
of 10. Now it is evident that 20 is to 10 as 20 is to 10 : therefore AB is to BG as ab to bg.
982. PROP. CI. Similar solids are equiangular.
Let the solids (see fig. to preced. Prop.) A, a be similar ; their corresponding angles are
equal.
Because the solids A, a are similar, the surfaces BAF, ba.fa.re composed of an equal
number of points disposed in the same manner. These surfaces are therefore similar
figures, and consequently (Prop. 88.) equiangular. The angles B, A, Fare therefore equal
to the angles b, a, f. In the same manner it may be demonstrated that the other cor-
respondent angles are equal.
983. PROP. CII. Solids which have their angles equal and their sides proportional are
similar.
If the solids A, a (fig. 344.) have their angles equal and their sides proportional, they
are similar.
For if the solids A, a were not similar, another solid might be
formed upon the line BF similar to the solid a. But this is im-
possible ; for, in order to form this other solid, some angle or
some side of the solid A must be increased or diminished ;
and then this new solid would not have all its angles equal and
all its sides proportional to those of the solid a, that is (Prop.
100, 101.), would not be similar.
984. PROP. CII I. Similar solids are to one another as the cubes
of their homologous sides.
Let A, a (see fig. to preced. Prop.) be two similar solids, the solid A contains the solid a
as many times as the cube formed upon the side BF contains the cube formed upon the
side bf.
Because the solid A is similar to the solid a, every point in the solid A has its cor-
responding point in the solid a. From whence it follows, that if the side BF is composed,
for example, of 50 points, the side bf will also be composed of 50 points : and conse-
quently the cubes formed upon the sides BF, bf will be composed of an equal number
of points.
Let it then be supposed that the solid A is composed of 4000 points, and the cube of
the side BF of 5000 points ; the solid A must be composed of 4000 points, and the cube
of the side bf of 5000 points. Now it is evident that 4000 is to 50OO as 4000 to 5000.
Wherefore the solid A is to the cube of BF as the solid a to the cube of bf; and, alter-
nately, the solid A is to the solid a as the cube of BF to the cube of bf.
COROLLARY. It may be demonstrated in the same manner that the spheres A, a
(fig. 345.), which are similar solids, are to
one another as the cubes of their radii A B, *>£ — /
ab.
985. PROP. CIV. The solid content of
a perpendicular prism is equal to the product
of its base and height.
The solid content of the perpendicular
prism ABCD (fig. 346.) is equal to the
product of its base AD, and height AB.
If the lower base AD be supposed to move perpendicularly along the height AB till it
coincides with the upper base BC, it will have formed the prism ABCD. Now the base
AD will have been repeated as many times as there are physical points in the height AB.
Therefore the solid content of the prism ABCD is equal to the product of the base mul-
tiplied by the height.
COROLLARY. In the same manner it may be demonstrated that the solid content of the
perpendicular cylinder ABCD is equal to the product of its base AD and height AB.
986. PROP. CV. The solid content of an inclined prism is equal to the product of its base
and height.
Let the inclined prism be CP (fig. 347.), it is equal to the product of its base RP
and its height CD.
Conceive the base NB of the perpendicular prism NA, and
the base RP of the inclined prism PC, to move on in the same
time parallel to themselves ; when they have reached the points M
A and C, each of them will have been taken over again the
same number of times. But the base NB will have been taken
over again (Prop. 104.) as many times as there are physical points
in the height CD. The base RP will therefore have been taken
over again as many times as there are physical points in CD.
Consequently the solid content of the inclined prism CP is equal to the product of its
base RP and the height CD.
Fig. 345
Fig. MC.
CHAP. I.
GEOMETRY.
SSI
Tig. 348.
987. PROP. CVI. In a pyramid, a section parallel to the base is similar to the base.
Let the section cd be parallel to the base CD (fig. 348.) ; this section is a figure similar
to the base. Draw AB perpendicular to the base CD ; draw also
BC, be, BE, be.
Because the planes cd CD are parallel ; AB, being perpendicular to
the plane CD, will also (Prop. 98.) be perpendicular to the plane cd:
whence the triangles Abe, ABC, having the angles b, B right angles,
and the angle A common, are equiangular. Therefore (Prop. 61.) Ab
is to AB as be to BC, and as Ac to AC.
In like manner it may be proved that Ab is to AB as be to
BE, and as Ae to AE. Consequently if Ab be one third part of AB,
DC will be one third part of BC, be the same of BE, Ac of AC, and Ae
of AE.
Again, in the two triangles cAe, CAE, there are about the angle A, common to both,
two sides proportional; they are therefore (Prop. 63.) equiangular, and consequently
(Prop. 61.) have their other sides proportional. Therefore ce will be proportional to
CE.
The two triangles cbe, CBE, having their sides proportional, are therefore (Prop. 89.)
similar. The same may be demonstrated concerning all the other triangles which form the
planes cd, CD. Therefore the section cd is similar to the base CD.
REMARK. If the perpendicular AB fall out of the base ; by drawing lines from the
points 6, B, it may be demonstrated in the same manner that the section is similar to the
base.
988. PROP. CVI I. In a pyramid, sections parallel to the base are to one another as the
squares of their heights.
Let CD cd (fig. 349.) be parallel sections. From the vertex A draw a perpendicular
AB to the plane CD : the plane cd is to the plane CD as the square of
the height Aft is to the square of the height AB. Draw BC, be.
The line AB, being perpendicular to the plane CD, will also (Prop.
98.) be perpendicular to the parallel plane cd: whence the angle Abe
is a right angle, and also the angle ABC. Moreover, the angle at A
is common to the two triangles Abe, ABC ; these two triangles, there-
fore, are equiangular. Therefore (Prop. 61.) the side cb is to the side
CB as the side Ab is to the side AB ; and consequently the square of
cb is to the square of CB as the square of A6 to the square of AB.
The planes cd, CD, being (Prop. 106.) similar figures, are to one c
another (Prop. 82.) as the squares of .the homologous lines cb, CB ; Fig. 349.
they are therefore also as the squares of the heights Ab, AB.
COROLLARY. In the same manner it may be demonstrated that in a cone the sections
parallel to the base are to one another as the squares of the heights or perpendicular dis-
tances from the vertex.
989. PROP. CVIIL Pyramids of the same height are to one another as their bases.
Let A, F (fig. 350.) be two pyramids. If the perpendicular AB be equal to the perpen-
dicular FG, the pyramid A is to the pyramid F
as the base CD to the base LM. Supposing,
for example, the base CD to be triple of the base
LM, the pyramid A will be triple of the py-
ramid F.
Two sections «d, Im, being taken at equal
heights Ab, Fg, the section cd is (Prop. 107.)
to the base CD as the square of the height Ab
to the square of the height AB ; and the section
Ini is to the base LM as the square of the
height Fg to the square of the height FG.
And because the heights are equal, AB to FG, and Ab to Fg, the section cd is to the base
CD as the section Im to the base LM ; and, alternately, the section cd is to the section Im as
the base CD is to the base LM. But the base CD is triple of the base LM, therefore
the section cd is also triple of the section Im.
Because the heights AF, FG are equal, it is manifest that the two pyramids are com-
posed of an equal number of physical surfaces placed one upon another. Now it may be
demonstrated in the same manner that every surface or section of the pyramid A is triple
of the corresponding surface or section of the pyramid F. Therefore the whole pyramid
A is triple of the whole pyramid F.
COROLLARY. Pyramids of the same height and equal bases are equal, since they are to
one another as their bases.
990. PROP. CIX. A pyramid whose base is that of a cube and whose vertex is at the centre
of the cube is equal to a third part of the product of its height and base.
332
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
Fig. 351.
Let the cube AM and the pyramid C (fig. 351.) hare the same base AD, and let the ver-
tex of the pyramid be at the centre of the cube C ; this pyramid
is equal to a third part of the product of its height and base.
Conceive right lines drawn from the centre of the cube to its
eight angles A, B, D, F, N, G, L, M, the cube will be divided into
six equal pyramids, each of which has one surface of the cube for
its base, and half the height of the cube for its height ; for
example, the pyramid CABDF.
Three of these pyramids will therefore be equal to half the
cube. Now the solid content of half the cube is (Prop. 99.)
equal to the product of the base and half the height. Each pyramid, therefore, will be
equal to one third part of the product of the base, and half the height of the cube ; that is,
the whole height of the pyramid.
991 . PROP. CX. The solid content of a pyramid is equal to a third part of the product of
its height and base,
Let RPS (fig. 352.) be a pyramid, its solid content is equal to a third part of the pro-
duct of its height and its base RS.
Form a cube the height of which BL is double of the height
of the pyramid RPS. A pyramid the base of which is that of
this cube and the vertex of which is C, the centre of the cube,
will be equal to a third part of the product of its base and
height.
The pyramids C and P have the same height ; they are there-
fore (Corol. to Prop. 108.) to one another as their bases. If the
base AFDB is double of the base RS, the pyramid C will there- Fig. 562.
fore be double of the pyramid P.
But the pyramid C is equal to a third part of the product of its height and base. The
pyramid P will therefore be equal to a third part of the product of the same height, and
half the base AFDB, or, which is the same thing, the whole base RS.
992. PROP. CXI. The solid content of a cone is equal to the third part of the product of
its height and base,
For the base of a cone may be considered as a polygon composed of exceedingly small
sides, and consequently the cone may be considered as a pyramid having a great number
of exceedingly small surfaces ; whence its solid contents will be equal (Prop. 110.) to one
third part of the product of its height and base.
993. PROP. CXII. The solid content of a cone is a third part of the solid content of a
cylinder described about it.
Let the cone BAC and the cylinder BDFC (fig. 353.) have the same height and
base, the cone is a third part of the cylinder.
For the cylinder is equal to the product of its height and base, and the
cone is equal to a third part of this product. Therefore the cone is a third
part of the cylinder.
994. PROP. CXIII. The solid content of a sphere is equal to a third part
of the product of its radius and surface.
Two points not being sufficient to make a curve line, three points will
not be sufficient to make a curve surface. If, therefore, all the physical
points which compose the surface of the sphere C (fig. 354.) be taken three
by three, the whole surface will be divided into exceedingly small plane surfaces ; and radii
being drawn to each of these points, the sphere will be divided into small
pyramids, which have their vertex at the centre, and have plane bases.
The solid contents of all these small pyramids will be equal (Prop. 110.)
to a third part of the product of the height and bases. Therefore the solid
content of the whole sphere will be equal to a third part of the product of
the height and all the bases, that is, of its radius and surface.
995. PROP. CXIV. The surface of a sphere is equal to four of its great
circles. Fi«- 354-
If a plane bisect a sphere, the section will pass through the centre, and it is called a great
circle of the sphere.
Let ABCD (fig. 355.) be a square ; describe the fourth part of the circumference of a
circle BLD; draw the diagonal AC, the right line FM, parallel to AD,]?
and the right line AL.
In the triangle ABC, on account of the equal sides AB, BC, the angles
A and C are (Prop. 4.) equal ; therefore, since the angle B is a right angle,
the angles A and C are each half a right angle. Again, in the triangle
AFG, because the angle F is a right angle, and the angle A half a right
angle, the angle G is also half a right angle ; therefore (Prop. 26.) AF is
equal to FG.
Fig. 353.
CHAP. I. GEOMETRY. 333
The radius AL is equal to the radius AD : but AD is equal to FM ; therefore AL is
equal to FM.
In the rectangular triangle AFL the square of the hypothenuse AL is equal (Prop. 32.)
to the two squares of AF and FL taken together. Instead of AL put its equal FM, and
instead of AF put its equal FG ; and the square of FM will be equal to the two squares
of FG and FL taken together.
Conceive the square A BCD to revolve about the line AB. In the revolution the square
will describe a cylinder, the quadrant a hemisphere, and the triangle ABC an inverted
cone the vertex whereof will be in A. Also the line FM will form a circular section of a
cylinder, the line FL will form a circular section of a hemisphere, and the line FG a cir-
cular section of a cone.
These circular sections, or circles, are to each other (Prop. 83.) as the squares of their
radii ; therefore, since the square of the radius FM is equal to the squares of the radii FL
and FG, the circular section of the cylinder will be equal to the circular sections of the
hemisphere and cone.
In the same manner it may be demonstrated that all the other sections or circular sur-
faces whereof the cylinder is composed are equal to the corresponding sections or surfaces
of the hemisphere and cone. Therefore the cylinder is equal to the
hemisphere and cone taken together: but the cone (Prop. 112.) is
equal to a third part of the cylinder ; the hemisphere is therefore
equal to the remaining two thirds of the cylinder ; and consequently
the hemisphere is double of the cone. The cone BSC (fig. 356.) is
(Prop. 111.) equal to a third part of the product of the radius and
base BC, which is a great circle of the sphere : the hemisphere ALD
is therefore equal to a third part of the product of the radius and
two of its great circles ; and consequently the whole sphere is equal
to a third part of the product of the radius and four of its great circles.
Lastly, since the sphere is equal (Prop. 11 3.) to a third part of
the product of the radius and surface of the sphere, and also to a third part of the pro-
duct of the radius and four of its great circles, the surface of the sphere is equal to four
of its great circles.
SECT. III.
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
996. Practical Geometry is the art of accurately delineating on a plane surface any
plane figure. It is the most simple species of geometrical drawing, and the most generally
useful ; for the surfaces of buildings and other objects are more frequently plane than
curved, and they must be drawn with truth, and of the required proportions, before they can
be properly executed, unless in cases where the extreme simplicity of the form renders
it improbable that mistakes should arise. It has been denned as the art which directs
the mechanical processes for finding the position of points, lines, surfaces, and planes,
with the description of such figures on diagrams as can be intelligibly understood by de-
finition, according to given dimensions and positions of lines, points, &c.
No part of a building or drawing can be laid down or understood without the assistance
of practical geometry, nor can any mechanical employment in the building department be
conducted without some assistance from this branch of the science. Cases frequently occur
requiring a knowledge of very complex problems, as in masonry, carpentry, and joinery ;
but these will be given in other parts of this work.
The demonstration of most of the following problems will be found in the preceding
section ; we therefore refer the reader back to it for definitions, and for the proof of
those enunciations which will follow.
PROBLEMS.
997. PROBLEM I. To bisect a line AB ; that is, to divide it into two equal parts.
From the two centres A and B (fig. 357.) with any equal radii describe arcs of circles
intersecting each other in C and D, and draw the line CD. This will bisect the given
line in the point E.
998. PROS. II. To bisect an angle B AC.
From the centre A (fig. 358.) with any radius describe an arc cutting off the equal
lines AD, AE ; and from the two centres D, E, with the same radius describe arcs in-
tersecting in F, then draw AF, and it will bisect the angle A, as required.
999. PROS. III. At a given point C in a line AB to erect a perpendicular.
834
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
D
Fig. 357.
E b
From the given point C (fig. 359.) with any radius cut off any equal parts CD, CE
of the given line; and from the two c
centres D and E with any one radius de- A
scribe arcs intersecting in F. Then join
CF, and it will be the perpendicular re-
quired.
Otherwise — When the given point C A
is near the end of the line.
From any point D (fig. 360.) assumed
above the line as a centre, through the
given point C describe a circle cutting
the given line at E, and through E and
the centre D draw the diameter EDF ;
then join CF, and it will be the perpendicular required.
1000. PROB. IV. From a given point A to let fall a perpendicular on a line BC.
From the given point A (fig. 361.) as a
centre with any convenient radius describe an
arc cutting the given line at two points D
and E ; and from the two centres D and E
with any radius describe two arcs intersecting
at F; then draw AF, and it will be the
perpendicular to BC required.
Otherwise — When the given point is
nearly opposite the end of the line.
From any point D in the given line BC
(fig. 362.) as a centre, describe the arc of
a circle through the given point A cutting
BC in E ; and from the centre E with the
radius EA describe another arc cutting the former in F; then draw AGF, which will be
the perpendicular to BC required.
1001. PROB. V. At a given point A, in a ^A E
line AB, to make an angle equal to a given
angle C.
From the centres A and C (fig. 363.)
with any radius describe the arcs DE, FG ;
then with F as a centre, and radius DE, de-
scribe an arc cutting FG in G ; through
G draw the line AG, which will form the
angle required.
1002. PROB. VI. Through a given point
C to draw a line parallel to a given line AB.
Fig. 360.
F
Fig 861.
Fig. 362.
Fig. 363.
Case I.
f
Take any point d in AB (fig. 364.) ;
upon d and C, with the distance Cd, describe
two arcs, eC and df, cutting AB in e and d.
Make df equal to eC ; and through /draw
C/, and it will be the line required.
e
Fig. 364.
Case II.
When the parallel is to be drawn at a given distance from AB,
From any two points c and d in the line AB, with a radius equal to the given distance
describe the arcs e and/; draw the line CB to touch those arcs without cutting them, and
it will be parallel to AB, as required.
1003. PROB. VII. To divide a line AB into any proposed number of equal parts.
Draw any other line AC (fig. 365.), forming any angle with
the given line AB ; on the latter set off as many of any equal
parts AD, DE, EF, FC as those into which the line AB
is to be divided; join BC, and parallel thereto draw the other
lines FG, EH, DI ; then these will divide AB, as required.
1004. PROB. VIII. To find a third proportional to two other
lines AB, AC.
Let the two given lines be placed to form any angle at A (fig. 366.), and in AB take
AD equal to AC; join BC, and draw DE parallel to it; then AE will be the third
proportional sought.
CHAP. I.
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
335
1005. PKOB. IX. To find a fourth proportional to three lines A B, AC, AD.
Let two of the lines AB,
AC (fig. 367.), be so
to form any angle
placed
as to lorm any angle at A,
and set out AD or AB ; join
BC, and parallel to it draw
DE; then AE will be the
fourth proportional required.
1006. PROB. X. To find a
mean proportional between two A
lines AB, BC.
Place AB, BC (fig. 368.)
Fig. 366.
Fig. 367.
joined together in one straight line AC, which bisect in the point O; then with the
centre O and radius
OA or OC describe
the semicircle ADC,
to meet which erect
the perpendicular BD,
which will be the
mean proportional be-
tween AB and BC
sought.
1007. PROB. XL To
find the centre of a
circle.
Draw any chord AB
Fig. 368.
Fig. 369.
Fig. 370.
(fig. 369.), and bisect perpendicularly with the line CD, which bisected in O will be the
centre required.
1008. PROB. XII. To describe the circumference of a circle through three points A, B, C.
From the middle point B (fig.370.) draw the chords BA, BC to the two other points,
and bisect these chords perpendicularly by lines meeting in O, which will be the centre ;
from the centre O, with the distance of any one of the points, as OA, describe a circle,
and it will pass through the two other points B A c
B, C, as required.
1009. PROB. XIII. To draw a tangent to a
circle through a given point A.
When the given point A (fig. 371.) is in the
circumference of the circle, join A and the
centre O, and perpendicular thereto draw
BAG, which will be the tangent required.
If the given point A (fig. 372.) be out of
the circle, draw AO to the centre O, on
Fig. 37 J.
Fig. 372.
Fig. 374.
which, as a diameter, describe a semicircle cutting the given circumference in D, through
which draw BADC, which will be the tangent required.
1010. PROB. XIV. To draw an equilateral
triangle on a given line AB.
From the centres A and B (fig. 373.)
with the distance AB describe arcs inter-
secting in C ; draw AC, BC, and ABC will
be the equilateral triangle.
101 1. PROB. XV. To make a triangle with
three given lines AB, AC, BC.
With the centre A and distance AC (fig.
374.) describe an arc; with the centre B and distance BC describe another arc cutting
the former in C ; draw AC, BC, and ABC will be the triangle required.
1012. PROB. XVI. To make a square on a
given line AB.
Raise AD, BC (fig. 375.) each perpendi-
cular and equal to AB, and join DC; then
ABCD will be the square sought.
1013. PROB. XVII. To inscribe a circle in
a given triangle ABC.
Bisect the angles at A and B with the two Fig. 375. Fig. 376.
lines AD, BD (fig. 376.); from the intersection D, which will be the centre of the
circle, draw the perpendiculars DE, DF, DG, and they will be the radii of the circle re-
quired.
1014. PROB. XVIII. To describe a circle about a given triangle ABC.
336
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
To inscribe an equilateral
Bisect any two sides with two of the perpendiculars DE, DF, DG (fig. 377.), and D
will be the centre of the circle.
1015. PROB. XIX.
triangle in a given circle.
Through the centre C draw any diameter AB
(fig. 378.) ; from the point B as a centre, with
the radius BC of the given circle, describe an
arc DCE ; join AD, AE, DE, and ADE is the
equilateral triangle sought.
1016. PROS. XX. To inscribe a square in a
given circle.
Fig. 377.
Fig. 378.
Fig. 379.
D
Fi^. 380
Draw two diameters AC, BD (fig. 379.) crossing at right angles in the centre E ; then
join the four extremities A, B, C, D with right
lines, and these will form the inscribed square
ABCD.
1017. PROB. XXI. To describe a square about
a given circle.
Draw two diameters AC, BD crossing at right
angles in the centre E (fig. 380.) ; then through
the four extremities of these draw FG, IH pa-
rallel to AC, and FI, GH parallel to BD, and
they will form the square FGHL
1018. PROB. XXII. To inscribe a circle in a given square.
Bisect the two sides FG, FI in the points B and A (see fig. 380.); then through these
two points draw AC parallel to FG or IH, and BD parallel to FI or GH. Then the
point of intersection E will be the centre, and the four lines EA, EB, EC, ED radii of the
inscribed circle.
1019. PKOB. XXIII. To cut a given line in extreme and mean ratio.
Let AB be the given line to be divided in extreme and mean ratio (^/fy. 381.); that is,
so that the whole line may be to the greater part
as the greater part is to the less part.
Draw BC perpendicular to AB, and equal to
half AB; join AC, and with the centre C and
distance CB describe the circle BDF; then with
the centre A and distance AD describe the arc
DE. Then AB will be divided in E in extreme
and mean ratio, or so that AB is to AE as AE is
to EB.
1020. PROB. XXIV. To inscribe an isosceles
triangle in a given circle that shall have each of the
angles at the base double the angle at the vertex.
Draw any diameter AB of the given circle (fig. 382.), and divide the radius CB in the
point D in extreme and mean ratio (by the last problem) ; from the point B apply the
chords BE, BF, each equal to the greater part
CD ; then join AE, AF, EF ; and AEF will be
triangle required.
1021. PROB. XXV. To inscribe a regular pen-
tagon in a given circle.
'inscribe the isosceles triangle AB (fig. 383.)
having each of the angles ABC, ACB double
the angle BAC (Prob. 24.); then bisect the
two arcs ADB, A EC, in the points D, E;
and draw the chords AD, DB, AE, EC ; then
ADBCE will be the inscribed equilateral triangle required.
1022. PROB. XXVI. To inscribe a regular hexagon in a circle.
Apply the radius of the given circle AO as a chord (fig. 384.) quite round the circum-
ference, and it will form the points thereon
of the regular hexagon ABCDEF.
1023. PROB. XXVII. To describe a re-
gular pentagon or hexagon about a circle.
In the given circle inscribe a regular
polygon of the same name or number of
sides as ABCDE (fig. 385.) by one of the
foregoing problems ; then to all its angu-
lar points draw (Prob. 13.) tangents, and
these will by their intersections form the
circumscribing polygon required.
Fig. 381.
Fig. 382.
Fig. 385.
Fig. 386.
CHAP. I.
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
337
Fig. 387.
Fig. 588.
1024. PROB. XXVIII. To inscribe a circle in a regular polygon.
Bisect any two sides of the polygon by the perpendiculars GO, FO (fig. 386.), and their
intersection O will be the centre of the inscribed circle, and OG or OF will be the
radius.
T025. PROB. XXIX. To describe a circle about a regular polygon.
Bisect any two of the angles C and D with the lines CO, DO (fig. 387.), then their
intersection O will be the centre of the cir-
cumscribing circle; and OC or OD will be
the radius.
1026. PROB. XXX. To make a triangle
equal to a given quadrilateral A BCD.
Draw the diagonal AC (fig. 388.), and
parallel to it DE, meeting BA produced at
E, and join CE; then will the triangle CEB
be equal to the given quadrilateral ABCD.
1027. PROB. XXXI. To make a triangle egual to a given pentagon ABCDE.
Draw DA and DB, and also EF, CG parallel to them (fig. 389.), meeting AB pro-
duced at F and G ; then draw DF and n
DG, so shall the triangle DFG be equal to ^^ CE
the given pentagon ABCDE.
1028. PROB. XXXII. To make a rect-
angle equal to a given triangle ABC.
Bisect the base AB in D (fig 390.), then
raise DE and B F perpendicular to AB, and
meeting CF parallel to AB at E and F. F
Then DF will be the rectangle equal to Fig. 389.
the given triangle ABC.
1029. PROB. XXXIII. To make a square equal to a given rectangle ABCD.
Produce one side AB till BE be equal to the other side BC (fig. 391.). On AE as a
diameter describe a circle meeting BC pro-
duced at F, then will BF be the side of
the square BFGH equal to the given rect-
angle BD, as required.
1030. PROB. XXXIV. To draw a cate-
nary.
A catenary being a curve into which a
perfectly flexible cord or chain will arrange
itself when suspended by its two extremities, it may thus be described. Let AB (fig. 392.)
be a given line from two points c, d, whereof the curve is to fall, and let C be the lowest point
in the curve. From two pins inserted at the points c and d suspend a fine cord or chain,
lengthening it till the lowest point of the crown touches C, then a pencil tracing its line
on the paper j the curve thus formed will be the catenary required.
1031. PROB. XXXV. To draw a cycloid.
If the circumference of a circle be rolled along a right line AB (fig. 393.) until any
point b, b in the circumference which was in contact with the c
line come again in contact with it, the point b will describe a
curve called a cycloid. Let the circle be BC, and the senri-
base be AB, which must be equal to the semi-circumference of
the circle. Draw any chords Cb, Cb, and parallel to AB draw
the horizontal lines ab, ab, making them respectively equal
to the length of the arcs cut off by the chords. Then through
the points a, a, so obtained, draw a curve line, and it will be
the cycloid required.
1032. PROB. XXXVI. To draw a diagonal scale.
Let it be of feet, tenths and hundredth parts of a foot. Set off on AB (fig. 394.) as
many times as necessary, the number of feet by equal
distances. Divide AG into ten equal parts. On AB
raise the perpendiculars BD, GG, and AC, and set off
on AC ten equal divisions of any convenient length,
through which draw horizontal lines. Then, from the
point G in DC to the first tenth part from G to A in
BA draw a diagonal, and parallel thereto the other
diagonals required. The intersections of these diago-
nals with the horizontal lines give hundredth parts of
a foot, inasmuch as each tenth is divided by the dia-
gonals into ten equal parts in descending.
Z
H B
Fig. 391.
Fig. 393.
338
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
SECT. IV.
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.
1 033. Plane Trigonometry is that branch of mathematics whose object is the investigation
and calculation of the sides and angles of plane triangles. It is of the greatest importance
to the architect in almost every part of his practice ; but the elements will be sufficient for
his use, without pursuing it into those more abstruse subdivisions which are essential in
the more abstract relations which connect it with geodisic operations.
1034. We have already observed that every circle is supposed to be divided into 360
equal parts, called degrees, and that each degree is subdivided into 60 minutes, these
minutes each into 60 seconds, and so on. Hence a semicircle contains 180 degrees, and a
quadrant 90 degrees.
1035. The measure of an angle is that arc of a circle contained between those two lines
which form the angle, the angular point being the centre, and such angle is estimated by
the number of degrees contained in the arc. Thus, a right angle whose measure is a
quadrant or quarter of the circle is one of 90 degrees (Prop. 22. Geometry) ; and the sum
of the three angles of every triangle, or two right angles, is equal to 180 degrees. Hence
in a right-angled triangle, one of the acute angles being taken from 90 degrees, the other
acute angle is known; and the sum of two angles in a triangle taken from 180 degrees
leaves the third angle ; or either angle taken from 180 degrees leaves the sum of the other
two angles.
1036. It is usual to mark the figure which denotes degrees with a small °: thus, 60°
means 60 degrees ; minutes are marked thus ' : hence, 45' means 45 minutes ; seconds are
marked thus ", 49" meaning 49 seconds ; and an additional comma issuperadded for thirds,
and so on. Thus, 58° 14' 25" is read 58 degrees, 14 minutes, 25 seconds.
1037. The complement of an arc is the quantity it wants of 90
degrees. Thus, AD (fig. 395.) being a quadrant, BD is the com-
plement of the arc AB, and, reciprocally, AB is the complement
of BD. Hence, if an arc AB contain 50 degrees, its complement
BD will be 4O.
1038. The supplement of an arc is that which it wants of 180
degrees. Thus, ADE being a semicircle, BDE is the supplement E
of the arc AB, which arc, reciprocally, is the supplement of BDE.
Thus, if AB be an arc of 50 degrees, then its supplement BDE
will be 130 degrees.
1039. The line drawn from one extremity of an arc perpendicu-
lar to a diameter passing through its other extremity is called a
sine or right sine. Thus, BF is the sine of the arc AB, or of the Fig. 395.
arc BDE. Hence the sine (BF) is half the chord (BG) of the double arc (BAG).
1 040. That part of the diameter intercepted between the arc and its sine is called the
versed sine of an arc. Thus, AF is the versed sine of the arc AB, and EF the versed sine
of the arc EDB.
1041 . The tangent of an arc is a line which touches one end of the arc, continued from
thence to meet a line drawn from the centre, through the other extremity, which last line is
called the secant of the arc. Thus, AH is the tangent and CH the secant of the arc
AB. So El is the tangent and CI the secant of the supplemental arc BDE. The latter
tangent and secant are equal to the former ; but, from being drawn in a direction opposite
or contrary to the former, they are denominated negative.
1042. The cosine of an arc is the right sine of the complement of that arc. Thus BF,
the sine of AB, is the cosine of BD.
1043. The cotangent of an arc is the tangent of that arc's complement. Thus AH, which
is the tangent of AB, is the cotangent of BD.
1044. The cosecant of an arc is the secant of its complement. Thus CH, which is the
secant of AB, is the cosecant of BD.
1045. From the above definitions follow some remarkable properties.
I. That an arc and its supplement have the same sine, tangent, and secant ; but the two
latter, that is, the tangent and the secant, are accounted negative when the arc exceeds a qua-
dra.u, or 90 decrees. II. When the arc is 0, or nothing, the secant then becomes the
radius CA, which is the least it can be. As the arc increases from 0, the sines, tangents, and
secants all increase, till the arc becomes a whole quadrant AD ; and then the sine is the
greatest it can be, being equal to the radius of the circle; under which circumstance the
tangent and secant are infinite. III. In every arc AB, the versed sine AF, and the
cosine BK or CF, are together equal to the radius of the circle. The radius CA, the
tangent AH, and the secant CH, form a right-angled triangle CAH. Again, the radius
sine, and cosine form another right-angled triangle CBF or CBK. So also the radius,
CHAP. I.
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.
339
cotangent, and cosecant form a right-angled triangle CDL. All these right-angled triangles
are similar to each other.
1046. The sine, tangent, or secant of an angle is the
sine, tangent, or secant of the arc by which the angle is
measured, or of the degrees, &c. in the same arc or angle.
The method of constructing the scales of chords, sines,
tangents, and secants engraved on mathematical instru-
ments is shown in the annexed figure.
1047. A trigonometrical canon (Jig. 396.) is a table
wherein is given the length of the sine, tangent, and
secant to every degree and minute of the quadrant,
compared with the radius, which is expressed by unity
or 1 with any number of ciphers. The logarithms, more-
over, of these sines, tangents, and secants, are tabulated, so
that trigonometrial calculations are performed by only 9''
addition and subtraction. (See 632. et seq.) Tables of ^ -60
this sort are published separately, and we suppose the | J0
reader to be provided with such.
1048. PROBLEM I. To compute the natural sine and cosine 10
of a given arc.
The semiperiphery of a circle whose radius is 1 is
known to be 3-141592653589793, &c. : we have then the
following proportion : —
As the number of degrees or minutes in the semicircle
Is to the degrees or minutes in the proposed arc,
So is 3-14159265, &c. to the length of the said arc.
Now the length of the arc being denoted by the letter a, and its sine and cosine by s and c,
these two will be expressed by the two following series, viz
Fig- 396'
c = l-^
2.3.4.5 2.3.4.5.6.7
a»
120'
«'
= 1 —
a2 . a4 a"
24-72Q + &C.
Example 1. Let it be required to find the sine and cosine of one minute. The number
of minutes in 180 degrees being 10800, it will be, first, as 10800 : 1 ::3'14159265, &c. :
•000290888208665 = the length of an arc of one minute. Hence, in this case, —
a =-0002 908882
and Jo3 = -000000000004
The difference is s= -0002908 882, the sine of one minute.
Also from 1.
take la2 = 0-000000042307 9, &e.
leaves c= '9999999577, the cosine of one minute.
Example 2. For the sine and cosine of 5 degrees : —
Here 180° : 5°:. 3 -14159265, &c. : -08726646 = a, the length of 5 degrees.
Hence a = -08726646
— i«3= -0001 1076
+ 5 == -00000004
These collected give s= -0871 5574, the sine of 5 degrees.
And for the cosine 1 = 1 •
— ia2= -00380771
+ «4 = -00000241
These collected give c = -9961 9470, the cosine of 5 degrees.
In the same way we find the sines and cosines of other arcs may be computed. The
greater the arc the slower the series will converge ; so that more terms must be taken to
make the calculation exact. Having, however, the sine, the cosine may be found from it
by the property of the right-angled triangle CBF, viz. the cosine CF= >v^CBa— BF*,
or c— */l —52. There are other methods of constructing tables, but we think it unnecessary
to mention them ; our sole object being here merely to give a notion of the mode by
which such tables are formed.
Z 2
340 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
1049. PROB. II. To compute the tangents and secants.
Having, by the foregoing problem, found the sines and cosines, the tangents and secants
are easily found from the principles of similar triangles. In the arc AB {fig. 395.), where
BF is the sine, CF or BK the cosine, AH the tangent, CH the secant, DL the cotangent,
and CL the cosecant, the radius being CA or CB or CD ; the three similar triangles CFB,
CAH, CDL, give the following proportions: —
I. CF : FB;;CA : AH, by which we find that the tangent is a fourth proportional
to the cosine, sine, and radius.
II. CF : CB:: CA : CH, by which we find that the secant is a third proportional to
the cosine and radius.
III. BF : FC : : CD : DL, by which we find that the cotangent is a fourth proportional
to the sine, cosine, and radius.
IV. BF : BC:: CD : CL, by which we find that the cosecant is a third proportional
to the sine and radius.
Observation 1. There are therefore three methods of resolving triangles, or the cases of
trigonometry; viz. geometrical construction, arithmetical computation, and instrumental
operation. The method of carrying out the first and the last does not need explanation :
the method is obvious. The second method, from its superior accuracy in practice, is that
whereof we propose to treat in this place.
Observation 2. Every triangle has six parts, viz. three sides and three angles. And in all
cases of trigonometry, three parts must be given to find the other three. And of the three
parts so given, one at least must be a side ; because, with the same angles, the sides may be
greater or less in any proportion.
Observation 3. All the cases in trigonometry are comprised in three varieties only ;
viz.
1st. When a side and its opposite angle are given. 2d. When two sides and the con-
tained angle are given. 3d. When the three sides are given.
More than these three varieties there cannot possibly be ; and for each of them we shall
give a separate theorem.
1 050. THEOREM I. When a side and its opposite angle are two of the given parts.
Then — the sides of the triangle have the same proportion to each other as the sines of
their opposite angles have. That is,
As any one side
Is to the sine of its opposite angle,
So is any other side
To the sine of its opposite angle.
For let ABC {fig. 397.) be the proposed triangle, having AB the greatest side, and BC
the least. Take AD as a radius equal to BC, and let c
fall the perpendiculars DE, CF, which will evidently be
the sines of the angles A and B, to the radius AD or
BC. Now the triangles ADE, AC F are equiangular ;
they therefore have their like sides proportional, namely,
AC : CF:: AD or BC : DE, that is, the sine AC is to t
the sine of its opposite angle B as the side BC is to the Fi 397
sine of its opposite angle A.
Note 1 . In practice, when an angle is sought, the proportion is to be begun with a side
opposite a given angle ; and to find a side, we must begin with the angle opposite the
given side.
Note 2. By the above rule, an angle, when found, is ambiguous ; that is, it is not certain
whether it be acute or obtuse, unless it come out a right angle, or its magnitude be such as
to remove the ambiguity ; inasmuch as the sine answers to two angles, which are supple-
ments to each other ; and hence the geometrical construction forms two triangles with the
same parts, as in an example which will follow : and if there be no restriction or limitation
included in the question, either result may be adopted. The degrees in a table answer-
ing to the sine is the acute angle ; but if the angle be obtuse, the degrees must be sub-
tracted from 180 degrees, and the remainder will be the obtuse angle. When a given
angle is obtuse, or is one of 90 degrees, no ambiguity can occur,
because neither of the other angles can then be obtuse, and the
geometrical construction will only form one triangle.
Example 1. In the plane triangle ABC,
Let AB be 345 feet,
BC 232 feet,
L A 37° 20' :
Required the other parts.
First, to the angles at C and B (fig. 398.) Fig.^98.
CHAP. I.
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.
341
As the side BC = 232 - - Log. 2-365488
To sine opp. L A = 37° 20' - - 9-782796
So side AB =345 - - 2-537819
To sine opp. L C = 115° 36' or 64° 24' = 9 "9551 27
Add Z.A = 37 20 37 20
The sum = 1 52 56 101 44
Taken from 180 OO 180 OO
Leaves L B 27 04 78 16
It is to be observed here that the second and third logarithms are added (that is, the
numbers are multiplied), and from the sum the first logarithm is subtracted (that is, divi-
sion by the first number), which leaves the remainder 9 '955 127, which, by the table of
sines, is found to be that of the angle 115° 36', or 64° 24'.
To find the side AC.
20'
As sine L A
To opp. side BC
So sine L B
37°
232
27 04
78 16
To opp. side AC = 174-04
Or 374-56
Example 2. In the plane triangle ABC,
Let A B = 365 yards,
/A = 57° 12'
L B = 24 45
Herein two angles are given, whose sum is 81° 57'.
As sine L C = 98° 3'
Is to A B = 365
So sine Z B =24° 45'
To side AC
To find the side BC.
As sine L B
Is to AC
So sin. L A
= 154-33
= 24° 45'
= 154-33
= 57° 12'
- Log. 9-782796
2-365488
9-658037
9-990829
2-240729
2-573521
Therefore 180°— 81° 57'= L C.
- Log. 9-9956993
2-5622929
9-6218612
= 2-1884548
- Log. 9-6218612
2-1884548
9-9245721
To side BC = 309'86 - - =2-4911657
1051. THEOREM II. When two sides and their contained angle are given.
The given angle is first to be subtracted from 180° or two right angles, and the remainder
will be the sum of the other two angles. Divide this remainder by 2, which will give the
half sum of the said unknown angles ; and using the following ratio, we have —
As the sum of the two given sides
Is to their difference,
So is the tangent of half the sum of their opposite angles
To the tangent of half the difference of the same angles.
Now the half sum of any two quantities increased by their half difference gives the
greater, and diminished by it gives the less. If, therefore, the half difference of the angles
above found be added to their half sum, it will give the greater angle, and subtracting it will
leave the lesser angle. All the angles thus become known, and the unknown side is then
found by the former theorem.
For let ABC {fig. 399.) be the proposed triangle, having the two given sides AC, BC,
including the given angle C. With the centre C and radius E
CA, the less of these two sides, describe a semicircle, meeting
the other side BC produced in D, E, and the unknown side AB
in A, G. Join AE, CG, and draw DF parallel to AE. Now
BE is the sum of the given sides AC, CB, or of EC, CB ; and
BD is the difference of these given sides. The external angle
ACE is equal to the sum of the two internal or given angles
CAB, CBA ; but the angle ADE at the circumference is equal Fig. 399.
to half the angle ACE at the centre ; wherefore the same angle ADE is equal to half
the sum of the given angles CAB, CBA. Also the external angle AGC of the triangle
BGC is equal to the sum of the two jnternal angles GCB, GBC, or the angle GCB is
equal to the difference of the two angles AGC, GBC; but the angle CAB is equal to
the said angle AGC, these being opposite to the equal sides AC, CG ; and the angle DAB
at the circumference is equal to half the angle DCG at the centre. Therefore the angle
DAB is equal to half the difference of the two given angles CAB, CBA, of which it has
been shown that ADE or CD A is the half sum.
Z 3
342
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
A
From
Take LA
Sum of C and B
Half sum of do.
- Log.
— i =5
Fig. 400.
180° OCX
37 20
142 40
71 20
2-715226
2-232818
10-471298
9*988890
Now the angle DAE in a semicircle, is a right angle, or AE is perpendicular to AD ;
atid DF, parallel to AE, is also perpendicular to AD : therefore AE is the tangent of
CD A the half sum ; and DF, the tangent of DAB, the half difference of the angles to the
same radius AD, by the definition of a tangent. But the tangents AE, DF being parallel,
it will be as BE : BD:: AE : DF ; that is, as the sum of the sides is to the difference of
the sides, so is the tangent of half the sum of the opposite angles to the tangent of half
their difference.
It is to be observed, that in the third term of the proportion the cotangent of half the
given angle may be used instead of the tangent of the half sum of the unknown angles.
c
Example. In the plane triangle ABC (Jig. 400.),
Let AB = 345 ft.
AC = 174 -07 ft.
L A = 37° 20'.
Now, the side AB being 345
The side AC 174-O7
Their sum is 519*07
Their difference 170-93
As the sum of the sides AB, AC = 51 9'07
To difference of sides A B, A C = 1 70'93
So tang, half sum LB C and B =71° 20'
To tang, half diff. Ls C and B =44 16'
These added, give Z C = 1 1 5 36;
And subtracted give L B = 27 4'
By the former theorem : —
As sine L C 115° 36', or 64° 24' - - Log. 9'955126
To its opposite side A B 345 - - 2-537819
So sine L A 37° 20' 9'782796
To its opposite side BC 232 2-365488
1052. THEOREM III. When the three sides of a triangle are given.
Let fall a perpendicular from the greatest angle on the opposite side, or base, dividing
it into two segments, and the whole triangle into two right-angled triangles, the propor-
tion will be —
As the base or sum of the segments
Is to the sum of the other two sides,
So is the difference of those sides
To the difference of the segments of the base.
Then take half the difference of these segments, and add it to the half sum, or the half base,
for the greater segment ; and for the lesser segment subtract it.
Thus, in each of the two right-angled triangles there will be known two sides and the
angle opposite to one of them, whence, by the first theorem, the other angles will be found.
For the rectangle under the sum and difference of the two sides is equal to the rectangle
under the sum and difference of the two segments. Therefore, forming the sides of these
rectangles into a proportion, their sums and differences will be found proportional.
c
Example.
In the plane triangle ABC (fig. 401.),
Let AB = 345 ft.
AC = 232 ft.
BC= 174-07.
Letting fall the perpendicular CP,
BC : AC + BC::AC-BC :
406-07 : : 57-93 :
Its half is
The half base is
The sum of these is
That is, 345
AP-BP;
68-18 = AP-BP;
34-09
172-50
206-59 = AP
p
Fig. 401.
And their difference 1 38 -41 = BP
Then, in the triangle APC right-angled at P,
As the side AC =232 - Log. 2-365488
To sine opp. L P = 90° . - 10-000000
So is side AP =206-59 - 2-315109
To sine opp. L ACP = 62° 56' - 9.949621
Which subtracted from = 90 0
Leaves L A = 27 04
CHAP. I.
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.
343
Again, in the triangle B PC, right-angled at P,
As the side BC =174-07
To sine op p. L P
So is side BP
To sine opp L BCP
Which taken from
Leaves the L B
Also the angle ACP
Added to the angle BCP
Gives the whole angle ACB
- Log. 2-440724
10-000000
2-141136
20
56
40
36
Fig. 402.
= 90° 00'
= 138-41
= 52° 40' - 9-900412
90 00
37
= 62
= 52
= 115
So that the three angles are as follow, viz. L A 27° 4' ; L B 37° 2O7 ; L C 1 15° 36.
1053. THEOREM IV. If the triangle be right-angled, any unknown part may be found by the
following proportion : —
As radius
Is to either leg of the triangle,
So is tangent of its adjacent angle
To the other leg ;
And so is secant of the same angle
To the hypothenuse.
For AB being the given leg in the right-angled triangle ABC, from the
centre A with any assumed radius AD describe an arc DE, and draw
DF perpendicular to AB, or parallel to BC. Now, from the definitions,
DF is the tangent and AF the secant of the arc DE, or of the angle A,
which is measured by that arc to the radius AD. Then, because of the
parallels BC, DF, we have AD : AB:;DF : BC, and :: AF : AC, which
is the same as the theorem expresses in words.
Note. Radius is equal to the sine of 90°, or the tangent of 45°, and is
expressed by 1 in a table of natural sines, or by 10 in logarithmic sines.
Example 1. In the right-angled triangle ABC,
Let the leg AB =162
L A =53° 7' 48"
As radius = tang. 45° - Log. 10 -000000
To leg A B =162 - 2-209515
So tang. : Z.A =53° 7' 48" - 10-124937
TolegBC =216 - - 2-334452
So secant L A =53° 7' 48" - 10.221848
To hypothenuse AC =270 - 2-431363
Note. There is another mode for right-angled triangles, which is as follows : —
ABC being such a triangle, make a leg AB radius; or, in other words, from the centre
A and distance AB describe an arc BF. It is evident that the other
leg BC will represent the tangent and the hypothenuse AC the se-
cant of the arc BF or of the angle A.
In like manner, if BC be taken for radius, the other leg AB repre-
sents the tangent, and the hypothenuse AC the secant of the arc BG
or angle C.
If the hypothenuse be made radius, then each leg will represent
the sine of its opposite angle ; namely, the leg AB the sine of the
arc AE or angle C, and the leg BC the sine of the arc CD or
angle A.
Then the general rule for all such cases is, that the sides of the triangle bear to each
other the same proportion as the parts which they represent. This method is called
making every side radius.
1054. If two sides of a right-angled triangle are giveft to find the third side, that may be
found by the property of the squares of the sides (Geom. Prop. 32. ; viz. That the square
of the hypothenuse or longest side is equal to both the squares of the two other sides
together). Thus, if the longest side be sought, it is equal to the square root of the sum of
the squares of the two shorter sides ; and to find one of the shorter sides, subtract one
square from the other, and extract the square root of the remainder.
1055. The application of the foregoing theorems in the cases of measuring heights and
distances will be obvious. It is, however, to be observed, that where we have to find the
length of inaccessible lines, we must employ a line or base which can be measured, and, by
means of angles, which will be furnished by the use of instruments, calculate the lengths of
the other lines.
Z 4
Fig. 403.
344
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
SECT. V.
CONIC SECTIONS.
1056. The conic sections, in geometry, are those lines formed by the intersections of a plane
with the surface of a cone, and which assume different forms and acquire different properties,
according to the several directions of such plane in respect of the axis of the cone. Their
species are five in number.
1057. DEFINITIONS — 1. A plane passing through the vertex of a cone meeting the plane
of the base or of the base produced is
called the directing plane. The plane
VRX (Jiff. 4O4.) is the directing plane,
2. The line in which the directing plane
meets the plane of the base or the plane
of the base produced is called the di-
rectrix. The line RX is the directrix.
3. If a cone be cut by a plane parallel to the
directing plane, the section is called a
conic section, as A MB or AH I (fig.
405.)
4. If the plane of a conic section be cut by
another plane at right angles passing
along the axis of the cone, the common
section of the two planes is called the
line of the axis.
5. The point or points in which the line of the axis is cut by the conic surface is or are
called the vertex or vertices of the conic section. Thus the
points A and B (figs. 404. and 4O5.) are both vertices, as is the
point A or vertex (fig. 406.).
6. If the line of the axis be cut in two points by the conic surface,
or by the surfaces of the two opposite cones, the portion of
the line thus intercepted is called the primary axis. The line
AB (Jigs. 404. and 4O5.) and AH (fig. 406.) is called the
primary axis.
7. If a straight line be drawn in a conic section perpendicular to
the line of the axis so as to meet the curve, such straight line
is called an ordinate, as PM in the above figures.
8. The abscissa of an ordinate is that portion of the line of axis
contained between the vertex and an ordinate to that line of
Fig. 404.
Fig. 405.
Fig. 406.
axis. Thus in figs. 4O4, 4O5, and 406. the parts AP, BP of the line of axis are
the abscissas AP, BP.
9, If the primary axis be bisected, the bisecting point is called the centre of the conic
section.
10. If the directrix fall without the base of the cone, the section made by the cutting
plane is called an ellipse. Thus, in fig. 404., the section AMB is an ellipse. It is
evident that, since the plane of section will cut every straight line drawn from the
vertex of the cone to any point in the circumference of the base, every straight line
drawn within the figure will be limited by the conic surface. Hence the axis, the
ordinates, and abscissas will be terminated by the curve.
11. If the directrix fall within the base of the cone, the section made by the cutting plane
is called an hyperbola. Hence it is evident, that since the directing plane passes
alike through both cones, the plane of section will cut each of them, and there-
fore two sections will be formed. And as every straight line on the surface of the
cone and on the same sider of the directing plane cannot meet the cutting plane,
neither figure can be enclosed.
12. If the directrix touch the curve forming the base of the cone, the section made by
the cutting plane is a parabola.
OF THE ELLIPSIS.
1058. The primary axis of an ellipsis is called the major axis, as
AB (fig. 407.); and a straight line DE drawn through its centre
perpendicular to it, and terminated at each extremity by the curve,
is called the minor axis.
1059. A straight line VQ drawn through the centre and ter-
minated at each extremity by the curve is called a diameter. Hence
the two axes are also diameters.
CHAP. I.
CONIC SECTIONS.
345
Therefore,
1060. The extremities of a diameter which terminate in the curve are called the vertices
of that diameter. Thus the points V and Q are the vertices of the diameter VQ,
1061. A straight line drawn from any point of a diameter parallel to a tangent at either
extremity of the diameter to meet the curves is called an ordinate to the two abscissas.
Thus PM, being parallel to a tangent at V, is an ordinate to the two abscissas VP, PQ.
1062. If a diameter be drawn through the centre parallel to a tangent at the extremity
of another diameter, these two diameters are called conjugate diameters. Thus VQ and
RS are conjugate diameters.
1063. A third proportional to any diameter and its conjugate is called the parameter or
latus rectum.
1064. The points in the axis where the ordinate is equal to the semi- parameter are
called the foci.
1065. THEOREM I. In the ellipsis the squares of the ordinates of an axis are to each other
as the rectangles of their abscissas.
Let AVB (fig. 408.) be a plane passing through the axis of the cone, and AEB
another section of the cone perpendicular to the plane of the former ;
AB the axis of the elliptic section, and PM, HI ordinates perpen-
dicular to it ; then it will be
PM2; Hl2::APxPB : AHxHB.
For through the ordinates PM, HI draw the circular sections
KML, MIN parallel to the base of the cone, having KL, MN for
their diameters, to which PM, HI are ordinates as well as to the
axis of the ellipse. Now, in the similar triangles APL, AHN,
AP : PL:: AH : HN,
And in BPK, BHM,
BP : PK::BH : HM.
Taking the rectangles of the corresponding terms,
APxBP: PLxPK::AHxBH : HNxHM.
By the property of the circle,
PL x PK = PM2 and HN x HM=HI2.
AP x BP : PM2;: AH x HB : HI2, or
PM2; Hl2::APxBP : AHxHB.
Coroll. 1. If C be the centre of the figure, AP x PB= CA2- CP2, and AH x HB =
CA2-CH2.
Therefore PM2 : HI2: : CA2- CP2 : CA2- CH2. For AP=CA-CP, and PB =
CA+CP: consequently AP x PB = (CA- CP)(CA+ CP)= CA2-CP2 ; and in the
same manner it is evident that AH x HB = (CA+ CH)(CA- CH)= CA2- CH2.
Coroll. 2. If the point P coincide with the middle point C of the semi-major axis,
PM will become equal to CE, and CP will vanish ; we shall therefore have
PM2 : HI2::CA2— CP2 ; CA2— CH2
Now CE2 : HI2::CA2 : CA2-CH2, or CA2X HI2=CE2(CA2_CH2).
1066. THEOREM II. In every ellipsis the square of the major axis is to the square of the
minor axis as the rectangle of the abscissas is to the square of their ordinate.
Let AB (fig. 409.) be the major axis, DE the minor axis, C the centre, PM and HI
ordinates to the axis AB ; then will
CA2 : CE2::APx PB : PM2.
For since by Theor. I., PM2 : HI2: : AP x PB : AH x HB ; and if
the point H be in the centre, then AH and HB become each equal
to CA, and HI becomes equal to CE ; therefore
PM2 : CE2:: APx PB : CA«;
And, alternately, C A2 : CE2 : : AP x PB : : PM2.
Coroll. 1. Hence, if we divide the two first terms of the analogy by AC, it will be
CA ; ~: : AP x PB : PM2. But by the definition of parameter, AB : DE : : DE : pa-
rameter, or CA : CE::2CE : parameter = -^-. Therefore 2CA - is the parameter, which
let us call P ; then
AB : P::APxPB : PM2.
Coroll. 2. Hence CA2 : CE* : : CA8- CP2 : PM8. For CA«-CP2=(CA--CP)
(CA+CP) = (APxPB).
Coroll. 3. Hence, also, AB ; P : : C A8 - CP2 : PM8.
346
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
Fig. 411.
1067. THEOREM III. In every ellipsis, the square of the minor axis is to the square of the
major axis as the difference of the squares of half the minor axis and
the distance of an ordinate from the centre on the minor axis to the
square of that ordinate.
Draw MQ (fig. 410.) parallel to AB, meeting CE in Q; then A
will
CE2 : CA2;:CE2-CQ2 : QM2;
For by Cor. 2. Theor. II., CA2 : CA2_CP2;:CE2 : PM2 ;
Therefore, by division, CA* : CP*:: CE2 ; CE2— PM2.
Therefore, since CQ=PM and CP=QM; CA2 ; QM2::CE2 : CE2-CQ2.
Coroll. 1. If a circle be described on each axis as a diameter, one being inscribed within
the ellipse, and the other circumscribed about it, then an ordinate
in the circle will be to the corresponding ordinate in the ellipsis
as the axis belonging to this ordinate is to the axis belonging to
the other ; that is,
CA : CE::PG : PM,
and CE : C A 1 \pg '. joM ;
and since CA2 : CE*: ; AP x PB : PM2,
and because AP x PB = PG*; CA2 ; CE*::PG* : PM2,
. or CA : CE::PG : PM.
In the same manner it may be shown that CE : C A : \pg \ j»M, or, alternately,
CA : CE : :;»M : pg ; therefore, by equality, PG : PM I IpM. : pa, or PG : Cp : : CP : pa :
therefore CaG is a continued straight line.
Coroll. 2. Hence, also, as the ellipsis and circle are made up of the same number of
corresponding ordinates, which are all in the same proportion as the two axes, it follows
that the area of the whole circle and of the ellipsis, as also of any like parts of them, are
in the same ratio, or as the square of the diameter to the rectangle of the two axes ; that is,
the area of the two circles and of the ellipsis are as the square of each axis and the
rectangle of the two ; and therefore the ellipsis is a mean proportional between the two
circles.
Coroll. 3. Draw MQ parallel to GC, meeting ED in Q; then will QivI = CG = CA ;
and let R be the point where QM cuts AB; then, because QMGC is a parallelogram,
QM is equal to CG = CE; and therefore, since QM is equal to CA, half the major axis
and RM = CE, half the minor axis QR is the difference of the two semi-axes, and hence
we have a method of describing the ellipsis. This is the principle of the trammel, so well
known among workmen.
If we conceive it to move in the line DE, and the point R in the line AB, while the
point M is carried from A, towards E, B, D, until it return to A, the point M will in its
progress describe the curve of an ellipsis.
1068. THEOREM IV. The square of the distance of the foci from the centre of an ellipsis is
equal to the difference of the square of the semi-axes.
Let AB (fig. 412.) be the major axis, C the centre, F the focus, and FG the semi-para-
meter ; then will CE*= CA2- CF2. For draw CE perpendicular
to AB, and join FE. By Cor. 2. Th. II., CA2 : CE*::CA*—
CF2 : FG2, and the parameter FG is a third proportional to CA,
CE; therefore CA2 : CE*::CE* : FG2, and as in the two ana-
logies the first, second, and fourth terms are identical, the third
terms are equal ; consequently
CE2=CA*-CF*.
Coroll. 1. Hence CF* = CA2- CE2.
Coroll. 2. The two semi-axes and the distance of the focus from the centre are the sides
of a right-angled triangle CFE, and the distance FE from the focus to the extremity of
the minor axis is equal to CA or CB, or to half the major axis.
Coroll. 3. The minor axis CE is a mean proportional between the two segments of the
axis on each side of the focus. For CE2 = C A2 - C F2 = ( C A + C F) x ( C A - C F).
1069. THEOREM V. In an ellipsis, the sum of the lines drawn from the foci to any point in
the curve is equal to the major axis.
Let the points F,f(fig. 413.) be the two foci, and M a point
in the curve ; join FM and/M, then will AB = 2CA= FM +/M.
By Cor. 2. Th. II., CA2 : CE2::CA2-CP2 ; PM2, A( F
But by Th. IV., CE*=CA2-CF2;
Therefore CA2 ; CA2- CF2: ; CA*- CP* ; PM2 ;
Fig. 412.
Flg. 413.
And by taking the rectangle
CAS, the result is —
of the extremes and means, and dividine the eouation bv
CHAP. I.
CONIC SECTIONS.
347
PM2 = C A2- CP2- CF2 +
CF2 .
And because FP2 = (CF-CP)2 =
And since FM2 = PM2 + FP2.
Therefore FM2=CA2-2CF.CP +
CA2 '
CF2-2CF.CP+CP*,
CF2 . CP*
Extracting the root from each number, FM= CA —
CF.CP
In the same manner it may be shown that FM=CA+ C^.A2P; therefore the sum of
these is FM+/M=2CA.
Coroll. 1. A line drawn from a focus to a point in the curve is called a radius vector, and
the difference between either radius vector and half the major axis is equal to half the
difference between the radius vectors. For, since
/M= CA — C^i'ACF ; therefore, by transposition,
CF.CP
CA
= CA-/M.
Coroll. 2. Because C^P is a fourth proportional to CA, CF, CP; therefore CA :
CF::CP : CA-/M.
Coroll. 3. Hence the difference between the major axis and one of the radius vectors gives
the other radius vector. For, since FM + M/=2CA ;
Therefore FM=2CA-M/.
Coroll. 4. Hence is derived the common method of describing an ellipsis mechanically,
by a thread or by points, thus : — Find the foci F/ (fig. 414.), and in the axis AB assume
any point G ; then with the radius AG from the point F as a
centre describe two arcs H, H, one on each side of the axis ; and
with the same radius from the point / describe two other arcs h,
h, one on each side of the major axis. Again, with the distance
G B from the point f describe two arcs, one on each side of the axis,
intersecting the arcs HH in the points HH ; and with the same
radius from the point/ describe two other arcs, one on each side of Fig. 414.
the axis, intersecting the arcs described at h, h in the point h, h. In this manner we may
find as many points as we please ; and a sufficient number being found, the curve will be
formed by tracing it through all the points so determined.
1070. THEOREM VI. The square of half the major axis is to the square of half the minor
axis as the difference of the squares of the distances of any two ordinates
from the centre to the difference of the squares of the ordinates them-
selves.
Let PM and HI (fig. 415.) be ordinates to the major axis AB;
draw MN parallel to AB, meeting HI in the point N ; then will
PM = HN,and MN=PH, and the property to be demonstrated is
thus expressed —
CA2 : CE2::CP2-CH2 : HJ2-HN2.
Or by producing HI to meet the curve in the point K, and making CQ= CP, the pro-
perty to be proved will be
CA2 CE2::PHxHQ: KN.
CE2::CA2— CP2 : PM2,
CE2::CA2-CH2: Hi2.
CH2 : C A2- CP2 : : HI2 : PM2 or HN* ;
: CP2-CH2::HI2 : HI2-HN2.
CH2 : HI2::CP2-CH2 : HI2-HN2;
• CH2: Hi2::cA2: CE2,
CE2::CP2-CH2 : HI2-HN2;
= (CP- CH)(CP+ CH)=PH x QH,
= (HI-HN)(HI+HN) = NIxKN,
iPHxHQ,: NIxNK.
Coroll. 1. Hence half the major axis is to half the minor axis, or the major axis is to the
minor axis, as the difference of the squares of any two ordinates from the centre is to the
rectangle of the two parts of the double ordinate, which is the greatest made of the sum
and difference of the two semiordinates. For KN = HK + HN= HI + H N, which is the
sum of the two ordinates, and NI = HI — HN, which is the difference of the two ordinates.
Coroll. 2. Hence, because CP2- CH2 = (CP- CH)(CP+ CH), and since HI2_HN2=
(HI-HN)(HI + HN), and because CP-CH = PH and HI-HN=NI; therefore
CA2 : CE2::(CP+CH)PH : (HI+HN)NI.
By Cor. 2. Theor. II. j
Therefore CA2-
But, by division, CA2 —
Alternately, CA2-
And, since we have above, CA2—
Therefore, by equality, CA2 :
But since CP2-CH2=
And since HI2-HN2 =
Therefore CA2 : CE2:
348
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
1071. THEOREM VII. In the ellipsis, half the major axis is a mean proportional between
the distance of the centre and an ordinate, and the distance between
the centre and the intersection of a tangent to the vertex of that or-
dinate.
To the major axis draw the ordinates PM (fig. 416.) and HI,
and the minor axis CE. Draw MN perpendicular to HI.
Through the two points I,M, draw MT, IT, meeting the major
axis produced in T ; then will CT ; CA ; : CA : CP. For, Fig.4ie.
By Cor. l.Theor.VL, CE2 : CA2;:(IH + HN)IN : (PC+CH)HP;
By Cor. 2. Th. II., CE* : CA2::PM2 : CA2-CP2;
Therefore, by equality, PM2: CA2- CP*: :(IH + HN)IN : (PC + CH)HP.
By similar triangles, INM, MPT ; IN : NM or PH : : PM : PT or CT- CP.
Therefore, taking the rectangles of the extremes and means of the two last equations, and
throwing out the common factors, they will be converted to the equation
PM(CT-CP)(CP+CH) = (CA2-.CP2)(IH +
But when HI and PM coincide, HI and HN will become equal to PM, and CH will
become equal to CP ; therefore, substituting in the equation 2CP for CP + PH, and 2PM
for IH + HN, and throwing out the common factors and the common terms, we have
CT. CP=CA2
or CT : CA::CA : CP.
Coroll. 1. Since CT is always a third proportional to CPand CA, if the points P, A, B
remain fixed, the point T will be the same; and therefore the tangents which are drawn
from the point M, which is the intersection of PQ and the curve, will meet in the point T
in every ellipsis described on the same axis AB.
Coroll. 2. When the outer ellipsis AQB, by enlarging, becomes a circle, draw QT per-
pendicular to CQ, and joining TM, then TM will be a tangent to the ellipsis at M.
Coroll. 3. Hence, if it were required to draw a tangent from a given point T in the pro-
longation of the major axis to the ellipsis AEB, it will be found thus : — On AB describe
the semicircle AQB. Draw a tangent TQ to the circle, and draw the ordinate PQ, inter-
secting the curve AEB of the ellipsis in the point M; join TM; then TM is the tangent
required. This method of drawing a tangent is extremely useful in practice.
1072. THEOREM VIII. Four perpendiculars to the major axis intercepted by it and a tan-
gent will be proportionals when the first and last have one of their
extremities in the vertices, the second in the point of contact, and the
third in the centre.
Let the four perpendiculars be AD, PM, CE, BF, of which
AD and BF have their extremities in the vertices A and B, the
second in the point of contact M, and the third in the centre C ; T
then will
AD : PM::CE : BF.
TC : AC:: AC : CP; Fig. 417.
TC-AC : CA-CP:
For, by Theor. VII.,
By division,
That is,
By composition,
Therefore
TC : AC or CB;
TA : AP::TC : CB.
TA : TA+AP::TC : TC+CB:
TA : TP::TC : TB.
But by the similar triangles TAD, TPM, TCE, and TBF, the sides TA, TP, TC, and
TB are proportionals to the four perpendiculars AD, PM, CE, and BF ; therefore
AD : PM::CE : BF.
Coroll. 1. If AM and CF be joined, the triangles TAM and TCF will be similar.
For by similar triangles, the sides TD, TM, TE, TF are in the same proportion as the
sides TA, TP, TC, TB.
Therefore TD : TM: :TE : TF;
Alternately, TD : TE::TM . TF: but TAD is similar to TCE;
Hence TD : TE::TA : TC ;
Therefore, by equality, TA : TM : : TC : TF.
Coroll. 2. The triangles APM and CBF are similar ;
For TA : TP::TC : TB.
By division, TP : TP- TA : : TB ;
That is, TP : AP::TB : CB.
Alternately, TP : TB : : AP : CB :
TB-TC;
but TPM is similar to TBF;
Consequently, TP : TB : : PM : BF :
Therefore, by equality, AP : PM::CB : BF.
Coroll. 3. If AF be drawn cutting PM in I, then will PI be equal to the half of PM
CHAP. I.
CONIC SECTIONS.
349
For, since AP I PM::CB : BF, and, by the similar triangles API, ABF,
AP : PI::AB : BF;
Therefore PM : PI : : CB : AB.
But CB is the half of AB ; therefore, also, PI is the half of PM.
107S. THEOREM IX. If two lines be drawn from the foci of an ellipse to any point in the
curve, these two lines will make equal angles with a tangent passing through that point.
Let TM {fig. 418.) be a tangent touching the curve
at the point M, and let F, / be the two foci ; join
FM, /M, then will the angle FMT be equal to the
angle /M R. For draw the ordinate PM, and draw
/R parallel to FM, then will the triangles TFM and
T/R be similar ; and by Cor. Theor. VII.,
CA * CP**CT " CA •
By Cor. 2. Theor. V., CA : CP • • CF : CA^ FM ;
Therefore, by equality, CT : CF : : CA : CA- FM.
By division and composition, CT-CF : CT+ CF::FM : 2CA— FM;
That is, TF : T/::FM :/M.
By the similar triangles TFM, T/R; TF : T/: : FM : /R.
It therefore appears that /M is equal to /R, therefore the angle /MR is eqqal to the
angle /RM : but because FM and/R are parallel lines, the angle FMT is equal to the
angle/RM ; therefore the angle FMT is equal to the angle /MR.
Coroll. 1 . Hence a line drawn perpendicular to a tangent through the point of contact
will bisect the angle FM/, or the opposite angle DMG. For let MN be perpendicular
to the tangent TR. Then, because the angle NMT and NMR are right angles, they are
equal to one another ; and since the angles FMT and /MR are also equal to one another,
the remaining angles NMF and NM/are equal to one another. Again, because the oppo-
site angles FMN and IMG are equal to one another, and the opposite angle /MN and
IMD are equal to one another ; therefore the straight line MI, which is the line MN pro-
duced, will also bisect the angle DMG.
Coroll. 2. The tangent will bisect the angle formed by one of the radius vectors, and the
prolongation of the other. For prolong FM to G. Then, because the angles RMN and
RMI are right angles, they are equal to one another ; and because the angles NM/ and
IMD are equal to one another, the remaining angles RMG and RM/ are equal to one
another.
Scholium. Hence we have an easy method of drawing a tangent to any given point M in
the curve, or of drawing a perpendicular through a given point in the curve, which is the
usual mode of drawing the joints for masonic arches. Thus, in order to draw the line IM
perpendicular to the curve : produce FM to G, and/M to D, and draw MI bisecting the
angle DMG ; then IM will be perpendicular to the tangent TR, and consequently to the
curve.
As in optics the angle of incidence is always found equal to the angle of reflection, it
appears that the foundation of that law follows from this theorem ; for rays of light issuing
from one focus, and meeting the curve in any point, will be reflected into lines drawn from
these points to the other focus : thus the ray /M is reflected into MF : and this is the
reason why the points F/are called foci, or burning points. In like manner, a sound in
one focus is reflected in the other focus.
1074. THEOREM X. Every parallelogram which has its sides parallel to two conjugate
diameters and circumscribes an ellipsis is equal to the rectangle of the two axes.
Let CM and CI (./?£• 419.) be two semi conjugate diame- _. K
ters. Complete the parallelogram CIDM. Produce CA
and MD to meet in T, and let AT meet DI in t. Draw
IH and PM ordinates to the axis, and draw half the minor
axis CE. Produce DM to K, and draw CK perpendicular
to DK : then will the parallelogram CIDM be equal to the
rectangle, whose sides are CA and CE ; or four times the Fig. 419.
rectangle CIDM will be equal to the rectangle made of the two axes AB and GE.
/CA : CT::CP : CA,
By Cor. Theor. VII., ( a : C A ; : C A : CH ;
Therefore Ct : CT::CP : CH.
By the similar triangles C*I, TCM, C* : CT: : CI : TM ;
By equality, therefore, CI : TM : : CP : CH.
By the similar triangles CIH, TMP, CI : TM::CH : PT;
Therefore, by equality, CH : PT: : CP : CH.
Consequently CP x PT= CH*.
But by Theor. VII., CP x CT= CA2 ;
Therefore, since CT= CP + PT, CP2 + CP.PT=
S50
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK IL
And, by transposition,
Hence, by equality,
Or, by transposition,
But by Cor. 2. Theor. I.,
And substituting CP2 for its equal
CA2- CH«, we have
Therefore
But again, by Theor. VII.,
By equality, therefore,
CP.PT=CA2-CP2;
CA
CE
But by the similar triangles HIC, KCT, HI
Therefore CE
Consequently CE
CA2 x HI2= CE2(CA2- CH2),
CA2XHI2=CE2X CP2;
CA : CP::CE : HI.
CP::CT: CA;
HI::CT : CA.
ci::CK : CT;
CI::CK : CA:
CA=CIx CK.
The ellipsis is of so frequent occurrence in architectural works, that an acquaintance with
all the properties of the curve, and the modes of describing it, is of great importance to the
architect. Excepting the circle, which may be called an ellipsis in which the two foci
coincide, it is the most generally employed curve in architecture.
1075. PROBLEM I. To describe an ellipsis.
Let two pins at E and F (fig. 420.) be fixed in a plane within a string whose ends are
made fast at C. If the point C be drawn
equally tight while it is moved forward
in the plane till it returns to the place
from which it commenced, it will describe
an ellipsis.
1076. PROB. II. The two diameters
AB and ED of an ellipse being given in
position and magnitude, to describe the curve
through points.
Let the two diameters cut each other at
Fig. 420.
E
Fig. 421.
C (fig. 421.). Draw AF and BG parallel to ED. Divide AC and AF each into the
same number of equal parts, and draw lines, as in the figure, through the points of division ;
viz. those from the line AF to the point D, and the lines through AC to the point E ;
then through the points of intersection of the corresponding lines draw the curve AD, and
in the same manner find the curve BD; then ADB will be the semi-ellipsis.
It is evident that the same method also extends to a circle by making CD equal to C A ;
(fig. 422.) ; and it appears that the two lines forming any
point of the curve to be drawn will make a right angle
with each other. For these lines terminate at the ex-
tremities of the diameter ED, and the point of concourse
being in the curve, the angle made by them must be a
right angle ; that is, the angle EAD, or EAD, or EiD, or
EAD, is a right angle: and from this property we have
the following method of drawing the segment of a circle
through points found in the curve. Fig. 422.
Thus, let AB be the chord, and CD be the versed sine of an arc of a circle, to describe the
arc. Through D draw HI (fig. 423.) parallel to AB ; join AD and DB ; draw AH per-
pendicular to AD, and BI perpendicular to BD; divide
AC and HD each into the same number of equal parts,
and join the corresponding points ; divide AF into the
same number of equal parts, and through the points of di-
vision draw lines to D, and through the corresponding
points where these lines meet the former draw a curve
AD. In the same manner the other half BD may be drawn.
1077. PROB. III. A diameter KH of an ellipsis being given, and an ordinate DL, to
find the limits of the other conjugate diameter.
Bisect KH in I (fig. 424.), through I draw EA parallel to DL, and draw DC and KB
perpendicular to E A ; from the point L with the distance K describe
an arc cutting EA at F; join LF, and produce LF to C; make IE
and I A each equal to L C ; then will EA be a diameter conjugate
to KH.
1078. PROB. IV. A diameter KH and an ordinate DL of an
ellipsis being given, to describe the curve, (fig- 424.)
Find the limits E and A of the other conjugate diameter by the
preceding construction. Produce KB to q, and make Kq equal to
I A or IE, and through the centre I of the curve and the point q, draw the straight line
Then, suppose the straight line KB q to be an inflexible rod, having the point B
Fig. 424.
MN.
marked upon it. Move the rod round, so that the point q on the rod may be in the line
MN, while the point B is in the line £A ; then, at any instant of the motion, the place
CHAP. 1.
CONIC SECTIONS.
351
i
Fig. 425.
of the point K on the plane whereon the figure is to be drawn may be marked ; the points
thus found will be in the curve. Instead of a rod, a slip of paper may be used, and in some
cases a rod with adjustible points to slide in a cross groove, and a sliding head for a pencil
is convenient ; and such an instrument is called a trammel
When the diameters KH and EA {fig. 425.) are at right angles to each other, the
straight line Kg coincides with the diameter KH, and consequently
the line MN, on which the point q of the inflexible line Kg- moves,
will also fall upon the diameter KH. Therefore in this case no-
thing more is required to find the limits of the other diameter,
than to take the half diameters IK, KH of the given diameters,
and from the extremity L with that distance describe an arc
cutting the unlimited diameter in the point F; then drawing
LF, and producing it to q, and making IE and I A each equal to gL, EA will be the
other diameter ; and since the two diameters are at right angles to each other, they are
the two axes given in position and magnitude, and thus the curve may be described as
before.
A method of describing the curve from any two conjugate diameters is occasionally of
considerable use, and particularly so in perspective. For, in every representation of a
circle in perspective, a diameter and a double ordinate may be determined by making one
of the diameters of the original circle perpendicular to the plane of the picture and the
other parallel to it ; and then the representation of the diameter of the original circle,
which is perpendicular to the intersecting line, will be a diameter of the ellipsis, which is
the representation of that circle ; and the representation of the diameter of the circle
which is parallel to the intersecting line will become a double ordinate to the diameter of
the ellipsis which is the perspective representation of the circle.
1079. PROS. V. Through two given points A. and B to describe an ellipsis, the centre C
being given in position and the greater axis being given in magnitude only.
About the centre C (fig. 426.) with a radius equal to half the
greater axis describe a circle HEDG ; join AC and BC ; draw
AD perpendicular to AC, and BE perpendicular to BC,
cutting the circumference in the points D and E ; draw also
BF parallel to AC, and find BF, which is a fourth propor-
tional to AD, AC, and BE ; through the point F and the centre
C draw FG to cut the circle in H and G, and GH is the major
axis of the ellipsis. By drawing an ordinate Bg, the curve may
be described by the preceding problem, having the axis GH and
the ordinate Bg.
1080. PROS. VI. Through a given point in the major aiis of a given ellipsis to describe
another similar ellipsis which shall have the same centre and its major axis on the tame straight
line as that of the given ellipsis.
Let ACBD (fig. 427.) be the given ellipsis, having AB for its major axis and CD for
its minor axis, which are both given in position and magnitude.
It is required to draw a similar ellipsis through the point G in the
major axis AG. Draw BK perpendicular and CK parallel to
AB, and join KE. Again, draw GL perpendicular to AB cut-
ting EK at L, and draw LH parallel to AB cutting CD in H.
On the axis CD make El equal to EH, and on the axis AB
make EF equal to EG. Then, having the major axis AB, and
the minor axis FG, the ellipsis FIGH may be described, and when drawn, it will be
similar to the given ellipsis ADBC.
1081. PROB. VII. Through any given paint p, within the curve of a given ellipsis to
describe another ellipsis which shall be similar and concentric to the given one.
Let C (fig. 428.) be its centre. Draw the straight line CpP, cutting the curve of the
given ellipsis in P. In such curve take any other number of
points Q, R, S, &c., and join Q,C, RC, SC, &c. ; join PQ, and
draw pq parallel thereto cutting qC at g : join PR and draw pr
parallel to PR, cutting RC at r; join PS and draw ps parallel to
PS cutting SC in s. The whole being completed, and the curve
p, s, t, u drawn through the points p, q, r, s, &c., the figure will
be similar and concentric to the given ellipse P, S, T, U ; or when
the points at the extremities for one half of the curve have been
drawn, the other half may be found by producing the diameter to the opposite side, and
making the part produced equal to the other part.
1082. PROB. VIII. About a given rectangle ABCD to describe an ellipsis which shall
have its major and minor axes respectively parallel to the sides of the rectangle and its centre in
the points of intersection of the two diagonals.
Bisect the sides AD and AB {fig. 429.) of the rectangle respectively at L and O;
FiR. 426.
352
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
through L draw GH parallel to AB cutting the opposite side BC of the rectangle in M,
and through the point O draw KI parallel to AD or BC cutting
the opposite side DC in N. In NK or NK produced, make NQ
equal to NC, and join CQ; draw QR parallel to GH cutting CB
or CB produced in R; make EH and EG each equal to QC, as
also El and EK each equal to PC ; then will GH be the major axis
and KI the minor axis of the ellipsis required.
The demonstration of this method, in which the line QK has ngTms.
nothing to do with the construction, is as follows : —
By the similar triangles CPM and CQR, we have CP : CM::CQ ! CR.
But because MP is equal to MC = EN, and since CR is equal to RQ=EM,
And, by construction, since PC is equal to El or EK, and QC is equal to EG or EH,
El : EN:: EH : EM, or, alternately, El : EH:: EN : EM.
But EN is equal to MC, and EM equal to NC ;
Whence El : EH::MC : CN.
But since the wholes are as the halves, we shall have KI : GH : ; BC : CD.
This problem is useful in its application to architecture about domes and pendentives, as
well as in the construction of spheroidal ceilings and other details.
OF THE HYPERBOLA.
1083. The direction of a plane cutting a cone, which produces the form called the hyper-
bola, has been already described ; its most useful properties will form the subject of the
following theorems, which we shall preface with a few definitions : —
1. The primary axis of an hyperbola is called the transverse axis.
2. A straight line drawn through the centre of an hyperbola and terminated at each
extremity by the opposite curves is called a diameter.
3. The extremities of a diameter terminated by the two opposite curves are called the
vertices of that diameter.
4. A straight line drawn from any point of a diameter to meet the curve parallel to a
tangent at the extremity of that diameter is called an ordinate to the two abscissas.
5. A straight line which is bisected at right angles by the transverse axis in its centre,
and which is a fourth proportional to the mean of the two abscissas, their ordinate,
and the transverse axis, is called the conjugate axis.
6. A straight line which is a third proportional to the transverse and conjugate axis is
called the latus rectum or parameter. Q'
7. The two points in the transverse axis cut by ordinates which are
equal to the semi-parameter are called the foci.
1084. THEOREM I Li the hyperbola the squares of the ordinates of the
transverse axis are to each other as the rectangles of their abscissas.
Let QVN (fly. 430.) be a section of the cone passing along the
axis VD, the line of section of the directing plane, HB the line of axis
of the cutting plane, the directing and cutting plane being perpendi-
cular to the plane QVN. Let the cone be cut by two planes perpen-
dicular to the axis passing through the two points P, H, meeting the
plane of section in the lines PM, HI, which are ordinates to the circles
and to the figure of the section, of the same time.
By the similar triangles APL and AHN, AP : PL: : AH : HN;
And by the similar triangles BPK and BHQ, BP : PK::BH : HQ.
Therefore, taking the rectangles of the corresponding terms, AP x BP :
BH : HNx HQ.
But in the circle, PL x PK = PM*, and HN x HQ= HI2 ;
Therefore AP x BP : PM^: : AH x BH : HI2,
Or, alternately, PM2 : HI*;; AP : PB : AH : BH.
1085. THEOREM II. In the hyperbola, as the square of the transverse
axis is to the square of the, conjugate axis, so is the rectangle of the abscissas
to the square of their ordinate.
Let AB (Jig. 431.) be the transverse axis, GE the conjugate axis,
C being the centre of the opposite curves; also let HI and PM be or-
dinates as before ; then will
AB2 : GE2 : : PA x PB : PM2,
Or C A2 : CE* : : PA x PB : PM2.
By Theor. I., PA x PB : HA x HB : : PM2 : HI2 ;
Alternately, P A x PB : PM* : : H A x HB : : HR
But HAxHB : HI2::AB* : GE2;
Therefore AB2 ; GE2 ; : P A x PB : PM2.
Fig. 430.
PLxPK::AHx
; IS.
Fifc. 431.
CHAP. I.
CONIC SECTIONS.
353
Fig. 432.
Coroll. Hence AB2 : GE2 : : C P2- C A2 : PM9 (fig. 432.). For let the cutting plane
of the opposite hyperbola intersect two circles parallel to the base in
HI and PM, and let the cone be cut by another plane parallel to the
base, passing through the centre C of the transverse axis, and let mn
be the diameter of the circle made by such plane.
Then A Cm, APK are similar, and AC : Cm:: AP : PK.
And as BC«, BPL are similar, BC : Cn : : BP : PL.
Therefore, taking the rectangles of the corresponding terms,
BCx AC : Crax Cm;:BPx AP : PLx PK.
But BC=AC; CmxCn=C<2; and PL x PK = PM2.
Therefore AC2 : C^::APx BP : PM?.
Though Ct is not in the same plane, it is what is usually called the
semi-conjugate axis, and. it agrees with what has been demonstrated
in the first part of this proposition.
1086. THEOREM III. In the hyperbola, the square of the semi-
conjugate axis is to the square of the semi-transverse axis as the sum
of the squares of the semi-conjugate axis and of the ordinate parallel to it is to the square of the
abscissas.
Let AB (fig. 433.) be the transverse axis, GE the conjugate, C the cen-
tre of the figure, and PM an ordinate, then will
G E2 : AB2 : : CE2 + PM2 : CP*.
For, by Theor. II., CE^ : CA2::PM2 : CPS-CA*,
And, by composition, CE2 : CA2;:CE2+PM2 : CP2.
This demonstration may be also applied to what are called conjugate
hyperbolas.
1087. THEOREM IV. In the hyperbola, the square of the distance of the
focus from the centre is equal to the sum of the squares of the semi-axes.
Let AB (fig. 434.) be the transverse axis, CE the semi-conjugate. In
AB, produced within the curve each way, let F be one focus; and / the
other, and let FG be the semi-parameter then CF2=CA2 + CE«.
For, by Theor. I., C A2 : CE2 : : F A x FB : FG2 ;
But, by property of parameter, CA2 : CE2::CE2 : FG2.
Therefore CE«= AF x FB= CF- CA ;
And, by transposition, CF2= C A2 + CE2.
Coroll. 1. The two semi-axes, and the distance of the focus from the centre, are the sides
of a right-angled triangle CEA, of which the distance AE
is the distance of the focus from the centre.
Coroll. 2. The conjugate axis CE is a mean proportional
between FA and FB, or between /B and /A, for CE* =
CF2_CA = (CF+CA)x(CF-CA) = BFx AF.
1088. THEOREM V. The difference of the radius vectors
is equal to the transverse axis.
That is, /M-FM=AB = 2CA = 2CB.
For C A2 : CE2 : : CP2- C AS ; PM2 ;
And CE2=CF2-CA2.
Therefore CA* : CF2-CA2;: CP2-CA2 ; PM*.
And by taking the rectangle of the extremes and means, and
dividing by CA2,
Fig. 433.
But FP2 = (CP-CF)2:
And
Therefore
CF+CF2,
Fig. 434.
Fig. 435.
-^2CP x CF+ CA«.
Now each side of this equation is a complete square.
Therefore, extracting the root of each number, FM
In the same manner we find /M
And, subtracting the upper equation from the lower, ^/M— FM = 2CA-
Coroll. 1. Hence is derived the common method of describing the hyperbolic curve
mechanically. Thus : — In the transverse axis AB produced (fig. 435.), take the foci F, /',
and any point I in the straight line AB so produced. Then, with the radii AT, BI, and the
A a
354
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK JI.
centre F, /, describe arcs intersecting each other ; call the points of intersection E, then E will
be a point in the curve ; with the same distances another point on the
other side of the axis may be found. In like manner, by taking any
other points I, we may find two more points, one on each side of the
axis, and thus continue till a sufficient number of points be found to
describe the curve by hand. By the same process, we may also de-
scribe the opposite hyperbolas.
PK v OP
Coroll. 2. Because ^A " a fourth proportional to CA, CF CP,
CA : CF::CP : CA+FM.
1089. THEOREM VI. As the square of the semi-transverse axis is to
the square of the semi-conjugate, so is the difference of the squares of any
two abscissas to the difference of the squares of their ordinates.
Bv Theor II { CA2 : CE2:: CP2-CA* : PM2 (fig. 436.),
,or. 11., |CA2 . CE2;:CH2-CA2 : HI2.
Therefore, by CH2 _ CA2 : CP2-CA2;:HI2 : PM2 or
equality, HN2 ;
And, by division, CH2- CA2 : CH2- CP2: : HI2 : HI2- HN2 ;
CH2-CA2 : HI2::CH*~CP2 : HI2-HN2.
CH2-CA2 : HI2::cA2 : CES
CA2 :
C E
mm m ^ Fig.436.
Alternately,
But
Therefore
Coroll. 1. If IH be produced to K, and CQ, be made equal to CP, then will CH2—
CP2 = (CH+CP)(CH-CP) = (CP+CH)PH ; and HI2-HN2 = (HI + HN)(HI-
HN) = (HI + HN)NI. Therefore the analogy resulting becomes
CA«: CE*::(CP+CH)PH : (HI + HN)NI.
So that the square of the transverse axis is to the square of the conjugate, or the square of
the semi-transverse is to the square of the semi-conjugate, as the rectangle of the sum and
difference of the two ordinates from the centre is to the rectangle of the sum and differ-
ence of these ordinates.
1C JO. THEOREM VII. If a tangent and an ordinate be drawn from any point in an hyper*
bola to meet the transverse axis, the semi-transverse axis will be a mean \ ,
proportional between the distances of the two intersections from the
centre.
For (fig. 437.) CE2 : C A2 ; : (IH + HN)IN : : (PC + CH)HP ;
And by Theor. I., CE2 ; CA2;: PM^ : CP2- CA2 ;
By equality, PM2 : CP2- CA2 :: (IH+ HN) IN : (PC +
CH)HP;
And by similar triangles INM, MPT, IN : NM or PH : : PM : PT
or CP-CT.
Therefore, taking the rectangles of the extremes and means of the two
last equations, and neglecting the common factors, it will be PM(CP
-CT)(CP+CH) = (CP2-CA2)(IH + HN); but when I H and PM
coincide, IH and HN each become equal to PM, and CH equal to
CP: therefore in the equation substitute 2CPfor CP+ CH, and 2PM
for IH + HN, and neglecting the common factors and common terms,
the result is CT.CP=CA2, or CT : CA::CA : CP.
Coroll. Since CT is always a third proportional to CP, C A ; suppose
the points P and A to remain constant, the point T will also remain constant ; therefore
all the tangents will meet in the point T which are drawn from the ex-
tremity of the ordinate M of every hyperbola described on the same
axis AB.
1091. THEOREM VIII. Four perpendiculars to the transverse axis in-
tercepted by it and a tangent, will be proportionals when the first and last
have one of their extremities in each vertex, the second in the point of con-
tact, and the third in the centre.
Let the four perpendiculars be AD, PM, CE, BF (fig. 438.),
whereof AD and BF have their extremities in the vertices A and B,
and the second in the point of contact M of the tangent and the curve,
and the third in the centre C.
Then will AD : PM : : CE : BF.
For, by Theor. VII., CT : CA:: CA : CP,
And, by division, CA- CT : CP- CA : : CT : CA or CB ; / \
That is, AT : AP::CT I CB; M/ |P \
By composition, AT : AT + AP : : CT : CT + CB.
Therefore AT : TP : : CT : BT.
CHAP. I.
CONIC SECTIONS.
355
But by the similar triangles TAD, TPM, TCE, and TBF, the sides AT, PT, CT,
and BT are proportional to the four perpendiculars AD, PM, CE, BF.
Therefore AD: PM::CE : BF.
1092. THEOREM IX. The two radius vectors meeting the curve in the same point will make
equal angles with a tangent passing through that point. (Fig. 439.)
For, by Theor. VII. , CA : CP : : CT : CA ;
CP::CF : CA+FM;
:CA : CA+FM;
: CF+CT::FM : 2CA
By Cor. 2. Theor. V., CA
By equality, CT : CF
By division and composition, CF— CT ;
+ FM;
That is, FT:/T::FM :/R;
And by the similar triangles TFM, T/R, FT : /T: : FM : /R.
Therefore/R is equal to/M ; consequently the angle /RM is equal
to the angle /MR: and because /R is parallel to/M, the angle
FMT is equal to the angle /RM; therefore the angle FMT is
equal to the angle /RM.
1093. PROBLEM I. To describe an hyperbola by means of the end
of a ruler moveable on a pin F ( fig 440. ) fixed in a plane, with one
end of a string fixed to a point E in the same plane, and the other ex-
tremity of the string fastened to the other end C of the ruler, the point
C of the ruler being moved towards G in that plane.
While the ruler is moving, a point D being made to slide
along the edge of the ruler, kept close to the string so as to keep each of the parts C D,
D E of the string stretched, the point D will describe
the curve of an hyperbola.
If the end of the ruler at F (fig. 441.) be made
moveable about the point E, and the string be fixed
in F and to the end C of the ruler, as before, another
curve may be described in the same manner, which is
called the opposite hyperbola : the points E and F,
about which the ruler is made to revolve, are the foci.
There are many occasions in which the use of this
conic section occurs in architectural details. For
instance, the profiles of many of the Grecian mould-
ings are hyperbolic ; and in conical roofs the forms
are by intersections such that the student should be
well acquainted with the methods of descpibing it.
1094. PROS. II. Given the diameter AB, the ab-
scissa BC, and the double ordinate DE in position and
magnitude, to describe the hyperbola. (Fig. 442.)
Through B draw FG parallel to DE, and draw DF and EG parallel to AB.
Divide DF and DC each into the same number of equal parts,
and from the points of division in BF draw lines to B, also from
the points of division in DC draw straight lines to A; then
through the points of intersection found by the lines drawn
through the corresponding points draw the curve DB. In like
manner the curve EB may be drawn so that DBE will form
the curve on each side of the diameter AB. If the point A be
considered as the vertex, the opposite hyperbola HAI may be
described in the same manner, and thus the two curves formed by
cutting the opposite cones by the same plane will be found. By
the theorists, the hyperbola has been considered a proper figure
of equilibrium for an arch whose office is to support a load which
is greatest at the middle of the arch, and diminishes towards the
abutments. This, however, is matter of consideration for another part of this work.
Fig. 441.
OF THE PARABOLA.
1095. DEFINITIONS. — 1. The parameter of the axis of a parabola is a third proportional
to the abscissa and its ordinate.
2. The focus is that point in the axis where the ordinate is equal to the Semi-parameter.
3. The diameter is a line within the curve terminated thereby, and is parallel to the
axis.
4. An ordinate to any diameter is a line contained by the curve and that diameter paral-
lel to a tangent at the extremity of the diameter.
A a 2
356 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
1096. THEOREM I. In the parabola, the abscissas are proportional to the squares of their
ordinates.
Let QVN (fig. 443.) be a section of the cone passing along the axis, and let the direc-
trix RX pass through the point Q perpendicular to QN, and let the
parabolic section be ADI meeting the base QIND of the cone in
the line DI, and the diameter QN in the point H ; also let KML be
a section of the cone parallel to the base QIN intersecting the plane
VQN in the line KL, and the section ADI in PM. Let P be the
point of concourse of the three planes QVN, KML, A HI, and
let H be the point of concourse of the three planes QVN, KML,
AHI; then, because the planes VRX and ADI are parallel, and
the plane VQN is perpendicular to the plane VRX, the plane ADI
is also perpendicular to the plane VQN. Again, because the plane R(!
QIN is perpendicular to the plane QVN, and the plane KML is
parallel to the plane QIN, the plane KML is perpendicular to the
plane QVN; therefore the common sections PM and HI are per-
pendicular to the plane VQN ; and because the plane KML is pa-
rallel to the plane QIN; and these two planes are intersected by
the plane QVN, their common sections KL and QN are parallel. Also, since PM and HI
are each perpendicular to the plane QVN, and since KL is the common section of the
planes QVN, KML, and QN in the common section of the planes QVN, QIN ; therefore
PM and HI are perpendicular respectively to KL and QN.
Consequently AP : AH : : PM2 : HI2.
For, by the similar triangles APL, AHN, AP : AH : : PL : HN,
Or AP : AH::KPxPL : KPxHN.
But, by the circle KML, KP x PL=PM2,
And, by the circle QIN, QH x HN=HI2. ButQH = KP,
Therefore KPxHN=HI2.
Therefore, by substitution, AP : AH : : PM2 : HI2.
Coroll. By the definition of the parameter, which we shall call P,
AP : PM::PM : P=™2,
And Px AP = PM2, or Px AH = HI2.
Therefore P : PM::PM : AP, or P : HI:: HI : AH.
1097. THEOREM II. As the parameter of the axis is to the sum of any two ordinates, so is
the difference of these ordinates to the difference of their abscissas.
That is, P : HI +PM:: HI-PM: AH-AP. /^P\
For since by Cor. Theor. I. -j A]^ ' n// [ |\^
Afl' Fig. 444.
Multiplying the first of these equations by AP and the second by AH,
Subtract the corresponding numbers of the first equation, and P (AH — AP) == HI2— PM2.
But the difference of two squares is equal to a rectangle under the sum and difference of
their sides.
And HI2-PM2 = (HI+PM)(HI-PM).
Therefore P (AH-AP) = (HI + PM) (HI-PM).
Consequently P : HI + PM : : HI - PM : AH - AP ;
Or, by drawing KM parallel to AH, we have GK= PM+ HI, and KI = HI-PM ; and
since PH = AH-AP; P : GK::KI : PH, or KM.
Coroll. Hence, because P x KM= GK x KI ;
And since HI2 = P x AH ;
Therefore, by multiplication, KM x HI2 = GK x KI x AH, or A
AH : KM:: HI* : GKxKI.
So that any diameter MK is as the rectangle of the segments GK,
KI of the double ordinate GI. From this a simple method has been
used of finding points in the curve, so as to describe it. il X
1098. THEOREM III. The distance between the vertex of the curve and Fig. 445.
the focus is equal to one fourth of the parameter.
Let LG (fig. 445.) be a double ordinate passing through the focus, then LG is the
parameter. For by the definition of parameter AF: FG;:FG : P = 2FG.
Therefore 2A
Consequently AF =
CHAP. I.
CONIC SECTIONS.
557
Fig. 447
1099. THEOREM IV. The radius vector is equal to the sum of the distances between the focus
and the vertex, and between the ordinate and the vertex. (Fig. 446. )
That is, FM = AP + AF.
For FP = AP-AF;
Therefore FP2= AP2-2AP x AF+ AF2.
But, by Cor. Theor. II., PM2=P x AP = 4AF x AP.
Therefore, by addition, FP2 + PM<2z= AP2 + 2 AF x AP
+ AF2.
But by the right-angled tringles, FP2 + PM« = FM2 ;
And therefore FM2 = A P2 + 2 A F x A P + A F2.
Hence, extracting the roots, FM = A P + A F = 2 A F + F P ;
Or by making AG = AF, FM=GP.
Coroll. 1. If through the point G (fig. 447.) the line GQ be drawn perpendicular to
the axis, it is called the directrix of the parabola.
By the property shown in this theorem, it appears that if any line QM be drawn parallel
to the axis, and if FM be joined, the straight line FM is equal to QM ; for QM is equal
to GP.
Coroll. 2. Hence, also, the curve is easily described by points. Take AG equal to AF,
(fig. 447.), and draw a number of lines M, M perpendicular to the axis AP ; then with the
distances GP, GP, &c. as radii, and from F
as a centre, describe arcs on each side of AP,
cutting the lines MM, MM, &c. at MM,&c. ;
then through all the points M, M, M, &c.
draw a curve, which will be a parabola.
1100. THEOREM V. If a tangent be drawn
from the vertex of an ordinate to meet the axis
produced, the subtangent PT (fig. 448.) will
be equal to twice the distance of the ordinate
from the vertex.
If MT be a tangent at M, the extremity of the ordinate PM ; then the sub-tangent PT
is equal to twice A P. For draw MK parallel to AH,
Then, by Theor. II., KM : KI:: GK:: P ;
And as MKI, TPM are similar, KM : KI : : PT : PM.
Therefore, by equality, P : PM : : GK : PT ;
And by Cor. Theor. I., P : PM : : PM : A P.
Therefore, by equality, AP : PT: : PM : GK.
But when the ordinates HI and PM coincide, MT will become a tangent, and GK will
become equal to twice PM.
Therefore AP : PT::PM : 2PM, or
PT=2AP.
From this property is obtained an easy and accurate method of drawing a tangent to any
point of the curve of a parabola. Thus, let it be re-
quired to draw a tangent to any point M in the curve.
Produce PA to T (fig. 449.), and draw MP perpendi-
cular to PT, meeting AP in the point P. Make AP
equal to AP, and join MT, which will be the tangent
required.
1101. THEOREM VI. The radius vector is equal to
the distance between the focus and the intersection of a
tangent at the vertex of an ordinate and the axis pro-
duced. Fig. 449.
Produce PA to T (fig. 450.), and let MT be a tangent at M ; then will FT= FM.
For FT = AF+AT;
But, by last theorem, AP = AT ;
Therefore FT = A F + A P. "
But, by Theorem III., FM = AF+ AP;
Therefore, by equality, FM=FT.
Coroll. 1. If MN be drawn perpendicular to MT to meet the axis in N, then will
FN=FM = FT. For draw FH perpendicular to MT, and it also bisects MT, because
FM= FT ; and since HF and MN are parallel, and MT is bisected in H, the lineTN will
also be bisected in F. It therefore follows that FN= FM= FT.
Coroll. 2. The subnormal PN is a constant quantity, and it is equal to half the para-
meter, or to 2AF. For since TMN is a right angle,
Therefore 2AP or TP : PM;: PM : PN.
But, by the definition of parameter, AP : PM:;PM • P;
Therefore PN=iP.
Aa 3
358
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
Coroll. 8. The tangent of the vertex AH is a mean proportional between AF and A P.
For since FHT is a right angle, therefore AH is a mean proportional between AF and AT;
and since AT = AP, AH is a mean proportional between AF and AP. Also FH is a
mean proportional between FA and FT, or between FA and FM.
Coroll. 4. The tangent makes equal angles with FM and the axis AP, as well as with
FC and CI.
1102. THEOREM VII. Aline parallel to the axis, intercepted by a double ordinate and a
tangent at the vertex of that ordinate, will be divided by the curve in the same ratio as the line
itself divides the double ordinate.
Let QM (fig. 451.) be the double ordinate, MT the tangent, AP
the axis, GK the intercepted line divided by the curve in the point I ;
then will GI : IK::MK : KQ.
For by similar triangles MKG, MPT ; MK : KG : : PM : PT,
or 2AP;
By the definition of parameter, P : PM : : PM : 2AP ;
Therefore, by equality, P : MK : : PM : KG ;
And again, by equality, PM : MK : : 2AP : KG ;
And by division, MK : KQ: : GI : IK.
1103. PROBLEM I. To describe a parabola.
If a thread, equal in length to the leg BC (fig. 452.) of a
right angle or square, be fixed to the end C, and the other end
of the thread be fixed to a point F in a plane, then if the
square be moved in that plane so that the leg AB may slide
along the straight line GH, and the point D be always kept
close to the edge BC of the square, and the two parts FD and
DC of the string kept stretched, the point D will describe a
curve on the plane, which will be a parabola. Fis- 452-
1104. PHOB. II. Given the double ordinate DE and the abscissa BC in position and
magnitude, to describe a parabola.
Through B (figs. 453, 454.) draw FG parallel to DE and DF, and EG parallel to CD.
F BO Divide DC and
DF each into
the same num-
ber of equal
parts. From
the points of
division in DF draw lines to B. Through the points of divi-
sion in DC draw lines parallel to BC, and through the
points of intersection of the corresponding lines draw a curve,
and complete the other half in the same manner ; then will
DBE be the complete curve of the parabola. The less BC
is in proportion to CD, the nearer the curve will approach to
the arc of a circle, as in fig. 422. ; and hence we may describe
the curve for diminishing the shaft of a column, or draw a flat segment of a circle.
1105. PROS. III. The same parts being given, to describe the parabola by the intersection
of straight lines.
Produce CB to F (fig. 455.), and make BF equal to BC. Join FD and FE. Divide
DF and FE in the same proportion, or
into the same number of equal parts. Let
the divisions be numbered from D to F,
and from F to E, and join every two
corresponding points by a straight line ;
then the intersection of all the straight n E
lines will form the parabola required. Fi«' 455-
1106. PROB. IV. To draw a straight line from a given point in the curve of a parabola,
which shall be a tangent to the curve at that
point.
Let DC (fig. 456.) be the double or-
dinate, CB the abscissa to the parabolic
curve DBC, and let it be required to
draw a tangent from the point e in the
curve. Draw ef parallel to DC, cutting Fig. 456.
BC in f: produce cB to g, and make B^ equal to B/j and join ge, then will ge be the
tangent required. In the same manner DH will be found to be a tangent at D. If eK
be drawn perpendicular to the tangent ge, then will eK be also perpendicular to the curve,
and in the proper direction for a joint in the masonry of a parabolic arch.
CHAP. I.
DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY.
359
1107. The uses of the parabolic curve in architecture are many. The theorists say that
it is the curve of equilibrium for an arch which has to sustain a load uniformly diffused over
its length, and that therefore it should be included in the depth of lintels and flat arches ; and
that it is nearly the best form for suspension and other bridges, and for roofs. It is also con-
sidered the best form for beams of equal strength. It may be here also remarked, that it
is the curve described by a projectile, and that it is the form in which a jet of water is
delivered from an orifice made in the side of a reservoir. So is it the best curve for the
reflection of light to be thrown to a distance. In construction it occurs in the intersection
of conic surfaces by planes parallel to the side of the cone, and is a form of great beauty
lor the profiles of mouldings, in which manner it was much used in Grecian buildings.
No.l
GENERAL METHOD OF DETERMINING AND DESCRIBING THE SPECIES OF CONIC SECTIONS.
1108. In a conic section, let there be given the abscissa AB (fy. 457.), an ordinate BC,
and a tangent CD to the curve at the ex-
tremity of the ordinate to determine the
species of the conic section, and to de-
scribe the figure.
Draw AD parallel to BC, and join AC
(Nos. 1. and 2.). Bisect AC in E, and
produce DE and AB, so as to meet in F
when DE is not parallel to AB; then in
the case where DE will meet AB or AB
produced in F, the point F will be the
centre of an ellipsis or hyperbola. In this
case produce AF to G, and make FG
equal to FA ; then if the ordinate BC
and the centre be upon the same side of
the apex A, the curve to which the given
parts belong is an ellipsis ; but if they
be on different sides of it, the curve is
an hyperbola. When the line DE (No. Fig. 457. Fig. 458.
3.) is parallel to AB, the figure is a parabola.
1109. In a conic section, the abscissa AB (fig. 458.), an ordinate BC, and a point D in
the curve being given, to determine the species of the curve, and thence to describe it.
Draw CG parallel to AB (Nos. 1. and 2.), and AG parallel to BC. Join AD, and
produce it to meet CG in e. Divide the ordinate CB in f in the same proportion as
CG is divided, then will Cf :fB::Ce : eG. Join D/, and produce it or /D to meet AB
or B A in h ; then if the points D and h fall upon opposite sides of the ordinate BC, the
curve is an ellipsis ; but if D and h fall upon the same side of the ordinate BC, the curve
will be an hyperbola. If D/ (No. 3.) be parallel to AB, the curve will be a parabola.
In the case of the ellipsis and hyperbola, Ah is a diameter; and therefore we have a dia-
meter and ordinate to describe the curve.
SECT. VI.
DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY.
1110. The term Descriptive Geometry, first used by Monge and other French geometers
to express that part of the science of geometry which consists in the application of geometrical
rules to the representation of the figures and the various relations of the forms of bodies,
according to certain conventional methods, differs from common perspective by the design
or representation being so made that the exact distance between the different points of the
body represented can always be found ; and thus the mathematical relations arising from
its form and position may be deduced from the representation. Among the English writers
on practical architecture, it has usually received the name of projection, from the circum-
stance of the different points and lines of the body being projected on the plane of re-
presentation ; for, in descriptive geometry, points in space are represented by their ortho-
graphical projection on two planes at right angles to each other, called the planes of projec-
tion, one of which planes is usually supposed to be horizontal, in which case the other is ver-
tical, the projections being called horizontal or vertical, according as they are on one or
other of these planes.
1111. In this system, a point in space is represented by drawing a perpendicular from it
to each of the planes of projection; the point whereon the perpendicular falls is the
A a 4
360 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
projection of the proposed point. Then, as points in space are the boundaries of lines, so
their projections similarly form lines, by whose means their projection is obtained ; and by
the projections of points lying in curves of any description, the projections of those curves
are obtained.
1112. For obvious reasons, surfaces cannot be similarly represented ; but if we suppose
the surface to be represented, covered by a system of lines, according to some determinate
law, then these lines projected on each of the two planes will, by their boundaries, enable
us to project the surface in a rigorous and satisfactory manner.
1113. There are, however, some surfaces which may be more simply represented ; for a
plane is completely defined by the straight lines in which it intersects the two planes of
projection, which lines are called the traces of the plane. So a sphere is completely defined
by the two projections of its centre and the great circle which limits the projections of its
points. So also a cylinder is defined by its intersection (or trace) with one of the planes of
projection and by the two projections of one of its ends ; and a cone by its intersection
with one of the planes of projection and the two projections of its summit.
1114. Monge, before mentioned, Hachette, Vallee, and Leroi, are the most systematic
writers on this subject, whose immediate application to architecture, and to the mechanical
arts, and most especially to engineering, is very extensive ; in consequence, indeed, of which it
is considered of so much importance in France, as to form one of the principal departments of
study in the Polytechnic School of Paris. A sufficient general idea of it for the architec-
tural student may be obtained in a small work of Le Croix, entitled, Complement des
Elemens de Geometric. In the following pages, and occasionally in other parts of this work,
we shall detail all those points of it which are connected more immediately with our subject,
inasmuch as we do not think it necessary to involve the reader in a mass of scientific matter
connected therewith, which we are certain he would never find necessary in the practice of
the art whereon we are engaged.
1115. In order to comprehend the method of tracing geometrically the projections of all
sorts of objects, we must observe, — I. That the visible faces only of solids are to be expressed.
II. That the surfaces which enclose solids are of two sorts, rectilinear and curved. These,
however, may be divided into three classes, — 1 st. Those included by plane surfaces, as
prisms, pyramids, and, generally, similar sorts of figures used in building. 2d. Those
included by surfaces whereof some are plane and others with a simple curvature, as
cylinders, cones, or parts of them, and the voussoirs of arches. 3d. Solids enclosed by one
or several surfaces of double flexure, as the sphere, spheroids, and the voussoirs of arches on
circular planes.
1116. First class, or solids with plane surfaces The plane surfaces by which these
solids are bounded form at their junction edges or arrisses, which may be represented by
right lines.
1117. And it is useful to observe in respect of solids that there are three sorts of angles
formed by them. First, those arising from the meeting of the lines which bound the faces
of a solid. Second, those which result from the concurrence of several faces whose edges
unite and form the summit of an angle : thus a solid angle is composed of as many plane
angles as there are planes uniting at the point, recollecting however that their number
must be at least three. Third, the angles of the planes, which is that formed by two of the
faces of a solid. A cube enclosed by six square equal planes comprises twelve rectilineal
edges or arrisses and eight solid angles.
1118. Pyramids are solids standing on any polygonal bases, their planes or faces being
triangular and meeting in a point at the top, where they form a solid angle.*
1119. Prisms, like pyramids, may be placed on all sorts of polygonal bases, but they rise
on every side of the base in parallelograms instead of triangles, thus having throughout
similar form and thickness.
1 1 20. Though, strictly speaking, pyramids and prisms are polyhedrons, the latter term
is only applied to those solids whose faces forming polygons may each be considered as the
base of a separate pyramid.
1121. In all solids with plane surfaces the arrisses terminate in solid angles formed by
several of these surfaces, which unite with one another ; whence, in order to find the pro-
jection of the right lines which represent those arrisses, all that we require to know is the
position of the solid angles where they meet ; and as a solid angle is generally composed of
several plane angles, a single solid angle will determine the extremity of all the arrisses by
which it is formed.
1 1 22. Second class : solids terminated by plane and curved surfaces. — Some of these, as
cones for instance, exhibit merely a point and two surfaces, one curved and the other flat.
The meeting of these surfaces forms a circular or elliptical arris common to both. The
projection of an entire cone requires several points for the curvature which forms its base,
but a single point only is necessary to determine its summit. This solid may be considered
as a pyramid with an elliptic or circular base ; and to facilitate its projection a polygon is
inscribed in the ellipsis or circle, which serves as its base.
CHAP. I.
DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY.
361
1123. If the cone is truncated or cut off, polygons may in like manner be inscribed in
the curves which produce the sections.
1124. Cylinders may be considered as prisms whose bases are formed by circles,
ellipses, or other curves, and their projections may be obtained in a similar manner : that
is, by inscribing polygons in the curves which form their bases.
1 1 25. Third class : solids whose surfaces have a double curvature A solid of this sort
may be enclosed in a single surface, as a sphere or spheroid.
1126. As these bodies present neither angles nor lines, they can only be represented by
the apparent curve which seems to bound their superficies. This curve may be determined
by tangents parallel to a line drawn from the centre of the solid perpendicularly to the
plane of projection.
1 1 27. If these solids are truncated or cut by planes, we must, after having traced the
curves which represent them entire, inscribe polygons in each curve produced by the sec-
tions, in order to proceed as directed for cones and cylinders.
1 1 28. To obtain a clear notion of the combination of several pieces, as, for instance, of a
vault, we must imagine the bodies themselves annihilated, and that nothing remains but
the arrisses or edges which form the extremes of the surfaces of the voussoirs. The whole
assemblage of material lines which would result from this consideration being considered
transparent would project upon a plane perpendicular to the rays of light, traces defining
all these edges that we have supposed material, some foreshortened, and others of the same
size. These will form the outlines of the vault, whence follow the subjoined remarks.
I. That in order, on a plane, to obtain the projection of a right line representing the
arris of any solid body, we must on such plane let fall verticals from each of
its extremities.
II. That if the arris be parallel to the plane of the drawing, the line which represents its
projection is the same size as the original.
III. That if it be oblique, its representation will be shorter than the original line.
IV. That perpendiculars by means of which the projection is made being parallel to
each other, the line projected cannot be longer than the line it represents.
V. That in order to represent an arris or edge perpendicular to the plane of projection,
a mere point marks it because it coincides in the length with the perpendiculars of
projection.
VI. That the measure of the obliquity of an arris or edge will be found by verticals
let fall from its extremities.
1129. In conducting all the operations relative to projections, they are referable to two
planes, whereof one is horizontal and the other vertical.
PROJECTION OF RIGHT LINES.
1130. The projection of a line AB (Jig. 459.) perpendicular to a horizontal plane is ex-
Fig. 459.
Ffc. 460.
Fig. 461.
Fig. 4G2.
pressed on such plane by a point K, and by the lines at, a'6', equal to the original on ver-
tical planes, whatever their direction.
1131. An inclined line CD (fig. 460.) is represented on an horizontal or a vertical plane
by cd, c'd", shorter than the line itself, except on a vertical plane, parallel to its projection,
on the horizontal plane c"d", where it is equal to the original CD
1132. An inclined line EF (fig. 461.) moveable on its extremity E, may, by preserving
the same inclination in respect of the plane on which it lies, have its projection successively
in all the radii of the circle E/, determined by the perpendicular let fall from the point F.
1133. Two lines GH, IK (fig. 462.), whereof one is parallel to an horizontal plane and
the other inclined, may have the same projection m, n, upon such plane. Upon a vertical
362
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
plane perpendicular to mn, the projection of the line GH will be a point g ; and that of the
inclined line IK, the vertical ik, which measures the inclination of that line. Lastly, on a
vertical plane parallel to mn, the projection i'k' and g'h' will be parallel and equal to the
original lines.
OF SURFACES.
1134. What has been said in respect of right lines projected on vertical and horizontal
planes may be applied to plane surfaces ; thus, from
the surface ABCD (fig. 463.), parallel to an hori- |
zontal plane, results the projection abed of the same
size and form. An inclined surface EFGH may
have, though longer, the same projection as the
level one ABCD, if the lines of projection AE, BF,
DH, CG are in the same direction.
1135. The level surface ABCD would have for
projection on vertical planes the right lines db, b'c',
because that surface is in the same plane as the
lines of projection.
1136. The inclined surface EFGH will give on
vertical planes the foreshortened figure hgef of that
surface ; and upon the other the simple line fq,
which shows the profile of its inclination, because
this plane is parallel to the side of the inclined sur- Fig. 463.
face.
PROJECTION OF CURVED LINES.
1137. Curve lines not having their points in the same direction occupy a space which
brings them under the laws of those of surfaces. The projection of a curve on a plane
parallel to the surface in which it lies (fig. 464.) is similar to the curve.
Fig. 464.
Fig. 465.
Fig. 466.
Fig. 467
1138. If the plane of projection be not parallel, a foreshortened curve is the result, on
account of its obliquity to the surface (fig. 465. ).
1139. If the curve be perpendicular to the plane of projection, we shall have a line
representing the profile of the surface in which it is comprised ; that is to say, a right
line if the surface lie in the same plane (fig. 466.), and a curved line if the surface be
curved (fig. 467.).
1140. In order to describe the projection of the curve line ABC (fig. 467.), if the
surface in which it lies is curved, and it is not perpendicular to the plane of projection,
a polygon must be inscribed in the curve, and from each of the angles of such polygon
a perpendicular must be let fall, and parallels made to the chords which subtend the arcs.
But it is to be observed, that this line having a double flexure, we must further inscribe a
polygon in the curvature which forms the plane dbc of the surface wherein the curved line
lies.
1141. The combination and developement of all the parts which compose the curved
surfaces of vaults being susceptible of representation upon vertical and horizontal planes by
right or curve lines terminating their surfaces, if what has been above stated be thoroughly
understood, it will not be difficult to trace their projections for practical purposes,
whatever their situation and direction in vaults or other surfaces.
CHAP. I.
DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY.
363
PROJECTION OF SOLIDS.
1142. The projections of a cube ABCDEFGH placed parallel to two planes, one
horizontal and the other vertical, are squares whose sides represent faces perpendicular to
these planes (fig. 468.), which are represented by corresponding small letters.
Fig. 468. Fig. 469.
1143. If we suppose the cube to move on an axis, so that two of its opposite faces
remain perpendicular to the planes (fig. 469.), its projection on each will be a rectangle,
whose length will vary in proportion to the difference between the side and the diagonal
of the square^ The motion of the opposite arrisses will, on the contrary, produce a
rectangle whose width will be constant in all the dimensions contained of the image of
the perfect square to the exact period when the two arrisses unite in a single right line.
1144. A cylinder (fig. 470.) stands perpendicularly on an horizontal plane, and on such
Fig. 470. Fig. 471.
plane its projection ADBC is shown, being thereon represented by a circle, and upon a
vertical plane by the rectangle gcdh.
Fig. 473-
364
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
1145. The projection of an inclined cylinder (fig. 471.) is shown on a vertical and
horizontal plane.
1146. In fig. 472. we have the representation of a cube doubly inclined, so that the
diagonal from the angle B to the angle G is upright. The projection produced by this
position upon an horizontal plane is a regular hexagon acbefg, and upon a vertical plane th«
rectangle Jlegc whose diagonal B<7 is upright ; but as the effect of perspective changes the
effect of the cube and its projections, it is represented geometrically in^. 473.
1 147. In figures 474. and 475. a pyramid and cone are represented with their pro-
jectins on horizontal and vertical planes.
1 1 48. Fig. 476. represents a ball or sphere with its projections upon two planes, one
Fig. 474.
Fig. 476.
Fig. 475.
vertical and the other horizontal, wherein is to be remarked the perfection of this solid,
seeing that its projection on a plane is always a circle whenever the plane is parallel to the
circular base formed by the contact of the tangents.
KEVELOPEMENT OF SOLIDS WHOSE SURFACES ARE PLANE.
1149. We have already observed that solids are only distinguished by their apparent
faces, and that in those which have plane surfaces, their faces unite so as to form solid angles.
We have also observed that at least three plane angles are necessary to form a solid angle ;
whence it is manifest that the most simple of all the solids is a pyramid with a triangular
base, which is formed by four triangles, whereof three are united in the angles at its apex.
(Fig. 477.)
1 150. The developement of this solid is obtained by placing on the sides of the base,
Fig. 481.
Fig. 477.
Fig. 479.
Fig. 480.
Fig. 482.
the three triangles whose faces are inclined (fig. 478.); by which we obtain a figure
composed of four triangles. To cut this out in paper, for instance, or any other flexible
material, after bending it on the lines ab, be, ac, which form the triangle at the base, the
three triangles are turned up so as to unite in the summit.
DEVELOPEMENT OF REGULAR POLYHEDRONS.
1151. The solid just described formed of four equal equilateral triangles, as we have
seen, is the simplest of the five regular polyhedrons, and is called a tetrahedron, from its
being composed of four similar faces. The others are —
CHAP. I. DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY. 365
The hexahedron, or cube whose faces are six in number ;
The octahedron, whose faces are eight equilateral triangles ;
The dodecahedron, whose faces are twelve regular pentagons ;
The icosahedron, consisting of twenty equilateral triangles.
These five regular polyhedrons are represented by the figures 477. 479, 430, 481, and 482.,
and their developement by the figures 478. 483, 484, 485, and 486.
Fig. 486.
/K /\ /\ /" \ /; \ /\
Fig. 483. Fig. 484. Fig. 485.
1152. The surfaces of these developements are so arranged as to be capable of being
united by moving them on the lines by which they are joined.
1153. It is here proper to remark, that the equilateral triangle, the square, and the
pentagon, are the only figures which will form regular polyhedrons whose angles and sides
are equal ; but by cutting in a regular method the solid angles of these polyhedrons,
others regularly symmetrical may be formed whose sides will be formed of two similar
figures. Thus, by cutting in a regular way the angles of a tetrahedron, we obtain a poly-
hedron of eight faces, composed of four hexagons and four equilateral triangles. Similarly
operating on the cube, we shall have six octagons, connected by eight equilateral triangles,
forming a polyhedron of fourteen faces.
1154. The same operation being performed on the octahedron also gives a figure of
fourteen faces, whereof eight are octagons and six are squares.
1 1 55. The dodecahedron so cut produces twelve pentagons united by twenty hexagons,
and having thirty-two sides. This last, from some points of view, so approaches the
figure of the sphere, that, at a little distance, it looks almost spherical.
DEVELOPEMENT OF PYRAMIDS AND PRISMS.
1156. The other solids whose surfaces are plane, whereof mention has already been
made, are pyramids and prisms, partaking of the tetrahedron and cube ; of the former,
inasmuch as their sides above the base are formed by triangles which approach each other
so as together to form the solid angle which is the summit of the pyramid ; of the latter,
because their faces, which rise above the base, are formed by rectangles or parallelograms
which preserve the same distance from each other, but differ, from their rising on a poly-
gonal base and being undetermined as to height.
1 157. This species may be regular or irregular, they may have their axes perpendicular
or inclined, they may be truncated or cut in a direction either parallel or inclined to their
bases.
1158. The developement of a pyramid or right prism, whose base and height are given,
is not attended with difficulty. The operation is by raising on each side of the base a triangle
equal in height to the inclined face, as in the pyramidal figures 487. and 488., and a
rectangle equal to the perpendicular height if it be a prism.
DEVELOPEMENT OF AN OBLIQUE PYRAMID.
1159. If the pyramid be oblique, as in fig. 489., wherein the length of the sides of each
triangle can only be represented by foreshortening them in a vertical or horizontal pro-
jection, a third operation is necessary, and that is founded on a principle common to all
projections ; viz. that the length of an inclined line projected or foreshortened on a plane,
depends upon the difference of the perpendicular elongation of its extremities from the plane,
366
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
uihence in all cases a rectangular triangle, whose vertical and horizontal projections give two
sides, the third, which is the hypothenusc, joining them, will express the length of the foreshortened
line.
Fig. 492.
1160. In the application of this rule to the oblique pyramid of fig. 489., the position of
the point P {fig. 490.) must be shown on the plan or horizontal projection answering to the
apex of the pyramid, and from this point perpendicular to the face CD on the same side
the perpendicular PG must be drawn. Then from the point P as a centre describe the
arcs B6, Cc, which will transfer upon PG the horizontal projections of the inclined
arrisses AP, EP, and DP ; and raising the perpendicular PS equal to the height of the
apex P of the pyramid above the plane of projection, draw the lines Sa, S6, Sc, which will
give the real lengths of all the edges or arrisses of the pyramid.
1 161. We may then obtain the triangles which form the developement of this pyramid,
by describing from C as a centre with the radius Sc, the arc iff, and from the point D
another arc intersecting the other in F. Drawing the lines CF, DF, the triangles CFD
will be the developement of the side DC. To obtain that answering to BC, from the
points F and C with Sb and Be as radii, describe arcs intersecting in B' and draw B'F and
CB': the triangle FCB' will be the developement of the face answering to the side Be.
1162. We shall find the triangle FA'B', by using the lengths SA and BA to find the
points B' and F, which will determine the triangle corresponding to the face AB, and lastly
the triangles FDE' and FE'A" corresponding to the faces DE, AE by using the lengths
86, DE and SA, AE. The whole developement AEDE'A"F, A'B', CBA being bent on
the lines B'FcF, CD, DF, and EF will form the inclined figure represented in fig. 489.
1 1 63. If this pyramid be truncated by the plane mn, parallel to the base, the contour
resulting from the section may be traced on the developement by producing Pm from F
to a, and drawing the lines ab, be, cd, de and ea" parallel to A'B', B'C, CD, DE' and E'A".
1164. But if the plane of the section be perpendicular to the axis, as mo, from the point
F with a radius equal to Po describe an arc of a circle, in which inscribe the polygon
ab"c"d'e"a". Then the polygon oqmq'o' is the plane of the section induced by the line mo.
DEVELOPEMENT OF RIGHT AND OBLIQUE PRISMS.
1 165. In a right prism, the faces being all perpendicular to the bases which terminate
the solid, the developements are rectangles, consisting of all these faces joined together and
enclosed by two parallel right lines equal to the contours of the bases.
1 1 66. When a prism is inclined, the faces form different angles with the lines of the
contours of the bases, whence results a developement whose extremities are terminated by
lines forming portions of polygons.
1167. We must first begin by tracing the profile of the prism parallel to its degree of
inclination {fig. 491.). Having drawn the line Cc, which represents the inclined axis of
the prism in the direction of its length, and the lines AD, bd, to show the surfaces by
which it is terminated, describe on such axis the polygon which forms the plane of the
prism h, i, k, I, m perpendicular to the axis. Producing the sides U, hn parallel to the axis
to meet the lines AD, bd, they will give the four arrisses of the prism, answering to the
angles h, n, k, I ; and the line Cc which loses itself in the axis will give the arrisses im.
1168. It must be observed, that in this profile the sides of the polygon h, i, k, I, m give
the width of the faces round the prism, and the lines Aft, Cc, Dd their length. From this
profile follows the horizontal projection {fig. 492.) wherein the lengthened polygons repre-
CHAP. I.
DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY.
367
sent the bases of the prism. In order to obtain the developement of this inclined prism,
so that being bent up it may form the figure, from the middle of Cc, fig. 491 . a perpendicular
o, p, q must be raised, produced to I, I', fig. 493. ; on this line must be transferred the
widths of the faces shown by the polygon h, i, k, I, m, n, of fig. 491. in I, k, i, h, n, m, I',
fig. 493. : through these points parallel to the axis, lines are to be drawn, upon which <j>D
of fig. 491. must be laid from I to E, from k to D, and from V to W,fig. 493. ; pC,fig. 491.,
must be laid from i to C, and from TO to F in fig. 493.
oA, fig. 491., is to be laid from h to B and from n to A, fig. 493., which will give
the contour of the developement of the upper part by drawing the lines ED,
DCB, BA, AFE',./?<7. 492.
To obtain the contour of the base, qd of fig. 491. must be transferred from I to q, from k
to d and from I' to e',fig. 493.
pc from fig. 491. from i to c and from m to / (fig. 493.) ; lastly, ob of fig. 491. must
be transferred from h to b and from M to a (fig. 493.) and drawing the lines ed,
bed, ba, and afe, the contour will be obtained.
1169. The developement will be completed by drawing on the faces B A and ba, elongated
polygons similar to ABCDEF and abcdef otfig. 491. and of the same size.
DEVELOPEMENT OF RIGHT AND OBLIQUE CYLINDERS.
1 1 70. Cylinders may be considered as prisms whose bases are formed by polygons of an
infinite number of sides. Thus, graphically, the developement of a right cylinder is ob-
tained, by a rectangle of the same height, having in its other direction the circumference of
the circle which serves as its base measured by a greater or less number of equal parts.
1171. But if the cylinder is oblique (fig. 494.), we must take the same measures as for
Fig. 495.
the prism, and consider the inclination of it. Having described centrally on its axis the
circle or ellipsis which forms its perpendicular thickness in respect of the axis, the circum-
ference should be divided into an even number of equal parts, as, for instance, twelve,
beginning from the diameter and drawing from the points of division the parallels to the
axis HA, bi, ek, dl, em,fm, GO, which will give the projection of the bases and the general
developement.
1172. For the projection of the bases on an horizontal plane, it is necessary that from
the points where the parallels meet the line of the base HO, indefinite perpendiculars
should be let fall, and after having drawn the line H', O', parallel to HO, upon these per-
pendiculars above and below the parallel must be transferred the size of the ordinates of
368
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
the circle or ellipsis traced on the axis of the cylinder, that is, pi and plO to t'l, and
t'10 : g2 and q9 in k'2 and k'q, &c. In order to avoid unnecessary repetition, the Jigs. 494,
495, 496. are similarly figured, and will by inspection indicate the corresponding lines.
1173. In the last figure the line E'E' is the approximate developement of the circum-
ference of the circles which follow the section DE perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder,
divided into 1 2 equal parts, Jig. 494. For which purpose there have been transferred upon
this line on each side of the point D, six of the divisions of the circle, and through these
points have been drawn an equal number of indefinite parallels to the lines traced upon the
cylinder in Jig. 494. : then taking the point D' as correspondent to D, the length of these
lines is determined by transferring to each of them their relative dimensions, measured
from DE in AG for the superior surface of the cylinder, and from DE to HO for
the base.
1174. In respect of the two elliptical surfaces which terminate this solid, what has been
above stated, on the manner of describing a curve by means of ordinates, will render further
explanation on that point needless.
DEVELOPEMENT OF RIGHT AND OBLIQUE CONES.
1 1 75. The reasoning which has been used in respect of cylinders and prisms, is ap-
plicable to cones and pyramids.
1 1 76. In right pyramids, with regular and symmetrical bases, the edges or arrisses from
the base to the apex are equal, and the sides of the polygon on which they stand being
equal, their developement must be composed of similar isosceles triangles, which in their
union will form throughout, part of a regular polygon, inscribed in a circle whose inclined
sides will be the radii. Thus, in considering the base of the cone A'B' (Jig. 497.) as a
FIR. 497
Rg. 499. E
regular Polygon of an infinite number of sides, its developement becomes a sector of a
circle A"B"B"'C" (Jig. 498.) whose radius is equal to the side AC of the cone, and the
arc equal to the circumference of the circle which is its base.
1177. Upon this may be traced the developement of the curves which would result from
the cone cut according to the lines DI, EF, and GH, which are the ellipsis, the parabola,
and the hyperbola. For this purpose the circumference of the base of the cone must be
divided into equal parts ; from each point lines must be drawn to the centre C, representing
in this case the apex of the cone. Having transferred, by means of parallels, to FF, the
divisions of the semi-circumference AFB of the plan, upon the line A'B', forming the base
of the vertical projection of the cone (Jig. 497.) to the points 1'2', F3', and 4', which, be-
cause of the uniformity of the curvature of the circle will also represent the divisions on the
plan marked 8, 7F', 6, and 5; from the summit C' in the elevation of the cone, the lines
C'l' C'2" C'F C'3', C'4' are to be drawn, cutting the plans DI, EF, and GH of the ellipse,
of the parabola, and of the hyperbola; then by the assistance of these intersections their
figures may be drawn on the plan, the first in D'pTp" ; the second in FE'F ; the third in
H'GH"
1178 ' To obtain the points of the circumference of the ellipse upon the developement
( fig. 498.), from the points n, o,p, q, r of the line DI (Jig. 497.), draw parallels to the base
for the purpose of transferring their heights upon C'B' at the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Then
transfer C'D upon the developement, in C'V", C'V", C"p'", C"q"'> CV" ; and in the same
order below, C'V", C'V", C";>"", C"q"", CV"; and CI from C" in I" and I'". The
CHAP. I.
DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY.
369
curve passing through these points will be the developement of the circumference of the
ellipse indicated in^. 407. by the right line DI, which is its great axis.
1179. For the parabola (Jig. 499.) on the side C'A' (Jig. 497.), draw bg and ah ; then
transfer C'E on the developement in C"E"; C'g from C" to V" and b"" ; C'h, from C" to
a'" and a"" ; and through the points F", a'", b'", E", b"", a"", F'", trace a curve, which
will be the developement of the parabola shown in fig. 497. by the line EF.
1 1 80. For the hyperbola, having drawn through the points m and i, the parallels me, if,
transfer C'G from C" to G", and from C" to G'" of the developement, C'e from C" to m'"
and m"", C'/from C"to i'" and i"" ; and after having transferred 3H' and 6H" of the plan
to the circumference of the developement, from 3 to H"', and from 6 to H"", by the aid of
the points H'", i", m"', G" and H"", i"", m"", G'", draw two curves, of which each will be
the developement of one half of the hyperbola represented by the right lines GH and H'H",
Jigs. 497. and 500., and by Jiff. 501.
1181. The mode of finding the developement of an oblique cone, shown in figs. 502, 503,
Fig. 504.
Fig. 503.
504, 505. differs, as follows, from the preceding. 1 . From the position of the apex C upon
the plan 5O3., determined by a vertical let fall from such apex in fig. 502. 2. Because the
line DI of this figure, being parallel to the base, gives for the plan a circle instead of an
ellipsis. 3. Because in finding the lengthened extent of the right lines drawn from the
apex of the cone to the circumference of the base, divided into equal parts, Jig. 504. is intro-
duced to bring them together in order to avoid confusion, these lines being all of a different
size on account of the obliquity of the cone. In this figure the line CC' shows the perpen-
dicular height of the apex of the cone above the plan ; so that by transferring from each side
the projections of these lines taken on the plan from the point C to the circumference, we
shall have CA", Cl, C2, CF", C3, C4, CB', on one side, and CA', C8, C7, CF, C6, C5, and
CB" on the other ; lastly, from the point C drawing lines to all these points, they will give the
edges or arrisses of the inscribed pyramid, by which the developement in fig. 505. is obtained.
Having obtained the point C" representing the apex, a line is to be drawn through it equal
to CA" (fig. 504.) ; then with one of the divisions of the base taken on the plan, such as
Al, it must be laid from the point A of the developement of the section ; then taking C'l
of fig. 504., describe from the point C" another arc which will cross the former, and will
determine the point 1 of the developement. Continuing the operations with the constant
length Al and the different lengths C2, CF', C3, &c., taken from fig. 504. and transferred
to C"2, C"F, C"3, &c. of the developement, the necessary points will be obtained for tracing
the curve B"AB'", representing the contour of the oblique base of the cone.
1182. We obtain the developement of the circle shown by the line DI of fig. 502. parallel
to that of the base AB, by drawing another line I'D D "I" (fig. 504.) at the same distance
from the summit C, cutting all the oblique lines that have served for the preceding de-
velopement; and on one side, CD", Cn, Co, Cp, Cq, Cr, CI", must be carried to fig. 505.,
from C" to D", n, o, p, q, r, and on the other from C"to n, o, pt q, r, and I"", on fig. 505.
The curve line passing through these points will be the developement of this circle.
1 1 83. To trace upon the developement the parabola and hyperbola shown by the lines
EF, G3 of fig. 502., from the points E6a, Gmi draw parallels to the base AB, which,
transferred to Jig. 504., will indicate upon corresponding lines the real distance of these
points from the apex C, which are to be laid in fig. 505. from C" to E, b, a, b and a for
B b
370
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
the parabola; and from C" to G, m, i on one side, and on the other to G, MI, i, for the
hyperbola. Each of these is represented in figs. 506. and 507.
Fig. 503.
/
DEVELOPEMENT OF BODIES OR SOLIDS WHOSE SURFACES HAVE A DOUBLE CURVATURE.
1184. The developement of the sphere and other bodies whose surface has a double
flexure would be impossible, unless we considered them as consisting of a great number of
plane faces or of simple curvatures, as the cylinder and the cone. Thus a sphere or spheroid
may be considered, — I. As a polyhedron of a great number of plane faces formed by
truncated pyramids whose base is a polygon, as^. 508. II. By truncated cones, forming
zones, as in fig. 509. III. By ^ p
parts of cylinders cut in gores,
forming flat sides that diminish
in width, shown by fig. 510.
1 1 85. In reducing the sphere
or spheroid to a polyhedron
with flat faces, the develope-
ment may be accomplished in
two ways, which differ only by
the manner in which the faces
are developed.
1186. The most simple me-
thod of dividing the sphere
to reduce it to a polyhedron is
that of parallel circles crossed
by others perpendicular to
them, and intersecting in two
opposite points, as in the com-
mon geographical globes. If,
instead of the circle, the poly-
gons are supposed of the same
number of sides, a polyhedron .
will be the result, similar to
that represented by fig. 508.,
whose half ADB shows the geo-
metrical elevation, and AEB
the plan of it.
1187. For the developement, produce Al, 12, 23, so as to meet the produced axis CP in
order to obtain the summits P, q, r, D of the truncated pyramids which form the semi-poly-
hedron ADB ; then from the points P, q, r, with the radii PA, Pi, ql, q2, r2, r3 and D3,
describe the indefinite arcs AB', 16', 16", 2/', 2/", 3g', and 3g, upon which, after having
transferred the divisions of the demi-polygons AEB, Ie6'", 2e'5'", 8e", 4", from all the
transferred points, as A, 4', 5', 6', 7', 8', 9', B', for each truncated pyramid draw lines to the
summits PgrD, and other lines which will form inscribed polygons in each of the arcs AB',
1 6', 1 6", &c. These lines will represent for each band or zone the faces of the truncated
pyramids whereof .they are part.
1 1 88. We may arrive at the same developement by raising upon the middle of each side
of the polygon AEB indefinite perpendiculars, upon which must be laid the height of the
faces of the elevation in 1,2, 3, 4 ; through which points draw parallels to the base, upon
which transfer the widths of each of the faces taken on the plan, whereby trapezia will be
formed, and triangles similar to those found in the first developement, but ranged in another
manner. This last developement, which is called in gores, is more suitable for geographical
globes ; the other method, for the formation of the centres, moulds, and the like, of spherical
vaults.
1189. The developement of the sphere by conic zones (fig. 509.) is obtained by the
same process as that by truncated pyramids, the only difference being, that the develope-
ment of the arrisses AB', 16', 2/', 3g, are arcs of circles described from the summits of
cones, instead of being polygons.
1 1 90. The developement of the sphere reduced to portions of cylinders cut in gores
(fig. 510.) is conducted in the second manner, but instead of joining with lines the points
h, i, k, d, (fig. 508.) they must be united by a curve. This last method is useful in
drawing the caissons or pannels in spherical or spheroidal vaults.
OF THE ANGLES OF PLANES OR SURFACES BY WHICH SOLIDS ARE BOUNDED.
1191. In considering the formation of solids, we have already noticed three sorts of
ngles, viz. plane angles, solid angles, and the angles of planes. The two first have been
CHAP. I. DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY. S71
treated of in the preceding sections, and we have now to speak of the third, which must
not be confounded with plane angles. Of these last, we have explained that they are
formed by the lines or arrisses which bound the faces of a solid ; but the angles of planes,
whereof we are about to speak, are those formed by the meeting of two surfaces joining in
an edge.
1192. The inclination of one plane ALDE to another ALCB (fig. 511.) is measured
by two perpendiculars FG, FH raised upon each of these planes
from the same point F of the line or arris AL formed by their
union.
1 1 93. It is to be observed, that this angle is the greatest of all
those formed by lines drawn from the point F upon these two
planes ; for the lines FG, FH being perpendicular to AL, common
to both the planes, they will be the shortest that can be drawn from
the point F to the sides ED, BC, which we suppose parallel to
AL ; thus their distance GH will be throughout the same, whilst
the lines FI, FK will be so much the longer as they extend beyond Fig- 51I>
the perpendiculars FG, FH, and we shall always have KI equal to GH, and conse-
quently the angle IFK so much smaller than GFH as it is more distant.
1 1 94. Thus, let a rectangular surface be folded perpendicularly to one of its sides so that
the contours of the parts separated by the fold may fall exactly on each other. If we raise
one of them, so as to move it on the fold as on a hinge, and so as to make it form all degrees
of angles, we shall see that each of the central extremities of the moveable part is always in
a plane perpendicular to the part that is fixed.
1 1 95. This property of lines moving in a perpendicular plane, furnishes a simple method
of finding the angles of planes of all sorts of solids whose vertical and horizontal projec-
tions or whose developements are known.
y 96. Thus, in order to find the angles formed by the tetrahedron or pyramid on a tri-
angular base (fig. 477.), we must for the angles of the base with the sides, let fall from
the angles ABC perpendiculars to the sides ac, cb, and ab, which meet at the centre of the
base in D. It is manifest from what has just been said on this subject, that if the three
triangles are made to move, their angles at the summit A, B, C will not be the vertical
planes shown by the lines AD, DB, DC, and that they will meet at the extremity of the
vertical, passing through the intersection of these planes at the point D. Thus we obtain
for each side a rectangular triangle, wherein two sides are known, namely, for the side c6,
the hypothenuse ed, and the side eD. Thus raising from the point D an indefinite per-
pendicular, if from the point e with eB for a radius an arc is described cutting the per-
pendicular in d, and the line de be drawn, the angle c?eD will be that sought, and will be
the same for the three sides if the polyhedron be regular j otherwise, if it is not, the
operation must be repeated for each.
11 97. ' These angles may be obtained with great accuracy by taking de, or its equal eB,
for the whole sine; then de I eD::sine : sine 19° 28', whose complement 70° 32' will, if
the polyhedron be regular, be the angle sought. In this case, all the sides being equal,
and each being capable of serving as base, the angles throughout are equal. In respect
of the cube (figs. 479. and 48 3.) whose faces are composed of equal squares, and whose
angles are all right angles, it is evident that no other angles can enter into their com-
bination with each other.
1 1 98. To obtain the angle formed by the faces of the octahedron (fig. 480. ) from the
points C and D : with a distance equal to a vertical dropped upon the base of one of the
triangles of its developement (fig. 484.), describe arcs crossing each other in F ; and the
angle CFD will be equal to that formed by the faces of the polyhedron, and will be found
by trigonometry to be 70° 32'. In the dodecahedron (fig. 481.), the angle formed by the
faces will be found by drawing upon its projection the lines DA, and producing the side
B to E, determined by an arc made from the point D with a radius equal to B A. The
angle sought will be found to be 108 degrees.
1199. For the icosahedron (fig. 482.), draw the parallels Aa, B6, Cc, and after having
made be parallel and equal to BC, with a radius equal thereto, describe an arc cutting in
« the parallel drawn from the point A ; the angle abc will be equal to that formed by the
sides of the polygon, which by trigonometry is found to be 108 degrees, as in the dodeca-
hedron.
1200. For the pyramid with a quadrangular base (fig. 487.) the angle of each face with
the base is equal to PAB or PBA, because this figure, which represents its vertical pro-
jection, is in a plane parallel to that within which will be found the perpendiculars dropped
from the summit on the lateral faces of the base.
1 201 . In order to obtain the angles which the inclined sides form with one another,
draw upon the developement (fig. 488.) the line ED, which, because the triangles PEC,
PCD are equal and isoceles, will be perpendicular to the line PC, representing one of the
arrisses which are formed. Then from the point D with a radius equal to DF, and
B b 2
372 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
from the point C with a radius equal to the diagonal AD (of the square representing
the square of the base) describe arcs intersecting each other. The angle FDG will be
the angle sought. We may suppose it taken along the line BC traced in^. 487.
1202. In order to obtain the angles formed by the faces of an oblique pyramid (fig. 489.),
through some point q of the axis draw the perpendicular mo, showing the base oqmq'o' of
the right pyramid mpo, whose developement is shown in fig. 490., by the portion of the
polygon a, b", c", e", d", a'F.
1203. By means of this base and the part developed, proceeding as we have already ex-
plained for the right pyramid, we shall find the angles formed by the meeting of the faces,
and they will differ but little from those of the little polygon oqmq'o'.
1204. In respect to the angles formed by the faces inclined to the base, that of the face
answering to the side De of the base is expressed by the angle A DP of the vertical projec-
tion,^. 489.
1 205. As to the other faces, for instance, that which corresponds to the side AE of the
base (fig. 490.), through any point g draw ^/perpendicular to it, meeting the line AF, show-
ing the projection of one of the sides of the inclined face ; upon the developement of this
face, expressed by A"E'F, raise at the same distance from the point E' another perpen-
dicular g'm', which will give the prolongation of the line shown on the base by A/I If we
transfer A"m of the developement upon Am, which expresses the inclination of the arris
represented by this line, we shall have the perpendicular height mf of the point m above the
base, which, being transferred from/m" upon a perpendicular to gf, we shall have the two
sides of a triangle whose hypothenuse gm" will give m"gf, the angle sought.
1206. In the oblique prism (fig. 491.), the angles of the faces are indicated by the plane
of the section perpendicular to the axis, represented by the polygon hiklmn.
1207. Those of the sides perpendicular to the plan of the inclination of the axis are
expressed by the angles Ddb, Abd of the profile in the figure last named.
1208. In order to obtain the angles formed with the other sides, for instance CcDrf^pd
CcA6, draw the perpendiculars csbt, whose projection in plan are indicated by s"c' and b't',
then upon fc, drawn aside, raise a perpendicular c"c"' equal to cs of the profile, /#. 491.
Through the point c'" draw a line parallel tofc, upon which, having transferred cV of the
projection in plan (fig. 492.), draw the hypothenuse s"c", and it will give the angle s"e"f
formed by the face CcT)d with the inferior base.
1 209. To obtain the angles of the face Cc A&, raise upon Fo", drawn on one side, a per-
pendicular b"t'", equal to bt (fig. 492.), and drawing as before a parallel to b" through the
point *'", transfer b'f of fig. 492. to t'"t" ; and drawing t"b", the angle t"b"F is that
required.
1210. As the bases of this prism are parallel, these faces necessarily form the same angles
with the superior base.
1211. An acquaintance with the angles of planes is of the greatest utility in the prepara-
tion of stone, as will be seen in chap, iii., and a thorough acquaintance with it will w*ell repay
the architectural student for the labour he may bestow on the subject.
SECT. VII.
MENSURATION.
1212. The area of a plane figure is the measure of its surface or of the space contained
within its extremities or boundaries, without regard to thickness. This area, or the content
of the plane figure, is estimated by the number of small squares it contains, the sides of
each whereof may be an inch, a foot, a yard, or any other fixed quantity. Hence the area
is said to consist of so many square inches, feet, yards, &c., as the case may be.
1213. Thus if the rectangle to be measured be ABCD (fig. 512.), and the small square
E, whose side we will suppose to be one inch, be the measuring D 4 c
unit proposed ; then, as often as such small square is contained in
the rectangle, so many square inches are said to be contained in the
rectangle. Here it will be seen by inspection that the number is
12 ; that the side DC or A B, which is 4 times the length of the
measuring unit, multiplied by the number of times 3, which the
length of the measuring unit is contained in AD or BC, will give
12 for the product.
1214. PROBLEM I. To find the area of a parallelogram, whether it
be a square, a rectangle, a rhombus, or a rhomboid.
Multiply the length by the perpendicular breadth or height, and
the product will be the area.
CHAP. I. MENSURATION. 373
Example 1. Required the area of a parallelogram whose length is 12-25 feet, and
height 8-5 feet.
1 2 -25 x 8 -5 = 1 04 -1 25 feet, or 1 04 feet 1 i inches.
Example 2. Required the content of a piece of land in the form of a rhombus whose
length is 6 '20 chains, and perpendicular height 5 '45.
Recollecting that 10 square chains are equal to a square acre, we have,
6-20 x 5 '45 = 33 -79 and?^- = 3-379 acres, which are equal to 3 acres, 1 rood,
20T6^ perches.
Example 3. Required the number of square yards in a rhomboid whose length is f>7
feet, and breadth 5 feet 3 inches ( = 5'25 feet).
Recollecting that 9 square feet are equal to 1 square yard, then we have
37 x 5 -25 = 194 -25, and ^^- =21 -584 yards.
1215. PROBLEM II. To find the area of a triangle.
Rule 1 . Multiply the base by the perpendicular height, and take half the product for the
area. Or multiply either of these dimensions by half the other. The truth of this
rule is evident, because all triangles are equal to one half of a parallelogram of equal
base and altitude. (See Geometry, 9O4.)
Example 1 . To find the area of a triangle whose base is 625 feet, and its perpendicular
height 520 feet. Here,
625 x 260 = 162500 feet, the area of the triangle.
Rule 2. When two sides and their contained angle are given : multiply the two given
sides together, and take half their product ; then say, as radius is to the sine of the
given angle, so is half that product to the area of the triangle. Or multiply that
half product by the natural sine of the said angle for the area. This rule is founded
on proofs which will be found in Sect. IV., on which it is unnecessary here to say
more.
Example. Required the area of a triangle whose sides are 30 and 40 feet respectively,
and their contained angles 28° 57'.
By natural numbers : —
First, \ x 40 x 30 = 600.
Then, 1 : 600: : -484046 (sin. 28° 57') : 290-4276.
By logarithms : —
Sin. 28° 57'== 9-684887
Log. of 600 = 2-778151
2-463038=290-4276, as above.
Rule 3. When the three sides are given, take half the sum of the three sides added to-
gether. Then subtract each side severally from such half sum, by which three re-
mainders will be obtained. Multiply such half sum and the three remainders
together, and extract the square root of the last product, which is the area of the
triangle. This rule is founded on one of the theorems in Trigonometry to be found
in the section relating to that branch of the subject.
Example. Required the area of a triangle whose three sides are 20, 30, and 40.
20 + 30 + 40 = 90, whose half sum is 45.
45 — 20 = 25, first remainder ; 45 — 30= 1 5, second remainder ; 45 — 4O= 5, third
remainder.
Then, 45 x 25 x 15 x 5 = 84375, whose root is 290*4737, area required.
1216. PROBLEM III. To find the area of atrapezoid.
Add together the parallel sides, multiply their sum by the perpendicular breadth or dis-
tance between them, and half the product is the area. (See Geometry, 932.)
Example 1. Required the area of a trapezoid whose parallel sides are 750 and 122.5,
and their vertical distance from each other 1540.
1225 + 750 x 770= 1520750, the area.
Example 2. Required the area of any quadrangular
figure ( %. 5 1 3. ) wherein A P is 110 ftvt,
AQ, 745 feet,
AB 11 10 feet,
CP 352 feet.
DQ 595 feet. Fig>513>
Therefore, QB = AE-AQ-= 11 10 -745 = 365,
And PQ=AB-AP-QB = 1110-110 -365=635.
Bb 5
374
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
For PCDQ, 595 + 352x635-:- 2 = 300672 -5
For the triangle ACP, 176 x 110= 19360
For the triangle DQ,B,
Area = 428620-0 feet.
1217. PROBLEM IV. To find the area of any trapezium.
Divide the trapezium into two triangles by a diagonal ; then find the areas of the two
triangles, and their sum is the area.
Observation. If two perpendiculars be let fall on the diagonal from the other two opposite
angles, then add these two perpendiculars together, and multiply that sum by the diagonal.
Half the product is the area of the trapezium.
Example. Required the area of -a trapezium whose diagonal is 42, and the two per-
pendiculars on it 16 and 18.
Here, 16+18 = 34, whose half =17 ;
Then, 42 x 17 = 714, the area.
1218. PROBLEM V. To find the area of an irregular polygon.
Draw diagonals dividing the proposed polygon into trapezia and triangles. Then,
having found the areas of all these separately, their sum will be the content re-
quired of the whole polygon.
Example. Required the content of the irregular
figure 'ABCDEFGA (fig. 514.), wherein the
following diagonals and perpendiculars are
given.
AC=55, GC = 44, Bn = 18, E/? = 8,
FD = 52, Gm=13, GO = 12, D? = 23.
And 55x9 =495
55x6-5 =357-5
44x11-5 = 506
52x6 =312
52x4
208
Fig. 514.
1878-5, area required.
1219. PROBLEM VI. To find the area of a regular polygon.
Rule 1 . Multiply the perimeter of the polygon, or sum of its sides, by the perpendicu-
lar drawn from its centre on one of its sides, and take half
the product of the area ; which is in fact resolving the poly-
gon into so many triangles.
Example. Required the area of the regular pentagon ABCDE
(fig. 515.), whose side AB or BC, &c. is 25ft., and
perpendicular OP 17 -2 ft.
lere ^-5 = 62-5=half the perimeter, and 62*5x17-2 = 1075
square feet area required.
Rule 2. Square the side of the polygon, and multiply the square
by the tabular area or multiplier set against its name in the
following table, and the product will be the area. This
rule is founded on the property, that like polygons, being similar figures, are to one
another as the squares of their like sides. Now the multipliers of the table are
the respective areas of the respective polygons to a side = 1 ; whence the rule is
evident. In the table is added the angle OBP in the several polygons.
Fig. si*
No. of
Sides.
Names.
Multipliers.
Angle
OBP.
3
Trigon or equilateral triangle
0-4330127
30°
4
Tetragon or square
1-0000000
45°
5
Pentagon -
1-7204774
54°
6
Hexagon -
2-5980762
60°
7
Heptagon -
3-6339124
64f°
8
9
Octagon ....
Nonagon -
4-8284271
6-1818242
67^°
70°
10
Decagon -
7-6942088
72°
11
Undecagon -
9-3656399
73tf>
12
L
Dodecagon
11-1961524
75
CHAP. I. MENSURATION. 375
Example. Required the area of an octagon whose side is 20 feet.
Here 202 = 400, and the tabular area 4-8284271 ;
Therefore 4-8284271 x 400 = 1931 '37084 feet, area required.
1220. PROBLEM VII. To find the diameter and circumference of any circle, either from the
other.
Rule 1. As 7 is to 22, or as 1 is to 3-1416, so is the diameter to the circumference. Or
as 22 is to 7, so is the circumference to the diameter.
Example. Required the circumference of a circle whose diameter is 9.
Here 7 : 22:: 9 : 28f ; or, ^~=28f, the circumference required.
Required the diameter of a circle whose circumference is 36.
Here 22 : 7 ::36 : 1112; or, ^^=11^ the diameter required.
1221. PROBLEM VIII. To find the length of any arc of a circle.
Rule 1. Multiply the decimal -01745 by the number of degrees in the given arc, and
that by the radius of the circle ; then the last product will be the length of the arc.
This rule is founded on the circumference of a circle being 6*2831854 when the
diameter is 2, or 3-1415927 when the diameter is 1. The length of the whole
circumference then being divided into 360 degrees, we have 360° : 6*2831854
::i° : -01745.
Example. Required the length of an arc of 30 degrees, the radius being 9 feet.
Here -01745 x 30 x 9 = 4-7115, the length of the arc.
Rule 2. From 8 times the chord of half the arc subtract the chord of the whole arc,
and one third of the remainder will be the length of the arc nearly.
Example. Required the length of an arc DCE (fig. 516.) whose chord DE is 48,
and versed sine 18.
Here, to find DC, we have 242 + 132 = 576 + 324 = 900,
and
Whence 30>< 8-48 = 240-48 = 1^ = 64? ^ length of the arc
required.
1222. PROBLEM IX. To find the area of a circle.
Rule 1 . Multiply half the circumference by half the diame-
ter. Or multiply the whole circumference by the whole Fig. 616>
diameter, and take \ of the product.
Rule 2. Square the diameter, and multiply such square by -7854.
Rule 3. Square the circumference, and multiply that square by the decimal -07958.
Example. Required the area of a circle whose diameter is 10, and its circumference
31-416.
By rule l.,51^1£*10 =78-54.
By rule 2., 1Q2 x -7854=100 x -7854 = 78-54.
By rule 3., 31-416 x 31-416 x '07958=78*54.
So that by the three rules the area is 78-54.
1223. PROBLEM X. To find the area of a circular ring, or of the space included between
the circumferences of two circles, the one being contained within the other.
Rule. The difference between the areas of the two circles will be the area of the ring.
Or, multiply the sum of the diameters by their difference, and this product again
by -7854, and it will give the area required.
Example. The diameters of two concentric circles being 10 and 6, required the area
of the ring contained between their circumferences.
Here 10 + 6 = 16, the sum, and 10 — 6 = 4, the difference.
Therefore -7854 x 16 x 4 =-7854 x 64 = 50-2656, the area required.
1224. PROBLEM XL To find the area of the sector of a circle.
Rule 1. Multiply the radius, or half the diameter, by half the arc of the sector for the
area. Or multiply the whole diameter by the whole arc of the sector, and take \
of the product. This rule is founded on the same basis as that to Problem IX.
Rule 2. As 360 is to the degrees in the arc of the sector, so is the area of the whole
circle to the area of the sector. This is manifest, because it is proportional to the
length of the arc.
Example. Required the area of a circular sector whose arc contains 1 8 degrees, the
diameter being 3 feet.
By the first rule, 3-1416 x 3 = 9-4248, the circumference.
360 : 18 : 19-4248 : -47124, the length of the arc.
•47124 x 3 -7-4 = 1*41372-*- 4 = '35343, the area of the sector.
Bb 4
376
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
By the second rule, -7854 x 32 = 7'0686, area of the whole circle.
360 : 18:: 7-0686 : -35343, the area of the sector.
1225. PROBLEM XII. To find the area of a segment of a circle,
Rule 1. Find the area of the sector having the same arc with the segment by the last
problem. Then find the area of the triangle formed by the chord of the segment
and the two radii of the sector. Take the sum of these two for the answer when
the segment is greater than a semicircle, and their difference when less than a
semicircle.
Example. Required the area of the segment ACBDA
(Jig. 517.), its chord AB being 12, and the radius AE
or CE 10.
As AE : sin. Z D 90°:: AD : sin. 36° : 52l=36'87 degrees
in the arc AC.
Their double 73-74 degrees in arc ACB.
Now, -7854 x 400 = 314-16, the area of the whole circle.
Therefore, 360° : 73-74 :: 31 4-1 6 : 64-3504, area of the sector
ACBE.
Again, V AE2 — TAD2 = A/1 00 — 36 = -v/64 = 8 = DE.
Therefore, AD x DE = 6x8=48, the area of the triangle
AEB.
Hence the sector ACBE (64-350), less triangle AEB (48) rig. 517.
= 16-3504, area of segment ACBDA.
Rule 2. Divide the height of the segment by the diameter, and find the quotient in the
column of heights in the following table. Take out the corresponding area in the
next column on the right hand, and multiply it by the square of the circle's diameter
for the area of the segment. This rule is founded on the principle of similar plane
figures being to one another as the squares of their like lineal dimensions. The
segments in the table are those of a circle whose diameter is 1 . In the first column
is contained the versed sines divided by the diameter. Hence the area of the
similar segment taken from the table and multiplied by the square of the diameter
gives the area of the segment to such diameter. When the quotient is not found
exactly in the table, a proportion is used between the next less and greater area.
Example. As before, let the chord AB be 12, and the radius 10 or diameter 20.
Having found as above DE = 8 : then CE - DE = CD = 10 — 8 = 2. Hence
by the rule CD-*-CF = 2-r-20= -1, the tabular height; this being found in
the first column of the table, the corresponding tabular area is -040875 ;
then -04O875 x202= -040875x400 = 16-340, the area nearly the same as
before.
AREAS OF THE SEGMENTS OF A CIRCLE WHOSE DIAMETER, UNITY, is SUPPOSED TO BK
DIVIDED INTO 1000 EQUAL PARTS.
Hght.
Area Seg.
Hght.
Area Seg.
Hght.
Area Seg.
Hght.
Area Seg.
Hght.! Area Seg.
Hght.
Area Seg.
•001
•000042
•022
•004322
•043
•01 1 734
•064
•021168
•085
•032186
•106
•044522
•002
•000119
•023
•00461 8
•044
•012142
•065
•021659
•086
•032745
•107
•0451 39
•003
•00021 9
•024
•004921
•045
•012554
•066
•022154
•087
•033307
•108
•045759
•004
•000337
•025
•005230
•046
•012971
•067
022652
•088
•033872
•109
•046381
•005
•000470
•026
•005546
•047
•013392
•068
•023154
•089
•034441
•110
•047005
•006
•O0061 8
•027
•005867
•048
•013818
•069
•023659
•090
•03501 1
•111
•047632
•007
•000779
•028
•0061 94
•049
•01 4247
•070
•0241 68
•091
•035585
•112
•048262
•008
•000951
•029
•006527
•050
•014681
•071
•024680
•092
•O36162
•113
•048894
•009
•001 1 35
•030
•006865
•051
•015119
•072
•0251 95
•093
•036741
•114
•049528
•010
•001329
•031
•007209
•052
•015561
•073
•025714
•094
•037323
•115
•050165
•on
•001533
•032
•007558
•053
•01 6007
•074
•026236
•095
•037909
•116
•050804
•012
•001 746
•033
•007913
•054
•01 6457
•075
•026761
•096
•038496
•117
•051446
•013
•001 968
•034
•008273
•055
•01 691 1
•076
•027289
•097
•039087
•118
•05209O
•014
•002199
•035
•008638
•056
•017369
•077
•027821
•098
•039680
•119
•052736
•015
•O02438
•036
•009008
•057
•017831
•078
•028356
•099
•040276
•120
•053385
•016
•002685
•037
•009383
•058
•018296
•079
-028894
•100
•040875
•121
•054036
•017
•002940
•038
•009763
•059
•018766
•080
•029435
•101
•041476
•122
•054689
•018
•003202
•039
•010148
•060
•01 9239
•081
•029979
•102
•042080
•123
•055345
•019
•O03471
•040
•010537
•061
•019716
•082
•030526
•103
•042687
•124
•056003
•020
•003748
•041
•010931
•0621-020196
•083
•031076
•104
•043296
•125
•056663
•021
•004031
•042
•011330
•063 '020680
•084
•031629
•105
•043908
•126
•057326
CHAP. I.
MENSURATION.
377
Hght. Area Seg.
Hght.
Area Seg.
Hght.
Area Seg
Hght
Area Seg.
Hght
Area Seg
Hght
Area Seg.
•127
•057991
•190
•103900
•253
•156149
•315
•212011
•377
•270951
•439
•331850
•128
•058658
•191
•104685
•254
•157019
•316
•21294O
•378
•271 920
•440
•332843
•129
•059327
•192
•105472
•255
•157890
•317
•213871
•379
•272890
•441
•333836
•130
•059999
•193
•106261
•256
•158762
•318
•214802
•380
•273861
•442
•334829
•131
•060672
•194
•107051
•257
•159636
•319
•215733
•381
•274832
•443
•335822
•132
•061 348
•195
•107842
•258
•160510
•320
•216666
•382
•275803
•444
•336816
•133
•O62026
•196
•108636
•259
•161386
•321
•217599
•383
•276775
•445
•337810
•134
•062707
•197
•109430
•260
•162263
•322
•218533
•384
•277748
•446
•338804
•135
•063389
•198
•110226
•261
•163140
•323
•219468
•385
•278721
•447
•339798
•136
•064074
•199
•111024
•262
•1 6401 9
•324
•220404
•386
•279694
•448
•340793
•137
•064760
•200
•111823
•263
•164899
•325
•221 340
•387
•280668
•449
•341787
•138
•065449
•201
•112624
•264
•165780
•326
•222277
•388
•281642
•450
•342782
•139
•066140
•202
•113426
•265
•1 66663
•327
•223215
•389
•282617
•451
•343777
•140
•066833
•203
•114230
•266
•167546
•328
•224154
•390
•283592
•452
•344772
•141
•067528
•204
•115035
•267
•168430
•329
•225093
•391
•284568
•453
•345768
•142
•068225
•205
•115842
•268
•169315
•330
•226033
•392
•285544
•454
•346764
•143
•068924
•206
•116650
•269
•170202
•331
•226974
•393
•286521
•455
•347759
•144
•069625
•207
•117460
•270
•171089
•332
•227915
•394
•287498
•456
•348755
•145
•070328
•208
•118271
•271
•171971
•333
•228858
•395
•288476
•457
•349752
•146
•071033
•209
•119083
•272
•172867
•334
•229801
•396
•289453
•458
•350748
•147
•071741
•210
•119897
•273
•1 73758
•335
•230745
•397
•290432
•459
•351745
•148
•072450
•211
•120712
•274
•1 74649
•306
•231689
•398
•291 41 1
•460
•352742
•149
•073161
•212
•121529
•275
•175542
•337
•232634
•399
•292390
•461
•353739
•150
•073874
•213
•122347
•276
•176435
•338
•23358O
•400
•293369
•462
•354736
•151
•074589
•214
•123167
•277
•177330
•339
•234526
•401
•294349
•463
•355732
•152
•075306
•215
•123988
•278
•178225
•340
•235473
•402
•295330
•464
•356730
•153
•076026
•216
•124810
•279
•179122
•341
•236421
•403
•296311
•465
•357727
•154
•076747
•217
•125634
•280
•180019
•342
•237369
•404
•297292
•466
•358725
•155
•077469
•218
•1 26459
•281
•180918
•343
•238318
•405
•298273
•467
•359723
•156
•078194
•219
•127285
•282
•181817
•344
•239268
•406
•299255
•468
360721
•157
•078921
•220
•128113
•283
•182718
•345
•240218
•407
•300238
•469
361719
•158
•079649
•221
•128942
•284
•183619
•346
•241169
•4O8
•301220
•470
362717
•159
•080380
•222
•129773
•285
•184521
•347
•242121
•409
•302203
•471
363715
•160
•081112
•223
•130605
•286
•185425
•348
•243074
•410
•303187
•472
•364713
•161
•081 846
•224
•131438
•287
•186329
•349
•244026
•411
•304171
•473
•365712
•162
•082582
•225
•132272
•288
•187234
•350
•244980
•412
•3051 55
•474
•366710
•163
•083320
•226
•133108
•289
•188140
•351
•245934
•113
•306140
•475
•367709
•164
•084059
•227
•133945
•290
•189047
•352
•246889
•414
•3071 25
•476
•368708
•165
•084801
•228
•134784
•291
•189955
•353
•247845
•415
•308110
•477
•369707
•166
•085544
•229
•135624
•292
•1 90864
•354
•248801
•416
•309095
•478
•370706
•167
•086289
•230
•136465
•293
•191775
•355
•249757
•417
•310081
•479
•371704
•168
•087036
•231
•137307
•294
•1 92684
•356
•250715
•418
•311068
•480
•372704
•169
•087785
•232
•138150
•295
•1 93596
•357
•251673
•419
•312054
•481
•373703
•170
•088535
•233
•138995
•296
•194509
•358
•252631
•420
•313041
•482
•374702
•171
•089287
•234
•139841
•297
•1 95422
•359
•253590
•421
•314029
•483
•375702
•172
•090041
•235
•140688
•298
•1 96337
•360
•254550
•422
•315016
•484
•376702
•173
•090797
•236
•141537
•299
•197252
•361
•255510
•423
•316004
•485
•377701
•174
•091554
•237
•142387
•300
•198168
•362
•256471
•424
•316992
•486
•378701
•175
•092313
•238
•143238
•301
•1 99085
•363
•257433
•425
•317981
•487
•379700
•176
•093074
•239
•144091
•302
•200003
•364
•258395
•426
•318970
•488
•380700
•177
•093836
•240
•144944
•303
•200922
•365
•259357
•427
•319959
•489
•381699
•178
•094601
•241
•145799
•304
•201841
•366
•260320
•428
•320948
•490
•382699
•179
•095366
•242
•146655
•305
•202761
•367
•261284
•429
•321938
•491
•383699
•180
•096134
•243
•147512
•306
•203683
•368
•262248
•430
•322928
•492
•384699
•181
•096903
•244
•148371
•307
•204605
•369
•263213
•431
•323918
•493
•385699
•182
•097674
•245
•1 49230
•308
•205527
•370
•2641 78
•432
•324909
•494
•386699
•183
•098447
•246
•150091
•309
•206451
•371
•265144
•433
•325900
•495
•387699
•184
•099221
•247
•150953
•310
•207376
•372
•266111
•434
•326892
•496
•388699
•185
•099997
•248
•151816
•311
•208301
•373
•267078
•435
•327882
•497
•389699
•186
•100774
•249
•152680
•312
•209227
•374
•268045
•436
•328874
•498
•390699
•187
•101553
•250
•153546
•313
•210154
•375
•269013
•437
•329866
•499
•391699
'188
•102334
•251
•154412
•314
•211082
•376
•269982
•438
•330858
•500
•392699
•189
•103116
•252
•155280
378 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
1226. PROBLEM XIII. To find the area of an ellipsis.
Rule. Multiply the longest and shortest diameter together, and their product by -7854,
which will give the area required. This rule is founded on Theorem 3. Cor. 2. in
Conic Sections. (1098, 1100.)
Example. Required the area of an ellipse whose two axes are 70 and 50.
Here 70 x 50 x -7854=2748-9.
1227. PROBLEM XIV. To find the area of any elliptic segment.
Rule. Find the area of a circular segment having the same height and the same
vertical axis or diameter ; then, as the said vertical axis is to the other axis (parallel
to the base of the segment), so is the area of the circular segment first found to the
area of the elliptic segment sought. This rule is founded on the theorem alluded
to in the previous problem. Or, divide the height of the segment by the vertical
axis of the ellipse ; and find in the table of circular segments appended to Prob. 1 2.
(1224.) the circular segment which has the above quotient for its versed sine ; then
multiply together this segment and the two axes of the ellipse for the area.
Example. Required the area of an elliptic segment whose height is 20, the vertical
axis being 70, and the parallel axis 50.
Here 20 -j- 70 =-2857 142, the quotient or versed sine to which in the
table answers the segment -285714.
Then -285714 x 70 x 50 = 648-342, the area required.
1228. PROBLEM XV. To find the area of a parabola or its segment.
Rule. Multiply the base by the perpendicular height, and take two thirds of the pro-
duct for the area. This rule is founded on the properties of the curve already
described in conic sections, by which it is known that every parabola is § of its
circumscribing parallelogram. (See 1097.)
Example. Required the area of a parabola whose height is 2 and its base 12.
Here 2 x 12 = 24, and § of 24=16 is the area required.
MEKSU RATION OF SOLIDS.
1229. The measure of every solid body is the capacity or content of that body, con-
sidered under the threefold dimensions of length, breadth, and thickness, and the measure
of a solid is called its solidity, capacity, or content. Solids are measured by units which
are cubes, whose sides are inches, feet, yards, &c. Whence the solidity of a body is
said to be of so many cubic inches, feet, yards, &c. as will occupy its capacity or space,
or another of equal magnitude.
1230. The smallest solid measure in use with the architect is the cubic inch, from which
other cubes are taken by cubing the linear proportions, thus, —
1728 cubic inches = 1 cubic foot ;
27 cubic feet = 1 cubic yard.
1231. PROBLEM I. To find the superficies of a prism.
Multiply the perimeter of one end of the prism by its height, and the product will be the
surface of its sides. To this, if wanted, add the area of the two ends of the prism.
Or, compute the areas of the sides and ends separately, and add them together.
Example 1 . Required the surface of a cube whose sides are 20 feet.
Here we have six sides ; therefore 20 x 20 x 6 = 2400 feet, the area required.
Example 2. Required the surface of a triangular prism whose length is 20 feet and
each side of its end or base 1 8 inches.
Here we have, for the area of the base,
1-52 --752 = (2 -25— -5625 = )l-68752 for the perpendicular of triangle of
base;
and VI -68 75 = 1-299, which multiplied by 1-5 = 1 '948 gives the area of the
two bases ;
then, 3 x 20 x 1 -5 + 1 "948 = 91 '948 is the area required.
Example 3. Required the convex surface of a round prism or cylinder whose length
is 20 feet and the diameter of whose base is 2 feet.
Here, 2 x 3-1416 = 6-2832,
and 3-1416 x 20 = 125-664, the convex surface required.
1232. PROBLEM II. To find the surface of a pyramid or cone.
Rule. Multiply the perimeter of the base by the length of the slant side, and half the
product will be the surface of the sides or the sum of the areas of all the sides, or
of the areas of the triangles whereof it consists. To this sum add the area of the
end or base.
Example 1 . Required the surface of the slant sides of a triangular pyramid whose
slant height is 20 feet and each side of the base 3 feet.
Here, 20 x 3 (the perimeter) x 3-4-2 = 90 feet, the surface required.
CHAP. I.
MENSURATION.
379
Example 2. Required the convex surface of a cone or circular pyramid whose slant
height is 50 feet and the diameter of its base 81 feet.
Here, 8*5 x 3*1416 x 50 -t- 2 = 667 -5, the convex surface required.
1 233. PROBLEM III. To find the surface of the frustum of a pyramid or cone, being the lower
part where the top is cut off by a plane parallel to the base.
Rule. Add together the perimeters of the two ends and multiply their sum by the slant
height. One half of the product is the surface sought. This is manifest, because
the sides of the solid are trapezoids, having the opposite sides parallel.
Example 1. Required the surface of the frustum of a square pyramid whose slant
height is 10 feet, each side of the base being 3 feet 4 inches and each side of the
top 2 feet 2 inches.
Here, 3 feet 4 inches x 4= 13 feet 4 inches, and 2 feet 2 inches x 4=8 feet 8 inches ;
and 1 3 feet 4 inches + 8 feet 8 inches = 22. Then 22 -i- 2 x 1 0 = 1 10 feet, the surface
required.
Example 2. Required the convex surface of the frustum of a cone whose slant height
is 1 2| feet and the circumference of the two ends 6 and 8 '4 feet.
Here, 6 + 8-4 = 14-4 ; and 14-4 x 1 2 -5 -r 2 = 180-:- 2 = 90, the convex surface required.
1234. PROBLEM IV. To find the solid content of any prism or cylinder.
Rule. Find the area of the base according to its figure, and multiply it by the length of
the prism or cylinder for the solid content. This rule is founded on Prop. 99.
( Geometry, 980. ). Let the rectangular parallelopipedon be the solid to be measured,
the small cube P (fiy. 51 8.) being the measuring unit, its side being 1 inch, 1 foot, &c.
Let also the length and breadth of the base ABCD,
and also let the height AH, be divided into spaces equal
to the side of the base of the cube P ; for instance,
here, in the length 3 and in the breadth 2, making 3
times 2 or 6 squares in the base AC each equal to
the base of the cube P. It is manifest that the paral-
lelopipedon will contain the cube P as many times as
the base A C contains the base of the cube, repeated as
often as the height AH contains the height of the cube.
Or, in other words, the contents of a parallelopipedon
is found by multiplying the area of the base by the
altitude of the solid. And because all prisms and cylin-
ders are equal to parallelopipedons of equal bases and
altitudes, the rule is general for all such solids whatever the figure of their base.
Example 1. Required the solid content of a cube whose side is 24 inches.
Here, 24 x 24 x 24 = 1 3824 cubic inches.
Example 2. Required the solidity of a triangular prism whose length is 10 feet and
the three sides of its triangular end are 3, 4, and 5 feet.
Here, because (Prop. 32. Geometry, 907.) 32 + 42=52, it follows that the angle con-
tained by the sides 3 and 4 is a right angle. Therefore -y x 10 = 60 cubic feet,
the content required.
Example 3. Required the content of a cylinder whose length is 20 feet and its
diameter 5 feet 6 inches.
Here, 5-5 x 5-5 x -7854 = 23-75835, area of base;
and 23-75835 x 20=47*5167, content of cylinder required.
1235. PROBLEM V. To find the content of any pyramid or cone.
Rule. Find the area of the base and multiply that area by the perpendicular height.
One third of the product is the content. This rule is founded on Prop. 110.
(Geometry, 991.)
Example 1. Required the solidity of the square pyramid, the sides of whose base are
30, and its perpendicular height 25.
Here, 3-^~ x 25 = 7500, content required.
Example 2. Required the content of a triangular pyramid whose perpendicular
height is 30 and each side of the base 3.
Here, ^±|±-3 = f = 4-5, half sum of the sides ;
and 4'5 — 3 = 1*5, one of the three equal remainders. (See Trigonometry, 1052.)
but V4-5 x 1-5 x 1-5 x 1'5 x 30-j-S =3-897117 x 10, or 38-97117, the solidity
required.
Example 3. Required the content of a pentagonal pyramid whose height is 12 feet
and each side of its base 2 feet.
Here, 1-7204774 (tabular area, Prob. 6. 1218.) x 4 (square of side) = 6*88 19096
area of base; and 6-8819096 x 12= 82-58291 52.
Fig. 518.
Then
82-5829152
= 27*5276384, content required.
S80 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
Example 4. Required the content of a cone whose height is 10i feet and the circum-
ference of its base 9 feet.
Here, -07958 (Prob. 9. 1222.) x 81 =6-44598 area of base,
And 3-5 being £ of 10 J feet, 6-44598 x 3-5=22-56093 is the content required.
1236. PROBLEM VI. To find the solidity of the frustum of a cone or pyramid.
Add together the areas of the ends and the mean proportional between them. Then
taking one third of that sum for a mean area and multiplying it by the per-
pendicular height or length of the frustum, we shall have its content. This rule
depends upon Prop. 110. (Geometry, 991.).
It may be otherwise expressed when the ends of the frustum are circles or regular
polygons. In respect of the last, square one side of each polygon, and also multiply one
side by the other ; add the three products together, and multiply their sum by the tabular
area for the polygon. Take one third of the product for the mean area, which multiply
by the length, and we have the product required. When the case of the frustum of a cone
is to be treated, the ends being circles, square the diameter or the circumference at each
end, and multiply the same two dimensions together. Take the sum of the three pro-
ducts, and multiply it by the proper tabular number, that is, by -7854, when the diameters
are used, and -07958 when the circumferences are used, and, taking one third of the pro-
duct, multiply it by the length for the content required.
Example 1. Required the content of the frustum of a pyramid the sides of whose
greater ends are 1 5 inches, and those of the lesser ends 6 inches, and its altitude
24 feet.
Here, -5 x -5 = -25, area of the lesser end,
and 1 -25 x 1 -25 = 1 -5625, area of the greater end :
The mean proportional therefore V -25 x 1*5625 ='625.
Again, ^±^25+l^625 = 2j|75 = .8125> mean area>
and -8125 x 24 ( altitude) = 19'5 feet, content required.
Example 2. Required the content of a conic frustum whose altitude is 1 8 feet, its
greatest diameter 8, and its least diameter 4.
Here, 64 (area gr. diam. ) + 1 6 (less. diam. ) + (8 x 4) = 1 1 2, sum of the products ;
and '7854x3112xl8 = 527 -7888, content required.
Example 3. Required the content of a pentagonal frustum whose height is 5 feet,
each side of the base 18 inches, and each side of the upper end 6 inches.
Here, 1 -52 + 1 -52 + (1 -5 x -5) = 2-5625, sum of the products ;
but> 1-7204774 (tab.area) x 2^625 (sum of products) x 5 =9.31925> content requirc(|
1237. PROBLEM VII. Tojtnd the surface of a sphere or any segment of one.
Rule 1. Multiply the circumference of the sphere by its diameter, and the product will
be the surface thereof. This and the rules in the following problems depend on
Props. 113. and 114. (Geometry, 994, 995.), to which the reader is referred.
Rule 2. Square the diameter, and multiply that square by 3-1416 for the surface.
Rule 3. Square the circumference, then either multiply that square by the decimal
•3183, or divide it by 3-1416 for the surface.
Remark. For the surface of a segment or frustum, multiply the whole circumference
of the sphere by the height of the part required.
Example 1 . Required the convex superficies of a sphere whose diameter is 7 and
circumference 22.
Here, 22 x 7 = 154, the superficies required.
Example 2. Required the superficies of a sphere whose diameter is 24 inches.
Here, 24 x 24 x 3-1416 = 1809-5616 is the superficies required.
Example 3. Required the convex superficies of a segment of a sphere whose axis is
42 inches and the height of the segment 9 inches.
Here, 1 : 3-141 6 ::42 : 131-9472, the circumference of the sphere;
but 131 -9472 x 9 = 1187-5248, the superficies required.
Example 4. Required the convex surface of a spherical zone whose breadth or height
is 2 feet and which forms part of a sphere whose diameter is 1 2| feet.
Here, 1 : 3-1416:: 12-5 : 39'27, the circumference of the sphere whereof
the zone is a part ;
and 39-27 x 2 = 78-54, the area required.
1238. PROBLEM VIII. To find the solidity of a sphere or globe.
Rule 1. Multiply the surface by the diameter, and take one sixth of the product for the
content.
Rule 2. Take the cube of the diameter and multiply it by the decimal \5 23 6 for the
content.
Example. Required the content of a sphere whose axis is 12.
Here 12 x 12 x 12 x -5236 = 904-7808, content required.
CHAP. I.
MECHANICS AND STATICS.
381
1239. PROBLEM IX. To find the solidity of a spherical segment.
Rule 1. From thrice the diameter of the sphere subtract double the height of the
segment, and multiply the remainder by the square of the height. This product
multiplied by -5236 will give the content.
Rule 2. To thrice the square of the radius add the square of its height, multiply the
sum thus found by the height, and the product thereof by '5236 for the content.
Example 1. Required the solidity of a segment of a sphere whose height is 9, the
diameter of its base being 20.
Here, 3 times the square of the radius of the base = 300 ;
and the square of its height =81, and 300 + 81=381 ;
but 381 x 9 = 3429, which multiplied by -5236 = 1795-4244, the solidity required.
Example 2. Required the solidity of a spherical segment whose "height is 2 feet and
the diameter of the sphere 8 feet.
Here, 8 x 3 — 4 = 20, which multiplied by 4 = 80 ;
and 80 x -5236 = 41 -888, the solidity required.
It is manifest that the difference between two segments in which the zone of a sphere is
included will give the solidity of the zone. That is, where for instance the zone is in-
cluded in a segment lying above the diameter, first consider the whole as the segment of a
sphere terminated by the vertex and find its solidity ; from which subtract the upper part
or segment between the upper surface of the zone and the vertex of the sphere, and the
difference is the solidity of the zone.
The general rule to find the solidity of a frustum or zone of a sphere is : to the sum of
the squares of the radii of the two ends add one third of the square of their distance, or the
breadth of the zone, and this sum multiplied by the said breadth, and that product again by
1 -5708, is the solidity.
SECT. VIII.
MECHANICS AND STATICS.
1240. It is our intention in this section to address ourselves to the consideration of
mechanics and statics as applicable more immediately to architecture. The former is the
science of forces, and the effects they produce when applied to machines in the motion of
bodies. The latter is the science of weight, especially when considered in a state of
equilibrium.
1241. The centre of motion is a fixed point about which a body moves, the axis being
the fixed line about which it moves.
1 242. The centre of gravity is a certain point, upon which a body being freely suspended,
such body will rest in any position.
1243. So that weight and power, when opposed to each other, signify the body to be
moved, and the body that moves it, or the patient and agent. The power is the agent which
moves or endeavours to move the patient or weight, whilst by the word equilibrium is
meant an equality of action or force between two or more powers or weights acting against
each other, and which by destroying each other's effects cause it to remain at rest.
PARALLELOGRAM OF FORCES.
1244. If a body D suspended by a thread is drawn out of its vertical direction by
an horizontal thread DE (fig. 519.), such power neither increases nor diminishes the effort
Fig- 519
382 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
of the weight of the body ; but it may be easily imagined that the first thread, by being in
the direction AD, will, besides the weight itself, have to sustain the effort of the power
that draws it out of the vertical AB.
1245. If the direction of the horizontal force be prolonged till it meets the vertical,
which would be in the first thread if it were not drawn away by the second, we shall have
triangle ADB, whose sides will express the proportion of the weight to the forces of the
two threads in the case of equilibrium being established ; that is, supposing AB to express
the weight, AD will express the effort of the thread attached to the point A, and BD that
of the horizontal power which pulls the body away from the vertical AB.
1246. These different forces may also be found by transferring to the vertical DH
(Jiff. 51 9.) any length of line DF to represent the weight of the body. If from the point F
the parallels FI, FG be drawn in the direction of the threads, their forces will be indicated
by the lines ID, DG, so that the three sides of the triangle DGF, similar to the triangle
ADB, will express the proportion of the weight to the two forces applied to the threads.
1247. Suppose the weight to be 30 Ibs. : if from a scale of equal parts we set up 30
of those parts from D to F (fig. 519.), we shall find DG equal to 21, or the pounds of
force of the horizontal line DE, and 35 for the oblique power ID.
1248. If the weight, instead of 30 Ibs., were 100, we should find the value of the
forces DG and ID by the proportions of 30 : 21 : : 100 : x, where x expresses the force DG.
The value resulting from this proportion is x =^-—^=70. The second proportion
30 : 35 : : 1 00 : y ,where y represents the effort ID, whose value will be y - f = 1 16 -666.
1249. If the angle ADH formed by AD and DH be known, the same results may be
obtained by taking DF for the radius, in which case IF=DG becomes the tangent, in this
instance, of 35 degrees, and ID the secant; whence
DF : DI : IF:: radius : tang. 35 : sec. 35.
If ID be taken for the radius, we have
ID : IF : FD:: radius : tang. 35 : sin. 35.
1250. We have here to observe, that in conducting the operation above mentioned a
figure DIFG has been formed, which is called the parallelogram of the forces, because the
diagonal DF always expresses a compounded force, which will place in equilibrio the two
others FI, FG, represented by the two contiguous sides IF, FG.
1251. Instead of two forces which draw, we may suppose two others which act by push-
ing from E to D {fig. 522.) and from A to D. If we take the vertical DF to express the
weight, and we draw as before the parallels FG and FI in the
direction of the forces, the sides GD and DI of the parallelogram
DGFI (Jiff. 519.) will express the forces with which the powers
act relatively to DF to support the body: thus FI = GD the
weight and two powers which support it will, in case of equi-
librium, be represented by the three sides of a rectangular tri-
angle DFI; so that if the weight be designated by H, the
power which pushes from G to D by E, and that which acts
from I to D by P, we shall have the proportion H : E : P : :
DF : FI : ID, wherein, if we take DF for radius, it will be
as radius is to the tangent of the angle FDI and to its secant.
As a body in suspension is drawn away from the vertical line in which it hangs by a power
higher than the body (fig. 520.), it follows that the oblique forces AB and BC each
support, independent of any lateral efforts, a part of the weight of the body. In order to
find the proportion of these parts to the total weight, take any distance BD on a vertical
raised from the centre of the body B to express the weight, and complete the parallelo-
gram DEBF, whose sides EB, BF will express the oblique forces of the powers A and
C. These lines, being considered as the diagonals of the rectangular parallelograms LEIB,
BHFM, may each be resolved into two forces, whereof one of them, vertical, sustains the
body, and the other, horizontal, draws it away from the verticals AO, CQ. Hence IB will
express the vertical force, or that part of the weight sustained by the power EB, and HB
that sustained by the other power BF : as these two forces act in the same direction,
when added together their sum will represent the weight DB. In short, IB being
equal to HD, it follows that BH+BI = BI+ID.
1252. As to the horizontal forces indicated by the lines LB and BM, as they are equal
and opposite they destroy one another.
1253. It follows, from what has been said, that all oblique forces may be resolved into
two others, one of which shall be vertical and the other horizontal, by taking their direction
for the diagonal of a rectangular parallelogram.
1 254. In respect of their ratio and value, those may be easily found by means of a scale
if the diagram be drawn with accuracy ; or by trigonometry, if we know the angles
CHAP. I.
MECHANICS AND STATICS.
383
Fig. 523.
ABD, DBC, which AB and BC form with the vertical BD, by taking successively for
radius the diagonals BD, BE, and BF.
1255. In the accompanying diagram, the weight, instead of being suspended by strings
acting by tension, is sustained by forces which are supposed to
act by pushing. But as this arrangement makes no alteration
in the system of forces, we may apply to this figure all that has
been said with respect to the preceding one. The only differ-
ence is, that the parallelogram of the forces is below the
weight instead of being above it. Thus ID+IB = BD ex-
presses the sum of the vertical forces which support the weight,
and MB and BL the horizontal forces which counteract each
other.
1256. In the two preceding figures the direction of the forces
which act by tension or compression in supporting the weight
form an acute angle. In those represented in^. 521. and the
figure at the side (524.), these directions make an obtuse angle;
whence it follows that in fig. 521. the force C which draws the weight out of the vertical
A L, instead of tending to support the weight B, increases its
effect by its tendency to act in the same direction. In order to
ascertain the amount of this effect upon BD in figs. 521. and
524., which represents the vertical action of the weight, describe
the parallelogram BADF, for the purpose of determining the
oblique forces BA, BF, and then take these sides for the diago-
nals of the two rectangles LAIB, BHFM, whose sides BI, BH
will express the vertical forces, and LB, BM the horizontal
ones.
1257. It must be observed that in fig. 521. the force AB
acting upwards renders its vertical effect greater than the weight
of a quantity ID, which serves as a compensation to the part
BH, that the other force BF adds to the weight by drawing
downwards. Similarly, the vertical effect of the force BE (fig.
524.) exceeds the expression BD of the weight by a quantity DI,
to counterpoise the effect BH of the other power BF, which acts downwards; so that in
both cases we have BD only for the vertical effect of the weight. As to the horizontal
effects LB and BM, they being equal and in oppo-
site directions in both figures, they counteract each
other.
] 258. For the same reason that a force can be re-
solved into two others, those two others may be re-
solved into one, by making that one the diagonal of a
parallelogram whose forces are represented by two
contiguous sides. It is clear, then, that whatever
the number of forces which affect any point, they
may be reduced into a single one. It is only neces-
sary to discover the results of the forces two by two
and to combine these results similarly two by two,
till we come to the principal ones, which may be ul-
timately reduced to one, as we have seen above. By
such a process we shall find that PY (fig. 525.) is
the result of the forces PA, PB, PC, PD, which
affect the point P.
1259. This method of resolving forces is often of great utility in the science of building,
for the purpose of providing a force to resist several others acting in different directions but
meeting in one point.
Fig. 524.
OF THE PROPERTIES OF THE LEVER.
1260. The lever is an inflexible rod, bar, or beam serving to raise weights, whilst it is
supported at a point by a fulcrum, or prop, which is the centre of motion. To render the
demonstrations relative to it easier and simpler, it is supposed to be void of gravity or
weight. The different positions in which the power applied to it, and the weight to be
affected, may be applied in respect of the fulcrum, have given rise to the distinction of
three sorts of levers.
I. That represented \nfig. 526., in which the fulcrum O is between the power applied
P and the weight Q.
II. That represented in^r 527., in which the weight Q, is placed between the fulcrum
384
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II
O and the power P, wherein it is to be remarked that the weight and the power act in
contrary directions.
I
Fig. 526.
Fig. 527.
Fig. 528,
III. That represented in fig. 528., wherein the power P is placed between the weight
and the fulcrum, in which case the power and the weight act in contrary directions.
1261. In considering the fulcrum of these three sorts of levers as a third species of
power introduced for creating an equilibrium between the others, we must notice, 1st
That in which the directions of the
weight and of the powers concur
in the point R (fig. 529.). 2d,
That in which they are parallel.
1262. In the first case, if from
the point R (figs. 529. and 530.)
we draw parallel to these directions
Om Rn, the ratio of these three
forces, that is, the power, the weight,
and the fulcrum, will be as the three
sides of the triangle OmR, or its
equal On R; thus we shall have P
: Q : R : : mR : Rn : OR ; and as
the sides of a triangle are as the
sines of their opposite angles, by Fig. 529. Fig. sso.
taking OR as the radius we shall have
P : Q,::sin. ORn : sin. ORm.
And if from the point O two perpendiculars be let fall, OdOf, on the directions RQ, RP,
Sin. ORn : sin. ORmliOd : Of;
from which two proportions we obtain
P : Q: : Od : Of; whence P x O/= Q x Od.
This last expression gives equal products, which are called the momenta, moments, or quan-
tities of motion of the force in respect of the fulcrum O. This property is the same for the
straight as for the angular levers (figs. 529. and 530.). As this proportion exists, however
large the angles mRO and ORn of the directions RQ, RP in respect to RO, it follows that
when it becomes nothing, these directions become parallel without the proportion being
changed ; whence is derived the following general theorem, found in all works on mechanics :
— If two forces applied to a straight or angular lever are in equilibrio, they are in an inverse
ratio to the perpendiculars let fall from the fulcrum on their lines of direction : or in other words,
In order that two forces applied to a straight or angular lever may be in equilibrio, their momenta
in respect of the fulcrum must be equal.
1 263. Since, in order to place the lever in equilibrio, it is sufficient to obtain equal mo-
menta, it follows that if we could go on increasing or diminishing the force, we might place
it at any distance we please from the fulcrum, or load it without destroying the equilibrium.
This results from the formula P x O/= Q, x Od,
whence we have O/=Qp°d. Hence the distance Of
is easily found, to which by applying the known force
P, it may counterpoise the weight Q, applied at the
distance Od. In respect of the other points, we have
only to know the perpendiculars O/and Od, for Oa and
Ob, which are the arms of the real levers, are deduced
from the triangles Ofb, Oda, to which they belong.
1264. Suppose two levers (figs. 531, 532.), whereof
Fig. m.
CHAP. I. MECHANICS AND STATICS. 385
one is straight and the other angular, and that the weight Q, is 100 pounds, the arm DE of
the lever 6 feet ; its momentum will be 600. Then if we wish to ascertain at what distance
Of a weight of 60 pounds must be placed so that it may be in equilibrio with the first, we
shall have
0y-=QxOrf =«Bop = 10 feet, the distance sought.
1265. Reciprocally, to find the effect of a force P placed at the point C of the other arm
of the lever at a known distance from the fulcrum, and marked Of, in order to counter-
poise Q, placed at the distance Of, we have the formula P = ^* ; and if we apply this
formula to the numbers taken in the preceding example, the question will be, to find a
force which placed at the distance of 10 feet from the fulcrum may be in equilibrio with a
weight of 1OO pounds at the end of the arm of a lever of 6 feet. We must in using the
formula divide 600 by 10, and the quotient 60 will indicate the effect with which the force
ought to act. If, instead of placing it in C, it is at B, 12 feet from the fulcrum, the force
would be ^°, which gives 50 ; and lastly, if we have to place it at a point 15 feet from the
fulcrum, the force would be ^ = 40. Thus, in changing the situation of the force to a
point more or less distant from the fulcrum, we must divide the momentum of the weight
which is to be supported by the distance from the fulcrum taken perpendicularly to its
direction.
OF THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY.
1 266. The centre of gravity of a body is a certain point within it on which the body, if
freely suspended, will rest in any position ; whilst in other positions it will descend to the
lowest place to which it can get. Not only do whole bodies tend by their weight to assume a
vertical direction, but also all the parts whereof they consist ; so that if we suspend any body,
whatever be its form, by means of a string, it will assume such a position that the thread
produced to the internal part of the body will form an axis round which all the parts will
remain in equilibrium. Every time that the point of suspension of a body is changed, the
direction of the thread produced exhibits a new axis of equilibrium. But it is to be re-
marked, that all these axes intersect each other in the same point situate in the centre of the
mass of the body, supposing it composed of homogeneous parts but sometimes out of the
mass of the body, as in the case of bodies much curved, this point is the centre of gravity.
1 267. It is therefore easy to perceive that for a body to be in a state of rest its centre of
gravity must be supported by a vertical force equal to the resultant of all the forces that
affect it, but acting in a contrary direction. So in Jigs. 520. and 523., the weight supported
by the forces AB and BC which draw or push, will be equally supported by a vertical
force represented by the diagonal DB of the parallelogram which expresses the resultant of
the forces.
1268. An acquaintance with the method of finding centres of gravity is indispensable in
estimating the resistances, strains, and degree of stability of any part of an edifice. There
arise cases in which we may cast aside all consideration of the form of a body, especially
too when it acts by weight, and suppose the whole figure collected in the centre of gravity.
We may also, for the sake of simplifying operations, substitute a force for a weight.
OF THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF LINES.
1269. A straight line may be conceived to be composed of an infinite number of points,
equally heavy, ranged in the same direction. After this definition, it is evident that if it
be suspended by the middle, the two parts, being composed of the same number of equal
points placed at equal distances from the point of suspension, will be necessarily in equi-
librium ; whence it follows that the centre of gravity of a right line is in the middle of its
length.
1270. The points in a curve line not being in the same direction, the centre of its volume
cannot be the same as its centre of gravity ; that is to say, that a curve suspended by the
middle cannot be supported in equilibrio but in two opposite situations ; one when the
branches of the curve are downwards, and the other when
they are upwards, so that the curve may be in a vertical
plane.
1271. If the curve is the arc of a circle ADB (fig. 533.), A «\ — — ?i — — ^°
it is easy to see that from the uniformity of its curvature, its \ j ,'"'
centre of gravity will be found in the right line DC drawn \s : ,''
from the centre C to the middle D ; moreover, if we draw ""£'
the chord AB, the centre of gravity will be found between Fig. 533.
the points D and E.
1272. Let us suppose that through all the points of the line DE parallels to the chord
AB be drawn, terminated on each side by the curve ; and let us imagine that each of these
C c
386
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
lines at its extremities bears corresponding points of the curve ; then the line DE will be
loaded with all these" weights ; and as the portions of the curve which answer to each
parallel AB^ go on increasing as they approach D, the centre of gravity G will be nearer
the point D than to the point E.
1273. To determine the position of this point upon the radius CD which divides the arc
into two equal parts, we must use the following proportion : the length of the arc ABD is to
the chord AB, as the radius CD is to the fourth term x, whose value is A^^P. That is,
in order to obtain upon the radius DC the distance CG of the centre of gravity from
the centre of the arc of the circle, the chord AB must be multiplied by the radius CD and
divided by the length of the arc ABD.
1274. When the circumference of the circle is entire, the axes of equilibrium being
diameters, it is manifest that their intersection gives the centre of the curve as the centre of
gravity. It is the same with all entire and symmetrical curves which have a centre, and
with all combinations of right lines which form regular and symmetrical polygons.
FJff. 535.
Fig. 53G.
OF THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF SURFACES.
1275. In order that a centre of gravity may be assigned to a surface, we must, as in the
case of lines, imagine them to be material, that is, consisting of solid, homogeneous, and
heavy particles.
1276. In all plane smooth surfaces, the centre of gra-
vity is the same as that of the volume
of space ; thus the centre of gravity
G (figs. 534, 535, 536.), of a square
of a rectangle, or of a parallelogram,
is determined by the intersections of
its diagonals AD, BC.
The centre of gravity of a regu-
lar polygon, composed of an equal
Fig. 534. of uliequai number of sides, is the
same as that of a circle within which it may be in-
scribed.
1277. In order to find the centre of gravity of any
triangle, bisect each of the sides, and from the points
of bisection draw lines to the opposite angles ; the
point of intersection with each other of these lines will
be the centre of gravity sought ; for in the supposi-
tion that the surface of the triangle is composed of lines parallel to its sides, the lines AE,
BF, and CD (fig. 537.) will be the axes of equilibrium, whose intersection at G gives
the centre of gravity.
We shall moreover find
that this point is at one
third of the distance from
the base of each of the
axes ; so that, in fact, it is
only necessary to draw a
line from the point of bi-
section of one of the sides
to the opposite angle, and
to divide it into three
equal parts, whereof that
nearest the base determines
the centre of gravity of
the triangle.
1278. To find the centre of gravity of any irregular rectilinear surface, ruch as the
pentagon, /#. 538., let it be divided into the three triangles, AED, ABC, ADC 'fig. 538.),
and by the preceding rule determine their centres of gravity F, G, H. Then draw the
two lines NO, OP, which form a right angle surrounding the polygon. Multiply the
area of each triangle by the distance of its centre of gravity on the line ON, indicated by
F/, Gg, HA, and divide the sum of these products by the entire area of the pentagon, and
this will give a mean distance through which an indefinite line IK parallel to ON is to be
drawn. Conducting a similar operation in respect of the line OP, we obtain a new mean
distance for drawing another line LQ, parallel to OP, which will intersect the first in the
point M, the centre of gravity of the pentagon.
The centre of gravity of a sector of a circle AEBC (fig. 539.) must be upon the radius
CE which divides the arc into two equal parts. To determine from the centre C, at
Fig. 538.
CHAP. I.
MECHANICS AND STATICS.
387
Fig. 510.
what distance the point G is to be placed, we must multiply twice the radius CE by the
chord AB, and divide the product by thrice the length of the arc AEB. The quotient
is the distance CG from the centre C of the circle of the centre of gravity of the sector.
1 279. To find the centre of
gravity of the crown portion of
an arch DAEBF (fig. 540.)
comprised between two concen-
tric axes, we must —
1 . Find the centre of gravity
of the greater sector AEBC, — . ^
and that of the smaller one ^^Mj^
DFG.
2. Multiply the area of each
of these sectors by the distance
of their respective centres of gravity from the common centre C.
3. Subtract the smaller product from the greater, and divide the remainder by the area
of DAEBF; the quotient will give the distance of the centre of gravity G from the
centre C.
1280. To determine the centre of gravity of the segment AEB ; subtract the product of
the area of the triangle ABC (fig. 541.) multiplied by the distance of its centre of gravity
from the centre C, from the product of the area of the sector,
by the distance of its centre of gravity from the same point C,
and divide the remainder by the area AEB ; the quotient ex-
presses the distance of the centre of gravity G of the segment
from the centre C, which is to be set out on the radius, and
which divides the segment into two equal parts.
It would, from want of space, be inconvenient to give the strict
demonstrations of the above rules ; nor, indeed, is it absolutely
necessary for the architectural student. Those who wish to
pursue the subject au fond, will, of course, consult more abstruse works on the matter.
We will merely observe, that whatever the figure whose centre of gravity is sought, it
is only necessary to divide it into triangles, sectors, or segments, and proceed as above
described for the pentagon,^. 538.
Fig. 541.
OF THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF SOLIDS.
1281. It is supposed in the following considerations, that solids are composed of homo-
geneous particles whose weight in every part is uniform. They are here arranged under
two heads, regular and irregular.
1 282. Regular solids are considered as composed of elements of the same figure as their
base, placed one upon the other, so that all their centres of gravity are in a vertical line,
which we shall call the right axis. Thus parallelepipeds, prisms, cylinders, pyramids,
cones, conoids, spheres, and spheroids have a right axis, whereon their centre of gravity is
found.
1 283. In parallelepipeds, prisms, cylinders, spheres, spheroids, the centre of gravity is
in the middle of the right axis, because of the similarity and symmetry of their parts
equally distant from that point.
1284. In pyramids and cones (figs. 542, 543.), which diminish gradually from the base
to the apex, the centre of gravity is at
the distance of one fourth of the axis s s
from the base. ,£\
1285. In paraboloids, which diminish //i\\
less on account of their curvature, the
centre of gravity is at the height of one
third the axis above the base.
To find the centre of a pyramid or of
a truncated cone (figs. 542, 543.), we
must first multiply the cube of the entire
cone or pyramid by the distance of its
centre of gravity from the vertex. 2.
Subtract from this product that of the
part MSR which is cut off, by the dis-
tance of its centre of gravity from the
apex. 3. Divide this remainder by the
cube of the truncated pyramid or cone ;
the quotient will be the distance of the centre of gravity G of the part of the truncated
cone or pyramid from its apex.
Cc 2
Fig. M3.
388
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
Fig. 544.
1286. The centre of gravity of a hemisphere is at the distance of three eighths of the
radius from the centre. A
1287. The centre of gravity of the segment of a sphere (fig. 544.)
is found by the following proportion : as thrice the radius less the
thickness of the segment is to the diameter less three quarters the
thickness of the segment, so is that thickness to a fourth term which
expresses the distance from the vertex to the centre of gravity, set off
on the radius which serves as the axis.
1288. Thus, making r— the radius, e= the thickness of the
segment, and x= the distance sought, we have, according to La
Caille,—
3r-e:2r-5{::e:x, whence *=8{j=?£.
Suppose the radius to be 7 feet, the thickness of the segment 3 feet, we shall have —
# = -j^|^p which gives ar = l +f| = l +§£, equal the distance
of the centre of gravity from its vertex on the radius.
1289. To find the centre of gravity of the zone of a sphere (fig. 545.), the same sort of
operation is gone through as for truncated cones and pyramids ; that
is, after having found the centre of gravity of the segment cut off, and
that in which the zone is comprised, multiply the cube of each by
the distance of its centre of gravity from the apex A, and subtract-
ing the smaller from the larger product, divide the remainder by the
cube of the zone. Thus, supposing, as before, the radius AC = 7, the
thickness of the zone = 2, and that of the segment cut off = 1 i, we
shall find the distance from the vertex of the centre of gravity of
this last by the formula a? = 4^g~^_g5, which in this case gives ar =
* *§J*7*L£— ? * ?? ; and pursuing the investigation, we have #=-}{$,
which will be the distance of the centre of gravity from the vertex A. That of the centre
of gravity of the segment in which the zone is comprised will, according to the same for-
mula, be x=S-^^^~~^, which gives x=2 + $ for the distance of the centre of gravity
from the same point A."
1 290. The methods of finding the solidities of the bodies involved in the above inves-
tigation are to be found in the preceding section, on Mensuration.
Fig. 545.
OF THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF IRREGULAR SOLIDS.
1291. As all species of solids, whatever their form, are susceptible of division into
pyramids, as we have seen in the preceding observations, it follows that their centres of
gravity may be found by following out the instruc-
tions already given. Instead of two lines at right
angles to each other, let us suppose two vertical
planesNAC, CEFQfyr. 546.), between which the solid
G is placed. Carrying to each of those planes the
momenta of their pyramids, that is, the products of
Iheir solidity, and the distances of their centres of
gravity, divide the sum of these products for each
plane by the whole solidity of the body, the quotient
will express the distance of two other planes BKL,
DHM, parallel to those first named. Their inter- N
section will give a line IP, or an axis of equilibrium,
upon which the centre of gravity of the solid will
be found. To determine the point G, imagine a third plane NOF perpendicular to the pre-
ceding ones, that is, horizontal ; upon which let the solid be supposed to stand. In respect
of this plane let the momenta of the pyramids be
found by also multiplying their solidity by the dis-
tance of their centres of gravity. Lastly, dividing
the sum of these products by the solidity of the en-
tire body, the quotient gives on the axis the dis-
tance PG of this third plane from the centre of
gravity of the irregular solid.
Mechanically, where two of the surfaces of a body
are parallel, the mode of finding the centre of gravity
is simple. Thus, if the body be hung up by any
point A (figs. 547, 548.), and a plumb line AB be
suspended from the same point, it will pass through
CHAP. 1.
MECHANICS AND STATICS.
389
the centre of gravity, because that centre is not in the lowest point till it fall in the plumb
line. Mark the line AB upon it ; then hang the body up by any other point D, with a
plumb line DE, which will also pass through the centre of gravity, for the same reason as
before. Therefore the centre of gravity will be at C, where the lines cross each other.
1292. We have, perhaps, pursued this subject a little further than its practical utility in
architecture renders necessary ; but cases may occur in which the student will find our ex-
tended observations of service.
OF THE INCLINED PLANE.
1293. That a solid may remain in a perfect state of rest, the plane on which it stands
must be perpendicular to the direction of its gravity ; that is, level or horizontal, and the ver-
tical let fall from its centre of gravity must not fall out of its base.
1294. When the plane is not horizontal, solids placed on it tend to slide down or to
overturn.
1295. As the surfaces of bodies are more or less rough, when the direction of the centre
of gravity does not fall without their base, they slide down a plane in proportion to their
roughness and the plane's inclination.
1 296. Thus a cube of hard freestone, whose surfaces are nicely wrought, does not slide
down a plane whose inclination is less than thirty degrees ; and with polished marbles the
inclination is not more than fifteen degrees.
1297. When a solid is placed on an inclined plane, if the direction of the centre of
gravity falls without its base, it overturns if its surfaces are right surfaces, and if its surface
is convex it rolls down the plane.
1298. A body with plane surfaces may remain at rest after having once overturned if the
surface upon which it falls is sufficiently extended to prevent its centre of gravity falling
within the base, and the inclination be not so great as to allow of its sliding on.
1 299. Solids whose surfaces are curved can only stand upon a perfectly horizontal plane,
because one of the species, as the sphere, rests only on a point, and the other, as cylinders
and cones, upon a line ; so that for their continuing at rest, it is necessary that the vertical
let fall from their centre of gravity should pass through the point of contact with and be
perpendicular to the plane. Hence, the moment the plane ceases to be horizontal the
direction of the centre of gravity falls out of the point or line of contact which serves as the
base of the solid, and the body will begin to roll ; and when the plane on which they thus
roll is of any extent they roll with an accelerated velocity, equal to that which they would
acquire in falling directly from the vertical height of the inclined plane from the point
whence they first began to roll.
1 300. To find the force which is necessary to support a convex body upon an inclined
plane, we must consider the point of contact F {figs. 549, 550.) as the fulcrum of an an-
Fig. 549. Fig. 550.
gular lever, whose arms are expressed by the perpendiculars drawn from the fulcrum to the
direction of the force CP and the weight CD, which in the case of fig. 549., where the force
which draws the body is parallel to the plane,
P : N::FC : FD.
Now as the rectangular triangle CFD is always similar to the triangle OSH, which forms
the plane inclined by the vertical SO and the horizontal line OH, the proportion will stand
as follows : —
P : N : : OS : SH.
In the first case, to obtain an equilibrium, the force must be to the weight of the body as the
height OS of the inclined plane to its length SH.
1301. In the case where the force is horizontal (fig. 550.) we have, similarly, —
P : N::FA : FD,
and P : N::OS : OH.
In this last case, then, the force must be to the weight of the solid in proportion to the height
Cc 3
390
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
OS of the inclined plane to its base OH. In the first case the pressure of the solid on the
plane is expressed by OH, and in the second by SH : hence we have —
P : N: F::OS : SH : OH,
and P : N : F::OS : SH : OH.
In the first case it must be observed, that the effect of the force being parallel to the in-
clined plane, it neither increases nor diminishes the pressure upon that plane ; and this is
the most favourable case for keeping a body in equilibrio on an inclined plane. In the
second case, the direction forming an acute angle with the plane uselessly augments the
load or weight. Whilst the direction of the force forms an obtuse angle with the in-
clination of the plane, by sustaining a portion of the weight, it diminishes the load on the
plane, but requires a greater force.
1302. The force necessary to sustain upon an inclined plane a body whose base is
formed by a plane surface depends, as we have already observed, on the roughness of the
surfaces, as well of the inclined plane as of the base of the body ; and it is only to be dis-
covered by experiment.
] 303. Of all the means that have been employed to estimate the value of the resistance,
known under the name of friction, the simplest, and that which seems to give the truest
results, is to consider the inclination of the plane upon which a body, the direction of whose
centre of gravity does not fall out of the base, remains in equilibrio, as a horizontal plane ;
after which the degrees of inclination may begin to be reckoned, by which we find that a
body which does not begin to slide till the plane's inclination exceeds 30 degrees, being
placed on an inclined plane of 45, will not require a greater force to sustain it than a
convex body of the same weight on an inclined plane of 1 5 degrees.
1 304. All that has been said on the force necessary to retain a body upon an inclined plane,
is applicable to solids supported by two planes, considering that the second acts as a force
to counterpoise the first, in a direction perpendicular to the second plane.
1305. When the directions of three forces, PG, QG, GR, meet in the same point G
(fig. 551.), it follows, from the preceding observations on the parallelogram of forces, that
to be in equilibrium their proportion will be ex-
pressed by the three sides of a triangle formed by
perpendiculars to their directions ; whence it follows,
that if through the centre of gravity G of a solid,
supported by two planes or by some other point of
its vertical direction, lines be drawn perpendicular to
the directions of the forces, if equilibrium exist, so will
the following proportion, viz. P : Q: R:;BA : BC
: AC.
1306. Lastly, considering that in all sorts of tri-
angles the sides will between each other be as the sines
of their opposite angles, we shall have P : Q, : R : : sin.
BCA : sin. BAC : sin. ABC; and as the angle BCA is
\Q
Fig. 551.
equal to the angle CAD, and CBA to BAE, we shall have P : Q, : R:: sin. CAD :
sin. B AC : sin. B AE ; that is, that the weight is represented by the sine of the angle formed
by the two inclined planes, and that the pressures upon each of these planes are reci-
procally proportional to the sines of the angles which they form with the horizon.
THE WHEEL AND AXLE.
1307. The wheel and axle, sometimes called the axis in peritrochio, is a ma-
chine consisting of a cylinder C and a wheel B (fig. 552. ) having the same axis, at
the two extremities of which are pivots on which the wheel
turns. The power is applied at the circumference of the
wheel, generally in the direction of a tangent by means of
a cord wrapped about the cylinder in order to overcome the
resistance or elevate the weight. Here the cord by which the
power P acts is applied at the circumference of the wheel, while
that of the weight W is applied round the axle or another
small wheel attached to the larger, and having the same axis or
centre C. Thus BA is a lever moveable about the point C,
the power P always acting at the distance BC, and the weight
W at the distance CA. Therefore P : W:;CA : CB. That
is, the weight and power will be in equilibrio when the power
P is to the weight W reciprocally as the radii of the circles p
where they act, or as the radius of the axle CA, where the
weight hangs, to the radius of the wheel CB, where the power
acts ; or, as before, P : W : : C A : CB.
1308. If the wheel be put in motion, the spaces moved through being as the circum-
f\K. 552.
CHAP. I
MECHANICS AND STATICS.
391
Fig. 553.
ferences, or as the radii, the velocity of W will be to the velocity of P as C A to CB ; that
is, the weight is moved as much slower as it is heavier than the power. Hence, what is
gained in power is lost in time ; a property common to machines and engines of every class.
1309. If the power do not act at right angles to the radius CB, but obliquely, draw
CD perpendicular to the direction of the power, then, from the nature of the lever,
p : W::CA : CD.
1310. It is to the mechanical power of the wheel and axle that belong all turning or
wheel machines of different radii ; thus, in the roller turning on the axis or spindle
CE (fig. 553.) by the handle CBD, the power
applied at B is to the weight W on the roller, as
the radius of the roller is to the radius CB of the
handle. The same rule applies to all cranes,
capstans, windlasses, &c. ; the power always being E
to the weight as is the radius or lever at which
the weight acts to that at which the power acts;
so that they are always in the reciprocal ratio
of their velocities. To the same principle are
referable the gimlet and auger for boring holes.
1311. The above observations imply that the
cords sustaining the weights are of no sensible
thickness. If they are of considerable thickness,
or if there be several folds of them over one an-
other on the roller or barrel, we must measure to the middle of the outermost rope for
the radius of the roller, or to the radius of the roller must be added half the thickness of the
cord where there is but one fold.
1312. The power of the wheel and axle possesses considerable advantages in point of
convenience over the simple lever. A weight can be raised but a little way by a simple
lever, whereas by the continued turning of the wheel and axle a weight may be raised to
any height and from any depth.
1313. By increasing the number of wheels, moreover, the power may be increased to any
extent, making the less always
turn greater wheels, by means
of what is called tooth and pinion
work, wherein the teeth of one
circumference work in the
rounds or pinions of another to
turn the wheel. In case, here,
of an equilibrium, the power is
to the weight as the continual
product of the radii of all the
axles to that of all the wheels.
So if the power P (fig. 554.)
turn the wheel Q, and this turn
the small wheel or axle R, and
this turn the wheel S, and this
turn the axle T, and this turn
the wheel V, and this turn the
axle X, which raises the weight
W; then P : W::CB. DE.
FG : AC . BD . EF. And in
Fig. 554.
the same proportion is the velocity of W slower than that of P. Thus, if each wheel
be to its axle as 10 to 1, then P : W:;13 ; 1Q3, or as 1 to 1000. Hence a power of one
pound will balance a weight of 1000 pounds; but when put in motion, the power will
move 1000 times faster than the weight.
1314. We do not think it necessary to give examples of the different machines for raising
weights used in the construction of buildings : they are not many, and will be hereafter
named and described.
OF THE PULLEY.
1315. A pulley is a small wheel, usually made of wood or brass, turning about a metal
axis, and enclosed in a frame, or case, called its block, which admits of a rope to pass freely
over the circumference of the pulley, wherein there is usually a concave groove to prevent
the rope slipping out of its place. The pulley is said to be fixed or moveable as its block
is fixed or rises and falls with the weight. An assemblage of several pulleys is called a
system of pulleys, of which some are in a fixed block and the rest in a moveable one.
1316. If a power sustain a weight by means of a fixed pulley, the power and weight are
C c 4
392
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
equal. For if through the centre C (fig- 555.) of the pulley we draw the horizontal
diameter AB ; then will A B represent a lever of the first kind, its
prop being the fixed centre C, from which the points A and B, where
the power *and weight act, being equally distant, the power P is conse-
quently equal to the weight W.
1317. Hence, if the pulley be put in motion, the power P will de-
scend as fast as the weight W ascends : so that the power is not in-
creased by the use of the fixed pulley, even though the rope go over
several of them. It is, nevertheless, of great service in the raising of
weights, both by changing the direction of the force, for the convenience
of acting, and by enabling a person to raise a weight to any height
without moving from his place, and also by permitting a great num-
ber of persons to exert, at the same time, their force on the rope at P,
which they could not do to the weight itself, as is evident in raising the
weight, or monkey, as it is called, of a pile-driver, also on many other oc-
casions.
1318. When a pulley is moveable the power necessary to sustain a
Fig. 555.
weight is equal to the half of such weight. For in this case AB (fig. 556.) may be con-
Fig. 556.
Fig. 557.
sidered as a lever of the second kind, the weight being at C, the power acting
the prop or fixed point at B. Then, because P: W::CB : AB and CB
have P=iWor W=2P.
1319. From which it is manifest that when the pulley is put in mo-
tion the velocity of the power is double that of the weight, inasmuch
as the point P descends twice as fast as the point C and the weight W
rises. It is, moreover, evident that the fixed pulley F makes no differ-
ence in the point P, but merely changes the motion of it in an op-
posite direction.
1320. We may hence ascertain the effect of a combination or system
of any number of fixed and moveable pulleys, and we shall thereby find
that every cord going over a moveable pulley doubles the powers, for
each end of the rope bears an equal share of the weight, whilst each rope
fixed to a pulley only increases the power by unity. In fig. 557.
P = 'W, and in fig. 558., P = ^
at A, and
= AB, we
OF THE WEDGE.
1321. The wedge is a body in the form of a half
rectangular prism, in practice usually of wood or
metal. AF or BG ( fig. 559.) is the breadth of
its back, CE its height, CG, CB its sides, and its
end, GBC, is the terminating surface of two equally
inclined planes GCE, BCE.
1322. When a wedge is in equilibrio, the power
acting on the back is to the force acting at right
angles to either side as the breadth of the back
AB (fig. 560.) is to the length of the side AC or
BC. For three forces which sustain each other in
equilibrio are as the corresponding sides of a tri-
angle drawn perpendicular to the directions in which
they act. But AB is perpendicular to the force
Fig. 558.
Fig. 56C.
CHAP. I. MECHANICS AND STATICS. 393
acting on the back to drive the wedge forward, and the sides AC, BC are perpendicular
to the forces acting on them, the three forces are therefore as AB, AC, BC. Thus, the
force on the back, its effect perpendicularly to AC, and its effect parallel to A B, are as
the three lines AB, AC, and DC, which are perpendicular to them. Hence the thinner
the wedge the greater its effect to split any body or to overcome a resistance against the
sides of the wedge.
1323. We are, however, to recollect that the resistance or the forces in question are
relative to one side only of the wedge ; for if those against both sides are to be reckoned,
we can take only half the back AD, or else we must take double the line AC or DC. In
the wedge the friction is very great, and at least equal to the force to be overcome, inas-
much as it retains any position to which it is driven, whence the resistance is doubled by
the friction. But, on the other hand, the wedge has considerable advantage over all the
other powers, because of the force of the blow with which the back is struck, a force vastly
greater than the dead weight or pressure employed in other machines. On this account it
is capable of producing effects vastly superior to those of any other power, such as splitting
rocks, raising the largest and heaviest bodies by the simple blow of a mallet ; objects which
could never be accomplished by any simple pressure whereof in practice application could
be made.
OF THE SCREW.
1324. The screw is a cord wound in a spiral direction round the periphery of a cylinder,
and is therefore a species of inclined plane, whose length is to its height as the circumfer-
ence of the cylinder is to the distance between two consecutive threads of the screw.
It is one of the six mechanical powers used in pressing or squeezing bodies close, and is
occasionally used in raising weights.
1 325. The screw, then, being an inclined plane or half wedge, the force of a power
applied in turning it round is to the force with which it presses upwards or downwards,
without estimating friction, as the distance between two threads is to the circumference
where the power is applied. For considering it as an inclined plane whose height is the
distance between two threads, and its base the circumference of the screw ; the force in the
horizontal direction being to that in the vertical one as the lines perpendicular to them,
namely, as the height of the plane or distance between two threads, is to the base of the
plane or circumference of the screw ; the power, therefore, is to the pressure as the distance
of two threads is to the circumference. But in the application of the screw a handle or
lever is used, by means whereof the gain in power is increased in the proportion of the
radius of the screw to the radius of the power, that is, the length of the handle, or as their
circumferences. Consequently the power is to the pressure as the distance of the threads
is to the circumference described by the power. The screw being put in motion, the power
is then to the weight which would keep it in equilibrio as the velocity of the latter is to that
of the former ; and hence their momenta are equal, and produced by multiplying each weight
or power by its own velocity.
1326. Thus it is a general property of all the mechanical powers, that the momentum of
a power is equal to that of the weight which would keep it in equilibrio, or that each of
them is proportional to its velocity.
1 327. From the foregoing observations, we may be easily led to compute the force exerted
by any machine whose action is exerted through the means
of the screw. In fig. 561., representing a press driven
by a screw whose threads are each one quarter of an inch
apart, let it be turned by a handle or lever 4 feet long from
A to B. Then supposing the natural force of a man, by
which he can lift, pull, or draw, to be 150 pounds, and that
it be required to ascertain with what force the screw will
press on the board at D when the man turns with his
whole force the handle at A and B ; we have AB, the dia-
meter of the power, 4 feet or 48 inches ; its circumference,
therefore, 48 x 3-1416, or 150| nearly ; and the distance of
the threads being one quarter of an inch, the power is to _____iiiiii^iiiiii^^
the pressure as 1 to 603±. But the power is equal to 150 ~ Fig. 561.
pounds ; therefore, as 1 : 603^ : : 1 50 : 90480, and the pres-
sure therefore at D is equal to a weight of 90480 pounds, independent of friction.
1328. In the endless screw AB {fig. 562.), turned by a handle AC of 20 inches radius,
the threads of the screw are at a distance of half an inch ; and the screw turns a toothed
wheel E whose pinion L acts in turning upon another wheel F, and the pinion M of this
last wheel acts upon a third wheel G, to the pinion or barrel whereof is hung the weight W.
If we would know what weight can be raised through the means of this combination by a
man working the handle C, supposing the diameters of the wheels to be 18 inches, and
those of the pinions and barrel 2 inches, the teeth and pinions being all similar in size ; we
394
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
Fig. 562.
have 20 x 3-1416 x 2=125*664, the circumference of
the power; and 125-664 to l, or 251-328 to 1, is
the force of the screw alone. Again, 1 8 : 2 or 9 : 1 ,
being the proportion of the wheels to the pinions, and
there being three of them, 93 : 1 or 729 : 1 is the
power gained by the wheels.
1329. Consequently 251 -328 x 729 to 1, or 183218±
to 1 nearly, is the ratio of the power to the weight
arising from the joint advantage of the screw and the
wheels. The power, however, is 1 50 pounds ; there-
fore 150 x 183218i or 27482716 pounds is the weight
the man can sustain, equal to 12269 tons.
1330. It must be observed, that the power has to
overcome not only the weight, but at the same time
the friction undergone by the screw, which in some
cases is so great as to be equal to the weight itself ;
for it is sometimes sufficient to sustain the weight
when the power is taken off.
OF FRICTION.
1331. Though in a preceding page we have slightly
touched on the effect of friction, it is to be kept
in mind that the foregoing observations and rules
have assumed the mechanical powers to be without
weight and friction. This is far from the fact ; and,
however theoretically true all that has hitherto been
advanced, very great allowances must be made in
practice when power is applied to mechanical purposes, in which a great portion of their
effect is lost by friction, inertia, &c. The word friction, properly meaning the act of
one body rubbing on another, is in mechanics used to denote the degree of retardation or
obstruction to motion which arises from one surface rubbing against another. A heavy
body placed upon another is not in a state of equilibrium between all the forces which act
upon it, otherwise it could be moved by the application of the smallest force in a direction
parallel to the plane. This want of equilibrium results from unbalanced force occasioned
by the friction on a level surface. Now if a new force of equal magnitude be applied to
counterpoise such unbalanced force, the body will obey the smallest impulse in such direc-
tion, and the force thus employed will exactly measure the retarding force of friction. It
has been well observed, that friction destroys, but never generates motion ; being therein un-
like gravity or the other forces, which, though they may retard motion in one direction,
always accelerate it in the opposite. Thus the law of friction violates the law of con-
tinuity, and cannot be accurately expressed by any geometrical line, nor by any algebraic
formula. The author (Playfair, Outlines of Natural Philosophy) just quoted, continues :
" Though friction destroys motion and generates none, it is of essential use in mechanics.
It is the cause of stability in the structure of machines, and it is necessary to the exertion
of the force of animals. A nail or screw or a bolt could give no firmness to the parts of a
machine, or of any other structure, without friction. Animals could not walk, or exert their
force anyhow, without the support which it affords. Nothing could have any stability, but
in the lowest possible situation ; and an arch, which could sustain the greatest load when
properly distributed, might be thrown down by the weight of a single ounce, if not placed
with mathematical exactness at the very point which it ought to occupy."
1332. Many authors have applied themselves to the subject of friction, but the most satis-
factory results have attended the investigations of the celebrated Coulomb in its application
to practical mechanics ; and it is to that author we are indebted for the few following suc-
cinct observations.
I. In the friction of wood upon wood in the direction of the fibres after remaining in
contact for one or two minutes, the following mean results were obtained : —
Oak against oak - ^.^ = friction in parts of the weight.
Oak against fir -
- rfe)=ditto-
Fir against fir -
Elm against elm
; = ditto.
= ditto.
When oak rubbed upon oak, and the surfaces in contact were reduced to the smallest pos-
sible dimensions, the friction was , r
CHAP. 1. MECHANICS AND STATICS. 395
1333. When the friction was across the grain, or at right angles to the direction of the
fibres, oak against oak was ^=g. The ratios above given are constant quantities, and not
dependent upon the velocities, excepting in the case of elm, when the pressures are very
small, for then the friction is sensibly increased by the velocity.
1334. (II. ) Friction is found to increase with the time of contact. It was ascertained that
when wood moved upon wood in the direction of the fibres, the friction gradually increased,
and reached its maximum in 8 or 10 seconds. When across the grain of the wood, it took
a longer time to reach its maximum.
1335. (III. ) For illustration of the friction of metals vipon metals after a certain time of
rest, the subjoined experiments were made with two flat rulers of iron, 4 feet long and 2
inches wide, attached to the fixed plank of the apparatus used for the investigation. Four
other rulers, two of iron and two of brass, 1 5 inches long and 1 8 lines wide, were also used.
The angles of each of the rulers were rounded off, and the rubbing surfaces of the rulers
were 45 square inches.
With iron upon iron and a pressure of 53 Ibs., the friction in parts of the pressure was srr»
453 Ibs., ^-
With iron upon brass and a pressure of 52 Ibs., the friction in parts of the pressure was f2*
452 Ibs., l
4-1
1336. In these experiments each set gives nearly the same result, though the second
pressures are nearly nine times the first ; from which we learn that, in metals, friction is in-
dependent of the extent of the rubbing surfaces. Coulomb, moreover, found that the friction
is independent of the velocities. The ratio of 4 to 1 between the pressure of friction, in
the case of iron moving upon brass, is only to be considered accurate when the surfaces are
new and very large. When they are very small the ratio varies from 4 to 1 to 6 to 1 ; but
this last ratio is not reached unless the friction has been continued more than an hour, when
the iron and brass have taken the highest polish whereof they are susceptible, free of all
scratches.
1337. IV. In the friction of oak upon oak, when greased with tallow, which was renewed
at every experiment, some days were required for obtaining, when the surfaces were consi-
derable, the maximum of friction or adhesion. It was nearly similar to that without grease,
sometimes rather greater. For iron or copper with tallow, during rest, the increase is not
so considerable as with oak. At first the friction was T'T of the weight, besides a small force
of a pound for every 30 square inches independent of the weight. The friction after some
time changes to ^ or ^. Olive oil alters the condition of the friction to s, and old soft grease
to about £.
1338. V. In the case of friction of bodies, oak upon oak for instance, in motion in the
direction of its fibres, the friction was nearly constant in all degrees of velocity, though with
large surfaces it appeared to increase with the velocities ; but when the touching surfaces
were very small compared with the pressures, the friction diminished or the velocities in-
creased. For a pressure of 100 to 4000 pounds on a square foot, the friction is about 4-'
besides for each square foot a resistance of 1 § pounds, exclusive of pressure increasing a
little with the velocity, occasioned perhaps by a down on the surface. If the surface be
very small the friction is lessened. When the narrow surface was cross-grained, the friction
was invariably TL. In the case of oak on fir, the friction was gL ; of fir on fir, | ; of elm on
elm, ^5, but varying according to the extent of surface ; for iron or copper on wood, ^, which
was at first doubled by increasing the velocity to a foot in a second, but on a continuance
of the operation for some hours it again diminished. For iron on iron, * ; on copper, ~^— ;
after long attrition, | in all velocities. Upon the whole, in the case of most machines, £ of
the pressure may be considered a fair estimate of the friction.
1339. In the experiments to ascertain the friction of axles, Coulomb used a simple pulley,
where the friction of the axis and that of the rigidity of the rope produce a joint resistance.
With guaiacum moving upon iron, the friction was ^ or i of the weight in all velocities,
exclusive of the rigidity of the rope ; the mean was ~j> or, with a small weight, a little
greater. In the cases of axles of iron on copper, ^ or —^ the velocity is small ; the friction
being always somewhat less than for plane surfaces. With grease, the friction was about
y7g. With an axis of green oak or elm, and a pulley of guaiacum, the friction with tallow
was Jg ; without, Jj ; with a pulley of elm, the quantities in question became J^ and i. An
axis of box with a pulley of guaiacum gave Jg and -^ ; with an elm pulley, Jg and JL. An
axis of iron and a pulley of guaiacum gave, with tallow, J,0. The velocity had but small
396
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II,
effect on the rigidity of ropes, except in slightly increasing the resistance when the pressure
was small.
1340. The friction and rigidity of ropes was supposed by Amontons and Desaguliers to
vary as the diameter as the curvature and as the tension. By Coulomb the power of the
diameter expressing the rigidity was found generally to be 1 -7 or 1 -8, never less than 1 -4,
and that a constant quantity must be supposed as added to the weight. Wet ropes, if small,
are more flexible than such as are dry, and tarred ones stiffer by about one sixth, and in
cold weather somewhat more. After rest, the stiffness of ropes increases. A rope of three
strands, each having two yarns 1 2| lines in circumference, whose weight was 1 25 grains,
being bent upon an axis 4 inches in diameter, required a constant force of one pound ( French)
and ^L of the weight to overcome its rigidity. The same rope tarred, required one fifth
of a pound and one fiftieth of the weight. When the strands were of fine yarns, the cir-
cumference 20 lines, and the weight 347 grains, the rigidity was equal to half a pound and
— of the weight to move it. With strands of 10 yarns, and a circumference of 28 lines,
and a weight of 680 grains to 6 inches, the rigidity of the untarred rope was 2 Ibs. and
— ^ of the weight, and the tarred rope of 3 '3 Ibs. and —^ of the weight. Experi-
ments which confirmed the above were made on a roller moving on a horizontal plane,
while a rope was coiled completely round it, whence an allowance must be made for the
friction of the roller on the plane, which varies as its weight and inversely as its diameter.
With a roller of guaiacum or lignum vitae, 3 '6 inches in diameter, moving on oak, it was ^
of the weight ; for a roller of elm, | more.
1341. This subject has, we conceive, been pursued as far as is necessary for the architect ;
seeing that his further investigation of it, should necessity arise, may be accomplished by
reference to the works of Amontons, Bulfinger, Parent, Euler, Bossut, and Coulomb,
upon whom we have drawn for the information here given. We shall therefore con-
clude these remarks by subjoining some of the practical results which experiments on
animal power afford, extracted from the celebrated Dr. Thomas Young's Natural Philoso-
phy, vol. ii.
1342. In comparing the values of the force of moving powers, it is usual to assume an
unit, which is considered as the mean effect of the labour of an active man working to the
greatest advantage ; this on a moderate calculation will be found sufficient to raise 1 0 Ibs.
to the height of 10 feet in one second for 10 hours in a day ; or 100 Ibs. 1 foot in a second,
that is 36,000 feet in a day, or 3,600,000 Ibs. 1 foot in a day. The following exhibits a
tabular view of the immediate force of men, without deduction for friction. Such a day's
work is the measuring unit in the third column of the table.
OPERATIVE.
Force.
Continuance.
Day's Work.
A man weighing 1 33 Ibs. French ascended 62 feet
French by steps in 34 seconds, but was com-
pletely exhausted. Amontons. -
2-8
34 sec.
A sawyer made 200 strokes of 1 8 French inches each
in 145 seconds, with a force of 25 Ibs. French.
He could not have continued more than 3 mi-
nutes. Amontons. -
6-0
145 sec.
A man can raise 60 French Ibs. 1 French foot in
1 second for 8 hours a day. Bernouilli.
0-69
8 hours
0-552
A man of ordinary strength can turn a winch with a
force of 30 Ibs. , and with a velocity of 3| feet in
1 second for 10 hours a day. Desaguliers.
1-05
10 hours
1-05
Two men working at a windlass, with handles at
right angles, can raise 70 Ibs. more easily than 1
can raise 30 Ibs. Desaguliers. -
1-22
MM
1-22
A man can exert a force of 40 Ibs. for a whole day
with the assistance of a fly, when the motion is
pretty quick, at about 4 or 5 feet in a second.
Desaguliers. But it appears doubtful whether
the force is 40 or 20 Ibs.
2-OO
—
2-00
For a short time, a man may exert a force of 80 Ibs.
with a fly when the motion is pretty quick. De-
saguliers. -
3-00
1 sec.
A man going up stairs ascends 1 4 metres (35 '43 feet)
in 1 minute. Coulomb.
1-182
1 min.
CHAP. I.
MECHANICS AND STATICS,
S97
OPERATIVE.
Force.
Continuance.
Day's Work.
A man going up stairs for a day raises 205 kilo-
grammes (451 -64 Ibs. averd.) to the height of
a kilometre (3280 '91 feet). Coulomb.
—
—
0-412
With a spade a man does lg as much as in ascending
stairs. Coulomb. -
—
—
0-391
With a winch a man does § as much as in ascending
stairs. Coulomb. -
—
—
0-258
A man carrying wood up stairs raises, together with
his own weight, 109 kilogrammes (240-14 Ibs.
averd.) to 1 kilometre (3280-91 feet). Cou-
lomb. ------
—
_
0-219
A man weighing 150 French Ibs. can ascend by
stairs 3 French feet in a second for 15 or 20
seconds. Coulomb. -
5-22
20 sec.
For half an hour 1 00 French "pounds may be raised
1 foot French per second. Coulomb.
1-152
30 min.
By Mr. Buchanan's comparison, the force exerted in
turning a winch being assumed equal to the unit,
the force in pumping will be -
0-61
In ringing ------
1-36
In rowing ------
1-43
1343. Coulomb's maximum of effect is, when a man weighing 70 kilogrammes
(154-21 Ibs. avoirdupois), carries a weight of 53 (116*76 Ibs. avoirdupois,) up stairs. But
this appears too great a load.
1344. Porters carry from 200 to 300 Ibs., at the rate of 3 miles an hour. Chairmen
walk 4 miles an hour with a load of 1 50 Ibs. each ; and in Turkey there are found porters
who, it is said, by stooping forwards, carry from 700 to 900 Ibs. very low on their backs.
1345. The most advantageous weight for a man of common strength to carry horizon-
tally, is 111 pounds ; or, if he return unladen, 135. With wheelbarrows, men will do half
as much more work, as with hods. Coulomb.
The following table exhibits the performance of men by machines.
OPERATIVE.
Force.
Continuance.
Day's Work.
A man raised by means of a rope and pulley 25 Ibs.
French, 220 French feet in 145 seconds. Amon-
tons. ______
0-436
145 sec.
A man can raise by a good common pump 1 hogshead
of water 1 0 feet high in a minute for a whole day.
Desaguliers. - - - - -
0-875
_
0-875
By the mercurial pump, or another good pump, a man
may raise a hogshead 18 or 20 feet in a minute
for 1 or 2 minutes
1-61
2 min.
In pile driving, 55^ French Ibs. were raised 1 French
foot in 1 second, for 5 hours a day, by a rope
drawn horizontally. Coulomb. ~
0-64
5 hours
0-82
Robison says that a feeble old man raised 7 cubic
feet of water 111 feet in 1 minute for 8 or 10
hours a day, by walking backwards and forwards
on a lever -
0-837
9 hours
0-753
A young man, the last-named author says, weighing
135 Ibs., and carrying 30 Ibs., raised 9^ cubic feet
Hi feet high for 10 hours a day, without
fatigue -
1-106
1 0 hours
1-106
1 346. In respect of the force of horses, we do not think it necessary to do more than
observe that the best way of applying their force is in an horizontal direction, that in which
a man acts least to advantage. For instance, a man weighing 140 Ibs., and drawing a boat
along by means of a rope over his shoulders, cannot draw above 27 Ibs. ; whereas a horse
employed for the same purpose can exert seven times that force.
1347. Generally, a horse can draw no more up a steep hill than three men can carry,
398 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
that is, from 450 to 750 pounds ; but a horse can draw 20OO pounds up a steep hill which
is but short. The most disadvantageous mode of applying a horse's force is to make
him carry or draw up hill ; for if it be steep, he is not more than equal to three men,
each of whom would climb up faster with a burden of 100 pounds weight than a horse
that is loaded with 300 pounds. And this arises from the different construction of what
may be called the two living machines.
1348. Desaguliers observes, that the best and most effectual action of a man is that
exerted in rowing, in which he not only acts with more muscles at once for overcoming
resistance than in any other application of his strength, but that, as he pulls backwards,
his body assists by way of lever.
1349. There are cases in which the architect has to avail himself of the use of horse
power; as, for instance, in pugmills for tempering mortar, and occasionally when the
stones employed in a building may be more conveniently raised by such means. We
therefore think it proper to observe, that, for effectually using the strength of the animal,
the track or diameter of a walk for a horse should not be less than 25 to 30 feet.
1350. We close this section by observing, more for the curiosity of the thing than
for the service it will be to the architect, that some horses have carried 650 or 700 Ibs. ,
and that for seven or eight miles, without resting, as their ordinary work ; and, according to
Desaguliers (Experiment. Philos. vol. i.), a horse at Stourbridge carried 1] cwt. of iron,
or 1232 Ibs., for eight miles.
SECT. IX.
AUTHORS ON EQUILIBRIUM OF ARCHES.
1351. The construction of arches may be considered in a threefold respect. I. As
respects their form. II. As respects the mode in which their parts are constructed.
III. As respects the thrust they exert.
1352. The first category involving rather the mode of tracing the right lines and curves
whereof their surfaces are composed, has been partially treated of in Section VI. on De-
scriptive Geometry, and will be further shortly discussed in future pages of this work.
The other two points will form the subject of the present section.
1353. The investigation of the equilibrium of arches by the laws of statics does not
appear to have at all entered into the thoughts of the ancient architects. Experience,
imitation, and a sort of mechanical intuition seem to have been their guides. They appear
to have preferred positive solidity to nice balance, and the examples they have left are
rather the result of art than of science. Vitruvius, who speaks of all the ingredients
necessary to form a perfect architect, does not allude to the assistance which may be
afforded in the construction of edifices by a knowledge of the resolution of forces, nor of
the aid that may be derived from the study of such a science as Descriptive Geometry,
though of the latter it seems scarcely possible the ancients could have been ignorant, seeing
how much it must have been (practically, at least) employed in the construction of such
vast buildings as the Coliseum, and other similarly curved structures, as respects their plan.
1 354. The Gothic architects seem, and indeed must have been, guided by some rules
which enabled them to counterpoise the thrusts of the main arches of their cathedrals
with such extraordinary dexterity as to excite our amazement at their boldness. But
they have left us no precepts nor clue to ascertain by what means they reached such
heights of skill as their works exhibit. We shall hereafter offer our conjectures on the
leading principle which seems as well to have guided them in their works as the ancients
in their earliest, and perhaps latest, specimens of columnar architecture.
1355. Parent and De la Hire seem to have been, at the latter end of the seventeenth
century, the first mathematicians who considered an arch as an assemblage of wedge-formed
stones, capable of sliding down each other's surfaces, which they considered in a state of the
highest polish. In this hypothesis M. de la Hire has proved, in his Treatise on Mechanics,
printed in 1 695, that in order that a semicircular arch, whose joints tend to the centre, may
be able to stand, the weights of the voussoirs or arch stones whereof it is composed must
be to each other as the differences of the tangents of the angles which form each voussoir ;
but as these tangents increase in a very great ratio, it follows that those which form the
springings must be infinitely heavy, in order to resist the effects of the superior voussoirs.
Now, according to this hypothesis, not only would the construction of a semicircular arch
be an impossibility, but also all those which are greater or less than a semicircle, whose
centre is level with or in a line parallel with the tops of the piers ; so that those only would
be practicable whose centres were formed by curves forming angles with the piers, such as
the parabola, the hyperbola, and the catenary. And we may here remark, that in para-
bolic and hyperbolic arches, the voussoir forming the keystones should be heavier or
CHAV. I. ARCHES. 399
greater in height, and that from it the weight or size of the voussoirs should diminish
from the keystone to the springing; the catenary being the only curve to which an hori-
zontal extrados, or upper side, can be properly horizontal. In the Memoirs of the Academy
of Sciences, 1729, M. Couplet published a memoir on the thrusts of arches, wherein he
adopts the hypothesis of polished voussoirs ; but, finding the theory would not be applicable
to the materials whereof arches are usually composed, he printed a second memoir in 1730,
wherein the materials are so grained that they cannot slide. But in this last he was as far
from the truth as in his first.
1356. M. Daiiisy, a member of the Academy of Montpellier, liking neither of these
hypotheses, endeavoured from experiments to deduce a theory. He made several models
whose extradosses were equal in thickness, and divided into equal voussoirs, with piers suf-
ficiently thick to resist the thrusts. To ascertain the places at which the failure would
take place where the piers were too weak, he loaded them with different weights. From
many experiments, in 1732, he found a practical rule for the walls or piers of a cylindrical
arch so as to resist the thrust.
1357. Derand had thereupon found one which appears in his Architecture of Arches, but
it seems to have been empirical. It was nevertheless adopted by Blondel and Deschalles,
and afterwards by M. de la Rue.
Gautier, in his Treatise on Bridges, adopts one which seems to have had no better
foundation in science than Derand's.
1 358. At the end of a theoretical and practical treatise on stereotomy by M. Frezier,
that author subjoined an appendix on the thrust of arches, which was an extract of what
had theretofore been published by MM. de la Hire, Couplet, Bernouilli, and Danisy, with
the applications of the rules to all sorts of arches. He seems to have been the first who
considerably extended the view of the subject.
1359. Coulomb and Bossut occupied themselves on the subject. The first, in 1773,
presented to the French Academy of Sciences a memoir on several architectural problems,
amongst which is one on the equilibrium of arches. The last-mentioned author printed, in
the Memoirs (1774 and 1776) of the same academy, two memoirs on the theory of cylindrical
arches and of domed vaulting, wherein are some matters relating to the cupola of the
Pantheon at Paris, whose stability was then a matter of doubt.
1360. In Italy, Lorgna of Verona considers the subject in his Saggi di Statica Mecanica
applicati alle Arti ; and in 1 785, Mascheroni of Bergamo published, in relation to this branch
of architecture, a work entitled Nuove Ricerche dette Volte, v> herein he treats of cupolas on
circular, polygonal, and elliptical bases.
1361. We ought, perhaps, not to omit a memoir by Bouguer in the Transactions of the
French Academy of 1734, Sur les Lignes Courbes propres a former les Voutes en Dome, wherein
he adduces an analogy between cylindrical and dome vaulting ; the one being supposed to be
formed by the movement of a catenarian curve parallel to itself, and the other by the revo-
lution of the same curve about its axis.
1362. In this country, the equilibration of the arch, as given by Belidor and others on the
Continent, seems to have prevailed, though little was done or known on the subject. Emer-
son seems to have been the earliest attracted to the subject, and in his Treatise on Mechanics,
1743, appears to have been the first who thought, after the Doctors Hooke and Gregory,
of investigating the form of the extrados from the nature of the curve, in which he was
followed by Hutton, who added nothing to the stock of knowledge ; an accusation which
the writer of this has no hesitation of laying at his own door, as having been the author of
a Treatise on the Equilibrium of Arches, which has passed through two editions ; but who,
after much reflection, is now convinced, that, for the practical architect, no theory wherein
the extrados is merely made to depend on the form of the intrados can ever be satisfactory
or useful. It is on this account that in the following pages he has been induced to follow the
doctrines of Rondelet, as much more satisfactory than any others with which he is acquainted.
1363. The formulae of Rondelet were all verified by models, and the whole reasoning is
conducted upon knowledge which is to be obtained by acquaintance with the mathematical
and mechanical portions of the preceding pages. It moreover requires no deep acquaintance
with the more abstruse learning requisite for following the subject as treated by later
authors.
OBSERVATIONS ON FKICTION.
1364. I. In order that the stone parallelepiped ABCD (fig. 563.)
may be made to slide upon the horizontal plane FG, the power which
draws or pushes it parallel to this plane, must not be higher than the
length of its base AB ; for if it acts from a higher point, such as C, the
parallelepiped will be overturned instead of sliding along it.
1 365. As the effects of the powers P and M are in the inverse ratio
of the heights at which they act, it follows that a parallelepiped will
slide whenever the force which is necessary to overturn it is greater than
400 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
that necessary to make it slide, and, reciprocally, it will be overturned when less force is
necessary to produce that effect than to make it slide.
1366. II. When the parallelepiped is placed on an inclined plane, it will slide so long
as the vertical Q.S drawn from its centre of gravity does not fall without the base AB.
Hence, to ascertain whether a parallelepiped ABCD with a
rectangular base (fig. 564.) will slide down or overturn ; from c ^
the point B we must raise the perpendicular BE : if it pass out ^S^D
of the centre of gravity, it will slide ; if, on the contrary, the Q;: jjjl
line BE passes within, it will overturn. _fl wpyillits^,^___.
1367. If the surfaces of stones were infinitely smooth, as t 'Is! . .- ^T
they are supposed to be in the application of the principles of 'pig. 554.
mechanics, they would begin to slide the moment the plane
upon which they are placed ceases to be perfectly horizontal ; but as their surfaces are full
of little inequalities which catch one another in their positions, Rondelet found, by re-
peated experiments, that even those whose surfaces are wrought in the best manner do not
begin to slide upon the best worked planes of similar stone to the solids until such planes
are inclined at angles varying from 28 to 36 degrees. This difficulty of moving one stone
upon another increases as the roughness of their surfaces, and, till a certain point, as their
weight : for it is manifest, 1 st, That the rougher their surfaces, the greater are the in-
equalities which catch one another. 2d. That the greater their weight, the greater is the
effort necessary to disengage them ; but as these inequalities are susceptible of being
broken up or bruised, the maximum of force wanting to overcome the friction must be
equal to that which produces this effect, whatever the weight of the stone. 3d. That this
proportion is rather as the hardness than the weight of the stone.
1368. In experiments on the sliding of hard stones of different sizes which weighed from
2 to 60 Ibs., our author found that the friction which was more than half the weight
for the smaller was reduced to a third for the larger. He remarked that after each experi-
ment made with the larger stones a sort of dust was disengaged by the friction. In soft
stones this dust facilitated the sliding.
1 369. These circumstances, which would have considerable influence on stones of a great
weight, were of little importance in the experiments which will be cited, the object being
to verify upon hard stones, whose mass was small, the result of operations which the theory
was expected to confirm. By many experiments very carefully made upon hard freestone
well wrought and squared, it was found, 1st, That they did not begin to slide upon a plane
of the same material equally well wrought until it was inclined a little more than 30 degrees.
2d. That to drag upon such stone a parallelepiped of the same material, a little more than
half its weight was required. Thus, to drag upon a level plane a parallelepiped 6 in. long,
4 in. wide, and 2 in. thick, weighing 4 Ibs. lloz., (the measures and weights are French,
as throughout*), it was necessary to employ a weight equal to 2 Ibs. 7 oz. and 4 drs.
3d. That the size of the rubbing surface is of no consequence, since exactly the same force
is necessary to move this parallelepiped upon a face of two in. wide as upon one of 4.
1 370. Taking then into consideration that by the principles of mechanics it is proved,
that to raise a perfectly smooth body, or one which is round upon an homogeneous plane
inclined at an angle of 30 degrees, a power must be employed parallel to the plane which
acts with a force rather greater than half its weight, we may conclude that it requires as
much force to drag a parallelepiped of freestone upon an horizontal plane of the same
material as to cause the motion up an inclined plane of 30 degrees of a round or infinitely
polished body.
1 37 1. From these considerations in applying the principles of mechanics to arches composed
of freestone well wrought, a plane inclined at 30 degrees might be considered as one upon
which the voussoirs would be sustained, or, in other words, equivalent to an horizontal plane.
1372. We shall here submit another experiment, which tends to establish such an hypo-
thesis. If a parallelepiped C (fig. 565.) of this stone be placed
between two others, BD, RS, whose masses are each double,
upon a plane of the same stone, the parallelepiped C is sus-
tained by the friction alone of the vertical surfaces that touch
it. This effect is a consequence of our hypothesis ; for, the
inequalities of the surfaces of bodies being stopped by one ano-
ther, the parallelepiped C, before it can fall, must push aside the
two others, BD, RS, by making them slide along the horizontal
plane of the same material, and for that purpose a force must be employed equal to double
the weight sustained.
* The Paris pound = 75G1 Troy grains.
Ounce = 472-5625.
Dram or gros = 59'0703.
Grain = 0'8204.
And &i the English avoirdupois pound = 7000 Troy grains, it contains 8538 Paris grains.
The Paris foot of 12 inches = 127977 English inches.
CHAP. I.
ARCHES.
401
1373. If to this experiment the principles of mechanics be
applied, considering the plane of 30 degrees inclination as a
horizontal plane, the vertical faces ED FR may be considered
as inclined planes of 60 degrees. On this hypothesis it may be
demonstrated by mechanics, that to sustain a body between two
planes forming an angle of 60 degrees (fig. 566.), the resist-
ance of each of these planes must be to half the weight sustained
as HD is to DG, as the radius is to the sine of 30 degrees, or
as 1 is to 2.
EQUILIBRIUM OF ARCHES.
1374. The resistance of each parallelepiped represented by the prism ABDE (fig. 565.)
being equal to half their weight, it follows that the weight to be sustained by the two prisms
should equal one quarter of the two parallelepipeds taken together, or the half of one,
which is confirmed by the experiment. This agreement between theory and practice deter-
mined Rondelet to apply the hypothesis to models of vaults composed of voussoirs and wedges
disunited, made of freestone, with the utmost exactness, the joints and
surfaces nicely wrought, as the parallelepipeds in the preceding example.
1375. The first model was of a semicircular arch 9 inches diameter,
comprised between two concentric semi-circumferences of circles 2 1 lines
apart. It was divided into 9 equal voussoirs. This arch was 1 7 lines
deep, and was carried on piers 2 inches and 7 lines thick. It was found,
by gradually diminishing the piers, which were at first 2 inches and 10 AJ
lines thick, that the thickness first named was the least which could be
assigned to resist the thrust of the voussoirs.
1376. The model in question is represented in fig. 567., whereon
we have to observe, — 1st. That the first voussoir, I, being placed
on a level joint, not only sustains itself, but is able to resist by
friction an effort equal to one half of its weight. 2d. That the second
voussoir, M, being upon a joint inclined 20 degrees, will also, through
friction, sustain itself; and that, moreover, these two voussoirs would
resist, previous to giving way on the joint AB, an horizontal effort equal
to one half of their weight. 3d. That the third voussoir, N, standing
on a joint inclined at 40 degrees, would slide if it were not retained
by a power PN acting in an opposite direction. 4th. That taking, ac-
cording to our hypothesis, an inclined plane of 30 degrees, whereon T]
the stones would remain in equilibrium as an horizontal one, the in- ~u
clined point of 4O degrees may be considered as an inclined plane of Fig- 567>
JO degrees, supposing the surfaces infinitely smooth. 5th. That the effort of the hori-
zontal power which holds this voussoir in equilibrium upon its joints will be to its weight
as the sine of 10 degrees is to its cosine, as we have, in the section on Mechanics, pre-
viously shown. (1255 et seq.)
1377. The model of the vault whereon we are speaking being but 9 inches, or 108
lines in diameter, by 21 lines for the depth of the voussoirs, that is, the width between the
two concentric circumferences, its entire superficies will be 4257 square lines, which, divided
by 9, gives for each voussoir 473 square lines. Then, letting the weight of each voussoir
be expressed by its superficies, and calling P the horizontal power, we have
P : 473:: sin. 10° : cosin. 10°;
Or, P : 473:: 17365 : 98481 ; which gives P = 83~fo.
The fourth voussoir, being placed upon a bed inclined at 60 degrees, will be considered as
standing on a plane inclined only at 3O degrees, which gives, calling Q the horizontal
power which keeps it on its joint, —
Q, : 473 : :sin. 30° : cosin. 30°.
Or, Q, : 473::5oooo : 86603=273^5.
1378. The half-keystones, being placed on a joint inclined 80 degrees, are to be considered
as standing on an inclined plane of 50, the area of the half key which represents its
weight being 2365. If we call R the horizontal power which sustains it on its joint, we
shall have the proportion
R : 2361 : : sin. 50 : cosin. 50 ;
or, R ; 236|::76604 : 64279; which gives R = 281-&.
1379. Wishing to ascertain if the sum of these horizontal efforts, which were necessary
to keep on their joints the two voussoirs N, O, and the half-keystone, was capable of
thrusting away the first voussoir upon its horizontal joint AB, the half arch was laid down
upon a level plane of the same stone without piers, and it was proved that to make it give
way an horizontal effort of more than 16 ounces was required, whilst only 10 were neccw-
D d
•102 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK 11.
sary to sustain the half-keystone and the two voussoirs N, O. The two halves of the arches
united bore a weight of 5 Ibs. 2 oz. before the first voussoirs gave way.
1380. To find the effect of each of these voussoirs when the arch is raised upon its piers,
let fall from the centres of gravity N, O, S of these voussoirs the perpendiculars Nn, Oo, Ss,
in order to obtain the arms of the levers of the powers P, Q, R, which keep them in their
places, tending at the same time to overturn upon the fulcrum T the pier which carries
the half arch, and we have their effort —
P x N» + Q, x Oo + R x Ss.
The height of the pier being 1 95 lines, we have
N« = 244-94
Oo = 256-26
and Ss = 260-50, whence we have
The effort P x Nn= 83-4 x 244-94, which gives 20427-996
Q,x Oo = 273 -3x256 -26 ........ 70035-858
R x Ss =281-9 x 260-50 ........ 73434-950
Total effort in respect of the fulcrum, 163898*804
1 38 1 . The pier resists this effort, 1 st, by its weight or area multiplied by the arm of the
lever determined by the distance Tu from the fulcrum T to the perpendicular let fall from
the centre of gravity G upon the base of the pier. 2d. By the weight of the half arch
multiplied by the arm of its lever VY determined by the vertical LY let fall from the
centre of gravity L, and which becomes in respect of the common fulcrum T = T<or
VB — BY, in order to distinguish BY, which indicates the distance of the centre of gravity
of the half arch (and which is supposed known because it may be found by the rules given
in 1275. et seq.) from the width VB that the pier ought to have to resist the effort of
the half arch sought. In order to find it, let P, the effort of the arch above found, be
163898-804.
Let the height of the pier =a
The width sought = x
The weight of the half arch = 6
The part BY of its arm of lever =c
1382. The area of the pier which represents its weight multiplied by the arm of the
lever will be ax x | =^p That of the half arch multipied by its arm of lever will be
shown by VB + B Y, where .r + cwill be bx + be, whence the equation P= ^'+bx-rbc)
which we have to solve.
Now first we have ~ + bx = P - be.
Multiplying all the terms by J? +2fa = fc2te &n expression in which x is raised to
to eliminate xx, we have 3
the second power ; but as xx + ^~ is not a perfect square, that is to say, it wants the
square of half the known quantity ^ which multiplies the second term ; by adding this
square, which is j^ , to each side of the equation, we have xx + 2** + ~* = 2H=?^ + ?£ . The
first member by this means having become a perfect square whose root is a + - , we shall
havea; + - + V/^ir^ + ^|» which becomes, by transferring | to the other side of the
equation, ar = \P~— + ~^ — ~, in which x being only in the first member of the equa-
tion, its value is determined from the known quantities on the other side. Substituting,
then, the values of the known quantities, we have
/ 163898-804 x 2—2128 x 2 x 12|T 2J28 2128 2128
x — V ~ ~195 + 195 x 195 ~ 195'
which gives x=28\ lines instead of 2 inches and 5 lines, which was assigned to the piers that
they might a little exceed equilibrium in their stability.
Proof of the above Method by another Method of
estimating Friction.
1383. A proof of the truth of the hypothesis in the preceding
section is to be found in the method proposed by Bossut in his
Treatise on Mechanics.
Let the voussoir N (fa. 568.) standing on an inclined _ _
plane be sustained by a power Q, acting horizontally. From the Fig. 668>
CHAP. I. ARCHES. 403
centre of gravity let fall the vertical N», which may be taken to express the weight
of the voussoir. This weight may be resolved into two forces, whereof one, Nc, is
parallel to the joint, and the other Na is perpendicular to it. In the same manner the
power Q, expressed by Q,N in its direction may be resolved into two forces, whereof
N/ will be parallel to the joint and the other Nc? perpendicular to it. Producing the
line from the joint HG, drawing the horizontal line GI and letting fall the vertical HI,
consider the line HG as an inclined plane whose height is HI and base IG. Then the
force Nc with which the voussoir will descend will be to the weight as the height HI
of the inclined plane is to its length HG. Calling p the weight of the voussoir, we
then have Nc=jp x ^j-, and the force Na which presses against the plane as the base of the
plane I G is to its length, which gives the force Na =p x ^JQ-
1384. Considering, in the same way, the two forces of the power Q which retain the
voussoir on the inclined plane, we shall find the parallel force N/= Q, x <jjj, and the per-
pendicular force Nc? = Q x JJQ. The force resulting from the two forces Na, Nc?, which
press against the joint, will be expressed by p x JJQ + Q x Q-JJ ; and as the voussoir only
begins to slide upon a plane whose inclination is greater than 30 degrees, the friction will
be to the pressure as the sine of 30 degrees is to its cosine, or nearly as 500 is to 866, or
|<|9 of its expression. Calling this ratio n, we shall, to express the friction, have
As the friction prevents the voussoir sliding on its joint, in a state of equilibrium, we shall
have the force N/ equal to the force Nc, less the friction; from which results the equation —
Q'm^'H^'cm-^im)*-
All the terms of which equation having the common divisor HG, it becomes —
QxIG = pxHI-OxIG-QxIH)xrc;
and, bringing the quantities multiplied by Q, to the same side of the equation, we have
Q x IG + (Q,x IH) x n=p x HI — (p x IG) x n ; which becomes
Q,x(IG + wx IH=px(HI-rex IG); whence results
Q==p x iG+V^TH* whicn ig the formula for each voussoir, substituting the
values for the expression.
1385. Thus for the third voussoir N (fig- 567.) placed on an inclined plane of 40 de-
grees, HI which represents the sine of the inclination will be 643, and its cosine repre-
sented by IG, 766, the expression of the friction n will be f^, or i| nearly. The weight of
the voussoir expressed by its area will be 473, which several values being substituted
in the formula, we have
O -473 x643 -Mx 766.
1 x 766THT643 '
which gives Q,=83'6, the expression of the horizontal force P, which will keep the voussoir
N in equilibrium on its joint instead of 83 -4, which was the result of the operation in the
preceding subsection.
1386. The same formula Q=p x ioraxlH giyes f°r tne voussoir M on an inclined joint
of 60 degrees, whose sine HI is 866 and cosine IG500, Q,=473 x 886l^2P
500 + 1§ x 866
instead of 273'3, which was the result of the operation in the preceding section.
1387. For the half-keystone, the sine HI, being of 80 degrees, will be expressed by
985, and its cosine I G by 174; the half-keystone by 236^, and the friction by if.
The formula now will be Q,= 236^xprr — ]f — r^, which gives Q,= 282'2, instead
of 281^ found by the other method. These slight differences may arise from sup-
pressing the two last figures of the sines, and some remainders of fractions which have been
neglected. Multiplying these values of the powers which keep the voussoirs in equilibrium
upon their beds by the several arms of the levers, as in the preceding calculations, their
energy will be as follows : —
For the voussoir N, 83'6 x 244-94= 20476*98
— O, 273-4x256-26= 7O061 -48
— S, 282-2x260-50= 73313-10
For the total force in respect of the fulcrum T= 163851 -56.
Which is the value of p, and being substituted for it in the formula x
Dd 2
404
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
as well as the values of the other letters, which are the same as in the preceding example,
we have
for the thickness of the piers, instead of 28^ lines found by the preceding operation.
Application of the Principles in the Model of a straight Arch.
1388. The second model to which the application of the preceding methods was made
was a straight arch of the same sort (fig. 569.),
whose opening between the piers was 9 inches.
The arch was 21 lines high and 18 lines thick.
It was divided into 9 wedges, whose joints were
concentric. To determine the section of the
joints, the diagonal FG was drawn on the face
of the half arch, and from its extremity F touch-
ing the pier, the perpendicular FO meeting O
in the vertical, passing through the middle of
the opening of the piers, all the sections meet-
ing in this point O. Each of the sections of
the piers which support the arch forms an
angle of 21° 15' with the vertical, and of 68°
45' with the horizon.
1 389. In considering each of the wedges of
the half arch as in the preceding method, it
will be found that in order to retain the voussoir
A on the joint IF (of the pier) which forms
with the horizontal line NF an angle of
68° 45', we have
For the horizontal force -
second B ..
third C
fourth D
half-keystone ..
Total - 1338-07
The height of the piers being 1 95 lines to the underside of the arch, and 21 6 to the top
of the extrados, it follows that the arm of the lever, which is the same for all the wedges,
is 206£, from which we derive for the thrust p of the formula,
xss */&=** + »•
a aa b
= 1338-07 x 206-33 = 276084 ;
6 which expresses the area of the half arch = 1219^; c which expresses the distance of its
centre of gravity from the vertical F» = 24, and the height of the pier a = 21 6. Now, sub-
stituting these values in the formula, we shall have
_3ft_4Sk lines.
Experiment gives 44 lines for the least width of the piers upon which the model will stand.
But it is right to observe that from the impossibility of the joints being perpendicular to
the intrados, the forces of the wedges press in a false direction on each other, as will be
seen by the lines Fa, Ic, 2e, 3g, perpendicular to the joints against which the forces are
directed, so that such an arch will only stand when the perpendicular FG does not fall
within the thickness of the arch; and, indeed, this sort of arch is
only secure when it comprises an arc whose thickness is equal to
the section upon the piers I F, as shown in fig. 570.
Observations on the Way in which Stones forming an Arch act to
support one another.
1390. Let the semicircular arch AHCDNB (fig. 571.) consist
of an infinite number of voussoirs acting without friction, and only
kept in their places by their mutual forces acting on each other.
It will follow —
1. That the first voussoir, represented by the line AB, having its
joints sensibly parallel and horizontal, will act with its whole weight
in the vertical direction IE to strengthen the pier. Fig. 571.
CHAP. I. ARCHES. 405
2. That the vertical voussoir CD, which represents the keystone, having also its joints
sensibly parallel, will act with its whole weight horizontally to overturn the semi>arches and
piers which carry them.
3. That all the other voussoirs between these two extremes will act with the compound
forces Gn, nm, ml, K/, Kh, kg, fff,fT, which may each be resolved into two others, whereof
one is vertical and the other horizontal : thus the compound force K.h is but the result
of the vertical force 4A, and the horizontal force 4 K.
4. That the vertical force of each voussoir diminishes from T to G, where, for the key-
stone CD, it becomes nothing, whilst the horizontal forces continually increase in an in-
verse ratio ; so that the voussoir HN, which is in the middle, has its vertical and horizontal
forces equal.
5. That in semi-circular arches whose extradosses are of equal height from their in-
tradosses, the circumference passing through the centre of gravity of the voussoirs may
represent the sum of all the compound forces with which the voussoirs act upon one
another in sustaining themselves, acting only by their gravity.
6. That if from the points T and G the vertical TF and horizontal GF be drawn meet-
ing in the point F, the line TF will represent the sum of the vertical forces which assist the
stability of the pier, and FG the sum of the horizontal forces which tend to overthrow it.
7. That if through the point K the horizontal line IKL be drawn between the parallels
FT and CO, the part IK will represent the sum of the horizontal forces of the lower part
AHNB of the vault, and KL those of the upper part HCDN.
8. The lower voussoirs between T and K being counterpoised by their vertical forces,
the part of the arch AHNB will have a tendency to fall inwards, turning on the point B,
whilst the voussoirs between K and G being counterpoised by their horizontal forces, the part
HCDN of the arch will re-act upon the lower part by its tendency to turn upon the point A.
9. The horizontal forces of the upper part of the arch shown by KL acting from L
towards K, and those of the lower part shown by IK opposite in direction to the former,
that is, from I to K, being directly opposed, would counterpoise each other if they were
equal, and the arch would have no thrust ; but as they are always unequal, it is the dif-
ference of the forces which occasions the thrust, and which acts in the direction of the
strongest power.
10. If we imagine the width BO of a semi-arch constantly to diminish, its height
remaining the same, the sum of the horizontal forces will diminish in the same ratio, so that
when the points B and O are common, the horizontal force being annihilated, nothing
remains but the vertical force, which would act only on the pier, and tend to its stability,
thrust vanishing, because, instead of an arch, it would, in fact, be nothing more than a con-
tinued pier.
11. If, on the contrary, the height OD diminishes, the width BO remaining the same,
the curve B and D would, at last, vanish into the right line BO, and the arch would
become a straight one. In this case, the vertical forces which give stability to the pier
being destroyed, all that remains for sustaining the arch are the horizontal forces which will
act with the whole weight of the arch ; whence this species of arches must be such as
exert most thrust, and circular arches hold a middle place between those which have no
thrust, and flat arches, whose thrust is infinite, if the stones whereof they are formed could
slide freely on one another, and their joints were perpendicular to their lower surfaces, as in
other arches.
1 2. The inconveniences which result from making the joints of flat arches concentric
have been before noticed. If the stones could slide freely on one another, as they only act
in a false direction, their forces could never either balance or destroy one another.
1 3. A vast number of experiments made by Rondelet, upon fifty-four models of arches of
different forms and extradosses, divided into an equal and unequal number of voussoirs,
showed that the voussoirs acted rather as levers than as wedges, or as bodies tending to
slide upon one another.
14. As long as the piers are too weak to resist the thrust of the voussoirs, many of them
unite as one mass, tending to overturn them on a point opposite to the parts where the joints
open.
15. Arches whose voussoirs are of even number exert more thrust than those which are
of unequal number, that is, which have a keystone.
16. In those divided into uneven numbers and of unequal size, the larger the keystone
the less is their thrust, so that the case of the greatest thrust is when a joint is made at the
vertex, as in the case of arches whose voussoirs are divided into equal numbers.
1 7. A semicircular arch divided into four equal parts has more thrust than one divided
into nine equal voussoirs.
1 8. Arches including more than a semicircle have less thrust than those of a similar
span, the intradosses and extradosses being of similar forms.
1 9. Thrust does not increase as the thickness of an arch increases ; so that, cae.te.ris paribus,
an arch of double the thickness has not double the thrust.
Dd 3
406
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
Fig. 572.
F M
20. A semicircular arch whose extrados is equally distant throughout
from, or, in other words, concentric with, the intrados, when divided into
four equal parts, will only stand when its depth is less than the eigh-
teenth part of its diameter, even supposing the abutments immoveable.
21. Whenever, in an arch of voussoirs of equal depth, a right line can
be drawn from its outer fulcrum to the centre of the extrados of the
keystone (fig. 572.), fracture does not occur in the middle of the
haunches if the piers are of the same thickness as the lower part of the arch.
22. Arches whose thickness or depth diminishes as they rise to the
vertex have less thrust than those whose thickness is equal throughout.
23. Semicircular and segmental arches whose extrados is an hori-
zontal line have less thrust than others.
24. As long as the piers in the models were too weak to resist the
thrust, it was possible to keep them in their places by a weight equal to
double the difference between the thrust and resistance of one pier,
acting by a string suspended passing through the joints in the middle of
the haunches, or by a weight equal to that difference placed above each
middle joint of the arches, as in fig. 572.
From these experiments and many others, a formula has been
deduced to determine the thickness of piers of cylindrical arches of
all species whose voussoirs are of equal depth, whatever their forms ;
and to this we shall now introduce the reader.
Method.
1391. Having described the mean circumference GKT (figs. 573,574.), from tiie points
G and T draw the tangents to the curve meeting in
the point F. From this point draw the secant FO
cutting it in the point K. This point is the place
of the greatest effort, and of the consequent failure,
if the thickness of the piers is too weak to resist the
thrust.
1392. Through the point K, between the parallels
TF and GO, draw the horizontal line IKL, which
will represent the sum of the horizontal forces as
will the vertical TF express the vertical forces;
the mean circumference GKT will express the com-
pound forces.
1393. The arches having an equal thickness
throughout, the part IK of the horizontal line
multiplied by the thickness of the arch will ex-
press the horizontal effect of the lower part of either
arch, and KL multiplied by the same thickness will
express that of the upper part. These two forces
acting in opposite directions will partly destroy each
other; thus transferring IK from K to m, the difference mL multiplied by the thickness
of the vault will be the expression of the thrust. This force acting at the point K in the
horizontal direction KH, the arm of the lever is determined by the perpendicular PH raised
from the fulcrum P of the lever to the direction of the thrust, so that its effort will be ex-
pressed by mL x AB x PH.
This will be resisted —
1. By its weight represented by the surface EP x PR multiplied by the arm of the lever
PS, determined by a vertical let fall from the centre of gravity Q, which gives for the
resistance of the pier the expression EPxPRxPS.
2. By the sum of the vertical efforts of the upper part of each arch, represented by MK x AB
acting at the point K, the arm of their lever in respect of the fulcrum P of the pier being KH.
3. By the sum of the vertical efforts of the lower part represented by IT multiplied by
AB acting on the point T has for the arm of its lever TE. Hence, if equilibrium exist,
Fig. 573.
Fig. 574.
mL x AB x PH = PE x PR x PS + MK x AB x KH + IT x AB x TE.
But as in this equation neither PR ( = BE) nor PS nor KH nor TE is known, we must
resort to an algebraic equation for greater convenience, in which
The effect of the thrust in the expression mL x AB =p
The height of the pier PE - =a
EH = TI = KL = KV - - *=d
PH - - -
CHAP. I. ARCHES. 407
PS =|
The sum of the vertical forces of the upper part or
MKxAB - - =m
The sum of the forces of the lower part IT x AB =n
The part z'K of the horizontal IKL - =c
TB equal to half the thickness of the arch - =e
The arm of the lever KH - - - = c x a.'
That of TE - .... =x — e
Thus the first equation becomes pa +pd=^g + m (c x x*) + n (x — e\
Or pa x pd = ^p + mx + me + nx — ne.
Transferring the unknown quantities to the second side of the equation, we shall
have ^jr + mx + nx =pa + pd + ne — me.
Multiply all the terms by 2, and divide by a, in order to get rid of xx, and we
Making m + n — b, and adding to each member ^ for the purpose of extracting
the root of the first member,
We have
Extracting the root, x + b- = \/2p + **±*£=*K + J
1 394. This last equation is a formula for finding the thickness of all sorts of arches
whose voussoirs are of equal depth, which we will now apply to jig. 573. The model was
36 inches and 3 lines in span. The arch consisted of two concentric circles, and it was
divided into four equal parts, a vertical joint being in the middle, the two others being
inclined at angles of 45 degrees. The piers whereon it was placed were 40 inches and 4 lines
high, and on a very exact measurement the values were as follow : —
PE (a in the formula) was - - 40-333
EH = TI = KL = K V (d in the formula) - - 1 3 -876
ML x AB (p in the formula) representing the thrust or 8-127 x 3 24-381
2p - 48-762
2pd=48 -762 x 13-876 - 676'621
2MKx AB x KH represented by 2mc (=5-749x3 x 4-249) - 73-282
2rae, which is IT x AB x AB ( = 13-876 x3 x 3) - . - 124-824
AB ( = 19-625 x3) - - 58-875
a = EP, the height of the pier being 40-333, - will be -j-~ or 1 -459
s - - - - - - - " -
Substituting these values in the formula x = N/2p + 2Pd+2nae~2mc + jg _
we have . = ^48-762 + 6^621+^|g^3-^82 + 2-128-1 -459;
which gives x = 5 -8, or 5 inches 9^ lines for the thickness of the piers to resist the thrust of
the arch, supposing it to be perfectly executed. But, from the imperfection of the execution
of the model, it was found that the piers required for resisting the thrust a thickness of
6 inches and 3 lines.
1395. When the piers of the model were made 7* inches thick the arch on its central
joint was found capable of supporting a weight of three pounds, being equal to an ad-
dition of 8 superficial inches beyond that of the upper parts of the arch which are the
cause of the thrust, and this makes the value of 2p in the formula 56-762 instead of 48-762,
and changes the equation to x = V/56 -762 + 787 ^+^^-86*58 + 2.43Q_ x .55. from
which we should obtain ar = 7'366 inches, or 7 inches 3^ lines, exhibiting a singular agree-
ment between theory and practice. Rondelet gives another method of investigating the
preceding problem, of which we do not think it necessary to say more than that it
agrees with that just exhibited so singularly that the result is the same. It is dependent
on the places of the centres of gravity, and therefore not so readily applicable in practice as
that which has been just given.
Second Experiment.
1396. Fig. 567., in a preceding page, is the model of an arch in freestone, which has been
before considered. It is divided into nine equal voussoirs, whose depth to the extrados is
21 lines, and whose interior diameter is 9 inches.
D d 4
408
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK IL
1397. Having drawn the lines heretofore described, we shall find mL x AB expressed
in the formula by
jp = 26-7 x 21, which gives - 560-70
And for 2p .... 1121 -4O
EH = TI = KL = K V, expressed by d, will be 45 -60
Hence 2pd - - 5113*584
2ne, which is twice the vertical effort of the lower part of
the arch, multiplied by 1 AB, will be 45-6x21 x 21,
which gives - 20109'6O
2me, which indicated twice the vertical effort of the upper
part, multiplied by tK, will be f*T-9 x 21 x 2 x 8 -4, which
gives - - 6667-92
a, which represents the height of the piers, being 1 95, and
64-5 x 21=1354-5,
a will become
6-94
And all these values being substituted in the formula, will give
5113-584+20109-6— 6667-92.
+ 48 -1 63 - 694 = 28 -62 lines,
x= A/1 121 -40 +
instead of 28}, before found.
Geometrical Application of the foregoing.
1398. Let the mean curve TKG of the arch (whatever its form) be traced as in
fiqs. 573, 574., the secant FO perpendicularly to the curve of the arch, and through the
ooint K, where the secant cuts the mean curve, having drawn the horizontal line IKL, and
raised from the point B a vertical line meeting the horizontal IKL "in the point i, make
Km equal to t'K, and set the part mL from B to h, and then the double thickness of the
arch from B to n. Let hn be divided into two equal parts at the point d, from which as a
centre with a radius equal to half hn, describe the semi-circumference of a circle which will
cut in E the horizontal line BA prolonged. The part BE will indicate the thickness to be
given to the piers of the arches to enable them to resist the thrust.
1399. The truth of the method above given depends upon the graphic solution of the
following problem : To find the side BE of a square which shall be equal to a given sur-
face mL x 2e ; an expression which is equivalent to 2p, and we have already seen that
a:= A/2p was a limit near enough ; hence we may conclude that the thickness BE obtained
by the geometrical method will be sufficiently near in all cases.
Experiments on surmounted Arches.
1400. The interior curve of fig. 574. is that of a semi-ellipsis 81 lines high ; it is divided
into four parts by an upright joint in the crown and two others towards the middle of the
haunches determined by the secant FO, perpendicular to the interior part of the curve.
Having traced the mean circumference GKT, the horizontal IKL, and the vertical Bz,
we shall find
KL
IK
»K
IT
The effect of the thrust indicated by KL-t'K=mL will be
1 9| x 9, which gives for the expression p of the formula -
2p therefore
d being 66 -5, 2pd will be 351 x 66 '5, which gives
m, which is KM x AB, will be 19 x 9, which gives
c, that is, iK, being 1 7} lines, w e have 2me = 171 x 1 7\ x 2, which
gives ....
The height of the piers a
6, which expresses the sum of the vertical efforts m + n, will be
equal to MK + IT x AB or 19 + 66£ x 9, which gives
Hence |=^, which gives
And !£ gives
2l\
17J
66\
19
175-5
351-0
23341 -5
171-0
5899-50
120-00
769-50
6-41
41-11
Substituting these values in the formula, x = v/ 2p 4- 2p (?m° + — - -,
We have the equation x = \/351
23341-5—5899-5
+ 41-11-6-41 = 16-77
CHAP. I.
ARCHES.
409
lines, or a little more than 1 6| lines, The model of this arch would not however stand
on piers less than 1 7 lines thick.
In taking the root of double the thrust the result is 18| lines, as it is also by the geo-
metrical method.
Application to the Pointed Arch.
1401. The model which fig. 575. represents was of the same height
and width as the last, and the voussoirs were all of equal thickness.
Having laid down all the lines on the figure as before, we shall find iK
of the formula to be
c
KL -
IT, represented by d,
MK
AB - - -
?»L x AB, represented by p in the formula, will
be 14x9
and 2/»
2pd will be 252 x 63, which gives
m, which is KM x AB or 23 x 9,
2m = 414, 2mc = 414 x 20
The height of the pier, represented by a, being 1 20, we have
6, or FT x AB, will be 86x9 = 774; whence H=§~0=6'45'and ^ = 41'60
these values in the formula
x= -v/252 +63-8 + 41 -6-6.45= 12-46 lines for the thickness of the pier.
In taking the square root of double the thrust the thickness comes out 15*88 lines, as it
does by the geometrical method. Experiments showed that the least thickness of piers
upon which the model would stand was 14 lines.
63 -8 ;
Substituting
Application to a surmounted Catenarean Arch.
1402. The lines are all as in the preceding examples (fig. 576.).
The whole arch acts on the pier in the direction FT, which is resolved
into the two forces T/and Tm, and the formula, as before, is
thus having found Bm= 22^, we have the value of /> = 22J x 9 = 201 ;
and 2p=402.
1 403. This model was of the same dimensions as the preceding :
6, which represents T/x AB, will be 769 '5; j£ will be 6 -41, and
| =^^ = 41-11. These values substituted in the formula give
#= -x/402 + 41 -11 -6-41 =14-64 lines.
1404. Experiment determined that the pier ought not to be less
than 16 lines, and the geometrical method made it 20*05.
The following table shows the experiments on six different models.
Fig. 576.
Form of Arch.
Thickness of the Piers.
By the formula.
By experiment.
Geometrically.
The pointed
The catenary
The cycloid
The parabolic
The elliptic
The cassinoid
Lines.
12-46
14*64
14-66
15-85
16-77
19'62
Lines.
14-00
15-00
15-00
16-50
17-00
21-00
Lines.
15-88
20-05
17 '24
21-50
18-75
20-79
410
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
This table shows that, in practice, for surmounted arches, the limit x— V2p, or the thick-
ness obtained for the construction by graphical means is more than sufficient, since it gives
results greater than those that the experiments require, excepting only in the cassinoid ; but
even in the case of that curve the graphical construction comes nearer to experiment than
the result of the first formula.
1 405. It is moreover to be observed, that the pointed is the most advantageous form for
surmounted arches composed of arcs of circles. We have had occasion to speak, in our First
Book, of the boldness and elegance exhibited in this species of arches by the architects of
the twelfth and thirteenth centuries ; we shall merely add in this place that where roofs are
required to be fire-proof, there is no form so advantageously capable of adoption as the
pointed arch, nor one in which solidity and economy are so much united.
1406. Next to the pointed arch for such purpose comes the catenary (the graphical
method of describing which will be found under its head, in the Glossary at the end of the
work), and this is more especially useful when we consider that the voussoirs may all be of
equal thickness.
Application of the Method to surbased Arches, or those whose Rise is less than the Half Span.
1407. For the purpose of arriving at just conclusions relative to surbased arches, three
models were made of the same thicknesses and diameters, with a rise of 35 lines, and in
form elliptical, cassinoidal, and cycloidal. We however do not think
it necessary, from the similarity of application of the rules, to give
more than one example, which is that of a semi-ellipse (fig. 577.),
in which, as before, the formula is
The lines described in the foregoing examples being drawn, we have
KL=45-5
zK= 8-5.
IT, represented by d in the formula, - - = 24-84
MK - - = 14-66
mL x AB representing the thrust (37 x 9) gives
the value of p - - — 333 -OO
2p therefore - = 666-00
TI, represented by d, being 24-84, we have 2pd -
m, which is KM x AB, will be 14-66 x 9, which gives
c, representing z'K, being 8-5, 2mc
b, which expresses the sum of the vertical efforts m + »(39'5 x 9) - =
a, being always 120, \ =3-jj£ is -
Lastly, ^- - - - =
Substituting these values in the formula, we have
16(543-44-2242-94
B B
Fig. 577.
16543-44
131-94
2242-94
355-50
2-96
8-76
V666
+ 8-76-2-96 = 25-22 lines, or a little less than 25\ lines.
1408. In the model it was found that a thickness of 26 lines was necessary for the pier,
and the lower voussoirs were connected with it by a cementing medium. Without which
precaution the thickness of a pier required was little more than one tenth of the opening.
Taking the square root of double the thrust, that is, of 666, we have 25-81, about the same
dimension that the graphical construction gives. The experiments, as well as the applica-
tion of the rules, require the following remarks for the use of the practical architect.
1409. I. The cassinoid, of the three curves just mentioned, is that which includes the
greatest area, but it causes the greatest thrust. When the distance between the intrados
and the extrados is equal in all parts, it will only stand, supposing the piers immoveable, as
long as its thickness is less than one ninth part of the opening.
1410. II. The cycloid, which includes the smallest area, exerts the least thrust, but it
can be usefully employed only when the proportion of the width to the height is as 22 to
7 in surbased arches, and in surmounted arches as 1 4 to 11. The smallest thickness with
which these arches can be executed, so as to be capable of standing of themselves, is a little
more than one eighteenth of the opening, as in the case of semicircular arches.
1411. III. The ellipsis, whose curvature is a mean between the first and second, serves
equally well for all conditions of height, though it exerts more thrust than the last-men-
tioned and less than the cassinoid.
1412. It is here necessary to remark, that too thin an arch, whose voussoirs are equal in
depth, may fall, even supposing the abutments immoveable, and especially when surbased ;
CHAP. I. ARCHES. 411
because, when once the parts are displaced, the force of the superior parts may lift up the
lower parts without disturbing the abutments.
Raking Arches.
1413. Let ACA' (fig. 578.) be the model of a raking arch of the same diameter and
thickness as the preceding example, the voussoirs of equal
thickness, and the piers of different heights, the lowest being
10 inches or 120 lines in height, and the other 14^ inches or
174 lines. The tangent at the summit is supposed parallel
to the raking lines that connect the springing.
1414. This arch being composed of two different ones,
the mean circumference on each must be traced, and each
has its separate set of lines, as in the preceding examples ;
the horizontal line KL of the smaller arch is produced to
meet the mean circumference of the other in S, and the in-
terior line of its pier in g.
1415. The part KLS represents the horizontal force of
the part of the arch KGS, common to the two semi-arches ;
so that if a joint be supposed at S, the part LK represents
the effort acting against the lower part of the smaller arch,
and LS that against the lower part of the larger arch.
These parts resist the respective efforts as follows : the
small arch with the force represented by t'K, and the
greater one with the force represented by gS. But as gS
is greater than LS, transfer LS from g to / to obtain the difference /S, which will show
how much LS must be increased to resist the effort of the larger half arch ; that is, the
effort of the smaller one should be equal to L/*; but as this last requires for sustaining
itself that the larger one should act against it with an effort equal to KL, this will be
the difference of the opposite effort, which causes the thrust against the lower part of
the smaller arch and the pier from whence it springs. Hence, transferring /L from L
to q, taking the half of iq and transferring it from L to h, the part AK multiplied by the
thickness AB will be the expression for the thrust represented by p in the formula
Having found AK=30| and AB = 9, we have for the value of p 30| x 9 = 274^, and for
that of 2p —549, d which represents IT, being 29^, 2pd=16l 95^. In 2mc ; m, which repre-
sents MK x AB, will be 12^ x 9 = 111, and 2m = 222.
c, which represents z'K, being 8, we have 2 we = 22 2 x 8 = 1776.
The height of the pier represented by a being 1 74, we have
Qpd—2mc 16195A— 1776
a— = — \ir~' ....... =82'81
The vertical effort represented by 6, or TF x AB, will be 4l£ x 9 = 375,
and - =%& becomes - _ - = 2-15
and £ - - - = 4-64
Substituting these values in the formula, we have
x= -V549 + 82-81 + 4'64— 2-16=23-08 for the thickness of the greater pier from
which the smaller semi-arch springs.
For the half of the greater arch, having produced the horizontal line IK'L', make
K'r equal to VL', and bisect rL' in t; the line K'f represents the effort of the
smaller against the greater arch, which resists it with a force shown by z'K' :
thus making K'g' equal to i'K, the effort of the thrust will be indicated by
q't x AB, whose value p in the formula will be
20 x 9 = 1 80, and 2p - - - - = 360
d, which is TI, being 69§, 2pd will - = 2508O
In 2mc, m being 26 x 9 = 234, and c being 2Sjl, 2mc =10842
a, the height of the smaller pier - - = 120
We have gegrg^£= 25080- 108^ which becomeg _ = ^^
b, which is TF x AB, will be 95§ x 9 - = 861
|=f6i=7-175, and || - -= 51-48
Substituting these values in the formula, we have
x = ^360+ 118-65 +51-48 - 7 -1 75 =» 1 5 -855 lines for the thickness of the smaller pier.
412
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
Taking the square root of double the thrust, we should ha\e for the larger pier 23-44 lines,
and for the smaller one 19 lines. In the geometrical operation, for the larger pier make
BM equal to AK and B» equal to 2AB ; then upon un as a diameter describe a semicircle
cutting the horizontal line BA produced in E. BE will be the thickness of the pier, and
will be found to be 23^ lines. For the smaller pier make B'u' equal to q't and B'w' equal
to 2A'B'. Then the semicircumference described upon un as a diameter will give 19 lines
for the thickness.
1416. By the experiments on the model 22 lines was found to be the thickness necessary
for the larger pier, and 18 lines for the smaller one.
P SR
Arch with a level Extrados.
1417. The model of arch fig. '5 7 9. is of the same opening as the last,
but with a level extrados, serving as the floor of an upper story. The
thickness of the keystone is 9 lines. To find the place of fracture or
of the greatest effort; having raised from the point B the vertical BF
till it meets the line of the extrados, draw the secant FO cutting
the interior circumference at the point K, and through this point
draw the horizontal IKL and the vertical HKM
The part CDKF will be that which causes the thrust, and its effort
is represented by
KL, which will be found - - - =35-14
FH = IK, which is c in the formula, will be - =18-86
The arch or circumference KD of 10° 36' - = 38-28
The arch KB - - - - = 46-57
The arch DKB - - = 84-85
KH, represented by d, - - - = 22
The vertical HKM - - - - = 63
The height of the pier, represented by a in the formula, = 183
The area of the upper voussoir FKCD = 667*44 ; but as the load of the haunches is borne
by the inferior voussoir, we must subtract the triangle FKH=-8-|^-2=207-46. The
remainder 45 9 -98 multiplied by KL and divided by the arc KD, that is,
422 -24, represents the effort of the upper part.
1418. That of the lower part, represented by FBK"BxIK, is 651'^8'-, which becomes
263-67. The difference of the two efforts=158-57 will express the thrust or p of the
formula, and we have 2p = 317'14.
141 9. The piers being supposed to be continued up to the line EC of the extrados will be
greater than the arm of the lever of the thrust which acts at the point K. Thus the ex-
pression of the arm of the lever, instead of being a + d, as in the preceding examples, will be
a — d, and the sign of ^~ must be changed. In numbers, — \^ 2^ = 38-12; therefore, in the
formula, + ^ becomes -38-12.
1420. In the preceding examples, 2mc, which represented double the vertical effort of the
superior voussoir multiplied by the arm of its lever, becomes nothing, because it is comprised
in the addition made to the lower voussoir ; so that the formula now is
Fig. 579.
b, then, which always expresses the vertical effort of the half arch, is therefore
"£22^ 824-94; and for- we have
183
= 4 -5, and ^=-20-25.
Substituting these values in the last formula, we shall have
x =V31 9'1 4 -38 -12 + 20 -25 -4 -5 = 12-88 lines.
Experiment gives 14 lines as the least thickness that can be relied on.
To find the thickness by the geometrical method, make Km equal to IK and BA equal to
7»L, B« to double CD, and upon nh as a diameter describe the semicircumference cutting
the horizontal line OB produced in A : then BA= 17^ lines is the thickness sought.
1421. Rondelet proves the preceding results by using the centres of gravity, and makes
the result of the operation 12-74 instead of 12-80, as first found. But the difficulty
of finding the centres of gravity of the different parts is troublesome ; and with such a
concurrence of results we do not think it necessary to enter into the detail of the opera-
tion.
CHAP. I.
ARCHES.
413
A different Application of the preceding Example.
1422. The model (fig. 580.) is an arch similar to that of the pre-
ceding example, having a story above it formed by two walls,
whose height is 100, and the whole covered by a timber roof.
The object of the investigation is to ascertain what change may
be made in the thickness of the piers which are strengthened in
their resistance by the additional weight upon them.
1 423. The simplest method of proceeding is to consider the upper
walls as prolongations of the piers.
1424. In the model the walls were made of plaster, and their
weight was thus reduced to | of what they would have been if of
the stone used for the models hitherto described. The roof weighed
1 2 ounces. We shall therefore have that 1 00, which in stone would
have represented the weight of the walls, from the difference in
weight of the plaster, reduced to 75. In respect of the roof, which
weighed 12 ounces, having found by experiment that it was equal
to an area of 576 lines of the stone, both being reduced to equal
thicknesses, we have 1 2 ounces, equal to an area of 1 3 -82 whose half
6 '91 must be added to that of the vertical efforts represented by b in
J and £|. Changing these terms into^ and ^, the formula becomes
The height of the piers or a in the formula = 183 +75 =258.
p does not change its value, therefore 2p (as in the preceding
example) = 265 -86.
d, the difference between the height of the pier and the arm of the lever, will =75.
Hence,^=5^gi^ = 77-28.
h, becomes 750-69 + 691 = 1441 -69.
And - = — f^s 5*58.
Again, £j = 31 -22.
Substituting these values in the formula, we shall have
x = A/265 -86 -77 -28 +31 -22 -5'58 = 9 "15.
In the model a thickness of 1 1 lines was found sufficient to resist the thrust, and
the root of double the thrust the result is 1 3 lines.
1425. By the geometrical method, given in the last, taking from the result
there found, the value of ^, that is, 5 -58, the remainder 1 1§
lines is the thickness sought.
1426. It may be here observed, that in carry ing up the
walls above, if they are set back from the vertical BF
in hf, the model required their thickness to be only 6
lines, because this species of false bearing, if indeed it
can be so called, increases the resistance of the piers.
This was a practice constantly resorted to in Gothic
architecture, as well as that of springing pointed arches
from corbels, for the purpose of avoiding extra thickness
in the walls or piers.
Another Application of the Principles to a differently
constructed Arch.
1427. The model (fig. 581.) represents an arch of 11
voussoirs whereof 10 are with crossettes or elbows, which
give them a bearing on the adjoining horizontal courses ;
the eleventh being the keystone. The opening is 9 inches
or 108 lines, as in the preceding examples.
1428. Having drawn the lines BF, FC,the secant FO,
and the horizontal line IKL, independent of the five
courses above the line FC of the extrados, we have
T> R
Fig. 581
takin"
lines,
414
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
KL = 30-73
IK = 23-27
OC = BF — 78-00
The arc KD = 32-70
The arc KB = 52-15
KG = 33-59
a, the height of the pier, = 1 98 -00.
The area KFCL of the upper part of the arch will be 1223-10, from which subtracting
that of the triangle FKG, which is 590-82, the remainder 832-28 being multiplied by
30-73 and divided by 32-7 makes the effort of this part 782-44.
1429. The area of the lower part is 697 -95, to which adding the triangle FKG = 390-82,
we have 1088-77, which multiplied by 23-27 and divided by 52-15, gives 485-82 for its
effort. The expression of the thrust, represented by p in the formula,
x=</ 2p— ^r + 2^ — |, being equal to the difference of these two efforts,
will be 296-62, and twice p
d, representing KG, being
we have 2pd= 19926-93, and
593-24
= 33-59
= 100-64
1762-03
: 79-21
b, representing the sum of the efforts of the semi-arch, will be 2g* =
Substituting these values in the formula, we have the equation
x= A/593 -24 - 100-64 + 79'21 -8'9 = 15'01.
By taking double the square root of the thrust the result is 23-91, a thickness evidently
too great, because the sum of the vertical efforts, which are therein neglected, is con-
siderable.
1430. The geometrical method gives 19 lines. The least thickness of the piers from
actual experiment was 16 lines.
1431. Rondelet gives a proof of the method by means of the centres of gravity, as in
some of the preceding examples, from which he obtains a result of only 13-26 for the thick-
ness of the piers.
Consideration of an Arch whose Voussoirs increase towards the Springing.
1432. The model (fig. 582.) has an extrados of segmental form not
concentric with its intrados, so that its thickness increases from the
crown to the springing. The opening is the same as before, namely,
9 inches, or 108 lines. The thickness at the vertex is 4 lines, towards
the middle of the haunches 7£ lines, and at the springing 14± lines.
The centre of the line of the extrados is one sixth part of the chord
AO below the centre of the intrados ; so that
The radius DN=68-05
KL = 38-18
IK=15-82
The arc BK = KC = 42-43
1433. The area KHDC of the upper part of the arch is 258 -75>
that of the lower part BAHK 486-5 ; hence the effort of the upper
part is represented by the expression 258^x4f 18 = 232-47.
1434. The half segment ABe being supposed to be united to the
pier; BeHK, whose area is 178, is the only part that can balance the
upper effort; its expression will be 178*4|'82 = 66-24. The difference
of the two efforts 166-23 will be the expression of the thrust represented by p in the
formula
= 332-46
= 38-18
=12693-92
= 96 -30
= 192-60
= 3046-5O
Thus 2p - -
IB = KL, indicated by d,
Which makes the value of 2pd - -
The vertical effort of the upper part indicated by m
and for 2pm
The value of c being 15-82, we have 2mc
CHAP. I.
ARCHES.
*4I5
The height of the piers being still 120, we have
2pd-2mc 12693-92— 3046-5
a - = -- 120
b, which indicates the vertical effort of the half arch repre-
sented by FB, will be 7~
These values being substituted in the formula, will give
473-48
-
15-56
1435. The smallest thickness of pier that would support the arch in the model was
171 lines.
1436. With the geometrical method, instead of the double of CD, make BA double the
mean thickness HK, and B« equal to mL, and on nh as a diameter describe the semicir-
cumference cutting OB produced in E ; then EB = 18^ lines will be the thickness sought.
1 437. If the pier is continued up to the point e where the thickness of the arch is dis-
engaged from the pier, the height of the pier represented in the formula by a will be 1 51 -5
instead of 120, and the difference b, instead of being ^— ~-4, will be only ^g? ^
= 277-46.
1438. d, expressed by le, will be 6-5, all the other values remaining the same as in the
preceding article, the equation is
x= A/332-46 -5-71 +4- 2 = 16-21.
1439. Using the method by means of the centres of gravity, Rondelet found the result
for the thickness of the piers to be 15-84. So that there is no great variation in the dif-
ferent results.
1 440. In the preceding examples arches have been considered rather as arcades standing
on piers than as vaults supported by walls of a certain length. We are now about to con-
sider them in this last respect, and as serving to cover the space enclosed by the walls.
In respect of cylindrical arches supported by parallel walls, it is manifest that the re-
sistance they present has no relation to their length ; for if we suppose the length of the
vault divided into an infinite number of pieces, as C, D, E, &c. {fig. 584. No. 2.), we shall
find for each of these pieces the same thickness of pier, so that all the piers together would
form a wall of the same thickness. For this reason the surfaces only of the arches and
piers have been hitherto considered, that is, as profiles or sections of an arch of any given
length. Consequently it may be said that the thickness of wall found for the profile in
the section of an arch would serve for the arch continued in length infinitely, supposing
such walls isolated and not terminated or rather filled by other walls at their ends. When
cylindrical walls are terminated by walls at their extremities, after the manner of gable
ends, it is not difficult to imagine that the less distant these walls are the more they add
stability to those of the arch. In this case may be applied a rule which we shall hereafter
mention more at length under the following section on Walls.
1441. If in any of the examples {fig. 582. for instance) PR be produced indefinitely to
the right, and from R on the line so produced the length of the wall supporting the arch
be set out, and if from the extremity of such line another be drawn, as TB produced
through B, indefinitely towards a, and Ba be made equal to the thickness of the pier first
found, a vertical line let fall from a will determine the thickness sought. When arches
are connected with these cross walls, the effect of the thrust may be much diminished if
they are not very distant. If there be any openings in the walls, double the length of
them must be added to that of the wall as well as of
any that may be introduced in the gable wall.
1442. Fig. 583. represents the mode in which an arch
fails when the piers are not of sufficient strength to resist
the thrust : they open on the lower part of the summit at DM
and on the upper part of the haunches at HN ; from which
we may infer that the thrust of an arch may be destroyed
by cramping the under side of the voussoirs near the
summit and the upper side of those towards the middle of
the haunches ; and this method is greatly preferable to
chains or iron bars on the extrados, because these have
no effect in preventing a failure on the underside. Chains
at the springing will not prevent failure in arches whose
voussoirs are of equal depth but that too small, inasmuch
as there is no counteraction from them against the bulging Fig. 583
-----
416
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
that takes place at the haunches, like a hoop loaded when its ends are fixed. The most
advantageous position for a chain to oppose the effort of an arch is to let it pass through the
point K where the efforts meet. PC is the tangent before failure, and O the centre ; R
being the inner point of the pier.
Fig. 584.
OP COMPOUND VAULTING.
1 443. M. Frezier, in speaking of the thrust of this sort of arches, proposes, in order to find
the thickness of the piers which will support them, to find by the ordinary manner the
thickness suitable to each part of the cylin-
drical arch BN, BK (No. 3. ^.'584.) by
which the groin is formed, making BE the
thickness suitable to the arch BN, and BF
that which the arch BK requires ; the pier
BEHF would thus be able to resist the
thrust of the quarter arch OKBN. Ac-
cording to this method we should find the
bay of a groined arch 9 inches opening would
not require piers more than 21 lines square
and 1 20 lines high ; but experience proves
that a similar arch will scarcely stand with
piers 44 lines square, the area of whose bases
are four times greater than that proposed by
M. Frezier.
Method for groined Vaulting.
1444. The model in this case (see the
last figure) is 9 inches in the opening, vous-
soirs equally thick, being 9 lines, standing
upon four piers 10 inches or 120 lines
high.
1445. The groin is formed by two cy-
lindrical arches of the same diameter crossing at right angles, as represented in No. 3. of the
figure. The four portions of the vault being similar, the calculation for one pier will
be sufficient.
1446. On the profile No. 1. of the figure describe the mean circumference TKG, draw the
tangents FT and FG, and the secant FO and the horizontal line IKL. Draw the vertical
Bz, and NG and KI on the plan (No. '3.) equal to KL.
1447. In the foregoing examples for arches and cylindrical vaulting there has been no
necessity to consider more than the surface of the profiles, which are constantly the same
throughout their length ; but the species of vault of which we are now treating being
composed of triangular gores whose profile changes at every point, we shall be obliged to
use the cubes instead of the areas of squares, and to substitute surfaces for lines. Thus in
viewing the triangular part KBO, the sum of the horizontal efforts of the upper part of
this portion of the vault, represented in the profile by KL, will be represented in plan by
the trapezium KILO.
1448. The sum of those of the lower part z'K in the profile is represented in plan by
BIL. The thrust is expressed by the difference of the area of the trapezium and of the
triangle multiplied by the thickness of the vault ; thus, KB and KO of the plan being 54,
the superficies of the triangle BK.O will be 54 x 27 = 1458 ; the part BK of the plan being
equal to IL, and Bt to iK of the profile =12^, the area of the triangle BIL, indicating the
sum of the horizontal efforts of the upper part, will be 12^ x 6^5 = 1 9$.
1449. We obtain the area of the trapezium KILO by subtracting that of the small
triangle BIL from the greater triangle BKO, that is, 79{f from 1458 ; the remainder
1378-/J gives the horizontal effort of the upper part ; lastly, subtracting 79 J3 from 1378^,
the remainder 1298^ will be the expression of the thrust whose value is found by multi-
plying 1298^ by 9 = 11683f, which is the p of the formula.
-2wc bb b
Letting a always stand for the height, and d for TI of the profile, the arm of the lever of
the thrust will, as before, be a + d, and its algebraic expression be pa+pd.
1 450. The pier resists this effort by its cube multiplied by the arm of its lever. If the lines
KB and OB of the triangle BKO,(which represents the projection of that part of the vault for
which we are calculating) be produced, it will be seen that the base of the pier to resist the
thrust will be represented by the opposite triangle BHF, which is rectangular and isosceles ;
therefore, letting x represent its side BF, the area of the triangle will be expressed by ~, the
CHAP. I. ARCHES. 417
height of the pier being a, its cube will be ^. The arm of the lever of this pier will be
determined by the distance of the vertical let fall from its centre of gravity on the line
HF_* which gives for the pier's resistance a^~,
1451. This resistance will be increased by the vertical effort of each part of the vault
multiplied by the arm of its lever.
That of the upper part will be expressed by its cube multiplied by the vertical KM,
and the product divided by the mean arc KG.
The cube of this part will be equal to the mean area; that is, the arc KG multiplied
by the thickness of the vault.
1452. To obtain the mean area, multiply KG less KM by the length GO taken on the
plan. The length of the arc KG being 46 and KM 17}, we shall have KG-KM=28f ;
GO being 54, the mean area will be 28f x 54 = 1558. This area multiplied by 9, the
thickness of the vault, makes the cube of the upper part 14024$, which multiplied by
KM = 17| and divided by the arc KG=46, makes 5226^ the value of the vertical effort
of the part of the arch m in the formula ; and the arm of its lever is IK + iH.
1453. IK being =c and iH = x, its expression will be mx + mc.
The vertical effort of the lower part will be represented by its cube multiplied by TI,
and the product divided by the length of the arc TK.
This cube will be found by multiplying the mean area by the thickness of the vault.
The area being equal to the arc TK — TI x GO, that is, 46 — 41^, x 54 = 250f for the
mean area and 250f x 9 = 2256f for the cube of the lower part of the vault. This cube
multiplied by TI and divided by the arc TK gives 2256f x 41A = 2Q28§ for the value of
the vertical effort of the part n of the formula. And it is to be observed, that this effort
acting against the point B, the arm BF of the lever will be x and its expression nx.
1454. Bringing together all these algebraic values we obtain the equation pa+pd=^
', and making m + n, which multiplies x = b, we have pa+pd=-~- + bx +
me. Transferring me to the other side of the equation, we have pa+pd— mc=~jr + bx.
Lastly, multiplying all the terms of the equation by - for the purpose of eliminating x3,
we shall have instead of the preceding formula 6p + Pd~ mc=x3 + _ ?, which is an equation
of the third degree, whose second term is wanting. For more easily resolving this equa-
tion, let us find the value of 6p + 6p~^— and that of ^, by which x is multiplied in the
second part of the equation.
^ being 11683f, 6p will be - - - - = 70069f
d being 41 £, 6pd will be - = 28991 24^
m being 5226f, 6mc - - = 537593^
Thus
for the purpose of simplifying the remainder of the calculation.
b, which represents ro + n, will be 5226f+2038§ = 7 255§, and ^ = ~*^ = 362j{ ; this we will
call /; so that instead of the equation 6p + (>Pd—6mc= #3 + ^ we have g =X3 +fx, which is
thus to be resolved (Bossut, Elemens d1 Algebra) : — ,
Substituting in this formula the values of g and/, we have
x= ^44889}+ 1/2015073623 + 1767902 + ^44889$ - 3/2015073623+1767902
= #44889$+44909f+ 3/448 89|- 44 909f, from which extracting the cube roots, we have
<r = 443-2f = 42 for the length BF of one of the sides of the triangular pier BAF ; the
other FA may be determined by the production of the diagonal or line of groin OB.
The part of the pier answering to the part of the vault BNO is determined by draw-
ing from the points B and A the parallels BM and MA to FA and FB. These two
triangles will form a square base, each of whose sides will be 42 lines, answering to one
quarter of the vault KBNO ; thus, to resist the thrust of the vault, four piers, each 42 lines
thick, are necessary.
1455. The above result corresponds in a singular manner with the experiments which
were made by Rondelet, from which he deduced a thickness of 43| lines. In his investi-
gation of the example by means of the centres of gravity 40*53 lines was the result. Our
limits prevent further consideration by other examples : we will merely therefore observe, that
E e
418
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
the method above given seems to be a safe guide to the architect. In the case of oblong
arches, the results must be obtained for each side.
1456. In the case of groinings composed of many bays, the chief care necessary is in the
external piers, which will require especially to be of sufficient thickness. Those in the
middle, being counterbalanced all round, have only to bear the weights of their respective
arches, for which purpose they must have a proportional area and be of such stone as the
weight will not crush. But it ought to be recollected that in good construction the area
of the points of support should be so distributed as to establish for each a sufficient strength,
because a single weak point will often endanger the whole fabric.
1457. In practice, a readier method will be wanting than that which has been just dis-
cussed ; we therefore subjoin one which agrees well enough with theory and experiment,
and it is as follows. Let ABCD (fig. 58^ No. 1.) be the space to be covered by a
Fig. 585.
groined vault supported in the centre by the pier E. Dividing each side into two equal
parts, draw the lines HI, FG crossing each other in the centre E", and the diagonals AE,
EB, EC, ED and HF, HG, IF, IG crossing each other in the points K, K', K", K'".
In No. 2. draw the pier its half height to the level of the springing, which half height
transfer from E to L, and divide EL into twelve parts. One of these parts will be a half
diagonal of the pier. For the intermediate piers H, F, I, G, after finding the diagonals of
the half piers, produce them outwards to double their projection within, so that altogether
their thickness may be once and a half their width. For the angular piers this method
will give an area of base l\ times greater, which will enable them to resist the thrust they
have to sustain.
1458. When the width of the space to be vaulted is to be divided into three bays, and
that of the middle is required to be raised above those of the other two, as in the case of
churches with side aisles, the bases of the points of support may be determined in two
ways. That most used, which is borrowed from the Gothic examples, is to give to the
areas of the bases of the points of support merely the extent necessary to bear the load they
CHAP. I.
ARCHES.
419
are to receive, by throwing the strain of the thrust upon the external piers by means of
flying buttresses, and giving to their points of support a position and surface of base capable
of effectual resistance.
1459. The most simple method derived from the principles of the theory for the first
case is as follows : —
Having laid down the plan of the two bays which fall upon the same pier (Jig. 586.
No. 1.), take one half of the sum of the two semi-diagonals AD, AE, to which add one
FiB. 586.
half of the height of the point of support, and taking a twelfth part of the whole as a
radius, describe a circle, and it will indicate the surface sought of the base of the point of
support. If it be not circular it must be circumscribed with the form that may be required,
so as rather to increase than diminish its solidity. For the exterior point of support B let
a rectangle be formed, having for its width the side of a square inscribed in the preceding
circle, and in length double.
1460. Above the roofs of the sides a flying buttress may be carried up, whose pier may
be raised on that below, set back one sixth from the exterior face and sloped as much on
the interior. The line of summit or tangent of this flying buttress, which should be of the
single arc of a circle, will be determined by the chord of the arc of the upper part of the
vault produced indefinitely. To find the centre, draw the chord GH (No. 2.), on the
middle of which raise a perpendicular, which will cut the horizontal line GF in the
point I, which will be the centre of the arc. These raking arches may be connected by
Ee 2
420
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
other return arches, which may bear a floor above with a support, upon which a passage
round the building may be made, and this may be concealed by an attic order outside.
1461. In the second case, the base of a pier must be found capable of resisting the effort
of the great middle vault of the nave, by taking as the height of its pier the distance from
its springing from the upper side of the side vaults No. 3., and laying the half of this height
from B to H on the plan No. 2. Then having divided IH into twelve equal parts, make
I A equal to one of them and AF equal to two. The rectangle made upon the diagonal
FI shows the area of the interior pier, to which are to be added, to the right and left, pro-
jections to receive the arches of the sides. The length FD is to be divided into six equal
parts, whereof two are for the projection of the pilaster or interior half column, upon which
the entablature is profiled, three for the thickness of the wall, and one for the pilaster on
the side aisles, whose prolongation will form a counterfort above the lower sides.
1462. For the external pier B, as before, one half the height to the springing must be
transferred from EG, and ^ of BG from B to L; lastly, ^ from B to K : the rectangle
formed upon the diagonal KL is equal to the area of the pier. We must add, as for that
in front, the projections to receive the arches or windows, as shown in No. 2.
1463. As long as the intervals between the piers are filled in with a wall, if that be
placed flush with the outside, the piers will form pilasters inwards (seey?^. 585.), as ihef,
whose projection ef is equal to one half of the face he ; this wall ought to have a thickness
equal to he ; but if it is brought to the inner line of the face of the piers they need be
only two thirds of the thickness ; so that the piers will form counterforts on the exterior.
In conclusion, knowing the effort of the thrust, the calculations will not be attended with
difficulty in providing against it by adequate means of resistance.
ON THE MODEL OF A COVED VAULT.
1464. The model (jfy. 587. Nos. 1. and 2.) is
square on the plan, each of its sides is 9 inches in-
ternal measure, enclosed by a wall 10 inches high to
the springing of the vault. The vault is semicircular
in form, the voussoirs throughout 9 lines thick, and
it is composed of seventeen parts above the line of
greatest effort (see 1391.), as shown in Nos. 1. and
2. in the plan and section. On one of the sides of the
first is supposed to be traced the mean circumference
TKG, the tangents FT, FG, the secant FO, the
horizontal line IKL, and the verticals Bi and MK.
We may now therefore consider this vault as four
triangular pieces of cylindrical arches, each resting
throughout the length of their base on one of the
walls which forms the sides of the square. As the
portions of arches or vaults are equal, it is only
necessary to take one of them for an example.
1465. In the last example, cubes are taken in-
stead of the surfaces, and surfaces instead of lines.
Thus expressing the length of the wall by/, its height
by a, and its thickness by x ; the arm of the lever
being always |, its resistance is expressed by afx^.
iff
Fig. 587.
Making the thrust
EH = TI = KL = KV
PH
The sum of the vertical efforts of the upper part
That of the lower parts
The part IK of the horizontal line -
TB = half the thickness of the arch -
The arm of the lever will be
TE - - - ^ -
The equation is pa + pd= ~~ + (m + ») x — ne + me ;
and making m + n=6,
•—- + bx—pa -\-pa + ne — mc;
P
d
a + d
CHAP. L ARCHES. 421
Whence x
1466. If, however, we suppose the effort to take place at the point B, a supposition
hitherto made in the formula?, we have e = o, and the value of x becomes
. -
1 467. The horizontal effort of the upper part, represented by the line KL, will be expressed
by the triangle eEd of the plan ; that of the lower part z'K in the section will be expressed
by the trapezium eBCe? on the plan.
1468. The plan of the vault being square, the base ed will be double E^ = KL of the
section ; and the area of the triangle e~Ed equal to the square of KL = 41-^ x 41^= 1710|.
1469. Ea of the plan being equal to the square of 54 less the square of 41 ^, that
is, 1206f, the superior effort being 1710f, their difference is 504, which being multiplied by
the thickness of the vault, or 9, is 4536 for the expression of the thrust represented by p in
the formula, and for that of
d, which represents TI, being 41^, 2prf=375192.
1470. To obtain the vertical effort of the upper part of the arch represented by m, its
cube must be multiplied by KM, and the product divided by the arc KG.
1 47 1 . The cube of this part is equal to the curved surface passing through the middle of
its thickness multiplied by the thickness. The mean area is equal to the product of the
length nq taken on the plan multiplied by KM.
nq being 117, and KM 17}, the product expressing such mean area is 2005f, which
multiplied by 9 makes the cube 18051}. This cube again multiplied by KM = 17}, and
divided by the length of arc KG = 46, gives 6727 for the value of m, and for 2m 13454;
c being 12£, 2roc = 170100$.
2pd- 2mc = 3751 92 -1 70100J = . -
of 120x108
b, representing the vertical effort of the half vault, will be expressed by the cube multiplied
by B/=58l, and divided by the mean circumference TKG = 92.
1472. To obtain the cube, the mean superficies, that is, nq x B/ or 117 x 581, is to be
multiplied by the thickness AB = 9, which gives 68441 x 9 = 616001.
This cube multiplied by B/=58i and divided by the mean circumference TKG
= 92, that is, 616001 x = 391 69'88, for the value of b, and for that of ' |yio8 =
and *6 = 9'12. Substituting these values in the formula,
Hence x= */84 + 15-82 + 9'12 — 3'02 = 7'41 ;
that is, a little less than 7| lines for the thickness of the walls, which is less than that of the
vault ; and shows that by giving the walls the same thickness as the vault, all the requisite
solidity will be obtained. This is proved by experiments, for in the model the vault was
borne equally well on walls of 9 lines in thickness divided into 8 parts, as upon 1 2 Doric
columns whose diameter was 9 lines, four being placed at the angles and eight others under
the lower part of the vault.
1473. To find the thickness of these walls by the geometrical method: Take the
difference between the area of the triangle BEC and that of the triangle ~Eed, which
divide by the length BC.
Thus, the area of the greater triangle being 108*54 = 2916; that of the smaller one,
QO5 v 41 5
7 g ^=1710-4; their difference, 1205'6 divided by 108 = 11-16, which transfer to the
profile from B to h, and make B» equal to the thickness of the vault. Upon nh, as a
diameter, describe a semicircle, which at its intersection with the horizontal line BE will
determine the thickness of the vault, a^nd be found to be 10 lines.
1474. The small thrust of this species of vaulting occurs on account of the upper part,
which causes it, diminishing in volume in proportion as the horizontal effort becomes more
considerable, and because the triangular form of its parts and their position give it the
advantage of having the larger sides for bases ; whilst, in groined vaulting, the triangular
parts resting only on an angle, the weight increases as the horizontal efforts.
1475. Moreover, as the return sides mutually sustain each other, a half vault, or even a
quarter vault, on a square base, would stand if the walls were 10 lines thick, proving that
E e 3
422
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
the opposite parts, acting little more than against each other, the thrust becomes almost
nothing.
1476. By the method of the centres of gravity, Rondelet found a result less than that
above given ; but that arose from neglecting some points in the calculation which it was
difficult to introduce for general practice.
1477. It is obvious that in the above application great allowance must be made when
the apartment to be vaulted is not square ; that is, its advantages diminish as the two
opposite sides become longer than the width, and when the length is twice the width, or
even much less, the thrusts must be calculated on the principle of cylindrical vaulting ;
and as in this species of vaulting the greatest effort occurs in or towards the middle of
the sides, opening for doors and windows should there be avoided.
Application of the Method to Spherical Vaulting.
1478. The models (fig. 588. Nos. 1. and 2. and fig. 589. Nos. 1. and 2.) were of the
c
... „
»«fa
same opening as the last mentioned. They are cut into eight equal parts by vertical
planes crossing each other in the axis ; each of these parts is subdivided by a joint at
45 degrees, altogether forming sixteen pieces. The vault stands on a circular wall of the
same thickness divided into eight parts corresponding to those of the vault. All the parts
are so arranged as to form continued joints without any bond, in order to give the
experiment the most disadvantageous result. Yet it stood firmly, and was even capable of
bearing a weight on the top.
1479. If for these eight pieces of circular wall we substitute eight columns of equal
height, as in No. 1. fig. 589., so that the vertical joints fall over the middle of each column ;
the vault will still stand, although the cube of these columns, as well as their weight,
occupies only one ninth part of the circular wall for which they are substituted.
From this it is evident that spherical vaults have less thrusts than coved vaults.
1480. Applying the method of the preceding examples, describe the mean circumference
(fig. 588. Nos. 1. and 2.), draw the tangents TF, GF, the secant FO, the horizontal line
IKL, and the verticals KM and Bi; lastly, calculating for one eighth of the vault, take the
sector Ohm to express the horizontal effort indicated by KL, and the part HAMm to express
the horizontal effort of the lower part.
1481. The difference of these areas multiplied by the thickness of the vault will be the
expression of the thrust p of the formula.
1482. The radius Om of the sector being 41-^ and its length 32^, its area will be 672^.
1483. The area of hHMm will be equal to the difference of the two sectors OHM
and Ohm, whereof the first is equal to the product of half OM = 27 by the arc HM = 42^,
or 1145|, the second =672|g; whence the difference =473|§.
1484. The thrust, being equal to the difference between 672^ and 473||, will be 198|f x 9 ;
therefore /> = 786|g.
CHAP. I. ARCHES. 423
1485. /, representing the develop ement of one eighth part of the circular wall, will be
421, whence j? = 42. d, the difference between the arm of the lever and the height of
the pier, being 41-£j, we shall have ]9a' = 73897|.
1 486. To obtain the value of me we must first find that of m, which represents the vertical
effort of the upper part of the vault, and is equal to the cube of this part multiplied by
KM and divided by the arc KG. This cube is equal to the difference of the cube of the
sector of a sphere in which it is comprised with that which forms its interior capacity. We
will merely recall here to the reader's recollection from a previous page, that the cube of
the sector of a sphere is equal to the product of the superficies of the sphere whereof it
forms a part by one third of the radius, and that this superficies is equal to the product
of the circumference of a great circle by the line which measures its depth. Thus the
area of the great sector ORCr(Jig. 588. No. 1.) is equal to the product of the great circle,
whereof Aa is the diameter =126, by CS = 18^, which is 7308, and its cube 7308
x 21 = 153468.
1487. The area of the small sector ONDra will be equal to the product of the great
circle, whereof Bb is the diameter =108 by VD = 15-$, which gives 5369^, and its cube
by 5369|^ x 18 = 96648||. Deducting this last cube from that of the great sector already
found =153468, the remainder 56819 will be the cube of the upper part of the vault
forming the cap, whose eighth part 7102| will be the cube sought, which multiplied by
KM = 17| and divided by the arc KG = 46, gives 2646§ for the value of m in the formula;
c, which represents z'K, being 12-^, we have
mc = 3346!2; pd-mc will be 738 97|- 33461 1 = 40436};
=7'92.
af ' 120x42^
1488. In the preceding application to the model of the coved vault, the walls being
straight, the distance of their centre of gravity from the point of support was equal to half
their thickness ; in this, the wall being circular, its centre of gravity is so much more distant
from the point of support as it takes in more or less a greater part of the circumference of
the circle. By taking it only the eighth part, the centre of gravity falls without the thickness
of the walls, by a quantity which we shall call e, so that the arm of the lever, instead of
being ^, will be e + x, which changes the preceding formula to
afx (e + x) + bx =pa + pd—mc;
arranging with reference to x, this becomes
(eaf+ b)x=pa +pd—mc ;
whence we obtain x^ + (e + fyx = pa+p%~mc , and making e + f = 2h, we shall have
b expresses the vertical effort of an eighth part of the vault equal to its cube, multiplied by
the vertical B/, and divided by the mean circumference TKG. This cube is equal to an
eighth of the sphere, whereof Aa is the diameter, less that of the eighth part of a sphere
whose diameter is B6.
1489. The diameter Aa being 126, the eighth of the circumference of a great circle will
be 49|, which, multiplied by the vertical axis, which in this case is equal to the radius or
63, gives for the area of one eighth part of the sphere 31181, and for its cube 31181 x 21
= 656881.
1490. The diameter B6 being 108, an eighth part of the circumference of the great circle
will be 42|, which, multiplied by the radius 54, gives for the area 2291 }, and for its cube
2291 j x 18=41 240|; taking the smaller of these cubes from the greater, the difference
24447^ will be that of this eighth part of the vault, which must be multiplied by B/=
581, and the product 143020323, divided by the mean arc TKG = 91|; the quotient 15558
expresses the vertical effort of the eighth part of the vault, represented by b in the formula,
e being 2-51, we shall have for the value of h 2-78 and ^ = 7*72.
Substituting the values thus found in the formula
we have #= -v/42 + 7'92 + 7'72- 2-78 = A/57 -64 — 2-78 = 4-72.
By using the method of the centres of gravity, Rondelet found the result rather less than
that just found.
1491. The result of all these calculations induces the following facts: — I. That for a
E e 4
424 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
semicircular cylindrical vault, whose length is equal to its diameter, the area of the two
parallel waDs is 4698. II. That that of the four square piers supporting a groined arch is
7056. III. That of the four walls of the coved vault, the area should be 3425§. IV. That
that of the spherical vault is 1238£.
1492. In respect of the opening of these vaults, which is the same for all the examples,
taking the area of the circular wall for the spherical vault at 1,
That of the walls of the coved vault will be a little less than 3.
That of the cylindrical vault - less than 4.
That of the groined arch - - less than 6.
But if we look to the space that each of these vaults occupies in respect of walls and
points of support, we shall find that in equal areas the walls of the cylindrical vault will
be | of such space.
Those of the coved vaulting less than - - \ of such space.
The piers of the groined arch a little more than - j
The circular wall for spherical vault a little more than ^
So that, if we suppose the space occupied by each of these vaults to be 400,
The walls of the cylindrical vaulting will be 1 1 5
Those for the coved vault - 91
The piers for the groined arch - 60
The circular wall for the spherical vault - 48
Which figures therefore show the relative proportions of the points of support necessary in
each case.
1493. It is a remarkable circumstance that by the formula the coved and spherical
vaults give to the walls a less thickness than that of the arch. But although experiment
has verified the formula, we cannot be supposed to recommend that they should be made
of less thickness in practice ; but we see that, if of the same thickness, considerable open-
ings may be used in them. Irregular as well as regular compound vaults being only an
assemblage of the parts of more simple ones, if what has already been said be well under-
stood, and the examples given have been worked out by the student, he will not be much
at a loss in determining the efforts of all sorts of vaults.
On the adhesive Power of Mortar and Plaster upon Stones and Bricks.
1 494. The power of mortar and plaster will of course be in proportion to the surface
of the joints, compared with the masses of stone, brick, or rubble. Thus a voussoir of
wrought stone, one foot cube, may be connected with the adjoining voussoirs by four
joints, each of 1 foot area, in all 4 feet. But if instead of this voussoir three pieces of
rough stone or rubble be substituted instead of 4 feet area of joints, we shall have 8.
Lastly, if bricks be employed instead of rubble, we shall want 27 to form the same mass,
which gives for the developement of the joints 1 3 feet. Thus, representing the force which
connects the voussoirs in wrought stone by 4, that representing the joints of the rough
stones will be 8, and that for bricks 1 3 : whence we may infer that arches built with
rough stones will have less thrust than those in wrought stone, and those in bricks more
than three times less. From experiments made by Rondelet, he found that at the end
of six months some species of mortar showed a capability of uniting bricks with sufficient
force to overcome the efforts of thrust in a vault segmental to § of a semicircle, 15 feet
diameter and 4 inches thick, the extrados being 4 inches concentrically above the intrados.
Plaster united a vaulted arch of 18 feet opening, of the same form and thickness. This force
is, moreover, greater in arches whose voussoirs increase from the keystone to the springing,
and that in proportion to the thickness at the haunches, where fracture takes place ; so that
whatever the diameter and form of the arch, the strength of good mortar at the end of six
months, if the arches are well constructed, is capable of suppressing the thrust as long as
the thickness, taken at the middle of the haunches, is stronger than the tenth part of those
laid in mortar, and one twelfth of those laid in plaster. Here we have to observe, that
arches laid in plaster, as long as they are kept dry and sheltered from the changes of the
season, preserve their strength, but, on the contrary, they lose all their stability in seven
or eight years, whilst those cemented in mortar endure for ages.
1 495. The small quantity of mortar or of plaster used in vaults constructed of wrought
stone, in which the joints are often little more than run, ought to make an architect cautious
of depending merely on the cementing medium for uniting the voussoirs. There are other
means which he may employ in cases of doubt, such as dowels and cramps, means which
were much employed by the Romans in their construction ; and these are far better than the
chains and ties of iron introduced by the moderns.
1 496. The thrust of an arch is, in practice, the constant dread of an architect ; but it
depends entirely on the method employed in the construction. It is only dangerous where
the precautions indicated in the foregoing examples are altogether lost sight of. It has
CHAP. I.
WALLS.
425
been seen that the least fracture in too thin an arch of equally deep voussoirs may cause its
ruin ; and we shall here add, that this defect is more dangerous in arches wherein the number
of joints is many, such as those constructed in brick ; for when they are laid in mortar they
are rather heaped together than well fitted to each other.
1497. Whatever materials are used in the construction of vaults, the great object is
to prevent separation, which, if it occur, must be immediately met by measures for
making the resistance of the lower parts capable
of counterbalancing the effort of the upper parts.
Those fractures which occur in cylindrical arches are
the most dangerous, because they take place in straight
lines which run along parallel to the walls bearing
them. To avoid the consequences of such failures, it
is well to fill up the haunches to the height where the
fracture is usually to be found, as in K, K', K", K'"
(Jig. 590. ) and diminish the thickness towards the key.
1 498. Rondelet found, and so indeed did Couplet
before him, that the least thickness which an arch of
equal voussoirs ought to have, to be capable of stand-
ing, was one fiftieth part of the radius. But as the
bricks and stone employed in the construction of
arches are never so perfectly formed as the theory sup-
poses, the least thickness which can be used for cy-
lindrical arches from 9 to 15 feet radius is 4^- inches
at the vertex if the lower course be laid with a course
of brick on edge or two courses flatwise, and 5 inches
when the material used is not a very hard stone, in-
creasing the thickness from the keystone to the point
where the extrados leaves the walls or piers. But if
the haunches are filled up to the point N (fig. 590.),
it will be found that for the pointed arch in the figure
the thickness need not be more than the -^3 of the
radius, and for the semicircular arch, -^. For arches
whose height is less than their opening or that are seg-
mental the thickness should be | part of the versed sine ;
a practice also applicable to Gothic vaults and semi-
circular cylindrical arches, to which for vaults cemented
with plaster one line should be added for each foot in
length, or -^ part of the chord subtended by the ex-
trados. With vaults executed in mortar Jg may be
added, the thickness of the arch increasing till it reaches the point N, where the arch becomes
detached from the haunches, and where it should be once and a half the thickness of the key.
It was in this way the arches throughout the Pantheon at Paris were regulated, and a very
similar sort of expedient is practised in the dome of the Pantheon at Rome. A like
diminution at the keystone may be used in groined, coved, and spherical vaults.
1499. For vaultings of large openings, Rondelet (and we fully concur with him) thinks
wrought stone preferable to brick or rubble stone, because it has the advantage of being
liable to less settlement and stands more independent of any cementitious medium em-
ployed; It is indeed true that this cannot connect wrought stone so powerfully as it does
rubble ; but in the former we can employ cramps and dowells at the joints, which are useful
in doubtful cases to prevent derangement of the parts. In many Roman ruins the surfaces
of the voussoirs were embossed and hollowed at the joints, for the purpose of preventing
their sliding upon each other ; and expedients of the same nature are frequently found in
Gothic ruins.
Fig. 590.
SECT. X.
WALLS.
1500. The thickness which is to be assigned to walls and points of support, that their
stability may be insured, depends on the weight they have to sustain, and on their forma-
tion with proper materials ; still more on the proportion which their bases bear to their
heights. The crushing of stone and brick, by mere superimposed weight, is of such
extremely rare occurrence in practice, even with soft stone and with bad bricks, that we
think it sufficient to give the result of the some few experiments that have been made in
that respect, to give the reader some notion of the resistance of our bricks and stones to a
crushing force. This is exhibited in the subjoined table : —
426
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
Materials.
Specific
Gravity.
Crushing
Weight.
Ibs.
Portland stone, 2 inches long 1 inch high
_
805
Statuary marble, 1 inch cube of -
-
3216
Cragleith stone, ditto
.
8688
Chalk, cube of 1 1 inch
_
1127
Pale red brick, ditto
2085
1265
Roe stone, Gloucestershire, ditto -
„
1449
Red brick, ditto
2168
1817
Hammersmith brick, called pavior's ditto -
_
2254
Ditto burnt, ditto -
_
3242
Ditto fire-brick, ditto -
_
3864
Derby grit, ditto
2316
7070
Another specimen, ditto -
2428
9776
Killala white freestone, ditto
2423
10,264
Portland, ditto -
2428
10,284
Cragleith white freestone, ditto
2452
12,346
Yorkshire paving, with the strata, ditto
2507
12,856
Ditto, ditto, against strata, ditto
_
12,856
White statuary marble, ditto
2760
13,632
Bramley Fall sandstone, ditto
2506
13,632
Ditto, against strata, ditto
-
1 3,632
Cornish granite, ditto
2662
14,302
Dundee sandstone, ditto
2530
14,918
Portland, a 2 inch cube -
2423
14,918
Cragleith, with the strata, 1 ^ inch cube
2452
1 5,360
Devonshire red marble
_
1 6,732
Compact limestone
2584
1 7,354
Peterhead granite
-
18,636
Black compact limestone -
2598
1 9,924
Purbeck ....
2599
20,610
Freestone, very hard
2528
21,254
Black Brabant marble
2697
20,742
White Italian marble -
2726
21,783
Aberdeen granite, blue kind
2625
24,556
1501. The above experiments lose much of their practical value from our knowledge
that the interior particles in granulated substances are protected from yielding by the
lateral resistance of the exterior ones ; but to what extent it is impossible to estimate,
because so much depends on the internal structure of the body. We are, however, thus
far informed, that, taking into account the weight with which a point of support is loaded,
its thickness ought to be regulated in an inverse ratio to the crushing weight of the
material employed. In Gothic structures we often see, for instance, in chapter houses
-with a central column, a prodigious weight superimposed. It is needless to say, that,
in such instances, the strongest material was necessary, and we always find it so employed.
So, in the columns, or rather pillars, of the naves in such edifices, the greatest care was taken
to select the hardest stone.
1 502. Generally speaking, the thickness of walls and piers should be proportioned rather
to their height than to the weight they are to bear ; hence often the employment of a better
material, though more costly, is in truth the most economical.
Of the Stability of Walls.
1 503. In the construction of edifices there are three degrees of stability assignable to
walls. I. One of undoubted stability ; II. A mean between the last ; and the III. The least
thickness which they ought to possess.
1504. The first case is that in which from many examples we find the thickness equal to
one eighth part of the height : a mean stability is obtained when the thickness is one tenth
part of the height ; and the minimum of stability when one twelfth of its height. We are,
however, to recollect that in most buildings one wall becomes connected with another, ,so
that stability may be obtained by considering them otherwise than as independent walls.
1505. That some idea may be formed of the difference between a wall entirely isolated
and one connected with one or two others at right angles, we here give figs. 591, 592,
and 593. It is obvious that in the first case {fig. 591.), a wall acted upon by the horizontal
force MN, will have no resistance but from the breadth of its base ; that in the second
CHAV. I.
WALLS.
427
case (fig. 592.) the wall GF is opposed to the force MN, so that only the triangle of it
II IF can be detached ; lastly, in fig, 593. the force MN would only be effective against
the triangle CGH, which would, of course, be greater in proportion to the increased dis-
tance of the walls CD, HI.
1506. In the first case, the unequal settlement of the soil or of the construction may
produce the effect of the force MN. The wall will fall on the occurrence of an horizontal
disunion between the parts.
1507. In the second case the disunion must take place obliquely, which will require
a greater effort of the power MN.
1508. In the third case, in order to overturn the wall, there must be three fractures
through the effort of MN, requiring a much more considerable force than in the second case.
1 509. We may easily conceive that the resistance of a wall standing between two others
will be greater or less as the walls CD, HI are more or less distant ; so that, in an extreme
approximation to one another, the fracture would be impossible, and, in the opposite case,
the intermediate wall approaches the case of an isolated wall.
1510. Walls enclosing a space are in the preceding predicament, because they mutually
tend to sustain one another at their extremities ; hence their thickness should increase
as their length increases.
1511. The result of a vast number of experiments by Rondelet, whose work we are
still using, will be detailed in the following observations and calculations.
1512. Let ABCD (fig. 594.) be the face of one of the walls for enclosing a rectangular
Fig. 531.
Fig. 595.
428
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
space, EFGH (fig. 595.). Draw the diagonal BD, and about B make Bd equal to one
eighth part of the height, if great stability be required ; for a mean stability, the ninth or
tenth part ; and, for a light stability, the eleventh or twelfth part. If through the point
d a parallel to A B be drawn, the interval will give the thickness to be assigned to the great
walls EF, GH, whose length is equal to AD.
1513. The thickness of the walls EG, FH is obtained by making AD' equal to their
length, and, having drawn the diagonal as before, pursuing the same operation.
1514. When the walls are of the same height but of different lengths, as in fig. 596.,
D D'
Fig. 596. Fig 597.
the operation may be abridged by describing on the point B (fig. 597.) as a centre with a
radius equal to one eighth, one tenth, or one twelfth, or such other part of the height as
may be considered necessary for a solid, mean, or lighter construction, then transferring
their lengths, EF, FG, GH, and HE from A to D, D', D", and D'" ; and having made
the rectangles AC, AC', AC", and AC'", draw from the common point B the diagonals
BD, BD', BD", and BD'", cutting the small circle described on the point B in different
points, through which parallels to AB are to be drawn, and they will give the thickness of
each in proportion to its length.
1515. In figs. 59'8. to 602. are given the operations for finding the thicknesses of walls
Fig. 598.
D" D"'
Fig. 599.
Fig. 600.
Fig. 601.
Fig. 602.
enclosing polygonal areas supposed to be of the same height; thus AD represents the
side of the hexagon (fig. 602.) ; AD' that of the pentagon (fig. 601.) ; AD" the side of
the square (fig. 599.) ; and AD'" that of the equilateral triangle (fig. 600.).
1516. It is manifest that, by this method, we increase the thicknesses of the walls in
proportion to their heights and lengths ; for one or the other, or both, cannot increase or
diminish without the same happening to the diagonal.
1517. It is obvious that it is easy to calculate in numbers the results thus geometrically
obtained by the simple rule of three ; for, knowing the three sides of the triangle ABD,
CHAP. I. WALLS. 429
similar to the smaller triangle Edc, we have BD : Bd: : AD : ed. Thus, suppose the
length of wall represented by AD = 28 feet, and its height AB = 12 feet, we shall have the
leno-th of the diagonal =30 feet 5\ inches ; and, taking the ninth part of AB, or 16 inches,
as the thickness to be transferred on the diagonal from B to d, we have 30 ft. 6 in. :
1 6 in. :: 28 ft. I 14 in. : 8 lines (ed). The calculation may also be made trigonometrically ;
into which there is no necessity to enter, inasmuch as the rules for obtaining the result may
be referred to in the section " Trigonometry," and from thence here applied.
Method of enclosing a given Area in any regular Polygon.
1518. It is manifest that a polygon may be divided by lines from the centre to its angles
into as many triangles as it has sides. In Jig. 601., on one of these triangles let fall from
C (which is the vertex of each triangle) a perpendicular CD on the base or side AB which
is supposed horizontal. The area of this triangle is equal to the product of DB (half AB)
by CD, or to the rectangle DCFB. Making DB=x, CD=y, and the aroa given =p, we
shall have,
For the equilateral triangle, x x y x 3=p, or xy—\ ;
For the square, xy x 4=p, or xy=£;
For the pentagon, xy x 5 = p, or xy = g ;
For the hexagon, xy x 6 =p, or xy = |-
Each of these equations containing two unknown quantities, it becomes necessary to as-
certain the proportion of x to y, which is as the sines of the angles opposite to the sides
DB and CD.
1519. In the equilateral triangle this proportion is as the sine of 60 degrees to the sine of
30 degrees; that is, using a table of sines, as 86603 : 50000, or 8§ : 5, or 26 : 15, whence
x : y::26 : 15, and I5x = 26y, whence y= ~.
Substituting this value in the equation xy = |> we have
'-ff = f , which becomes ** = *£, and x= V §.
Supposing the area given to be 3600, we shall therefore have
x= \/g60^.x26 = 45-6, and the side AB=91'2.
For the pentagon, x : y'.'.sm. 36° ! sin. 54°, or as 58779 I 80902, whence
80902*
Substituting this value in the equation xy= |, we have
80902** 3600 i 1/58779x720
-58779" = ~6~> and * = —80902— '
which makes ar = 22-87, and the side AB=45'74.
For the hexagon, x ; y::sin. 30° : sin. 60°, or as 50000 : 866031:5 : 8f, whence the value
of y = 2— . This value, substituted in the equation xy = ^ , will give ^jp = 600; whence
gg=6002g15; lastly, therefore, ar= A/346'15 = 18-61, and the side AB=37'22.
Geometrically.
1520. Suppose the case that of a pentagon (fig. 601.) one of whose equal triangles is
ACB. Let fall the perpendicular CD, which divides it into two equal parts; whence its
area is equal to the rectangle CDBF.
1521. Upon the side AB, prolonged, if necessary, make DE equal to CD, and from the
middle of BE as a centre describe the semi-circumference cutting CD in G, and GD will
be the side of a square of the same area as the rectangle CDBF. The sides of similar
figures (Geometry, 961.) being as the square roots of their areas; find the square root
of the given area and make T)g equal to it. From the point g draw parallels to GE and
GB, which will determine on AB the points e and 6, which will give on one side Db equal
to one half of the side of the polygon sought ; and, on the other, the radius De of the
circumference in which it is inscribed. This is manifest because of the similar triangles
EGB and egb, from which BD : DE::6D : De.
1522. From the truth that the sides of similar figures are to each other as the square
roots of their areas we arrive at a simple method of reducing any figure to a given area.
Form an angle of reduction (Jig. 603. ) one of whose sides is equal to the square root
of the greater area, and the chord of the arc, which determines the size of the angle equal
430 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
to the square root of the smaller area. Let, for instance, the
larger area =1156, and that of the smaller, to which the figure
is to be reduced, =529. Draw an indefinite line, on which
make AB = 34, the square root of 1156. Lastly, from the
point A, as a centre, having described an indefinite arc, with a
length equal to the square root 23 of 529, set out Bg ; through
g draw Ag, which will be the angle of reduction gAB, by means
of which the figure maybe reduced, transferring all the mea- "4" 5
sures of the larger area to the line AD, with which arcs are Fig> 603
to be described whose chords will be the sides sought.
1523. If it be not required to reduce but to describe a figure whose area and form are
given, we must make a large diagram of any area larger than that sought, and then
reduce it.
1524. The circle, as we have already observed in a previous subsection (933.), being but
a polygon of an infinite number of sides, it would follow that a circular enclosure would be
stable with an infinitely small thickness of wall. This property may be easily demonstrated
by a very simple experiment. Take, for instance, a sheet of paper, which would not easily
be made to stand while extended to its full length, but the moment it is bent into the form
of a cylinder it acquires a stability, though its thickness be not a thousandth part of its
height.
1525. But as walls must have a certain thickness to acquire stability, inasmuch as
they are composed of particles susceptible of separation, we may consider a circular en-
closure as a regular polygon of twelve sides, and determine its thickness by the preceding
process. Or, to render the operation more simple, find the thickness of a straight wall
whose length is equal to one half the radius.
1526. Suppose, for example, a circular space of 56 ft. diameter and 18 ft. high, and
the thickness of the wall be required. Describe the rectangle A BCD (fig. 594.), whose
base is equal to half the radius, that is, 14 ft., and whose height AB is 18 ft. ; then,
drawing the diagonal BD, make Bd equal to the ninth part of the height, that is, 2 ft.
Through d draw ad parallel to the base, and its length will represent the thickness sought,
which is 14| inches.
1527. By calculation. Add the square of the height to that of half the radius, that is,
of 18 =324, and of 14= 196 ( = 520). Then extract the square root of 52O, which will be
found =22-8, and this will be the value of the diagonal BD. Then we have the follow-
ing proportion : 22-8 : 14 :: 2 ft. (£ the height) : 14-74.
1528. The exterior wall of the church of St. Stefano Rotondo at Rome (Temple of
Claudius) incloses a site 198 feet diameter. The wall, which is contructed of rubble
masonry faced with bricks, is 2 ft. 4 in. ( French) thick, and 22| ft. high. In ap-
plying to it the preceding rule, we shall find the diagonal of the rectangle, whose base
would be the side of a polygon, equal to half the radius and 22± ft. high, would be
A/49^ x 49| + 221 x 22^=54T3^. Then, using the proportion 54-37 : 49 -5 :: B?i : 2ft.
3 in. and 4 lines, the thickness sought, instead of 2 ft. 4 in., the actual thickness. We
may as well mention in this place that a circle encloses the greatest quantity of area
with the least quantity of walling ; and of polygons, those with a greater number of sides
more than those with a lesser : the proportion of the wall in the circle being 31416 to an
area of 78540OOO ; whilst in a square, for the same area, a length of wall equal to 35448
would be required. As the square falls away to a flat parallelogram, say one whose sides
are half as great, and the others double the length of those of the square, or 1 7724 by 4431,
in which the area will be about 78540000, as before ; we have in such a case a length of
walling =44310.
On the Thickness of Walls in Buildings not vaulted.
1529. The walls of a building are usually connected and stiffened by the timbers of the
roof, supposing that to be well constructed. Some of the larger edifices, such as the
ancient basilica? at Rome, have no other covering but the roof ; others have only a simple
ceiling under the roof ; whereas, in palaces and other habitations, there are sometimes two
or more floors introduced in the roof.
1530. We will begin with those edifices covered with merely a roof of carpentry, which
are, after mere walls of enclosure, the most simple.
1531. Among edifices of this species, there are some with continued points of support,
such as those wherein the walls are connected and mutually support each other ; others in
which the points of support are not connected with each other, such as piers, columns, and
pilasters, united only by arcades which spring from them.
1532. When the carpentry forming the roof of an edifice is of great extent, instead of
being injurious to the stability of the walls or points of support, it is useful in keeping them
together.
CHAP. I. » WALLS. 431
1533. Many edifices exist wherein the walls and points of support would not stand
without the aid of the carpentry of the roofs that cover them.
1534. The old basilica of St. Paolo fuori le mura at Rome was divided into five naves
formed by four ranks of columns connected by arcades, which carried the walls whereon the
roof rested; the centre nave 73± ft. (French) wide, and 93 ft. 10 in. high. The walls
of it are erected on columns 31 ft. 9 in. high, and their thickness is a little less than 3 ft.,
that is, only ^ part of their height.
1535. At Hadrian's Villa the most lofty walls, still standing, were but sixteen times
their thickness in height, and 51 ft. 9 in. long. The walls were the enclosures of
large halls with only a single story, but assisted at their ends by cross walls. And we
may therefore conclude that if the walls of the basilica above mentioned were not kept in
their places by the carpentry of the great roof they would not be safe. It is curious that this
supposition, under the theory, was proved by the fire which destroyed the church of St. Paolo
in 1 823. The walls which form the nave of the church of Santa Sabina are raised on columns
altogether 52ft. high ; they are 145ft. long, and somewhat less than 2 ft., that is, Jg part
of their height, in thickness. They are, therefore, not in a condition of stability without the
aid of the roof. In comparing, however, the thickness of these walls with the height only
of the side aisles, in the basilica of St. Paolo the thickness is -j^, and at Santa Sabina ^. In
the other basilica or churches with columns, the least thickness of wall is ^ of greater pro-
portion unconnected with the nave, as at Santa Maria Maggiore, Santa Maria in Trastevere,
St. Chrysogono, St. Pietro in Vincola, in Rome ; St. Lorenzo and St. Spirito, in Florence ;
St. Filippo Neri, at Naples ; St. Giuseppe and St. Dominico, at Palermo.
1536. We must take into account, moreover, that the thickness of walls depends as much
on the manner in which they are constructed, as on their height and the weight with which
they are loaded. A wall of rough or squared stone 1 2 inches thick, wherein all the stones
run right through the walls in one piece, is sometimes stronger than one of 1 8 or 20 inches
in thickness, in which the depth of the stones is not more than half or a third of the thick-
ness, and the inner part filled in with rubble in a bad careless way. We are also to recollect
that stability more than strength is ofttimes the safeguard of a building ; for it is certain
that a wall of hard stone 4 inches thick would be stronger than would be necessary to
bear a load equal to four or five stories, where a thickness of 1 8 inches is used ; and yet it .
is manifest that such a wall would be very unstable, because of the narrowness of the base.
1537. From an examination which Rondelet made of 280 buildings in France and Italy,
ancient as well as modern, he found that in those covered with roofs of two inclined sides
and constructed in framed carpentry, with and without ceilings, and so trussed as not to
act at all horizontally upon the walls, the least thickness in brick or rough stones was
2\ of the width in the clear.
1538. In private houses, divided into several stories by floors, it was observed, generally,
that the exterior walls ran from 15 to 24 inches, party walls 1 6 to 20 inches, and par-
tition walls 12 to 18 inches.
1539. In buildings on a larger scale, exterior walls 2 to 3 feet thick, party walls
20 to 24 inches, partition walls 1 5 to 20 inches.
1540. In palaces and buildings of great importance, whose ground floors are vaulted,
the exterior walls varied from 4 to 9 feet, and the partition walls from 2 to 6 feet. In
many of the examples which underwent examination, the thicknesses of the walls and
points of support were not always well proportioned to their position, to the space they
enclosed, nor to the loads they bore. In some, great voids occur, and considerable loads were
supplied with but slender walls and points of support ; and in others, very thick walls en-
closed very small spaces, and strong points of support had but little to carry.
1541. For the purpose of establishing some method which in a sure and simple manner
would determine the thickness of walls in buildings which are not arched, we have con- \
sidered, says Rondelet, that the tie-beams of the trusses of carpentry whereof the roofs
are composed, being always placed in the direction of the width, as well as the girders and
leading timbers of floors, serve rather to steady and connect the opposite walls ; but, con-
sidering the elasticity and flexibility of timber, it is found that they strain the walls which
support them in proportion to the widths of the spaces enclosed, whence it becomes often
the better plan to determine the thickness of the walls from the width and height of the
apartments requisite. Hence the following rules.
First Rule.
1542. In buildings covered with a simple roof, if the walls are insulated throughout,
their height up to the under side of the tie-beams of the trusses, being as shown in jig. 604.
Having drawn the diagonal BD and thereon made B6 and Drf, equal to the twelfth part
of the height AB, then through the points b and d, draw lines parallel to BA and DC,
which will bound the thickness of the walls required.
1543. If the height AB and width AD be known, the thickness Ac may be calculated,
432
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
•[BOOK II.
seeing that BD= A/ABS+ AD*; knowing the
value of BD, we have that of cA by the pro-
portion BD : AD::B6 : CA=
First Example.
1544. Supposing the width, AD = 24 ft., and
the height AB = 32, we shall have
A/AB*+ AD' = -v/24 x 24 + 32 x 32 ; whence
BD
1024=//1600=
B6, which is the twelfth part of AB, or of
32 ft. = 2 ft. 8 in. ; the thickness of the wall
expressed by A^B6, will be ^—3 = If ft., or
1 ft. 7 in. 2 lines, for the thickness sought.
1545. If the walls supporting the roof were
stiffened by extra means, such as lower roofs at
an intermediate height, as in churches with a
nave and side aisles, we may make Be in the
diagonal BD (fig. 605.) equal to one twelfth
of the height above the springing of the side
roofs, and efa. twenty-fourth part of that height
below it, and draw through the point / a line Fig. 604
parallel to AB, which will determine the thickness Af sought ; or, which amounts to the
same thing, add together the total height AB of the interior, and that of E B above the
point of support, E, whereof take the twenty-fourth part, which will be equal to Be + ef.
Second Example.
1546. Fig. 605. is a section of St Paolo fuori le mura, near Rome, as it was in 1816.
Fig. GO
The interior height to the under side of the tie-beams is 93 ft. 10 in. (French), whereof
26 ft. 2 in. is the exterior height above the roofg of the side aisles. These two dimensions
together make 120ft., whose twenty-fourth part is 5ft., to which, on the diagonal BD,
make B/ equal ; then from the point / letting fall a vertical line, the horizontal line Be
will determine the thickness, which will be 3 ft., the width of the nave being 73 ft. 6 in.
In figures, as follows : —
BD= V93 ft. 10 in. x 93 ft. lOin. + 73 ft. 6 in. x 73 ft. 6 in. = Vl4207 = 1 1 9 ft. 2 in.
1547. For the thickness, eB, as before, BD : AD:;B/: A/'; whence, A/' = ^?*^
"Bli9ft>2inl = 3 ft> 1 in<) instead of 2ft- n in> 9 lines' the actual thickness of the walls.
1548. The same calculation being applied to the walls of the nave of Santa Sabina
CHAP. I.
WALLS.
433
(Rome), whose height of nave is 51 ft. 2 in, and width 42ft. 2 in., with a height of 16 ft.
of wall above the side aisles, gives 21 in. 4 lines, and they are actually a little less than 24 in.
1549. In the church of Santa Maria Maggiore, the width is 52 ft. 7£ in., and 56 ft. 6 in.
and 4 lines high, to the ceiling under the roof. The height of the wall above the side
aisles is 19 ft. 8 in., and the calculation requires the thickness of the walls to be 26^ in.
instead of 28^ in,, their actual thickness.
1550. In the church of St. Lorenzo, at Florence, the internal width of the nave is
37 ft. 9 in., and the height 69ft. to the wooden ceiling ; from the side aisles the wall is
18 ft. high. The result of the calculation is 21 in., and the actual execution 21 in. and
6 lines.
1 55 1 . The church of Santo Spirito, in the same city, which has a wooden ceiling sus-
pended to the trusses of the roof, is 76 ft. high and 37 ft. 4 in. wide in the nave the walls
rise 1 9 ft. above the side aisles. From an application of the rule the thickness should be
21 in. 3 lines, and their thickness is 22^ in.
1552. In the church of St. Philippe Neri, at Naples, the calculation requires a thickness
of 21 in., their actual thickness being 22^ in.
1553. In the churches here cited, the external walls are much thicker ; which was ne-
cessary, from the lower roofs being applied as leantoes, and hence having a tendency, in
case of defective framing of them, to thrust out the external walls. Thus, in the church
of St. Paolo, the walls are 7 ft. thick, their height 40 ft. ; 3 ft. 4 in. only being the thickness
required by the rule. A resistance is thus given capable of assisting the walls of the aisles,
which are raised on isolated columns, and one which they require.
1554. In the church of Santa Sabina, the exterior wall, which is 26 ft. high, is, as the
rule indicates, 26 in. thick ; but the nave is flanked with a single aisle only on each side, and
the walls of the nave are thicker in proportion to the height, and are not so high. For at
St. Paolo the thickness of the walls is only ^ of the interior width, whilst at Santa Sabina
it is Jp At San Lorenzo and San Spirito the introduction of the side chapels affords great
assistance to the external walls.
Examples for the Thickness of Walls of Houses of many Stories.
1555. As in the preceding case, the rules which Rondelet gives are the result of ob-
servations on a vast number of buildings that have been executed, so that the method
proposed is founded on practice as well as on theory.
1556. In ordinary houses, wherein the height of the floors rarely exceeds 12 to 15 ft.,
in order to apportion the proper thickness to the interior or partition walls, we must be
guided by the widths of the spaces they separate, and the number of floors they have to
carry. With respect to the external walls, their thickness will depend on the depth and
height of the building. Thus a single house, as the phrase is, that is, only one set of apart-
ments in depth, requires thicker external walls than a double house, that is, more than one
apartment in depth, of the same sort and height ; because the stability is in the inverse ratio
of the width.
1557. Let us take the first of the two cases (fig. 606.), whose depth is 24 ft. and height
Fig. 606.
to the under side of the roof 36 ft. Add to 24 ft. the half of the height, 18, and take fa part
of the sum 42, that is, 21 in., for the least thickness of each of the external walls above the
set-off on the ground floor. For a mean stability add an inch, and for one still more solid
add two inches.
1558. In the case of a double house (Jiff. 607.) with a depth of 42 ft., and of the same
height as the preceding example, add half the height to the width of the building ; that is,
21 to 18, and ^ of the sum =19^ is the thickness of the walls. To determine the thickness
of the partition walls, add to their distance from each other the height of the story, and
take 3lg of the sum. Thus, to find the thickness of the wall IK, which divides the space
LM into two parts and is 32 ft., add the height of the story, which we will take at 10 ft.,
making in all 42 ft., and take 3'g or 14 in. Half an inch may be added for each story above
the ground floor. Thus, where three stories occur above the ground floor, the thickness in
Ff
434
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK IT.
the lower one would be 15^ in., a thick-
ness which is well calculated for bricks
and stone, whose hardness is of a mean
description.
1559. For the wall AB, which divides
the space between the external walls,
equal to 35 ft., add to it the height,
which is 10 ft., and <fe of 45, the sum of
the two ; that is, 1 5 in. is the thickness
required for the wall, if only to be car-
ried up a single story ; but if through
more, then add half an inch, as before,
for each story above the ground floor.
For the spaces NO, PQ, RS, in this
and the preceding figure, the repetition
of the operation will give their thick-
nesses.
1 560. To illustrate what has been said,
fig. 608. is introduced to the reader, being
the plan of a house in the Rue d' Enfer, near the Luxembourg, known as the Hotel Vendoma,
Fig. 607.
Fig. 608.
built by Le Blond. It is given by Daviller in his Cours d' Architecture. The building is
46 ft. deep on the right side and 47 ft. in the middle, and is 33 ft. high from the pavement
to the entablature. Hence, to obtain the thickness of the walls on the line FF, take the
sum of the height and width =^^ = 4O ft., whose twenty-fourth part is 20 in. The
building being one of solidity, let 2 in. be added, and we obtain 22 in. instead of 2 ft., which
is their actual thickness. For the thickness of the interior wall, which crosses the building
in the direction of its length, the space between the exterior walls being 42 ft. and the
height of each story 14 ft., the thickness of this wall should be -3g- = 18 in. 8 lines, instead
of 18 in., which the architect assigned to it.
1561. By the same mode of operation, we shall find that the thickness of the wall R,
separating the salon, which is 22 ft. wide, from the dining-room, which is 1 8 ft. wide and
1 4 ft. high, should be 1 8 in. and 6 lines instead of 1 8 inches ; but as the exterior walls, which
are of wrought stone, are 2 ft. thick, and their stability greater than the rule requires, the
interior will be found to have the requisite stability without any addition to their thickness.
1562. We shall conclude the observations under this head, by reference to a house built by
Palladio for the brothers Mocenigo, of Venice, to be found in his works, and here given (fig.
609.). Most of the buildings of this master are vaulted below ; but the one in question is not
in that predicament. The width and height of the principal rooms is 16 ft., and they are
separated by others only 8 ft. wide, so that the width which each wall separates is 25| ft.,
and their thickness consequently should be J^g- - = 1 3 in. 10 lines. The walls, as executed,
CHAP, I.
WALLS.
435
Fig. 609.
are actually 14 in. in thickness. The exterior walls being 24 ft. high, and the depth of
the building 46 ft., their thickness by the rule should be 17± in. ; they are actually 18 in.
Of the Stability of Piers, or Points of Support.
1563. Let ABCD (fig. 610.) be a pier with a square base whose resistance is required
to be known in respect of a power at M acting w p
upon it to overturn it horizontally in the direction
MA, or obliquely in that of NA upon the point D.
To render the demonstration more simple, we will
consider the solid reduced to a plane passing
through G, the centre of gravity of the pier, and the
point D, that upon which the power is supposed to
cause it to turn. Letting fall from G the vertical
cutting the base in I, to which we will suppose the
weight of the pier suspended, and then supposing
the pier removed, we shall only have to consider the
angular lever BDI or HDI, whose arms are deter-
mined by perpendiculars drawn from the fulcrum D,
in one direction vertical with the weight, and in the
other perpendicular to the direction of the power
acting upon the pier, according to the theory of the lever explained in a previous section.
1564. The direction of the weight R being always represented by a vertical let fall from
the centre of gravity, the arm of its lever ID never changes, whatever the direction of the
power and the height at which it is applied, whilst the arm of the lever of the power varies
as its position and direction. That there may be equilibrium between the effort of the
power and the resistance of the pier, in the first case, when the power M acts in an hori-
zontal direction, we have M : R::ID : DB, whence MX DB = Rx ID and M = ^JJ^'
If the direction of the power be oblique, as NA in the case of an equilibrium, N : R::ID
: DH ; hence N x DH = R x ID and N = 5g^-
1 565. Applying this in an example, let the height of the pier be 1 2 ft., its width 4 ft. , and
its thickness 1 ft. The weight R of the pier may be represented by its cube, and is there-
fore 12 x 4 x 1 =48. The arm of its lever ID will be 2, and we will take the horizontal
power M represented by DB at 12 ; with these values we shall have M : 48 : :2 : 12 ; hence
M x 12=48 x 2 and M. = ~^ = 8.
That is, the effort of the horizontal power M should be equal to the weight of 8 cube
feet of the materials whereof the pier is composed, to be in equilibrium.
1566. In respect of the oblique power which acts in the direction NA, supposing DH
AQ y O
= 7£, we have N : 48;:2 : 7*-, whence N x 7i = 48 x 2, therefore N= -t =13A, whilst the
Ff 2 73
436 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
expression of the hozirontal power M was only 8 ft. ; but it must be observed, that the arm
of the lever is 12, whilst that of the power N is but 7£ ft. ; but 13^ x 7^ = 8 x 12 = 96,
which is also equal to the resistance of the pier expressed by 1 2 x 4 x 2 = 96. It is more-
over essential to observe, that, considering the power NA as the result of two others, MA
and FA, the first acting horizontally from M against A, tends to overthrow the pier ; whilst
the second, acting vertically in the direction FA, partly modifies this effect by increasing the
resistance of the pier.
1567. Suppose the power NA to make an angle of 53 degrees with the vertical AF,
and of 37 degrees with the horizontal line AM ; then
NA : FA : MAnrad. : sin. 37 deg. : sin. 53 deg. ::10 : 6 : 8.
Hence, NA being found =13^, we have 10 : 6 : 8 ::13$ : 8 : lOsf.
Whence it is evident that, from this resolution of the power NA, the resistance of
the pier is increased by the effort of the power FA = 8, which, acting on the point A in the
direction FA, will make the arm of its lever CD = 4, whence its effort =8 x 4 = 32.
1568. The resistance of the pier, being thus found =96, becomes by the effort of the
power FA = 96 + 32 = 128.
1 569. The effort of the horizontal power M being 1 0|, and the arm of its lever being
always 1 2, its effort 1 28 will be equal to the resistance of the pier, which proves that in
this resolution we have, as before, the effort and the resistance equal. The application of
this proposition is extremely useful in valuing exactly the effects of parts of buildings
which become stable by means of oblique and lateral thrusts.
1570. If it be required to know what should be the increased width of the pier to coun-
terpoise the vertical effort FA, its expression must be divided by ID, that is, 8x2, which
gives 4 for this increased length, and for the expression of its resistance (12 + 4)x4 x 2
= 1 28, as above.
1571. If the effort of the power be known, and the thickness of a pier or wall whose
height is known be sought so as to resist it, let the power and parts of the pier be repre-
sented by different letters, as follows. Calling the power p, the height of the pier d, the
thickness sought x ; if the power p act in an horizontal direction at the extremity of the
wall or pier, its expression will be p x d. The resistance of the pier will be expressed by its
area multiplied by its arm of lever, that is, d x x x | ; and supposing equilibrium, as the
resistance must be equal to the thrust, we shall have the equation p x<?=c?xarx|. Both
sides of this equation being divisible by cf, we have p = x x 5 ; and as the second term is
divided by 2, we obtain 2p = x x x or a-2 ; that is, a square whose area =2p, and of which x
is the side or root, or x = V2p, a formula which in all cases expresses the thickness to be
given to the pier CD to resist a power M acting on its upper extremity in the horizontal
direction MA.
1572. In this formula, the height of the pier need not be known to find the value of ar,
because this height, being common to the pier and the arm of the lever of the power, does
not alter the result ; for the cube of the pier, which represents its weight, increases or di-
minishes in the same ratio as the lever. Thus, if the height of the pier be 12, 15, or 24 ft.,
its thickness will nevertheless be the same.
Example. — If the horizontal power expressed by p in the formula x= V^p be $, we
have x = VT6 = 4 for the thickness of the pier. Whilst the power acting at the extremity
of the pier remains the same, the thickness is sufficient, whatever the height of the pier.
Thus for a height of 1 2 ft. the effort of the power will be 8 x 1 2 = 96, and the resistance
12 x 4 x 2^96. If the pier be 15 ft. high, its resistance will be 15 x 4 x 2 = 120, and the
effort of the power 8 x 15 = 120. Lastly, if the height be 24 ft., the resistance will be
24 x 4 x 2 = 1 92, and the effort of the power 8 x 24 = 1 92.
1573. If the point on which the horizontal force acts is lower than the wall or pier, the
difference may be represented by /; and then p x (d—f) = d x x x | ;
Which becomes 2pd—2pf=dxx and 2p— 2f=xx-,
Lastly .
Suppose p = 9 . /=6 and d—12,
the formula becomes ar = V 18 — ~^ = -v/9 = 3, which is the thickness sought.
1574. When the power NA is oblique, the thickness may be equally well found by the
arm of lever DH, by resolving it into two forces, as before. Thus, in the case of the oblique
power /J = 13J, calling / its arm of lever 7£, we shall have pxf= -y~, which will become
whence ar = \/ -p. -; in which, substituting the known values, we have x--
; whence x= -v/16=4, the thickness sought of the pier.
CHAI-.I. WALLS. 437
1575. In resolving the oblique effort NA into two forces, whereof one MA tends to
overturn the pier by acting in an horizontal direction, and the other /A to strengthen it by
acting vertically, as before observed; let us represent the horizontal effort MAbyjp, its arm
of lever, equal to the height of the pier, by d, the vertical effort /A by n ; the arm of lever of
the last-named effort, being the thickness sought, will be x ; from which we have the equation
pd = d^- + nx, or 2p = zx + -™.
1576. As the second member of this equation is not a perfect square, let there be added
to each side the term wanting, that is, the square ^, the half of the quantity -£, which
multiplied x in the second term, whence
1577. The second member, by this addition, having become a square whose root is x + ^'
we shall have x + ? = \/2p + ~ and lastly x — ^/^p + ^ — J will be the general formula
for finding the thickness x.
Application of the Formula.
1 578. Let p = 10§, n — 8, d— 1 2. Substituting these values in the formula, it will become
x=VlO$*2 + &-&=V2l^t-*=V2l^-l = 4.
1579. If, for proof, we wish to calculate the expression of the resistance, by placing in the
equation of equilibrium 2pd=dxx^ x nx, the valuesof the quantities p, d, and x, above found,
we shall have
10§xl2 = 12x4x2 + 8 = 128, as was previously found for FA.
1 580. From the preceding rules, it appears that all the effects whose tendency is to destroy
an edifice, arise from weight acting in an inverse ratio to the obstacles with which it meets.
When heavy bodies are merely laid on one another, the result of their efforts is a simple
pressure, capable of producing settlement or fracture of the parts acted upon.
1581. Foundations whose bases are spread over a much greater extent than the walls
imposed upon them, are more susceptible of settlement than of crushing or fracture. But
isolated points of support in the upper parts, which sometimes carry great weights on a
small superficies, are susceptible both of settlement and crushing, whilst the weight they
have to sustain is greater than the force of the materials whereof they are formed ; which
renders the knowledge of the strength of materials an object of consequence in construction.
Till of late years it was not thought necessary to pay much attention to this branch of
construction, because most species of stone are more than sufficiently hard for the greatest
number of cases. Thus, the abundant thickness which the ancients generally gave to all
the parts of their buildings, proves that with them this was not a subject of consideration ;
and the more remotely we go into antiquity, the more massive is the construction found to
be. At last, experience taught the architect to make his buildings less heavy. Columns,
which among the Egyptians were only 5 or 6 diameters high, were carried to 9 diameters
by the Greeks in the Ionic and Corinthian orders. The Romans made their columns still
higher, and imparted greater general lightness to their buildings. It was under the reign
of Constantine, towards the end of the empire, that builders without taste carried their
boldness in light construction to an extraordinary degree, as in the ancient basilicas of
St. Peter's at Rome and St. Paolo fuori le mura. Later, however, churches of a different
character, and of still greater lightness, were introduced by the Gothic architects.
1582. The invention and general use of domes created a very great load upon the sup-
porting piers ; and the earlier architects, fearful of the mass to be carried, gave their piers
an area of base much greater than was required by the load supported, and the nature of
the stone used to support it. They, moreover, in this respect, did little more than imitate
one another. The piers were constructed in form and dimensions suited rather to the
arrangement and decoration of the building that was designed, than to a due apportion-
ment of the size and weight to the load to be borne ; so that their difference from one
another is in every respect very considerable.
The piers bearing the dome of St. Peter's at Rome are loaded with a weight of 14*964
tons for every superficial foot of their horizontal section.
The piers bearing the dome of St. Paul's at London are loaded with a weight of 17*705
tons for every superficial foot of their horizontal section.
The piers bearing the dome of the Hospital of Invalids at Paris are loaded with a weight
of 13-598 tons for every superficial foot of their horizontal section.
The piers bearing the dome of the Pantheon (St. Genevieve) at Paris are loaded with a
weight of 26 '934 tons for every superficial foot of their horizontal section.
The columns of St. Paolo fuori le mura, near Rome, are loaded with a weight of 18 '123
tons for every superficial foot of their horizontal section
Ff 3
438
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
In the church of St. Mery, the piers of the tower are loaded with upwards of
27 tons to the superficial foot. With such a discrepancy, it is difficult to say, without a
most perfect knowledge of the stone employed, what should be the exact weight per foot.
The dome of the Hospital of the Invalids seems to exhibit a maximum of pier in relation
to the weight, and that of the Pantheon at Paris a minimum. All the experiments
(scanty, indeed, they are) which Ave can present to the reader are those given at the
beginning of this section. In this country, the government has always been too much
employed in considering how long it can keep itself in place, to have time to consider how
the services of its members could benefit the nation by the furtherance of science. An
exactly opposite conduct has always marked the French government : hence more scientific
artists are always found amongst them than we can boast here, where the cost of experi-
ments invariably comes out of the artist's pocket.
Ratio of the Points of Support in a Building to its total Superficies.
1583. In the pages immediately preceding, we have, with Rondelet for our guide,
explained the principles whereon depend the stabilities of walls and points of support, with
their application to different sorts of buildings. Not any point relating to construction is
of more importance to the architect. Without a knowledge of it, and the mode of
even generating new styles from it, he is nothing more than a pleasing draughtsman
at the best, whose elevations and sections may be very captivating, but who must be con-
tent to take rank in about the same degree as the portrait painter does in comparison with
him who paints history. Hereafter will be given the method of properly covering the walls,
one which has occupied so much of our space ; namely, when we treat of the subject of
ROOFS, and the method of framing them. It is equally important, and of as high value
to the architect, as that which we are now quitting, to which we regret our limits do not
allow us to add more : but previous to leaving it, we must subjoin a table of great instruc-
tion, showing the ratio of the points of support to the total superficies covered in some of
the principal buildings of Europe.
TABLE SHOWING THE RATIO OF THE WALLS AND POINTS OF SUPPORT OF THE PRINCIPAL
EDIFICES OF EUROPE TO THE TOTAL AREA WHICH THEY OCCUPY.
Names of Edifices.
Total Area
of the Build-
ing in English
superficial
feet.
Total Area
of the Points
of Support
in English
superficial
feet.
Ratio in
Thousandths
of the Points
of Support to
the total
Area.
The Pantheon at Rome
34,328
7,954
0-232
Temple of Peace at Rome
67,123
8,571
0-127
Great temple at Paestum
15,353
2,649
0-172
Ancient temple, Galuzzo, at Rome
9,206
2,167
0-235
Temple of Concord, Girgenti, Sicily
6,849
1,330
0-194
Temple of Juno Lucina, Sicily
6,821
1,110
0-163
Central building of the baths of Caracalla
275,503
48,911
0-176
Central building of the baths of Diocletian
351,636
58,797
0-167
Temple of Claudius at Rome, now church of
S. Stefano -
36,726
2,051
0-056
Mosque of S. Sophia at Constantinople
103,200
22,567
0-217
Basilica of S. Paolo fuori le mura (Rome),
1816
106,513
12,655
0-118
Duomo of S. Maria del fiore at Florence
84,802
1 7,030
0-201
Duomo of S. Maria del fiore at Milan
125,853
21,635
0-169
St. Peter's at Rome, as executed
227,069
59,308
0-261
St. Peter's at Rome, as projected by Bramante
213,610
46,879
0-219
Church of S. Vitale at Ravenna
7,276
1,142
0-157
Church of S. Pietro a "Vincola, Rome -
21,520
3,353
0-155
Church of S. Sabino — destroyed
15,139
1,543
0-100
Church of S. Domenico, Palermo
34,144
4,988
0-146
Church of S. Giuseppe, Palermo
26,046
3,611
0-139
Church of S. Filippo Neri, Naples
22,826
2,944
0-129
Church of St. Paul's, London
84,025
14,311
0-170
Church of Notre Dame, Paris
67,343
8,784
0-140
Hotel of the Invalids, Paris
29,003
7,790
0-268
Church of S. Sulpice, Paris
60,760
9,127
0-151
Church of S. Genevieve, Paris
60,287
9,269
0-154
The above table exhibits also the comparative sizes of the different buildings named in it.
CHAP. L WALLS. 439
Pressure of Earth against Walls.
1584. It is not our intention to pursue this branch of the practice of walling to any
extent, the determination of the thickness of walls in this predicament being more useful,
perhaps, to the engineer than to the architect. We shall therefore be contented with but
a concise mention of it. Rondelet has (with, as we consider, great judgment) adopted the
theory of Belidor, in his Science des Ingenieurs, and we shall follow him. Without the
slightest disrespect to later authors, we know from our own practice that walls of Revete-
ment may be built, with security, of much less thickness than either the theories of Belidor,
or, latterly, of modern writers require. We entirely leave out of the question the rules of
Dr. Hutton in his Mathematics, as absurd and incomprehensible. The fact is, that in
carrying up walls to sustain a bank of earth, nobody, in the present day, would dream of
constructing them without carefully ramming down the earth, layer by layer, as the wall
is carried up, so as to prevent the weight of the earth, in a triangular section, pressing
upon the wall, which is the foundation of all the theory on the subject. With this quali-
fication, therefore, we shall proceed ; premising, that if the caution whereof we speak be
taken, the thickness resulting from the following investigations will be much more than
the outside of enough.
1585. Earth left to itself takes a slope proportionate to its consistence ; but for our
purpose it will sufficiently exhibit the nature of the investigation, to consider the substance
pressing against the wall as dry sand or pounded freestone, which will arrange itself in a
slope of about 55|° with the vertical plane, and therefore of 34±° with an horizontal plane,
as Rondelet found to be the case when experimenting on the above materials in a box, one of
whose sides was removable. Ordinarily, 45° is taken as the mean slope into which earths
recently thrown up will arrange themselves.
158§. Belidor, in order to form an estimate for the thrust or pressure into which we are
inquiring, divides the triangle EDF (fig. 611.) representing the mass of earth which
creates the thrust, by parallels to its base
ED, forming slices or sections of equal E|
thickness and similar form ; whence it
follows, that, taking the first triangle a F6
as unity, the second slice will be 3, the
third 5, the fourth 7, and so on in a pro-
gression whose difference is 2.
1587. Each of these sections being
supposed to slide upon an inclined plane
parallel to ED, so as to act upon the face
FD, if we multiply them by the mean
height at which they collectively act, the A D
sum of the products will give the total Fig. en.
effort tending to overturn the wall ; but as this sum is equal to the product of the whole
triangle by the height determined by a line drawn from its centre of gravity parallel to
the base, this last will be the method followed, as much less complicated than that which
Belidor adopts, independent of some of that author's suppositions not being rigorously
correct.
1588. The box in which the experiment was tried by Rondelet was 16i in. (French)
long, 12 in. wide, and 17^ in. high in the clear. As the slope which the pounded free-
stone took when unsupported in front formed an angle with the horizon of 34^°, the height
A E is 1 1 ^, so that the part acting against the front, or that side of the box where would be
the wall, is represented by the triangle EDF.
1589. To find by calculation the value of the force, and the thickness which should be
given to the opposed side, we must first find the area of the triangle EDF = -^|^ = 93| ;
but as the specific gravity (or equal mass) of the pounded stone is only jf of that of the
stone or other species of wall which is to resist the effort, it will be reduced to 73± x jf = 81.
This mass being supposed to slide upon the plane ED, its effort to its weight will be as
AE is to ED;; 11^ ; 20, or 81 x gj\ =45'9, which must be considered as the oblique
power qr passing through the centre of gravity of the mass, and acting at the extremity of
the lever ik. To ascertain the length of the lever, upon whose length depends the thick-
ness of the side which is unknown, we have the similar triangles qsr, qho, and kio, whose
sides are proportional : whence qs : sr'.lqh : ho; and as ko = hk — ho, we have qr ; qs '. \ hk —
ho '. ik.
Whence, fft= = f
The three sides of the triangle qsr are known from the position of the angle q at the centre
of gravity of the great triangle EFD, whence each of the sides of the small triangle is
equal to one third of those of the larger one, to which it is correspondent.
Ff 4
440
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
Thus, making the side qr=a,
BOOK IL
The unknown side sh=x,
hk=f,
The pressure 45 -9 found =p,
The height DF =rf,
We have b : c'.'.b+x : c~^cx=ho, and hk—ho will be f—
To obtain ik, we have the proportion alb: :f—b-^^- : ik.
Whence ik = '~ ^~cx ; so that the pressure p x ik is represented by p ( a~CJ}> to which
the resistance expressed by ^ must equilibrate.
Thus the equation becomes d^- ••
For easier solution, make P ~dP ° = 2m, and
, or ^ +
, and we have
equation of the second degree, which makes x= </2m + nn — n, which is a general formula
for problems of this sort.
Returning to the values of the known quantities, in which
m=pb
= - ; becomes n =
ad
becomes m = 45'9 x
45-9x3-75
75-55
= 12-70 and
25'4
2-28 and nn =
From the above, then, the formula x = V2m + nn — n becomes x = \/25 -4 + 5 -20 — 2 -28 =
3-22, a result which was confirmed by the experiment, inasmuch as a facing of the thick-
ness of 3^ inches was found necessary to resist the pressure of pounded freestone. By
Belidor's method, the thickness comes out 4-fo inches ; but it has been observed that its
application is not strictly correct. In the foregoing experiment, the triangular part only
of the material in the box was filled with the pounded stone, the lower part being supposed
of material which could not communicate pressure. But if the whole of the box had been
filled with the same material, the requisite thickness would have been found to be 5\ inches
to bear the pressure.
1590. In applying the preceding formula to this case, we must first find the area of the
trapezium BEDF (fig. 612.),
which will be found 1 95\ ;
multiplying this by if, to re-
duce the retaining wall and
the material to the same spe-
cific gravity, we have 169^.
This mass being supposed to
slide upon the inclined plane
E D, its effort parallel to that
plane will be 1951 x ",* =
95-76=p. Having found in
the last formula that qs is re-
presented by 6=6-93, sr by
c=4-76, qr by a = 8-40, /=
11-3, d = 1 7 -5 ; the thickness
of the retaining wall becomes
= sh — x ; m =pb x ~-~5 will be-
come, substituting the values
f\ff •* *•» ~ f\n 11'3 — 4*76
95 -76x6 -93x^4^1^
9 "61 . Substituting these values in the formula x = */2m + nn — n, we have x
— 3-1 =5-2, a result very confirmatory of the theory.
1591. In an experiment made on common dry earth, reduced to a powder, which took a
slope of 46° 50', its specific gravity being only j| of that of the retaining side, it was found
that the thickness necessary was 3 inches ^g-
1592. It is common, in practice, to strengthen walls for the retention of earth with piers
at certain intervals, which are called counterforts, by which the wall acquires additional
= 29-52 and 2m = 59 '04. n
Fig. 612.
becomes
and
-i- 9 -61
CHAP. I. MECHANICAL CARPENTRY. 441
strength ; but after what we have said in the beginning of this article, on the dependence
that is to be placed rather on well ramming down each layer of earth at the back of the
wall, supposing it to be of ordinary thickness, we do not think it necessary to enter upon any
calculation relative to their employment. It is clear their use tends to diminish the requi-
site thickness of the wall, and we would rather recommend the student to apply himself to
the knowledge of what has been done, than to trust to calculation for stability, though we
think the theory ought to be known by him.
SECT. XI.
MECHANICAL CARPENTRY.
1593. The woods used for the purposes of carpentry merit our attention from their
importance for the purpose of constructing solid and durable edifices. They are often
employed to carry great weights, and to resist great strains. Under these circumstances,
their strength and dimensions should be proportioned to the strains they have to resist.
For building purposes, oak and fir are the two sorts of timber in most common use.
Stone has, doubtless, the advantage over wood : it resists the changes of moisture and
dryness, and is less susceptible of alteration in the mass ; hence it ensures a stability which
belongs not to timber. The fragility of timber is, however, less than that of stone, and its
facility of transport is far greater. The greatest inconvenience attending the use of
timber, is its great susceptibility of ignition. This has led, in this as in every age, to ex-
pedients for another material, and in public buildings the object may be attained. In
private buildings, the cost of the substitute will not permit the employment of other than
the material which is the subject of our section.
1594. Oak is one of the best woods that can be employed in carpentry. It has all the
requisite properties ; such as size, strength, and stiffness. Oaks are to be found capable of
furnishing pieces 60 to 80 ft. long, and 2 ft. square. In common practice, beams rarely
exceed 36 to 4O ft. in length, by 2 ft. square.
1595. In regard to its durability, oak is preferable to all other trees that furnish equal
lengths and scantlings : it is heavier, better resists the action of the air upon it, as well as
that of moisture and immersion in the earth. It is a saying relating to the oak, that it
grows for a century, lasts perfect for a century, and takes a century to perish. When cut
at a proper season, used dry, and protected from the weather, it lasts from 500 to 60O
years. Oak, like other trees, varies in weight, durability, strength, and density, according
to the soil in which it grows. The last is always in an inverse proportion to the slowness
of its growth ; trees which grow slowest being invariably the hardest and the heaviest.
1596. From the experiments made upon oak and other sorts of wood, it is found that
their strength is proportional to their density and weight ; that of two pieces of the same
species of wood, of the same dimensions, the heavier is usually the stronger.
1 597. The weight of wood will vary in the same tree ; usually the heaviest portions are
the lower ones, from which upwards a diminution of weight is found to occur. In full-
grown trees, however, this difference does not occur. The oak of France is heavier than
that of England; the specific gravity of the former varying from 1000 to 1054, whilst the
latter, in the experiments of Barlow, varies from 770 to 920. The weight, therefore, of
an English cube foot of French oak is about 58 English pounds. Timber may be said to
be well seasoned when it has lost about a sixth part of its weight.
1598. In carpentry, timber acts with an absolute and with a relative strength. For
instance, that called the absolute strength is measured by the effort that must be exerted
to break a piece of wood by pulling it in the direction of the fibres. The relative strength
of a piece of wood depends upon its position. Thus a piece of wood placed horizontally
on two points of support at its extremities, is easier broken, and with a less effort, than if
it was inclined or upright. It is found that a smaller effort is necessary to break the piece
as it increases in length, and that this effort does not decrease strictly in the inverse ratio
of the length, when the thicknesses are equal. For instance, a piece 8 ft. long, and 6 in.
square, placed horizontally, bears a little more than double of another, of the same depth
and thickness, 1 6 ft. long, placed in the same way. In respect of the absolute force, the
difference does not vary in the same way with respect to the length. The following are
experiments by Rondelet, to ascertain the absolute force, the specimen of oak being of
861 specific gravity, and a cube foot, therefore, weighing 49^jlbs.
442 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK IT.
Cohesive Fores of Pieces drawn in the Direction of their Length.
First experiment.
A small rod of oak 0*0888 in. (= 1 French line) square, and 2'14
in. in length, broke with a weight of - - - 115 Ibs. averdupois.
Another specimen of the same wood, and of similar dimensions,
broke with - 105f3
Another specimen - - HOiu
The mean weight, therefore, was, in round numbers, 110 Ibs.
A rod of the same wood as the former, 0*177 inch ( = 2 French lines)
square, and 2-14 inches long, broke with a weight of - 4S9£ Ibs. averdupois.
Another specimen - - - - - 418
Another specimen - - - - - 451£
The mean weight, therefore, was 436 Ibs. for an area -f^ in. ( = 4 square lines
French, or 110 Ibs. for each, French line = 0-0888 in. English).
1599. Without a recital of all the experiments, we will only add, that after increasing
the thickness and length of the rods in the several trials, the absolute strength of oak was
found to be 110 Ibs. for every 1||§s of an inch area ( = 1 French line superficial).
The Strength of Wood in an upright Position.
1 600. If timber were not flexible, a piece of wood placed upright as a post, should bear
the weights last found, whatever its height ; but experience shows that when a post is
higher than six or seven times the width of its base, it bends under a similar weight before
crushing or compressing, and that a piece of the height of 100 diameters of its base is
incapable of bearing the smallest weight. The proportion in which the strength decreases
as the height increases, is difficult to determine, on account of the different results of the
experiments. Rondelet, however, found, after a great number, that when a piece of oak
was too short to bend, the force necessary to crush or compress it was about 49 '7 2 Ibs. for
every -^§§§3 of a square inch of its base, and that for fir the weight was about 56 '16 Ibs.
Cubes of each of these woods, on trial, lost height by compression, without disunion of
the fibres ; those of oak more than a third, and those of fir one half.
1601. A piece of fir or oak diminishes in strength the moment it begins to bend, so that
the mean strength of oak, which is 47 '52 Ibs. for a cube 1|§§I5 of an inch, is reduced to
2-16 Ibs. for a piece of the same wood, whose height is 72 times the width of its base.
From many experiments, Rondelet deduced the following progression : —
For a cube, whose height is 1, the strength =1
~ ~ 12, — = §
— 24, — =J
— — 36, — =4
— — 48, — = J
— 60, — =1\j
_ _ 72, — „£
Thus, for a cube of oak, whose base is 1 -066 in. area ( = 1 square in. French) placed
upright, that is, with its fibres in a vertical direction, its mean strength is ex-
pressed by 144* x 47 '5 2 = 68 4 2 Ibs. From a mean of these experiments, the
result was (by experiment) in Ibs. averdupois - - 6853
For a rod of the same oak, whose section was of the same area by 12-792 in. high
( = 12 French in.), the weight borne or mean strength is 144 x ^^=5702 Ibs.
From a mean of three experiments, the result was - 5735
For a rod 25-584 ( = 24 French) in. high, the strength is 144 x ^— = 3421 Ibs. - 3144
For a rod 38-376 ( = 36 French) in. high, the strength is 144 x ^^ = 2281 Ibs. - 2336
47TJ9
For a rod 51-160 ( = 48 French) in. high, the strength is 144 x -^ = 1140 Ibs.
For a rod 63-960 ( = 60 French) in. high, the strength is 144 x ^jj^= 570 Ibs.
For a rod 76-752 ( = 72 French) in. high, the strength is 144 x -gp»« 285 Ibs.
For a cube of fir, whose sides are 1-066 in. area ( = 1 square in. French), placed as
before, with the fibres in a vertical direction, we have 144 x 56-16=8087 Ibs. - 8089
* The French inch, consisting of 144 lines.
CHAP. I. MECHANICAL CARPENTRY. 443
For a square rod, whose base was 1 -066 in. area ( = 1 square in. French), 12-792 in.
high, we have 144 x 56'!gX5 = 6739 Ibs. - 6863
For a rod 25 '58 4 (=24 French) in. high, 144 x ^=4043 lbs. - 3703
For a rod 38-376 ( = 36 French) in. high, 144 x ^=2696 lbs. - 2881
For a rod 51-160 ( = 48 French) in. high, 1 44 x ^p = 1 348 lbs.
For a rod 63-960 ( = 60 French) in. high, 144 x^^= 674 Ibs.
For a rod 76-752 ( = 72 French) in. high, 144+—^= 337 Ibs.
The rule by Rondelet above given was that also adopted by MM. Perronet, Lam-
blardie, and Girard. In the analytical treatise of the last-named, some experiments are
shown, which lead us to think it not very far from the truth. From the experiments, more-
over, we learn, that the moment a post begins to bend, it loses strength, and that it is not
prudent, in practice, to reduce its diameter or side to less than one tenth of its height.
1602. In calculating the resistance of a post after the rate of only 10-80 for every 1 -066
superficial line English ( = 1 line super. French), which is much less than one quarter of
the weight under which it would be crushed, we shall find that a square post whose sides
are l-066ft.( = l ft. French) containing 22104-576 English lines ( = 20736 French), would
sustain a weight of 2387 29 Ibs. or 106 tons. Yet as there may be a great many circum-
stances, in practice, which may double or triple the load, it is never safe to trust to a post
the width of whose base is less than a tenth part of its height, to the extent of 5 Ibs. per
1 -066 line ; in one whose height is fifteen times the width of the base, 4 Ibs. for the same
proportion ; and when twenty times, not more than 3 Ibs.
Horizontal Pieces of Timber.
1603. In all the experiments on timber lying horizontally, as respects its length, and sup-
ported at the ends, it is found that, in pieces of equal depth, their strength diminishes hi
proportion to the bearing between the points of support. In pieces of equal length between
the supports, the strength is as their width and the squares of their depths. We here con-
tinue M. Rondelet's experiments.
1604. A rod of oak 2 -132 in. (2 in. French) square, and 25 -584 in. (24 in. French) long,
broke under a weight of 2488-32 Ibs., whilst another of the same dimensions, but 1 9-188 in.
(18 in. French) bore 3353-40; whence it appears that the relative strength of these two
rods was in the inverse ratio of their length. The proportion is 1 9 -1 88 : 25 -584 : : 2488 -32 I
3317-76, instead of 3353-40 Ibs., the actual weight in the experiment.
1605. In another rod of the same wood, 2 -132 in. wide and 3-198 deep, and 25 -584 in.
bearing, it broke with a weight of 5532 Ibs. In the preceding first-mentioned experiment
it was found that a rod of 2-132 in. square, with a bearing 25 '584 in. bore 2488 -32 Ibs.
Supposing the strength of the rods to be exactly as the squares of their heights, we should
have 4-54 (2-1322) ; 10-23 (3-198*) :: 2488-32 : 5598-7 Ibs. ; which the second rod should
have borne, instead of 5532 Ibs. There are numberless considerations which account for the
discrepancy, but it -is one too small to make us dissatisfied with the theory.
1606. In a third experiment on the same sort of wood, the dimension of 3 '198 in. being
laid flatwise, and the 2 -132 in. depth wise, the bearing or distance between the supports
being the same as before, it broke with a weight of 3573 Ibs. : whence it follows that the
strength of pieces of wood of the st.rae depth is proportional to their width. Thus, com-
paring the piece 2-132 in. square, which bore 2488 Ibs., we ought to have 2-132 : 3-198
:: 2488 -32 : 3624-48, instead of 3573 Ibs.
1 607. From a great number of experiments and calculations made for the purpose of
finding the proportion of the absolute strength of oak, to that which it has when lying
horizontally between two points of support, the most simple method is to multiply the
area of the piece in section by half the absolute strength, and to divide the product by the
number of times its depth is contained in the length between the points of support.
1608. Thus, in the experiments made by Belidor on rods of oak 3 French ( = 3-198
English) ft. long, and 1 French ( = 1 -066 in. English) in. square, the mean weight
under which they broke was 200-96 Ibs. averdupois. Now, as the absolute strength of
oak is from 98 to 110 Ibs. for every To8080865 in. ( = 1 French line), the mean strength will be
104 and 52 Ibs. for its half, and the rule will become (144 lines, being =1 French in.)
207 '30 lbs'' instead of 200-96 Ibs.
1609. Three other rods, 2 French in. square (2-132 Eng.), and of the same length be-
tween the supports, broke with a mean weight of 171 1 -8 lbs. By the rule 576f== 14^*4I>ijg
= 1658 -88 lbs. averdupois. Without further mention of the experiments of Belidor, we
444 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
may observe, that those of Parent and others give results which confirm the rule. The
experiments, however, of Buffon, having been made on a larger scale, show that the strength
of pieces of timber of the same size, lying horizontally, does not diminish exactly in the pro-
portion of their length, as the theory whereon the rule is founded would indicate. It be-
comes, therefore, proper to modify it in some respects.
1610. Buffon's experiments show that a beam as long again as another of the same
dimensions will not bear half the weight that the shorter one does. Thus —
A beam, 7 -462 ft. long, and 5-330 in. square, broke with a
weight of - 12495-06 Ibs. averdupois.
Another, 14-924 ft. long, of the same dimensions, broke with a
weight of - 5819.04
A third, 29 -8 48 ft. long, of the same dimensions, bore before
breaking ..... 2112-48
By the rule, the results should have been, for the 7-462 ft. beam 12495-60
for that of 14-924 - 6247-80
for that of 29-848 - 3123*90
Whence it appears, that owing to the elasticity of the timber, the strength of the pieces,
instead of forming a decreasing geometrical progression, whose exponent is the same, forms
one in which it is variable. The forces in question may be represented by the ordinates of
a species of catenarean curve.
1611. In respect, then, of the diminution of the strength of wood, it is not only pro-
portioned to the length and size, but is, moreover, modified in proportion to its absolute
or primitive force and its flexibility ; so that timber exactly of the same quality would give
results following the same law, so as to form ordinates of a curve, exhibiting neither
inflection nor undulation in its outline: thus in pieces whose scantlings and lengths
form a regular progression, the defects can only be caused by a difference in their primitive
strength ; and as this strength varies in pieces taken from the same tree, it becomes im-
possible to establish a rule whose results shall always agree with experiment ; but by
taking a mean primitive strength, we may obtain results sufficiently accurate for practice.
For this purpose, the rule that nearest agrees with experiment is —
1st. To subtract from the primitive strength one third of the quantity which
expresses the number of times that the depth is contained in the length of the
piece of timber.
2d. To multiply the remainder thus obtained by the square of the length.
3d. To divide the product by the number expressing the relation of the depth to the
length.
Hence calling the primitive strength - = a
the number of times that the depth is contained in the length = b
— the depth of the piece = d
the length = I
The general formula will be, a~3 *dd^add_dd
~T~ & 3*
1612. Suppose the primitive strength a = 64 -36 for each 1-136 square line(=l line
French), we shall find for a beam 5-330 in. square, by 19'188 ft. long, or 230-256 inches,
that the proportion of the depth to the length =^~|^6=43-2 = 5.
1613. The vertical depth being 5'330 or 63-960 lines, dd will be 4089-88 ; substituting
these values in the formula ^~f we have ^^^-^§^=4067-99, instead of
4120-20, the mean result of two beams of the same scantlings in the experiments of Buffon.
But as the mean primitive strength of the beams is, according to the second of the following
tables, 64-99, instead of 64-36, which has been taken for the mean strength of all the pieces
given in that table, we ought to have found less. Thus taking 64'99, we have ^^^~
_ 4089-88 = 412o-20, as in the experiment.
The scientific world generally, the architect and engineer especially, are indebted to the
person from whom the tables which follow have emanated. They are worth more than
all which hitherto has been done in this country ; and our surprise is great that in most of
the various treatises on timber and carpentry, some whereof have resulted from no mean
hands, more importance has been given to theoretical instruction than to that which might
have been deduced from experiments. The treatises, indeed, on mechanical carpentry
almost seem to have been written more with the view of perplexing than of assisting the
student.
CHAP. I.
MECHANICAL CARPENTRY.
443
TABLES OF EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE I.
Experiments on Pieces of Timber 4 '264 inches square, supposing the absolute
Strength 60-1344.
Length
of the
Pieces
in Feet.
I
Propor-
tion of
Depth to
Length.
Weight of
the Pieces
in Pounds.
Curvature
before
breaking,
in Inches.
Absolute
Strength.
Relative
Strength.
Weight
in Pounds
averdu-
pois.
Mean
Effort
accord-
ing to
Experi-
ment.
Relative
Strength
accord-
ing to
Calcula-
tion.
Breaking
Weight
calcu-
lated on
relative
Strength.
From Experiment.
1
7-462
21
" 64-80
60-48
3-721
4-797
60-13
52-57
"5778"
5697
5768
52-57
5768
8-528
24
73-44
69-04
3-997
4-975
60-29
51-55
4968
4860
4869
51-49
4943
9-594
27
' 83-16
76-68
5-152
5-863
59-40
49-68
'4428'
4266
4387
50-41
4301
10-660
30
' 90-72
88-56
6-218
6-929
62-16
51-36
"3715"
3884
3946
49-33
3799
12-792
36
'108-00
105-84
7-462
7-462
63-28
51-22
'3294'
3159
3279
47-17
3018
TABLE II.
Experiments on Pieces of Timber 5-330 inches square, supposing the absolute
Strength 64-36.
7-462
16|
C 101 -52
1 95-58
2-665
2-665
64-37
58-32
"12,717\
12,1 77 J
12,496
58-31
12,496
8-528
*9|
f 112-32
tllO-16
2-842
3-109
63-58
56-67
'l 0,692 1
10,449
10,626
57-34
10,750
f 127-44
3-198
9,072'
9-594
21 1
4 125-28
3-464
62-20
54-42
8,991 •
8,635
56-58
9,429
[l24-20
3-731
8,856
"142-56
3-375
7,803"
10-660
24
140-40
3-731
60-40
51-76
7,614 -
7,765
55-72
8,357
138-78
4-264
7,668
12-792
28^
5 168-48
166-32
5-886
6-132
63-50
51-54
6,534'
6,588
6,644
54-99
6,748
14-924
33|
' 1 92-24
190-08
8-528
8-794
66-42
54-32
5,832 '
5,616
5,819
52-26
4,600
17-056
38|
: 225-72
221-40
8-616
8-705
-
65-12
51-30
' 4,779"
4,617
4,810
50-53
4,738
19-188
431
"250-56
249-48
8-528 "
8-705
64-99
49-44
' 4,050'
3,942
4,120
48-80
4,066
21 -320
48
'284-04
279-72
9-416°
10-660
•
65-60
48-32
3,537s
3,429
3,624
47-08
3,530
23-452
52§
303-48
11-992'
68-34
49-33
3,213
3,364
45-35
3,092
25-584
57f
f 334-80
\331-56
11 -726"!
14-491 J
60-76
40-02
f 2,376 \
1 2,2 95 J
2,502
43-62
2,726
29-848
6U
f 393-1 2
|_ 388-80
19-1881
23-452 J
63-42
39-24
J 1,944\
\ 1,890J
2,112
40-16
2,151
TABLE III.
Experiments on Pieces of Timber 6-396 inches square, supposing the absolute
Strength 56 -88.
7-462
14
"138-24
136-62
2-132
2-132
60-44
54-50
f 20,790"
\ 20, 142
20,635
51-84
9..1S6
8-528
16
"160-92
157-68
2-487
2-576
57-75
52-28
= 16,956*
1 6,578
16,804
51-12
13,562
9-594
18
'179-28
177-66
2-664
3-020
56-09
49-61
"14,526*
13,878
14,292
50-40
14,547
10-660
20
" 203 -04
200-88
3-198
3-430
54-23
47-05
'12,393*
11,907
12,197
49-68
12,877
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK IT.
TABLE III. — continued.
Length
of the
Pieces
in Feet.
Propor-
tion of
Depth to
Length.
Weight of
the Pieces
in Pounds.
Curvature
before
breaking,
in Inches.
Absolute
Strength.
Relative
Strength.
Weight in
Pounds
averdu-
pois.
Mean
Efforts
accord-
ing to
Experi-
ment.
Relative
Strength
accord-
ing to
Calcula-
tion.
Breaking
Weight
calcu-
lated on
relative
Strength.
From Experiment.
12-792
24
"241-92
238-68
4-264
4-352
54-69
46-05
9,936
9,720
9,938
48-24
9,420
14-924
28
275-40
274-32
4-797
4-441
54-36
44-28
7,766
8,100
8,210
46-81
8,666
17-056
32
317-52
316-48
5-863
6-218
54-86
43-38
' 6,750"
6,993
7,030
45-36
7,348
19-188
36
'360-72
357-48
7-906
9-060
54-92
42-96
' 6,075'
5,940
6,187
43 '92
6,319
21-320
40
'407-16
405-00
10-126
9-416
56-79
42-39
' 5,427'
5,259
5,495
42-49
5,506
TABLE IV.
Experiments on Pieces of Timber 7-462 inches square, supposing the absolute
Strength 57 -85.
8-528
isf
"220-32
217-62
2-931'
2-664
59-82
54-88
("28,242"
1 28,026
28,243
52-92
26,927
9-594
15}
"245-16
243-00
3-286"
3-109
58-59
53-04
/ 27,599'
\ 23,652
24,260
51-74
23,656
10-660
17J
! 274 -32
272-16
2.753*
3-198
57-60
51-43
: 21, 222s
20,844
21,169
51-68
21,246
12-792
20$
'326-16
325-08
3-109'
3-553
58-80
51-41
" 18,1 44'
16,794
17,633
50-49
17,318
14-924
24
'379-08
379-08
4-441 "
3-997
57-85
49-21
"l 4,688 =
13,878
1 4,472
49-21
14,470
17-056
27f
= 438 -48
435-24
5-152 '
5-596
56-94
47-07
11,988
11,772
12,098
47-98
12,343
19-188
30f
'491-32
491 -32
5-863'
6-218
56-69
45-49
r 10,106'
10,152
10,424
46-76
10,693
21-320
34f
'545-40
540-00
8-350°
9-060
57*09
44-74
' 8,914*
8,640
9,208
45-51
9,207
TABLE V.
Experiments on Pieces of Timber 8-528 inches square, supposing the absolute
Strength 55-08.
10-660
15
"357-48
357-48
3-198
2-398
54-46
49-06
"30,024"
29,916
30,148
49-68
30,363
12-792
18
428-76
427-14
3-198
3-109
56-35
49-87
25,812
24,840
25,540
48-60
24,883
14-924
21
497-88
495-72
4-086
3-375
56-78
49-23
'21,654'
21,060
21,605
47-52
20,854
17-056
24
("570-24
1 565-92
5-407
6-129
55-42
46-78
' 18,144'
17,117
17,968
46-44
1 7,833
19-188
27
J 641 -52
\639-64
4-797
4-352
52-42
42-70
"14,580"
13,932-
14,577
45-36
15,482
21-320
30
T717-12
\712-80
7-995
6-396
54-10
43-30
'11,717'
13,176
13,303
44-28
13,593
1614. The five preceding tables give a view of the results of experiments by Buffon
upon beams 4 -264, 5 '330, 6'396, 7 -462, and 8 '528 inches square, of different lengths, as com-
pared with those found by the modified rule above given (1660.).
1615. The first column shows the length of the pieces in English feet. The second, the
proportion of their depth to their length. The third, the weight of each piece in pounds
averaupots. The fourth, the curvature before breaking. The fifth, the absolute or
primitive strength, that is, independent of the length. The sixth, that strength reduced
in the ratio of the proportion of the depth to the length of the pieces given in the
CHAP. I.
MECHANICAL CARPENTRY.
447
second column. The seventh
column gives the weight borne
before breaking, independent of
their own weight. The eighth,
the mean effort with which the
pieces broke, including half their
weight, the other half acting
on the points of support. The
ninth shows the reduced strength
of the pieces in respect of the
proportions of the depth to the
length, supposing the primitive
strength equal for all the pieces
in the same table. The tenth
column gives the result of the
calculation according to the rule
above given.
1616. In order to give an idea
of the method of representing
the strength of wood of the same
scantling, but of different lengths,
by the ordinates of a curve, we
annex fig. 612. to explain by it
the result of the experiments of
Buffon, given in the second table.
The ordinates of the polygon N,
O, P, Q, &c. represent the results
of the experiments made upon
beams 5 -330 in. square, of different
lengths, whose primitive strength
varied in each piece.
1617. The ordinates of the re-
gular curve, m, Z, i, h, g, f, e, d, c,
b, Z,, show the results of the cal-
culation according to the rule,
taking the same primitive strength
for each piece.
1618. After what has been said
in a preceding page, it is easy
to conceive that the primitive un-
equal strengths would form an
irregular polygon, whereof each
point would answer to a different
curve ; whilst, supposing the same
primitive strength to belong to
each piece, there should be an
agreement between the strengths
and scantlings which constitute a
regular curve.
1619. Thus it is to be ob-
served that the points O and P
of the regular polygon only vary
from the regular curve, m, /, k, i,
&c., because the ordinate LO is
the product of a primitive strength
diminished by the mean primitive
strength which produced the or-
dinate of the curve KP. Hence
the point P is above the properly
correspondent point k.
1620. For the same reason, the
point c is above its correspond-
ing point X, because the relative
ordinate Cc is the product of a
primitive strength greater than
the mean which produced the
point X.
Fig. 6IS.
448
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
1621. Referring to the second table, we find that the primitive strength answering to the
point O is but 60-76, and the value of the ordinate LO 2502, whilst that of the point P
is 68 '34, and the value of the ordinate KP 3364 ; and as the ordinates LZ and Kk cor-
responding to the curve are calculated upon the same primitive strength of 64-36, which
for LZ gives 2726, and for KP 3092 : it follows that, in considering all these quantities as
equal parts of a similar scale, the point P of the polygon should be (3364—3092 = )
272 of these parts above the corresponding point k of the curve, and the point O 224 of
those parts (2726 — 2502) below the point I.
1622. To render the researches made, available and useful, the table which follows has
been calculated so as to exhibit the greatest strength of beams from pieces 3-198 in. square,
up to 19-188 in. by 26-65 in.
The first column contains the length of each piece in English feet.
The second column, the proportion of the depth to the length ; and
The third, the greatest strength of each piece in pounds averdupois.
The table is for oak ; and it is to be recollected that the weight is supposed to be
concentred in the middle of the bearing of the beams, and hence double what it would be
if distributed over the whole length of each piece.
Experience, as well as investigation of the experiments, shows, that in order to resist
all the efforts and strains which, in practice, timber has to encounter, the weight with
which it is loaded ought to be very much less than its breaking weight, and that it ought
not to be more than one tenth of what is given as the breaking weight in the following
table, beyond which it would not be safe to trust it. The abstraction of the last figure on
the right hand, therefore, gives the practicable strength by simple inspection. In a subse-
quent page, the reduction of the strength of oak to fir, which is in more general use in this
country, will be introduced, so as to make the table of more general utility.
TABLE VI.
Showing the greatest Strength of Oak Timber lying horizontally, in pounds averdupois.
Length of
each Piece
in English
Feet.
Proper-
tion of
Depth to
Length.
Breaking
Weight in
Ibs. aver-
dupois.
Length of
each Piece
in English
Feet.
Propor-
tion of
Depth to
Length.
Breaking
Weight in
Ibs. aver-
dupois.
Length of
each Piece
in English
Feet.
Propor-
tion of
Depth to
Length.
Breaking
Weight in
Ibs. aver-
dupois.
3-198 inches (Eng.) square.
3-198 in. by 5-330 in.
4-264 inches square.
1-599
6
12245
2-664
6
20418
2-842
8
16224
2-132
8
8747
3-553
8
15109
3-553
10
12728
2-664
10
7163
4-441
10
11934
4-264
12
10469
3-198
12
5889
5-330
12
9815
4-974
14
8696
3-730
14
4980
6-218
14
8303
5-685
16
7645
4-264
16
4290
7-106
16
7167
6-396
18
6702
4-796
18
3771
7-994
18
6283
7-106
20
5951
5-330
20
3247
8-883
20
5578
7-817
22
5333
5-862
22
3000
9-771
22
5010
8-528
24
4820
6-396
24
2711
10-660
24
4519
9-238
26
4386
6-928
26
2447
1 1 -548
26
4111
9-949
28
4014
7-469
9-8
2257
12-436
28
3758
10-66
30
3686
7-994
30
2076
13-324
30
3459
3-198 in. by 4-264 in.
3-198 in. by 6 -396 in.
4' 264 in. by 5-330 in.
2-132
6
16326
3-198
6
24489
3-553
8
16224
2-842
8
12090
4-264
8
18136
4-441
10
12730
3-553
10
9547
5-330
10
14321
.5-330
12
10469
4-264
12
7852
6-396
12
11778
6-218
14
8856
4-974
14
6642
7-462
14
9963
7-106
16
7645
5-685
16
5724
8-528
16
8761
7-994
18
6702
6-396
18
5027
9-594
18
7540
8-883
20
5951
7-106
20
4462
10-660
20
6694
9-771
22
5333
7-817
22
4000
11-726
22
6001
10-66
24
4820
8-528
24
3615
12-792
24
5422
11-55
26
4396
9-238
26
3289
13-858
26
4934
12-44
28
4013
9-949
28
3010
14-924
28
4514
13-32
30
3766
10-660
30
2767
15-990
30
4150
CHAP. I.
MECHANICAL CARPENTRY.
449
Length of
each Piece
in English
Feet.
Propor-
tion of
Depth to
Length.
Breaking
Weight in
Ibs. aver-
dupois.
Length of
each Piece
in English
Feet.
Propor-
tion of
Depth to
Length.
Breaking
Weight in
Ibs. aver-
dupois.
Length of
each Piece
in English
Feet.
Propor-
tion of
Depth to
Length.
Breaking
Weight in
Ibs. aver-
dupois.
4-264 in. by 6 '396 in.
5-330 in. by 6 -3 96 in.
5 -330 in. by 10-660 in.
4-264
8
20152
5-330
10
23869
8-883
10
39782
5-330
10
16913
6-396
12
19630
10-66
12
32717
6-396
12
13086
7-462
14
16374
12-44
14
27677
7-462
14
11071
8-528
16
14294
14-21
16
23888
8-5'28
16
9557
9-594
18
12568
15-99
18
20648
9-594
18
8379
10-66
20
11157
17-77
20
18595
10-66
20
7438
11-73
22
10001
19-54
22
16669
11-73
22
6668
12-79
24
9037
21-32
24
15063
12-79
24
6023
13-86
26
8223
23-10
26
13706
13-86
26
5482
14-92
28
7524
24-87
28
12551
14-92
28
5017
15-99
30
6918
26-65
30
11531
15-99
30
4613
4-264 in. by 7 '462 in.
5-330 in. by 7-462 in.
6-396 inches square.
4-974
8
28224
6-218
10
27847
5-330
10
28643
6-218
10
22277
7-462
12
22901
6-396
12
23556
7-462
12
18321
8-705
14
18373
7-462
14
19927
8-705
14
15499
9-949
16
16724
8-528
16
17191
9-949
16
13379
11-19
18
14663
9-594
18
15082
11-19
18
11730
12-44
20
13017
10-66
20
13389
12-44
20
10413
13-68
22
11667
11-73
22
12001
13-68
22
9334
14-92
24
. 10544
12-79
24
10844
14-92
24
8427
16-17
26
9595
13-86
26
9857
16-17
26
7675
17-41
28
8778
14-92
28
8710
17-41
28
7022
18-65
30
8072
15-99
30
8302
18-65
30
6457
4-264 in. by 8-528 in.
5 -330 in. by 8-528 in.
6-396 in. by 7-462 in.
5-685
8
22242
7-106
10
32225
5-218
10
33400
7-106
10
25460
8-528
12
26174
7-462
12
27482
8-528
12
21942
9-949
14
22141
8-705
14
23244
9-949
14
17713
11-37
16
19106
9-949
16
20067
11-37
16
15291
12-79
18
16757
11-19
18
17596
12-79
18
13410
14-21
20
14877
12-44
20
15321
14-21
20
11902
15-63
22
13338
13-68
22
13986
15-63
22
10677
17-06
24
12057
14-92
24
12652
17-06
24
9562
18-48
26
10965
16-17
26
11572
18-48
26
8772
19-90
28
10053
17-41
28
10534
19-90
28
8026
21-32
30
9225
18-65
30
9668
21-32
3O
7480
5'330 inches square.
5 -330 in. by 9 '594 in.
6-396 in. by 8-528 in.
4-441
10
19890
7-994
10
35803
7-106
10
38158
5-330
12
16359
9-594
12
29445
8-528
12
31407
6-218
14
13839
11-19
14
24919
9-949
14
27341
7-106
16
11946
12-79
16
21493
11-37
16
22936
7-994
18
10473
14-39
18
18853
12-79
18
20110
8-863
20
9298
15-99
20
16737
14-21
20
17852
9-771
22
8334
17-59
22
15002
15-63
22
16001
10-66
24
7531
19-19
24
13556
17-06
24
14460
1 1 -55
26
6863
20-78
26
12336
18-48
26
13158
12-44
28
6270
22-39
28
11287
19-90
28
12425
13-32
30
5765
23-98
30
10378
21-32
30
11070
450
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
Length of
each Piece
in English
Feet.
Propor-
tion of
Depth to
Length.
Breaking
Weight in
Ibs. aver-
dupois.
Length of
each Piece
in English
Feet.
Propor-
tion of
Depth to
Length.
Breaking
Weight in
Ibs. aver-
dupois .
Length of
each Piece
in English
Feet.
Propor-
tion of
Depth to
Length.
Breaking
Weight in
Ibs. aver-
dupois.
6-396 in. by 9 '594 in.
7-462 inches square.
7-462 in. by 11-726 in.
7-994
10
42964
6-218
10
35746
9-771
10
60264
9-594
12
35334
7-462
12
31911
11-73
12
49384
11-19
14
29891
8-705
14
27123
13-68
14
42622
12-79
16
25791
9-949
16
23413
15-63
16
36792
14-39
18
22623
11-19
18
20530
17-59
18
31808
15-99
20
20084
12-44
20
18224
19-54
20
28637
17-59
22
18002
13-68
22
16335
21-50
22
24719
19-19
24
16267
14-92
24
14761
23-45
24
23196
20-79
26
14802
16-17
26
13436
25-40
26
21307
22-39
28
13544
17-41
28
12637
27-36
28
18928
23-98
30
12453
18-65
30
10940
29-31
30
17758
6 '396 in. by 10'66 in.
7 -462 in. by 8-528 in.
7-462 in. by 12-792 in.
8-883
10
47738
7-106
10
44577
10-66
10
66832
10-66
12
39261
8-528
12
36643
12-79
12
55964
12-44
14
33212
9-949
14
29806
14-92
14
46497
14-21
16
28670
11-37
16
26746
17-06
16
40138
15-99
18
25135
12-79
18
24060
19-19
18
34992
17-77
20
22315
14-21
20
21838
21-32
20
31241
19-54
22
19973
15-63
22
18667
23-45
22
28O03
21-32
24
18075
17-06
24
16870
25-58
24
25305
23-10
26
16447
18-48
26
15418
27-72
26
23068
24-87
28
15050
19-90
28
14046
29-85
28
21070
26-65
30
13638
21-32
30
12915
31-98
30
18373
6 -396 in. by 11 -726 in.
7'462 in. by 9 -594 in.
7-462 in. by 13-858 in.
9-771
10
52512
7-994
10
50125
12-61
10
72403
11-72
12
43176
9-594
12
41221
13-86
12
59546
13-68
14
36533
11-19
14
35644
16-17
14
50371
15-63
16
31537
12-79
16
30103
18-48
16
43483
17-59
18
27631
14-39
18
26394
19-72
18
38124
19-54
20
24546
15-99
20
23432
21-50
22
22003
17-59
22
21003
23-45
24
19883
19-19
O/\,Hf\
24
o/?
18979
i ^ro'm
8*528 inches square.
25*41
27-36
26
28
18092
16554
zO 79
22-39
2o
28
17*70
15802
7-106
10
50921
29-31
30
15221
23-98
30
14530
8-528
12
41878
9-949
14
35426
11-37
16
30581
6-396 in. by 12-792 in.
7 -462 in. by 10-66 in.
12-79
14-21
18
20
26812
23803
10-66
12-79
14-92
17-06
19-19
10
12
14
16
18
57285
47083
37854
34404
30164
8-983
10-66
12-44
14-21
15-99
10
12
14
16
18
55738
45804
38757
33449
29226
15-63
.17-06
18-48
19-90
21-32
22
24
26
28
30
21342
19280
17345
16051
14760
21-32
23-45
20
22
26719
24003
17-77
19-54
20
22
f\A
26142
23325
01 rvo*T
8-528 in. by 9 '5 94 in.
25-58
24
21689
21-32
z4
zlUoY
27-72
26
19377
23-10
26
19139
7-994
10
57285
29-85
28
18060
24-97
28
17557
9-594
12
47093
31-98
30
16000
26-65
30
16144
11-19
14
39854
CHAP. I.
MECHANICAL CARPENTRY.
451
Length of
each Piece
in English
Feet.
Propor-
tion of
Depth to
Length.
Breaking
Weight in
Ibs.aver-
dupois.
Length of
each Piece
in English
Feet.
Propor-
tion of
Depth to
Length.
Breaking
Weight in
Ibs. aver-
dupois.
Length of
each Piece
in English
Feet.
Propor-
tion of
Depth to
Length.
Breaking
Weight in
Ibs. aver-
dupois.
12-79
14-39
15-99
17-59
19-19
21-95
23-45
25-05
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
34403
30170
26773
24003
21690
19737
17960
16605
8'528 in. by 14-924 in.
21-32
23-45
25-58
27-72
29-85
31-98
20
22
24
26
28
30
40167
36004
32535
29606
27090
24908
12-44
14-92
17-41
19-90
22-39
10
12
14
16
18
89111
73279
61996
53517
46923
9 -594 in. by 13-858 in.
8-528 in. by 10*66 in.
9-594 inches square.
11-55
13-86
16-17
18-48
20-79
10
12
14
16
18
93089
76458
64763
55906
49117
8-883
10-66
12-44
14-21
15-99
17-77
19-54
21-32
23-10
24-87
26-65
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
62651
52348
44283
38227
33516
29754
26669
24100
21930
20066
18444
7-994
9-594
11-19
12-79
14-39
15-99
17-59
19-19
20-79
22-39
23-98
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
64447
52992
45402
38704
33935
30125
27003
24401
22205
20317
18681
9-594 in. by 14-924 in.
12-44
14-92
17-41
19-90
22-39
10
12
14
16
18
100250
82447
69745
60207
52771
8-528 in. by 11-726 in.
9-594 in. by 10-66 in.
10-66 inches square.
9-771
11-73
13-67
15-63
17-59
19-54
21-50
23-45
25-40
27-36
30-20
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
69975
57582
48711
42049
36668
32729
29337
26017
24124
22073
20295
8-983
10-66
12-44
14-21
15-99
17-77
19-54
21-32
23-10
24-87
26-65
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
71607
58891
49818
43010
37705
33473
30003
27112
24671
22574
20756
8-883
10-66
12-44
14-21
15-99
17-77
19-54
21-32
23-10
24-87
26-65
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
79564
65435
55453
47783
41895
37192
33337
30125
27412
24083
23061
8-528 in by 12-792 in.
9-594 in. by 11 '726 in.
10-66 in. by 1 1 -726 in.
10-66
12-79
14-92
1706
19-19
21-32
23-45
25-58
27-72
29-85
31-98
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
76381
62817
53139
45872
40219
35715
32004
28920
26356
24851
22149
9-771
11-73
13-68
15-63
17-59
19-59
21-50
23-45
25-40
27-36
29-21
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
78848
64780
54800
47305
41476
36820
33004
29825
27138
24830
22832
9-771
11-73
13-67
15-63
17-59
19-54
21-50
23-45
25-40
27-36
29-21
10
12
14-
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
87520
71978
60889
52548
45985
40911
36671
33138
30155
27491
25369
8-528 in. by 13'S58 in.
9-594 in. by 12-792 in.
10-66 in. by 12-792 in.
11-55
13-86
16-17
18-48
20-79
10
12
14
16
18
82746
68052
57576
49627
43628
10-66
12-79
14-92
17-06
19-19
10
12
14
16
18
85929
70670
59782
51406
45247
10-66
12-79
14-92
17-06
10
12
14
16
95476
78521
66424
57340
G g 2
452
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
Length of
each Piece
in English
Feet.
Propor-
tion of
Depth to
Length.
Breaking
Weight in
Ibs. aver,
dupois.
Length of
each Piece
in English
Feet.
Propor-
tion of
Depth to
Length.
Breaking
Weight in
Ibs. aver-
dupois.
Length of
each Piece
in English
Feet.
Propor-
tion of
Depth to
Length.
Breaking
Weight in
Ibs. aver-
dupois.
19-19
21-32
23-45
25-58
27-72
29-85
31-98
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
50274
44631
40005
36151
32896
30100
27676
27-72
29-85
31-98
26
28
30
36185
33109
30443
12 -792 in. by 13-858 in.
11-55
13-86
16-17
18-48
20-79
10
12
14
16
18
124119
102078
86351
74542
65356
11 -726 in. by 13 -858 in.
11-55
13-86
16-17
18-48
20-79
10
12
14
16
18
113776
93572
79155
68328
60910
10-66 in. by 13-858 in.
12 -792 in. by 14 -924 in.
11-55
13-86
16-17
18-48
20-79
10
12
14
16
18
103633
85065
72037
62118
54463
12-44
14-92
17-41
19-90
22-39
10
12
14
16
18
133667
110930
92994
80275
70384
11 -726 in. by 14 -924 in.
12-44
14-92
17-41
19-90
22-39
10
12
14
16
18
1 22528
100769
85244
73576
64518
10-66 in. by 14. 924 in.
12 -792 in. by 15'99in.
12-44
14-92
17-41
19-90
22-39
10
12
14
16
18
111389
91609
77495
66896
58653
13-32
15-99
18-65
21-32
23-98
10
12
14
16
18
143214
117783
99636
86010
75411
11 -726 in. by 15 -99 in.
13-32
15-99
18-65
21-32
23-98
10
12
14
16
18
131280
107968
91333
78842
69126
10 -66 in. by 15 -990 in.
12 -792 in. by 17 -056 in.
13-32
15-99
18-65
21-32
23-98
10
12
14
16
18
119345
98152
83030
71675
62841
14-21
17-06
19-90
22-74
25-58
10
12
14
16
18
152762
125634
106279
91744
76238
11 -726 in. by 17 -056 in.
14-21
17-06
19-90
22-74
25-58
10
12
14
16
18
148784
122362
103511
89355
78344
1 1 -726 inches square.
12 -792 in. by 18-122 in.
9-771
11-73
13-67
15-63
17-59
19-54
21-50
23-45
25-40
27-36
29-21
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
96272
79174
66978
57818
51493
45002
40338
36407
33087
30350
27906
15-10
18-12
21-14
24-16
27-18
10
12
14
16
18
162310
123487
112921
97479
85461
11 -72 in. by 18-1 22 in.
15-10
18-12
21-14
24-16
27-18
10
12
14
16
18
157537
129561
109600
94611
82350
12 -792 in. by 19-188 in.
15-99
19-19
22-37
25-58
28-78
10
12
14
16
18
171857
141340
119565
103212
88894
12*792 inches square.
11 -726 in. by 12 -792 in.
10-66
12-79
14-92
17-06
19-19
21-32
23-45
25-58
27-72
29-85
31-98
10
12
14
16
18
2O
22
24
26
28
30
115572
89826
79709
68708
60329
53557
48006
43380
39475
36119
33211
10-66
12-79
14-92
17-06
19-19
21-32
23-45
25-58
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
105023
86374
73067
63074
55301
49093
44006
38765
12 -792 in. by 20 -254 in.
16-88
20-25
23-63
27-00
29-38
10
12
14
16
18
181405
149191
126207
108946
95521
CHAP. I.
MECHANICAL CARPENTRY.
453
Length of
each Piece
in English
Feet.
Propor-
tion of
Depth to
Length.
Breaking
Weight in
Ibs. aver-
dupois.
Length of
each Piece
n English
Feet.
Propor-
tion of
Depth to
Length.
Breaking
Weight in
Ibs. aver,
dupois.
Length of
each Piece
m English
Feet.
Propor-
tion of
Depth to
Length.
Breaking
Weight in
Ibs. aver-
dupois.
13-858 inches square.
13 -858 in. by 2 1-326 in.
14-924 in. by 20-254 in.
11-55
13-86
16-17
18-48
20-79
10
12
14
16
18
134463
110584
93547
80754
70802
17-77
21-32
24-87
28-43
31-98
1O
12
14
16
18
20553 1
170130
144920
124237
108951
16-88
20-25
23-63
27-00
29-38
10
12
14
16
18
212547
174057
147331
127104
111441
13 -858 in. by 14-924 in.
113-058 in. by 22 -386 in.
14 -924 in. by 21 -326 in.
12-44
14-92
17-41
19-90
22-39
10
12
14
16
18
144806
119092
100813
86966
76249
18-65
22-38
26-12
29-85
33-58
10
12
14
16
18
217210
178637
151115
130049
114374
17-77
21-32
24-87
28-43
31-98
10
12
14
16
18
212776
173218
150991
133733
117306
13 -858 in. by 15 -99 in.
14-924 inches square.
14-924 in. by 22-386 in.
13-32
15-99
18-68
21-32
23-98
10
12
14
16
18
1 54825
127598
107939
93177
81755
12-44
14-92
17-41
19-90
22-39
10
12
14
16
18
155944
1 28092
108493
93655
82114
18-65
22-38
26-12
29-85
33-58
10
12
14
16
18
233917
192378
162737
140483
112372
13 -858 in. by 17 "056 in.
14 -924 in. by 15 "990 in.
14 -924 in. by 23 -452 in.
14-21
17-06
19-90
22-74
25-58
10
12
14
16
18
164426
136153
114364
99396
91941
13-32
15-99
18-65
21-32
23-98
10
12
14
16
18
167083
137213
116242
100354
87980
19-54
23-45
27-36
31-27
35-18
10
12
14
16
18
246136
201540
170490
147173
129037
13 -858 in. by 18 -122 in.
14 -924 in. by 17 '056 in.
15*99 inches square.
15-10
18-12
21-14
24-16
27-18
10
12
14
16
18
175836
144611
121332
105601
92588
1421
17-06
19-90
22-74
25-58
10
12
14
16
18
178223
146674
123993
107034
93845
13-32
15-99
18-65
21-32
23-98
10
12
14
16
18
179009
147229
124547
107513
94164
13 -858 in. by 19 -188 in.
14 -924 in. by 18 -122 in.
15 -99 in. by 17 -056 in.
15-99
19-19
22-37
25-58
28-78
10
12
14
16
18
141179
153115
129528
111813
98935
15-10
18-12
21-14
24-16
27-18
10
12
14
16
18
189362
1 55735
131741
113764
99711
14-21
17-06
19-90
22-74
25-58
10
12
14
16
18
1 90953
160244
132849
114680
100548
13 -858 in. by 20'254 in.
14 -924 in. by 19 '188 in.
15 -99 in. by 18 -122 in.
16-88
20-25
23-63
27-00
29-38
10
12
14
16
18
196522
161624
136724
118026
103481
15-99
19-19
22-37
25-58
28-78
10
12
14
16
18
200501
164895
139492
120415
105575
15-10
18-12
21-14
24-16
27-18
10
12
14
16
18
202888
166859
141153
121848
106832
Gg 3
454
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
Length of
each Piece
in English
Feet.
Propor-
tion of
Depth to
Length.
: Breaking
Weight in
Ibs. aver-
dupois.
Length of
each Piece
n English
Feet.
Propor-
tion of
Depth to
Length.
Breaking
Weight in
Ibs. aver-
dupois.
Length of
each Piece
in English
Feet.
Propor-
tion of
Depth to
Length.
Breaking
Weight in
Ibs. aver-
dupois.
15 -99 in. by 19 '188 in.
17 -056 in. by 18 -122 in.
17-056in. by 25-584 in.
15-99
19-19
22-37
25-58
28-78
10
12
14
16
18
214823
176584
149456
129015
113118
15-10
18-12
21-14
24-16
27-18
10
12
14
16
18
216412
177983
1 50563
129970
113954
21-32
25-58
29-85
34-11
38-37
10
12
14
16
18
305525
251360
212559
183421
160277
15 -99 in. by 20-254 in.
17 -056 in. by 19 -188 in.
18-122 inches square.
16-88
20-25
23-63
27-00
29-38
10
12
14
16
18
226757
186490
157759
136183
119401
15-99
19-19
22-37
25-58
28-78
10
12
14
16
18
229144
188456
158439
137617
120659
15-10
18-12
21-14
24-16
27-18
10
12
14
16
18
229907
187107
159973
142094
121077
15 -99 in. by 21 -326 in.
17 -056 in. by 20-254 in.
18 -122 in. by 19*1 88 in.
17-77
21-32
24-87
28-43
31-98
10
12
14
16
18
238692
196365
166062
143350
125686
16-88
20-25
23-63
27-00
29-38
10
12
14
16
18
241875
197322
168276
145261
127341
15-99
19-19
22-37
25 '58
28-78
10
12
14
16
18
243465
200131
169383
146217
128199
15 -99 in. by 22 -386 in.
17-056 in. by 21 -326 in.
18 -12 2 in. by 20 "254 in.
18-65
22-38
26-12
29-85
33-58
10
12
14
16
18
250626
206127
174365
150517
131770
17-77
21-32
24-87
28-43
31-98
10
12
14
16
18
254605
209391
177132
152807
134112
16-88
20*25
23-63
27-10
29-38
10
12
14
16
18
257091
211356
178793
154340
135261
15 -99 in. by 23 -452 in.
17 -056 in. by 22 -386 in.
18 -122 in. by 21 -326 in.
19-54
23-45
27-36
31-27
35-18
10
12
14
16
18
262561
215935
1 82668
157685
138254
18-65
22-38
26-12
29.85
33-58
10
12
14
16
18
267334
219861
184989
160552
140768
17-77
21-32
24-87
28-43
31-98
10
12
14
16
18
270317
222479
1 88203
162463
142443
15 -99 in. by 24 -51 8 in.
17-056 in. by 23-452 in.
18 -122 in. by 22 -386 in.
20-43
24-52
28-60
32-69
36-78
10
12
14
16
18
274495
225750
190751
164852
144538
19-54
23-45
27-36
31-27
35-18
10
12
14
16
18
280064
230330
1 90846
168772
147471
18-65
22-38
26-12
29-85
33-58
10
12
14
16
18
284043
233603
197611
170275
149566
1 7 -056 inches square.
17 -056 in. by 24 -51 8 in.
18 -122 in. by 23 -452 in.
14-21
17-06
19-90
22-74
25-58
10
12
14
16
18
203684
167513
141706
122967
107251
21-32
25-58
29 85
34-11
38-37
10
12
14
16
18
292795
240800
203702
175842
154174
19-54
23-45
27-36
31-27
35-18
10
12
14
16
18
297569
244727
207023
18871O
156688
CHAP. I.
MECHANICAL CARPENTRY.
455
Length of
each Piece
in English
Feet.
Propor-
tion of
Depth to
Length.
Breaking
Weight in
Ibs. aver-
dupois.
Length of
each Piece
in English
Feet.
Propor-
tion of
Depth to
Length.
Breaking
Weight in
Ibs. aver-
dupois.
Length of
each Piece
in English
Feet.
Propor-
tion of
Depth to
Length.
Breaking
Weight in
Ibs. aver,
dupois.
18 -122 in. by 24-518 in.
19 -188 in. by 2 1-326 in.
19 -188 in. by 25 -584 in.
20-43
10
310771
17-77
10
286430
31-32
10
343716
24-52
12
255851
21-32
12
235565
25-58
12
282679
28-60
14
216434
24-87
14
196074
29-85
14
140130
32-69
16
186833
28 -43
16
171010
34-11
16
207092
36-78
18
163810
31-98
18
150823
38-37
18
180987
18 -12 2 in. by 25 '584 in.
19 -188 in. by 22 -386 in.
19-188 in. by 26 -65 in.
21-32
10
324621
18-65
10
300763
22-21
10
358037
25-58
12
256975
22-38
12
247344
26-65
12
294458
29-85
14
225844
26-12
14
209238
31-09
14
249092
34-11
16
194956
29-85
16
180621
35-53
16
216026
38-37
18
170933
33-58
18
158364
39-97
18
188529
19-188 inches square.
19 '18 8 in. by 23 -452 in.
20-254 inches square.
15-99
10
257787
19-54
10
315073
16-88
10
287226
19-19
12
212107
23-45
12
259122
20-25
12
236220
22-37
14
179347
27-36
14
219101
23-63
14
199827
25-58
16
150818
31-27
16
189222
27 10
16
172498
28-78
18
135741
35-18
18
165905
29-38
18
151242
19 -188 in. by 20 -254 in.
19 '188 in. by 24 -51 8 in.
20-254 in. by 21-320 in.
16-88
10
272108
20-43
10
329395
17-77
10
292343
20-25
12
223788
24-52
12
270901
21-32
12
248653
23-63
14
189310
28-60
14
229165
24-87
14
200345
27-00
16
163419
32-69
16
197824
28-43
16
181577
29-38
18
143281
36-78
18
173446
31-98
18
159202
1623. The table from which the above has been reduced to English measures, is extended
to pieces of 31-980 in. square, and 47 -97 ft. long; but as such scantlings rarely if ever
occur in practice, unless strengthened by means of trussing, we have not considered it
necessary to proceed beyond the scantling of 20*25 in. by 21 -320 in., and 32 ft. long.
1 624. Though the table is founded upon experiments on oak, it will serve for all sorts
of wood, whose primitive strength is known, and the proportion they bear to oak. In
order to facilitate calculations of that nature, the following table has been constructed, in
which will be found the absolute and primitive strengths of the several sorts of timber,
ordinarily used in carpentry, as also of some few others.
TABLE VII.
For applying the preceding Table to the Woods undermentioned. The primitive hori-
zontal or transverse Strength of Oak is taken at 1 000 ; its supporting or primitive
vertical Strength at 807 ; and its cohesive or absolute Strength at 1821 ; being deduced
from Pieces 19 '188 lines English square.
Species of Wood.
Primitive
horizontal
Strength.
Primitive
vertical
Strength.
Absolute
Strength.
Species of
Wood.
Primitive
horizontal
Strength.
Primitive
vertical
Strength.
Absolute
Strength.
Acacia (yellow)
780
1228
1560
Fir
918
851
1250
Ash
1072
1112
1800
Oak
1000
807
1821
Beech
1032
986
2480
Pine-tree -
882
804
1141
Birch
853
861
1980
Poplar
586
680
940
Cedar
627
720
1740
Service-tree
965
981
1642
Cherry tree
961
986
1912
Sycamore -
900
968
1564
Chestnut
957
950
1944
Yew-tree -
1037
1375
2287
Elm
1077
1075
1980
Walnut -
900
753
1120
Gg 4
456 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
Method of using the above Table for horizontal Timbers.
1625. To find the strength of a beam of fir 23'98 ft. long and 5'330 by 9'594 in.
Against these dimensions in the Table VI. we find 10378 as the breaking weight. In the
Table VII. we find the primitive horizontal strength of oak is to that of fir as lOOOto 918.
Hence 1000 : 9181:10378 to a fourth term which =9527; which expresses the greatest
strength of such a beam of fir, or that which would break it. Cutting off the last figure
on the right hand, that is, taking one tenth, we have 952 for the greatest weight with which
such a beam should be loaded.
1626. If the beam be of chesnut, whose primitive strength is 957, the proportion becomes
1000 : 957:: 10378 : 9931= the greatest strength of such a piece, and asaj the greatest
weight with which it should be loaded.
Method of Application for the vertical bearing Strength.
1627. To find the vertical strength of an oak post 9 '5 94 in. square, and 9 -594 ft. high,
we shall find in Table VII. for the primitive vertical strength, 807 for 19*188 lines English
superficial. But as this strength diminishes as the relative height of the post increases,
which in this case is 12 times, we must (1601.), take only jj of 807, according to the pro-
gression there given, that is, 672^.
1628. The post being 9 -5 94 in. square, its area will be 9 '5 94x1 2 (2 = 13254 -756, and
-~™ = 692-34, and 692-34 x 672-5=465000, which divided by 10 = 46500 ; is the weight
with which without risk the post may be loaded.
1629. If the post be of fir, whose primitive vertical strength to that of oak is as 851 to
807, we have only to use the proportion 807 : 465000:: 851 : 490980, which divided by
10 = 49098 ; the greatest weight with which it should be loaded.
Method for obtaining the absolute or cohesive Strength.
1 630. In respect of this species of strength, which is that with which timber resists
being drawn asunder in the direction of its fibres by weights acting at its ends, it is only
necessary to multiply the area of the section of the piece reduced to lines by the tabular
number 1821, if it be oak, and divide the product by 19-188, and the quotient will show
the greatest effort it can bear.
1631. Thus for a piece of oak 9'594 in. square, we have -^§1^^ = 1260700 (in
round numbers), which divided by 1 0 gives the greatest weight that should be suspended to
the piece.
1632. From Table VII. it will be seen that in the direction of the absolute strength, beech
is the strongest wood, and that strength will be 13254-75x2480 (the tabular number) = 136385Q>
which will give 136385 for the greatest weight to be attached.
Of the Strength of Timbers in an inclined Position.
1633. If we suppose the vertical piece AB to become inclined to the base, experiment
proves that its strength to resist (fig. 614.) a vertical effort diminishes as its inclination
increases ; so that, if from the upper part in D a vertical D/ be
let fall, and from the points of the base the horizontal line BC
be drawn, the strength of the piece diminishes as B/ in-
creases : whence, I. The strength of a vertical piece is to that
of an inclined piece of the same length and scantling as the
length A B is to B/, or as the radius is to the sine of the in-
clination of the piece. II. Vertical pieces have the greatest
strength to resist a weight, and the weakest are pieces which
lie horizontally.
1634. The first of these results furnishes an easy method of
finding, by the aid of the last table, the strength of a piece
of timber whose length and inclination are known. Thus,
suppose a piece of oak inclined 4-692 feet and 9 '594 feet long ;
its size being 8-528 by 9 -594 inches, whose area, therefore, is 1 1781 -74 lines. This must be
divided by the tabular number 19'188, and the quotient will be 614. In table VII., 807 is
the primitive vertical strength of oak for 19'188 lines superficial of section; but as the piece
is more than 12 times the width of its base, we are, as before observed, to take only § of 807,
or 672-5, which is to be multiplied by 614, and the product is 412915. Then the pro-
portion 9-594 : 4 -692:: 41 291 5 : 843400 is the strength, which, divided by 10 = 84340,
is the greatest load to which the inclined piece ought to be subjected.
1635. In a section of a following chapter, that on PRACTICAL or CONSTRUCTIVE CARPEN-
TRY, tables of scantlings for timbers will be given, more immediately useful to the practical
architect than those deducible from the above rules.
CHAP. II. STONE. 457
CHAP. II.
MATERIALS USED IN BUILDING.
SECT. I.
STONE.
1636. IT is not our intention to advert to the stone which the Continent affords for
building purposes ; a knowledge of the different kinds there found would be of no use to
the English architect, and would occupy too much of our space as mere information. It
is almost superfluous to say that the choice of stone for a building intended to be durable
is of the very highest importance. " In modern Europe," it has been observed, " and par-
ticularly in Great Britain, there is scarcely a public building, of recent date, which will be
in existence a thousand years hence. Many of the most splendid works of modern archi-
tecture are hastening to decay in what may be justly called the infancy of their existence,
if compared with the dates of public buildings that remain in Italy, in Greece, in Egypt,
and the East."
1 637. The various sorts of stone take their names either from the places where they are
quarried or from the substances which principally enter into their composition. The term
" Freestone," which is used in a very arbitrary way, is, as its name implies, that sort which
can be wrought with the mallet and chisel, or cut with the saw, an operation which cannot
be performed upon granite, whose hardness requires it to be dressed with pointed tools of
different weights and sizes. It includes the two great general divisions of Limestone and
Sandstone. The limestone of Portland is that which has for many years past been chiefly
used in the metropolis. Latterly, other sorts have found their way in from the provinces ;
and though, from many circumstances, we do not think it likely that Portland stone, from
its facility of transport and other causes, will be altogether superseded, there is no doubt
that its use is on the wane from the introduction of provincial sorts.
1 638. We shall proceed, after some preliminary observations, to give, from the Report
lately addressed to the Commissioners of Woods and Forests, on the occasion of selecting
the stone for building the new Houses of Parliament, a view of the principal sorts of
stone found and used in the island.
1639. The qualities requisite for a building stone are hardness, tenacity, and com-
pactness. It is not the hardest stone which has always the greatest tenacity or toughness ;
for limestone, though much softer, is not so easily broken as glass.
1 640. The decay and destruction of stone are accelerated by nearly the same causes as
those which destroy rocks themselves on the surface of the globe. Such causes are of two
kinds : those of decomposition and those of disintegration. The former effects a chemical
change in the stone itself, the latter a mechanical division and separation of the parts.
The effects of the chemical and mechanical causes of the decomposition of stone in
buildings are much modified, according to their situation, as, in the town or country.
In populous and smoky towns the state of the atmosphere accelerates decomposition more
than in those placed in the open country.
1641. " As regards the sandstones that are usually employed for building purposes, and
which are generally composed of either quartz or siliceous grains, cemented by siliceous,
argillaceous, calcareous or other matter, their decomposition is effected according to the
nature of the cementing substance, the grains being comparatively indestructible. With
respect to limestones composed of carbonate of lime, or the carbonates of lime and mag-
nesia, either nearly pure or mixed with variable proportions of foreign matter, their
decomposition depends, under similar circumstances, upon the mode in which their com-
ponent parts are aggregated, those which are most crystalline being found to be the most
durable, while those which partake least of that character suffer most from exposure to
atmospheric influences.
1642. "The varieties of limestones termed Oolites (or Roestones) being composed of
oviform bodies cemented by calcareous matter of a varied character, will of necessity
suffer unequal decomposition, unless such oviform bodies and the cement be equally
coherent and of the same chemical composition. The limestones which are usually termed
' shelly,' from being chiefly formed of either broken or perfect fossil shells cemented by
calcareous matter, suffer decomposition in an unequal manner, in consequence of the shells,
which, being for the most part crystalline, offer the greatest amount of resistance to the
decomposing effects of the atmosphere.
1 643. " Sandstones, from the mode of their formations, are very frequently laminated,
458 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
more especially when micaceous, the plates of mica being generally deposited in planes
parallel to their beds. Hence, if such stone be placed in buildings with the planes of
lamination in a vertical position, it will decompose in flakes, according to the thickness of
the lamina? ; whereas, if it be placed so that the planes of lamination be horizontal, that is,
most commonly upon its natural bed, the amount of decomposition will be comparatively
immaterial.
1644. " Limestones, such at least as are usually employed for building purposes, are not
liable to the kind of lamination observable in sandstones ; nevertheless, varieties exist,
especially those commonly termed shelly, which have a coarse laminated structure, generally
parallel to the planes of their beds, and therefore the same precaution in placing such stone
in buildings so that the planes of lamination be horizontal, is as necessary as with the
sandstones above noticed.
1645. " The chemical action of the atmosphere produces a change in the entire matter
of the limestones, and in the cementing substance of the sandstones acccording to the
amount of surface exposed to it. The mechanical action due to atmospheric causes occa-
sions either a removal or a disruption of the exposed particles, the former by means of
powerful winds and driving rains, and the latter by the congelation of water forced into or
absorbed by the external portions of the stone. These effects are reciprocal, chemical
action rendering the stone liable to be more easily affected by mechanical action, which
latter, by constantly presenting new surfaces, accelerates the disintegrating effects of the
former.
1 646. " Buildings in this climate are generally found to suffer the greatest amount of
decomposition on their southern, south-western, and western fronts, arising doubtless from
the prevalence of winds and rains from those quarters ; hence it is desirable that stones of
great durability should at least be employed in fronts with such aspects.
1 647. " Buildings situated in the country appear to possess a great advantage over those
in populous and smoky towns, owing to lichens, with which they almost invariably become
covered in such situations, and which, when firmly established over their entire surface,
seem to exercise a protective influence against the ordinary causes of the decomposition of
the stone upon which they grow.
1648. " As an instance of the difference in degree of durability in the same material
subjected to the effects of the atmosphere in town and country, we may notice the several
frusta of columns and other blocks of stone that were quarried at the time of the erection
of St. Paul's Cathedral in London, and which are now lying in the island of Portland, near
the quarries from whence they were obtained. These blocks are invariably found to be
covered with lichens, and although they have been exposed to all the vicissitudes of a marine
atmosphere for more than 150 years, they still exhibit, beneath the lichens, their original
forms, even to the marks of the chisel employed upon them, whilst the stone which was
taken from the same quarries (selected, no doubt, with equal, if not greater, care than the
blocks alluded to) and placed in the cathedral itself, is, in those parts which are exposed to
the south and south-west winds, found in some instances to be fast mouldering away.
Colour is of more importance in the selection of a stone for a building to be situated in a
populous and smoky town, than for one to be placed in an open country, where all edifices
usually become covered, as before stated, with lichens ; for although in such towns those
fronts which are not exposed to the prevailing winds and rains will soon become blackened*,
the remainder of the building will constantly exhibit a tint depending upon the natural
colour of the material employed.
1 649. " Before we proceed to adduce a few examples of the present condition of the
various buildings we have examined, we would wish to observe that those which are highly
decorated, such as the churches of the Norman and pointed styles of architecture, afford a
more severe test of the durability of any given stone, all other circumstances being equal,
than the more simple and less decorated buildings, such as the castles of the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries, inasmuch as the material employed in the former class of buildings is
worked into more disadvantageous forms than in the latter, as regards exposure to the
effects of the weather ; and we would further observe, that buildings in a state of ruin,
from being deprived of their ordinary protection of roofing, glazing of windows, &c., con-
stitute an equally severe test of the durability of the stone employed in them.
1650. " As examples of the degree of durability of various building stones in particular
localities, the following may be enumerated. Of the sandstone buildings which we ex-
amined, we may notice the remains of Ecclestone Abbey, of the thirteenth century, near
Barnard Castle, constructed of a stone closely resembling that of the Stenton quarry in the
vicinity, as exhibiting the mouldings and other decorations, even to the dog's-tooth orna-
ment, in excellent condition. The circular keep of Barnard, apparently also built of the
same material, is in fine preservation. Tintern Abbey may also be noticed as a sandstone
* We must take leave to question this statement ; as, for instance, in St. Paul's Cathedral we find the
northern front peculiarly black, whilst the south front and south-western angle are comparatively white.
This we have always considered to have arisen from the more constant action of the sun's rays upon them.
CHAP. II. STONE. 459
edifice that has to a considerable extent resisted decomposition ; for although it is decayed
in some parts, it is nearly perfect in others. Some portions of Whitby Abbey are likewise
in a perfect state, whilst others are fast yielding to the effects of the atmosphere. The
older portions of Ripon Cathedral, constructed of sandstone, are in a fair state of preserv-
ation. Rivaulx Abbey is another good example of an ancient sandstone building in a
fair condition. The Norman keep of Richmond Castle in Yorkshire affords an instance
of a moderately hard sandstone which has well resisted decomposition.
1651. " As examples of sandstone buildings of more recent date in a good state of preserv-
ation, we may mention Hardwicke Hall, Haddon Hall, and all the buildings of Craig-
leith Stone in Edinburgh and its vicinity. Of sandstone edifices in an advanced state of
decomposition we may enumerate Durham Cathedral, the churches at Newcastle upon
Tyne, Carlisle Cathedral, Kirkstall Abbey, and Fountains Abbey. The sandstone churches
of Derby are also extremely decomposed ; and the church of St. Peter at Shaftesbury ys in
such a state of decay that some portions of the building are only prevented from falling by
means of iron ties.
1652. " As an example of an edifice constructed of a calciferous variety of sandstone, we
may notice Tisbury Church, which is in unequal condition, the mouldings and other enrich-
ments being in a perfect state, whilst the ashler, apparently selected with less care, is fast
mouldering away.
1653. " The choir of Southwell Church, of the twelfth century, may be mentioned as
affording an instance of the durability of a magnesio- calciferous sandstone, resembling that
of Mansfield, after long exposure to the influences of the atmosphere.
1654. " Of buildings constructed of magnesian limestone we may mention the Norman
portions of Southwell Church, built of stone similar to that of Bolsover Moor, and which are
throughout in a perfect state, the mouldings and carved enrichments being as sharp as
when first executed. The keep of Koningsburgh Castle, built of a magnesian limestone
from the vicinity, is also in a perfect state, although the joints of the masonry are open in
consequence of the decomposition and disappearance of the mortar formerly within them.
The church at Hemmingborough, of the fifteenth century, constructed of a material re-
sembling the stone from Huddlestone, does not exhibit any appearance of decay. Tickhill
Church, of the fifteenth century, built of a similar material, is in a fair state of preservation.
Huddlestone Hall, of the sixteenth century, constructed of the stone of the immediate
vicinity, is also in good condition. Roche Abbey, of the thirteenth century, in which
stone from the immediate neighbourhood has been employed, exhibits generally a fair state
of preservation, although some portions have yielded to the effects of the atmosphere.
1655. " As examples of magnesian limestone buildings in a more advanced state of
decay, we may notice the churches at York, and a large portion of the Minster, Howden
Church, Doncaster Old Church, and others in that part of the country, many of which are
so much decomposed that the mouldings, carvings, and other architectural decorations are
often entirely effaced.
1 656. " We may here remark, that, as far as our observations extend, in proportion as the
stone employed in magnesian limestone buildings is crystalline, so does it appear to have
resisted the decomposing effects of the atmosphere ; a conclusion in accordance with the
opinion of Professor Daniell, who has stated to us that from the results of experiments,
he is of opinion ' the nearer the magnesian limestones approach to equivalent proportions
of carbonate of lime and carbonate of magnesia, the more crystalline and better they are in
every respect.'
1 657. " Of buildings constructed of oolitic and other limestones, we may notice the church
of Byland Abbey, of the twelfth century, especially the west front, built of stone from the
immediate vicinity, as being in an almost perfect state of preservation. Sandysfoot Castle,
near Weymouth, constructed of Portland oolite in the time of Henry VIII., is an example
of that material in excellent condition ; a few decomposed stones used in the interior (and
which are exceptions to this fact) being from another oolite in the immediate vicinity of
the castle. Bow and Arrow Castle, and the neighbouring ruins of a church of the four-
teenth century, in the Island of Portland, also afford instances of the Portland oolite in
perfect condition. The new church in the island, built in 1 766, of the variety of the Port-
land stone termed roach, is in an excellent state throughout, even to the preservation of the
marks of the chisel.
1658. " Many buildings constructed of a material similar to the oolite of Ancaster,
such as Newark and Grantham Churches, and other edifices in various parts of Lincoln-
shire, have scarcely yielded to the effects of atmospheric influences. Windrush Church,
built of an oolite from the neighbouring quarry, is in excellent condition, whilst the Abbey
Church of Bath, constructed of the oolite in the vicinity of that city, has suffered much
from decomposition ; as is also the case with the cathedral, and the churches of St. Nicholas
and St. Michael in Gloucester, erected of a stone from the oolitic rocks of the neighbour-
hood.
1659. " The churches of Stamford, Ketton, Colley Weston, Kettering, and other places
460 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
in that part of the country, attest the durability of the Shelley oolite, termed Barnack Rag,
with the exception of those portions of some of them for which the stone has been ill-
selected. The excellent condition of those parts which remain of Glastonbury Abbey show
the value of a shelly limestone similar to that of Doulting, whilst the stone employed in
Wells Cathedral, apparently of the same kind, and not selected with equal care, is in parts
decomposed. The mansion, the church, and the remains of the abbey at Montacute, as
also many other buildings in that vicinity, constructed of the limestone of Ham Hill, are
in excellent condition. In Salisbury Cathedral, built of stone from Chilmark, we have
evidence of the general durability of a siliciferous limestone ; for, although the west front
has somewhat yielded to the effects of the atmosphere, the excellent condition of the build-
ing generally is most striking.
1 660. " In the public buildings of Oxford, we have a marked instance both of decom-
position and durability in the materials employed ; for whilst a shelly oolite, similar to that
of Taynton, which is employed in the more ancient parts of the cathedral, in Merton
College Chapel, &c., and commonly for the plinths, string-courses, and exposed portions of
the other edifices in that city, is generally in a good state of preservation, a calcareous stone
from Heddington, employed in nearly the whole of the colleges, churches, and other public
buildings, is in such a deplorable state of decay, as in some instances to have caused
all traces of architectural decoration to disappear, and the ashler itself to be in many places
deeply disintegrated.
1661. "In Spofforth Castle we have a striking example of the unequal decomposition
of two materials, a magnesian limestone and a sandstone; the former employed in the
decorated parts, and the latter for the ashler or plain facing of the walls. Although the
magnesian limestone has been equally exposed with the sandstone to the decomposing
effects of the atmosphere, it has remained as perfect in form as when first employed, while
the sandstone has suffered considerably from the effects of decomposition.
1 662. " In Chepstow Castle, a magnesian limestone in fine preservation, and a red sand-
stone in an advanced state of decomposition, may be observed, both having been exposed to
the same conditions as parts of the same archways ; and in Bristol Cathedral there is a
curious instance of the effects arising from the intermixture of very different materials,
a yellow limestone and a red sandstone, which have been indiscriminately employed both
for the plain and decorated parts of the building ; not only is the appearance in this case
unsightly, but the architectural effect of the edifice is also much impaired by the unequal
decomposition of the two materials, the limestone having suffered much less from decay
than the sandstone.
1 663. " Judging, therefore, from the evidence afforded by buildings of various dates,
there would appear to be many varieties of sandstone and limestone employed for building
purposes which successfully resist the destructive effects of atmospheric influences ;
amongst these the sandstones of Stenton, Whitby, Tintern, Rivaulx, and Cragleith, the
magnesio-calciferous sandstones of Mansfield, the calciferous sandstone of Tisbury, the
crystalline magnesian limestones, or Dolomites of Bolsover, Huddlestone and Roche Abbey,
the oolites of Byland, Portland, and Ancaster, the Shelly oolites and limestones of Barnack
and Ham Hill, and the siliciferous limestone of Chilmark appear to be amongst the most
durable. To these, which may all be considered as desirable building materials, we are inclined
to add the sandstones of Darley Dale, Humbie, Longannet, and Crowbank, the magnesian
limestones of Robin Hood's Well, and the oolite of Ketton, although some of them may
not have the evidence of ancient buildings in their favour." The Report upon which we
have drawn so largely, and from which we shall extract still larger drafts, then proceeds to
close by a preference to limestones on account " of their more general uniformity of tint,
their comparatively homogeneous structure, and the facility and economy of their con-
version to building purposes," of which it prefers the crystalline ; on which account, and its
combination with a close approach to the equivalent proportions of carbonate of lime and
carbonate of magnesia, for uniformity in structure, facility and economy in conversion, and
for advantage of colour, the parties to the Report prefer the magnesian limestone or
dolomite of Bolsover Moor and its neighbourhood. The Report deserves every commend-
ation. There are points which, were we disposed to cavil, might furnish matter for it, but
upon the whole it has been well done, and is the first scientific step the government of this
country has ever taken in respect of practical architecture.
1 664. The following table presents a synoptical, and, to the architect, important view of
the relative value, in every respect, of the principal species of stone which the various pro-
vinces of England afford for building purposes, and is condensed from the Report so much
at length above quoted.
CHAP. II.
STONE.
461
SANDSTONES.
Name of
Quarry, and
where situated.
Proprietor of
Quarry.
Component Parts
of Stone.
Colour.
1 Weight of a
Cubic Foot in its
ordinary State.
Weight of
Block, and
the Thickness
procurable.
Price
per Cubic Foot
at the Quarry.
Price per Cubic
Foot, delivered
in London.
Where used.
lb. oz
s. d
ABERCARNE
Sir B. Hal
Quartz and si
Dark
167 M
1 to 1
4Arf., O
1 5
Old churches
and NEW
Bart.
liceous grains
bluish
tons, i
5s. pe
and modem
BRIDGE, nea
moderately
grey.
thick-
ton
buildings :
Newport,
Monmouth-
fine, with ar
gillo-siliceous
nesses
of 5 feet
vicinity ; new
Docks at New-
shire
cement ; mi
port and Car-
caceous, am
diff.
with remain
of fossil plant
BALL CROSS
Siliceous grain
At Chatswort
with argillo
nous
and Bakewel:
siliceous ce
brown
ment ; occa
striped,
sionally mica
and
ceous, ferru
zoned In
ginous.
deeper
tints.
BARB A DOES,
Tintern,
Duke oi
Beaufort.
Fine and coars
quartz, am
Light
greyish
146 12
1 to 10
tons,
Orf. to
1*.
- -
Tintern Abbey.
Monmouth-
other siliceou
brown.
thickest
shire.
grains, with
bed 10 to
argillo-sili-
12ft.
ceous cement
ferruginous
spots, and
plates of mica
BINNIE, Up-
Earl of Bu
Fine quartz
Brownish
40
Bauds 14
s. Id. to
2 9
New club-house
hall, and in
chanan.
grains, with
grey.
to 18 ft.
2s. for
to
in Prince's
Linlithgow-
argillo-sili-
thick (3
largest
3 8
Street, Edin-
shire.
ceous cement,
in num-
blocks.
burgh, and
micaceous,
chiefly in
ber).
numerous pri-
vate houses
planes of beds.
there and in
Glasgow.
BOLTON'S
QUARRY,
Messrs. El-
gie and
Moderately fine
siliceous
Warm
light
26 11
100 ft.
cube ;.
Orf. to
If.
1 9
to
Whitby Abbey,
New Univer-
Aislaby,
Yorkshire.
Lawson,
as execu-
tors of the
late Mr.
grains, with
argillo-sili-
ceous cement,
plates of mica,
brown.
top beds
for
house
build-
2 1
sity Library at
Cambridge,
Scarborough
and Bridling-
Noble, of
and spots o
ing.
ton Piers,
York.
carbon disse-
bottom
Sheerness am
minated.
beds for
St. Katha-
docks.
rine's Docks,
Beds 3
&c.
to 8 ft.
thick.
BRAMLEY
FALL (Old
Quarry),
near Leeds,
5arl of Car-
digan.
Quartz grains
(often coarse),
and decom-
posed felspar,
Light
ferru-
ginous
brown.
42 3
Up to 18
tons.
-
• -
n numerous
bridges,
waterworks,
&c.
Yorkshire.
with argillo-
siliceous ce-
ment. Mica
rare. Small
ferruginous
spots dissemi-
nated.
CALVERLEY,
Tunbridge
Wells.Kent.
ohn Ward,
Esq., Hoi-
wood
"ine siliceous
grains, with a
slightly cal-
Varie-
gated
browns.
18 1
70 or 80
ft., and
upwards
d. to
2
to
4
pper part of
new church at
Tunbridge
Park,
careous ce-
to 500.
Wells ; Ca-
Bromley,
Kent.
ment.
Beds to
B»ft.
tholic Chapel,
the Calverley
Hotel, new
Market
House, and
Victoria Na-
tional School,
and about IfO
houses, &c., at
Tunbridge
Wells and its
vicinity.
462
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
SANDSTONES — continued.
Name of
Quarry, and
where situated.
Proprietor of
Quarry.
Component Parts
of Stone.
Colour.
1
Weight of
Block, and
the Thickness
procurable.
M
1
31,
O.t o
Where used.
Ib. oz.
s. d.
CRAIGLEITH,
Craigleith
Hill, near
W. R. Ram-
say, Esq.,
of Barn-
Fine quartz
grains, with a
siliceous ce-
Whitish
grey.
145 14
length
9d. to
2s. Gd.,
accord-
1 10$
to
3 7£
Used exten-
sively in public
buildings in
Edinburgh.
ton.
ment, slightly
calcareous, oc-
casional plates
and
breadth,
from 6
ing to
quality.
Edinburgh ;
the College
(1580), Regis-
of mica.
in. to 10
try (1774),
ft. thick.
courts of law,
Custom
House, Royal
Exchange,
National Mo-
nument, and
numerous
churches, and
now using for
repairs at
Blackfriars
Bridge.
CRAWBANK,
Borrow-
Duke of Ha-
milton.
Fine quartzose
grains, with
Light fer-
ruginous
129 2
5 ft. thick,
6ft..
Is. for
blocks
2 2
A Roman bridge
(A. D. 140.),
stones,
an argillo-si-
brown.
broad ;
of not
old church of
Linlithgow-
liceous ce-
10ft.
more
Kinneil, of the
shire.
ment, some-
long.
than 5
twelfth cen-
what ferru-
cubic
tury.
ginous ; disse-
minated mica.
ft.
DUFFIELD
BANK, Duf-
Mrs. Stra-
than.
Quartz grains of
moderate size,
Light
brown
132 14
150 ft. ;
thickest
Is. Id.
the
- -
St. Mary's
Bridge, Re-
field, Derby-
and decom-
with
beds
white
porter Office,
shire.
posed felspar,
with an ar-
dark
brown
about
4ft.;
stone,
9d. the
Mechanics*
Lecture Hall,
gillo-siliceous
and
half the
brown
and Bishop
cement, ferru-
ginous spots,
purplish
tints.
depth
brown,
stone.
Ryder's
Church now
and occasion-
half
building
ally plates of
mica.
white.
(Derby) ; also
Duffield
Bridge and
chimney
shafts to
Grammar
School, Bir-
mingham.
DUKE'SQUAR-
RIES, Holt
Duke of
Devon-
Quartz grains,
generally
Red, va-
ried
144 8
- -
7d.
2 8
Penitentiary at
Millbank, and
Stanwell
shire.
coarse, with
with
the filling in
Bridge,
Derbyshire.
decomposed
felspar, and an
argillo-sili-
green,
brown,
and
parts of Wa-
terloo Bridge,
London.
ceous cement ;
grey.
ferruginous
spots.
ELLANDEDGE,
„
Fine quartz
Light grey
153 4
near Hall-
grains, with
brown.
fax, York-
an argillo-sili-
shire.
ceous cement,
micaceous in
planes of beds.
GATHEBLEY
MOOR, near
John War-
ton, Esq.
Quartz grains of
moderate size,
Cream.
135 13
1 to 3 tons,
a bed 12
8d. for
the 12
3 1
Aste Hall near
Richmond,
Richmond,
Yorkshire.
Gis-
borough.
and an argillo-
siliceous ce-
ment ; ferru-
ft. deep.
ft. bed.
and Cater ick
bridges over
the Swale ;
ginous spots
and plates ol
Purse Bridge
over the
mica.
Tees ; Skelton
Castle, Dar-
lington Town
Hall, Lock-
burn Hall,
and numerous
modern build-
ings.
CHAP. II.
STONE.
SANDSTONES — continued.
463
Name of
Quarry, and
where situated.
Proprietor of
Quarry.
Component Parts
of Stone.
Colour.
1
•sill
i!
Price
Cubic Foot
the Quarry.
Ill
Where used.
*31
x
ft
ll3
lb. oz.
s. d.
*. d.
GATTON, Gat-
Lord Mon-
Fine siliceous
Greenish
103 1
35 to 60 ft.
1 4
. _
Hampton Court
ton, Surrey.
son.
grains, with a
calcareo-si-
light
brown.
cube,
from
to
1 6
and Windsor
Castle, &c. ;
liceous ce-
4 to 10
many
ment, contain-
ing green sili-
ft. long.
churches in
Surrey ; Town
cate of iron
Hall and
and plates of
Almshouse
mica.
Establishment
at Croydon ;
and several
modern build-
ings in the pa-
rish of Gatton.
GLAMMIS,
Forfarshire.
Earl of
Strath-
Siliceous grains
of moderate
Purple
grey.
161 2
Any prac-
ticable
0 7
to
about
19s.
Glammis Castle
and Inver-
more's
trustees.
size ; cement
slightly cal-
careous; mica
size ;
thickest
bed 6 ft.
1 0
per
ton.
quharity
Castle, sup-
posed of the
abundant in
tenth century ;
planes of beds.
Cortachy
Castle ; and
in modern!
buildings ;
Lendertis
House, &c.
HEDDON, near
Newcastle,
Northum-
Mrs. Be-
wick, near
Newcastle
Coarse -quartz
grains, and de-
composed fel-
Light
brown
ochre.
130 11
Beds 4 to
12 ft.
thick.
0 6
to
0 10
1 8
to
2 0
Church at Hed-
don, steeple,
1764 ; Norman
berland.
upon
spar, with an
chancel ; co-
Tyne.
argillo-sili-
lumns of por-
ceous cement,
tico to theatre,
ferruginous
and Grey Mo-
spots.
nument at
Newcastle ;
and nearly all
the buildings,
ancient anc
modern, in
and about
Newcastle.
HOLLINGTON,
Sir J. Gib-
Quartz grains of
Light
133 1
30 to 40 ft.
0 7
2 6
Trentham Hall,
Stafford-
bons,
moderate size,
brown-
squar^e,
to
Drayton Ma-
shire.
Bart., near
with an argil-
ish grey.
and 8 ft.
1 0
nor, Heath-
Staines,
lo-siliceous ce-
thick.
house, and
Middle-
ment ; plates
various public
sex.
of mica.
and private
buildings in
Staffordshire ;
Town Hall,
Derby; Mear
Hall, Che-
shire, &c.
HUMBIE,
Humbie,
Linlithgow-
Earl of
Hope-
toun.
Fine quartz
grains, with
siliceous ce-
Pale grey
and
light
White
140 3
grey
90 cubic
ft. and
up-
1 0
to
1 10
2 6
to
3 2
Newliston
House, Kirk-
liston ; Dun-
shire.
ment ; slightly
brown.
135 13
wards,
das Castle ;
calcareous ;
if re-
additions to
mica chiefly in
planes of beds.
quired ;
thickest
the Royal In-
stitution ;fron1
bed 8 ft.
of Surgeons'
Hall, spire ol
Tron Church,
and various
other public
buildings in
Edinburgh ;
also in Glas-
gow.
LONGANNET,
Trustees of
Fine quartz
Light fer-
131 11
4 to 5 tons;
0 8
1 8
Staadt House,
near Kin-
cardine, in
Perthshire.
late Lord
Keith.
grains, with
siliceous ce-
ment, contain-
rugin-
ous
brown.
thickest
beds 5 ft.
to
2 6
to
3 6
Amsterdam ;
Exchange,
Edinburgh ;
ing oxide of
Tulle Mare
iron ; a few
Castle, Perth-
plates of mica.
shire; and part
of a street in
Perth.
464
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK 11
SANDSTONES — continued.
Name of
Quarry, and
where situated
Proprietor of
Quarry.
Component Parts
of Stone.
Colour.
Weight of a
Cubic Foot in its
ordinary State.
Weight of
Block, and
the Thickness
procurable.
Price
per Cubic Foot
at the Quarry.
Price per Cubic
Foot, delivered
in London.
Where used.
[b. oz.
s. d.
5. d.
VIUNLOCHY, in
JohnMathe-
Fine siliceous
Red and
160 9
Of large
0 5
_
Cathedral
Ross-shire.
son, Esq.,
grains, with an
variega-
size ;
to
Church of
of Ben-
argilio-sili-
ted.
beds 2»
0 5£
Ross at Fort-
*
netsfield.
ceous cement ;
to 6 ft.
rose, A. D. 1124;
micaceous.
thick.
Inverness Old
Bridge, Crom-
well Court,
&c.
MYLNEFIELD,
ames
fine siliceous
Purplish
160 0
Any prac-
0 9
_
Old steeple of
or RINGOO-
DIE, near
Dundee, in
Perthshire.
Mylne,
Esq.
grains, with a
calcareo-argil-
lo-siliceous
cement ; mica-
grey.
size.
to
1 5
Dundee, 12th
century, well
preserved ;
Royal Asylum
ceous in planes
of Dundee,
of beds.
&c.; Bell Rock
Lighthouse,
1
Royal Asylum
of Perth, Kin-
fauns Castle,
Castle Hunt-
ley, &c. &c.
'ARK SPRING,
near Leeds,
Yorkshire.
Earl of Car-
digan.
rine quartz
grains, and de-
composed fel-
Light fer-
rugin-
ous
151 I
10 to 12ft.
long;
thickest
0 7
2 1*
to
2 5
Commercial
buildings at
Leeds, from
spar, with an
brown.
bed 2 ft.
the old quarry,
argillo-sili-
4 in.
which is of ex-
ceous cement ;
actly similar
mica chiefly in
stone to that
planes of beds.
of this quarry.
PENSHER, near
Houghton-
le- Spring,
Durham.
Marquess of
London-
derry.
Coarse quartz
grains, with
an argillo-sili-
ceous cement ;
Pale
whitish
brown.
134 5
Any prac-
ticable
size;
thickest
0 8|
1 7
Pensher Cha-
pel ; Scotch
Church, Sun-
derland; Sun-
plates of mica.
bed 20
derland Pier,
ft.
Seaham Har-
bour, Victoria
Bridge, on the
Wear, &c.
PYOTDYKES,
near Dun-
Alexander
Clayhills,
Siliceous grains
of moderate
Purplish
grey.
162 8
Thickest
bed 3 to
0 10
to
2 1
to
Extensively for
the works at
dee, Forfar-
Esq., In-
size, with a
4ft.
1 2
2 5
Dundee Har-
shire.
ner go w-
calcareo-argil-
bour, &c.
rie.
lo-siliceous
cement ; mica-
ceous.
SCOTGATK
The free-
Quartz grains,
Light
158 0
Thickest
0 8
1 2
York Castle ;
HEAD, Hud-
holders of
of moderate
greenish
bed 3 ft.
Bath Hotel, at
dersfield,
Onley.
size, with an
grey.
Gin.
Huddersfield.
Yorkshire.
argillo-sili-
ceous cement ;
mica in planes
of beds, and
occasional
specks of car-
bon.
STANCLIFF, or
DARLEY
DALE, near
A.H.Heath-
cote, Esq.,
Black-
Quartz grains of
moderate size,
and decom-
Light fer-
rugin-
ous
148 3
Of very
large
size.
I 5
3 3
Abbey in Darley
Dale : Stancliff
Hall, Birming-
Bakewell,
Derbyshire
well.
posed felspar,
with an argil-
lo-siliceous
brown.
ham ; Gram-
mar School,
Birmingham ;
cement, ferru-
and Notting-
ginous spots,
ham Railway
and plates ol
Station
mica.
Houses.
STENTON, near
Barnard
Castle, Dur
ham.
Duke o
Cleve-
land.
Fine quartz
grains, and de-
composed fel-
spar, with an
Ferrupin-
ous light
brown.
142 8
15 to 20 ft.
long, 2
ft. to 8
ft. in
0 5£
1 5
The Round
Keep of Bar-
nard Castle ;
Joint Stock
argillo-sili-
ceous cement
thick-
ness.
Bank, and
MarketHouse,
ferruginous
Barnard Cas-
specks, anc
tle.
some plates o
mica.
CHAP. II.
STONE.
465
SANDSTONES — continued.
Name of
Proprietor of
Quarry.
Component Parts
of Stone.
Colour.
Weight of a
Cubic Foot in its
ordinary State.
Weight of
Block, and
the Thickness
procurable.
Price
per Cubic Foot
at the Quarry.
Price per Cubic
Foot, delivered
in London.
Where used.
lb. oz.
5. d.
S. d.
WHITBY COM-
Mrs. Helen
Siliceous grains
Light
126 11
40x25 ft.
0 10
1 8
Some parts of
PANY'S
Noble,
of moderate
brown.
Whitby Ab-
AISLABY,
York.
size, with an
bey ; New Li-
near Whit-
argillo-sili-
*
123 2
brary at Cam-
by, York-
ceous cement ;
bridge ; Baths
shire.
some plates of
and Town
mica and spots
Hall at Whit-
of carbon dis-
by ; cemetery
seminated.
at Highgate ;
Hungerford
Market, &c.
WHITBY COM-
Robert Cary
m
Pale, to
_
Arncliffe,
0 11£
1 9J
Grosmont Ab-
PANY'S EG-
Elwes,
dark
15x10x9
bey and
TON QUAR-
RIES, being
Esq.,
Great Bil-
brown.
Prod-
dams,
Bridge ; Egton
Bridge ; Lon-
Arndiffe,
lings,
10x8x8
don and Bir-
Julian
North-
.
_ *
127 14
Lease
mingham
Park, Prod-
ampton-
Rigge,
Railway ;
dams, and
shire.
lOxGxo
Whitby and
LeaseRigge,
near Whit-
Pickering
Railway.
by.
WHITBY COM-
PANY'S
Charles
Saunders,
-
. .•*
134 13
24x9x3$
1 1
1 11
Parts of Whitby
Abbey, and a
SNEATOX,
Esq.,
portion of the
near Whit-
Sneaton
parapet of
by.
Castle.
Blackfriars
Bridge, Lon-
don.
WHITBY COM-
R. W. Skel-
m
*
131 11
6 ft. by 4
0 10
1 8
Lewisham
PANY'SXEW-
ton, Esq.,
ft. and
Church.
TON DALE,
near Pick
18 in.
near Whit-
ering.
by.
LIMESTONES.
„*!
„ f <
ft
31.
Name of
^g-S %
° « c 3
u*"*
O ^ o
Ouarry, and
where situated.
Proprietor of
Quarry.
Component Parts
of Stone.
Colour.
II
if
f-lS
•A
jjjj
Where used.
Jl.
5
l*
££-s
lb. oz.
s. d.
s. d.
Lord Rolle.
Chiefly carbo-
T.iirVit- tint-
131 12
6 to 7 ft
T tVi >i V»
Axminster,
Devonshire.
nate of lime, of
friable, and brown.
long, 3
ft. wide,
of the vicinity;
St. Peter's
with partial
and 2 ft.
Church, Exe-
indurations.
thick.
ter, in ex-
posed parts ;
Colyton
Church, Char-
mouth, &C.&C.
CHILMARK,
Earl of
Carbonate of
Light
153 7
10 cwt. to
I 6
4 10
Salisbury Cathe-
near Salis-
Pem-
lime, with a
green-
3 tons.
to
to
dral, Wilton
bu-y, Wilt-
shire.
broke.
moderate pro-
portion of sili-
ca, and occa-
brown.
Several
beds;
thickest
2 0
5 4
Abbey, and
many other
ancient and
sional grains
bed
modern build-
of silicate of
about 3
ings in the vi-
iron.
ft.
cinity.
HOPTON
Philip Gall,
Compact carbo-
Warm
158 7
100 feet
3 0
4 10
At Chatsworth,
WOOD, near
Esq.,
nate of lime, light
cube;
to
to
Belvoir Castle,
Wirks-
Hapton
with encrinal Krey.
beds
4 0
5 10
Trentham
worth, Der-
byshire.
Hall, near
Wirks-
fragments
abundant.
vary in
thick-
Hall, Dravton
Manor, Bir-
worth.
ness
mingham
from 3
Grammar
to 10 ft.
School, &c.
* From my own experiment*.
K h
466
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
LIMESTONES — continued.
Name of
Quarry, and
where situated.
Proprietor of
Quarry.
Component Parts
of Stone.
Colour.
«"»
SI!
m
Weight of
Block, and
the Thickness
procurable.
Price
per Cubic Foot
at the Quarry.
111
|||
Where used.
lb. oz.
s. d.
s. d.
SEACOMBE,
near Corfe
William
John
Semi-compact
carbonate of
Light
brown.
151 0
The larg-
est 6 to 8
1 2i
1 9*
Lighthouse at
Margate ; the
Castle, Dor-
Bankes,
lime, with
ft., by 2
Clockhouse,
setshire.
Esq.
fragments of
to 3 ft.
Dover Pier ;
shells.
by 3 to 4
prison at Win-
ft.
chester ; at the
West India
Docks, forty
years since ;
lighthouse
now building
on the Isle of
Wight, &c.
SUTTON, near
Bridgend,
Glamorgan-
shire.
The Crown,
and
others.
Compact-carbo-
nate of lime,
highly crys-
talline.
Very light
cream.
136 0
6 tons, and
up-
wards ;
thickest
- -
- -
Dunraven Cas-
tle, Ogmond
Abbey, St.Do-
nats Corty,
bed 12ft.
Neath Abbey,
and very an-
cient buildings
in the adjoin-
ing counties.
TOTTENHOE,
near Dun-
stable, Bed-
fordshire.
James Jaly
Wing.
Calcareous and
argillaceous
matter iu
about equal
Greenish
white.
116 8
40 cubic
ft. or up-
wards ;
5 to 6 ft.
1 3
2 5
Dunstable Prio-
ry Curch, Lu-
ton, and many
other churches
portions ;
long.
in Bedford-
structure fine.
shire and
Hertfordshire;
Woburn Ab-
bey, Fonthill
House, Ash-
ridgCjt &c.
MAGNESIAN LIMESTONES.
Name of
Quarry, and
where situated.
Proprietor of
Quarry.
Component Parts
of Stone.
Colour.
i
Weight of
Block, and
the Thickness
procurable.
Price
per Cubic Foot
at the Quarry.
1 Price per Cubic
Foot, delivered
In London.
Where used.
lb. oz.
*. d.
*. d.
BOLSOVER,
near Ches-
Earl Bath,
urst.
Chiefly carbo-
nate of lime
Light yel-
lowish
151 11
56 ft. cube,
in beds
0 10
2 0
Southwell
Church, and
terfield,
and carbonate
brown.
from 8
numerous
Derbyshire.
of magnesia;
semi-crystal-
in. to 2
ft.thick.
buildings in
the vicinity.
line.
BRODSWORTH,
near Don-
Lord Ren-
dlesham.
Chiefly carbo-
nate of lime
Light
brown
133 10
Thickest
bed 3 ft.
- -
- -
Doncaster Old
Church and
caster,
and carbonate
tint.
6 in.
Mansion-
Yorkshire.
of magnesia,
house, Brock-
with sub-ooli-
lesby Hall, &c.
tic grains : fri-
able.
CADEBV, near
Doncaster,
Yorkshire.
Sir Joseph
Copley,
Bart
Chiefly carbo-
nate of lime
and carbonate
Cream.
126 9
Central
beds
(the
• -
1 10
Day and Mar-
tin's, in High
Hoi born ;
of magnesia,
best) 4
almshouses at
with sub-ooli-
ft.thick.
Edgware, &c.
tic and irregu-
larly- formed
oolitic grains ;
friable.
CHAP. II.
STONE.
467
MAGNESIAN LIMESTONES — continued.
Name of
wtesA.
Proprietor of
Quarry.
Component Parts
of Stone.
Colour.
Weight of a
Cubic Foot in its
ordinary State.
Weight of
Block, and
the Thickness
procurable.
Price
per Cubic Foot
at the Quarry.
111
£fa
Where used.
lb. oz.
s. d.
s. d.
HUDDLE-
Oliver Gas-
Chiefly carbo-
Whitish
137 13
50 to 250
2 0
3 0
York Minster,
STONE, near
coigne,
nate of lime
cream.
cubic ft.
Selby Cathe-
Sherburne,
Esq., near
and carbonate
Beds
dral, Huddle-
Yorkshire.
Abber-
of magnesia,
have
stone Hall,
ford.
semi - crystal-
been
Sherburne
line.
met
Church.West-
with 4ft.
minster Hall,
thick.
Galeforth
Hall, &c.
JACKDAW
Sir Edward
Chiefly carbon-
Dark
m
Beds irre-
_
York Minster,
CRAIG, near
Tadcaster,
Vavasour,
Bart.
ate of lime and
carbonate of
cream.
gular,
from a
and probably
most of the
Yorkshire.
magnesia.
few in-
churches in
ches to
York ; also for
3 feet.
the late restor-
ations of York
Minster.
ROCHE ABBEY,
nearBawtry,
Earl of Scar-
borough.
Chiefly carbon-
ate of lime and
Whitish
cream.
139 2
8 or 10
tons,
0 8
to
2 11
2 111
Roche Abbey
Church, Tick-
Yorkshire.
carbonate of
thickest
1 6
hill Castle.and
magnesia, with
bed will
Church and
occasional den-
work 2ft
Bridge, Sand-
dritic spots of
6 in.
beck Hall,
iron or man-
SelbyHall,two
ganese, semi-
churches at
crystalline.
Retford, Baw-
try Church,
and numerous
churches in
.
Yorkshire and
Lincolnshire.
SMAWSE, near
Tadcaster,
Yorkshire.
ThomasPer-
rott, Esq.
Chiefly carbon-
ate of lime and
carbonate of
Light yel-
lowish
brown.
127 8
Largest
obtained
8-0x3-0
0 7
2 H
HullOldChurch,
RiponMinster,
St. Mary's
magnesia,
X30.
Church and
slightly crys-
the minster at
talline.
Beverley, the
minster and se-
veral churches
at York, and a
new church at
Appleby, in
Lincolnshire.
OOLITIC STONES.
Name of
Quarry , and
whore situated.
Proprietor of
Quarry.
Component Parts
of Stone.
Colour.
iM* 1?
nil
Price
Cubic Foot
he Quarry.
:e per Cubic
t, delivered
London.
Where used.
o °
3
I*
u*
lb. oz.
*. d.
s. d.
ANCASTER,
Mrs. Myers,
Fine oolitic
Cream.
139 4
3 to 5 tons,
0 9
2 7
Wollaton Hall,
near Slea-
ford, Lin-
Grantham.
grains, ce-
mented by
beds, 18
inches.
to
1 5
Belvoir Castle,
Belton House,
colnshire.
compact, and
and numerous
often crystal-
mansions and
line, carbonate
churches in
of lime.
Lincolnshire.
BARNACK
MILL, near
Mr. John
Martin,
Carbonate of
lime, compact
Light
whitish
136 12
Up to 30
ft, beds,
1 0
2 3
Burleigh House,
Peterborough
Stamford,
Northamp-
tonshire.
Ufford,
near Stam-
ford.
and oolitic,
with shells,
often in frag-
brown.
9 to 18
in.
Cathedral,
Croyland Ab-
bey, and the
ments.coarsely
laminated in
greater pro-
portion of
planes of beds.
churches in
Lincolnshire
and Cam-
bridgeshire.
Hh 2
468
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
OOLITIC STONES— continued.
Name of
Quarry, and
where situated.
Proprietor of
Quarry.
Component Parts
of Stone.
Colour.
Weight of a
Cubic Foot in its
ordinary State.
Weight of
Block, and
the Thickness
procurable.
Price
per Cubic Foot
at the Quarry.
|| .
«SJ
Hi
Ifj
Cfi
Where used.
lb. oz.
s. d.
s. d.
BATH LODGE
W. V. Jen-
Chiefly carbon-
Cream.
116 00
12 to 96 ft.
0 6
_
Restoration of
HiLL,Combe
Down, near
Bath, So.
kins, Esq.,
Combe
Grove
ate of lime, in
oolitic grains.
cube.
Thick-
est bed,
Henry VII.'s
chapel, twenty
years since.
mersetshire.
House,
4ift.
Kcnnet and
Bath.
Avon Canal,
and other
works.
BATH BAYN-
TON Quarry,
Box, near
Chippenham.
Thomas
Strong, of
Box, near
Chippen-
ham.
Chiefly carbon-
ate of lime, in
moderatelyfine
oolitic grains,
withfragments
Cream.
123 00
Up to 10
tons.
Thick-
est bed,
5ft.
0 7
1 11
Laycock Abbey,
Longleat, Bo-
wood, south
front of Wil-
ton House,
of shells (wea-
Windsor tCas-
ther bed).
tle, &c.
BATH
(DREWE'S
Wade
Brown,
Chiefly carbon-
ate of lime, in
Cream.
122 10
120 to 125
ft. Se-
0 6
1 10
Buckingham
New Palace ;
QUARRY),
Esq.,
oolitic grains
veral
St. James's
Monkton
Monkton
of moderate
beds,the
Square, Bath.
Farleigh,
Farleigh.
size.
deepest
near Bath.
about
4 ft. 2 in.
thick.
CRANMORE,
»
Carbonate of
Light
134 4
Of large
0 7
_
Cathedral of
near Doult-
lime, with a
brown.
size.
Wells, Glas-
ing, Wilt-
few oolitic
The
tonbury Ab-
shire.
grains, and an
thickest
bey, &c.
abundance of
beds will
small shells,
work
commonly in
20 in.
fragments,
often crystal-
line.
HAYDOR, near
John Archer
Carbonate of
Brownish
133 7
14 ft. x 3 ft.
0 8
2 4
Lincoln Cathe-
Grantham,
Houblou,
lime,with ooli-
cream.
x4ft.
dral, Boston
Lincoln-
shire.
Esq , near
Bishop's
tic grains,often
crystalline.
Church, Gran-
tham Church,
Stortibrd.
Newark
Church, and
most of the
churches in
the neighbour-
hood, and in
the lower part
of Lincoln-
shire ; Culver.
thorpe House,
Belvoir Castle,
&c.
KETTON, in
Rutland-
LordNorth-
wick.
Oolitic grains of
moderate size,
Dark
cream
128 5
Up to 100
ft., beds
1 9
3 4
Cambridge, Bed-
ford, Bury St.
shire, near
Stamford.
slightly ce-
mented by car-
colour.
vary
very
Edmund's,
Stamford,Lon-
bonate of lime.
much :
don, &c. ;
one 3 ft.
many of the
Gin.
ancient and
thick,
modern build-
called
ings at Cam-
rag.
bridge ; also in
the modern
works of Pe-
terborough
and Ely Ca-
thedral, and at
St. Dunstan's
New Church,
in London.
PORTLAND
(TRADE
Messrs. Wes-
ton.
Oolitic carbon^
ate of lime,
Whitish
brown.
- -
Any prac-
ticable
1 <i
2 3
Various public
buildings in
QUARRY),
with a few
size.
London.
Island of
fragments ol
Portland.
shells
CHAP. II.
STONE.
469
OOLITIC STONES — continued.
Si
*«ld
l£
li.
Name of
, Quarrv, and
where situated.
Proprietor of
Quarry.
Component Parts
of Stone.
Colour.
P|
2111
1U-J |
££
HI
n
Where used.
*H
£5|S,
li
•~ l-S
Ib. oz.
s. d.
s. d.
PORTLAND
Messrs. Wes-
Oolitic carbon-
Whitish
_
Any prac-
I 4$
2 3
Various public
(KiNG BAR-
ton.
ate of lime,
brown.
ticable
buildings in
ROW EAST
with a few
size.
London.
END QUAR-
fragments of
RY)adjoining
shells.
WAYCROFT,
Island of
Portland.
PORTLAND
( VERN-
Messrs.Wes-
ton.
Oolitic carbon-
ate of lime,
Whitish
brown.
134 10
top
Any prac-
ticable
1 4J
2 3
Various public
buildings in
STREET
with a few
bed.
size.
London.
QUARRY),
fragments of
Island of
shells.
Portland.
PORTLAND
Messrs. Wes-
Oolitic carbon-
Whitish
_
Any prac-
1 4£
2 3
Various public
(CASTLE'S
ton.
ate of lime,
brown.
ticable
buildings in
QUARRY),
with a few
size.
London.
Island of
fragments of
Portland.
shells.
PORTLAND
The Crown,
Oolitic carbon-
Whitish
135 8
Any prac-
1 4$
2 3
Goldsmiths'
(WAYCROFT
on lease to
ate of lime,
brown.
top
ticable
Hall, Reform
QUARRIES),
Messrs.
with dissemi-
bed.
size.
Club House,
Island of
Stewards
nated frag-
and other pub-
Portland.
and Co.
ments of
lic buildings in
shells.
London.
PORTLAND
The Crown,
Oolitic carbon-
Whitish
.
Any prac-
1 4£
2 2
Various public
(MAGGOTT
on lease to
ate of lime,
brown.
ticable
.
buildings in
QUARRY).
Messrs.
with fragments
size.
London.
Stewards
of shells.
and Co.
PORTLAND
Messrs.
Oolitic carbon-
Whitish
126 13
Any prac-
1 4*
2 3
Several public
(GOSLING'S
Stewards
ate of lime,
brown.
Roach
ticable
buildings in
QUARRY).
and Co.
with fragments
size.
London.
of shells.
Oolitic carbon-
PORTLAND
Messrs.
ate of lime,
Whitish
147 10
Any prac-
j 41
2 3
St. Paul's Ca-
(GROVE
Stewards
withnumerous
brown.
best
ticable
thedral, and se-
QUARRY
and Co.
fragments of
bed.
size.
veral churches
BOWERS).
shells.
145 9
in London,
carf.
built during
the reign of
Queen Anne.
PORTLAND
Messrs.
(GROVE
Stewards
Oolitic carbon-
Whitish
. .
Any prac-
1 4£
2 0
St.Paul's Cathe-
QUARRY,
and Co.
ate of lime,
brown.
ticable
dral, and many
REDCROFT).
with a few
size.
churches in
fragments of
London, of
shells.
Queen Anne's
reign.
Of the Portland stones, it is to be observed generally, that the dirt bed is full of fossil roots, trunk?,
and branches of trees, in the position of their former growth. The top cap is a white, hard, and
closely compacted limestone. The skull cap is irregular in texture, and is a well-compacted
limestone. The roach beds are always incorporated with the freestone beds, that invariably lie
below them, and are full of cavities formed by the moulds of shells and the like. The top bed
is the best stone, the bottom one ill cemented, and will not stand the weather. A middle or curf
bed occurs only in the southernmost quarries on the east cliff; it is soft to the north, and hard to
the south. The good workable stone in the east cliff quarries is generally less in depth than in
the same bed in the west cliff quarries, but the east cliff stone is harder, more especially to the
south of the island. The stone, even in the same quarries, varies considerably. That which
contains flints will not stand the weather. The bottom bed on the west cliff is not a durable
stone, though sold as a good stone in the London market. The best stone is in the north-
eastern part of the island ; the worst in the south-western part. The annual consumption of
the whole of the quarries in the island is equal to an area of one acre of the good workable
stone, or about 24,000 tons. The entire area unworked is about 2000 acres. There are 56
quarries in the island, and about 240 quarrymen employed, of which number Messrs. Stewards
employ usually about 138.
Hh 3
470
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
OOLITIC STONES— continued.
Name of
Quarry, and
where situated.
Proprietor of
Quarry.
Component Parts
of Stone.
Colour.
Weight of a
Cubic Foot in its
ordinary State.
|l||
ffgf
Mjl
Price
per Cubic Foot
at the Quarry.
111
*1J
.§55
fil
Where used.
lb. oz.
s.d.
.v. d.
TAYNTON, or
TEYNTON,
Lord Dyne-
vor.
Carbonate of
lime, partly
Streaky
brown.
J35 15
Any prac-
ticable
0 10
to
2 4
Blenheim, Corn-
bury Park,
near Bur-
oolitic and
size.
1 0
Barrington
ford, Oxon.
friable, with
Thick-
Park, the in-
very small
est bed,
terior of St.
fragments of
about
Paul's and
shells, irregu-
7ft.
many other
larly lami-
churches in
nated.
London and
Oxford, and in
variousbridges
in Oxford-
shire.
WASS, near
Martin Sta-
Compact car-
Brown.
141 11
Beds va-
_
„
West front and
Thirsk,
Yorkshire.
pleton,
Esq.
bonate of lime,
with oolitic
soft.
162 8
riable,
about
a large propor-
tion of 13ylaud
grains and an
hard.
16 in.
Abbey.
argillo - calca-
reous cement ;
carbon disse-
minated.
WlNDBUSH,
Lord Shel-
Fine oolitic
Cream.
118 2
5 to 40 ft.
0 8
2 7
Windrush
near Bur-
ford, Glou-
burne.
grains, with
calcareous ce-
soft.
135 15
Thickest
bed, 2 ft.
Church, Bar-
rington House,
cestershire.
ment, and a
hard.
6 in.
and all the old
few fragments
of shells.
buildings
within many
miles of the
quarry.
1665. The following very useful enumeration of the stones used in buildings of the
island, arranged under that head, and divided into the sorts of stone employed in them,
we add, verbatim, from the Report which we have so much used. The heads are under
SANDSTONE buildings, LIMESTONE buildings, and MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE buildings
SANDSTONE BUILDINGS.
BAKEWELL, Derbyshire. The houses generally are of sandstone, and in fair condition. A
new bank now erecting of sandstone from Bakewell Edge.
BAKEWELL CHURCH (1 4th century), of a sandstone of the vicinity, very much decomposed.
BARNARD CASTLE, Durham (14th century). Circular keep, apparently of Stenton stone, in
excellent condition. In modern works, the Joint Stock Bank and Market-house of
Stenton stone, in good condition.
BELPER NEW CHURCH, Derbyshire. Built 10 years since, of sandstone from Hungerhill,
in an incipient state (in parts) of decomposition.
BLANDFORD PARISH CHURCH, Dorsetshire (1769). Of a green siliceous fine-grained sand-
stone, the dressings being of a stone similar to the Portland oolite ; the former much
decomposed ; the latter in very good condition. Town Hall, about 80 years old, of
stone similar to the Portland oolite, in good condition.
BRANCEPETH CASTLE, Durham. Of ancient date, of sandstone of the vicinity j recently
restored extensively ; older parts in various states of decomposition.
BRIAVEL'S, ST., CASTLE, Glocestershire. In ruins (13th or 14th century). Entrance gate-
way (the chief remains of the castle) built of red sandstone, decomposed.
BRISTOL CATHEDRAL (13th and 14th centuries). Built of red sandstone and a yellow
limestone (magnesian ?) strangely intermixed ; the red sandstone in all cases decom-
posed, the limestone more rarely decayed ; the tracery, &c. of the windows, which are
of the limestone, are in good condition ; but the pinnacles and other dressings, which
are of the same material, are much decomposed. The east end of the cathedral is a
remarkable instance of the decay and preservation of the two stones employed. Nor-
man gateway, west of the cathedral (the upper part of the 1 5th century) ; the Norman
archway and its enrichments, which are of a very florid character, built of yellow
limestone (magnesian?), in excellent condition.
BVLAND ABBEY (1 2th century). In part of a siliceous grit (principally in the interior),
and in part (chiefly on the exterior) of a compact oolite, from the Wass quarries in the
CHAP. II. STONE. 471
vicinity. The west front, which is of the oolite, is in perfect condition, even in the
dog's-teeth and other florid decorations of the doorways, &c. This building is -coven d
generally with lichens.
CARLISLE. Ancient buildings: Cathedral (13th century), of red sandstone, in various
states of decomposition. Modern buildings : Many of red sandstone, more or less in
a state of decomposition.
CASTLE HOWARD, Yorkshire. Built generally of a siliceous fine-grained sandstone from
the park ; generally in good condition, but in some parts, such as the parapets, cu-
polas, and chimney shafts, much decomposed. The pilasters of the north front from
a quarry at Appleton ; in good condition, except where subjected to alternations of
wet and dry, as in the plinths, where there are signs of decomposition. The stables
are of Appleton stone, and in good condition.
CHATSWORTH HOUSE, Derbyshire. Original house built of Bell Crop sandstone from Bake-
well Edge, not in very good condition, particularly in the lower parts of the building.
In the recent additions the same stone is employed, together with that of Bailey
Moor and Lindrop Hill.
CHEPSTOW CASTLE, Monmouthshire (llth and 12th centuries, with additions of the 14th
century). Of mountain limestone and old red sandstone ; the former in good con-
dition ; the latter decomposed. Dressings of doors, windows, archways, and quoins
are for the most part of magnesian limestone, in perfect condition ; the remainder is
of red sandstone, and is generally much decomposed. Chapel (of the 12th century) ;
mouldings and carvings of the windows, &c., which are of magnesian limestone, are in
perfect condition.
COXWOLD CHURCH, Yorkshire (15th century). Generally of fine siliceous grit of the
vicinity, and in part of a calcareous nature. Tower in good condition ; porch decom-
posed ; lichens abundant on the north side.
DERBY. St. Peter's Church (13th century), of the variegated coarse sandstone of the
vicinity, similar to that of Little Eaton. The whole in bad condition ; but the red
stones less so than the grey or white. St. Almund's Church (of the 14th century),
of a coarse sandstone of the vicinity, in a very decomposed state, to the obliteration
of the mouldings and other details ; it has lately been scraped and painted, to pre-
serve it from further destruction. All Saints Church (tower of the 15th century),
of sandstone, similar to that of Duffield Bank, partly in fair condition, and partly
much decomposed, particularly the great western entrance. The body of the
church, built 110 years since, of sandstone, in part decomposing. Modern buildings:
Town Hall, of sandstone from Morley Moor, built a few years since, in very good
condition.
DURHAM CATHEDRAL (llth and 12th centuries). Of a sandstone of the vicinity, elected
indiscriminately, and in all stages of decomposition ; few stones are quite perfect.
CASTLE (of the 1 1 th century). Of similar stone, and in a similar state.
EASBY ABBEY, Yorkshire (13th and 1 4th centuries). Of sandstone of the vicinity ; mould-
ings and carvings decomposed and in part obliterated. Walls built very rudely, and
in various states of decomposition ; some parts, however, maintain their original
surface.
ECCLESTON ABBEY, Yorkshire (13th century). Of stone similar to that of the Stenton
quarry. The mouldings and other decorations, such even as the dog's-teeth enrich-
ments^are in perfect condition.
EDINBURGH. Ancient buildings: Holyrood Chapel (12th century), of sandstone from
the vicinity, in part much decomposed ; in other parts, such as the west door, almost
perfect. The palace (built in the 16th and 17th centuries) of similar stone, generally
in good condition, the older parts being slightly decomposed. The oldest part of the
Tron Church (1641), of sandstone, much decomposed. A house on the Castle Hill
(1591), of sandstone, only slightly decomposed.
Modern buildings, wholly erected of sandstones from the Cragleith, Red Hall, Humbie,
and Binnie quarries, for the most from the first-mentioned quarry. None
of them exhibit any appearance of decomposition, with the exception of ferruginous
stains, which are produced upon some stones. Among the oldest is the Registry
Office, which is of Cragleith stone, and built above sixty years since ; it is in a perfect
state.
FOUNTAIN'S ABBEY, Yorkshire (llth and 12th centuries, with additions of the 16th
century). Of coarse sandstone of the vicinity, generally in bad condition, particularly
the west front, which is much decomposed. The nave and transept, which are the
earliest portions of the building, are the best preserved.
FOUNTAIN'S HALL, Yorkshire (1677). Of sandstone of the vicinity, and magnesian lime-
stone in the dressings. The whole in fair condition.
FOREST OK DEAN, Gloucestershire. Park End new church, built fifteen years since, of
sandstone, similar to that of Colford. No appearance of decomposition.
Hh 4
472 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
GLASGOW. Ancient buildings: High Church (12th century), sandstone of the vicinity,
generally very much decomposed, particularly on the south side Old quadrangle of
the College (James II.), of sandstone, decomposed.
Modern buildings : Hunterian Museum (1804); superstructure said to be of stone from
the President quarry ; slight traces of decomposition on the south-west front. The
basement of another sandstone, in a more advanced state of decomposition ; other
parts of the building are in an almost perfect state. The other buildings are gene-
rally erected of stone from the Giffneuch and other quarries in the immediate neigh-
bourhood, except the new Exchange buildings, which are of stone from the Humbie
quarry, thirty miles from Glasgow, recently erected, in which there are not any ap-
parent symptoms of decomposition.
GLOUCESTER CATHEDRAL (Norman for the greater part, altered and cased in the 15th
century), built of a fine-grained and ill- cemented oolite, a shelly oolite, and a red
sandstone (north side) intermixed, of which the former constitutes the greater por-
tion. The tower (15th century), of shelly oolite, in perfect condition. The early
turrets of the south transepts are also in good condition. The body of the building
is much decomposed. The great cloister is built of the same materials as the cathe-
dral. The moulded and decorated work is in good condition, the other parts are
more or less decomposed. The small cloister is built of a fine oolite with a compact
cement, and is in good condition. THE NEW BRIDGE, of Whitchurch sandstone,
parapets of Ruordean fine-grained sandstone, in good condition.
HADDON HALL, Derbyshire (15th and 16th centuries). Of a fine-grained sandstone,
similar to that of Lindrop Hill. The dressings, parapets, chimney shafts, quoins, &c.
are wrought and rubbed; the remainder of the walls is of rough walling. The whole
in fair condition.
HARROWGATE. Cheltenham Pump Room, of sandstone from Woodhouse, near Leeds.
Built recently. In good condition. Swan Hotel and other modern buildings, of a
coarse sandstone of the vicinity ; generally in good condition.
HARDWICKE HALL, Derbyshire. (1597). Of a fine-grained sandstone, chiefly from a
quarry in the hill on which the house is built, intermixed with a calciferous grit,
similar to that of Mansfield ; generally in good condition. The ashler is in parts
decomposed, especially where it is set on edge.
HOWDEN CHURCH, Yorkshire (15th century); partly of magnesian limestone, of a deep
yellow colour, and partly of a coarse siliceous grit, of a ferruginous colour. Dress-
ings and enrichments and the central tower are of the former stone ; generally de-
composed, particularly at the top of the tower. The other parts of the building,
which are of the grit, are very much decomposed.
KIRKSTALL ABBEY, Yorkshire (llih century). Of coarse sandstone of the vicinity, in
various stages of decomposition according to the aspect. The east side is in fair con-
dition ; some of the zig-zag enrichments and early capitals and other enrichments of
mouldings are in perfect condition. The windows of the chancel and tower (inserted
in the 1 6th century) of a yellow sandstone, are for the most part gone, and what re-
mains is much decomposed.
MANSFELD TOWN HALL, Nottinghamshire. Built three years since, of magnesio-calciferous
sandstone from Mansfield : no appearance of decomposition.
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE. Ancient buildings: St. Nicholas' Church (14th century), of
sandstone of the vicinity, similar to that of the Heddon Quarry, very mueh decom-
posed. Parts restored within the last century, with the same stone, now decomposing.
The upper part of the tower and spire restored within the last five years, and painted
to preserve the stone from decay. Other ancient buildings, of the same stone, more or
less in a state of decomposition, according to the date of their erection.
Modern buildings, built within the last 25 years, of sandstone from the Felling and
Church quarries at Gateshead and the Kenton quarry : parts already show symptoms
of decomposition.
PONTEFRACT CASTLE, Yorkshire (14th century). Built generally of a coarse grit, of a dark
brown colour, occasionally mixed with an inferior magnesian limestone. The whole
in a very decomposed state, more particularly the sandstone, in which all traces of the
original surface are effaced. Fragments of magnesian limestone are embedded in
several parts of the walls, with mouldings of the 12th century, in perfect con-
dition.
RABY CASTLE, Durham (14th century). Of sandstone of the vicinity : parts in a perfect
state, others slightly decomposed.
RICHMOND CASTLE, Yorkshire (llth century). The keep, of sandstone, similar to that of
Gatherly Moor, generally in good condition ; mouldings and carvings in columns of
window in a perfect state.
RIFON, Yorkshire. An obelisk in the market-place (1781), of coarse sandstone, much de-
composed in laminations parallel to the exposed faces.
CHAP. II. STONE. 473
RIPON CATHEDRAL. Lower part, east end, and south-east angle (Norman), of coarse sand-
stone of the vicinity, in good condition. The west front, the transepts, and tower (of
the 1 2th and 1 3th centuries), of the coarse sandstone of the vicinity, in fair condition.
The mouldings, although generally decomposed, are not effaced. The dog's-teeth
ornaments in most parts nearly perfect. The aisles of the naves, the clerestory, and
the choir (of the 14th and 15th centuries), of coarse sandstone and magnesian lime-
stone intermixed, not in good condition ; the latter stone, on the south side, often in
fair condition. The lower parts of the building generally, but particularly the west
fronts, which are of coarse sandstone, are very much decomposed.
RIVAULX ABBEY, Yorkshire (12th century). Of a sandstone at Hollands, one mile from
the ruins ; generally in excellent condition. West front slightly decomposed ; south
front remarkably perfect, even to the preservation of the original toolmarks.
SHAFTESBURY, Dorsetshire. St. Peter's Church (15th century). Of a green siliceous
sandstone, from quarries half a mile south of the church. The whole building much
decomposed. The tower is bound together by iron, and is unsafe, owing to the inferior
quall.y of the stone.
SPOFFORTH CASTLE, Yorkshire (14th century). Of coarse red sandstone; more or less,
but generally much, decomposed. The dressings of the windows and doors, of a semi-
crystalline magnesian limestone, are in perfect state, the mouldings and enrichments
being exquisitely sharp and beautiful.
TINTERN ABBEY (13th century). Considerable remains of red and grey sandstones of the
vicinity, in part laminated. In unequal condition, but for the most part in perfect
condition ; covered with grey and green lichens.
TISBURY CHURCH (13th and 14th centuries; the lower part of the tower of the 12th
century). Of calciferous limestone from Tisbury. The dressings are composed of
stone throughout, in perfect condition. The ashlar variable ; in part much decom-
posed ; the undecomposed portions are covered with lichens. Tombstones in the
churchyard generally in good condition, some being more than a century old. The
houses of the village built generally of the Tisbury stone, and are in very good con-
dition. The whole covered with lichens.
WAKEFIELD PARISH CHURCH, Yorkshire (tower and spire of the 16th century). Of sand-
stone, much decomposed. The body of the church, of recent date, of sandstone,
strongly laminated, and generally decomposed between the laminae.
WHITBY ABBEY (13th century). Of stone similar to that of Aislaby Brow, in the vicinity ;
generally in good condition, with the exception of the west front, which is very much
decomposed. The stone used is of two colours, brown and white ; the former, in all
cases, more decomposed than the latter. The dog's-teeth and other enrichments in the
east front are in good condition.
LIMESTONE BUILDINGS.
BATH. Abbey church (1576), built of an oolite in the vicinity. The tower is in fair con-
dition. The body of the church, in the upper part of the south and west sides, much
decomposed. The lower parts, formerly in contact with buildings, are in a more
perfect state ; the reliefs in the west front of Jacob's ladder are in parts nearly effaced.
Queen's Square, north side, and the obelisk in the centre, built above 100 years
since, of an oolite with shells, in fair condition. Circus (built about 1750), of an
oolite in the vicinity, generally in fair condition, except those portions which have a
west and southern aspect, where the most exposed parts are decomposed. Crescent
(built above 50 years since), of an oolite of the vicinity, generally in fair condition,
except in a few places, where the stone appears to be of inferior quality.
BRISTOL CATHEDRAL (of the 13th and 14th centuries). Built of red sandstone and appa-
rently a yellow limestone (magnesian?) strangely intermixed. The red sandstone in
all cases decomposed ; the limestone more rarely decayed. The tracery, &c. of the
windows, which are of the limestone, are in good condition, but the pinnacles and
dressings of the same material much decomposed. The east end of the cathedral is a
remarkable instance of the decay and preservation of the two stones employed. Nor-
man gateway, west of the cathedral (the upper part of the 15th century), the Norman
archway and its enrichments, which are of a very florid character, built of yellow
limestone (magnesian ?), in excellent condition.
, ST. MARY REDCLIFFE (tower of the 12th century; body of the church of the 15th
century). Of oolitic limestone, from Dundry ; very much decomposed.
BURLEIGH HOUSE (15th century). Of a shelly oolite (Barnack rag), in excellent condi-
tion throughout. The late additions are of Ketton stone.
BYLAND ABBEY, Yorkshire ( 1 2th century). In part of a siliceous grit (principally in the
interior), and in part (chiefly on the exterior) of a compact oolite, from the Wass
quarries in the vicinity. The west front, which is of the oolite, is in perfect condition,
474 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
even in the dog's-teeth and other florid decorations of the doorways, &c. This build-
ing is generally covered with lichens.
COLLEY WESTON CHURCH, Northamptonshire (14th century). Of a shelly oolite (Barnack
rag), in perfect condition throughout.
DORCHESTER. St. Peter's Church (15th century). Of laminated oolite, somewhat similar
to that of Portland, and of a shelly limestone, somewhat resembling that of Hamhill.
The latter used in pinnacles, parapets, and dressings. The whole in a decomposed
state.
GLASTONBURY — Abbey. Joseph of Arimathea's Chapel. Considerable ruins ; Norman,
of shelly limestone, similar to that of Doulting ; generally in good condition ; the
zig-zag and other enrichments perfect ; the capitals of the columns, corbels, &c. are of
blue lias, much decomposed, and in some cases have disappeared. The Church. Con-
siderable remains of the choir, and a small portion of the nave (llth century), of
shelly limestone, similar to that of Doulting, in good condition. St. Benedict's Parish
Church (14th century). Of limestone, similar to that of Doulting, in good condition.
St. John the Baptist's Parish Church (1 5th century). Of stone similar to that of
Doulting, generally in fair condition.
GLOCESTER — Cathedral, (Norman for the greater part, altered and cased in the 15th
century). Built of a fine-grained and ill-cemented oolite, a shelly oolite, and a red
sandstone (north side) intermixed, the former constituting the greatest portion of the
edifice. The tower (15th century), of shelly oolite, in perfect condition. The early
turrets of the south transept are also in good condition. The body of the building is
much decomposed. The great cloister is built of the same materials as the cathedral.
The moulded and decorated work is in good condition ; the other parts are more or
less decomposed. The great cloister is built of a fine oolite, with a compact cement,
and is in good condition. St. Nicholas's Church (body Norman ; tower and spire,
15th century), of a shelly and inferior kind of oolite intermixed, and in unequal con-
dition. St. MichaeTs Church (15th century), built of same stone as that of St.
Nicholas, and in the same condition.
GRANTHAM CHURCH (13th century). Lofty tower and spire at the west end. Built of an
oolite, similar to that of Ancaster, in good condition, more especially the tower, except
as to some portions of the base mouldings.
KETTON CHURCH, Rutlandshire. (West entrance door, Norman ; tower of the 12th or 13th
century ; nave, aisles, and chancel of the 14th century). Of a shelly oolite (Barnack
rag), in good condition. Dog's-teeth, carved corbels, and other enrichments in a
perfect state.
KETTKRING CHURCH (14th and 15th centuries). Of a shelly oolite, fine-grained, the greater
portion resembling Barnack rag. The tower and spire in perfect condition. The
body of the church in parts slightly decomposed.
KIRKHAM PRIORY, Yorkshire (13th century). Inconsiderable remains. The western
front and great entrance slightly decomposed throughout ; the portions which remain
of the body of the church very perfect, but many of the stones are much decomposed.
The stone is very similar to that of the Hildenly quarry. The whole is covered with
lichens.
LINCOLN CATHEDRAL (the minster generally of the 12th and 13th centuries). Of oolitic
and calcareous stone of the vicinity ; generally in fair condition, more especially the
early portions of the west front. The ashler and plain dressings of the south front
are, however, much decomposed. The mouldings and carvings of the east front are
in a perfect state. Roman Gate, of a ferruginous oolite, in fair condition. The Castle
Gateway (13th century), of an oolitic limestone ; ashler much decomposed, dressings
perfect.
MELTON OLD CHURCH, Yorkshire (12th century). Light semi-compact limestone, similar
to that of the Hildenly quarry ; generally in good condition, particularly the great
west door (of the 1 1 th century), where the zig-zag and other enrichments are perfect.
Some stones are much decomposed.
MONTACUTE, Somersetshire — Parish Church (15th century). Of Hamhill stone, in perfect
condition, covered with lichens. The Abbey (15th century). Supposed abbot's
house and gateway, of Hamhill stone, in good condition. Montacute House (17th
century), of Hamhill stone, in excellent condition.
MASTOCK CHURCH, Somersetshire (15th century). Of a shelly ferruginous brown lime-
stone from Hamhill, in good condition, except the plinth and base mouldings, which
are much decomposed. Covered with lichens.
NEWARK CHURCH (15th century; the tower, in part, of the 12th century). Of an oolite,
similar to that of Ancaster ; generally in fair condition, with the exception of parts of
the base mouldings. The building is covered with a grey lichen. The Castle ( Nor-
man, with additions in the 15th century). Chiefly of sandstone of the vicinity ; in
unequal condition. A large portion of the dressings of the windows, &c. are of oolite,
CHAP. II. STONE. 475
probably from Ancaster. Town Hall (50 or 60 years old). Built of the Ancaster
oolite ; in good condition ; in some blocks, however, there is an appearance of lami-
nation, where decomposition has to a slight extent taken place.
OXFORD CATHEDRAL, Norman (12th century). Chiefly of a shelly oolite, similar to that
of Taynton; Norman work in good condition, the latter work much decomposed.
Merton College Chapel (13th century). Of a shelly oolite, resembling Taynton stone;
in good condition generally. New College Cloisters (14th century). Of a shelly
oolite (Taynton), in good condition. The whole of the colleges, churches, and other
public buildings of Oxford, erected within the last three centuries, are of oolitic lime-
stone from Heddington, about one mile and a half from the university, and are all,
more or less, in a deplorable state of decomposition. The plinth, string-courses, and
such portions of the buildings as are much exposed to the action of the atmosphere,
are mostly of a shelly oolite from Taynton, fifteen miles from the university, and are
universally in good condition.
PAUL'S, ST., CATHEDRAL, LONDON (finished about 1700). Built of Portland oolite, from the
Grove quarries on the east cliff. The building generally in good condition, especially
the north and east fronts. The carvings of flowers, fruit, and other ornaments are
throughout nearly as perfect as when first executed, although much blackened ; on
the south and west fronts, larger portions of the stone may be observed of their natural
colour than on the north and east fronts, occasioned by a very slight decomposition of
the surface. The stone in the drum of the dome, and in the cupola above it, appears
not to have been so well selected as the rest ; nevertheless scarcely any appreciable
decay has taken place in those parts.
PICKERING CHURCH, Yorkshire (13th and 14th centuries). Oolite rock of the neighbour-
hood ; very much decomposed j the windows, mullions, and buttress angles obli-
terated.
PICKERING CASTLE (14th century). The walls of the oolite of the neighbourhood, and the
quoins of a siliceous grit. The whole in fair condition.
PORTLAND, Dorsetshire — New Church (built 1766), of Portland oolite, fine roach ; in a
perfect state, still exhibiting the original tool marks. Wakeham Village, Tudor
House, of Portland oolite, in excellent condition. Old Church, in ruins, near Bow
and Arrow Castle (15th century), of Portland oolite, resembling top bed ; in very
good condition ; original chisel marks still appear on the north front. Bow and Arrow
Castle. Considerable remains of the keep, many centuries old, of Portland oolite ; the
ashlar resembles the top bed, and is in perfect condition ; the quoins and corbels of
the machicolated parapet appear to be of the cap bed of Portland oolite, and are in
good condition.
SALISBURY CATHEDRAL (13th century). Of siliciferous limestone from Chillmark
quarry. The entire building is in excellent condition, except the west front,
which in parts is slightly decomposed. The building generally covered with
lichens.
SANDYSFOOT CASTLE, near Weymouth (temp. Hen. VIII.). Considerable remains of keep,
chiefly of Portland oolite, partly of the top bed and partly of the fine roach ; generally
in excellent condition, with the exception of a few and apparently inferior stones. The
inside ashlar of the walls is of large-grained oolite, apparently from the immediate
vicinity of the castle, much decomposed.
SOMERTON CHURCH, Somersetshire (14th century). Built chiefly of blue lias; the quoins,
buttresses, parapets, and other dressings of a coarse ferruginous shelly limestone, in
various stages of decay. The parapet of the clerestory of a lighter-coloured stone, in
good condition.
STAMFORD — St. Mary's Church (13th century). Of a shelly oolite (Barnack rag), in
fair condition. St. John's Church (14th century). Of similar stone, ill selected, and
consequently decomposed in parts and in laminations, according to the direction of
the beds of shells. St. Martin's Church (14th century). Of similar stone, in good
condition. All Saints (lower part of the body of the church 13th century ; the re-
mainder 1 5th century). Tower and spire in fine condition ; body of the church de-
composed. StandwelVs Hotel, built twenty-four years since of an oolite similar to
that of Ketton ; in perfect condition. St. Michael's New Church. Built four years
since ; no appearance of decomposition.
WELLS, THE CATHEDRAL. West front (13th century), upper part of tower (14th century),
of shelly limestone, similar to that of Doulting, generally decomposed, but not to any
great extent. North flank (porch and transept 13th century, the remainder of the
14th century), of similar stone, in good condition, except lower part of flank and west
tower. The central tower (of the 14th century) in very good condition. South side
of the cathedral generally in good condition. Chapter House (13th century, with
additions of the 15th century). The whole in good condition excepting the west
front of the gateway, which is decomposed. Close gates (15th century) much de-
476 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
composed, but especially on the south and south-west. The cloisters (15th century)
generally decomposed, particularly the mullions and tracery.
WESTMINSTER ABBEY (13th century). Built of several varieties of stone, similar to that of
Gatton or Ryegate, which is much decomposed, and also of Caen stone, which is
generally in bad condition ; a considerable portion of the exterior, especially on the
north side, has been restored at various periods, nevertheless abundant symptoms
of decay are apparent. The cloisters, built of several kinds of stone, are in a very
mouldering condition, except where they have been recently restored with Bath
and Portland stones. The west towers, erected in the beginning of the 18th century
with a shelly variety of Portland oolite, exhibit scarcely any appearance of decay.
Henry the Seventh's Chapel, restored about twenty years since with Combe Down
Bathstone, is already in a state of decomposition.
WINDRUSH CHURCH (15th century). Of an oolite from the immediate vicinity ; in ex-
cellent condition. A Norman door on the north side, enriched with the bird's-beak
and other characteristic ornaments, is in perfect condition. Tombstones in the
churchyard, very highly enriched and bearing the dates of 1681, 1690, apparently of
Windrush stone, are in perfect condition.
WYKE CHURCH, Dorsetshire (15th century). Of oolite, similar to Portland, the whole in
good condition, except the mullions, tracery, and dressings of doors and windows,
which are constructed of a soft material, and are all decomposed. On the south side,
the ashler is in part covered with rough-cast. The entire building is thickly covered
with lichens.
MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE BUILDINGS.
BEVERLEY, Yorkshire. The minster (12th, 13th, and 14th centuries), of magnesian lime-
stone from Bramham Moor, and an oolite from Newbold ; the former, which is used
in the west tower, central tower, and more ancient parts of the minster, generally in
good condition ; but in other parts of the building the same material is decomposed.
The Newbold stone, chiefly employed on the east side, is altogether in a bad condition.
Some of the pinnacles are of Oulton sandstone, and are in bad condition. The build-
ing is partly covered with lichens. St. Mary's Church (14th century), now in course
of restoration, of magnesian limestone and oolite, supposed to be from Bramham Moor
and Newbold, respectively. The ancient parts are in a very crumbling state, even to
the obliteration of many of the mouldings and enrichments.
BOLSOVER CASTLE, Derbyshire (1629). Mostly in ruins; of magnesian limestone of
several varieties, and of a calcareous fine-grained sandstone. The dressings, which
are generally of sandstone, are much decomposed, in some instances to the entire ob-
literation of the mouldings and other decorations, and to the destruction of the form of
the columns, rustications, &c. Most of the string courses, a portion of the window
dressings, and the ashler, which are of magnesian limestone, are generally in excellent
condition.
BOLSOVER CHURCH, Derbyshire (15th century). Of a magnesio-calciferous sandstone, more
or less in a decomposed state throughout.
CHEPSTOW CASTLE, Monmouthshire (1 1th and 12th centuries, with additions of the 14th
century). Of mountain limestone and old red sandstone ; the former in good con-
dition, the latter decomposed. Dressings of door, window, archway, and quoins are for
the most part of magnesian limestone, and in perfect condition. The remainder is of
red sandstone, and is generally much decomposed. Chapel (of the 12th century),
mouldings and carvings of windows, &c., which are of magnesian limestone, in perfect
condition.
DONCASTER (OLD) CHURCH (15th century). Of an inferior magnesian limestone, generally
much decomposed, more especially in the tower, and on the south and west sides ; now
under general and extensive repair.
HEMINGBOROUGH CHURCH, Yorkshire (15th century). Of a white crystalline magnesian
limestone. The entire building is in a perfect state, even the spire, where no traces of
decay are apparent.
HOWDEN CHURCH, Yorkshire (15th century). Partly of magnesian limestone of a deep
yellow colour, and partly of a coarse siliceous grit of a ferruginous colour. Dressings
and enrichments, and the central tower, are of the former stone, generally decomposed,
particularly at the top of the tower. The other parts of the edifice, built of the grit,
are very much decomposed.
HUDDLESTONE HALL, Yorkshire (15th century). Of semi-crystalline magnesian limestone
from the neighbouring quarry. In excellent condition, even to the entire preservation
of the mouldings of the chapel window in the south-west front. The outer gate piers
in the fence wall, also of magnesian limestone, very much decomposed.
KNARESBOROUCH CASTLE, Yorkshire (12th century). Magnesian limestone, carious in part ;
CHAP. II. STONE. 477
generally in very good condition, except on the south and south-west portions of the
circular turrets, where the surface is much decomposed. The mouldings generally are
in a perfect state. The joints of the masonry, which is executed with the greatest
care, are remarkably close. The stone of the keep, which is of a deep brown colour,
and much resembles sandstone, is in good condition, especially on the south-west
side.
KONINGSBOROUGH CASTLE, Yorkshire (Norman). Coarse-grained and semi-crystalline mag-
nesian limestone, from the hill eastward of the castle ; in perfect condition. The
masonry is executed with great care, the joints very close, but the mortar within them
has disappeared.
RIPON CATHEDRAL. Lower part, east end, south-east angle (Norman), of coarse sandstone
from the vicinity, in good condition. The west front, the transepts, and tower (of the
12th and 13th centuries), of coarse sandstone of the vicinity, in fair condition. The
mouldings, although generally decomposed, are not effaced. The dog's-teeth orna-
ment in most parts nearly perfect. The aisles of the nave, the clerestory, and the
choir (of the 14th and 15th centuries), of coarse sandstone and magnesian limestone
intermixed, not in good condition. The latter stone, on the south side, often in fair
condition. The lower parts of the building generally, particularly the west fronts,
which are of coarse sandstone, are much decomposed. An obelisk, in the market-
place (1781), of coarse sandstone, is much decomposed, and in laminations parallel to
the exposed faces.
ROBIN HOOD'S WELL, Yorkshire (1 740). A rusticated building, of magnesian limestone,
in perfect condition.
ROCHE ABBEY, Yorkshire (1 2th century). Inconsiderable remains, of semi-crystalline mag-
nesian limestone from the neighbouring quarry, generally in fair condition. The
mouldings and decorated portions are perfect. Gate-house (12th century) generally
decomposed, with the exception of the dressings and mouldings, which are
perfect.
SELBY CHURCH, Yorkshire (nave and lower part of the tower of the llth century ; the west
front and aisles of the 12th century; and the choir with its aisles of the 14th century).
The Norman portion of the building, which is of grey magnesian limestone, is in
excellent condition, particularly the lower part. The early English portions of the
building are also of magnesian limestone, and in a partially decomposed state. The
later portions of the building, which also are of magnesian limestone, are much decom-
posed and blackened.
SOUTHWELL CHURCH, Notts (of the 10th century). Of magnesian limestone, similar to
that of Bolsover Moor, in perfect condition. The mouldings and enrichments of the
doorway appear as perfect as if just completed. The choir, which is of the 12th cen-
tury, and built of a stone similar to that of Mansfield, is generally in good con-
dition.
SPOFFORTH CASTLE, Yorkshire (14th century). Of coarse red sandstone, generally much
decomposed. The dressings of the windows and doors, of a semi-crystalline mag-
nesian limestone, are in a perfect state, the mouldings and enrichments being eminently
sharp and beautiful.
STUDLEY PARK, Yorkshire. Banquetting house, about 100 years old, of yellowish mag-
nesian limestone, in perfect condition.
THORPE ABBEY VILLAGE. The houses generally of this village are built of magnesian
limestone from the vicinity ; they are in excellent condition, and of a very pleasing
colour.
THORPE SALVIN, near Worksop. Manor-house (15th century), in ruins. Of a siliciferous
magnesian limestone and a sandstone, in unequal condition ; the quoins and dressings
are generally in a perfect state. Parish Church (15th century), also of a siliciferous
variety of magnesian limestone and a sandstone, in unequal but generally fair condi-
tion. A Norman doorway under the porch is well preserved.
TICKHILL CHURCH, Yorkshire, (15th century). Of magnesian limestone, in excellent
condition. The lower part of the tower (of the 12th century) also in fair condition.
YORK. Ancient Buildings : CATHEDRAL (transepts, 13th century; tower, nave, &c., 14th
century). Of magnesian limestone, from Jackdaw Craig. West end and towers
restored thirty years since ; they are generally in fair condition, but some of the
enriched gables and other decorations are obliterated. The transepts are in many
places much decomposed, especially in the mouldings and enrichments. The central
tower is generally in good condition, but several of the enriched parts are decom-
posed. St. Mary's Abbey (12th century), of magnesian limestone. West front of the
church generally much decomposed ; the north flank in better condition, but in parts
much decomposed. The gateway, which is of Norman origin, is in fair condition.
Roman Multangular Tower. Built of small stones ; such as are of magnesian lime-
stone are in good condition. St. Denis's Church. Norman doorway, of magnesian
478
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
limestone ; south side highly enriched with zig-zag and other ornaments ; the columns
are gone ; the parts which remain are in good condition. St. Margaret's Church (15th
century), of magnesian limestone ; east front much exposed, and in good condition.
The porch is of Norman date, and has been reconstructed ; four bands of enrichment
in the head, in tolerably fair condition, but many stones, particularly those of a deep
yellow brown colour, are much decomposed. The other churches of York (which are
of the 14th and 15th centuries) are built of magnesian limestone, and are generally in
an extremely decomposed state ; in many instances all architectural detail is obliterated.
Modern Buildings: THE MUSEUM, of Hackness sandstone, built nine years since,
much decomposed wherever it is subject to the alternation of wet and dry, as at the
bottom of the columns of the portico, plinth, &c. THE CASTLE (recently erected) ;
the plinth of the boundary wall (which is of Bramleyfall sandstone) already exhibits
traces of decomposition. Fork Savings Sank. Huddersfield stone (?), in good
condition.
WORKSOP CHURCH (principally of the 1 3th century), of a siliciferous variety of magnesian
limestone and of a sandstone ; in very unequal condition. Some parts are very much
decomposed, whilst others are in a perfect state.
1666. Valuable as the above Report is, there remain points, perhaps minor ones, which
are still desiderata for the architect ; but we are, nevertheless, much indebted to all con-
cerned in its production. It contains a sufficiently ample account of the principal
quarries of the country to guide the architect in the choice of the material, and is almost
the only thing that the government of this country has ever done to advance architecture
as a science : for it, as an art, it does not appear probable much will be done till things are
very much changed. We shall close our account of the stone of England with a very
useful table of the chemical analysis of sixteen specimens of stone, which were examined
by Messrs. Daniel and Wheatstone, whose names are sufficient to impart a value to it in
the mind of every scientific person.
Silica
Carbonate of lime
Do. of magnesia
Iron alumina
Water and loss
Bitumen
Of dry masses
Of particles
SANDSTONES.
98-3
1-1
o-o
0-6
o-o
o-o
96-4095-1
0-36
0-0
1-94
o-o
93-1
2'0
0-0
49-4
26-5
16-1
3-2
4-8
o-o
MAGNESIAN LIME-
STONES.
3-6
51-1
40-2
1-8
3-3
o-o
2-53
54-19 57-5
41-37 39-4
0-30
1-61
O'O
o-o
55-7
41-6
0-4
2-3
o-o
OOLITES.
0-0
93-59
2-90
0-80
2-71
A trace.
0-0 1-
94-52,95-16 92-17
2-50 1-20
1-20 050
1-78 1-94
Do. Do.
0-0
Specific Gravities.
2232 2628 2229
2646
2643
2247
26251 27
2316| 2147| 2134) 2138
2847
2182
2687
2675
2145
2702
4-10
0-90
2-83
Do.
LIMESTONES.
Ill 100 66 I 70
72 117 61
Cohesive Powers.
55 I 61 II 33 I 21
30 36
0-0
93-4
3-8
1-3
1-5
A trace.
2090
2627
2 5
79-0
3-7
2-0
4-2
Do.
4-7
ro-3
52
8-3
2-5
Do.
2095
1667. The above table gives the results of the chemical analysis of sixteen specimens of
stone, arranged according to their respective classes. The names of the quarries are in-
serted under the general divisions of the different species of stone, and the specimens were
considered as fair average samples of the workable stone in such quarries. The expe-
riments were conducted by Messrs. Daniel and Wheatstone. In subsection 1500. we have
already supplied a table, to which the reader is referred for the crushing weights of the
stones therein mentioned ; and that, added to the information which the immediately pre-
ceding pages supply, will, we trust, be all that is necessary on this branch of the subject
under consideration.
CHAP II. GRANITE. 479
SECT. II.
GRANITE.
1 668. Among the primitive rocks of the globe, whose period of creation is considered by
geologists as antecedent to that of organic beings, is that of granite, whose use in architec-
ture seems to bid defiance to time itself. The term granite appears to be a corruption of
the Latin word geranites, used by Pliny to denote a particular species of stone. Tour-
nefort, the naturalist, in the Account of his Voyage to the Levant in 1699, is the first of
modern writers who uses the name. The word seems to have been applied by antiquaries
to every granular stone susceptible of use in architecture or sculpture, in which vague sense
it was used by mineralogists, until about fifty years since, when true granite was classed
as a particular mountain rock. Its constituent parts are concretions of felspar, quartz,
and mica, intimately joined together, but without any basis or ground. These parts are
variable in quantity, so that sometimes one, sometimes the other, and frequently two of
them, predominate over the third. The felspar, however, generally predominates, as mica
is the least considerable ingredient of the rock. In some varieties the quartz is wanting,
in others the mica ; but where these peculiarities occur, the granites must be considered
as varieties, not as distinct species.
1669. The constituent parts differ in their magnitude, alternating from large to small
and very fine granular. The colour, moreover, is very variable, depending principally on
the predominating ingredient, — the felspar, the quartz, and the mica having usually a grey
colour. The felspar is mostly white, inclining to grey and yellow, sometimes red, and even
also milk white, sometimes flesh-red ; rarely grey, yellow, or green. The quartz is usually
grey, seldom milk-white, and always translucent. The mica is usually grey, and sometimes
nearly black. The felspar in granite has usually a vitreous lustre, and of perfectly foliated
fracture ; yet in some varieties it passes into earthy, with the loss of its hardness and lustre ;
in other words, it has passed into porcelain earth. The appearance in question is sometimes
produced by the weathering of the felspar, and sometimes it appears to be in its original
state. When pyrites are found in the veins which traverse granite, the vicinous felspar and
mica are converted into a species of steatitical matter by the action of the sulphuric acid
formed during the decomposition of the pyrites. The mica also is liable to decomposition
from exposure to the atmosphere, but the quartz never alters. In Cornwall, there is a con-
siderable portion of the granite in which earthy felspar is found.
1670. Granite is not decomposed by acids, and is only imperfectly and slowly calcinable
in a great heat. Those species which contain much white felspar, and only a small portion
of quartz, like the greater part of the granites of Cornwall and Devonshire, are liable to
decomposition much sooner than many of the Scotch granites, in which the quartz is more
abundant, and equally disseminated. In the selection of the Cornish and Devon granites,
those are to be preferred which are raised in the largest blocks and are easiest worked,
which, for common purposes, answer well enough, such as for paving-stones and the like ;
but harder granite must be sought for than Devonshire or Cornwall produces, where the
construction is of importance ; for the masses in these counties are mostly in a condition of
rapid disintegration and decay, which seems chiefly attributable to their containing a large
portion of potass. The Naval Hospital of Plymouth is built of a granite whose parts appear
to have been well selected. It was erected upwards of seventy years since, and, except
in the columns of the colonnades, does not exhibit symptoms of decay. In these, on their
more exposed sides, the disintegration of the felspar has commenced, and lichens have
already attached their roots to some parts of the surfaces.
1671. The grey granite, or moorstone as it is called in Cornwall, is got out in blocks by
splitting it with a number of wedges applied to notches pooled in the surface of the stone
about four inches apart. The pool holes are sunk with the point of a pick, much in the
same way as other hard quarry stones are split. The harder the moorstone the nearer it
can be split to the scantling required. All granite may be wrought, and, indeed, is
wrought into mouldings by means of pointed tools of various weights and sizes ; but it is
first roughed out by means of heavy hammers, whose shape is formed by two acute angled
triangles, joined base to base by a parallelogram between them, thus <C o >_">. Red granite,
sometimes yellowish, and generally interspersed with black mica, is found in Devonshire,
and indeed at Mount Edgcumbe there are fine tables of it equal to the finest oriental
granite, and it is found also in other parts of England; but for hardness, and in works
where durability is indispensable, the granite from Aberdeen and Dundee is to be preferred
by the architect. These take an admirable polish, and are superior to all others which the
island produces. Of these the red generally is harder than the grey sorts, but more difficult
to work. The Peterhead, from the vicinity of Aberdeen, is perhaps the best, and it is, more-
over, in appearance, the most beautiful which Scotland affords; indeed, in point of beauty,
it is only surpassed by the oriental granites.
480 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
1672. The common granite is the material chiefly used for paving the roads of the me-
tropolis.
A cubic foot of Aberdeen grey granite weighs 166|lbs.
Aberdeen red granite - 1 65{
Cornish grey granite - 166|
Cornish red granite - 164
SECT. III.
MAIIBLE.
1673. "With the architect and sculptor the name of marble is applied to all stones, harder
than gypsum, which are found in large masses, and are susceptible of a good polish. On
this principle, under the head of marble, are included many varieties of limestone, porphyry,
and even granite and fine-grained basalts. But with mineralogists the word is used in a
much more restricted sense, and is confined to such varieties of dolomite, swinestone, and
compact and granularly foliated limestone as are capable of receiving a good polish.
1674. The external characters are as follows : colours white, grey, red, yellow, and green.
Has generally but one colour, though it is often spotted, dotted, striped, and veined. Occurs
massive, and in angulo-granular distinct concretions. Internally it alternates from shining
to glistening and glimmering ; lustre intermediate between pearly and vitreous. Fracture
foliated, but oftentimes inclining to splintery. Fragments indeterminate, angular, and
rather blunt-edged. More or less translucent. Brittle, and easily frangible. Its chemical
characters are, that it generally phosphoresces when pounded, or when thrown on glowing
coals. It is infusible before the blow-pipe. Dissolves with effervescence in acids.
Constituent parts, Lime - - 56 '50
Carbonic acid - . 43-00
Water - - 0-50
100-00
1675. All the varieties maybe burnt into quicklime; but it is found that in many of
them the concretions exfoliate and separate during the volatilization of their carbonic acid,
so that by the time that they become perfectly caustic, their cohesion is destroyed, and
they fall into a kind of sand, a circumstance which renders it improper to use such va-
rieties in a common kiln. The most important use, however, of marble is as a material for
decoration.
1 676. The varieties of marble are almost infinite, and their classification would be perhaps
useless here. Among those in use with the ancients, the white marble of mount Penteles
in Attica, thence called Pentelican, seems to have held the first rank. It was used in the
Parthenon and other buildings in Athens, and was also in high repute with the Greek
sculptors. The Parian marble of the finest description was obtained from Mount Mar-
pessus in the island of Paros, whence it was also called Marpessian marble. This sort was
also highly esteemed. The Parian marble was sometimes termed Lychneus, from its em-
ployment for candelabra, and Lygdinum, from the promontory of Lygdos. Another marble
of antiquity was that from Mount Hymettus in Attica. Thasus and Lesbos produced
white marbles, much esteemed ; and the latter also a marble of a black colour. But a
marble whiter than even that of Paros was found at Luna in Etruria. Amongst the white
marbles also was the Marmor Phellense from Mount Phelleus ; Coraliticum, from the neigh-
bourhood of the river Coralios in Phrygia, termed also Sangarium, from a different name
of the same river ; and the Cyzicum, from the quarries of Cyzicus in Asia Minor. The
Chernites resembled ivory in its colour. Among the black marbles were the Synnadicum,
or Phrygium, from the vicinity of the city of Synnada in Phrygia ; that of Tcenarus, the
Marmor Libicum, or Numidian, also called Luculleum, called by the French noir antique or
rouge antique. Of a transparent black colour also was the celebrated Chium Marmor, from
Mount Pelineus in the island of Chios. The Marmor Obsidianwn, from Ethiopia, was also
black. Of the same colour, but veined, was that from the isle of Proconesus, called Pro-
conesian or Cyzican marble. Mount Taygetes produced the Marmor Laconicum, of a green
colour, more generally now known by the name of verd antique. That of Carystus was
of a mingled green. The Atraicum Marmor, from Mount Atrax in Thessaly, was a mixture
of white, green, blue, and black. The Tiberian and Augustan marbles were from Egypt,
and of a green colour. That of a dark green, which is called serpentino antico, from the
alleged resemblance of its colour to the skin of a serpent, was anciently called Marmor
sii>uin-!> or Memphites, and was obtained, as its second name imports, from the neighbour-
hood of Memphis. The Corinthian was a yellow marble; the Phengites, from Cappadocia,
CHAP. II. MARBLE. 481
white with yellow spots. The Rhodian was marked with spots of a golden appearance ;
and that of Melos, obtained from Mount Acynthus, was also yellow.
1677. The Parian marble, above mentioned, consists almost entirely of carbonate of
lime ; that of Carrara, in Italy, is often mixed with granular quartz in considerable pro-
portion. Dr. Clarke says that while the works in Parian marble remain perfect, those in
Pentelic marble have become decomposed, and sometimes exhibit a surface as earthy and
rude as that of common limestone. This is considered to be principally owing to veins of
extraneous substances which intersect the Pentelic quarries, and which appear more or less
in all the works executed in this kind of stone. The Parian marble has a waxy appear-
ance when polished ; it hardens by exposure to the air, and must be held in estimation even
now, as the material from which were formed the Venus di Medici, the Diana Venatrix,
the colossal Minerva Pallas of Velletri, and the Capitoline Juno. The marbles known by
the names of Verde antico and Verde di Corsica are composed of limestone, calcareous
spar, serpentine, and asbestus.
1678. The marbles of France are many of them extremely beautiful, but their use is
chiefly confined to that country.
1679. The marbles of the British Islands deserve more notice from the English architect
than they have hitherto received. In England there are but few as yet quarried of
granular foliated limestone, the greater number of varieties of them belonging to the
flcetz or secondary limestone. Derbyshire and Devonshire abound with marble ; but the
most remarkable, and perhaps most beautiful, of the English marbles, is that of Anglesea,
called Mono marble, and much resembling Verd antique. Its colours are greenish black,
leek green, and sometimes purple, irregularly blended with white, but they are not always
seen together in the same piece. The white part is limestone, the green shades are said to
be owing to serpentine and asbestus. The black marbles found in England are varieties
of lucullite.
1680. Of the Scotch marbles the principal are the Tiree, of which there are two varieties,
red and white. The lona, whose colours are a greyish white and snow white, sometimes
intermixed with steatite, which gives it a green or yellow colour in spots known under the
name of lona or Icolmkill pebbles. It does not take a high polish. The Skye marble, of
greyish hue, with occasionally various veins. The Assynt varieties of white, of grey, and
dove colour. Glen Tilt marble, white and grey, with occasionally yellow and green spots.
Marble of Balliculish, of a grey or white colour, and capable of being produced in con-
siderable blocks. Boyne marble, grey or white, and taking a good polish. Blairgowrie,
in Perthshire, of a pure white colour, fit, it is said, to be employed in statuary and for
architectural purposes ; and Glenavon, a white marble, said by Williams (Natural History
of the Mineral Kingdom) to be a valuable marble, is not used, from the remoteness of its
situation and the difficulty of access to it.
1 681 . The black marbles of Ireland, which have of late been much introduced for architec-
tural purposes, are lucullites. In the county of Waterford are several kinds. At Toreen is
a fine variegated sort of various colours, viz., chesnut brown, white, yellow, and blue, and
taking a good polish. A grey marble, beautifully clouded with white, and susceptible of
a good polish, has been found near Kilcrump, in the parish of Whitechurch. in the same
county. At Loughlougher, in the county of Tipperary, a fine purple marble is found,
which is said to be beautiful when polished. Several variegated marbles are described by
Smith in the county of Cork, but it does not appear certain whether these and others are
granular limestone. The county of Kerry affords several variegated marbles, such as that
found near Tralee. Marble of various colours is found in the same county, in the islands
near Dunkerron, in the river of Kenmare : some are purple and white, intermixed with
yellow spots ; and some beautiful specimens have been seen of a purple colour, veined with
dark green.
1 682. The principal part of the supply to England of foreign marble is from Carrara, a
small Italian town in the duchy of Massa. The quarries at this place were celebrated
from an early period, and spots are still shown about them whence they dug the marble
for the Pantheon. Masses of marble are sometimes procured here nine feet in length and
from four to six in breadth. The marble produced besides the white statuary is of
different colours and veins. The quarries are the property of the principal inhabitants of
the town, who carry on an extensive trade in the article ; but the difficulty of choosing
the marble has induced artists to settle there for the execution of their works, and the con-
sequence is, that sculpture abounds and flourishes in the town.
1683. There is a beautiful species of yellow marble obtained from the quarries near
Siena, but the quantity imported is not very great.
li
482 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
SECT. IV.
1 684. The information we propose here to lay before the reader relative to the different
species of timber is extracted from Miller's Gardener's Dictionary, Rondelet's Art de Batir,
Rees's Cyclopaedia, and Hunter's edition of Evelyn's Sylva. To give any thing like the in-
formation that would satisfy the botanist would be out of place in an architectural work ;
and we therefore confine our observations to those which will be useful to the student.
1685. OAK. Of this most valuable timber for building purposes Vitruvius (lib. ii.
cap. ix. ) enumerates five species, which it would now be difficult to identify. That some
species of the Quercus of the botanists are more valuable for building purposes than others
no doubts exist. Evelyn seems to commend especially the Irish oak, because of its with-
standing the efforts of the worm ; but it is not easy to ascertain the particular species to
which he alludes. In the present day the. Sussex oak is esteemed the most valuable; a
value, according to some authors, derived from the nature of the soil and from good
management in the culture, which is an object of no small importance.
1686. Generally, it has been usual to consider England as producing, without difference
in quality, but one species of oak ; but two sorts are well known to the English botanist,
the Quercus Robur and the Quercus jessiflora. The former is found throughout the
temperate parts of Europe, and is that most common in the southern parts of England.
Its leaves are formed with irregular sinuosities, and their footstalks are short, occasionally
almost without any at all. It attains a very large size, and the wood is tolerably straight-
grained and pretty free from knots, in many instances resembling the German species
called wainscot. It is easily split for making laths for plasterers and slaters, and is beyond
doubt the best sort for joists, rafters, and other purposes where stiff and straight-grained
timber is a desideratum. In the Quercus jessiflora, which, though found about Dulwich
and Norwood, according to Miller, appears to be the common oak of Durham, and perhaps
of the north of England, the leaves have long footstalks, frequently an inch in length,
and their sinuosities are not so deep, but are more regular than those of the Robur just
described. The acorns are so close to the branches as to have scarcely any stalks. The
wood is of a darker hue, and the grain is so smooth rtiat it resembles chesnut. Than the
Robur it possesses more elasticity, hardness, and weight, but in seasoning it is subject to
warp and split ; hence unfit for laths, which in the north of England are rarely of oak.
There is no reason for supposing, as has been conjectured, that the oak of the Gothic roofs
of the country is of this species, though we are aware of the great durability of the oak in
the buildings in the northern part of the island.
1687. The specific gravity of the species first named, that is, the Quercus Robur, may
be taken at about -800, and the weight of a cube foot 50-45 Ibs. That of the last-named
at -875, and the weight of a cube foot at about 55 '00 Ibs. Their cohesive force and tough-
ness are proportionable.
1688. The American species scarcely claim a notice here, because their use in
England is, from every circumstance, out of the question. Of the red oak of Canada
(Quercus rubra), the only one of which the use could be contemplated, we merely observe,
that it is a light, spongy, and far from durable wood, though, in the country, in many
instances useful. Its growth is rapid, and it rises to the height of 90 or 100 feet.
1689. There is a species of oak imported from Norway, which has received
the name of clapboard, and another imported from Holland, known under the name of
Dutch wainscot, though grown in Germany, whence it is floated down the Rhine for
exportation. The latter is destitute of the white streaks which cross the former, and is
thereby distinguished from it. The use of these woods has latterly much diminished in
England. They are both softer than common oak, and the clapboard far inferior to
wainscot. They are more commonly used for fittings and fixtures, whereto they are well
adapted. In damp situations, oak decays gradually from its external surface to the centre
of the tree ; the ring on the outside, which it acquired in the last year of the growth of
the tree, decaying first ; but if the tree be not felled till past its prime, its decay is reversed
by its commencement at the centre. An oak rarely reaches its prime under the age of an
hundred years ; after that period, which is that of its greatest strength, it cannot be consi-
dered as fit for building purposes ; and, indeed, it may be taken as a rule, that oak before
arriving at its maturity is stronger than that which has passed it.
1690. If the architect has the opportunity of selecting the timber whilst in a state of
growth, he will, of course, choose healthy, vigorous, and flourishing trees. Those in
which the trunks are most even are to be preferred. A mark of decay is detected in any
swelling above the general surface of the- wood. Dead branches, especially at the top of
the tree, render it suspicious, though the root is the best index to its soundness. The
notion of Alberti (De lie JEdificatoria\ of using all the timber in the same building from
CHAP. IT. TIMBER. 483
the same forest, is a little too fanciful for these days, though we confess we have some mis-
givings in impugning an authority which, in most other respects, we are inclined to receive
with the highest veneration.
1691. In felling not only the oak, but all other large trees, the great branches should be
first cut off, so that the tree may not be injured or strained in its fall ; and the trunk,
moreover, must be sawed as close to the ground as possible. When felled, but not before,
it is to be barked, trimmed of its branches, and left to season. Before, however, leaving
it for this purpose, it is considered by workmen better to square it, which, it is thought,
prevents its tendency to split. If to be employed for posts or bearing pieces, boring it
has been employed with success ; but it is needless to observe, that in pieces subject to
transverse strains such a practice is not to be spoken of.
1692. The pieces selected for building must be chosen with the straightest grain ; but
there are pieces which are occasionally employed, as for knees and braces, wherein a
curvilinear direction of the fibres of the timber is extremely desirable. It may, however,
be generally stated, that, in the case of two equal-sized and seasoned pieces, the heavier is
the piece to be preferred.
1693. In oak, as in all other woods, the boughs and branches are never so good as the
body of the tree ; the great are stronger than the small limbs, and the wood of the heart
stronger than all. When green, wood is not so strong as when thoroughly dry, which it
rarely is till two or three years after it is felled. It is scarcely necessary to say, that, con-
taining much sap, it is not only weaker, but decays sooner. It is weakened by knots, at
which, in practice, it is found that fractures most frequently occur ; and it is important
to the architect to recollect that he should always reject cross-grained pieces.
1694. The great use of oak in this country is more for ship-building purposes than for
architectural, its use, except in the provinces, being principally confined to pieces which
are much liable to compression, or where great stiffness is required, or in pieces like sills
to windows and door-cases, where there is much alternation of dryness and damp. So
early as 1788, the consumption of oak for ship-building purposes was, in that year
upwards of 50,000 loads.
1695. When of good quality, it is more durable than any other wood which is procur-
able of a like size. In a dry state, it is ascertained to have lasted nearly a thousand years.
The open-fibred porous oak of Lincolnshire, and some other places, is a bad sort. The
best is that with the closest grain and the smallest pores. The colour, as is well known,
is a fine brown ; that which partakes of a reddish hue is not so good as the other. The
smell of it is peculiar ; it contains gallic acid, and it assumes a black purple colour when
damp, by contact with iron. It warps and twists much in seasoning, and shrinks in width
about one thirty-seventh part.
1696. CHESNUT. One of the finest of the European timber trees, the Fagus castanea
of botanists, was heretofore so common in this country, that Fitzstephen, in his description
of London about the time of Henry II., mentions a fine forest of chesnuts as growing on
the northern side of the city. We know that it was much used in the buildings of our
ancestors, and was, perhaps, even the chief timber employed. The young tree vies with the
oak in durability, from the small proportion of sapwood it contains. Of its durability,
the roofs of Westminster Hall, that of King's College, Cambridge, and that of Notre
Dame, at Paris, are cited as examples, though the fact of the latter being of chesnut is
doubted by Rondelet, who says that Buffon and D'Aubenton thought it a species of oak,
which may be the case in the roof first named.
1 697. Chesnut, however, is not to be trusted as is oak. As Evelyn observed, it is often
well-looking outside, when decayed and rotten within. Belidor says it soon rots when the
ends of timbers of it are closed round in a wall.
1698. It is, perhaps, from the circumstance of its colour so nearly resembling that of
oak, that one timber has so often been mistaken for the other. The difference, however,
is, that the pores of the sapwood of the oak are larger and more thickly set and easily
distinguished, whilst those in the chesnut require magnifying powers to be distinguished.
But a more decided difference is, that the chesnut has no large transverse septa. It is far
easier to work than oak, and is not very susceptible of swelling and shrinkage. From
what has been mentioned above, it may be inferred that the wood, though tough and com-
pact, is, when young, hardest and most flexible, the old wood being often shaky and brittle.
1699. Water pipes of this tree endure much longer than those of elm; and for tubs
and vessels to hold water, it is superior to oak ; for when once thoroughly seasoned, it will
neither shrink nor swell, on which account it is used by the Italians for wine tuns and
casks. It will thrive on most soils, but rather delights in a rich loamy land, succeeding
well, also, on that which is gravelly, clayey, or sandy. Mixed soils are suitable to it, and
it is found in the warmer mountainous situations of most parts of Europe.
1700. From the experiments, the cohesive force of a square inch of chesnut, when dry,
varies from 9570 to 1 -2000 Ibs., and the weight of a cubic foot, when dry, is from
-43 to 55 Ibs.
li 2
484 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
1701. BEECH (Fagus Sylvatica). A beautiful tree, growing to a considerable height,
and carrying a proportionable trunk. It flourishes most in a dry warm soil, and grows
moderately quick. The wood is hard, close, has a dry even grain, and, like the elm,
bears the drift of spikes. The sorts of beech are the brown or black, and the white beech.
It is common throughout Europe. In the southern parts of Buckinghamshire, where the
soil is chalky, it is particularly abundant ; and such is the case near Warbleton, in Sussex,
on the southern range of chalk hills, where the beeches are very fine.
1 702. Constantly immersed in water, the beech is very durable ; such also is the case
•with it when constantly dry ; but mere damp is injurious to it, and it is very liable to injury
by worms, though to these Duhamel considers it much less liable when water-seasoned,
than when seasoned in the common way. To render it less liable to the worm, it has been
recommended to fell it about a fortnight after Midsummer, to cut it immediately into
planks, which are to be placed in water about ten days and then dried. Beech is little used
in building, except for piles, in which situation, if constantly wet, they are very durable.
From its uniform texture and hardness, it is a good material for tools and furniture, and
of it, in boards and planks, large quantities are brought to London. It is without sensible
taste and smell, easy to work, and susceptible of a very smooth surface. The white sort is
the hardest, though the black is tougher, and, according to Evelyn, more durable. The
weight of a cube foot varies from 43 to 53 pounds.
1703. WALNUT (Juglans, quasi Jovis glans) is of several sorts. The Juglans Regia,
or common walnut, was formerly much cultivated in this island, as well for the sake of
its timber as of its fruit. On the former account the importation of mahogany has long
since rendered its cultivation less common. It nourishes better in a thin limestone soil,
than in one that is rich and deep, and, if raised for timber, should not be transplanted, but
remain in the place where it is sown. For furniture, from its rich brown colour, it is by
many persons preferred to mahogany. Its scarcity renders its employment rare for
building purposes, though by the ancients it was so employed. One of its properties
is, that it is less liable to be affected by worms than any other timber, cedar only excepted ;
but from its brittle and cross-grained texture, it is not generally useful for the main
timbers of a building.
1704. The heart- wood is of a greyish brown with dark brown pores, often veined with
darker shades of the same colour, which are much heightened by oiling. The texture is
not so uniform as that of mahogany, nor does it work so easily, but it may be brought to
a smoother surface. The weight of a cubic foot is about 45 pounds.
1705. CEDAR (Pinus Cedrui) is an evergreen cone-bearing tree, of which though
several have been grown in this country, it is too scarce to be employed in building. Its
durability is very great ; such, indeed, that Pliny states cedar to have been found in the
Temple of Apollo at Utica, which must have been 1200 years old. Its colour is a light
rich yellow brown, with the annual rings distinct. It is resinous, and has a powerful
smell. The taste is slightly bitter, and it is not subject to worms. It is very straight in
the grain, works easily and splits readily. Weight of a cubic foot from 30 to 38 pounds.
1706. FIR (Pinus Sylvestris). The red or yellow fir is produced on the hills of Scot-
land ; but the forests of Russia, Denmark, Norway, Lapland, and Sweden produce the
finest timber of this species. It is imported, under the name of red wood, in logs and deals.
From Norway the trees are never more than 1 8 inches diameter, whence there is much sap-
wood in them ; but the heart is a stronger and more durable wood than is had from larger
trees of other countries. From Riga a great deal of timber is received under the name
of masts and spars : the former are usually 70 or 80 feet in length, and from 18 to 25 inches
diameter ; when of less diameter they take the latter name. Yellow deals and planks are
imported from Stockholm, Frederickshall, Christiana, and various other parts of Sweden,
Russia, Norway, and Prussia. Of the pine species the red or yellow fir is the most durable ;
and it was said by the celebrated Brindley, that red Riga deal, or pine wood, would endure
as long as oak in all situations. In Pontey's Forest Pruner, on the authority of Dr. Smith,
an instance is given of the durability of natural-grown Scotch fir. It is therein stated,
that some was known to have been 300 years in the roof of an old castle, and that it was
as fresh and full of sap as timber newly imported from Memel, and that part of it was
actually wrought up into new furniture. It is to be observed, that foreign timber has
an advantage too seldom allowed to that which is grown at home, the former being always
in some degree seasoned before it arrives in this country, and therefore never used in so
unseasoned a state as the latter timber usually is.
1 707. From its great lightness and stiffness it is superior to any other material for beams,
girders, joists, rafters, and framing in general. In naval architecture it is used for masts
and various other parts of vessels. In joinery, both internal and external, it stands better,
is nearly as durable as oak, and is much cheaper.
1708. There is great variety in the colours of the different sorts of this fir: it is generally
of a red or honey yellow of different degrees of brightness, and consists in section of hard
and soft circles alternately, one part of each annual ring being soft and light coloured, the
CHAP. II. TIMBER. 485
other harder and dark coloured, and possessing a strong resinous taste and smell. When
not abounding in resin it works easily. That from abroad shrinks in the log, from season-
ing, about one thirtieth part of its width.
1 709. The annual rings of the best sort of this timber do not exceed one tenth of an
inch in thickness, their dark parts are of a bright red colour. That from Norway is the
finest of the sort, to which the best Riga and Memel are much inferior. The inferior timber
of this kind, which is not so durable nor so capable of bearing strains, has thick annual
rings, and abounds with a soft resinous matter, which is clammy and chokes the saw. Much
of the timber of this sort is from Sweden, but it is inferior in strength and stiffness. That
which is produced in the colder climates is superior to that which is the product of warmer
countries, the Norway timber being much harder than that of Riga. The weight of a
cubic foot of this fir, when seasoned, varies from 29 to 40 pounds. That of English growth,
seasoned, from 28 to 33.
1710. WHITE FIR (Pimis abies}, commonly called the spruce of Norway, whose
forests produce it in abundance. This is the sort which in deals and planks is imported
from Christiana, in which condition it is more esteemed than any other sort. The trees
from which these are generally obtained are of 70 or 80 years' growth, and are usually cut
into three lengths of about 1 2 feet each, which are sawn into deals and planks, each length
yielding three deals or planks. Their most usual thickness is 3 inches, and they are
generally 9 inches wide. In this country they are sold by the hundred, which in the case
of white as well as yellow deals, contains 1 20 deals, be their thickness what it may, reduced
to a standard one of an inch and a half, a width of 1 1 inches, and a length of 1 2 feet.
What is called whole deal is an inch and a quarter thick, and slit deal is one half of that
thickness. It unites better by means of glue than the yellow sort, is used much for interior
work in joinery, and is very durable when in a dry state.
1711. The colour of the spruce fir is a yellow or rather brown white, the annual ring
consisting of two parts, one hard, the other softer. The knots are tough, but it is not difficult
to work. Besides the importation above named, there is a considerable quantity received
from America. Of the Christiana fir a cubic foot weighs from 28 to 32 pounds when
seasoned. That from America about 29 pounds ; and the Norway spruce grown in
Britain about 34 pounds. In seasoning it shrinks about a seventieth part, and after being
purchased as dry deals at the timber yards, about one ninetieth.
1712. AMERICAN PINES. The Pinus Strobus, or what is called the Weymouth or white
pine, is a native of North America, imported in logs often more than 2 feet square and
upwards of 30 feet in length. It is an useful timber, light and soft, stands the weather
tolerably well, and is much used for masts. For joiners' work it is useful from its clean
straight grain. But it. should not be used for large timbers, inasmuch as it is not durable,
and is moreover very susceptible of the dry rot. Its colour is a brown yellow, and it has
a peculiar odour. The texture is very uniform, more so, indeed, than any other of the pine
species, and the annual rings are not very distinct. It stands well enough when well
seasoned. A cubic foot of it weighs about 29 pounds,
1713. The yellow pine, or Pinus variabilis, is imported into England, but it is not
much used ; it is the produce of the pine forests from New England to Georgia.
1714. The pitch pine (resinosa), remarkable for the quantity and fragrance of the resin
it produces, is a native of Canada. It is brittle when dry, and, though heavy, not durable.
It is of a much redder hue than the Scotch pine, and from its glutinous property difficult
to plane. The weight of a cubic foot is 41 pounds.
1715. The silver pine (picea) is common in the British plantations. This species of
timber is produced in abundance, and is much used on the Continent both for carpentry
and ship-building. It is light and stiff, and, according to Wiebeking, lasts longer in air
than in water. A cubic foot weighs about 26 pounds.
1 71 6. The Chester pine (pinaster) is occasionally cultivated in the British plantations.
It is better suited to water than exposure to the air, and has a finer grain, but contains less
resin, than the pine or silver fir. A cubic foot weighs about 26 pounds.
1717. LARCH (Pinus Larix}. A timber tree only lately to any considerable extent
adopted in the plantations of Great Britain, among whose cultivators the Duke of Athol
has been one of the most ardent and successful. It grows straight and rapidly, is said to
be durable in all situations, and appears to have been known and appreciated by Vitruvius,
who regretted the difficulty of its transport to Rome, where, however, it was occasionally
used. Wiebeking prefers it to the pine, pinaster, and fir, for the arches of timber bridges.
To flooring boards and stairs, where there is much wear, it is well suited, and when oiled,
assumes a beautiful colour, such, indeed, that when used for internal joinery, a coat of
varnish gives it a more beautiful appearance than it could receive from any painting. The
American larches do not produce turpentine ; but the timber has been considered equal to
the European sorts. It is of a honey yellow colour, and more difficult to work than the
Riga or Memel timber, though, when obtained, the surface is better. It bears the driving
I i 3
486 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
to nails and bolts, and stands well if properly seasoned. A cubic foot weighs from 30
of 40 pounds.
1 71 8. POPLAR. The Populus of botanists, whereof five species are grown in England :
the common white poplar, the black, the aspen or trembling poplar, the abele or great
white poplar, and that of Lombardy. The wood of this tree is only fit for the flooring of
inferior rooms where there is not much wear. Evelyn attributes to this wood the property
of burning " untowardly" rather mouldering than maintaining any solid heat. Its colour is
a yellow or brown white. The annual rings, whereof one side is a little darker than the
other, making each year's growth visible, are of an uniform texture. The best sorts are the
Lombardy, the black, and the common white poplar. Of the Lombardy poplar, the weight
of a cubic foot is about 24 pounds ; of the aspen and black poplar, 26 pounds ; and of the
white poplar, about 33 pounds.
1719. ALDER ( Betula alnus). A tree delighting in wet places by the banks of rivers,
and which furnished the material, says Vitruvius, for the piles whereon the whole of the
buildings of Ravenna stand. In a dry situation it is unfit for employment, on account of
its early rot when exposed to the weather or to mere damp, and its susceptibility of
engendering worms. Evelyn says that it was used for the piles upon which the celebrated
bridge of the Rialto at Venice was founded in 1591 ; but we have no certain data by which
such assertion can be maintained. There is, however, no doubt that it may be advan-
tageously employed in situations where it is constantly under water.
Its colour is of a red yellow, of different shades, but nearly uniform ; which latter quality
is exhibited in its texture.
From its softness it is easily worked, and seems adapted, therefore, for .carving. In a dry
state the weight of a cubic foot varies from 36 to 50 pounds.
1720. ELM (Ulmus). In Great Britain five species of this tree abound, whereof
the Ulmus campestris, common in the woods and hedges of the southern parts of England,
is a hard and durable wood, but is rarely used except for coffins. The Ulmus suberosa,
or cork-barked elm, is an inferior sort, and is very common in Sussex.
1721. The Ulmus Montana is the most common species in Europe, and particularly in
the northern counties of England. It is more generally known by the name of the broad-
leaved elm or wych hazel. Without enumerating the other varieties, whereof the Dutch
elm ( Ulmus major) is good for nothing, we shall merely observe, that the Ulmus gldbra,
common in Herefordshire, Essex, and the north and north-eastern counties of England,
grows to the largest size and is most esteemed, whilst the Dutch elm is the worst. The elm
is a durable timber when constantly wet, as a proof whereof we have only to mention that
it was used for the piles on which the old London Bridge stood. Indeed, its durability
under water is well known ; but for the general purposes of building it is of little value,
and it rarely falls to the lot of the architect to be obliged to use it.
1 722. The colour of the heart-wood is darker than that of oak, and of a redder brown.
The sapwood is of yellow or brown- white colour. It is porous, cross and coarse grained,
has a peculiar smell, twists and warps very much in drying, and shrinks considerably in
breadth and length. Though difficult to work, it bears the driving of bolts and nails
better than most other sorts of timber. The weight of a cubic foot, when dry, varies from
36 to 48, seasoned from 37 to 50 pounds. From experiment it seems that in seasoning
it shrinks one forty-fourth part of its width.
1723. ASH (Fraxinus excelsior). This, the most valuable of the genus, is common
throughout Europe and the northern parts of Asia. It grows rapidly, and of it the young
is more valuable than the old wood. It is much affected by the difference of the soils in
which it grows. It will not endure when subject to alternations of damp and moisture,
though sufficiently durable when constantly in a dry situation. Its pores, if cut in the
spring, are of a reddish colour, and it is improved by water-seasoning. Evelyn says, that
when felled in full sap, the worm soon takes to it ; and therefore recommends its being
felled in the months from November to February. The texture is compact and porous,
the compact side of the annual ring being dark in colour, whence the annual rings are
distinct. The general colour is brown, resembling that of oak ; but it is more veined,
and the veins darker than those of oak. The timber of the young tree is a white, ap-
proaching brown, with a greenish hue. It has no peculiar taste or smell, is difficult to
work, and is too flexible for use in building, beside the important want of the character of
durability. The weight of a cubic foot varies from 35 to 52 pounds; and it is to be
observed, when the weight is much less than 45 pounds the timber is that of an old tree.
1724. SYCAMORE (Acer pseudo-platanus), usually called the plane tree in the northern
part of the island, is common in Britain and on the mountains of Germany. It is rapid
in growth, and the wood is durable when it escapes the worm, to which it is quite as liable
as beech. The use of it in buildings is not common, but for furniture it is valuable. The
colour is a brown white, yellowish, and sometimes inclining to white. Texture uniform ;
annual rings indistinct. It is not so hard as beech, brittle, and generally easy to work.
A cubic foot, when seasoned, weighs from 34 to 42 pounds. Ware says that there are old
CHAP. II.
TIMBER.
487
houses in this country floored with sycamore and wainscotted with poplar. It seems well
enough calculated for floors.
1725. BIRCH. Betula alba, or common birch, is a species of alder, to which article the
reader is referred. (1719.)
1726. MAHOGANY (Mahagoni) has only three known species. That used (Swietenia) in
England is a native of the West Indies, and the country round the Bay of Honduras in
America. It was formerly abundant in the low lands of Jamaica, but is only found there,
at present, on high hills and places difficult of access. It succeeds in most soils, though
it varies in quality according to their natures. In rocky situations, though it does not
attain so great a size, it is harder, weightier, of a closer grain, and more beautifully va-
riegated than in low rich lands, whereon it is produced more porous, of paler colour, and
of more open grain. It grows straight and lofty, and when full grown reaches a diameter
of 5 feet. The flowers are of a red or saffron colour, and the fruit about the size of a
turkey's egg. The wood is extremely hard, takes a fine polish, and is admirably adapted
to articles of furniture. The expense of it in this country confines its use in building to
doors, handrails of stairs, &c. ; but in Jamaica it has been frequently used for floors, joists,
rafters, shingles, &c. ; and, indeed, ships have been built of it ; for which last purpose, the
circumstance of its allowing the shot to be buried without splintering makes it peculiarly
suitable.
1727. The first use to which it was applied in this country was by a Mr. "Wollaston
in the ignoble service of a candle-box for a Dr. Gibbons, at the beginning of the last cen-
tury (1724). With its appearance the doctor was so much pleased. that he had a bureau
afterwards made of it.
1728. The variety called Spanish mahogany, and imported from Cuba, Jamaica, Hi-
spaniola, and other West India islands, comes in logs seldom more than 26 inches square, and
about 1 0 or 12 feet in length, and is harder and closer grained than that from the Bay of
Honduras, from which it may be distinguished, before it is oiled, by being of a lighter
colour, and as if its pores were filled with a chalky matter. The Honduras mahogany has
been latterly imported in logs of very large dimensions ; we have ourselves seen one in the
West India Docks which was 5 feet square, and upwards of 1 5 feet long. Its grain is very
open generally, and often irregular, with black or grey spots. The veins are beautiful and
of great variety. The best sort is that which is freest from grey specks and of a fine
golden colour. It is held firmly with glue, perhaps, indeed, better than any other wood.
A cubic foot of the best Jamaica mahogany weighs about 54 pounds ; of Honduras, about
38 pounds.
1729. The teak and the African oak have latterly been imported into this country in
considerable quantities. They are extremely hard and tough; but we do not, from the
impossibility of their general use here, think it necessary to enter into any description of
them. The following table, extracted from Rondelet's work, exhibits the mean heights of
several sorts of trees, that of their trunks, their specific gravities and weight per cubic
foot ; in which latter column will be found some small differences from those already
given, which may be accounted for from the variation in the qualities of the timber on which
experiments were made.
Name of Tree.
Mean Height
in English
Feet.
Mean Height
of Trunk in
English Feet.
Diameter of
Trunk in En-
glish Inches.
Specific
Gravity.
Weight of
Cubic Foot in
Ibs. averd.
Acacia -
26-65
12-79
10-66
789
47-74
Alder
79-95
44-77
29-85
655
39-74
Almond tree
38-28
22-38
14-92
1102
66-74
Ash -
63-96
38-37
23-45
787
47-52
Beech
76-72
44-77
27-72
720
43-63
Birch, common
86-34
47-97
31-98
702
42-55
Box -
28-78
15-99
10-66
919
55-55
Cedar of Lebanon
95-94
51-16
39-44
603
36-50
Chataignier (wild chesnut) -
76-72
44-77
27-71
685
41-47
Chesnut (sweet) Marronnier -
76-72
44-77
27-71
720
43-73
Cypress (pyramidal) -
76-72
38-37
27-71
655
39-74
Ebony of the Alps -
31-98
19-18
11-73
1054
63-72
Elm-
76-72
44-77
31-98
738
42-00
Fir ....
102-32
57-56
46-90
542
31-92
Linden -
57-56
31-98
26-65
564
34-13
Oak (common of Canada)
95-94
57-56
35-18
842
51-18
Oak (red of Virginia)
86-34
47-97
31-98
587
35-42
Oak (common)
86-34
44-77
31-98
905
54-69
488
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
Name of Tree.
Mean Height
in English
Feet.
Mean Height
of Trunk in
English Feet.
Diameter of
Trunk in En-
glish Inches.
Specific
Gravity.
Weight of
Cubic Foot in
Ibs. averd.
Pine (northern)
86-34
47-97
35-18
612
37-17
Plane ...
79-75
44-77
29-85
622
37-58
Poplar of Italy
79-95
47-97
31-98
415
24-25
Service tree (Cormier)
47-97
25-58
18-12
911
55-07
Sycamore -
63-96
31-98
28-78
645
38-88
Walnut
57-56
47-97
36-24
680
41-04
Walnut (of America)
63-96
31-98
38-37
735
41-90
Yew
28-78
15-99
10-66
778
47-09
1 730. The preservation of timber, the prevention of decay, and the causes of decay, will
require from us a succinct notice; and we shall commence by placing before the reader the
observations on the subject from the celebrated and venerated Evelyn, though perhaps at
the risk of repetition in what follows. As King Henry V. is made by Shakspeare to say
of Fluellen, " Though it appear a little out of fashion, there is much care in this " author.
1 731 . " Lay up your timbers very dry, in an airy place, yet out of the wind or sun, and
not standing very upright, but lying along, one piece upon another, interposing some short
blocks between them, to preserve them from a certain mouldiness which they usually con-
tract while they sweat, and which frequently produces a kind of fungus, especially if there
be any sappy parts remaining.
1732. " Some there are yet who keep their timber as moist as they can by submerging
it in water, where they let it imbibe, to hinder the cleaving ; and this is good in fir, both
for the better stripping and seasoning ; yea, not only in fir, but other timber. Lay, there-
fore, your boards a fortnight in the water (if running the better, as at some mill-pond
head) ; and there, setting them upright in the sun and wind, so as it may freely pass through
them (especially during the heats of summer, which is the time of finishing buildings),
turn them daily ; and thus treated, even newly sawn boards will floor far better than many
years' dry seasoning, as they call it. But, to prevent all possible accidents, when you lay
your floors, let the joints be shot, fitted, and tacked down only for the first year, nailing
them for good and all the next ; and by this means they will lie staunch, close, and with-
out shrinking in the least, as if they were all one piece. And upon this occasion I am to
add an observation, which may prove of no small use to builders, that if one take up deal
boards that may have lain in the floor a hundred years, and shoot them [plane their edges}
again, they will certainly shrink (toties quoties) without the former method. Amongst
wheelwrights the water seasoning is of especial regard, and in such esteem amongst some,
that I am assured the Venetians, for their provision in the arsenal, lay their oak some
years in water before they employ it. Indeed, the Turks not only fell at all times of the
year, without any regard to the season, but employ their timber green and unseasoned ;
so that though they have excellent oak, it decays in a short time, by this only neglect.
1 733. " Elm felled ever so green, for sudden use, if plunged four or five days in water
(especially salt water), obtains an admirable seasoning, and may immediately be used.
I the oftener insist on this water seasoning, not only as a remedy against the worm, but
for its efficacy against warping and distortions of timber, whether used within or exposed
to the air. Some, again, commend burying in the earth ; others in wheat ; and there
be seasonings of the fire, as for the scorching and hardening of piles, which are to stand
either in the water or in the earth.
1734. "When wood is charred it becomes incorruptible; for which reason, when we
wish to preserve piles from decay, they should be charred on their outside. Oak posts
used in enclosures always decay about two inches above and below the surface. Charring
that part would probably add several years to the duration of the wood, for that to most
timber it contributes its duration. Thus do all the elements contribute to the art of
seasoning.
1735. " Timber which is cleft is nothing so obnoxious to reft and cleave as what is
hewn ; nor that which is squared as what is round : and therefore, where use is to be
made of huge and massy columns, let them be bored through from end to end. It is an
excellent preservative from splitting, and not unphilosophical ; though to cure the accident
painter's putty is recommended ; also the rubbing them over with a wax cloth is good ;
or before it be converted the smearing the timber over with cow-dung, which prevents the
effects both of sun and air upon it, if of necessity it must lie exposed. But, besides the
former remedies, I find this for the closing of the chops and clefts of green timber, to
anoint and supple it with the fat of powdered beef broth [we do not quite agree with our
author here], with which it must be well soaked, and the chasms filled with sponges
dipped into it. This to be twice done over.
CHAP. II. TIMBER. 489
1736. " We spake before of squaring ; and I would now recommend the quartering of
such trees as will allow useful and competent scantlings to be of much more durableness
and effect for strength, than where (as custom is and for want of observation) whole beams
and timbers are applied in ships or houses, with slab and all about them, upon false suppo-
sitioas of strength beyond these quarters.
1737. " Timber that you have occasion to lay in mortar, or which is in any part con-
tiguous to lime, as doors, window cases, groundsils, and the extremities of beams, &c.,
have sometimes been capped with molten pitch, as a marvellous preserver of it from the
burning and destructive effects of the lime ; but it has since been found rather to heat and
decay them, by hindering the transudation which those parts require ; better supplied with
loam, or strewings of brick-dust or pieces of boards ; some leave a small hole for the air.
But though lime be so destructive, whilst timber thus lies dry, it seems they mingle it
with hair to keep the worm out of ships, which they sheathe for southern voyages, though
it is held much to retard their course.
1 738. " For all uses, that timber is esteemed the best which is the most ponderous, and
which, lying long, makes the deepest impression in the earth, or in the water being floated ;
also what is without knots, yet firm and free from sap, which is that fatty, whiter, and
softer part called by the ancients albumen, which you are diligently to hew away. My
Lord Bacon (Exper. 658.) recommends for trial of a sound or knotty piece of timber, to
cause one to speak at one of the extremes to his companion listening at the other ; for if it
be knotty, the sound, says he, will come abrupt."
PRESERVATION OF TIMBER.
1 739. The preservation of timber, when employed in a building, is the first and most im-
portant consideration. Wherever it is exposed to the alternations of dryness and moisture,
the protection of its surface from either of those actions is the principal object, or, in other
words, the application of some substance or medium to it which is imperviable to moisture ;
but all timber should be perfectly dry before the use of the medium. In Holland the ap-
plication of a mixture of pitch and tar, whereon are strewn pounded shells, with a mixture
of sea sand, is general ; and with this, or small and sifted beaten scales from a blacksmith's
forge, to their drawbridges, sluices, and gates, and other works, they are admirably pro-
tected from the effects of the seasons. Semple, in his work on aquatic building, recom-
mends, that " after your work is tried up, or even put together, lay it on the ground, with
stones or bricks under it to about a foot high, and burn wood (which is the best firing for
the purpose) under it, till you thoroughly heat, and even scorch it all over ; then, whilst the
wood is hot, rub it over plentifully with linseed oil and tar, in equal parts, and well boiled
together, and let it be kept boiling while you are using it ; and this will immediately
strike and sink (if the wood be tolerably seasoned) one inch or more into the wood, close
all the pores, and make it become exceeding hard and durable, either under or over water."
Semple evidently supposes the wood to have been previously well seasoned.
1 74O. Chapman (on the preservation of timber) recommends a mixture of sub-sulphate
of iron, which is obtained in the refuse of copperas pans, ground up with some cheap oil,
and made sufficiently fluid with coal-tar oil, wherein pitch has been infused and mixed.
1741. For common purposes, what is called sanding, that is, the strewing upon the
painting of timber, before the paint dries, particles of fine sand, is very useful in the pre-
servation of timber.
1742. Against worms we believe nothing to be more efficacious than the saturation or
timber with any of the oils ; a process which destroys the insect if already in the wood, with
that of turpentine especially, and prevents the liability to attack from it. Evelyn recom-
mends nitric acid, that is, sulphur immersed in aquafortis and distilled, as an effectual ap-
plication. Corrosive sublimate, lately introduced under Kyan's patent, has long been
known as an effectual remedy against the worm. Its poisonous qualities of course destroy
all animal life with which it comes in contact ; and we believe that our readers who are
interested in preserving the timbers of their dwellings may use a solution of it without
infringing the rights of the patentee. But the best remedy against rot and worms is a
thorough introduction of air to the timbers of a building, and their lying as dry and as free
from moisture as practicable. Air holes from the outside should be applied as much as
possible, and the ends of timbers should not, if it can be avoided, be bedded up close all
round them. This practice is, moreover, advisable in another respect, that of being able,
without injury to a building, to splice the ends of the timbers should they become decayed,
without involving the rebuilding of the fabric ; a facility of no mean consideration.
1 743. The worm is so destructive to timber, both in and out of water, that we shall not
apologise for closing this part of our observations with Smeaton's remarks upon a species of
worm which he found in Bridlington piers. " This worm appears as a small white soft
substance, much like a maggot ; so small as not to be seen distinctly without a magnifying
glass, and even then a distinction of its parts is not easily made out. It does not attempt
490 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
to make its way through the wood longitudinally, or along the grain, as is the case with
the common ship worm, but directly, or obliquely, inward. Neither does it appear to make
its way by means of any hard tools or instruments, but rather by some species of dissolvent
liquor furnished by the juices of the animal itself. The rate of progression is, that a three
inch oak plank will be destroyed in eight years by action from the outside only." For re-
sisting the effects of these worms, Smeaton recommends the piles to be squared, to be fitted
as closely as possible together, and to fill all openings with tar and oakum, to make the
face smooth, and cover it with sheathing.
1744. The destructive effects of the white ant are so little known here, that it is unne-
cessary to make further mention of them, than that in India they are the most inveterate
enemies with which timber has to contend. From Young's Annals we extract the following
curious statement of experiments made upon inch and a half planks, from trees of thirty to
forty-five years' growth, after an exposure of ten years to the weather.
Cedar was perfectly sound. Chesnut, very sound.
Larch, sap quite decayed, but the heart, Abele, sound,
sound Beech, ditto.
Spruce fir, sound. Walnut, decayed.
Silver fir, in decay. Sycamore, considerably decayed.
Scotch fir, much decayed. Birch, worthless.
Pinaster, in a perfectly rotten state.
Whence we may be led to some inference of the value of different sorts of timber in
resisting weather ; though we must not be altogether guided by the above table, inasmuch
as it is well known that the soil on which timber is grown much increases or deteriorates
its value, and that split timber is more durable and stronger than that which is sawn, from
the circumstance of the fibres, on account of their continuity, resisting by means of
their longitudinal strength ; whereas when severed by the saw, the resistance depends more
on the lateral cohesion of the fibres. Hence whole trees are invariably stronger than spe-
cimens, unless these be particularly well selected, and of a straight and even grain ; but in
practice the results of experiments are on this account the more useful.
DECAY OF TIMBER.
1745. If timber, whatever its species, be well seasoned, and be not exposed to alternate
dryness and moisture, its durability is great, though from time it is known to lose its
elastic and cohesive powers, and to become brittle if constantly dry. On this account it
is unfit, after a certain period, to be subjected to variable strains : however, in a quiescent
state it might endure for centuries. Dryness will, if carried to excess, produce this cate-
gory. The mere moisture it absorbs from the air in dry weather is not sufficient to impair
its durability. So, also, timber continually exposed to moisture is found to retain for a
very long period its pristine strength. Heat with moisture is extremely injurious to it,
and is in most cases productive of rot, whereof two kinds are the curse of the builder, the
wtt and the dry rot, though perhaps there be but little difference between the two. They
appear to be produced by the same causes, excepting that the freedom of evaporation de-
termines the former, and an imperfect evaporation the latter. In both cases the timber is
affected by a fungus-like parasite, beginning with a species of mildew ; but how this fungus
is generated is still a vexata quasUo ; all we know is, that its vegetation is so rapid, that
often before it has arrived at its height, a building is ruined. From our inquiries on the
Continent, we believe the disease does not occur to the extent that it does in this country ; a
fact which we are inclined, perhaps erroneously, to attribute to the use of the timber of the
country, instead of imported timber. Our opinion may be fanciful, but there are many
grounds on which we think that is not altogether the case. Our notion is, that our im-
ported timber is infected with the seeds of decay long before its arrival here (we speak of
fir more especially), and that the comparative warmth and moisture of the climate bring
more effectually the causes of decay into action, especially where the situation is close and
confined. Warmth is, doubtless, known to be a great agent in the dry rot, and most espe-
cially when moisture co-operates with it, for in warm cellars and other close and confined
situations, where the vapour which feeds the disease is not altered by a constant change
of air, the timbers are soon destroyed, and become perfectly decomposed.
1746. The lime, and more especially the damp brickwork, which receive the timbers of
a new building, are great causes of decay to the ends of them ; but we do not think that the
regulations of the 19 Car. II. cap. 3., which directed the builders, after the fire of London,
to bed the ends of their girders and joists in loam instead of mortar, would, if followed out
in the present day, be at all effective in preventing the decay incident to the ends of
timbers. Timber, in a perfectly dry state, does not appear to be injured by dry lime ; and,
indeed, lime is known to be effectual in the protection of wood against worms.
1747. Nothing is more injurious to the floors of a building than covering them with
CHAP. II. TIMBER. 491
painted floorcloth, which entirely prevents the access of atmospheric air, whence the damp-
ness of the boards never evaporates ; and it is well known that oak and fir posts have been
brought into premature decay by painting then! before their moisture had evaporated ;
whilst in the timber and pewing of old churches, which have never been painted, we see
them sound after the lapse of centuries. Semple, in his Treatise on Building in Water
notices an instance of some field gates made of the fir of the place, part whereof, near the
mansion, were painted, and had become rotten, while those more distant from the mansion,
which had never been painted, were quite sound.
PREVENTION OF DECAY.
1748. After timber is felled, the best method of preventing decay is the immediate re-
moval of it to a dry situation, where it should be stacked in such a manner as to secure
a free circulation of air round it, but without exposure to the sun and wind, and it should
be rough squared as soon as possible. When thoroughly seasoned before cutting it into
scantlings, it is less liable to warp and twist in drying. The ground about its place of de-
posit should be dry and perfectly drained, so that no vegetation may rise on it. Hence
a timber yard should be strewed with ashes, or the scales from a foundry or forge, which
supply an admirable antidote to all vegetation. It is thought that the more gradually
timber is seasoned the greater its durability ; and, as a general rule, it may be stated, that
it should not be used till a period of at least two years from its being felled, and for joiners'
work at least four years. Much, however, is dependent on the size of the pieces. By some,
water seasoning has been recommended ; by others, the steaming and boiling it ; smoke-dry-
ing, charring, and scorching have also been recommended. The latter is, perhaps, the best
for piles and other pieces that are to stand in the water or in the ground. It was practised
by the ancients, and is still in use generally for the posts of park paling and the like.
1 749. In Norway the deal planks are seasoned by laying them in salt water for three or
four days, when newly sawed, and then drying them in the sun, a process which is con-
sidered to be attended with advantage ; but it does not prevent their shrinking. Mr. Evelyn
recommends the water seasoning for fir, but we incline to think that gradual dry seasoning
is the best method.
1750. Notwithstanding, however, all care in seasoning, when timber is employed in a
damp situation it soon decays ; and one of the principal remedies against that is good
drainage, without which no precautions will avail. It is most important to take care that
earth should not lie in contact with the walls of a building, for the damp is quickly com-
municated, in that case, by their means to the ends of timbers, and rot soon follows. No
expedient to guard against this contingency is so good as what are called air or dry drains,
which are areas formed by thin walls round the building, with apertures in the paving
laid between them and the principal walls, so as to afford a constant current of fresh air.
1751. When the carcass of a building is complete, it should be left as long as possible
to dry, and to allow to the timbers what may be called a second seasoning. The modern
practice of finishing buildings in the quickest possible period, has contributed more to dry
rot than perhaps any other cause ; and for this the architect has been blamed instead of his
employer, whose object is generally to realize letting or to enjoy occupation of them as
early as possible. After, however, the walls and timbers of a building are once thoroughly
dry, all means should be employed to exclude a fresh accession of moisture, and delay be-
comes then prejudicial.
1752. We have before noticed corrosive sublimate in solution as a wash useful in the
prevention of decay, and have also ourselves found that a weak solution of vitriolic acid
with water will generally stop the rot if it have not gone too far. But it is extremely diffi-
cult to prevent the spreading of the fungus of the dry rot after it has once commenced ; and
the precautions indicated above, although not always successful, are better than the being
reduced to after remedies. Certain, however, it is, that the washes we have named will
often prevent the infection from spreading. Pyrolichnous acid has recently been recom-
mended, and, we think, very usefully, as a remedy for preventing the spreading of the
disease.
CUBE OF ROT.
* 1 753. It is no easy matter to cure the rot where it has once taken root. If it be found
necessary to substitute new timbers for old ones, every particle of the fungus must be re-
moved from the neighbourhood of such new timbers. After scraping it from the adjoining
walls and timbers, perhaps no better application than one of the washes above mentioned
can be employed, inasmuch as they can always be with safety applied to the parts. An
extraordinary degree of heat would effect the same purpose, but this, especially in the case
of floors, is difficult in application. Coal tar has been found useful, but its extremely un-
pleasant odour is an objection.
492 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
SECT. V.
1 754. Iron is a metal found in almost all parts of the world, and though not mentioned
by Homer, and hence, we may suppose, in his time extremely scarce, it is now more abun-
dant than any of the other metals, and is, at the same time, the most useful. Although, with
the exception of tin, it is the lightest of all metals ; yet it is, when pure, very malleable and
extremely hard. Its malleability is increased by heat, whereas most other metals, as they
are heated, become more brittle. It is the only known substance whereon the loadstone
acts, and its specific gravity to water is as 7632 to 1000.
1 755. The iron manufactured in Great Britain is obtained from three species of the ore.
The Lancashire, which is very heavy, fibrous in texture, and of a dark purple colour in-
clining to black, and lodged in veins. The Bog ore, which has the appearance of a deep
yellow clay, and is found in strata of from twelve to twenty inches in thickness. And
lastly, Iron stones, of an irregular shape, frequently in beds of large extent, similar to other
stony masses, and often intersected with seams of pit coal. It is principally from the argil-
laceous ore or clay iron-stone that iron is extracted in this country.
1 756. After raising, the ores are selected and separated as much as possible from hetero-
geneous substances. They are then roasted in large heaps in the open air, for the purpose
as well of freeing them from the arsenic and sulphur they contain as to render them friable
or easy of reduction to a powder. The roasting is performed by means of bituminous
coal, and the result is a substance full of fissures, friable, and a deprivation of all vitreous
lustre. After this it is transferred to the crushing mill for complete pulverization,
whence it is carried to the smelting furnace for conversion into iron. Herein it undergoes
two separate processes : first, the reduction of the oxide to a metallic state ; second, the
separation of the earthy particles in the form of scoria. These operations are conducted by
submitting the ore, ordinarily mixed with certain fluxes, to the action of carbon at a very
high temperature, in what are called blast furnaces, which vary in height from twelve to
sixty feet, and are of the form of truncated cones, sometimes however of pyramids,
terminating usually in cylindrical chimneys, whose internal diameter is from four to six
feet. The interior of these furnaces is usually of a cylindrical form, whose internal dia-
meter is from four to six feet. Their cavity is usually of a circular form, except at the
crucible or hearth, where it becomes a right rectangular prism, oblong in a direction
perpendicular to the blast orifices or tuyeres of the bellows. The sides of the crucible are
most commonly formed of gritstone. The boshes, which are in the form of an inverted quad-
rangular pyramid approaching a prismatic shape, are placed above the crucible, and above
them rises the conical body of the furnace, which is lined with fire-bricks, and, in ascending,
is contracted similarly to the narrow end of an egg, until it terminates in the chimney. The
furnace is of course constructed in the most solid manner, and strengthened by iron bands
and bars. The bellows employed are mostly of a cylindrical form, and their pistons worked
either by water or steam. The blast holes, which are in the upper part of the crucible, and
frequently placed on opposite sides, but so that the two opposite currents may not impinge
upon one another, are two in number. Openings are provided at the lower part of the
crucible for the discharge of the metal and scoria, and are kept stopped by clay and sand
upon the exterior when the furnace is in operation. The reduction is commenced by gradually
heating up the furnace until capable of being entirely filled with fuel, and then, as its
contents begin to sink, alternate changes of ore, mingled with flux, and of charcoal and coke,
are added. The blast is now let on, and the metal in the ore, parting with its oxygen,
flows by degrees, subsiding to the bottom of the crucible, covered with a melted slag, which
is occasionally let off by removing the clay from one or more, if necessary, apertures in the
crucible ; and on the bottom of the furnace becoming filled with the metal, which gene-
rally occurs after nine to twelve hours, the iron itself is discharged by one of these openings
into a fosse of sand mixed with clay. When the iron has flowed out the aperture is again
closed, and by this method the furnace is kept in constant action.
1757. Limestone of the best quality is employed as a flux to assist the fusion of the
ore, which it accomplishes by vitrefying the earths wherewith it is mixed up with the oxide
of iron. The iron when run out from the blast furnace in the state of cast iron is far
from being in a pure state, having a coarse grain, and being brittle. In its conversion to
bar iron, it undergoes one of the two following processes, as charcoal or coke may be em-
ployed. In the former case a furnace much resembling a smith's hearth is used, having a
sloping cavity sunk from ten to twelve inches below the blast pipe. After the cavity has
been filled with charcoal and scoria, a pig of cast iron, well covered with hot fuel, is placed
opposite the blast pipe. The blast being introduced, the pig of iron lying in the very
hottest part soon begins to melt, and runs down into the cavity below, where, being out oi
the influence of the blast, it becomes solid, and is replaced in its former position, and the
CHAP. II. IRON. 493
cavity is again filled with charcoal. It is there again fused, and so on a third time, all
these processes being accomplished in three or four hours. The iron, thus again solid, is
taken out, and very slightly hammered, to free it from the attached scoria ; after this it
is returned to the furnace, in a corner whereof it is stacked, out of the action of the blast,
and well covered with charcoal, where it remains gradually to cool until sufficiently com-
pact to bear the tilt, or trip hammer, which is moved by machinery, and whose weight is
from 600 to 1 2OO Ibs. Thus it is beaten till the scorise are forced out, when it is divided
into several portions, which, by repeated heating and hammering, are drawn into bars, in
which state it is ready for sale.
1 758. There are various methods of procuring the blast, which we think it unnecessary
here to detail : the first, and most ancient, are by means of bellows ; the latest, which has
been found in the mining districts to be a contrivance of great importance, is the placing a
series of vanes attached to an axis, which are made to revolve in a box with great rapidity.
A pipe passing from the outside of the box to the furnace conveys the air to it as the vanes
revolve, a new portion continually entering by a hole at the axis.
1 759. The proportion of pig or cast iron from a given quantity of ore varies as the dif-
ference in the metallic contents of different parcels of ore and other circumstances, but the
quantity of bar obtained from pig iron is not valued at more than 20 per cent.
1 760. The other process for manufacturing bar iron, which is that chiefly employed in
this country, is conducted in reverberatory furnaces, usually called puddling furnaces. The
operation begins with the fusion of the cast iron in refinery furnaces, like the one above
described. When the iron is fully melted, a tap-hole is opened in the crucible, and the
metal and slag flow out together into a fosse covered with clay well mixed with water, by
which a coating is formed that prevents the metal from sticking to the ground. The finer
metal forms a slab about ten feet long, three feet broad, and from two to two and a half inches
in thickness. For the purpose of slightly oxidizing it, and to make it brittle, it is much
sprinkled over with cold water. In this part of the process it loses in weight from 12
to 1 7 per cent. After this, it is broken up into pieces, and placed on the hearth of a re-
verberatory furnace, in portions heaped up to its sides in piles which rise nearly to the
roof, leaving a space open in the middle to give room for puddling the metal as it flows
down in streams. When the heat of the furnace has brought it to a pasty state, the tem-
perature is reduced, a little water being sometimes thrown on the melted mass. The semi-
liquid metal is stirred up by the workman with his puddle, during which it swells, and
parts with a large quantity of oxide of iron, which burns with a blue flame, so that the
mass appears ignited. As it refines, the metal becomes less fusible, or, as the workmen say,
it begins to dry. The puddling goes on until the whole charge assumes the form of an in-
coherent sand, when the temperature is gradually increased to give it a red white heat, at
which period the particles begin to agglutinate, and the charge, in technical language,
works heavy. The refining is now considered finished, and the metal has only to be formed
into balls, and condensed under the rolling cylinder. From this state it is brought into
mill bar iron. After this last operation, several pieces are welded together, from which it
acquires ductility, uniformity, and cohesion. A lateral welding of four pieces together
now follows, and the mass passes through a series of cylinders as in the first case, and
becomes English bar-iron.
1761. The lamination of iron into sheets is by a refinery furnace, with a charcoal instead
of a coke fire.
1762. Malleable iron is often obtained from the ores directly, by one fusion, if the me-
tallic oxide be not too much mixed with foreign substances. It is a mode of working
much more economical than that above described, and from the circumstance of its having
been long known and used in Catalonia, it is known by the name of the method of the Cata-
lonian forge. The furnace employed is similar to the refiner's forge already described.
The crucible is a kind of semicircular or oblong basin, eighteen inches in diameter, and
eight or ten in depth, excavated in an area, or small elevation of masonry, eight or ten feet
long, by five or six broad, and covered in with a chimney. The tuyere is placed five or six
inches above the basin, inclining a little downwards, and the blast is received from a water
blowing machine. The first step consists in expelling the water combined with the oxide,
as well as the sulphur and arsenic when these are present. This, as usual, is done by
roasting in the open air, after which it is reduced to a tolerably fine powder, and thrown at
intervals by shovels-full upon the charcoal fire of the forge hearth, the sides and bottom of
the basin being previously lined with brasques (coats of pounded charcoal). It gradually
softens and unites into lumps more or less coherent, which finally melt and accumulate in
the bottom of the crucible or basin. A thin slag is occasionally let off from the upper
surface of the melted metal in the basin through holes which can be closed and opened at
the discretion of the workman. The melted iron preserves a pasty condition owing to the
heat communicated from above. When a mass sufficiently great has accumulated, it is re-
moved, put under the hammer, and forged at once. A lump, or bloom, of malleable iron
is thus produced in the space of three or four hours. Four workmen are employed at one
494 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
forge, and by being relieved every six hours, they are enabled to make 86 cwt. of iron per
week. In the Catalonian forge, lOOlbs. of iron are obtained from 300 Ibs. of ore (a mix-
ture of sparry iron, or carbonate and hematite), and 310 Ibs. of charcoal, being a produce
of 33 per cent.
1763. A visit to some of the iron districts is necessary fully to understand the processes
we have above shortly described ; but the founding of iron may be well enough observed in
the metropolis, though not on so large a scale as in some of the provinces.
1 764. The sand employed in casting is of a soft yellow and clammy nature, over which,
in the mould, charcoal is strewed. Upon the sand properly prepared, the wood or metal
models of what is intended to be cast are applied to the mould, and pressed so as to leave
their impression upon the sand. Canals are provided for the metal, when melted, to run
through. After the frame is finished, the patterns are taken out by loosening them all
round, that the sand may not give way. The other half of the mould is then worked with
the same patterns, in a similar frame, but having pins which, entering into holes that cor-
respond to it in the other, cause the two cavities of the pattern exactly to fall on each other.
The frame thus moulded comes now under the care of the melter, who prepares it for the
reception of the metal.
1 765. All castings should be kept as nearly as possible of the same bulk, in order that
the cooling may take place equably. It is of importance to prevent air bubbles in castings,
and the more time there is allowed for cooling the better, because when rapidly cooled, the
iron does not become so tough as when gradually cooled.
1766. In making patterns for cast iron, an allowance should be made of about one
eighth of an inch per foot for the contraction of the metal in cooling. And it may be also
requisite that the patterns should be slightly bevelled, that they may be drawn out of the
sand without injuring the impression ; for this purpose a sixteenth of an inch in six inches
is sufficient.
1767. The security afforded, not only for supporting weight, but against fire, has, of late
years, very much increased the use of it, and may in many cases entirely supersede the use
of timber. Again, it is valuable from its being not liable to sudden decay, nor soon de-
stroyed by wear and tear, and, above all, from its plasticity.
1 768. Soft grey cast iron is the best sort ; it yields easily to the file when the external
crust is removed, and is slightly malleable in a cold state. It is, however, more subject to
rust than the white cast iron, which sort is also less soluble in acids. Hence the white
sort may be employed where hardness is necessary and brittleness not a defect. Grey cast
iron has a granulated fracture with some metallic lustre, and is much softer and tougher
than the white cast iron. The white cast iron in a recent fracture has a white and radiated
appearance, indicating a crystalline structure.
1 769. The most certain test of the goodness of a piece of cast iron is by striking the edge
with a hammer, which if it make a slight impression, denoting some degree of malleability,
the iron is of a good quality. It is important in any casting to have the metal as uniform as
possible, and not of different sorts, for different sorts will shrink differently, and thus will
be caused an unequal tension among the parts of the metal, which will impair its strength :
and, beyond this, an unevenness is produced by such mixture in the casting, for different
sorts can never be perfectly blended together. (See 1797.)
1 77O. It is well known, also, that iron varies in strength, not only in samples from dif-
ferent furnaces, but even from the same furnace and the same melting. This, however, seems
owing to some imperfection in the casting, notwithstanding which, it is, when well mixed,
capable of resisting the greatest stresses in mill and engine work.
1771. The transverse strength of cast iron, as of any other body, is that power which it
exerts in opposing a force acting in a direction perpendicular to its length, as in the case
of beams, levers, and the like It is well known that the transverse strengths of beams, &c.
are inversely as their lengths, and directly as their breadths and the squares of their depths.
If cylinders, that they are as the cubes of their diameters. Thus, if a beam 6 feet long,
2 inches broad, and 4 inches deep, will bear 5000 Ibs., another of the same scantling, and
double the length, will only bear 2500 Ibs., being inversely as the lengths. So, if a beam
6 feet long, 2 inches broacl, and 4 inches deep will support a weight of 5000 Ibs., another
beam of the same material, twice the breadth, that is, 4 inches, will support 10,000 Ibs.,
that is, double, being directly as the breadths ; but a beam of the same material 6 feet long,
2 inches broad, and 8 inches deep, will sustain 20,000 Ibs., being as the squares of their
depths. From a mean of several experiments on cast iron, it may be assumed that the ulti-
mate or breaking strength of a bar of cast iron 1 inch square and 1 foot long, loaded in the
middle, was 2580 Ibs. ; and taking one third, or 860 Ibs., as the weight which will not destroy
its elasticity, we thus obtain constants for guiding us in the ordinary computations for the
sizes of girders, beams, bressummers, &c. The strongest form of the section of a beam to
resist a cross strain is this ]!• We do not however think it here necessary to give much
more than the rules for finding their breadths and depths, considered as simple figures.
The principles on which the rules subjoined are founded may be seen in Gregory's Me-
CHAP. II. IRON. 495
chanics, and Barlow On the Strength of Materials, but divested, certainly, of the refinement
of Dr. T. Young's Modulus of Elasticity, and some other matters, which we cannot help
thinking unnecessary in a subject where, after exhausting all the niceties of the question, a
very large proportion of weight is still considered too much for the constant load to be im-
posed on the examples.
1772. PROBLEM I. To find the ultimate strength of a rectangular beam of cast iron sup-
ported at both ends, and loaded in the middle, we have only to multiply the breadth into
the square of the depth, and that again by the constant 2580, and the last product divided
by the length in feet will be a quotient expressing the weight in pounds averdupois,
nearly.
Example. What weight will break a cast iron beam 2 inches broad, 6 inches deep, and
1 5 feet between the supports ?
If a beam be supported at the middle and loaded at each end, it will bear the same weight
as when supported at both ends and loaded in the middle. It may be here observed, that
the following rules hold good for inclined as well as horizontal beams, if the horizontal dis-
tance between the supports be taken for the bearing.
1773. PROBLLM 2. To find the ultimate strength of a cast-iron beam when the weight is
placed somewhere between the middle and the end. Multiply twice the length of the longer
end by twice the length of the shorter end, which divided by the whole length will give the
effectual length. Using the effectual length thus found as the length in Problem 1., the
question may be answered.
Example. What is the ultimate strength of a cast iron beam 15 feet between the
supports, 2 inches wide, and 6 inches deep, the weight being placed at 5 feet from
one end ?
In the case of any beam fixed at one end and loaded at the other, it is known that it
will bear only one fourth of the weight it will bear in the middle when supported at both
ends. Thus for
Example. What weight will break a cast iron beam 2 inches wide and 6 inches deep,
projecting 1 5 feet from the point of support ?
Here 258° *52 x ffl = ~3~ = 3096 Ibs. (See Prob. 1.)
1 774. The above rules are equally applicable to beams whose forms are cylindrical,
except that in such case the absolute strength of a round bar (for which in that of cast iron
the constant is for the breaking weight 2026, one third whereof is 675 for cast iron) is
found by multiplying by the cube of the diameter instead of by the breadth and square of
the depth.
Example. What is the ultimate transverse strength of a cast iron cylinder 1 5 feet long
and 6 inches diameter ?
Here — ^ — = 37152 Ibs.
In the case of a hollow shaft of cast iron of the same length as in the last example, whose
diameter is 9 inches, but whose cross sectional area is the same as a solid cylinder 6 inches
diameter,
We have -v/92- 6^=6 "708, and 93- 6 7083 = 426 '9.
Then ^*^^== 73,427 Ibs.
1775. The following points relative to loads on beams are to be here noted. I. If any
beam be fixed at both ends, when loaded in the middle, it is capable of bearing one half j
more than it will if both ends are loose. II. If loose at both ends, and the weight be
applied uniformly along its length, it will support double. III. If it be fixed at both ends,
and the weight be applied uniformly along its length, it is capable of bearing triple the
weight.
1776. In cases where beams of cast iron are intended to support a permanent weight,
the application of the following problem is necessary, in which 860, or one third of the
breaking weight, is used.
1777. PROBLEM III. To find the breadth or depth of beams which shall support a given
permanent weight. The length between the supports must be multiplied by the weight to
be supported in pounds, and the product divided by one third (860) of the ultimate strength
of an inch bar multiplied by the square of the depth, and the quotient will be the breadth.
If multiplied by the breadth, the quotient will be the square of the depth, both in inches.
Example. What should be the breadth of a cast iron beam 15 feet long and 6 inches
deep, to support 3 tons in the middle ? (3 tons = 6720 Ibs.)
zr
496 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
Here rp =3'25 inches, full.
Example. What depth should be given to a cast iron beam 3 -25 inches broad and 1 5
feet long, to bear a permanent weight of 3 tons in the middle ?
Here fjjy||^ = 36-06, whose square root is 6 inches.
Example. Suppose a cast iron beam 1 5 feet long and 6 inches deep, made fast at both
ends, to be loaded with a permanent weight of 3 tons in the middle, what should
be its breadth ?
Here, from the last problem, g^^f.g = 2 -1 7 inches.
A beam when fixed at one end and loaded at the other is known to bear only one fourth
of the weight ; one quarter of the divisor must therefore be taken, or, which is the same,
it may be multiplied by "25.
Example. What should be the depth of a beam 3 inches broad, to project 10 feet from
a wall, and to be loaded with a weight of 3 tons = 6720 Ibs. ?
Here 8^x3x^25 = 104' whose square root =10-19 inches.
When the weight is riot placed in the middle of the beam, the effective length must be ob-
tained as in Problem 1.
Example. W^hat depth should be assigned to a cast iron beam 1 5 feet long and 3
inches broad, to support a weight of 3 tons =67 20 Ibs., 5 feet from one end?
Here (2xl°^(2x^ = 13-33, effective length of the beam.
And ^|°^|— =34-7, whose square root 5-9 inches, nearly.
The strength of cast iron to wrought iron is as 9 to 14, nearly.
N.B. All the above rules may be applied in common practice to find the scantlings
of beams by using the following factors instead of that of cast iron, such factors being the
ultimate transverse strengths of a bar 1 inch square and 1 foot long of the different sorts
of timber to which they are attached.
Ash - - - 1137, one third whereof is 379
Pitch pine - - 916 — • 305
Oak ... 800 — 209
Elm ... 569 149
Fir 566 148
1778. The greatest variable load on a floor, except in public rooms, seldom exceeds
1 20 Ibs. to the square foot, whence the reader may form a pretty accurate notion of the
quantity of strain against which he has to provide.
1779. The cohesive strength of cast iron, from some of the latest experiments, was found
in horizontal casting to be equal to 18,656 Ibs. per square inch, and in vertical casting
19,488 Ibs. to the square inch. One third, therefore, of 18,656 = 6219 may be used as the
factor in computations of the permanent cohesive strength of cast iron. In English wrought
iron the experiment gives 55,872 Ibs. for the cohesive strength per square inch of English
wrought iron, and for Swedish, 72,064 Ibs. per square inch. If, therefore, it be re-
quired to find the ultimate cohesive strength of bars of cast or wrought iron, the area of
their section being found, and multiplied by the relative cohesive strengths above men-
tioned, the product will be the ultimate cohesive strength, nearly. Thus for
Example. What is the cohesive power of a bar of cast iron 1 1 inch square ?
Here 1-5x1-5x1 8656 = 41 976 Ibs., nearly.
If the weight to be sustained be given, and the sectional dimensions of the bar be re-
quired, we must divide the weight given by one third of the cohesive strength of an inch
bar, and the square root of the quotient will be the side of the square.
Example. What dimension must be given to the side of a square bar of Swedish iron
to sustain a permanent weight of 18, 000 Ibs., —^=24,021 Ibs. being, as above
mentioned, the permanent load a square inch will sustain.
Here V/^J= -86, or g of an inch square.
If the section be rectangular, the quotient must be divided by the breadth.
Example. If the breadth of an English wrought iron bar which is required to carry
3000 Ibs. be 2| inches, required its thickness. The permanent cohesive strength
Here jgg^= '161, and -161 -5-2-5= '064 of an inch in thickness.
1 780. The power of the resistance to compression was heretofore very much overrated.
It has been well ascertained by experiment, that a force of 93,000 Ibs. upon a square inch
CHAP. II.
LEAD.
497
will crush it ; and that it will bear 1 5,300 upon a square inch without permanent alter-
ation. The weight of cast and bar iron is as follows : —
Weight of a cubic Weight of a cubic Weight of a cubic
foot in ounces. foot in pounds. inch in pounds.
Cast - - 7207 450-5 0-260
Bar - - - 7788 486-8 0-281
SECT. VI.
1781. Lead, the heaviest of the metals except gold and quicksilver, is found in most
parts of the world. It is of a bluish white when first broken, is less ductile, elastic, and
sonorous than any of the other metals, its specific gravity being from 11300 to 1 1479, and a
cubic foot, therefore, weighing about 710 Ibs. It is soluble in all acids and alkaline solu-
tions, fusible before ignition, and easily calcined. The ore, which is easily reduced to the
metallic state by fusion with charcoal, is found mineralised with sulphur, with a slight
mixture of silver and antimony, in diaphanous prismatical crystals, generally hexagonal,
white, yellowish, or greenish, in Somersetshire, about the Mendip Hills. About Bristol,
and in Cumberland, it takes the form of a white, grey, or yellowish spar, without the least
metallic appearance ; in some places it is in a state of white powder or native ceruse ; and
in Monmouthshire it has been found native, or in a metallic state.
1782. Exposure to air and water does not produce much alteration in lead, though it
quickly tarnishes and acquires a white rust, by which the internal parts are defended from
corrosion. Pure water, however, does not alter it ; hence the white crust on the inside of
lead pipes through which water flows must probably be owing to some saline particles in
the water. Lead will form an union with most other metals : one exception, however, is
iron. Next to tin, it is the most fusible of metals. It is run from the furnace into moulds
which form what are called pigs, from which it is run into sheets, pipes, &c.
1783. Sheet lead is of two sorts, cast and milled. The thicker sort of the former, or the
common cast sheet lead, is manufactured by casting it on a long table (with a rising edge
all round it) from 18 to 20 feet in length, which is covered with fine pressed sand beaten
and smoothed down with a strike and smoother's plane. The pig lead is melted in a large
vessel, near this table, and is ladled into a pan of the shape of a common triangular prism,
whose length is equal to the width of a sheet, from which pan it is poured on to the table
or mould. Between the surface of the sand and the strike, which rides upon the edges of
the table, a space is left which determines the thickness of the sheet. The strike bears
away the superfluous liquid lead before it has time to cool, as it moves by hand along the
edges of the table before mentioned. When lead is required to be cast thin, a linen cloth
is stretched on an appropriate table over a woollen one ; in which case the heat of the lead,
before spreading it on the cloth, must be less than will fire paper, or the cloth would be
burnt. The strike must for the purpose be passed over it with considerable rapidity.
1784. In manufacturing milled lead, it is usual first to cast it into sheets from 8 to 10
feet long according to circumstances, but the width is regulated by the length of the rollers
tli rough which it is to be passed in milling ; the thickness varies from 2 to 5 inches. By
a mechanical action it is made to pass through rollers whose distance from each other is
gradually lessened until the sheet is reduced to the required thickness. For a long time
a great prejudice prevailed against milled sheet lead ; but it is now generally considered
that, for the prevention of leakage, milled is far superior to cast lead, wherein pin holes,
which have naturally formed themselves in the casting, often induce the most serious con-
sequences.
1785. The thickness of sheet lead varies from 5 to 1 2 pounds in weight to the superficial
foot, and is used in covering large buildings, in flats or slopes, for gutters, the hips, ridges,
and valleys of roofs, the lining of cisterns, &c. The subjoined table shows the weight of
lead per superficial foot from one sixteenth of an inch to one inch and a half thick : —
Thickness.
Weight.
Thickness.
Weight.
One sixteenth of an inch
3| Ibs.
One fourth of an inch
14f Ibs.
One twelfth
5
One third -
19f
One tenth -
6
One half -
29A
One eighth -
n
Three quarters
44?
One sixth -
10
One inch
59
One fifth -
12
One inch and a half
881
K k
498 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II
Leaden pipes are either cast bent, or soldered. To cast them, a mould is made of brass,
wherein down the middle a core of iron is loosely supported at such a distance from the
mould all round, as is equal to the contemplated thickness of the pipe. When pipes are
made by soldering, a core of wood is provided round which the sheet lead is rolled, and
the edges are brought together and joined with solder, which is a mixture of two parts
lead and one part tin.
1786. In cottages and inferior buildings the glazing is executed in lead prepared in the
glazier's mill from what are called cames. These are slender rods 12 or 14 inches long,
and in passing through the mill receive grooves on their upper and under edges. Into
the grooves the panes or quarries of glass are inserted in common lead lights.
SECT. VII.
1787. Copper, among the first of the metals employed by the early nations of the world,
is neither scarce nor difficult to work and extract from its ore. When pure it is of a pale
red colour, its specific gravity 8600, and a cubic foot will weigh 537 J Ibs. ; the weight of a
bar 1 foot long and 1 inch square is 3-81 Ibs. These, however, vary as it is more or less
hammered. Its elasticity and hardness are very considerable, and it is so malleable that it
may be hammered into fine leaves. It is also very tenacious, a wire of a tenth of an inch
in diameter being capable of sustaining 360 Ibs.
1788. Though the ore is found in Cornwall and other parts of England, the finest in
this country is the Parys mine in Anglesea, which yields principally the yellow sulphu-
retted ore of eopper, to an annual amount of from 4O,000 to 80,000 tons. This ore usually
contains from one and a half to twenty-five per cent, of copper, and is partly dug in what are
called packages, and partly blasted by gunpowder, and then broken into small pieces pre-
vious to its being roasted. This operation is performed in kilns, whose shape has a re-
semblance to lime-kilns, in which expedients are used for removing the ore as it is roasted,
and adding fresh ore. The kilns are arched level with the upper surface of the ore, and
adjoining and communicating with the kiln is the floor of a condensing chamber to receive
the sulphureous vapours generated in the kiln, which fall down in the form of the finest
flowers of sulphur. Several hundred tons at one time are put into the kiln, and for com-
pleting the operation six months are required. The ore is reduced to one fourth of its
previous quantity by roasting, and is then washed and pressed to remove the impurities.
The richer ores are then dried, and removed for smelting and refining in reverberatory
furnaces, from which it is at length produced in short bars or pigs. The water which
filters through the fissures is often highly impregnated with sulphate of copper, and this
water is pumped up into rectangular pits about thirty feet long, twelve broad, and two deep,
to mix with that in which the roasted ore has been washed ; and in it are immersed pieces
of iron, which, combining with the sulphuric acid, precipitate the copper in the form of a
red-coloured powder slightly oxidated. The precipitate thus obtained very frequently gives
above 50 per cent, of pure copper, and is even more profitable to the worker than the
metal produced from the crude ore.
1789. Sheet copper was formerly much used for its lightness to cover roofs and flats ;
but it is almost superseded now by the use of zinc, which is much cheaper, and nearly if
not quite as durable ; and which, moreover, is not so liable to be corrugated by the action
of the sun. Copper is reduced to sheet by being passed through large rollers, by which it
can be rendered very thin. The thickness generally used is from 12 to 18 ounces to the
foot superficial. Exposed to the air its lustre is soon gone ; it assumes a tarnish of a dull
brown colour, gradually deepening by time into one of bronze ; and, lastly, it takes a green
rust or calx, called patina by the antiquaries, which, unlike the rust of iron, does not in-
jure and corrode the internal parts, confining itself to the surface, and rather preserving
than destroying the metal. Hence, one of the most important applications of copper is in
cramps for stone work, especially when they are exposed to the air. It may be here well
to observe, that if water is collected from roofs for culinary purposes, copper must not be
used about them, neither should any reservoirs for collecting and holding it be made of
that metal.
1790. Alloyed with zinc, it forms brass for the handles of doors, shutters, locks, drawers,
and the furniture generally of joinery. The usual proportion is one part of zinc to three
of copper ; than which it is more fusible, and is of a fine yellow colour, less liable to
tarnish from the action of the air, and so malleable and ductile that it can be beat into
thin leaves and drawn into very fine wire. Its specific gravity is 8370, and the weight of
a cubic foot is 523 Ibs. The weight of a bar 1 foot long and 1 inch square is 3 '63 Ibs.
The extremes of the highest and lowest proportions of zinc used in it are from 12 to 25
CHAP. II. ZINC. 499
per cent, of the brass. Even with the last, if well manufactured, it is quite malleable,
although zinc by itself scarcely yields to the hammer. The appearance of brass is fre-
quently given to other metals by washing them over with a yellow lacquer or varnish.
1791. Copper with zinc in the proportion of one tenth to one fifth of the whole forms a
composition called bronze or bell-metal, used in the foundery of statues, bells, cannons, &c.
When tin forms nearly one third of the alloy, a beautiful white close-grained brittle metal
is formed, susceptible of a very high polish, which is used for the specula of reflecting
telescopes. (See 1797.)
SECT. VIII.
1792. Zinc is found in all quarters of the globe. In Great Britain it is abundant,
though therein never found in a native state. It usually contains an admixture of lead
and sulphur. When purified from these, it is of a blue light colour, between lead and tin,
inclining to blue. The ore, after being hand-dressed to free it from foreign matter, is
roasted, by which the sulphur of the calamine and the acid of the blende are expelled.
The product is then washed to separate the lighter matter, and the heavy part which
remains is mixed with one eighth of its weight of charcoal. The mixture, being reduced
in a mill to a powder, is placed in the pots, resembling oil jars, to be smelted. A tube
passes through the bottom of each, the upper end being terminated by an open mouth
near the top of the pot, and the lower end going through the floor of the furnace into
water. The pots being filled with the mixture of ore and charcoal, an intense heat is
applied to them by means of a furnace, by which, as the ore is reduced, the zinc is volatil-
ized, and escapes through the tube into the water, wherein it falls in globules, which are
afterwards melted and cast into moulds. Thus procured, however, it is not pure, as it
almost invariably contains iron, manganese, arsenic, and copper. In order to free it from
these, it is again melted'and stirred up with sulphur and fat, the former whereof combines
with the heterogeneous metals, leaving the zinc nearly pure, and the latter preventing the
metal from being oxidated.
1793. Under rollers at a high temperature, zinc may be extended into plates of great
tenuity and elasticity, or drawn into wire. These rollers are from 2 feet 8 inches to 6 feet
in length, and the original thickness of the plate subjected to them is about 1 inch. A wire,
one tenth of an inch diameter, will support 26 pounds. If zinc be hammered at a temper-
ature of 300°, its malleability is much increased, and it becomes capable of much bending.
Its fracture is thin, fibrous, and of a grain similar to steel. It can be drawn into wire ^ th
of an inch in diameter, which is nearly as tenacious as that of silver. The specific gravity
is somewhat below 7'0, but hammering increases it to 7 -2. When heated, it enters into
fusion at a heat of about 680° or 700° : at a higher temperature it evaporates ; and if
access of air be not permitted, it may be distilled over, by which process it is rendered
purer than before, although not then perfectly pure. When heated red hot, with access of
air, it takes fire, burns with an exceedingly beautiful greenish or bluish flame, and is at
the same time converted into the only oxide of zinc with which we are acquainted, con-
sisting of 23-53 parts of oxygen combined with 100 of metal.
1794. On the first introduction of zinc into this country as a material, the trades with
which it was likely to interfere used every exertion to prevent its employment ; and, indeed,
the workmen who were engaged in laying it, being chiefly tinmen, were incompetent to the
task of so covering roofs as to secure them from the effects of the weather. Hence, for
a considerable period after its first employment, great reluctance was manifested by archi-
tects in its introduction. A demand for it has, however, gradually increased of late, and
the comparatively high prices of lead and copper will not entirely account for the disparity
of consumption. In France, in the year 1836, the quantity consumed exceeded 12,000
tons, whilst, in the same year, in England the consumption amounted only to between
2000 and 3000 toas.
1795. Zinc, though subject to oxidize, has this peculiarity, that the oxide does not scale
off as that of iron, but forms a permanent coating on the metal, impervious to the action
of the atmosphere, and rendering the use of paint wholly unnecessary. Its expansion and
contraction is greater than those of any other metal : thus, supposing 1 '0030 to represent
the expansion of it, 1 -001 9 is that of copper, and 1 '0028 that of lead ; hence, in use, proper
attention must be paid to the circumstance, or a substantial arid durable covering of zinc
will not be obtained. The method of accomplishing this is, of course, by always allowing
plenty of play in the laps.
1796. The tenacity of zinc to lead is as 16'616 to 3-328, and to copper as 16-616 to
22-570 ; hence a given substance of zinc is equal to five times the same substance in lead,
and about three fourths of copper. The sheets in general use are 12, 14, 16, 18, and 2O
K k 2
500 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
ounces to the foot superficial; and as 18 thicknesses of 16 ounces to the foot are half an
inch thick, the following show the thicknesses of the different weights : —
Plates or sheets of 10 ounces to the foot are 0 01736 inch thick.
12 _ 0-02083
14 — 0-02430
16 — 002777— 'of an inch.
18 — 0-03125 3S
20 - 0-03472
The comparative weights of the different materials used in covering buildings may be
roughly stated as follows : —
A square of pnntiling will weigh about 7£ cwt.
plain tiling — M£ cwt.
slating (a mean) — 6| cwt.
lead _ 5 cwt.
zinc (15 oz.) — 1 cwt.
And as the timbers employed, of course, are less in dimension as the weight diminishes,
it follows that a less quantity of timber is requisite when zinc can be employed.
1797. It is a good material for water-cisterns and baths, rain-water pipes, — in short, for
almost all purposes where lead has been hitherto employed ; and latterly a method has
been invented, by which it is formed into sash-bar for skylights and ornamental sashes; for
which purposes, strength excepted, it is superior to iron, as not being liable to rust, and
loosen the putty and glass. It is, in every respect, equal to copper, and not more than one
third the cost of it. The discovery of the electro-process has now introduced the appli-
cation of zinc to cast and wrought iron, so as to prevent its oxydation or rust ; and, we
believe, that the tenacity of the iron is not altered by it, whilst the adhesion of the coating
to the iron thereunder is perfect. This process has been carried into use by Messrs.
Elkington and Co., and has by them been also applied to copper.
SECT. IX.
1798. Slate is a species of argillaceous stone, and is an abundant and most useful
mineral. The slate district in England is of considerable extent. This material is so soft,
that the human nail will slightly scratch it, and is of a bright lamellated texture. Its
constituent parts are argyll, earth, silex, magnesia, lime, and iron ; of the two first and the
last in considerable proportion. The building slate is the schistus tegularis.
1799. The slates used about London are brought chiefly from Bangor, in Caernarvon-
shire ; but the most esteemed is a pale blue-green slate, brought from Kendal, in West-
morland, and called Westmorland slates. Those from Scotland are not in much repute.
Slate quarries usually lie near the surface ; and, independent of the splitting grain, along
which they can be cleft exceedingly thin, they are mostly divided into stacks, by breakings,
cracks, and fissures. Slate is separated from its bed, like other stones, by means of gunpowder,
and the mass is then divided into scantlings by wedges, and, if necessary, sawn to its
respective sizes by machinery. The blue, green, purple, and darker kinds are most
susceptible of thin cleavage, the lighter-coloured slates being coarser. The instruments
used in quarrying and splitting slates are slate-knives, axes, bars, and wedges. In fixing
them on roofs the zax is used. This is an instrument made of tempered iron, about 1 6 in.
long and 2 in. wide, like a large knife bent a little at one end, with a wooden handle at the
other, and having a projecting piece of iron on its back, drawn to a sharp point, to make
holes in the slates for the nails, the other side being used to chip and cut the slates to their
required size, as when brought from the quarry they are not sufficiently square and
cleaned for the slater's use.
1 800. A fine sound texture is the most desirable among the properties of a slate ; for the
expense of slating being greatly increased by the boarding whereon it is placed, if the slate
absorbs and retains much moisture, the boarding will soon become rotten. But a good
slate is very durable. Its goodness may be judged of by striking it as you would a piece
of pottery, wherefrom a sonorous, clear, bell-like sound is a sign of excellence ; but many
pieces of the slate should be tried before a conclusion can be arrived at. It is thought to
be a good sign, if, in hewing, it shatters before the edge of the zax. The colour, also, is
some guide, the light blue sort imbibing and retaining moisture in a far less degree than
the deep black-blue sort. The feel of a slate is some indication of its goodness : a good
one has a hard and rough feel, whilst an open absorbent slate feels smooth and greasy.
The best method, however, of testing the quality of slates is by the use of water, in two
ways. The first is, to set the pieces to be judged of edgewise in a tub of water, the water
reaching above half way up the height of the pieces : if they draw water, and become wet
to the top in six or eight hours' time, they are spongy and bad ; and as the water reaches
less up them, so are the pieces better. The other method is, to weigh the pieces of slate,
and note their weights. Let them then remain for twelve hours in water, and take them
CHAF. II. BRICKS AND TILES. 501
out, wiping them dry. Those that on re- weighing are much heavier then they were previous
to their immersion should be rejected. Where the character of a slate quarry is not
previously known, experiments of these sorts should never be omitted.
1801. The following comparison of the advantages of slates over tiles is given by the
late Bishop of Llandaff. That sort of slate, other circumstances being the same, is esteemed
the best which imbibes the least water ; for the water imbibed not only increases the
weight of the covering, but in frosty weather, being converted into ice, swells and shivers
the slate. This effect of frost is very sensible in tiled houses, but is scarcely felt in those
which are slated, for good slates imbibe but little water ; though tiles, when well glazed,
are rendered in some measure similar to slate in this respect. The bishop took a piece of
Westmorland slate and a piece of common tile, and weighed each of them carefully. The
surface of each was about thirty square inches. Both the pieces were immersed in water
about ten minutes, then taken out, and weighed as soon as they had ceased to drip. The
tile had imbibed about a seventh part of its weight of water, and the slate had not
imbibed a two-hundredth part of its weight ; indeed, the wetting of the slate was merely
superficial. He placed both the wet pieces before the fire ; in a quarter of an hour the
slate was perfectly dry, and of the same weight as before it was put in the water ; but the
tile had lost only about twelve grains it had imbibed, which was, as near as could be
expected, the very same quantity that had been spread over its surface ; for it was the
quantity which had been imbibed by the slate, the surface of which was equal to that of the
tile. The tile was left to dry in a room heated to sixty degrees, and it did not lose all the
water it had imbibed in less than six days. We here subjoin a succinct account of the
different sorts of slates brought to the London market, and enumerate them in the order of
their goodness and value.
1 802. Westmorland slates. These are from 3 ft. 6 in. to 1 ft. in length, and from 2 ft. 6 in,
to 1 ft. in breadth. They should be nailed with not less than sixpenny and eightpenny
copper or zinc nails (iron nails should never be used) ; and a ton in weight of them will
cover about two squares and a quarter. We may here observe, that the weight of the
coarsest Westmorland slates is to that of common tiling as 36 to 54.
1803. Welsh rags are next in goodness, and are nearly of the same sizes as those last
mentioned ; but a ton of these will cover only one square and three quarters.
1804. Imperials are from 2 ft. 6 in. to 1 ft. in length, and about 2 ft. wide.
1805. Duchesses run about 2ft. long and 1 ft. wide, and are nailed usually so as to show
a ten and a half inch gauge.
1806. Countesses, of which A ton will cover about three squares, run about 1 ft. 8 in. in
length by about 1 0 in. in width.
1807. Ladies are generally about 15 in. long, and about 8 in. wide. These are sold by
the thousand of twelve hundred, which quantity will cover about four squares.
1808. There are still other sorts of slates which have been used in and about London,
as the Dennylole, &c. The Tavistock slates were at one period in considerable demand.
They are sold by the thousand of ten hundred, which quantity covers about three squares
and forty feet. The smallest slates in use are called Doubles : they run about 13 in. in
length by 6 in. in width. The bond or lap of a slate is the distance between the nail of the
under slate and the lower end of the upper slate, and, as in tiling, the gauge in slating is the
visible depth of the slate.
1809. Several years ago, a patent was obtained for slating roofs without boarding or
battens. In this the slates were all reduced to widths equal to the distance between centre
and centre of the rafters. On the backs of these last they are screwed by two or three strong
inch and half screws at each of their ends. Over the junctions of the slates, on the backs
of the rafters, fillets of slates about two and a half or three inches wide, bedded in putty,
are screwed down, to prevent the entrance of rain. The handsome regular appearance of
this sort of slating gained it at first much celebrity ; but it was soon abandoned, on account
of the disorder it is liable to sustain from the slightest partial settlement of the building, not
less than from the constant dislodgement of the putty, upon which greatly depended its
being impervious to rain.
1810. Slating is sometimes laid lozengewise; but it is much less durable than when
laid in the common method.
SECT. X.
BRICKS AND TILES.
1811. A brick is a factitious sort of stone, manufactured from argillaceous or clayey
earth, well tempered and squeezed into a mould. When so formed, bricks are stacked to
dry in the sun, and finally burnt to a proper degree of hardness in a clamp or kiln. The
use of bricks is of the highest antiquity. They are frequently mentioned in the historical
K k 3
502 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
books of the Old Testament ; but whether they were merely sun-dried or burnt in a kiln
seems uncertain. We are inclined to doubt the burning of them at a very remote period.
It will immediately occur to the reader that the making of bricks was one of the tasks
imposed upon the Israelites during their servitude in Egypt. Though the oldest remains
in Egypt are of stone, Pococke describes a pyramid of unburnt bricks, which are composed
of a black sandy earth, intermixed with pebbles and shells, the sediment deposited by the
overflowing of the Nile. This species of bricks is still common in Egypt and many other
parts of the East. By the ancient Greeks and Romans, both burnt and unburnt bricks
were used ; the method of making the latter whereof is thus described by Vitruvius, in the
third chapter of his second book : " I shall first," says that author, " treat of bricks, and
the earth of which they ought to be made. Gravelly, pebbly, and sandy clay are unfit for
that purpose ; for if made of either of these sorts of earth, they are not only too pon-
derous, but walls built of them, when exposed to the rain, moulder away, and are soon
decomposed ; and the straw, also, with which they are mixed, will not sufficiently bind the
earth together, because of its rough quality. They should be made of earth, of a red or
white chalky, or a strong sandy nature. These sorts of earth are ductile and cohesive,
and not being heavy, bricks made of them are more easily handled in carrying up the
work. The proper seasons for brick-making are the spring and autumn, because they
then dry more equably. Those made in the summer solstice are defective, because the
heat of the sun soon imparts to their external surfaces an appearance of sufficient dryness,
whilst the internal parts of them are in a very different state ; hence, when thoroughly dry,
they shrink and break those parts which first dried ; and thus broken, their strength is gone.
Those are best which have been made at least two years ; for in a period less than that,
they will not dry thoroughly. When plastering is laid and set hard on bricks which are
not perfectly dry, the bricks, which will naturally shrink, and consequently occupy a less
space than the plastering, will thus leave the latter to stand of itself. From its being
extremely thin, and not capable of supporting itself, it soon breaks to pieces ; and in its
failure, involves sometimes even that of the wall. It is not, therefore, without reason that
the inhabitants of Utica allow no bricks to be used in their buildings which are not at
least five years old, and also approved by a magistrate.
1812. " There are three sorts of bricks: the first is that which the Greeks call Didoron
(SiSoDpoi'), being the sort we use ; that is one foot long and half a foot wide. The other
two sorts are used in Grecian buildings ; one is called Pentadoron, the other Tetradoron.
By the word doron, the Greeks mean a palm, because the word Swpov signifies a gift which
can be borne in the palm of the hand. That sort, therefore, which is five palms each way,
is called Pentadoron ; that of four palms, Tetradoron. The former of these two sorts is
used in public buildings, the latter in private ones. Each sort has half brfcks made to suit
it, so that when a wall is executed, the course on one of the faces of the wall shows sides
of whole bricks, the other face of half bricks ; and being worked to the line on each face,
the bricks on each bed bond alternately over the course below." Vitruvius concludes the
chapter with the mention of the bricks made at Calentum in Spain, at Marseilles in France,
and Pitane in Asia, which are specifically lighter than water.
1813. It is to be regretted that plastering with cement, a practice which is more to
the interest of the brickmaker and bricklayer than to the consumer, has become so prevalent
in this country. These tradesmen thus get rid of their worst bricks, which are hidden by
a coat of plaster ; the building soon decaying when the heart of the wall is bad. Colour
seems to be the objectionable quality about this material, the commonplace architect
forgetting that form is much more essential to beauty than colour. In the times of Jones
and Wren, red brick was beautifully wrought into architectural forms, of which a few
examples still remain in the metropolis ; and by Palladio, bricks were used for columns
without smearing them over with plaster.
1814. In England, the best earth for making bricks is a clayey loam, neither abounding
with too much sand, which renders them brittle, nor with too large a portion of argillaceous
matter, which causes them to shrink and crack in drying. It should be dug at the least a
year before it is wrought, that by exposure to the atmosphere it may part with all
extraneous matter which it possessed when first dug. The general practice is, however, to
dig it in the autumn, and allow it to remain through the winter to mellow and pulverize,
by which the operation of tempering is greatly facilitated. Upon this operation the
quality of the brick mainly depends, and great attention should be bestowed upon perform-
ing this part of the process in a proper manner. This branch of the manufacture was
formerly executed by throwing the clay into shallow pits, and subjecting it to be trodden
by men and oxen ; a method which has been advantageously superseded by a clay or pug-
mill, with a horse track.
1815. As soon as the clay has been thoroughly tempered by one of the methods above
named, it is taken to the moulder's bench, where it is cut by the moulder's assistant,
generally a woman or a lad, into pieces rather larger than the mould, which are passed on
to the moulder, who throws it with some force into the mould, which has been previously
CHAP. II. BRICKS AND TILES. 503
dipped in sand. He presses it down, so that it may fill the whole of the cavity, striking
off the superfluous clay with a flat wooden rule. The newly-formed brick is then turned
out of the mould on to a thin board, somewhat larger than a brick, and it is removed by a
boy to a latticed wheelbarrow, and conveyed, covered with fine dry sand, to the hack. A
handy moulder, working fifteen hours, will mould 5000 bricks. In the hacks, which
are eight courses in height, the bricks are arranged diagonally above each other, with
a passage between each for the circulation of air round them. The time required for
drying in the hacks will, of course, depend on the fineness of the weather ; it is but a few
days if the season be propitious ; and they are then turned and reset wider apart, after
which, in about six or eight days, they are ready for the clamp or kiln. If the weather be
rainy, the bricks in the hack must be covered with wheat or rye straw ; and as they ought
to be thoroughly dry before removing to the clamp or kiln, a few are generally selected
from different parts, and broken, to ascertain if the operation of drying has been well per-
formed. The moisture arising from bricks when burning is very injurious to their
soundness.
1816. In the brickfields about London, bricks are mostly burnt in what are called clamps. These are
generally oblong in form, and their foundations are made with the driest of the bricks from the hacks, or
with common worthless bricks, called place bricks. The bricks for burning are then arranged, tier over
tier, to the height assigned to the clamp, according to the quantity to be burnt, and a layer of breeze or
cinders, two or three inches deep, is placed between each course of bricks, and the whole, when built up,
covered with a thick stratum of breeze. On the western face of the clamp a vertical fireplace is formed,
about 3 feet in height, from which flues are driven out by arching the bricks over, so as to leave a space
about one brick wide. The flues run in a straight direction through the clamp, and are filled with a mixture
of coals, breeze, and wood, closely pressed together. If the bricks are required to be burnt quickly, the flues
should not be more than 6 feet apart ; but if time do not press, the flues need not be nearer than 9 feet to
each other, and the clamp is allowed to burn slowly. It is possible, if required, to burn a clamp in a period
of from 20 to 30 days, according to the dryness of the weather. The quantity of clay necessary to make 1000
bricks will be somewhere about 54 cube feet, which allows about 5 feet for shrinkage in drying and burning ;
for 1000x8| in. x2J in.x4 in.=49 2 3" 4'".
The cost of making 1000 bricks, in the neighbourhood of London, is nearly as follows : —
Digging, wheeling, carting. &c. - - - - -016
lould
Moulding, stacking, &c.
Sand, one-sixth of 25.
Straw for hacks
Barrows, moulds, planks, &c.
Fuel 9 cwt. per 1000 -
0 11 6
004
009
006
0 10 6
£1 5 1
1817. The kilns which are used for burning bricks are usually 13 feet long, by 10 feet 6 inches in width,
and 12 feet in height. The walls are one brick and a half thick, and incline inwards as they rise. A kiln is
generally built to contain 20,000 bricks at each burning. The fireplace consists of three arches, which have
holes at top for distributing heat to the bricks. These are placed on a lattice-like floor, and first undergo a
gentle action of the fire for two or three days, in order to dry them thoroughly. As soon as they thus become
*-•-- •' --•
kindled and kept up until the arches assume a white appearance, and flames appear through the top of the
kiln. The fire is then slackened, and the kiln gradually cooled. This process of alternately raising and
slacking the heat of the kiln is repeated till the bricks are thoroughly burnt, which is usually accomplished
in about eight and forty hours.
1HI8. The practice of steeping bricks in water after they have been burnt, and then again burning them,
has been found to have the effect of considerably improving their quality.
181 9. There are several sorts of bricks, which may be classed as follows : malms or marl
stocks, stocks, place bricks, fire bricks, paving bricks, compass bricks, concave or hollow
bricks, and Dutch or Flemish bricks. There are still other varieties ; but from their being
now but little used, we shall pass them over.
1820. The marl for the marl stock, which is of a bright yellowish uniform colour and
texture, is not always to be had, especially in the London districts ; in consequence of which,
several years ago, it was discovered that chalk mixed in certain portions with loam, and
treated in the usual manner, proved an excellent substitute for it. It not only was found
to improve the colour, but to impart soundness to the brick ; and the practice is now
generally adopted about London. At Emsworth, in Hampshire, and also at Southampton,
ooze, or sludge, from the sea-shore, containing much saline matter, is used for a similar
purpose : these bricks, however, have not the rich brimstone colour of the London malm
stock, nor the regular stone-coloured hue of the Ipswich bricks.
1821. The finest marl stocks, which are technically called firsts, or cutters, are principally
used for arches of doorways and windows, quoins, &c., for which purposes they are rubbed
and cut to their proper dimensions and form. There is also a red cutting brick, whose
texture is similar to the malm cutter, which must not be confounded with the red stock.
The next best, which are chiefly used for principal fronts, are called seconds : they are not
quite so uniform in colour, nor so bright as the last, but are, nevertheless, a handsome and
durable brick.
1822. Stocks are red and grey, both sorts being equal in texture. The red sort are burnt
K k 4
*u
504 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
in kilns. The grey stocks are less uniform in their colour than seconds, and are of rather
an inferior quality. They are used for common fronts, and walls.
1823. Place bricks, or peckings, sometimes also called sandel, or samel bricks, are those
which, having been outermost or furthest from the fire in the clamp, or kiln, have not
received sufficient heat to burn them thoroughly. They are, consequently, soft, uneven in
texture, and of a red colour. These should never be used in a building where durability
is required.
1824. Burrs and clinkers are such bricks as have been violently burnt, or masses of several
bricks run together in the clamp or kiln.
1825. The red bricks derive their colour from the nature of the soil whereof they are
composed, which is generally very pure. The best of them are used for cutting-bricks,
and are called red rubbers. In old buildings they are frequently found set in putty, and
often carved into ornaments over arches, windows, doorways, &c.
1 8 26. Fire bricks, so called from their capability of resisting the most violent action of the
fire, are of a dark red colour, and of very close texture ; they are made about 9 inches long,
4| inches broad, and li inches thick. The loam of which they are made is yellow, harsh
to the touch, and contains a considerable portion of sand. Their quality renders them
highly serviceable in furnaces and ovens. The greatest part of those used about London
were formerly brought from Hedgerly, a village near Windsor, whence they obtained the
name of Windsor bricks. This sort of brick is made also in various parts of Wales, whence
they are called Welsh lumps.
1827. Paving bricks are for the purpose which their name implies, and their dimensions
are the same as those of the foregoing sort.
1828. Compass bricks are circular on the plan, and are chiefly employed for steyning, or
walling round wells.
1829. Concave or hollow bricks are made like common bricks, but hollowed on one side
in the direction of their length, and are adapted to the construction of drains and water-
courses.
1830. Dutch clinkers and Flemish bricks vary little in quality ; they are exceedingly hard,
and are used for the paving of stables, yards, &c., though they are by some objected to, as
being too hot for the horses' feet. The former are 6 inches long, 3 inches broad, and 1 inch
thick, and are often laid on edge in various fanciful forms, as the herring-bone, &c.
1831. By the 17th Geo. III. cap. 42. all bricks made for sale shall, when burnt, be
not less than 8i inches long, 2± inches thick, and 4 inches wide. The very limitation is
enough to prove the total disregard of the ministers of this country, at all times, to the
advancement of the arts. It is scarcely possible to be believed that the statute still con-
tinues in force.
1 832. Bricks laid in the summer season should be well saturated with water previous to
laying ; and if the work be left for a day only, the walls should be as carefully covered up
as in the winter, for in hot weather the mortar sets too rapidly, and hence the necessary
cohesion is destroyed ; an evil much aggravated by the dust constantly hanging about the
bricks, more especially at that season of the year.
j1 1833. Three hundred and thirty well- burnt bricks may be generally taken as weighing
i 20 cwt, so that a cubic foot weighs about 125 Ibs ; and it is found by experiment, that to
I crush a mass of solid brickwork whose section is 1 foot square, a weight of 300,000 Ibs.
j averdupois must be applied.
1834. TILES, which in their constituent parts partake much of the nature of bricks,
are plates of clay baked in a kiln, and used instead of slates, or other covering of the roofs
of houses. The clay whereof tiles are formed will always make good bricks, though the
converse does not hold, from the toughness required on account of their being so much
thinner than bricks. The common kinds are made of a blue clay, found in many parts
about London, though mostly deeper seated than brick earth. The best season for digging
it is in September and October, and it should then lie exposed during the winter. It may,
however, be turned up in January, and worked in February ; and, as in brick, so in tile-
making, the more care bestowed on beating and tempering the clay, the better will be the
tiles. Tiles are burnt in a kiln constructed on the same principles as the brick-kiln, but
with the addition of a cone, having an opening at top round the chamber of the kiln. They
require much care in burning. If the fire be too slack, they will not burn sufficiently
hard ; and if too violent, they glaze, and suffer in form.
1835. Plain or crown tiles are such as have a rectangular form and plane surface. They
should be 10^ inches long, 6^ inches broad, and f of an inch thick, according to the statute,
and they will weigh each from 2 to 2^ Ibs. They are manufactured with two holes in
them, through which, by means of oak pins, they hang upon the laths. In using all
coverings of this species, one tile laps over another, or is placed over the upper part of the
one immediately below ; that part of the tile which then appears uncovered is called the
gauge of the tiling. If, in plain tiling, the gauge be 6.^ inches, about 740 tiles will cover
pne square, or 100 feet superficial.
CHAF. II. LIME, SAND, WATER, AND CEMENT. 505
1 836. Ridge roof and hip tiles are formed cylindrically, to cover the ridges of houses.
They should be 1 3 inches long, and girt about 1 0' inches on the outside. Weight about
5lbs.
1837. Gutter tiles are about the same weight and dimensions as ridge tiles, but are for
the valleys of a roof. They are now rarely used, their place having been long since sup-
plied by lead.
1 838. Pan or Flemish tiles have a rectangular outline, with a surface both convex and
concave, thusi^jJ^J^d. They have no holes for pins, as plain tiles have, but are hung on
to the laths by a knot of their own earth on their underside, nearest the ridge, formed when
making. They are often glazed, should be 14^ inches long and 1QA inches broad, and
weigh from 5 to 5{ Ibs. They are usually laid at a 10 inch gauge, and a square at that
gauge will take 1 70 pan tiles.
1839. The largest sort of paving tiles are 1 foot square and l^inch thick. The next
size, called 10 inch tiles, are, in fact, only 9 inches square and l|inch thick.
SECT. XL
LIME, SAND, WATER, AND CEMENT.
1 840. Lime has not been found in a native state ; it is always united to an acid, as to
the carbonic in chalk. By subjecting chalk or limestone to a red heat it is freed from the
acid, and the lime is left in a state of purity, and is then called caustic or quicklime, which
dissolves in 680 times its weight of water. It is not our intention here to enter into any
account of either of the theories relative to the formation of lime, facts being of more
importance to the architect in its employment than the refined fancies of the scientific
chemist. The calcareous minerals are mostly distinguished by their effervescing with
and dissolving in an acid, as also by their being easily scratched or cut with a knife. In
respect of the lime obtained froin chalk, Dr. Higgins (in his work on calcareous cements,
Lond. 1780) says, " It should be observed, that the difference between chalk lime and the
lime obtained from the various limestones, chiefly consists in the greater retention or ex-
pulsion of the carbonic acid gas contained in them."
1 841 . An account of the stone from which lime may be obtained in the different counties
of England would unnecessarily extend this article ; we shall, therefore, after observing that
the use of marble for burning to lime would be too expensive, state the varieties of lime-
stone as, 1. the compact ; 2. the foliated ; 3. the fibrous ; and, 4. the peastone. The compact
limestones are of various colours, in hues inclining to grey, yellow, blue, red, and green,
and to a smoky sort of colour besides. It is usually found massive, often compounded with
extraneous fossils, particularly shells. Its internal appearance is dull, the texture is com-
pact, the fracture small, fine, and splintery ; fragments indeterminately angular, more or
less sharp -edged ; semihard, sometimes soft, brittle, and easily frangible. Specific gravity
varies from 2500 to 2700, and it is composed of lime, carbonic acid, and water, mostly
with a portion of argyll and oxide of iron, and sometimes of inflammable matter.
1842. The foliated limestones are such as calcareous spar, statuary marble, &c. ; the
fibrous limestones, such as satin spar ; and the pea stone, another species of spar. It may
be remarked, that the various sorts of marble, chalk, and limestone may be divided into
those which are nearly pure carbonate of lime, and those containing in addition from one
twentieth to one twelfth of clay and oxide of iron. " Though the best limestones are not
such as contain the greatest quantity of clay, yet," observes Mr. Smeaton, " none have proved
good for water building, but what, on examination of the stone, contained clay ; and though,
he continues, " I am very far from laying down this as an absolute criterion, yet I have
never found any limestone containing clay in any considerable quantity, but what was good
for water works, the proportion of clayey matter, being burnt, acting strongly as a cement ;
and limes of this kind all agree in one more property, that of being of a dead frosted sur-
face on breaking, without much appearance of shining particles.
1843. Among the strongest limes, and such as will set under water, those most in use
in the metropolis and its neighbourhood are procured from Dorking, Merstham, and the
vicinity of Guilford. The most celebrated in the West of England is the blue lias of
Somersetshire, and in the north that about the county of Sunderland, whereof very large
quantities are exported to Scotland. The Dorking and other limes of that part are burnt
from a chalk formation so extremely hard that it is quarried even for the purposes of
masonry. Those of Merstham particularly are obtained from an indurated chalk marie
(clay and chalk) which is so hard that it partakes of the nature of stone. The known
property of the lias formation for setting under water renders it an invaluable material in
the hands of the architect. In the neighbourhood of Bath it is called Bath brown lime,
506 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
and when prepared for cementing with metallic cement, is said to be wind slacked ; that
is, after burning, it is placed in roofed sheds open at the sides, and the atmosphere is thus
introduced to act upon it. The colour of the lias, previous to burning, is blue ; after it has
passed the kiln, it is of a rich brown colour. No accurate analysis of this has come to our
knowledge ; but we have understood that specimens have been analysed, containing as much
as 90 per cent, of carbonate of lime, the residuum probably consisting of alumen and iron.
The magnesian limestone of Sunderland lies north- west of the red sandstone. In the vici-
nity of South Shields, in the county of Durham, the formation becomes extensive, and is
to be traced to the Tees below Winston Bridge. The Whitby quarry near Callercoats has
been described in the 4th volume of the Geological Transactions. The Sunderland lime-
stone is of a bronze colour, and from containing inflammable matter, does not require so
much fuel to convert it into lime.
1 844. Before limestone is burnt it seems to possess no external character by which a
distinction can be made between the simple and the argillo- ferruginous limestones ; what-
ever the colour of the former, they become white when burnt, whilst the latter partake
more or less of a slight ochrey tint. Brown lime is the most esteemed for all sorts of
cements, whilst for common purposes, the white sorts, which are more abundant, are suffi-
ciently useful. In England, the limestones in colour generally incline to a red or blue,
and those which are found firm, weighty, and uniform in texture are to be preferred.
Masses broken from large rocks and beds on the sides of hills, and those when newest taken
and deepest dug, are most to be valued.
1845. The process of analysing limestones is so eminently useful to all concerned in
building, that we cannot refrain from transcribing the method used by Smeaton in his own
words. " I took about the quantity of five pennyweights (or a guinea's weight) of the lime-
stone to be tried, bruised to a coarse powder, upon which I poured common aquafortis, but
not so much at a time as to occasion the effervescence to overtop the glass vessel in which
the limestone was put, and added fresh aquafortis after the effervescence of the former
quantity had ceased, till no further ebullition appeared by any addition of the acid. This
done, and the whole being left to settle, the liquor will generally acquire a tinge of some
transparent colour ; and if from the solution little or no sediment drops, it may be
accounted a pure limestone (which is generally the case with white chalk and several
others), as containing no uncalcareous matter in its composition. When this is well
settled, pour off the water, and repeatedly add water in the same way, stirring it, and
letting it settle till it becomes tasteless. After this, let the mud be well stirred into the
water, and without giving it time to settle, pour off the muddy water into another vessel,
and if there is any sand or gritty matter left behind (as will frequently be the case), this
collected by itself will ascertain the quantity and species of sabulous matter that entered
into the texture of the limestone. Letting, now, the muddy liquor settle, and pouring off
the water till no more can be got without an admixture of mud, leave the rest to dry, which,
when of the consistence of clay, or paste, is to be made into a ball, and dried for further
examination."
1 846. The loss of limestone by burning is about four ninths of its weight, shrinking,
however, but little. When completely burnt, it falls freely, in slaking, into powder, and
then occupies about double its previous bulk.
1 847. There are many sorts of kilns for burning limestone, varying in form with the fuel
employed, and the combination of the process itself with some other, such, for instance,
as making coke, and sometimes bricks. The limestone, however, is generally burnt in kilns
whose plans are circular and section resembling an inverted truncated cone ; of late more
frequently made spheroidal. The heat is in either case obtained from a fireplace under
the limestone, which rests on bars, that can, when the kiln is a perpetual one, egg-formed,
or a draw kiln, be removed, to let out the lime as it is burnt, whose deficiency, on extrac-
tion, is supplied by fresh stone at the top of the kiln. Sod kilns are sometimes used for
lime burning. These are formed by excavating the earth in a conical form, and then
building up the sides as the earth may require. In using these, the limestone is laid in
with alternate layers of fuel to the top of the kiln, and the top being covered with sods, so
as to prevent the heat from escaping, the fire is lighted, and the process effected. The lime
is not removed till it is thoroughly cool. This mode is a tedious operation, and, because of
the quantity of fuel consumed, far from economical. In the common lime-kiln, the fire is
never suffered to go down, but as the well-burnt lime is removed, fresh lime is supplied.
There is a species of kiln called a flame-kiln, in which the calcination is effected with peat.
In this kiln the process of burning bricks is carried on at the same time.
1 848. Lime burners have made the important observation, that the quantity of stone
calcined and the quantity of fuel expended depend on the quality of the fuel. Hence the
kiln is constructed with reference to the fuel, rather than to the nature of the stone to be
calcined. Limestone, taking an average time, requires burning about sixty hours to reduce
it to lime, when the heat is strong and well regulated : but of course no general rule can be
laid down, as different species will require different periods of time. The principal object
CHAP. II.
LIME, SAND, WATER, AND CEMENT.
507
to be accomplished, is the expulsion of the carbonic acid gas which enters into its compo-
sition.
1 849. That lime is generally most esteemed which heats most in slaking, and slakes the
quickest, falling into a fine powder. If there be among it coarse unslakeable lumps
called core, that will not pass through the screen, either the stone has not been sufficiently
burnt, or it originally contained extraneous matter ; which not only indicates defect in
quality, but that it will be, as they more or less abound, more costly in use.
1850. From the experiments of Mr. Smeaton and of Dr. Higgins, it is sufficiently proved
that, when chalk or stone lime is equally fresh when used, the cementitious properties of
both are nearly, if not quite, equal ; but from the circumstance of quicklime absorbing
carbonic acid more or less in proportion as its texture is solid or spongy, so it gradually
parts with its cementing nature, becoming at length altogether unfit for the purposes of
mortar. Thus, though each of the sorts may be equally good, if properly burnt and quite
fresh from the kiln, yet from the chalk lime so much more easily and rapidly taking in the
carbonic acid than stone lime does, it is not so fit for general use ; and, indeed, now the
metropolis is so well supplied with the harder chalk and stone limes, there is no excuse for
its use, and it should in sound building be altogether banished.
1851. The following table, from Smeaton, contains a list of the limestones he examined
on the occasion of building the Eddystone Lighthouse.
Species of Stone.
Propor-
tion of
Clay.
Colour of the
Clay.
Reduction
of Weight
by burning.
Colour of Brick made of
such Clay.
Aberthaw, on the coast of Gla- ~\
morganshire - - J
A
Lead colour
4 to 3
Grey stock brick
Watchet, small sea-port in So-1
mersetshire - - J
A
Do.
4 to 3
f Light colour, red-
J_ dish hue.
Barrow, Leicestershire
ft
Do.
3 to 2
Grey stock brick.
Long Bennington, a village inT
Lincolnshire - - J
*
Do.
-
Dirty blue.
Sussex Church, near Lewes inl
Sussex - - -J
&
Ash colour
3 to 2
Ash colour.
Dorking in Surrey
ft
Do.
Berryton grey lime, near Peters- "1
i
T)n
field, Hants - -J
15
-L/O.
Guilford, Surrey
!25
Do.
Sutton, Lancashire
I
Brown
1852. In forming mortar from the lime, it must, when slaked, be passed through a sieve
leaving only a fine powder, an operation usually performed with a quarter inch wire screen
set at a considerable inclination to the horizon, against which the lime is thrown with a
shovel after slaking. That which passes through is fit for use ; the core falling on that side
of the screen against which the lime is thrown, being entirely rejected for the purpose in
question, though it is an excellent material for filling in the sides of foundations under wood
floors where they would otherwise be next the earth, and the like. The sifted or screened
lime is next to be added to the sand, whose quantity will vary as the quality of the lime,
of which we shall presently speak. In making mortar, there is no point so important as
respects the manufacture itself, as the well tempering and beating up the lime with the
sand after the water is added to them. In proportion, too, as this is effectually done, will a
small proportion of lime suffice to make a good mortar. The best mode of tempering
mortar is by means of a pug-mill with a horse-track similar to the clay-mills used for
making bricks. But if such cannot be had, the mortar should be turned over repeatedly,
and beaten with wooden beaters, until it be thoroughly mixed. That this process should
be carefully performed, will appear of the more importance when it is considered that it
thereby admits a greater proportion of sand, which is not only a cheaper material, but the
presence of it renders a less quantity of water necessary, and the mortar will consequently
set sooner : the work, too, will settle less ; for as lime will shrink in drying, while the sand
mixed with it continues to occupy the same bulk, it follows that the thickness of the
mortar beds will be less variable. It may be taken, indeed, as an axiom, that no more
lime is necessary than will surround the particles of sand.
1853. In most of the public works executed in Great Britain of late years, the propor-
tion of lime to sand is as 1 to 3 ; and when the former is made from good limestone, the
sand is by no means too much in proportion. Dr. Higgins, in his experiments, has gone so
far as to recommend 7 parts of sand to 1 of lime, which, for mortar, is perhaps carrying the
point to the extreme.
1854. Various additions are made to mortar, in order to increase its hardness and
508 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOCK II.
tenacity ; such as coal and wood ashes, forge scales, roasted iron ore, puzzuolana, and the
like. The cendre de Tournay is used in the low countries. This is an article procured
from the lime-kilns bordering the Scheldt. The lime of this district contains a considerable
portion of clay mixed with iron ; and the pit-coal with which it is burnt contains a large
quantity of an argillaceous schist, impregnated with iron. After the lime is taken out of
the kilns, there remains the cendre, about one fourth of which consists of burnt lime-dust,
and three fourths of coal-ashes. This material is sprinkled with water to slack the lime,
and well mixed together, and put into a proper vessel and covered over with wet earth.
In this state it is kept for a considerable time ; and when taken out, and strongly beaten
up for half an hour with an iron pestle in a wooden mortar or trough, it is reduced to a
soft pasty consistence ; it is then spread out for several days in a shady place, and the opera •
tion of beating repeated : the oftener this is done the better, except it should become
unmanageable from being too much dried. In a few minutes, this cement, when applied
to brick or stone, adheres so firmly that water may be immediately poured over it ; and if
kept dry twenty-four hours, it afterwards receives no injury even from the most violent
action of a flowing stream.
1855. In London, a blue mortar is used for covering parts of buildings much exposed to
the weather ; and if prepared with similar labour and attention, it might, in a great degree,
possess the valuable properties of the mortar of the Scheldt, just mentioned.
1 856. Common ashes mortar is made by mixing two bushels of newly slacked lime and
three bushels of wood ashes, which, when cold, must be well beaten, in which state it is
usually kept for a considerable time, and indeed it improves by keeping if beaten two or
three times previous to using it. This mixture is superior to terras mortar in resisting
the alternate effects of dryness and moisture, but not comparable with it under water.
1857. Mr. Smeaton discovered, by a course of experiments, that the scales (grey oxide
of iron) that fly off under the forge hammer from red hot iron, pulverised, sifted, and mixed
with lime, form an admirable cement, equal to puzzuolano. He found, in pursuing his
experiments, that roasted iron ore produced an effective water cement, by using a greater
proportion of it than either terras or puzzuolano. Equal quantities of iron scales and
argillaceous lime, with half the quantity of each of these of sand, produced a cement in
every respect equal to terras mortar. If pure carbonate of lime be used, equal parts of each
of the ingredients ought to be incorporated. We do not think it necessary here to give
any account either of Loriot's cement, nor that proposed by Semple : neither are to be
depended on : indeed the first, as a water cement, is of inferior utility, and very little better
than common mortar dried before the admission of water upon it.
1858. Sand should by all means, if possible, be procured from a running clear stream, in
preference to that obtained from pits. It is cleaner, and not so connected with clayey or
muddy particles. About the metropolis it is the practice to use (and an admirable ma-
terial it is) the sand of the Thames procured from above London Bridge. This sand has
acquired a deserved reputation among the architects and builders of the capital. It con-
tains, however, a vast portion of heterogeneous matter, such as calcareous fossil, quartzose,
and flint sands, particles of coal alluvium, and much iron. The sharp drift sand of the
Thames should therefore, before mixing with the lime, be well screened and washed.
1859. If pit sand only can be procured, it should be repeatedly washed, to free it from
the earthy and clayey particles it contains, until it becomes bright in colour, and feels
gritty under the fingers. When the architect is obliged to use sea sand, it must be well
washed in fresh water until the salt is entirely removed ; otherwise the cement for which it
is used will never dry.
1 860. Grout, or liquid mortar, is nothing more than common mortar mixed with a suf-
ficient quantity of water to make it fluid enough to penetrate the interstices and irregu-
larities of the interior of brick walls, which common mortar will not reach. The mortar
whereof it is made will bear 4 of sand to 1 of lime, but it should be thoroughly beat. It
may be kept a little longer, whereby its quick setting will be facilitated.
1861. Water. Dr. Higgins recommends the use of lime water for the composition of
mortar. This, in practice, would be impossible. The water used, however, for the incor-
poration of the lime with the sand should be soft and pure. The screened lime and sand
being shovelled together, as little water as possible is added, after which the chafing and
beating, or tempering in a pug-mill, takes place.
1 862. Under this section, notice must be taken of a compound of ballast or stone chip-
ings and lime mixed together, which has received the name of concrete, from the speedy
concretion that takes place between the different particles whereof it is composed. If,
however, gallots or small stone clippings are used, sand in a large proportion to the lime
must be used. The use of concrete was well known at an early period, and is by no means,
' therefore, a discovery of modern days. Wherever the soil is soft, and unequal for the re-
ception of the foundations of a building, the introduction of concrete under them is an
almost infallible remedy against settlement. The Thames ballast, commonly used for con-
crete, is a mixture of sand and small stones. With this, and lime in the proportion of never
CHAP. TI. LIME, SAND, WATER, AND CEMENT. 509
less than 4 to 1, and never properly exceeding 9 to 1, of stone lime, or such as is known to
set hard in water, a mixture is made. The lime is generally used in powder, and the whole
being shovelled together, it is wheeled in barrows to a stage over the spot where it is to be
used, and let fall into the trench dug out for the reception of the foundation. The greater
the height the concrete is made to fall, the sounder and stronger it becomes. It must
always be recollected that no more lime is necessary than with the thinnest coat to surround
the particles of the ballast, and that therefore the size of the pebbles or stones should in-
fluence the quantity of the lime. As the ground is more or less to be trusted, the thick-
ness of the concrete must be regulated ; when used on the best ground, a foot in thickness
will be sufficient ; while on the worst, as many as four feet or more may be required. The
upper surface being levelled, it is usual to lay on it a tier of Yorkshire stone landings, for the
reception of the brick- work or mason's work : in some cases, after carrying the wall a cer-
tain height, a second tier of landings has been introduced. When the soil is watery, no
water should be put to the concrete, but the ballast and lime merely mixed and tumbled
in. The stones or pebbles forming a portion of the concrete should never exceed the size
of a hen's egg.
1 863. The principal cements used in England are those generally known by the names of
Parker's, Atkinson's, and Hamelin's mastic. The first named, also called Roman cement, is
manufactured principally from stone found in the Isle of Sheppey, and at Harwich, being
septaria from the London clay, and properly classed among the limestones indigenous to this
country. It consists of ovate or flattish masses of argillaceous limestone arranged in nearly
horizontal layers, chiefly found imbedded in the London clay. The substance being coated
with a calcareous spar or sulphate of barytes, forms the basis of the cement. That now
in use we do not think at all equal to the material originally employed. Thirty
years ago it was possible to use it in the depth of winter ; which, we apprehend, would
be a hazardous thing to do with the cement at present made. Whether the inferiority arise
from adulteration, bad manufacture, or the material being worse, we cannot pretend to
say ; we, however, do not believe that it arises from the badness of the raw material. If !
this cement be of extremely good quality, 2 parts of sand to 1 of the cement may be used.
The cement itself is a fine impalpable powder ; yet when wetted it becomes coarse, and,
unless mixed with great care, it will not take a good surface. When mixed with the sand
and water, it sets very rapidly ; it is necessary, therefore, to avoid mixing much at a time,
or a portion will be lost. The colour of this cement, when finished, is an unpleasant dark
brown, and the surface requires frequent colouring. The great value of Parker's cement
is its being impervious to water almost the moment it is used ; hence it becomes highly
serviceable on the backs of arches under streets, for the lining of cisterns, and for carrying
up in it, or coating with it, damp walls on basement stories. It will not resist fire so well ;
and it should therefore never be employed for setting grates, ovens, coppers, or furnaces.
1 864. Atkinson's cement is a good material, preferable in colour to the last named, but,
as we think, inferior in quality. It takes a much longer time to set than Parker's cement,
than which it absorbs more moisture. It answers well enough in dry situations.
1 865. Hamelin's mastic cement, which, though patented of late years, is an invention of
P. Loriot, a century old, is one in which the medium for mixing- is oil instead of water.
It is much more difficult to use than the other cements, and requires great experience and
care in using. A coat of it should never exceed one quarter of an inch in thickness ;
hence it is totally unfit for working mouldings in the solid. In the metropolis it is gene-
rally used in a very thin coat over a rough coat of Roman cement, in which case it is
rarely more than an eighth of an inch thick. Thus used, it not only presents a beautiful
surface, but is extremely durable.
1 866. The stones whereof the Dutch tarras is made are found in the neighbourhood of
Liege, and also, we believe, at Andernach on the Rhine, from the size of a pea to that of a
middle-sized turnip. From their being brought down the rivers to Holland the cement
has been called Dutch ; ihe only operation they undergo in that country is the reduc-
tion of them to a coarse powder by means of mills. They are beaten by iron-headed
stampers on an iron bed till they will pass through a sieve whose wires are about one
eighth of an inch apart. This cement is sent from Holland in casks.
1867. The Puzzolana, or terra Puteolana of the Romans, which, as well as the last-named
cement, has been almost if not quite superseded by the introduction of the Roman
cement, is brought from Civita Vecchia. Its name is however derived from Puzzuoli,
where it is principally found, though produced in other parts of Italy, in the neighbour-
hood of extinct volcanoes. It suddenly hardens when mixed with one third of its weight
of lime and water, forming a cement more durable under water than any other. Bergman
found 1 00 parts of it to contain 55 to 60 parts of siliceous earth, 20 of argillaceous, 5 or
6 of calcareous, and from 15 to 20 of iron ; this last constituent is considered to be the
cause of its property of hardening under water. The iron decomposes the water of the
mortar, and thus in a very short time a new compound is formed. According to Vitruvius,
when used for buildings in the water, 2 parts of Puzzolana were mixed with 1 of mortar.
510 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
SECT. XII.
GLASS.
1 868. Glass is a combination of silex with fixed alkali, generally soda. The mixture
when calcined receives the name of frit, which, after the removal of all its impurities, is
conveyed to the furnace and melted in large pots or crucibles till the whole mass becomes
beautifully clear, and the dross rises to the top. After being formed into the figures
required, it is annealed or tempered by being placed in an appropriate furnace. The fine-
ness depends on the purity and proportion of the ingredients. An extremely fine crystal
glass is obtained from 16 parts of quartz, 8 of pure potash, 6 of calcined borax, 3 of flake
white, and 1 of nitre. The specific gravity of glass is about 2600 ; of French plates, 2840 ;
of English flint glass, 3320. Glass is extremely elastic, and less dilatable by heat than
metallic substances.
1 869. Crown glass is the best sort of window glass, differing from flint glass in its con-
taining no lead nor any metallic oxide except manganese, and sometimes oxide of cobalt,
in minute portions, for correcting the colour, and not as a flux. It is compounded of sand,
alkali, either potash or soda, the vegetable ashes that contain the alkali, and generally a
small portion of lime. To facilitate fusion, a small dose of arsenic is frequently added.
Zaffre or oxide of cobalt, in the proportion of 1 ounce for 1000 pounds, is added, to correct
the colour ; but when the sand, alkali, and lime are very fine, and no other ingredients
are used, zaffre is not required. In London were formerly made two sorts of crown glass.
The Ratcliffe crown glass, which was the cheapest and best, whereof 24 tables went to
the case ; each table being 3 feet 6 inches diameter. The Lambeth glass was of a darker
and greener colour. From the great disadvantage of manufacturing window glass where
fuel is so dear, we have not now left a glass-house in the metropolis. Bristol and New-
castle are now the chief seats of its manufacture.
1 870. The manufacture of common window glass is conducted differently from that of
flint glass articles, the object being to produce a large flat thin plate of glass, which is
afterwards by the glazier's diamond cut into the requisite shape. It is blown in circular
plates, varying from 3 feet 6 inches to 4 and 5 feet diameter, and the process is as follows :
— The workman, having a sufficient mass of melted metal on his blow-pipe, rolls it on an
iron plate, and then, swinging it backwards and forwards, causes it by its own gravity to
lengthen into a cylinder, which is made and brought to the required thinness by blowing
with a fan of breath, which persons accustomed to the work know how to manage. The
hollow cylinder is then opened by holding it to the fire, which, expanding the air confined
within it (the hole of the blow-pipe being stopped), bursts it at the weakest part, and
while still soft it is opened out into a flat plate by the centrifugal force ; and being dis-
engaged from the rod, a thick knob is left in its centre. It is then placed in a certain part
of the furnace to undergo the process of annealing. When the table is cut for use, the
centre part in which the knob remains is called knob-glass, and is used only for the com-
monest purposes.
1 871. Tables are now made of -such a size that squares may be procured 33 inches by
25, and even larger.
1872. The three qualities of glass in common use are called best, second, and third;
the last is of a very green hue, and only used for inferior buildings. These are all of them
sold by the crate, at the same price, the difference being made up by varying the number
of the tables contained in it. Thus a crate of best crown glass contains twelve tables ; of
seconds, a crate contains fifteen ; and of thirds, eighteen tables.
1 873. German sheet glass was formerly much in demand here ; but the great com-
petition that has lately grown up in the manufacture of English plate glass, which has
been much lowered in price, has brought this last into very extended use ; and we seem
likely to rival, if not surpass, the French in the manufacture of it.
1 874. Plate glass is so called from its being cast in large sheets or plates. Its con-
stituent parts are white sand, cleansed with purified pearl-ashes, and borax. If the metal
should appear yellow, it is rendered pellucid by the addition, in equal small quantities, of
manganese and arsenic. It is cast on a large horizontal table, and all excrescences are
pressed out by passing a large roller over the metal. To polish it, it is laid on a large
horizontal block of freestone, perfectly smooth, and then a smaller piece of glass, fastened
to a plank of wood, is passed over the other till it has received a due degree of polish.
For the purpose of facilitating the process, water and sand are used, as in the polishing of
marble ; and, lastly, Tripoli, smalt, emery, and putty, to give it lustre ; but to give it the
finishing polish the powder of smalt is used. Except in the very largest plates, the work-
men polish their glass by means of a plank having four wooden handles to move it, and to
this plank a plate of glass is cemented.
1875. Pliny gives the following account of the discovery of manufacturing gloss, which
CHAP. II. ASPHALTE. 511
was well known in Aristotle's time, 850 B. c. " A merchant vsesel, laden with nitre or
fossil alkali, being driven on the coast of Palestine, near the river Belus, the crew
accidentally supported the kettles on which they dried their provisions on pieces of the
fossil alkali ; the sand about it^ was vitrefied by its union with the alkali, and produced
glass." Though, according to Sede, artificers skilled in making glass were brought into
England in 674, glass windows were not generally used here till 1 1 80, and were for a con-
siderable time esteemed marks of great magnificence.
SECT. XIII.
1876. Asphalte is a calcareous bituminous substance, latterly introduced into this
country chiefly for pavements, which (we speak of that of Seyssel) was first discovered at
Pyrimont, a mountain on the eastern side of the Jura, and on the right bank of the river
Rhone, one league north of the town of Seyssel, and has obtained its name from its intimate
combination of asphaltum and other bituminous substances with pure carbonate of lime.
The mountain is composed of blocks of stone, which being conveyed to the places where
intended to be used, are there reduced to powder, 90 parts whereof are placed in a
cauldron with 10 parts of mineral pitch, and exposed for a considerable time to a heat of
600 degrees of Fahrenheit. The substance thus obtained is used in a state of fusion, and
in a few minutes after being laid down, it becomes so hard that it is, with a temperature of
more than 1 00 degrees of Fahrenheit, susceptible of no impression. It is, however, said,
nevertheless, to retain an elasticity, by which it adapts itself to all the action which, for its
varied purposes, it is required to undergo. It has long been in use in the south of France,
the footway of the Pont Moraud, a much frequented bridge, at Lyons, having been paved
with it in 1827, and being, we believe, still in a very sound state. At Fort 1'Ecluse, in the
vicinity of the mountain, a small building covered with it has withstood the cold of forty
Swiss v,-inters, and is said still to continue in a perfect state of repair. For the last
fourteen years, it has been occasionally used to cover the roofs of buildings in Paris, a
purpose to which, for many reasons, we would not recommend its application in this country,
though for a vast number of other objects it seems admirably adapted, such as foot pave-
ments in streets, vaults, kitchens, passages, and all places where it is essential to exclude
moisture, for barn floors, piggeries, farm yards, and the like.
1877. It is said (we have had no experience of it) to form with gravel a good concrete,
where the soil is doubtful for bearing weight, and that it may be used as a cement for
foundations, instead of mortar. It appears, from experience, not to be inflammable, a roof
at Bordeaux adjoining a large house that was burnt there not having suffered, though all
sorts of ignited materials fell upon it.
1878. In the years 1832, 1833, and 1834, the asphalte appears to have been successfully
employed in constructing the fortifications at Vincennes, and also in the military works at
Douay, Besa^on, Bourbonne les Bains, Grenoble, and Lyons.
1 879. Among the arguments used by the proprietors of the asphalte of Seyssel, here,
where it is now, we believe, patented, over all the other sorts competing with it, are
the following : — that the carbonate of lime and bitumen being combined in it by nature,
it is absolutely perfect (these are their words), while in every artificial imitation the
calcareous particles are merely enclosed by pitch ; that the chalk is, consequently,
unamalgamated, and the composition susceptible of the extremes of heat and cold. Another
point of advantage whereon they insist is, that the asphalte of Seyssel consists in the large
proportion of the calcareous matter to the bitumen, being about 83 to 1 7 ; while the
combination effected by artificial means has never exceeded 60 of chalk to 40 of bitumen.
The quantity, they say, of bitumen to be used should be the smallest that will hold the
chalk in combination ; and that therefore the manufactured article contains more than it
should, and will consequently expand in summer and contract in winter.
1880. Making great allowances for the self-interest which the prospectus of every
speculating company exhibits, we are, nevertheless, inclined to think that the asphalte of
Seyssel is a valuable and important material for many building purposes, and have no
doubt that it will be extensively used in this country. At present the price is high, as
well from the cost of the material itself as from the necessity of procuring a solid foundation
of concrete, or some other substance, whereon to lay it securely. There are several spots
in the metropolis, as at Whitehall, for instance, where it has been used for foot pavements ;
but for other purposes we must abstain from recommending its application until experience
shall justify the architect in its employment.
£12 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
CHAP. IIL
USE OF MATERIALS.
SECT. I.
FOUNDATIONS AND DRAINS.
1881. IN the previous chapter, we have enumerated the principal materials used in
building ; we shall now proceed to show how those materials may be most advantageously
employed ; but we shall not, in the various branches of the practice, again touch on
the materials themselves, which have been, we conceive, already sufficiently described.
But previous to entering upon the different branches of practical building, we think it
right to submit to the reader a few observations on that most important of all con-
siderations— a due regard to the security of the foundations on which a building is to
stand, as a preliminary to the works of the bricklayer and mason, as the case may be. No
advance or improvement has been made in this branch of architecture, as a science, since
the time of the ancients. The advice of Vitruvius may still be followed with safety. In
England, the recent introduction of concrete (no modern invention) has superseded the use
of wood under walls in the earth ; and piles are now quite exploded, except for the piers
of bridges and other situations in which they can constantly be kept wet.
1882. The best soils for receiving the foundations of a building are rock, gravel, or
close-pressed strong sandy earth ; " but," says L. B. Alberti, " we must never trust too
hastily to any ground, though it may resist the pick-axe, for it may be in a plain, and be
infirm, the consequence of which might be the ruin of the whole work. I have seen a
tower at Mestre, a place belonging to the Venetians, which, in a few years after it was
built, made its way through the ground it stood upon, which, as the fact evinced, was a
loose weak soil, and buried itself in earth up to the very battlements. For this reason,
they are very much to be blamed who, not being provided by nature with a soil fit to
support the weight of an edifice, and lighting upon the ruins or remains of some old
structure, do not take the pains to examine the goodness of the foundation, but incon-
siderately raise great piles of building upon it, and out of the avarice of saving a little
expense, throw away all the money they lay out in the work. It is, therefore, excellent
advice, the first thing you do, to dig wells, for several reasons, and especially in order to get
acquainted with the strata of the earth, whether sound enough to bear the superstructure,
or likely to give way." It is important, previous to laying the foundations, to drain them
completely, if possible, not only from the rain and other water that would lie about, but
from the land water which is, as it were, pent up in the surrounding soil. In soft, loose,
and boggy ground, the use of concrete will be found very great ; and in these soils, more-
over, the width and depth it should be thrown in, should, as well as the lower courses of the
foundation, be proportioned inversely to the badness of the soil. Clay of the plastic kind is
a bad foundation, on account of the continual changes, from heat and moisture, to which it is
subject, and which often cause it so to expand and contract as to produce very alarming
settlements in a building. The best remedy against this inconvenience is to tie the walls
together by the means of chain plates, buried in the centre of the footings, and on the top
of the landings that rest on the concrete ; these plates to be, of course, connected at the
returning angles, so as to encompass the whole building. In these cases, the clay must
be excavated to make room for the concrete. This will be found an effectual remedy in
clay soils.
1 883. If the soil be a sound gravel, it will want little more than ramming with heavy
rammers ; and if the building be not very heavy, not even that.
1884. Where vaults and cellars are practised, the whole of the soil must, of course, be
excavated ; but where they are not required, trenches are dug to receive the walls, which,
in both cases, must be proportioned in strength to the weight of the intended super-
structure and its height. In general terms, we may direct the depth of foundations to be
a sixth part of the height of the building, and the thickness of the walls twice that of
those that are raised upon them. Care must be taken that that which is to receive the
footings of the walls be equable; otherwise, where external and internal walls are connected
together, the former, being the heaviest, may settle more than the latter, thereby causing
fractures, which, though not, perhaps, dangerous, are extremely disagreeable in appearance.
The lower courses, which are called the footings of the wall, are often laid dry ; and, per-
haps, at all events, a sparing use of mortar in a spot loaded with the greatest pressure should
be preferred. If the footings be of stone, very particular attention should be bestowed on
CHAP. III. FOUNDATJONS AND DRAINS. 513
placing the stone in the courses in the same direction or bed as it lay in the quarry, to
prevent its splitting.
1885. In foundations where, from columns or small piers pressing upon particular parts,
there would be a liability, from uneven bearing, to partial failure, it has been the practice,
from a very early period, to turn in-
verted arches (see ./?#. 615.) to catch
on their springing the weight to be
provided against, by which means such
weight is equally distributed through-
out the length of the foundation.
" Standing thus," says our master Al-
berti, " they (the columns or weights)
will be less apt to force their way into
the earth ia any one place, the weight
being counterpoised and thrown equally on both sides on the props of the arches. And
how apt columns are to drive into the ground, by means of the great pressure of the weight
laid on them, is manifest from that corner of the noble temple of Vespasian that stands
to the north-west ; for, being desirous to leave the public way, which was interrupted by
that angle, a free and open passage underneath, they broke the area of their platform, and
turned an arch against the wall, leaving that corner as a sort of pilaster on the other side of
the passage, and fortifying it as well as possible, with stout work, and with the assistance
of a buttress. Yet this, at last, by the vast weight of so great a building, and the giving
way of the earth, became ruinous."
1886. It is most important, when the walls are raised on the foundations, and brought
up a little above the level of the earth, to take care that the earth, most especially if
moist, should not lie against them ; for if walls, before they are dry and settled, imbibe
moisture, they rarely ever part with it, and thence gradually impart rot to the timbers
throughout the house. In all buildings, it is an object to have a second thin wall outside
the basement walls, so as to leave between it and them a cavity for the circulation of the
air, such cavity being technically called an air-drain. This is in all cases desirable, but in
moist and loose soils it is essentially necessary for the durability of the building, as well
as for the health of those who are to dwell in it.
1887. We, perhaps, might have more properly spoken first of the subject of drainage
and sewers, whereof it now becomes our duty to give some information, inasmuch as before
a brick or stone of any building be laid, the architect neglects his duty if he has not pro-
vided for perfect drainage in the lowest parts of the structure. This must not be by the
aid of a small stagnant tank, called a cesspool, often the cause of much disease in a family ;
but by means of a drain into some running stream at a distance from the building, or, if
that be not practicable, into some far removed pond, whose exhalations shall not be blown
by the prevalent winds of the spot back upon the place where they were generated, in a
different form. Neither does the health alone of the family whose comfort is to be pro-
vided for, demand this consideration of drainage ; for the durability of the structure is quite
as much involved in good drainage as is the health of the family whose dwelling-place the
house is to become : hence we are the more earnest in pressing the point. In cities, the
architect cannot always accomplish this important object ; but in the country he is un-
pardonable if he neglect it. In London and its suburbs the laying down of efficient sewage
was gradually proceeding on a system which, had it been continued, would in less than
half a century have made it the best drained capital in Europe. This, however, about
six years ago, was, except in the city itself, suddenly stopped by the adoption of minimum
sewers, and small pipe drainage, which, as we predicted at the time, has turned out to be a
failure disgraceful to all parties concerned in it. Such was the result of a commission of
inquiry into the London sewage, one composed of incompetent persons, led by an individual
patronised by government, but utterly ignorant of the first principles of drainage.
1 888. The main drain necessary for the service of the largest house (we suppose the case of
one in the country), if the fall be even but moderate, requires no large dimensions. When we
see a small river draining considerable tracts of country, often in section only 8, 9, or 10 feet
superficial ; it may easily be conceived, that the surplus water from, and rain falling on, a
mansion is a quantity, even in pressing times, that exacts a large area of discharge to free
the place from damp. There are few cases in which the greatest mansion would demand
an area exceeding 5 feet, which a drain 2 feet by 2 ft. 6 in. would afford, supposing it to
have a parallelogram mic section ; but of course when the fall permits, larger dimensions
would be preferable. Drains should, as well for their durability as on other accounts, be
constructed with curved bottoms, but not with the lower part egg-shaped ; for instance,
as respects flat bottoms, take the lower parts of two drains, whose depth of running water is
1 foot, one whereof is formed with a simicircular bottom, 2 feet wide. The area of the
column of water will, therefore, be 1 '5708, and the length of the half curve will be 3*14 16.
To obtain with one foot depth of water, the same area in a drain whose bottom is flat and
LI
514 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
sides upright, we must have the width 1 "5708, and the sum of the three sides touched by
the water will be 3'5708. Then 3'5708 — 3-1416= -4292 represents roughly the difference
of friction or impediment in favour of the semicircular bottom in the case stated, nearly
^3 of the power being lost by the use of a flat bottom.
SECT. II.
BRICKLAYING AND TILING.
1889. Bricklaying, or the art of building with bricks, or of uniting them by cement or
mortar into various forms, includes, in the metropolis, and mostly in the provinces, the busi-
ness of walling, tiling, and paving with bricks or tiles, and sometimes plastering ; but this
last is rarely, if ever, undertaken by the London bricklayer ; though in the country the
trades of bricklaying and plastering are usually united, and not unfrequently that of ma-
sonry also. The materials used have been described in a previous part of the work, to
which the reader is referred (1811. et seq.}.
1890. The tools used by the bricklayer, who has always an attendant labourer to supply
him with bricks, mortar, &c., are — 1. A. brick trowel, for taking up and spreading the
mortar, and also for cutting the bricks to any required length. 2. A hammer, for cutting
holes and chases in brickwork. 3. The plumb rule, being a thin rule, 6 or 7 inches wide,
with a line and plummet swinging in the middle of it, in order to ascertain that the walls
are carried up perpendicularly. 4. The level, which is about 1 0 or 1 2 feet long, with a
vertical rule attached to it, in which a line and plummet are suspended, the use whereof is
to try the level of the walls at various stages of the building as it proceeds, and particularly
at the window cills and wall plates. 5. The large square, for setting out right angles.
6. The rod, for measuring lengths, usually 5 or 10 feet long. 7. The jointing rule, about
8 or 10 feet long, as one or two bricklayers are to use it, and 4 inches broad, with which
they run or mark the centre of each joint of the brickwork. 8. The jointer, which is of
iron, shaped like the letter S. 9. The compasses, for traversing arches and vaults. 10. The
raker, a piece of iron having two knees or angles, dividing it into three parts at right angles
to each other, the two end parts being pointed and equally long, and standing upon contrary
sides of the middle part. Its use is to rake out decayed mortar from the joints of old walls
for the purpose of replacing it with new mortar, or, as it is called, pointing them. 1 1. The
hod, which is a wooden trough shut close across at one extremity and open at the other.
The sides consist of two boards at right angles to each other, from the meeting whereof a
handle projects at right angles to their union. It is used by the labourer for conveying
bricks and mortar to the bricklayer ; for which purpose, when he has the latter office to
perform, he strews dry sand on its inside, to prevent the mortar from sticking. 12. The
line pins, which are of iron, for fastening and stretching the line at proper intervals of the
wall, that each course may be kept straight in the face and level on the bed. The pins have
a line attached to them of 60 ft. to each pin. 1 3. The rammer, used for trying the ground,
as well as for beating it solid to the utmost degree of compression. 1 3. The iron crow and
vick axe, for breaking and cutting through walls or moving heavy weights. 1 4. The grind-
ing stone, for sharpening axes, hammers, and other tools. The following ten articles relate
entirely to the preparation and cutting of guaged arches. 15. The banker, which is a bench
from 6 to 12 ft. long, according to the number of workmen who are to work at it. It is
2 ft. 6 in. to 3 ft. wide, and about 2 ft. 8 in. high. Its use is for preparing the bricks
for rubbed arches, and for other guaged work. 16. The camber slip, 'a piece of wood
usually about half an inch thick, with at least one curved edge, rising about 1 inch in
6 feet, for drawing the sofite line of straight arches. When the other edge is curved, it
rises about half that of the other, that is, about half an inch in 6 feet, for the purpose of
drawing the upper line of the arch, so as to prevent it becoming hollow by the settling of
the arch. The upper edge is not always cambered, many preferring it straight. The slip
being sufficiently long, it answers the width of many openings ; and when the bricklayer has
drawn his arch, he delivers it to the carpenter to prepare the centre for it. 17. The rubbing
stone. This is of a cylindrical form, about 20 inches diameter, but may be less. It is fixed at
one end of the banker, upon abed of mortar. After the bricks for the guaged work have
been rough-shaped by the axe, they are rubbed smooth on the rubbing stone. The headers
and stretchers, in return, which are not axed, are called rubbed returns and rubbed headers
and stretchers. 18. The bedding stone, which is a straight piece of marble 18 or 20 inches in
length, of any thickness, and about 8 or 1 0 inches wide. It is used to try the rubbed side of a
brick, which must be first squared to prove whether its surface be straight, so as to fit it
upon the leading skew back, or leading end of the arch. 1 9. The square, for trying the
bedding of the bricks, and squaring the sofites across the breadth of the bricks. 20. The
bevel, for drawing the sofite line on the face of the bricks. 21. The mould, for forming the
CHAP. III.
BRICKLAYING AND TILING.
515
face and back of the brick, in order to reduce it in thickness to its proper taper, one edge
of the mould being brought close to the bed of the brick when squared. The mould has a
notch for every course of the arch. 22. The scribe, a spike or large nail, ground to a sharp
point, to mark the bricks on the face and back by the tapering edges of the mould, for the
purpose of cutting them. 23. The tin saw used for cutting the sofite lines about one eighth
of an inch deep, first by the edge of the level on the face of the brick, then by the edge of
the square on the bed of the brick, in order to enter the brick axe, and to keep the brick
from spalting. The saw is also used for cutting the sofite through its breadth in the direc-
tion of the tapering lines, drawn upon the face and back edge of the brick ; but the cutting
is always made deeper on the face and back of the brick than in the middle of its thickness,
for the above-mentioned purpose of entering the axe. The saw is also used for cutting the
false joints of headers and stretchers. 24. The brick axe, for axing off the sofites of bricks
to the saw cuttings, and the sides to the lines drawn by the scribes. The bricks being
always rubbed smooth after axing, the more truly they are axed the less labour will be
requisite in rubbing them. 25. The templet. This is used for taking the length of the
stretcher r.nd width of the header. 26. The chopping block, for reducing the bricks to their
intended size and form by axing them. It is made of any piece of wood that comes to
hand, from 6 to 8 inches square, and generally supported upon two 14-inch brick piers, if only
two men work at it ; but if four men, the chopping-block must be lengthened and supported
by three piers, and so on according to the number employed at it. It is about 2 ft. 3 in. in
height. 27. The float-stone, which is used for rubbing curved work to a smooth surface,
such as the cylindrical backs and spherical heads of niches, to take out the axe marks. It
is, before application to them, made of a form reversed to the surface whereon it is applied,
so as to coincide with it as nearly as possible in finishing.
1891. Before adverting to the bond, as it is technically called, of brick walling, which is
the form of connection of the bricks with each other, we will stop to observe, that in working
walls, not more than 4 or 5 feet should be brought up at a time ; for as, in setting, the
mortar shrinks and a general subsidence takes place, the part first brought up, if too large
in quantity, will have come to its bearing before the adjacent parts are brought up, and thus
fissures in the work and unequal settlements will take place. In carrying up any particular
part above another, it should always be regularly sloped back to receive the adjoining parts
to the right and to the left. On no account should any part of a wall be carried higher
than one scaffold, except for some very urgent object.
1 892. Previous to the reign of William and Mary, all the brick buildings in this island
were constructed in what is called English bond ; and subsequent to the reign in question,
when, in building as in many other cases, Dutch fashions were introduced, we regret to
say, much to the injury of our houses' strength, the workmen have become so infatuated
with what is called Flemish bond, that it is difficult to drive them out of it. To the intro-
duction of the latter has been attributed (in many cases with justice) the splitting of
walls into two thicknesses ; to prevent which, expedients have been adopted, which would
be altogether unnecessary if a return to the general use of English bond could be esta-
blished.
1893. In chap. i. sect x. of this book (1550. et seq.} we have spoken generally on
walls ; our observations here, therefore, in respect of them, will be confined to brick
walls and their bond.
1894. English bond is that disposition of bricks in a wall in which (except at the quoins)
the courses are alternately composed of headers and stretchers. In brick walling, and indeed
in stone walling also, a course means the horizontal layer of bricks or stones whereof the
wall is composed, being contained between two faces parallel to the horizon, and terminated
on each side by the vertical face of the wall. The mass also
formed by brick or stones in an arch are also termed courses, but
receive the name of concentric courses. The term header is
applied to a brick or stone whose small head or end is seen in
the external face of the wall ; and that of stretcher, to a brick or
stone whose length is parallel to the face of the wall. We are
therefore to understand by English bond, a continuation either
of header or stretcher, continued throughout in the same course
or horizontal layer, and hence we have described it as consisting
of alternate layers of headers and stretchers (fig. 616.), the
former serving to bind the wall together in a transverse direc-
tion or widthwise, and thus prevent its splitting, whilst the
latter binds it lengthwise, or in a longitudinal direction. None
but the English bond prevents the former occurrence, as work
executed in this way, when so undermined as to cause a fracture,
separates, but rarely breaks through the solid brick, as if the wall
were composed of one entire piece.
1 895. The ancient Roman brickwork was executed on this
LI 2
Fig. 6 16.
516 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
principle ; and its extraordinary durability is as much to be attributed to that sort of work
being used for bonding it together, as to its extraordinary thickness.
1896. In this, as well as Flemish bond, to which we shall presently come, it will be ob-
served, that the length of a brick being but 9 inches, and its width 4| inches, in order to
break the joints (that is, that one joint may not come over another), it becomes necessary
near the angles to interpose a quarter brick or bat, a, called a queen closer, in order to pre-
serve the continuity of the bond in the heading course. The bond, however, may equally
be preserved by a three-quarter bat at the angle in the stretching course, in which case
this last bat is called a king closer. In each case an horizontal lap of two inches and a half is
left for the next header. The figure above given is that of a two-brick or 1 8-inch wall, but
the student will have no difficulty in drawing, on due consideration of it, a diagram of the
bond for any other thickness of wall ; recollecting, first, that each course is formed either of
headers or stretchers. Secondly, that every brick in the same course and on the same
face of the wall must be laid in the same direction, and that in no instance is a brick to be
placed with its whole length against the side of another, but in such way that the end of
one may reach to the middle of the others that lie contiguous to it, excepting in the outside
of the stretching course, where three-quarter bricks, or king closers, will of course be neces-
sary at the ends, to prevent a continued upright joint in the face of the work. Thirdly,
that a wall crossing at right angles with another will have all the bricks of the same level
course in the same parallel direction, whereby the angles will be completely bonded. We
shall close these observations with a recommendation to the young architect, founded on
our own experience, on no account, in any building where soundness of work is a desidera-
tum, to permit any other than English bond to be executed under his superintendence.
1 897. Flemish bond is that wherein the same course consists alternately of headers and
stretchers, which, in appearance, some may fancy superior to that just described. Such is
not our opinion. We think that the semblance of strength has much to do with that of
beauty in architecture. But there is in the sufferance of Flemish bond a vice by which
strength is altogether lost sight of, which we shall now describe. It was formerly, though now
partially, the practice to face the front walls of houses with guaged or rubbed bricks, or with
at least a superior species of brick, as the malm stock ; in the former cases, the bricks being
reduced in thickness, and laid with a flat thin joint frequently, what the workmen call a putty
joint, for the external face, the outer and inner work of the same courses in the same wall, not
corresponding in height, could not be bonded together except where occasionally the courses
fell even, where a header was introduced from the outside to tie or bond the front to the in-
ternal work. Hence, as the work would not admit of this, except occasionally, from the
want of correspondence between the interior and exterior courses, the headers would be
introduced only where such correspondence took place, which ... „,,,,.. -. ... ., -— - -,-
would only occur in a height of several courses. Thus a wall 1
two bricks in thickness, if faced on both sides, was very little ||
indeed better than three thin walls, the two outer half a brick
thick, and the middle one a brick or 9 inches thick. Brick-
layers having little regard for their character will, if not pre-
vented by the architect, not only practise this expedient, but
will also, unless vigilantly watched, when a better sort of brick is
used for the facing, cut the headers in half to effect a paltry saving
of the better material. In walls of one brick and a half in thick-
ness, the strength of the wall is not diminished by the use of
Flemish bond so much as in those of greater thickness, as may
be seen by the diagram (fig. 617.). Many expedients have
been invented to obviate the inconveniences of Flemish bond ;
but we think it rather useful to omit them, lest we should be
considered as parties to a toleration of its use, for the continu-
ation whereof no substantial reason can be assigned. As we
have before observed, all that can be alleged in its favour is a
fancy in respect of its appearance : but were the English mode executed with the same
attention and neatness bestowed on the Flemish method, we should say it was equally
beautiful ; and therefore we shall thus close our notice of it.
1898. The two principal matters to be considered in brick walling are, first, that the
wall be as strong as possible in the direction of its length. Secondly, that it be so con-
nected in its transverse direction that it should not be capable of separating in thicknesses.
To produce the first, independent of the extraneous aid of bond timbers, plates, &c., it is
clear that the method which affords the greatest quantity of longitudinal bond is to be
preferred, as in the transverse direction is that which gives the greatest quantity of bond in
direction of the thickness. We will, to exemplify this, take a piece of walling 4 bricks
long, 4 bricks high, and 2 bricks thick, of English bond : in this will occur 32 stretchers,
24 headers, and 16 half headers to break the joint, or prevent one joint falling over another.
Now, in an equal piece of walling constructed in Flemish bond, there will occur only 20
CHAP, III.
BRICKLAYING AND TILING.
517
stretchers and 42 headers ; from which the great superiority of English bond may be at
once inferred.
1899. Bond timber should be used in pieces as long as circumstances will admit. Some
prefer its being laid in the centre of the wall, in which case, when dressings of wood are
required on the interior face, wooden plugs must be provided to nail them to, which are
not wanted where the bond timber is laid flush with the inner face of the wall.
1900. It will scarcely be necessary to inculcate the propriety of the mortar beds being
as thin as possible. In good sound work they ought not to rise more than 1 If inches in four
courses. The mortar or cement should be such as will quickly set, to prevent the super-
incumbent weight pressing the joints closer, and thereby causing settlements which, even
with the greatest care, often take place unequally. As often as it is conjectured, from the
nature of the soil, or from the foundation being partly new and partly old, that the work
will not come to its bearing equally, it is better to carry up the suspected parts separately,
and to leave at their ends what are called toothings, by which junctions may be made when
the weaker parts have come to their regular sound bearing. The thickness of walls has
furnished the subject of previous pages ; we shall therefore only add, that too much care
cannot be bestowed on strengthening all angles as much as possible, and well connecting the
return of one wall into another ; that piers or pilasters are exceedingly useful in strength^
ening walls, inasmuch as they act by increasing the base whereon the whole stands ; and,
lastly, that in carrying up walls to any considerable height, it is usual to diminish their
thickness by sets off as they rise. In houses, above the ground-floor, the sets off are
usually made on the inside, having the outside in one face ; but, if it be possible, it is
better to set off equally from both faces, because of the better balance afforded.
1901. A bricklayer, with the assistance of one labourer, will in one day lay about 1000
bricks in common walling ; hence he would complete a rod of brickwork in four days and
a half, its area being 272^ ft. superficial of the thickness of one brick and a half. When,
however, there are many apertures or other interruptions to his work, he will be propor-
tionably longer time over it. The weight of a rod of brickwork is about thirteen
tons. Generally it may be taken as consisting of 4500 stock bricks, allowing for waste,
27 bushels of chalk lime, and 3 single loads of drift sand, or 1 8 bushels of stone lime
and 3| single loads of sand. In cement, of 36 bushels, and the same quantity of sharp
sand.
1 902. Bricknogging is a method of constructing a wall with a row of posts or quarters
3 feet apart, whose intervals are filled up with brickwork. It is rarely more than the width
of a brick in thickness, and the bricks and timbers on the faces are flush. It should never
be used where thickness can be obtained for a nine-inch wall.
1903. Groined arches. A groin is the angular curve formed by the intersection of two
semi-cylinders or arches. When groins are formed of cones they are called conic groins ;
but our business here is with the more simple groins that occur in using brick arches.
The centering for raising them belongs to the section Carpentry, to which the reader must
refer. The turning a simple arch on a centre only requires care to keep the courses as
close as possible, and to avoid the use of much mortar on the inner part of the .joints. In
executing a brick groin, the difficulty arises from the peculiar mode of making proper bond
at the intersection of the two circles as they gradually rise to the crown, where they form
an exact point. In the meeting or intersecting of these angles, the inner rib should be
perfectly straight and perpendicular to a diagonal line drawn on the plan. After the
centres are set, the application of the brick to the angle will immediately show in what
direction it is to be cut. With respect
to the sides, they are turned as for com-
mon cylindric vaults. The late Mr. George
Tappen, an architect of great practical skill,
introduced a method of constructing groins
rising from octangular piers, which had the
advantage of not only imparting strength to
the angle, which in the common groin is ex-
tremely deficient, but of increasing the space
for the stowage or removal of goods, and
further, of strengthening the angles of the
groin in this construction by carrying the
band round the diagonals ( Jig. 61 8.) of equal
breadth, and thus affording better bond to the
bricks.
1904. Many ornamental brick cornices
may be formed by but little cutting, and
changing the position of the bricks employed,
and several, indeed, without cutting, by
chamfering only. Fig 618>
L 1 3
518 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
1905. Niches may be formed in brickwork. They constitute the most difficult part of the
bricklayer's practice. The centre will be described under the section Carpentry. The
difficulty in forming them arises from the thinness to which the bricks must be reduced at
the inner circle, as they cannot extend beyond the thickness of one brick at the crown or top,
it being the usual as well as much the neatest method to make all the courses standing.
1 906. Tiling is the operation of laying the tiles on a roof for the covering of the building,
and is effected with either plane tiles or pantiles, the former whereof is the most secure.
Plane tiles are laid at different guages ; when laid at a six-inch guage, 800 will cover a
square; at a seven-inch guage, about 690. A plane tile weighs from 2 Ibs. to 2i Ibs.
1 907. Pantiling is laid to a ten-inch guage ; and 180 pantiles, weighing from 5 Ibs. to
5|lbs. each, will cover a square. From the frequent repairs necessary to tiled roofs,
slating has become the most useful covering, and is generally employed, except for the most
common buildings.
1908. The tiler's tools are — the lathing hammer, with two guage marks on it, one at 7
inches, the other at 7| inches. The lathing staff, of iron, in the form of a cross, to stay the
cross laths and clinch the nails. The tiling trowel, to take up the mortar and lay it on the tiles :
it differs from the brick trowel, in being longer and narrower. The bosse, made of wood,
with an iron hook, to hang on the laths or on a ladder, for holding the mortc.r and tiles.
The striker, a piece of lath about 10 inches long, for separating and taking away the
superfluous mortar at the feet of the tiles. The broom, to sweep the tiling after it is
struck.
SECT. III.
1909. Masonry is the science of preparing and combining stones so as to tooth, indent, or
lie on each other, and become masses of walling and arching for the purposes of building.
The tools of the mason vary as the quality of the stone upon which they are to act. About
the metropolis the value of stone is considerable ; and it is accordingly cut into slips and
scantlings by a saw moved horizontally backwards and forwards by a labourer. In those
parts where stone is abundant, it is divided into smaller scantlings by means of wedges.
The principal tools of the mason are the mallet and chisels, the latter being formed of iron,
except at the steel end, and the cutting edge being the vertical angle. The end of the
chisel struck by the mallet is a small portion of a spherical surface, and projects on all
sides beyond the adjoining part or hand hold, which increases in magnitude towards the
middle of the tool, to the entering or cutting edge. The other tools of the mason are a
level, a plumb-rule, a square, a bevel, straight and circular rules of divers sorts, for trying
surfaces in the progressive states of the work.
1910. In London, the tools used to work the face of a stone are, successively, the point,
the inch tool, the boaster (the operation of working with which is called boasting, as that
with the point is called pointing"), and the broad tool. The use of the point leaves the stone
in narrow furrows, with rough ridges between them, which are cut away by the inch tool,
and the whole made smooth by the boaster. The point is from ^ to | of an inch broad, the
boaster is 2 inches wide, and the broad tool 3| inches at the cutting edge, which in use is
always kept perpendicular to the same side of the stone. It performs two sorts of opera-
tions. Thus, imagine the impression made by the whole breadth of the tool at the cutting
edge to be called a cavity ; in one operation, the successive cavities follow one another in
the same straight line, until the breadth or length of the stone is exhausted ; successive
equidistant parallel lines are then repeated in the same manner, until the tool has passed
over the whole surface. This operation produces a sort of fluted surface, and is called
stroking. In the other operation, each successive cavity is repeated in new equidistant lines
throughout the length or breadth of the stone ; then a new series of cavities is repeated
throughout the length and breadth of the stone ; and thus until its whole length or
breadth is gone through. This operation is called tooling. The tools for working the cylin-
drical and conical parts of mouldings are of all sizes, from £ of an inch upwards. Those
for working convex mouldings are not less than half an inch broad, except the space be
too confined to admit of such breadth.
1911. A stone is taken out of winding principally with points, and finished with the
inch tool. In London, the squared stone used for facing buildings is usually stroked, tooled,
or rubbed.
1912. In those parts of the country where the stone saved by the operation of sawing
is not enough to compensate for the labour, the operation is altogether performed with the
mallet and chisel.
CHAP. III. MASONRY. 519
1913. When stones, previous to the operation of hewing, are very unshapely, a stone axe,
jedding axe, scabbling-hammer, or cavil, is used to bring the stone nearly to a shape ; one end
of the jedding axe is flat, and is used for knocking off the most protuberant angular parts,
when less than right angles ; the other end is pointed for reducing the different surfaces to
nearly the intended form.
1 91 4. In Scotland, besides the above described sorts of work, there are some other kinds
termed droved, broached, and striped. Droving is the same as that called random tooling in
England, or boasting in London. The chisel for , broaching is called a punch, and is the
same as that called a point in England. Broached work is first droved and then broached,
as the work cannot at once be regularly done with the punch. Striped work must also be
first droved and then striped. If broaching is performed without droving, which is some-
times done, it is never so regular, and the surface is full of inequalities. Of the three kinds
of surfaces obtained, the droved is the cheapest.
1915. It is however to be observed, that the workman will not take the same pains to
drove the face of a stone which is to be afterwards broached, as in that of which the
droving is to remain the final finish. When the surface of stone is required to be perfectly
smooth, it is accomplished by rubbing with sand or gritstone, and it is called rubbed work.
In Aberdeen, where the stone is very hard, being a granite, they use the scabbling hammer,
by which they pick the stone until the surface has nearly acquired the requisite form. This
sort of work is called nidged-work, and the operation nidging.
1 91 6. In stone walling the bedding joints are usually horizontal, and this should always,
indeed, be so when the top of the wall is terminated horizontally. In building bridges,
and in the masonry of fence walls upon inclined surfaces, the bedding joints may follow the
general direction of the work.
The footings of stone walls should be constructed with stones as large as may be, squared
and of equal thicknesses in the same course, and care should be had to place the broadest
bed downwards. The vertical joints of an upper course are never to be allowed to fall
over those below, that is, they must be made as it is called to break joint. If the walls of
the superstructure be thin, the stones composing the foundations may be disposed so that
their length may reach across each course from one side of the wall to the other. When
the walls are thick, and there is difficulty in procuring stones long enough to reach across
the foundations, every second stone in the course may be a whole stone in breadth, and
each interval may consist of two stones of equal breadth, that is, placing header and
stretcher alternately. If those stones cannot conveniently be had, from one side of the
wall lay a header and stretcher alternately, and from the other side another series of stones
in the same manner, so that the length of each header may be two thirds, and the breadth
of each stretcher one third of the breadth of the wall, and so that the back of each header
may come in contact with the back of an opposite stretcher, and the side of that header may
come in contact with the side of the header adjoining the said stretcher. In foundations of
some breadth, for which stones cannot be procured of a length equal to two thirds the
breadth of the foundation, the works should be built so that the upright joints of any
course may fall on the middle of the length of the stones in the course below, and so that
the back of each stone in any course may fall on the solid of a stone or stones in the
lower course.
1917. The foundation should consist of several courses, each decreasing in breadth as
they rise by sets off on each side of 3 or 4 inches in ordinary cases. The number of
courses is necessarily regulated by the weight of the wall and by the size of the stones
whereof these foundations or footings are composed.
A wall which consists of unhewn stone is called a rubble wall, whether or not mortar is
used. This species of work is of two kinds, coursed and uncoursed. In the former, the
stones are guaged and dressed by the hammer, and thrown into different heaps, each con-
taining stones of the same thickness. The masonry is then laid in horizontal courses, but
not always confined to the same thickness. The uncoursed rubble wall is formed by
laying the stones in the wall as they come to hand, without guaging or sorting, being pre-
pared only by knocking off the sharp angles with the thick end of the scabbling hammer.
1918. Walls are most commonly built with an ashlar facing, and backed with brick or
rubble work. In London, where stone is dear, the backing is generally of brickwork ;
which does not occur in the north and other parts, where stone is cheap and common.
Walls faced with ashlar and backed with brick or uncoursed rubble are liable to become
convex on the outside from the greater number of joints, and, consequently, from the
greater quantity of mortar placed in each joint, as the shrinking of the mortar will be in
proportion to the quantity ; and therefore such a wall is inferior to one wherein the facing
and backing are of the same kind, and built with equal care, even supposing both sides to
be of uncoursed rubble, than which there is no worse description of walling. Where a wall
LI 4
520 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
consists of an ashlar facing outside, and the inside is coursed rubble, the courses at the
back should be as high as possible, and the beds should contain very little mortar. In
Scotland, where there is abundance of stone, and where the ashlar faces are exceedingly
well executed, they generally back with uncoursed rubble ; in the north of England, where
they are not quite so particular with their ashlar facings, they are much more particular in
coursing the backings. Coursed rubble and brick backings admit of an easy introduction
of bond timber. In good masonry, however, wooden bonds should not be continued in
length ; and they often weaken the masonry when used in great quantity, making the wall
liable to bend where they are inserted. Indeed, it is better to introduce only such small
pieces, and with the fibres of the wood perpendicular to the face of the wall, as are required
for the fastenings of battens and dressings.
1919. In ashlar facing, the stones usually rise from 28 to 30 inches in length, 12 inches
in height, and 8 or 9 inches in thickness. Although the upper and lower beds of an ashlar,
as well as the vertical joints, should be at right angles to the face of the stone, and the
face and vertical joints at right angles to the beds in an ashlar facing ; yet, when the
stones run nearly of the same thickness, it is of some advantage, in respect of bond, that
the back of the stone be inclined to the face, and that all the backs thus inclined should
run in the same direction ; because a small degree of lap is thus obtained in the setting of
the next course, whereas, if the backs are parallel to the front, no lap can take place when
the stones run of an equal depth in the thickness of the wall. It is, moreover, advan-
tageous to select the stones so that a thicker one and a thinner one may follow each other
alternately. The disposition of the stones in the next superior course should follow the
same order as in the inferior course, and every vertical joint should fall as nearly as possible
in the middle of the stone below.
10 2O. In every course of ashlar facing in which the backing is brick or rubble, bond, or,
as they are called in the country, through stones should be introduced, their number being
proportioned to the length of the course ; every one of which stones, if a superior course,
should fall in the middle between every two like stones in the course below. And this
disposition should be strictly attended to in all long courses. Some masons, in carrying
up their work, to show that they have introduced a sufficient number of bond stones into
their work, choose their bond stones of greater length than the thickness of the wall, and
knock or cut off their ends afterwards. But this is a bad practice, as the wall is liable to
be shaken by the force used in reducing, by chiselling or otherwise cutting away the pro-
jecting part, and sometimes with the chance even of splitting the bond stone itself.
1921. In piers, where the jambs are coursed with ashlar in front, every alternate jamb
stone should go through the wall, with its bed perfectly level. If the jamb stones are of
one entire height, as is often the case when architraves are wrought upon them, and also
upon the lintel crowning them, of the stones at the ends of the courses of the pier which
are to adjoin the architrave jamb, every alternate stone should be a bond stone ; and if the
piers be very narrow between the apertures, no other bond stones will be necessary in such
short courses. When the piers are wide, the number of bond stones is to be proportioned
to the space. Bond stones, too, must be particularly attended to in long courses above and
below windows. They should have their sides parallel, and of course perpendicular to
each other, and their horizontal dimension in the face of the work should never be less
than the vertical one. The vertical joints, after receding about three quarters of an inch
from the face of the work with a close joint, should widen gradually to the back, so as to
form hollow wedge-like figures for the reception of mortar and packing. The adjoining
stones should have their beds and vertical joints filled with oil-putty, from the face to about
three-quarters of an inch inwards, and the remaining part of the beds with well-prepared
mortar. Putty cement is very durable, and will remain prominent when many stones are
in a state of dilapidation, through the action of the atmosphere upon them. The use of
the oil-putty is at first disagreeable, from the oil spreading over the surface of the con-
tiguous stones ; but after a time this unpleasant look disappears, and the work seems as
though of one piece.
1 922. All the stones of an ashlar facing ought to be laid on their natural beds. From
inattention to this circumstance, the stones often flush at the joints ; and, indeed, such
a position of the lamina much sooner admits the destructive action of the air to take
place.
1 923. Where walls or insulated pillars of very small dimensions are to be carried up,
every stone should be carefully bedded level, and be without concavity in the middle. If
the beds should be concave, as soon as the superimposed weight comes to be borne by the
pier or pillar, the joints will in all probability begin to flush ; and it is moreover better, if
it be possible, to make every course in the masonry of such a pier or pillar in one stone.
1924. When large columns are obtained in a single block, their effect, from that circum-
stance alone, is very striking ; but as this is not very often to be accomplished, the next
point is to have as few and as small joints as possible ; and the different stones, moreover,
ought to be selected with the view, as much as possible, of concealing the joints, by having
CHAP. III. MASONRY 521
the blocks as much of the same colours as possible. It will immediately, of course, occur
to the reader, that vertical joints in columns are inadmissible.
1 925. The stones for an intended column being procured, and the order in which they
are to be placed upon one another having been determined, we must correctly ascertain the
exact diameter for the two ends of each of them. To effect this, draw an elevation of the
column proposed to its full size, divide it by lines parallel to the base into as many heights
as the column is intended to contain stones, taking care that none of the heights exceed the
lengths the stones will produce ; the working of the stones to the diameters thus obtained
then becomes easy. The ends of each stone must first be wrought so as to form exactly
true and parallel planes. The two beds of a stone being thus formed, find their centres,
and describe a circle on each of them ; divide these circles into the same number of equal
parts, which may, for example, amount to six or eight ; draw lines across each end of the
stone, so that they will pass through the centre and through the opposite divisions of the
same end. The extremities of these lines are to regulate the progress of the chisel along
the surface of the stone ; and therefore, when those of one end have been drawn, those of the
other must be made in the same plane, or opposite to them respectively. The cylindrical
part of the stones must be wrought with the assistance of a straight edge ; but for the
swell of a column, a diminishing rule, that is, one made concave to the line of the column,
must be employed. This diminishing rule will also serve to plumb the stones in setting
them. If it be made the whole length of the column, the heights into which the elevation
of the column is divided should be marked upon it, so that it may be applied to give each
stone its proper curvature. But as the use of a very long diminishing rule is inconvenient
when the stones are in many and short lengths, rules or rods may be employed correspond-
ing in length to the different heights.
1 926. Nothing to perplex will occur in carrying up stairs which are supported by a wall
at both ends, because the inner ends of the steps may either terminate in a solid newel, or
be tailed into a wall surrounding an open newel. Where elegance is not required, and
where the newel does not exceed 2 feet 6 inches, the ends of the steps may be conveniently
supported by a solid pillar ; but when the newel is thicker, a thin wall surrounding the
newel would be cheaper. In stairs to basement stories, where geometrical stairs are used
above, the steps next to the newel are generally supported upon a dwarf wall.
1927. In geometrical stairs, the outer end of each step is fixed in the wall, and one of
the edges of every step supported by the edge of the step below, and formed with joggled
joints, so that no step can descend in the inclined direction of the plane nor in a vertical
direction ; the sally of every joint forms an exterior obtuse angle on the lower part of the
upper step, called a back rebate, and that on the upper part of the lower step of course an
interior one, and the joint formed of these sallies is called a. joggle, which may be level from
the face of the risers to about one inch within the joint. Thus the plane of the tread of
each step is continued one inch within the surface of each riser ; the lower part of the joint
is a narrow surface, perpendicular to the inclined direction or soffit of the stair at the end
next to the newel.
1928. With most sorts of stone the thickness of every step at the thinnest place need not
exceed 2 inches for steps of 4 feet in length ; that is, measuring from the interior angle of
every step perpendicular to the rake. The thickness of steps at the interior angle should
be proportioned to their length ; but allowing that the thickness of the steps at each of
the interior angles is sufficient at 2 inches, then will the thickness of them at the interior
angles be half the number of inches that the length of the steps is in feet ; for instance,
a step 5 feet long would be 2| inches at that place.
1 929. The stone platforms of geometrical stairs, that is, the landings, half paces, and
quarter paces, are constructed of one or more stones, as they can be procured of sufficient
size. When the platform consists of two or more stones, the first of them is laid on the
last step that is set, and one end tailed in and wedged into the wall ; the next stone is joggled
or rebated into the one just set, and the end also fixed into the wall, as that and the pre-
ceding steps also are ; and every stone in succession, till the platform is completed. When
another flight of steps is required, the last or uppermost platform becomes the spring stone
for the first step of it, whose joint is to be joggled, as well as that of each succeeding step,
similarly to those of the first flight. The principle upon which stone geometrical stairs
are constructed is, that every body must be supported by three points placed out of a
straight line ; and therefore, that if two edges of a body in different directions be secured
to another body, the two bodies will be immoveable in respect to each other. This last
case occurs in the geometrical staircase, one end of each stair stone being tailed into the
522
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
wall so as to be incapable of tilting, and another edge resting either on the ground itself,
or on the edge of the preceding stair stone or platform, as the case may be. The stones
which form a platform are generally of the same thickness as those forming the steps.
ON THE SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS OF STONE CUTTING.
1 930. The operations by which the forms of stones are determined, so as to combine them
properly in the various parts of an edifice, are founded on strictly geometrical principles,
and require the greatest care and exactness in execution. It is only by a thorough know-
ledge of the nature of these operations that the master mason is able to cut and carve the
parts which, when joined together, compose the graceful arch, the. light tracery of the
Gothic vault, or the graceful and magnificent dome. The method of simple walling, and
its general principles, have been given in this book, chap. i. sect. x. In what follows we
propose to confine ourselves, 1st, to the leading operations necessary to set out the simple
arch or vault, and the groins formed by it ; 2d, to the forms produced by vaults with
plain and curved surfaces intersecting ; 3d, and lastly, to dome vaulting ; giving such
examples as will so initiate the student that he may, we trust, have little, if any, difficulty
in resolving any case that may occur, and reminding him that if he well understand the
section already submitted to him on Descriptive Geometry, his labour will be m.ich
abridged, not only in what immediately follows, but in that section which treats hereafter
on Carpentry.
1931. I. OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF ARCHES AND SIMPLE VAULTS, AND THE GROINS
FORMED BY THEIR INTERSECTION. In arches and simple vaults we have to ascertain the
exact form of the arch in all its parts, and the direction of its joints ; both which points are
dependent on the geometrical properties of the curve used for the arch.
1932. To find the joints of a flat arch without using the centre of the circle of which the
arch is a part. Divide the arch AB (fig. 619.)
into as many equal parts as there are intended
to be arch stones, at the points 1, 2, 3, &c. From
A, with any convenient radius, describe an arc
at a, and from 2, with the same radius, describe
another arc, crossing the first at a, and join al ;
then 1 is the first joint from A. To find the joint
passing through 2 ; with the same radius as before, from the joints 1 and 3 as centres, de-
scribe arcs cutting each other at b, and draw 2b ; then 26 is the second joint. In the same
manner all the other joints between A and B will be found. To find the skew backs, or
abutting joints AC and DB ; with a radius equal to la, from the centre A describe an arc
at C ; from the centre 1 , with the radius Ac, describe an arc cutting the former at C, and
draw the line AC, which will be the springing bed of the arch. In the same manner the
joint BD may be found.
1933. The joints of any arch may be drawn with considerable accuracy by setting off at
equal distances a point in the curve on each side of the place for the joint, and from these
points, as centres, with any radius, arcs to intersect, through whose intersections lines
being drawn, will give the directions of the joints.
1 934. To draw an elliptical arch to any two dimensions by circular arcs. Draw the straight
line AB (fig. 620.). Bisect AB in C by the perpendicular Da, make CA and CB each
Fig. 619.
Fig. 620. Fig. 621.
equal to half the span of the arch, and make CD equal to the height, and Aj parallel and
equal to CD. In Cg make Ck equal to CD. Divide Aj and AC each into two equal parts.
Through 1 in AC draw kn, and through 1 in Aj draw ID, cutting kn at n. Bisect nD
by the perpendicular Ig, and from g with the radius gn or <?D describe the arc nDz'/t. Draw
gh parallel to AB, and join AB, and produce AB to meet the arc nDA in i. Join gi cutting
AB in/ and make Ce equal to Cf. Join ge, and produce it to meet the arc «DA in ».
From /with the radius fi describe the arc iB, and from e with the radius eA describe the
arc Amn. Then AwDi'B is the arch required.
1935. An elliptical arch ADB (fig, 621.) being given, to draw the joints for a given number
CHAP. III.
MASONRY.
523
of arch stones. Find the centres e, /, g in the same manner as if the arch were to be drawn ;
join ge and produce it to meet the arch ; also join g, f and produce it to meet the arc in i.
Divide the elliptical curve ADB into as many equal parts as the number of arch stones.
From the centre e draw lines through the points of division in the curve between A and
where ge meets the curve, and from the
centre g draw lines through all the interme-
diate points between ge and of, and lastly
draw lines from/through all the intermediate
points between i and B, and the parts of the
lines thus drawn on the outside of the curve
will be the joints of the arch stones.
1 936. In very large arches it will be de-
sirable to find five centres, as in fig. 622., and
these will be obtained by finding two in-
termediate points in each half of the curve
instead of one ; then bisecting each pair of
adjacent points by a perpendicular, we shall
have the centres e, h, g, i, f, to be used for
drawing the joints in the same manner as in
the preceding figure.
1937. The above methods are sufficient for ordinary purposes; but where strict accuracy
is required, the following method is mathematically true. Suppose any joint, as
required to be drawn (fig. 623.), and that
the point D is the middle of the arch and
the point C the middle of the springing line ;
then with the distance CA or CB, from the
point D describe an arc at e and another at
/ to cut AB at e and/ Draw eg and fg ;
produce eg to i andfg to h, bisect hgi by the
straight line gk, which will be the joint re-
quired. In the same manner, by drawing
lines from e and/ to each point of division, and bisecting the angle, lines for the other joints
may be drawn.
1 938. To draw a Gothic arch to any given dimensions ( fig. 624. ). Draw the straight line
c
Fig. 623.
Fig. 624.
AB equal in length to the span of the arch. Bisect AB in C by the perpendicular DI.
and draw AG and BH parallel to DI. Make CD equal to the height of the arch, and the
angles CDG and CDH each equal to half the vertical angle ; make CF equal to the dif-
ference between CD and AG and join FA and FB. Divide AG and AF each into the
same number of equal parts, counting each from the point A. Through the points
1, 2, 3, 4 in AF draw la, II, Ic, Id, and through the points 1, 2, 3, 4 in AG draw 1 D, 2D,
3D, 4D cutting la, 16, Ic, Id at the points a, 6, c, d, then through the points AabcdT) draw
a curve ; which will be half of the Gothic arch required.
1939. To draw the joints of the arch stones of a Gothic arch (fig. 625.). Having formed
the angles CDG and CDH as before, make Ai equal to AG and draw DZ perpendicular
to DG. In DZ make D£ equal to Az and join ik. Bisect ik by a perpendicular meeting
DZ in Z. Produce li to p. Divide the curve into as many equal parts as the arch stones
are to be in number. Then i will be the centre of the joints which pass through all the
524
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
Fig. 626.
Fig. 627.
points between A and p, and I will be the centre for drawing the joints of the arch stones
which pass through all the points between p and D.
1 94O. The reason for the foregoing rule is obvious ; for the joints are merely made to
radiate to the centres of the arcs of circles whereof the arches themselves are formed ; as
in subsections 1934, 1935. they were drawn to the centres of the approximating circles
wherefrom the elliptical curves were struck.
1 941 . To describe a parabolic curve for a pointed or Gothic arch by means of a series of
lines touching the curve, the dimensions of the
arch and the angles it forms at the crown being
given. Draw the straight line AB (fig. 626.)
and draw CD perpendicular to AB. Make
CD equal to the height of the arch, CA and
CB each equal to half the span. Make the
angles CDe and CD/ each equal to half the
vertical angle. Divide Ae and eD each into
the same number of equal parts, and through
the corresponding points of division draw lines
which will form one half of the arch: the other half DB may be found in the same manner.
1 942. To draw the joints of the arch stones
to the above sort of arch. Draw the chords
AD, DB for each half of the arch (fig. 627.) ;
divide the arch into as many equal parts as
there are to be arch stones. Let it now be
required to draw a joint to any point h : bisect
AD in k, and join ek cutting the curve in I.
Draw hg parallel to Ak, cutting ek in g, and in
el make li equal to Ig. Join hi and draw hm
perpendicular to hi. Then hm is the joint re-
quired. In the same manner all the remaining
joints will be found.
1 943. To describe a rampant pointed arch, whose span, perpendicular height, and the height
of the ramp are given. Draw the straight line AB (fig. 627.), and make AB equal to the
span of the arch. Draw BC perpendicular to
AB, and make BC equal to the height of the
rainp. Bisect AC in D, and draw DE per-
pendicular to AB. Make DE equal to the
height of the arch; draw Af and Cg parallel
to DE, and make Af and Cg equal to about
two thirds of DE. Join /E and Eg. Di-
vide Af and /E each into the same number
of equal parts, and through each two corre-
sponding points of division draw a straight
line. All the lines thus drawn will give one
half of the curve. The other half may be
drawn in the same manner. To find the
joints (fig. 629.) proceed as for a plain arch
in the last example.
1944. II. OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF INTER-
SECTING VAULTS OR GROINS. The forms of
vaults may be so adapted to one another that
the lines of intersection shall be in planes, and
these planes the diagonals of the plan of the
intersecting part of the vaults ; if, however,
they be not so adapted, the lines of inter-
section will be curved on the plan, and these
curves it is necessary to ascertain in making
both the moulds and the centerings for exe-
cuting the work.
1945. To determine the form of a vault to
intersect with a given one in the plane of the
diagonal, and also to find the diagonal rib for
the centering. Let the given vault be EIF Fig. 629.
(fig. 630.) and AC and BD the diagonals, crossing in/ Draw /I perpendicular to EF,
cutting EF in c. In the arc IF take any number of points ab, and draw ag, bh parallel to
If, cutting EF in d, e, and the diagonal AC in a, h. Draw fp, gq, hr parallel to EF, cutting
the base GH at m,n, o. Make mp, nq, or each respectively equal to cl, da, eb. Draw /I',
ok, hi, perpendicular to AC, and make /I', gk, hi respectively equal to cl, da, eb. Make
Fig. 628.
CHAP. III.
MASONRY.
Kg. 630.
Fig. 631.
fg', fh' each respectively equal to fg, fh. Draw g'k', h'l' parallel to fV. Make g'k' equal
to gk, h'l' equal to hi ; also make mn', m'o' each respectively equal to mn, mo. Draw the
arcs pqr, p'q'r, as also I'kl, I'k'l' ; then, through the points thus found, draw the curves upon
their bases AC and GH, and that on GH is the form of the intersecting vaults, and that
on AC is the form of the angle rib. If the form of the given arch be that of a semicircle
EIF (fig. 631.), let ABCD be the angular points of the plan, AC and DB the
diagonals, cutting each other at M. Draw MK parallel to GD, or CH cutting GH in N.
Draw ML perpendicular to AC, and make ML equal to the radius of the semicircle.
Then, with the transverse axis AC, and semi-conjugate axis ML, describe a semi-ellipse,
which will be one of the angle ribs, as required. Also make NK equal to the said radius ;
then with the lesser axis and, the semi-greater axis NK describe the semi-ellipse GKH,
which is the form of the other vault.
1946. The same method applies in fig. 632., where the narrow opening is a semi-circle,
Fig. 632. Fig. 633.
and the wide one, consequently, a semi-ellipse, having its minor axis vertical and its major
axis horizontal.
1 947. When two circular-arched vaults of different heights intersect, to determine the plan of
the arrisses in which the arches meet. Let ABC (fig. 633.) be the arch of the main vault,
and DEF that of the lesser vault ; ACLO the plan of the main vault, and DPQF that of
the lesser vault ; and let the two vaults intersect each other at the points HKNM. Also,
let E be the middle point of the lesser semi-circular arc DEF. Produce HD to v, and in
the arch DE take any number of points rs, and draw rb, sa, El parallel to DH. Draw
rt, su, Eu parallel to DF, cutting Dv at the points tuv, and produce HC to G. In CG
make Cw, Cx, CG respectively equal to D£, DM, Dw, and draw wz, xy, GB parallel to AC,
cutting the semi-circle ABC in the points zyB. From the points Byz draw BI, ya, zb,
parallel to CL. Then through the points lab draw a curve, which will be one half of the
plan of the arris. The other half will be found in the same manner.
1948. The method of tracing the plan of the groins is the same (see fig. 634.) when the
vaults intersect obliquely.
1 949. To find the plan of the intersections of two arches of the same height, and either of the
same or different species. Let the sections of the two arches be ABC and DEF (fig. 635.),
the arcs AB, BC being equal to each other, and the arcs, DE, EF equal to each other ;
526
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
Fig. 634.
Fig. 635.
and let H, K, N, M be the points where the two arches intersect each other on the plan.
Divide either of the arcs BC or DE into parts, equal or unequal ; as, for example, in the
arc DE take any number of points r, s at pleasure, and draw ra, sb, El perpendicular to DF.
Produce HD to v, and draw rt, su, Ew, parallel to DF, cutting Dw in t, u, v. Produce HC to
G, and make Cw, Cx respectively equal to T)t, DM ; and as the arches are equal in height,
CG will be equal to Du. Draw wy, xz, GB, parallel to AC, cutting the arc BC in the
points y, z, and touching it in B. Draw ya, zb and BI
parallel to HK, and through the points Ha&I draw
the curve Ha&I, which will be half the plan of the
groin as required. The other half IN and the other groin
MK will be found in the same manner.
1950. To find the plan of the groins produced by the
intersection of a cylindric and a conic vault, the angle of
position of the axis, the diameter of the cylinder, and the
plan of the conic vault being given. Let AB (Jig- 636.)
be the axis of the cylinder, CD that of the cone, C
being the apex, and D the point through which the
base passes. Through any point A in AB draw EF G
perpendicular to AB, and make AE and AF each equal
to the radius of the cylinder, and draw EH and FI
parallel to AB. Through D draw KM perpendicular
to CD, and make DK and DM each equal to half the
diameter of the cylinder. Join KC and MC, cutting
EH and FI in the points N, O, P, Q, Divide the semi-
circles FGE and KLM into parts, whereof the corre-
sponding ones are equal to one another. From the
points of division in the semicircle EGF draw lines
parallel to AB ; and through the corresponding points
in the semicircle KLM draw lines perpendicular to the
diameter KM, cutting KM. From the points of section
draw lines to the apex C of the cone, cutting the former
drawn through the points in the semicircumference
FGE. Through each set of corresponding points draw
a curve, and the two curves will represent the arrisses of
the groin on the plan. If in an octagonal ground vault
the octagonal range be cylinders, and the cross vaults,
which tend to the centre, diminish to a line of the
height of the vault, the following construction applies :
— Let EFGHI (fig. 637.) be the exterior side of the
vault, which is both equilateral and equiangular, and
let JKLMN be the line of the exterior surface of the
inner wall; so that the lines EJ, FK, GL, HM, IN,
which pass through every two corresponding angles,
may tend to the centre O of the groin vault. Let the
sections of the given ribs be PQ,R and STU, so that
PR of the rib PQ,R may stand at right angles to the
sides EF and JK. and the side SU of the rib STU
on the middle of the side FG. Divide the two bases
PR and SU in the same proportion, and through
the joints of division in SU draw lines from the centre
O of the ground vault to meet the curve STU ; and
CHAP. III.
MASONRY.
527
through the points of division in the base PR of the cross rib PQR draw lines parallel
to EF, to terminate in the line FK, and in the semicircle PQ,R. From the points where
these lines meet FK, draw perpendiculars on one side of FK, and make the heights of
these perpendiculars respectively equal to the ordinates of the arc PQR ; and through the
ends of these perpendiculars draw a curve FVK, which will be the angle rib. From the
points of meeting in the line FK draw lines parallel to FG, and through the points of
division in SU draw lines to the centre O, intersecting the former lines drawn from the
points of division in FK ; through the corresponding points of intersection draw the
curves SBL and KBU, which will form the plan of the angle.
1 95 1 . In single groins the centres are made for the widest avenue, and are covered over
with boards (fig. 638.), so that the top of the boards may form the surface required for
Fig. 639.
turning the arch upon the intersections ; or the angles are found by the following practical
method. The groins meet in the points I, C (fig. 639.), upon the boarding of the two
groins. Place the straight edge of a board upon the point I, so as to range over the line
GH on the plan. Then set up another straight edge upon.the point H, so as to be vertical,
and the straight vertical edge will meet the horizontal edge ; then apply a third straight
edge to each of the other two straight edges, so that it may also come in contact with
the boarding. After this draw a line along this third straight edge upon the boarding as
far as may be found convenient ; shift the moveable or third straight edge, and apply it in
the same manner to another adjoining portion of the surface of the boarding. Proceed in
the same manner until the whole line be completed on the surface. By this means, the
necessity of laying down lines for the covering is avoided. The lines being thus drawn,
ribs for the cross vaults are fixed on the top of the boarding ; so that, making proper
allowance for the thickness of the same, its surface, when fixed, may form the true surface
of the other cross vault. The ribs fixed upon the boarding to form the cross vaults are
called jack ribs.
1952. The mode of constructing the curves by lines is shown for a rectangular groin in
fig. 640., in which A is the plan, B the elevation.
Here, to find the pliant moulds for forming the
groins on the surface of the boarding, and working
the arch-stones, describe a semicircle on one of its
sides, and divide it into any convenient number
of equal parts. Draw lines perpendicular to the
base or diameter, the semicircle being supposed to be
within the piers; the ordinates will cut the diago-
nals ; but if it be laid down on the outside, the or-
dinates must be produced until they cut the diago-
nals. From the points where the ordinates cut the
diagonals, draw lines parallel to the other side of the
groin, and produce the side on which the diameter
of the semicircle is placed, and extend the semicir-
cular arc with its divisions upon any convenient part
of the line thus produced. Through the points of
division draw perpendiculars, so as to intersect with
the former parallel lines ; then through the points of
intersection draw the curve, as shown at C, which
will be the mould required.
1 953. Sometimes several vaults meet in one com-
mon centre, as in fig. 641., which exhibits the plan
of an equiangular and equilateral groined vault,
constructed of semicircular arches. Fig. C40.
528
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
Fig, 641.
1 954. Where the piers supporting groins (fig.
642.) are made octangular, the angles of the
groins should be cut off or arched as ribs, by
which they are rendered much stronger than
when they are square. In stone groins, where
the arch is cut off, there is no advantage in point
of strength, and rather a defect in point of ap-
pearance, to the groined angles.
1955. Arches intersecting a coved ceiling are
similar to groins. Such arches are called lunettes,
and are generally practised for semicircular -
headed windows piercing the coves in the ceiling :
fig. 643. exhibits a plan and section of such arches.
1956. A dome is a solid, which may be con-
ceived to be generated by the figure of the base
diminishing as it rises, till it becomes a point at
the summit ; and when a dome has a polygonal
base, the arches are plain arches, and the con-
struction is similar to that of a groin. A domed
ceiling of this kind upon a rectangular plan is
shown in plan B (fig. 644.); the sections A A
being elliptical in the top, and with lunette win-
dows. C shows the geometrical construction.
Fig. 644.
CHAP. III.
MASONRY.
529
Fig. 645.
1 957. When arches intersect an inclined vault, and the projections of the arrisses cross
each other at right angles, and the angle of elevation of one of the semicircular vertical ribs
of the ascending avenue or opening is given to obtain the geometrical construction ; so that
the cross arches may be cylindrical surfaces.
Draw the straight line AB (fig. 645.) to
represent the axis of the inclined vault, and
draw CD perpendicular to AB. Produce
D to e and h ; make A C and A D each
equal to the radius which forms the edges
of the ribs; draw AN parallel to AB, and
make the angle NAo equal to the inclination
of the axis represented by its plan AB. In
the line ho take any point p, and draw qr
parallel and ps perpendicular to AN. Make
ps equal to AC or AD, and through s draw
L# parallel to ho. Draw pu perpendicular
to L£, cutting it in u. Produce pu to v.
Set the circumference of the inclined vault
from u to v, divided into the equal parts u, 1 ,
1 , 2 ; 2, 3 ; 3v, at the points 1 , 2, 3. Divide
each of the quadrants qs, sr, into the same
number of equal parts at the points 1, 2, 3,
and through these points and in uv draw 1 a,
26, 3c parallel to vt, and through the points
1, 2, 3, in the curve qs, draw z'L, la, 26, 3c,
parallel to pu. Through all the points
L, a, b, c draw the curve Labcv, and this will be the pliable mould for forming the angle or
groin over the plan, and for working the arch stones. Draw DA parallel to Az. Let E
divide the circumference CED into the two equal parts EC, ED ; divide the arcs DE, EC
into the same number of equal parts as uv at the points 1,2, 3, and draw Iw, 2x, 3y, Ez,
parallel to AB ; also through the points 1, 2, 3 in the quadrant qu draw ok, lu; 2x, 3y, uz,
perpendicular to yN ; then through the points k, w, x, y, z, draw a curve, which will be the
plan of the groin whereof the stretch-out is ~Labcv. In the same manner the other half of
the plan will be found, as also the whole of the other parts.
1 958. The form of an arch crossing an inclined groined vault at right angles, and the plan
of the diagonal ribs being given ; to find the arch of the level vault. Let AB, BC (fig. 646.)
be the plan of the axis of the vaults. Through any
point A in AB draw DF perpendicular to AB, and
make AD and AF each equal to the horizontal
breadth of the vault. Draw DG and FH pa-
rallel to AB ; draw also any line LK parallel to
AB, cutting BC in C, and make the angle KIL
equal to the inclination of the axis represented by
its plane AB. Make CM and CK equal to the
breadth of the level vaults ; draw KG and MN
parallel to BC, and let MN cut DG in N, and FH
in P. Draw the diagonals PG and NH. Pro-
duce GK to cut IL in L, and NM to cut IL in Q.
In the curve DEF take any number of points a,
b, c, and draw ad, be, cf parallel to AB, cutting DF
in the points p, q, r, and the diagonal G P in d, e,f,
and the diagonal HN in the points d', e',f. Pro-
duce BA to E, draw dl, em, fn, Bo parallel to BC,
cutting QL in the points g, h, i, k ; make gl, hm, in,
ko equal respectively \opa, qb, re, AE; then through
the points I, m, n, o, draw the curve QoL. Draw HR
perpendicular to NH, and make HR equal to KL,
and join NR ; then will HR be the line of ramp for Fig. 64G.
the diagonal rib over its plan HN. Perpendicular to HN, draw d'v, e'w,fy, BG cutting
the line of ramp RN in the points s, t, u, v. Make sv, tw, riy, vG respectively equal
to pa, qb, re, AE. Then through all the points v, w, y draw a curve, which will be the
angle rib standing over HN, and which will also serve for the angle rib standing over
GP. All the groined vaults continued in the same range may be constructed by the same
moulds.
1959. To make the ivorking drawings for a semicircular arch with a straight face, and
to describe the moulds for the voussoirs. This simple case will serve as a rule for those fol-
lowing ; hence the explanation should be perfectly understood, as all the other cases differ
M m
530
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
from it only according to the different kinds of arches to be constructed ; such as the bevelled
arch, that in a battering or sloping wall, and that on a circular wall.
1960. Draw two lines (fig. 647.) perpendicular to and crossing each other, as BA, GD
From the point E, as a centre, describe
the sofite curve ACB, and the extrados
or upper curve FGH. Divide each of
these arcs into two equal parts, as the
dotted arc abc. Draw LM parallel to
AB, and make the distance A' L equal
to the thickness of the wall wherein the
arch is to be constructed. Draw the
outer and inner lines of the plan F'K,
A'L, B'M, HN parallel to CD. Divide
the arc ACB into the proper number of
equal parts for the arch stones or vous-
soirs, suppose five, by the joint lines 1,
2, 3, 4 ; from the point E draw the
joints 1 — 5, 2 — 6, 3 — 7, 4 — 8 ; then from
every point where the joints cut the
arcs ACB, FGH, &c. draw the lines
8c4, 7/i3, &c. On KN let fall the
perpendiculars 8d, cM, 4f, hi, 3k, 21, mn,
60, \p, aL, and 5s. Divide the sofite of
each voussoir Al, 1 — 2, 2 — 3, &c. into
two equal parts in t, u, v, w, from which
all also let fall the perpendiculars *Y,
«X, vV, wT.
1961. To draw the moulds of the
sofite below NK. Draw the line OP
parallel to the line KN ; prolong ED
to Z and make the distance QZ equal
to ED. Through Z draw RS parallel
to OP, and on each side of QZ lay off
the distances C3, 3v, v4, 4w, and wB
respectively on Qr, xy, ya, ab, and 6 P. Fig. 647.
On the other side lay off C2, 2u, ul,
it and t A on Qc, cd, de, ef, and/O. Through the points O, e, c, x, a let fall on RS the perpen-
diculars OR, ea',cd', xc', ad, PS, and through the points/, d, y, b let fall the perpendiculars
from the middle sheetings fe', df, ya', bh' ; the distances of the dark lines give the breadth
of the sofite of each stone in the sofite curve.
1 962. To draw the moulds of the joints : lay off the distance 1 — 5 on eg, ch, xi, ah, and
through the points ghin draw the lines gq, hi, im, kp, parallel to QZ. To find the middle
of the joint divide the distances eg, ch, xi, an, each into two equal parts, as in k', m', a', s,
through which draw the lines k'l', m'n', q'r', s't parallel to QZ.
1963. The elevation is a section of a hollow cylinder, of which the concave or interior
surface forms the intrados of the arch, and the convex or exterior surface the extrados, and
of which the cutting plane of the section is perpendicular to the common axis of the
cylinder.
1 964. The angles of the stone are found from the angle which the arc of this section
makes with any joint, and the curving of the sofite of the stone is found by a ruler or
mould, the edge of which is made to the curve. The ends of the sofite are found by its
developement.
1 965. When the stones are shaped according to the moulds,
and joined together in consecutive order, the whole mass, thus
united, will form the solid arch as required.
1966. These separate operations being properly attended
to, every difficulty will be removed, and no confusion will
arise during the process, which can, in any degree, tend to per-
plex the delineator.
1967. To find the bevels and moulds for the joints and softies
of an elliptical arch cutting obliquely through a straight wall,
the joints radiating to the centre of the opening. Draw the axis
EN of the arch (fig. 648.), and therein take any point E,
through which draw AB perpendicular to EN; make EAand
EB each equal to half the space of the extrados or centre
line of the arch; also make EC and ED each equal to half
the span of the inner arch. Produce the diameter NE to G ; Fig. et!>.
CHAI-. III.
MASONRY.
531
make EF equal to the height of the inner arch and EG equal to the height of the outer
arch. On the major axis AB, and semi-minor axis EG, describe the semi-ellipsis AGB,
which is the extrados of the arch. Also, on CD as the major axis, and EF the semi-minor
axis, describe the semi-ellipsis CFD.
1968. Make the angle ABH equal to the angle which the wall makes with the right
section of the arch, and let BH cut the axis in K. Draw ML at such a distance from
BH that they may comprehend between them the thickness of the wall, and let ML cut
the axis in N. The intrados of the arch on the one side of the wall is OPR, and the
extrados is LQ.M ; they are both ellipses respectively of the same height as the intrados
and extrados of the right arch, but with the axes OR and LM.
1969. To find the bevel of the angle of the arch stones corresponding to the joint ab
tending to the centre E. Describe the arc be from E with the radius E6 cutting AB in
c. Draw bg parallel to EN cutting BH in g, and draw cd parallel and gd perpendicular
to EN, and join KD ; then EKD is the angle or bevel required.
1970. The sofite of the arch is drawn according to the general principles of developement.
1971. To make the working drawings for an arch in a sloping wall, as, for instance, an arch
in a terrace watt. To draw the elevation ; from any convenient point o in the line AB
(fig. 649.), describe the arc of the intrados
aPf and the arc of the extrados AQB: di-
vide each of these arcs into odd numbers of
equal parts (for the arch stones in this ex-
ample five), and draw the joints bg, ch, di, ek.
For the plan of the arc of the intrados draw
AR perpendicular to AB, and draw the line
of slope or batter AS. In the arc of the in-
trados take any number of points bed, &c.
and draw the lines bb, cc, intersecting AR in
the points 1, 2, &c. and meeting the line of
batter AS in the points be. Draw CD pa-
rallel to AB, and at any convenient distance
from it draw aubvcw perpendicular to CD,
intersecting it in the points e, I, m, n, &c. Find
the points b', c', d' in the straight lines bv, mw,
nx, such that the distance of those points
from the line ED may be respectively equal
to the intervals 16, Ic, &c. between the per-
pendicular AR and the line of batter AS,
and draw the curve a' b' c' d' e' f, which will
be the plan of the arc of the intrados. In
the same manner the curve lEg'h'ik~D may be
described ; which being done, the plan of the
arc of the extrados will be obtained.
1972. To find the moulds of the sofites
and beds. Draw any straight line HI in a
separate place, and extend the arc of the in-
trados abcdef upon the line H I from H to I ;
divide it into the same number of parts that
Fig. 649.
the arc aP/of the intrados is divided into (in this instance five), and mark the points of divi-
sion I, m', n', c'. Transfer the distances ea', lb', me' between the line CD and the plan of the
arc of the intrados, to the perpendiculars n"a", l"b", m"c", n"d", c"e", and through the points
a"b"c"d"e"f" draw a curve, which will be the developement of the arc of the intrados. Pro-
duce the lines l"b", m"c", n"d", to v", w", x", and transfer the distances b'v, c'w, d'x from
the plan to the sofite on the lines b"v", c"w", d"x". Draw ga", hb", ic", kd" perpendi-
cular to HI; transfer the distances g'a, h'b, i'c from the plan to the sofite upon ga", hb",
ic", and join a"v", b"w", x"c", which will complete the moulds of the joints.
1973. To make the drawings for an oblique arch by an abridged method. The following
method is said to be abridged, because, by one very short operation the moulds of the
sofites and joints are found within the plan of the arch ABDC (fig. 65O.). Divide AB
in E into two equal parts, and draw EF parallel to AG. From the point A draw AG
perpendicular to AC; prolong DB to G ; divide AC into two equal parts in the point H.
From H, as a centre, describe the arc AFG, which divide into voussoirs, and draw the
joints from the centre H. Draw lines from each sofite parallel to EF, and below the line
CD; the moulds for the sofites are comprised between the parallels of the key, and those of
the joints are traced on the sides of the plan, as follows : —
1 974. To find the moulds of the sofites. Through the point Q, draw QN parallel to
GH. Tofind"on RS the point N, through the point K draw KL also parrallel to GH. To
find on QT the point M, and on RS the point L, draw the front line of the second sofite
M m 2
532
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
MN, and the front line of the first IL. The
back of this sheeting sofite is found by the same
operation below the plan. The mould of the
key is formed by two lines RS, QT, and the
front and back lines of the plan AB, CD ; the
two moulds of the sofites NMTS and LIXV
serve to trace the two stones on each side, ob-
serving only that the lower arrisses of the sofite
on the side AC become those of the top on
the side BD; or that the under arriss of one
side may be that on the other side by reversing
the mould, which will have the same effect.
1975. To find the moulds of the beds or joints.
Prolong NQ to meet DG, to find the point P,
and through it and the point E draw the front
of the second joint P2 ; prolong LM to GD to
find O, through which and the point E draw
the front of the joint O3. Proceed in the same
manner to find the backs of the other joints, which
are sufficient also to trace the stones by reversing
them. It is not absolutely necessary to cut out
the moulds of the sofites and joints, but the
angles may be taken by bevels and applied to
stones. The heads are prepared, as usual, with
the moulds of the heads of the straight arc. It
must be observed, that in this arch the face or
front differs from a straight arch, being formed by different sections of a cylinder.
1976. To Jind the moulds for an oblique arch, whereof the front slopes and the rear are per-
pendicular to the axis. Let A'B'GH (fig.
651.) be the plan of the imposts. From
the point a, as a centre, describe the arcs
ACB, DRI, which divide into five or more
equal parts for the arch stones. Draw
the joint lines from the centre, and the
perpendiculars from the joints below the
line AB. Fron the summits of the per-
pendiculars, draw lines parallel to AB,
to terminate in the perpendicular DF.
From the point D, as a centre, describe
arcs from the points which terminate in
DF, to meet the line of slope DE in the
points m, I, k, E. Draw the lines mr, Is, ht,
EF parallel to AB, meeting the perpendi-
cular DF in the points rstF ; transfer the
distances rm, tk, wP from n to b', from o
to c'y from a' to s', and through the points
A'b'c'd'e'B' draw the curve. Find the
extrados or outer line Dfghi in a manner
similar to that in which the inner curve
has been found. Draw the points &'/', c'g',
d'h, e'i. Prolong AH and BG to K and Fig. GSI.
L, and draw the lines b'b, c'c, d'd parallel to AK.
1977. To make the straight arches. Draw KL perpendicular to A'K, and produce KL to
/'and/. Transfer the distances between the points m, I, k, E, and the line QD to the
ordinates of the lower arc from b to v, from c
to zv, from d to x, and from e to y, and draw
the curve KvwxyL. Also find the outer curve in
the same manner, and draw VT at right angles
to AH.
1978. To find the moulds of the sofites. Draw
the line WX (fig. 652.) in any convenient sur-
face, and lay the breadths of sofite, not from the
arc ABC as before, but from those of the right
arc KvicxyL, that is, transfer the distance K«,
ww, wx, xy, yL to the line WX upon Wa, a&, be,
cd, and dX. Through the points WabcdX, draw
the lines dy, ei, fk, yl, hm, yz, perpendicular to
Fig. 652.
CHAP. Ill
MASONRY.
533
WX. Transfer the distances 1 A, 26', 3c', 4d', 5e' upon the perpendiculars to WX : that
is, from a to e, from 6 to/, from c to g, from d to A, and from X to y, and join de, ef,fg, gh,
hy. In the same manner draw the line yiklmz, which will complete the sofites.
1979. To find the moulds of the joints. Transfer the distances v&, wy, xS, ye, to the line
X W from a to o, from 6 to & from c to % and from d to 5, and through the points, o, £, 7, S
draw the lines nr, os, pt, Su perpendicular to WX. Find the points n, o, p, q, as also, r, s, t, u, as
in the preceding examples ; then the moulds of the joints will be eirn, fkso, ptlg, hSum. It
must be observed that the boundaries, or extrados and intrados, DRI, ACB of the ring of
the arch, do not stand in a plane perpendicular to the plan, but are supposed to be the
lines which are drawn on the wall itself; and this is the reason why arcs are described
between the perpendiculars DF and the line of slope DE. It must also be observed, that
the voussoirs of this arch must be cut by the moulds of the heads of the straight arch, and
the moulds of the sofite must be applied on the voussoirs before the sofite is hollowed.
Thus, let the first voussoir on the right hand be cut by the head mould on that face of the
stone intended for the sofite ; apply the first sofite mould, and its upper bed the first joint
mould, and on its under bed the plan of the impost. Then cut the two heads according
to these moulds, and hollow the sofite square to its arrisses, using for this purpose the
curved bevel.
1980. To find the moulds for executing a semicircular-headed arch in a mass of masonry, of
which one of its faces is a battering plane upon an oblique plan, and the other opposite face a
portion of a cylindric surface. Describe
the intrados and extrados of the eleva-
tion ; draw the joints and describe the
plan a'b'c'd'e'f of the intrados (fig. 653.),
and the plan Eg'h'i'k'T) of the extrados.
Draw BR' perpendicular to AB, and
draw BS', the portion of the cylindric
surface. From the arc BS' draw the
plan a'l'm'n'o'f of the intrados upon the
line TU, and the plan Tp'q'r's'V of the
extrados in the same manner from the
arc BS, as the plan of the plane face
was drawn from the line of slope AS.
1981. To find the plan of any joint,
as that for the line or joint ch in the
elevation. Bisect ch in v, draw cm', vw',
and hq' perpendicular to AB, intersecting
the line VD in the points quc. From
the points cvh, in the joint ch, draw cc,
vv, hh, meeting the line AS in the points
cvh, and intersecting the line AR in the
points 1,3,2 by three intervals, 1 c, 30, Fi(f 653>
2h. Find the places hvc of the three
points hvc on the elevation. In the same manner find the places q'w'm' of the three cor-
responding points ; then will c'v'h'q'w'm' be the plan of the joint required. The plans of the
other joints will be found in the same manner.
1982. To find the joint mould itself. Draw the line HI (fig. 654.) equal in length to the
developement of the intrados, and let He
be the developement of the arc crc ; draw
cm" perpendicular to HI. Draw any line
WX in the plan parallel to VD, inter-
secting the lines cm', v'w', h'q', in the
points 1,2, 3. Draw WX' in the deve-
lopement or sofite parallel to HI, and
at the same distance from HI that WX
is from VD in the plan, and let WX in- *"
tersect the line c"m" in 1 . Make the
distances 1 — 2, 2 — 3 respectively equal
to cv, vh, in the joint ch in the elevation,
and through the points 1,2,3, just found, Fis- 654-
draw VW, h"q", parallel to C'm". From the plan transfer the distances 2v', 2w', ?,h', 3g" to the
sofite from 2 to V, and from 2 to W ; also from 3h" and from 3 to g the points cvp" will be
in a straight line, because they correspond to the straight face of the wall, and the points
m", iv, q" will be in a curve, because they correspond to the cylindric surface. Draw, there-
fore, the straight line c"h", and draw the curve line m"wq", which will be a portion of an
ellipsis, differing in its curvature but in a very small degree from that of a circle drawn
through the same three points. However, if more exactness be required, we may find as
M m 3
5:34
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
many points in the joints of the surface of the wall and in the cylindric surface as we please ;
then c"m"p"h" is the joint required, which serves for the upper and under beds of the two
stones that unite together in that joint.
1 983. Find all the other joint moulds b"l"p"g'', d'n"v"t", e"o"s"k", in the same manner,
and find the points a"f" in the developement. Through the points a"b"c"d"e"f" draw a
curve line by hand, or by a ruler bent to the points, and this will be the front curve of the
sorite. Find the points k"p" in the developement corresponding to the points a' and/ on
the plan, and through the points corresponding to the points a and / on the plan, and
the points k"l"m"n"o"p", draw another curve, which will be the developement of the
other side of the sofite. The developements of each of the parts of the sofite and of the
two adjacent joint moulds give the three moulds for working one stone and the adjacent
joints of the stone on each side of it. The angle which each of these joints makes with the
sofite is found by making a bevel with one of its edges, circular for the intrados of the arc
of the elevation, and the other to coincide with the joint line adjacent.
1 984. To find the moulds for executing a gateway in the quoin of a sloping wall. Let
ABCD (fig. 6 55.) be the plan of the angle
in which the arch is to be constructed,
whereof AB is the span. Draw the centre
line EL, to which draw the perpendicular
FG. Prolong the line CAto F, and DB
to G ; then from the point L, as a centre,
describe the sofite FH G and its extrados.
Divide these arcs into equal parts for the
arch stones, and from the divisions let fall
perpendiculars, and also from the middle
of the sofites to EC, ED. From the sum-
mits of the perpendiculars draw lines pa-
rallel to FG terminated by the lines of slope
Set off the slope at the different heights
al, a2, a3, a4 respectively at right angles
to the lines on the plan, on d\ , b2, d3, 64,
jC5 ; also on the opposite side. lay a2, a4
on d2, 64 ; then on one side draw the curve
A66K, and on the other, to abridge the
work, join B6, 66, 6K. Again, for the
outer curve, or extrados, set off cl, c2, cG
on di, d2, N3. On both sides draw the
curve McWO on the one side, and to
abridge the labour, draw the straight lines
Od, dd, rfN.
1 985. To find the moulds of the sofites.
Draw the line PQ, (fig. 656.), on which lay
the arc of the sofite FHG in the usual
manner, making the points 1, 2, 3, which correspond to the points dividing such arc into equal
parts ; then on the lines of the sofite lay the distances
FA, fb, ffb, hb, LK, on PR, Ik, 21, 3m, 4m, QS, and
trace the front curve of the sofite RklmnS. Also repeat
the same on the other side where there is only a straight
line drawn from one sofite curve to another.
1 986. To find the back curve of the sofite. Lay the dis-
tances eo,fp, gq, kr, LE on PT, 10, 2t, 3u, 4v, QU, and trace
the curve TotuvU.
1987. To find the moulds of the beds or joints. The
sofite lines to which the beds belong are 2t and 4v.
Draw the straight lines eb, fd parallel to QU, respectively distant from 2t, 4v by the
breadth GI of the joint, and let the lines be, fd meet PQ, in e and /; make ea equal
to gd, and ab equal to dw, and join al, bt ; make fc equal to hd, and cd equal to dx, and
join nc, vd. To trace the stones by moulds, prepare the voussoirs with the head of the
moulds of the straight arch FHG. The sofite should be hollowed in each voussoir by
its particular mould : the rest is done as usual ; but it must be observed, that if the
sofite moulds are made with straight lines in front and near the sofite, it must not be hol-
lowed till the last. The voussoirs may be worked by bevels, preparing the stones by the
plans ACVM, BDWO, as for common imposts. Although the arch in each front be not
absolutely necessary here, we shall give the method of constructing it. Let the line mn
be drawn apart, on which lay the distances L5, L4, L2, LA on the lines ns, nq, no, nm
square to mm. Draw the perpendiculars op, qr, st, on which lay the heights of the joints of
the straight arch taken on the line of slope ; that is, lay 12, on op, 14 on qr, 15 on st, and
Fig. 656.
CHAP. III.
MASONRY.
535
draw the line nt, which is the slope. Then draw the curve mprt, and from the point n draw
the joint lines pv and rX. The centre of this gate is represented (in the upper part of the
diagram) with voussoirs, and the keystone placed behind to show the mitre of the centre.
The sofite moulds serve for curving the ends of the stone where the intrados meets the
surface of the two walls. It must, however, be observed, that, previous to the application
of the sofite mould, the concave surface of the intrados must be formed by a mould with a
convex edge, and then the sofite mould or moulds of developement must be bent into the
hollow, so that the two parallel edges may coincide with the corresponding edges of the
stone. The angles which the intrados makes with the joints are taken from the elevation
of the face of the arch. This elevation is no more than a section of the arch perpendicular
to the axis of the cylinder which forms the intrados.
1988. To construct a semicircular-headed arch in a round tower or circular wall. Let
ABDC (fig. 657.) be the plan of the tower. Bisect the
arc AB, and through the point of bisection draw EF parallel
to the jamb line AC or BD. Through any point a in EF
draw GH perpendicular to EF. Produce the lines CA and
DB to meet GH in the points G, H, and GH will be bi-
sected in a. From a, as a centre, and with the radius aG or
oH, describe the semicircular arc GFH. Also describe the
arc of the extrados and divide the arcs each into five equal
parts, and let fall the perpendiculars of the joint lines, and
those of the middles of the sofite curves to the inside circu-
lar line CED of the tower. Having extended the arcs of
the intrados curve on the line IK, and having drawn the
lines of the sofites and those in the middle of each sheet as
before directed, lay off the distances between the right line
GH and the circular outside line A6B, viz GA on IX and
on KZ, cd on ef, Vg on hi, Sk on Im, Mn on op, ab on qr ;
then trace the front curve on the sofite XrZ. To find the
rear curve, lay GC on IY, cC on eS, &c., by which the
rear curve will be obtained.
1989. We do not consider it necessary to pursue the
construction of the moulds, the operations being very si-
milar to those already given in the previous examples.
1990. To find the moulds for an oblique semicircular arch in a circular tower. The
construction of this differs from the preceding only in the bevel or obliquity of the tower ;
hence it requires no particular description ; only
observing, that the bevel causes the mould to be
longer on one side than on the other (see fig.
658.), as is evident from the plan ; therefore
the distances taken between the right line AB
and the circular line of the tower CDE, being
unequal, must be transposed each on its particu-
lar line of the mould and joint to which it cor-
responds in the sofite, that is, the distance AC
must be laid on FG, BE on HI, and so of the
rest. To work the stones, dress the beds, then
apply the proper moulds and cut the head and
tail circular as before. Trace the breadth of the
sofite on the upper bed, then hollow the sofite,
and cut the joints by the bevel.
1991. To construct an oblique arch in a round
sloping tower intersecting a semicircular arch within
it. This is nearly the same as the two preceding „
cases. On one side draw the line of slope (fig.
659.) AB, and on the other the arc CD. Draw
parallels from the divisions of the sofites and their
middles, as in the figure, in order to cut the line
of slope and arc. To work for the slope, set off
all the retreats comprised between the perpen-
diculars AH and the line of slope AB on the
perpendiculars of the sofite, square to the front
line of the tower F 1 9 G, as follows : Transfer
the retreat 9 — 10 on 1 9 — 20 by placing the com-
passes so that the line 19 — 20 would pass
Fig. 658.
through the centre of the tower, and the point 20 fall on the centre of the gate O 75,
and 7 — 8 on 17 — 18, and on 21 — 22 in the same manner (only terminated by the lines
M m 4
536
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
Fig. 660.
from the sofite instead of the centre line of
the arch), set also 5 — 6 on 15 — 1 6, and on
23 — 24, 3 — 4 on 13 — 14 and on 25 — 26, and
lastly 1 — 2 on 11 — 12 and on 27 — 28, and
through these points trace the sofite 28 — 20
— 11. The extrados is found in like manner,
and the middles of the joints 47, 49, 53 ; which
done, draw the plan of the joints 1 4 — 47 — 35,
18 — 19 — 37, 22 — 51 — 39, and 26 — 53 — 41.
1992. To find the curve of the plan which
terminates the tails of the moulds. Set the
projections of the buttress of the semicircular
arc at right angles to the inside line of the
tower ; viz. 64 — 65 on 74 — 75 ; 62 — 63 on
72—73 and on 76—77; 60—61 on 70—71,
and on 78 — 79, 58 — 59 on 68 — 69. and on
80—81 ; 56—57 on 66—67 and on 82—83 ;
then trace by hand the curve 83* — 75 — 66.
The curves of the extrados and joints are
found in the same manner.
1993. To find the moulds of the sofite. Draw the line of direction 94 — 84 (jig. 660.)
as before, below which set off the distances I — 11 or
84—85, K— 12 on 86— 87, L— 14 on 88— 89, M— 16
on £0—91, N— 18 on 92—93, O— 20 on 94—95. and
then trace the front of the sofite moulds 85 — 95 — 99.
To find the rear, set I — 66 on 84 — 33, K — 67 on
86 — 36, L — 69 on 88 — 100, M — 71 on 90 — 98, N —
73 on 92 — 97, O — 75 on 94 — 96, and trace the rear
curve of the mould 101 — 96 — 33.
1 994. To find the moulds of the joints. Transfer
P — 19 on 31 — 54, Q — 37 on 32 — 48, I — 47 on 42 — 52,
R — 35 on 43 — 40, and through these points trace the
front joint or bed moulds 93 — 54 — 48, 89 — 92 — 40.
To find the rear, make 31—50 equal to PV, 32—38
equal to Q.X, 42 — 46 equal to IT, and 43 — 34 equal to RS; which done, trace the
curve lines 97 — 50 — 38 and 100 — 46 — 34. The two other joints are found by the same
method. We do not consider it necessary further to multiply examples of the kind here
given : the latter sort, especially, rarely occur in practice ; and if they should, all that will be
necessary to master the operations will be E F
the application of a little thought and study.
1995. III. OF DOME VAULTING. In
whatever direction a hemispherical dome
is cut, the section A is always the same.
B represents one half (see fig. 661.) of the
same in the plane of projection. The con-
struction is sometimes such that the plan
is only a semicircle, as B, as in the ter-
mination of the choir of a church : in which
case the French call it a cul-de-four ; with
us it is called a semi-dome.
1996. Through the extremities of the
joints, and through the middle of each
sofite of the section A, let fall on the line
ab, perpendiculars, whereof all the distances
dc from the centre c will be the radii of the
arcs, which will serve for the developement
of the sofites, of the joints, and for the
construction of the arch stones. The me-
thod which follows, though it will not
perhaps give the sofites and joints strictly
accurate, will do so sufficiently for all prac-
tical purposes. Upon the developement
C make SC equal to the arc MDGC, then
set out to the right of the points of di-
vision the parts ST equal to st on the plan
B ; then raise through the points T
upon the line SC perpendiculars equal
CHAP. III.
MASONRY.
537
to the correspondents e, t, d of the plan B, and draw the curve ESD through the points so
found.
1 997. The sofites are terminated by four curves, whereas the joints have two right sides,
as DI, El, and DO, EO, and two curved sides, as II, DE, and OO, DE ; the widths
DI, DO of the joints are equal to DI, GE of the section; in one direction they are curved
only one way, but as respects their sofites they are so in every way. The heights of the
voussoirs are given by the section A, their bases on the plan B Thus G, I, in the voussoir
next the keystone, being the most opposite points, the base of it on the plan will be comprised
between the two arcs die, which answer to the perpendiculars let fall from G and I. The
base of the first voussoir, according to the first method, will be equal to the surface com-
prised between the arc ao/and the arc dse, which answers to the perpendicular let fall from
the point D.
1998. EF and GH are the diameters of the upper and lower bases of a truncated cone,
whose lower surface is hollowed out spherically. After working the voussoirs, so as to
make their bases such as we have just indicated, they must be worked to sofite moulds for
giving them the hemispherical form of the section ; after which the angles of the moulds
are joined by arcs parallel to the arrisses of each stone, or by applying a general mould of
the form of the section, that is, circular, of the radius of the dome.
1 999. For the pendentives formed in an hemispherical dome. The piers D and E are
supposed those of half the dome pierced by the pendentives. If we suppose the face or
elevation B (fig. 662.) to make
one quarter of a revolution
about the point A, we obtain
the elevations B and C.
Through the points of division
on the elevation C draw to the
arc AD right lines perpendicu-
lar to CA. On the extremi-
ties of these lines upon CA,
and from C, as centre, describe
arcs in the plan F, by which
the plan of the projection on F
is obtained, whose intersections
with the right lines drawn from
B will give the joints and faces
for the level beds. The lines
HF, FE, ED are right lines.
The spaces GAEF, FHIK are
pieces of cylindrical vaulting,
so that the only difficulty is in
joining to each of their vous-
soirs their correspondent parts
in ELMHFE.
2000. The elevation B gives
the height of the voussoirs ;
their bases, as seen in the preceding example, will be OPQRNO, GSTUVKFG. The
length of the keystone will be X Y, and a — A will be half its width.
2001. The part FQ,R is the plan of the springing stones of the pendentive in the eleva-
tion A. The remaining parts of the construction are sufficiently shown by the lines of the
diagram, which will be understood by the student if he has previously made himself
acquainted with the previous portions of this section.
2002. We should willingly have prolonged this part of our labours, if space had per-
mitted us to do so without sacrificing other and important objects. If the subject be one
in which more than the ordinary practice of the architect is called upon to put into execu-
tion, we refer him to Simonin, Coupe des Pierres, Paris, 1792, and Rondelet's Art de Batir,
which we have used with much freedom, and in which many more interesting details will
be found than we have thought it absolutely necessary here to introduce, though we be-
lieve we have left no important point in masonry untouched. We cannot close this section
without paying our tribute of respect to the masons of this country, who are among the
most intelligent of the operative builders employed in it. A very great portion of them
are from the north of the island, and possess an astuteness and intelligence which far exceeds
that of the other classes of artisans. We must not, however, altogether do this at the ex-
pense of those employed in carpentry, which will form the subject of our next section,
among whom there will be found much skill and intelligence, when the architect takes the
proper means of drawing it out ; and we here advise him never to be ashamed of such
means
Fig. 662.
538 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
SECT. IV.
PRACTICAL CARPENTRY.
2003. Carpentry is the science of framing or letting into each other an assemblage of
pieces of timber, as are those of a roof, floor, centre, &c. It is distinguished from joinery
in being effected solely by the use of the axe, the adze, the saw, and the chisel, which
are the carpenter's tools ; whereas joinery requires the use of the plane.
2004. Though necessarily of high antiquity, the very scanty information which Pliny
and Vitruvius have left us on the subject would merely show that the science was known
by the ancients. The roofs of Egypt present us with no more than flat coverings of massy
stone ; a pediment roof, therefore, would seem to have been among the first efforts of con-
structive carpentry ; and upon the pitch which this, then and since, has received in different
countries, we shall hereafter have to speak. The Greeks appear to have used carpentry in
the construction of their floors and some other purposes ; but in a country abounding with
stone and marble, it is not likely that wood was much used in the interiors of their build-
ings, unless where lightness, as in doors, for instance, required its employment. With the
Romans it was much more commonly used ; and from all that can be gathered, we may
consider them as the fathers of the science.
2005. Among the moderns it has been very successfully cultivated ; and, with very
few exceptions, we may almost assert that the works of Palladio, Serlio, Delorme, Sir
Christopher Wren, Perronet, and a few others, exhibit specimens which have scarcely been
surpassed in later times, notwithstanding the scientific form it has assumed in the present age.
2006. To the mechanical principles of carpentry we have, in Chap. I. Sect. XI. of this
Book, directed the attention of the student ; and to the section now under our pen
we should have added the heading Descriptive to Practical Carpentry, but that much of
what could have been said on that head has already been anticipated in our section on
Descriptive Geometry. Hence, in what follows, that which comes under such predicament
will be only given in particular cases, for the purpose of saving time and trouble to the
reader in the application of its principles to them. We must, here, also remind the reader,
that under the section of Mechanical Carpentry have been described the different sorts of
timber used for building purposes, their strengths, and the strains to which they are
subject and which they are capable of resisting ; and that therefore this section is confined
simply to putting pieces of timber together, so as to form the assemblage of timbers under
which we have commenced by defining the science. To do that properly requires great
skill and much thought. Considerable waste, and consequent expense to the architect's
employer, result from that ignorance which assigns to the scantlings of timber larger
dimensions than are absolutely necessary for the office of each piece ; insufficient scantlings
will bring the architect into trouble and responsibility ; and the improper connection of
the pieces will be equally ruinous to his reputation. The principles of practical carpentry
are, nevertheless, simple ; and though to form new combinations and hazard bold and
untried experiments in practice will require all the skill and science of a talented artist, the
ordinary routine of carpentering is to be learnt by a little application and a due exercise
of common sense.
2007. After these observations, we must introduce the student to the first operation
which in practice may arise. It is not every where that timber can be obtained in suf-
ficient lengths to stretch across the void he has to cover ; and it will in such cases be
necessary for him to know how one piece of timber may be so joined to another, for the
purpose of lengthening it, that the two pieces, when joined, may be as nearly as possible
equal in strength to one whole piece of timber of the same dimensions and length. This
operation is of great service to the builder, and is technically called scarfing. To perform
it, the joints are indented, and bolts are passed through the pieces within the length of the
indents, such bolts being confined above and below by means of nuts and screws. In
fig. 663. four ways are A B
exhibited of accom- 5 If-Jju^3 ? } , 1 !T )
plishing the object in ) , — -\_ ""*" ** j | jj i — •* }
question. A and B are
the methods usually
employed for joining
together plates, lintels, Fig. 663.
and ties, in which bolts
are rarely necessary ; but if such a method is used for scarfing beams, bolts must be em-
ployed. The stronger forms, which only should be used for beams, shown in C and D, are
not only in that respect such as should, on that account, be used for beams, but are exe-
cuted without loss of length in the pieces of timber. The length of the joints of the
scarfing may be increased at pleasure ; the diagrams are merely given to show the mode
of doing what was required. With fir, however, when bolts are used, about four times
CHAP. III.
PRACTICAL CARPENTRY.
539
the depth of the timber is a usual length for a scarf. Scarfing requires great accuracy
in execution ; for if the indents do not bear equally, the greater part of the strength will
be lost: hence it is improper to use very complicated forms for the indents.
2008. Pieces of timber are framed into and joined to one another, by the aid of
mortices and tenons, and by iron straps and bolts ; and oil the proper placing of these
depends the soundness of the work. If a piece of framing is to stand perpendicularly,
as in the case of partitions, without pressure from either side, the mortice and tenon
should be in the centre of the wood. But in the case of framing floors, in which
the pressure is on the upper surface, and entirely on one side, the mortices and tenons
ought to be nearest the side on which the pressure is, by
which the timber will not be so much weakened ; and
hence it is the constant practice to cut the mortices and
tenons as in figs. 664, 665. By the method shown in the
last-named figure, the tenon obtains more strength from
an additional bearing below, which is further increased by
the inclined butment above, called a tusk.
2009. The method of framing wall plates together at an angle, for the reception of the
hip rafter on the dragon, beam, and the angle ties for retaining the wall plates in their
places, is shown in fig. 666., wherein AB is the mortice cut for the tenon of the hip rafter
"I?
Fig. 664.
Fig. 665.
JL
Fig. 666. Fig. 668. Fig. 669.
shown \nfig. 667. Fig. 668. is one of the wall plates, showing the halving to receive the
other plate, and the cutting necessary for dovetailing the angular tie. Fig. 669. shows the
method of cutting the mortices and tenons of principal and hip
rafters ; another method being given \nfig. 670., and to be pre-
ferred where a greater resistance to thrust is sought, because by it
a double butting is obtained on the tie beam. Inasmuch, how-
ever, as in this last case the beam is cut across the grain to re-
ceive the rafter, the part left standing to receive the heel of the
rafter may be easily split away; to obviate which, the socket may
be cut, as at A, parallel to the grain of the wood, cd is the iron
strap for securing the rafter's foot to the tie beam, and keeping it
in its place. A plan of the upper part of the tie beam is given
Fig. 670.
at B, showing the socket and mortice of the section A in the last figure. C exhibits the
mode in which a king-post is strapped to a tie beam, with the struts and joggles.
2010. The most approved method of forming
butments (Jig. 671.) for the struts or braces, aa,
which are joggled into the king-post, is to
make their ends, which act against the joggle,
perpendicular to the sides of the brace ; they
will thus be kept firmly on their butments,
and have no tendency to slide. C is a section
of the king-post and tie beam, showing the
mode of wedging and tightening the strap,
with a single wedge, in order to draw the tie
beam close to the king-post. D is a section
of the same parts to a larger scale, and with
the introduction of a double wedge, which is
easier to drive than a single one, because there
is less action upon the cross grain of the wood.
2011. Straps in carpentry should be sparingly used. Professor Robison has very
properly observed, that " a skilful carpenter never employs many straps, considering them
as auxiliaries foreign to his art." The most important uses of them are, that of suspend-
ing the tie beam to the king-post, and of securing the feet of the principal rafters to the
tie beams in roofs.
201 2. Bolts are sometimes used for the last-named office, with washers and heads and
screw nuts, in which case the washers, nuts, and heads should be well painted, though
Fig. 671.
540 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
even then they are liable to rust. Wherever the iron work used for securing a system
of framing is exposed to the humidity of the atmosphere, it should be rendered
durable by frequent painting. Price (British Carpenter, 1759) observes thus: "There is
one particular that had liked to have escaped my notice, concerning the placing of iron
straps on any truss, thereby meaning to help its strength, which is by turning the end
square (as shown at ~E,fig. 671.). This method embraces the timber in such a manner, to
make it like a dovetail, which cannot draw from its place ; another observation is, to bolt on
your straps with square bolts, for this reason : if you use a round bolt, it must follow the
auger, and cannot be helped ; by this helping the auger-hole, that is, taking off the corners
of the wood, you may draw a strap exceeding close, and at the same time it embraces the
grain of the wood in a much firmer manner than a round pin can possibly do." The
example given by Price, however, for turning square the strap, is injurious to the rafter,
which must be partially cut to admit of it.
2013. The assemblage of timbers in a building, used for supporting the flooring boards
and ceiling of a room, is, in carpentry, called naked flooring, whereof there are three
different sorts, viz. single flooring, double flooring, and double-framed flooring. But before
entering on the particulars of either of the sorts, we will make some general observations
on the construction of floors, which require the architect's attention. FIRST, the wall
plates, that is, the timbers which lie on the walls to receive the ends of the girders or joists,
should be sufficiently strong and of sufficient length to throw the weight upon the piers.
SECONDLY, if it can be avoided, girders should not lie with their ends over openings, as
doors or windows ; but when they do, the strength of the wall plates must be increased.
To avoid the occurrence in question, it was formerly very much the practice in this
country, and indeed is still partially so, to lay girders obliquely across rooms, so as to avoid
openings and chimneys, the latter whereof must indeed be always attended to. THIRDLY.
Wall plates and templets must be proportionately larger as their length and the weight of
the floor increases. Their scantlings will, in this respect, vary to 41 by 3 inches, up to 7| by
5 inches. FOURTHLY. The timbers should always be kept rather higher, say half to three
quarters of an inch higher, in the middle than at the sides of a room, when first framed, so
that the natural shrinking and the settlement which occurs in all buildings, may not ulti-
mately appear after the building is finished. Lastly, when the ends of joists or girders are
supported by external walls whose height is great, the middles of such timbers ought not
at first to rest upon any partition wall that does not rise higher than the floor, but a space
should, says Vitruvius (lib. 7. c. 1.), be rather left between them, though, when all has
settled, they may be brought to a bearing upon it. Neglect of this precaution will induce
unequal settlements, and, besides causing the floor to be thrown out of a level, will most
probably fracture the corners of the rooms below.
2014. SINGLE FLOORING is con- _--. -v,-:^^.-;..- — ~ ^~~ ^=^-
structed with only bne series of joists
(as shown in fig. 672. ). In this way
of framing a floor, if a girder is used,
it should be laid as nearly as pos-
sible over the centre of the apart-
ment. A single floor containing
the same quantity of timber as a
double floor is much stronger ; but
the ceiling of the former is liable ^ HHILTJ
to' crack, and cannot be got to so
good a surface when finished. Hence, where the bearings are long, it is much better to
use double flooring.
2015. The scantlings of fir joists for single flooring are exhibited in the subjoined table,
and are founded on our own practice. The weight of a square varies from 1 1 to 1 8 cwt.
Length in Feet. Width in Inches. Depth in Inches.
6 2 6
8
10
12
7
8
14 2» 9
18 2£ 12
20 3 12
These scantlings may be varied if wanted, according to the laws laid down in the
section on Mechanical Carpentry. (1622. et seg.~)
2016. In fig. 672. AAA are the joists, and B the floor boards. The laths for the
ceiling are nailed to the under side of the joists AAA.
CHAP. III.
PRACTICAL CARPENTRY.
541
2017. In most floors, on account of the intervention of flues, chimney openings, and oc-
casionally other causes, it will so happen that the ends of the joists cannot have a bearing
on the wall. In such cases a piece of timber called a trimmer is framed into two of the
nearest joists (then called trimming joists) that have a bearing on the wall. Into the
trimmer, which is parallel to the wall, the ends of the joists thus intercepted from tailing
into the wall are mortised. The operation is called trimming. The scantlings of trimmers
and trimming joists may be the same as those hereafter given for binding joists ; or if to the
width of the common joists an eighth of an inch be added for each joist supported by the
trimmer, the depth being the same, the scantling will generally be sufficient.
201 8. When the bearing of a single joist floor exceeds 8 feet, a row of strutting pieces
should be introduced between the joists, by which they will be prevented from horizontal
twisting, and the floor will be stiffened. If the bearing be more than 12 feet, two rows of
stiffening pieces or struts should be introduced, and so on for each increase of 4 feet in
bearing. They should be put in, in continued rows, and be well fitted. Beyond a bearing
of 1 5 feet it is not advisable to use single flooring, neither ought it in any case to be used
where it is required to prevent the passage of sound.
2019. A double floor consists in its thickness of three tiers of timbers, which are called
binding joists (these perform the office of girders), bridging joists, and ceiling joists. From
an inspection of fig.
673. the construction
will be easily under-
stood. A A are the
binding joists, which
are the principal
support of the floor
on the upper side,
whereon BB, the
bridging joists are
notched ; which is
the best method,
though sometimes they are framed between with chased mortices. The binders, of course,
run from wall to wall ; and as for carrying the floor, the bridging joists, as their name im-
ports, are bridged on to them ; so the lower tier of timbers, called the ceiling joists, are either
notched to them, or are what is called pulley mortised into them ; that is, a chase is cut in the
binder long enough to allow of the tenons of the ceiling joists being obliquely introduced
into them and driven up to their places. The scantlings of timbers used in this method
are the same as those for doubled- framed flooring, of which, indeed, it is but a species.
2020. The dotible-framed floor differs only from the last-named by the binding joists,
instead of going from ~-^=— •- -.-
wall to wall, being
framed into large
pieces of timber
called girders (as
shown in fig. 674.),
wherein A is the
girder, B a binding
joist, C a bridging
joist, Da ceiling joist,
E the pulley mortice
for the ceiling joist Fig. 674.
D, and F is the floor. The great advantages of this sort of flooring are, that it prevents
the passage of sound between the stories, and enables the architect to make a solid ceiling.
2021. As in a double-framed floor the girders are the chief supports, it is exceedingly
important that they should be sound and free from shakes. The distances between one
girder and another, or the wall, should not exceed 10 feet, and their scantlings as in the
following table : —
Girders of the length of 10 feet should be 9 inches deep, 7 inches wide.
Fig. 673.
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
10
11
12
12
13
14
15
16
16
16
9
10
11
11
15?
12
12
13
14
542
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
Girders whose bearing exceeds 24 feet are difficult to be procured of sufficient depth, in
which case an expedient is put in requisition to strengthen a less depth. The principles
it involves will be explained under the head of roofs, namely, those of trussing them, an
operation which converts the girder within its own thickness into a piece of framework, for
the purpose of preventing the bending, or, as it is technically called, its sagging, which
produces an injurious horizontal thrust on the walls. This operation is represented in
Jig. 675. in two different ways, the lower portion of the diagram representing the plan.
-A'!
Fig. 675.
The girder is cut into two halves in the direction of its depth and length, between and into
which the truss is inserted, as shown. It is better that the truss posts A, and abutment pieces
B, should be of wrought iron ; the struts C may be of oak, or some stiffer wood than the
girder itself.
2O22. We now return to the subject of binding joists, which ought not to be more than
6 feet apart. The depths, if necessary, for accommodating them to the thickness of the
floor, may be varied from the following table by the rules already given under the sectioq
MECHANICAL CARPENTRY.
Binding joists of the length of 6 feet should be 6 inches deep,
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
4 inches wide.
4^
5
5\
6
61
7
The scantlings of bridging joists are similar to those already given for single flooring.
These, as well as ceiling joists, whose scantlings are subjoined, should not be more than
1 2 inches apart, and they require to be scarcely thicker than is necessary to bear the nails of
the laths fixed to them, for which 2 inches is quite sufficient.
Ceiling joints of the length of 4 feet should be 2| inches deep, \\ inch wide
6 3i li
8
10
12
— 4
— 5
The weight of a square of framed flooring with counter flooring varies from 22 to about
36 cwt.
2023. Though, perhaps, more curious than useful, we should not perform our duty to the
student, were we to omit a method of constructing floors with short timbers, where long
ones are not to be procured. Suppose it be required to floor the room ABCD (Jig. 676.)
Fig. 676.
Fig. C77.
CHAP. III.
PRACTICAL CARPENTRY.
543
Let four joists, as in the figure, be mortised and tenoned at abed, as there shown. Now
it is evident that these joists will mutually support each other, for each is supported
at one end by the wall, and at the other by the middle of the next joist. Fig. 677.
shows another mode of accomplishing the same object ; and many other forms would
immediately suggest themselves to the experienced architect. The expedient is of ancient
origin, inasmuch as our old master (so we delight to call him, notwithstanding the new
lights that modern critics have found to guide them), Serlio, has described the expedient
without any difference. In the fourth volume of Rondelet (Art de Batir), an author to
whom we are under infinite obligations, is described a floor executed at Amsterdam for a
room 60 feet square, of exceedingly singular construction, inasmuch as it is without joists
at all. Each side of the room is provided with very strong wall plates, whose angles are
secured with iron straps, and are rebated to receive the flooring, which consists of three
thicknesses of 1 1 inch boards. Of these thicknesses, the first is laid diagonally across the
opening, its ends resting on the rebates of the wall plates, and rising about 2| inches towards
the centre of the room. The next (second) thickness is laid diagonally at right angles to
the first thickness, and the two are well nailed together. In the third thickness, the boards
are laid down parallel to one of the sides of the room, and form the upper side of the floor,
being, however, well nailed to those below. The whole of them are grooved and tongued
together, forming a solid floor 4\ inches thick. In this example is an instance well worthy
the study of the architect, as respects a scientific connection of parts, and the great ad-
vantage of a well-disposed bond. The floor in question is, in fact, a thin plate, well
supported round the edges, the strengths of the plates being directly as the squares of
their thicknesses, equally strong to bear a weight in the middle, whatever their bearing ;
though if the load be uniformly distributed, the strength will be inversely as the area of
the space.
PARTITIONS.
2024. The framework of timber used for dividing the internal parts of a house into
rooms is called a partition or quartered partition. It is commonly lathed and plastered ;
when the spaces between the timbers or quarters are bricked up, it is called a bricknogged
partition. The weight of a square of common partition is rarely less than from 13 to
1 8 cwt. ; hence it becomes necessary to take care that partitions should not be set upon the
floor, without taking due precaution to relieve it of the weight, either by struts, braces, or
the formation of a truss in it. When a partition occurs in an upper story, under a strongly
trussed roof, it may be often advantageously suspended from the roof, and its weight thus
taken off from the floor below. If it have a solid bearing throughout its length, it
requires nothing but struts between the quarters ; but these are not absolutely required.
The scantlings of the timbers of a quarter partition should vary according to the extent
of bearing. Where that does not exceed 20 feet, 4 by 3 inches will be sufficient ; and where
it is "as much as 40 feet, the quarters should not be under 6 by 4 inches, that is, supposing
it to bear only its own weight. When it has to bear more, the scantling must, of course,
be increased accordingly.
2025. Fig. 678. represents a design for a trussed partition, with a doorway in the centre
I ii .1 ii i
Fig. 678.
Fig. 679.
of it : in which hh is the head, and A A the sill ; dc, dc the doorposts; gg the intertie,
Ad, Ad the braces ; fd, fd struts. Fig. 679. shows a method of trussing a partition in
which the doors are at the sides. It is obvious that additional strength may also be gained,
when wanted, by introducing a truss between the intertie and head of a partition. The
angle of inclination of braces should be about 40° with the horizon.
CARRIAGE OF STAIRS.
2026. The framed timbers which support the steps of a staircase are called the carriage.
They generally consist of two pieces inclined to the pitch of the stairs, called the rough
strings. When geometrical stairs consist of two alternate flights with a half-pace between
*hein, the carriage of the half-pace is constructed with a beam parallel to the risers of the
544 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
steps, whose joists are framed into the beam for the support of the flooring. This heam is
called the apron piece, and that which sustains the rough strings at the upper end is called
the pitching piece. The joists of the half-pace are sometimes turned into the pitching piece,
and sometimes bridge over it ; but the steps of both flights are always supported by string
pieces, as before. The upper ends of the string pieces at the landing rest upon an horizontal
piece of timber, called, as above, an apron piece. The scantlings of the strings, of course,
vary with the length of the inclined part. The depth given to joists of similar length will
be more than sufficient
2027. The first obvious consideration in constructing a roof is the slope to be given
to it, which depends on the climate against which it is to serve as a protection, and on
the materials to be employed in covering it. In hot countries, rain more rarely falls than
in temperate ones ; but when it comes, it descends very abundantly, which, added to the
temperature of the air, makes it unnecessary to give a great slope to the roof, from which
the water immediately runs, and the air dries it almost at the instant of the rain's cessation.
In cold countries the rain is more searching, the air is more impregnated with moisture,
and snow often lies for a long time on a roof; circumstances which require^ a greater pro-
portional slope to be given to it. Again, roofs covered with lead, zinc, or copper do not
require so great a slope as those covered with tiles or slates.
202S. Though among architects there does not appear to have been any fixed principle
by which the slope should be determined, we find that in different climates suitable slopes
have been adopted for similar materials. Thus in the southern parts of Europe we find the
roofs very flat ; whilst as we proceed into its northern parts the roof acquires a very con-
siderable elevation. We shall here transfer to our pages the notice of this subject in the
Encyclopedic Methodique, which we consider extremely important and interesting, inasmuch
as it shows that necessity was the parent of beauty in the inclination of the roofs of the
ancients ; and in the times of the middle ages it had some influence even in the production
and developement of the lancet arch.
2029. The researches and observations made respecting the roofs of a great many
ancient and modern buildings, situate in different countries, satisfy us that the slopes of roofs
which have lasted best are always proportioned to the temperature of the climate. Before
entering into the consideration of any law for determining the slope of a roof, it will be
proper to comprehend the meaning of the word climate as here introduced, which we shall
use in the same way as it is understood by geographers. According to them, the climates
of the globe are comprised under belts or bands, of unequal size, parallel to the equator. Of
them there are twenty-four between the equator and the polar circle, each of half an hour ;
that is, the length of the longest day of a place situated at the beginning of the climate is
always shorter by half an hour than that of the place situated at the extremity of the same
climate, or at the beginning of the succeeding one, proceeding from the equator towards the
polar circle. This difference in the length of the day, caused by the greater or less ob-
liquity of the tropic with the horizon, is one reason of the different degrees of temperature
of countries corresponding to the different climates. We are not, however, to assume that
the temperature will be exactly the same for all places under the same climate, since there
are many circumstances which tend to make a place more or less damp, in which cases the
slope of the roof should rather have a relation to a more northern spot. In the roofs of
the Continent covered with the hollow tile, as in the south of France for instance, less slope
is required than with the Roman tiles (see the word TILE in Glossary), which are in
sections alternately flat and circular; and these, again, require less slope than the common
plain tile or slate. From the observations that have been made, we find that the slope of
roofs covered with hollow tile, <Tj\J thus, of the south of France, should be after the
rate of three degrees for every climate, beginning from the equator and proceeding north-
ward, and that when the Roman tile is used, an addition of three degrees should be made to
such inclination ; an addition of six degrees, if covered with slates ; and of eight degrees,
if covered with plain tiles. According to this law, the table which will be presently sub-
joined has been constructed, and a comparison of it with ancient buildings gives a remark-
able corroboration of its value. Thus, at Athens, situated about the middle of the sixth
climate, the slope of a pediment would be about 16|°; and that of the Parthenon is
actually about 16° ; that of the temple of Erectheus, 15^°; of Theseus, 15°. In Rome,
which is about one third of the way up the seventh climate, the Roman tile requires an
inclination of 22°. The actual slope of the pediment of Septimius Severus is 23° ; those
of the temples of Concord and Mars Ultor, 23i° ; of Fortuna Virilis and the Pantheon,
24° ; and, of more modern date, the slope of the roof of St. Paolo fuori le mura was 23°.
2030. We shall now give the reader the table above mentioned. The argument at the
head of each column will render its further explanation unnecessary.
CHAP. III.
PRACTICAL CARPENTRY.
545
I
Covered with
1
Length of
City.
Country.
Climate.
longest
Day.
Hollow
Tiles.
Roman
Tiles.
Slates.
Plain Tiles.
h. ra.
deg. min.
deg. min.
deg. min.
deg. min.
Carthagena -
Spain -
VI.
14 42
16 12
19 12
22 12
24 12
Palermo
Italy - -
—
14 48
16 48
19 48
22 48
24 48
Lisbon
Portugal
— I
14 50
17 00
20 00
23 OO
25 00
Toledo
Spain -
—
14 58
17 48
20 48
23 48
25 48
Madrid
Spain -
. —
15 00
18 CO
21 00
24 00
26 00
Naples
Italy - -
VII.
15 2
18 12
21 12
24 12
26 12
Constanti-
nople
Turkey
—
15 4
18 24
21 24
24 24
26 24
Barcelona -
Spain -
—
15 8
18 48
21 48
24 48
26 48
Rome -
Italy -
—
15 10
19 00
22 00
25 00
27 00
Pau - -
France
—
15 20
20 OO
23 OO
26 00
28 00
Florence
Italy - -
—
15 22
20 12
23 12
26 12
28 12
Avignon
France
—
15 24
20 24
23 24
26 24
28 24
Genoa -
Italy - -
—
15 28
20 48
23 48
26 48
28 48
Bologna
Italy -
—
15 28
20 48
23 48
26 48
28 48
Bordeaux -
France
. —
15 30
21 00
24 00
27 00
29 00
Piacenza
Italy - -
VIII.
15 32
21 12
24 12
27 12
29 12
Turin and
Venice
Italy - -
—
15 34
21 24
24 24
27 24
29 24
Milan - -
Italy - -
—
15 36
21 36
24 36
27 36
29 36
Lyons -
France
—
15 40
22 OO
25 00
28 OO
30 00
Geneva
Switzerland
—
15 44
22 24
25 24
28 24
30 24
Dijon -
France
—
15 52
23 12
26 12
29 12
31 12
Zurich -
Switzerland
—
15 54
23 24
26 24
29 24
31 24
Munich
Germany -
—
15 58
23 48
26 48
29 48
31 48
Vienna
Germany -
—
16 00
24 00
27 00
30 00
32 00
Strasbourg -
France
IX.
16 2
24 12
27 12
30 12
32 12
Paris -
France
—
16 6
24 36
27 36
30 36
32 36
Ratisbon
Germany
—
16 8
24 48
27 48
30 48
32 48
Rheims
France
—
16 10
25 00
28 00
31 00
33 00
Nuremberg -
Germany
—
16 12
25 12
28 12
31 12
33 12
Manheim
Germany -
—
16 12
25 12
28 12
31 12
33 12
Havre -
France
—
16 12
25 12
28 12
31 12
33 12
Mayence
Germany -
—
16 18
25 48
28 48
31 48
33 48
Frankfort
(Maine) -•
Germany
—
16 18
25 48
28 48
31 48
33 48
Cracow
Poland
—
16 20
26 00
29 00
32 00
34 00
Valenciennes
France
16 22
26 12
29 12
32 12
34 12
Brussels
Belgium
—
16 26
26 36
29 36
32 36
34 36
Cologne
Germany
—
16 28
26 48
29 48
32 48
34 48
Antwerp
Belgium
—
16 30
27 00
30 00
S3 00
35 00
London
England
X.
16 34
27 24
30 24
33 24
35 24
The Hague -
Holland -
—
16 40
28 00
31 00
34 00
36 00
Warsaw
Poland
—
16 42
28 12
31 12
34 12
36 12
Berlin -
Germany
—
16 46
28 36
31 36
34 36
36 36
Hamburg -
Germany -
—
16 58
29 48
32 48
35 48
37 48
Dresden
Germany
—
17 00
30 00
33 OO
36 00
38 00
Dantzic
Poland
XL
17 8
30 48
33 48
36 48
38 48
Moscow
Russia
17 22
32 12
35 12
38 12
40 12
Copenhagen
Denmark
—
17 28
32 48
35 48
38 48
40 48
Edinburgh -
Scotland
XII.
17 32
33 12
36 12
39 12
41 12
Stockholm -
Sweden
XIII.
18 30
39 00
42 00
45 00
47 00
Peter sburgh
Russia -
XIV.
18 44
40 24
43 24
46 24
48 24
Bergen
Norway
—
18 44
40 24
43 24
46 24
48 24
" There is no article," says Ware in his Body of Architecture, " in the whole compass
of the architect's employment that is more important or more worthy of a distinct con-
sideration than the roof. The great caution is," continues our author " that the roof be
neither too massy nor too slight. Both extremes are to be avoided, for in architecture
every extreme is to be shunned, but of the two the overweight of roof is more to be re-
garded than too much slightness. This part is intended not only to cover the building, but
N n
546
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
Fig. 680.
to press upon the walls, and by that bearing to unite and hold all together. This it will
not be massy enough to perform if too little timber be employed, so that the extreme is
to be shunned. But in practice the great and common error is on the other side ; and he
will do the most acceptable service to his profession, who shall show how to retrench and
execute the same roof with a smaller quantity of timber ; he will by this take off an un-
necessary load from the walls, and a large and useless expense to the owner."
2031. We shall now proceed to a popular view of the strains exerted by the timbers of
roofs, referring the reader back to the section on Mechanical Carpentry for a more extended
and scientific view of them. Suppose (fig. 680. ), in
the simplest form of roof, the rafters (shown by
dotted lines) AB, CB to pitch upon the walls Aa,
Cc. Let the rafters be supposed to be connected
together at B as by a hinge, as also similarly con-
nected with the walls at A and C. Now if the
effective weight of the walls be not sufficient to resist
the thrusts of the rafters, as respects the height, thick-
ness, and situation of the centre of gravity of such
walls, taken as solid masses and moveable on the
points X and Y, it is manifest the rafters by their own
gravity will descend, and the walls will spread and
be thrown out of an upright, as in ab and cd, and
the rafters will take the places shown in the figure. It
has already ( Mechanical Carpentry, 1 633.) been shown
that the horizontal thrust of a pair of rafters thus
meeting each other, is proportional to the length of a line drawn perpendicularly from
the rafter's foot until it intersects a vertical line drawn from its apex. As the roof there-
fore becomes flatter, the length of the perpendicular increases. Hence, if AB and BC be
the rafters, and their weights be represented by their lengths, the weight or power of
thrust exerted by the rafter AB in the direction of its length will be represented by BO, and
the horizontal thrust by AO ; AO being perpendicular to AB. To secure, then, the walls in
their perpendicularity, which the thrust of the rafters tends to derange, a system of framing
becomes necessary. Thus, in fig. 681.,
a beam AC, which from the office it
performs of tying or confining the feet
of the rafters is called a tie beam, is in-
troduced across the opening, and into
this beam the rafters are framed. If
the tie is introduced above the level of
the walls, it is called a collar beam, as ac.
It is manifest that these beams exert
their power in the same way that a
string would, that is, that the principal
strain which they have to perform is in
the direction of their length, and hence, that for such especial purpose, if they be prevented from
sagging or bending, a small size or scantling will be sufficient, for we have already seen that
the cohesive power of timber is very great in the direction of its length. To take care
that the tie beam thus introduced
should be strained only in the direction
for which it is used, we are now led to
another expedient. The beam by its
own gravity, especially in a large open-
ing, would have a tendency to sag or
bend in the middle, and the more so if
its scantling be simply proportioned
to its office of a tie. To prevent this
a fresh tie is introduced called a king-
post DB (fig. 682.), by which the
beam is tied or slung up to the apex of
the principal rafters ; and this combination of a pair of rafters, a tie beam and a king-
post, is called a truss, and is the most important of the assemblages which the car-
penter produces. When the rafters are of such length that they would be liable of
themselves to sag down, supports aa are introduced at the points where such failures would
occur, and these supports are called struts, because their office is to strut up the rafter,
which they should do as nearly as the case will admit in a direction perpendicular to the
slopo of the rafters.
2032. It is clear that out of this last case a fresh system of trusses may arise as in
fig. 683., for from those points procured by the struts against the rafters, new rods may
Fig. 681.
Fig. 682.
CHAP. III.
PRACTICAL CARPENTRY.
547
Fig. 683.
No.l.
Fig. 684.
be slung for increasing the stiffness
of the tie beam ad infinitum in Theory,
but not in practice, because the com-
pressibility of the fibres of timber is
considerable in lines perpendicular
to their direction, and the contraction
and expansion of metal places a limit
to its use. This compression of tim-
ber deserves great attention on the part of the architect. We may lay down as a rule
in respect to it that the more the weights or pressures act in the direction of the fibres,
the less will be the compression.
2033. To exemplify this, fig. 684. shows in No. 1. the principal rafters of a roof
butting in an ordinary roof, against
the shoulders AB, CD of the king-
post, whose fibres, being vertical, are
compressed by the pressure against it,
on each side of the rafters, whereby
they approach each other, causing
the whole figure of the roof to suffer
a change. For by the action of com-
pression and its consequence the kingpost must descend, and with it, consequently, the tie
beam which is slung up to it. To remedy the inconvenience in roofs constructed of fir, the
kingpost is often made of oak, which is less compressible, a practice which should be
observed in all roofs of consequence. But cast iron kingposts are the best substitute where
the expense can be justified. In No. 2. the end is accomplished much more economi-
cally by housing the rafters in the head of the kingpost at the angle in which the rafters
meet, by which the fibres of the rafters butt against each other, bringing the compression
nearer to that which takes pjace in a post according as the rafters are less inclined to each
other, and the beam is then literally suspended from the vertical planes of the rafters at
their junction.
2034. When a roof (fig. 685.) is trussed by two upright suspending posts, which be-
come necessary in increased spans,
such posts, AB, CD, are called queen-
posts, and the piece between them,
BD, is called a collar, which acts as
a straining piece to prevent the heads
of the queen-posts moving out of
their places towards each other. It
will on mere inspection be seen that
this roof has three points of support, B, E, and D ; for by means of the struts AE, EC, a
new suspending point is gained from E for sustaining the tie beam between the points A
and C. It is also to be observed that the collar or straining piece BD performs in this
assemblage an office exactly the reverse of that which it does mfig. 681.
2035. The Mansard roof, so called from its inventor's name, and with us called a Curb
roof, frequently used for the purpose of keeping down the height of a building, and at
the same time of obtaining sleeping or other rooms in it, is shown in fig. 686. It may
be considered as primarily consisting
of four pieces of timber connected by
hinges at the points ABCDE. If
these, as shown by the dotted lines,
be inverted, they will arrange them-
selves by their gravity in such a man-
ner that when returned to their first
position they remain in a state of
equilibrium, which, however, in prac-
tice, is but a tottering one, and re-
quires additional expedients to pre-
vent the whole assemblage thrusting
out the walls ; and, moreover, to pre-
vent the upper rafters from acting by
their thrust to displace the lower ones.
To obtain these ends the first object
is to introduce the tie AE (fig. 687.) ;
and, secondly, the tie BD. It is to be understood that means are to be used, when needed
from their length, to prevent these beams from bending, similar to those already directed
in the cases of simple trusses. We have thus far endeavoured to explain in the simplest
way the conduct to be pursued for obtaining stability in the construction of a roof; but
Nn 2
Fig. 68.5.
Fig. 686.
548
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
Fig. 687.
before we proceed to the scantlings
of the timbers to be employed, the
reader must be informed that the
trusses to roofing, with whose na-
ture he has now become acquainted,
are placed only at certain intervals
(which should not exceed 10 feet)
apart, and are thus made to bear
the common rafters and the weight
of the covering, as well as to per-
form the office of suspending the
tie beam by which the walls are
kept together. Hence the rafters so framed in a truss are called principal rafters ; and
by the means of a purline A (Jig. D
688.), which lies horizontally
throughout the roofs length on the
principal rafters, they are made to
bear all the superincumbent load.
The purlines are in various ways
made fast to the principal rafters,
and upon it the common rafters
are usually notched down. Their
bearings are thus lessened, and Fj 688
less scantlings suffice for them.
They are received at their feet on a piece of timber (B in the figure), which runs longitu-
dinally along the sides of the
building. This piece of timber
is called a pole plate, from being
the uppermost plate in a build-
ing ; at their summits they abut
against a ridge piece D. When
a roof slopes each way, the space j^TA~A~~Ai A
enclosed between the intersection
of the slopes is called a hip (Jig.
689. ); and the longest rafters in it,
which are those at the angles, are
called hip rafters, and the shorter ones are named jack rafters, as A, A, A, &c.
2036. We have, at the beginning of this section (2007.), observed, that the use made of
bolts must be always in a direction as nearly as possible counter to the strain which the
pieces exert ; the method, therefore, of introducing them will, on due consideration,
be sufficiently obvious.
Before proceeding to lay before the reader some few examples of roofs suitable to dif-
ferent spans, as well as of some of magnitude which have been executed, it may be as
well to complete this portion of our labour, by giving some information on the scantlings
of timber for roofing, in which a medium, founded on our own practice, is introduced
between ignorant overloading, and fanciful theory.
2037. For roofs whose spans are between 20 and 30 feet, no more than a truss with a
king-post and struts will be necessary, in which case the scantlings hereunder given will
be sufficient.
For a span of 20 feet, the tie beam to be 9 in. by 4 in.
principal rafter, 4 in. by 4 in. ; struts, 4 in. by 3 in.
For a span of 25 feet, the tie beam to be 10 in. by 5 in.
principal rafter, 5 in. by 4 in. ; struts, 5 in. by 3 in.
For a span of 30 feet, the tie beam to be 11 in. by 6 in.
principal rafter, 6 in. by 4 in. ; struts, 6 in. by 3 in.
2038. For roofs whose spans are between 30 and 45 feet, a truss with two queen-posts
and struts will be required, and a straining piece between the queen-posts. Thus —
For a span of 35 feet, the tie beams to be 11 in. by 4 in. ; queen-posts 4 in. by 4 in. j
principals, 5 in. by 4 in. ; straining piece, 7 in. by 4 in. ; struts, 4 in. by 2 in.
For a span of 40 feet, the tie beams to be 12 in. by 5 in. ; queen-posts, 5 in. by 5 in. ;
principals, 5 in. by 5 in. ; straining piece, 7 in. by 5 in. ; struts, 5 in. by 21 in.
For a span of 45 feet, the tie beams to be 13 in. by 6 in. ; queen-posts, 6 in. by 6 in. ;
principals, 6 in. by 5 in. ; straining piece, 7 in. by 6 in. ; struts, 5 in. by 3 in.
2039. For roofs whose spans are between 45 and 60 feet, two queen-posts are required,
and a straining piece between them ; struts from the larger to the smaller queen-posts, and
struts again from the latter.
Fig. 689.
the king-post, 4 in. by 4 in. ,
; the king-posts, 5 in. by 5 in. ;
the king-post, 6 in. by 6 in. ;
CHAP. III.
PRACTICAL CARPENTRY.
549
For a span of 50 feet, tie beams, 13 in. by 8 in. ; queen-posts, 8 in. by 8 in. ; small queens,
8 in. by 4 in. ; principals, 8 in. by 6 in. ; straining piece, 9 in. by 6 in ; struts,
5 in by 3 in.
For a span of 55 feet, tie beams, 14 in. by 9 in. ; queen-posts, 9 in. by 8 in. ; small queens,
9 in. by 4 in. ; principals, 8 in. by 7 in. ; straining-piece, 10 in. by 6 in. ; struts,
5^ in. by 3 in.
For a span of 60 feet, tie beams, 15 in. by 10 in. ; queen-posts, 10 in. by 8 in. ; small
queens, 1 0 in. by 4 in. ; principals, 8 in. by 8 in. ; straining piece, 1 1 in. by 6 in. ;
struts, 6 in. by 3 in.
2040. The scantlings of purlines are regulated principally by their bearing ; and though
we have subjoined scantlings for bearings of 1 2 feet, such should be avoided by not allowing
the distances between the trusses to exceed 10 feet. Thus —
For a bearing of 6 feet, the scantling of the purline should be 6 by 4.
8 feet, 7 by 5.
10 feet, 8 by 6.
12 feet, 9 by 7.
For common rafters the scantlings are as follow ; 12 feet should be the maximum of the
bearing.
For a bearing of 8 feet the scantling of the rafter should be 4 by
10 feet, 5 by
12 feet, — 6 by 21.
2041. By a study of the roofs which follow as examples, the architect will be led to
other expedients and modifications of the forms submitted to his notice, as circumstances
may call forth his ingenuity and talents. We have, we trust, already said enough to lead
him on. Where economy must be consulted,
the roof shown in Jig. 690. may be used; it
is only fit for a small building, and the span of
such a one should not exceed 25 feet. The left
end of the collar beam exhibits what is called
the carpenter's boast, but it partakes somewhat
of the rule joint, being worked out to a cen-
tre. But in roofs above 25 feet span it is Fig. 690.
not well to omit the king-post and tie beam, though, if particular strains are to be provided
against, even in such small spans the struts should not be omitted, and the form shown in
Fig. 691.
Fig. 692.
fig. 691. should be adopted, which will answer for spans at least up to 35 feet. In this and
other cases of larger span, it is often desirable that the common rafters should not stand
above the principals, and then the purlines are framed by mortices and tenons into the
principals, as shown at A (fig. 692.), wherein the line be shows the underside of the
common rafters notched on to the principals.
2042. From 35 to 45 feet, the tie beam should be suspended from at least three points,
or it will be unnecessarily heavy ; and this suspension of the tie beam, so that it may be
really a tie unsusceptible of alteration in form, is the true cause of this introduction of
king and queen posts, as we have before
explained to the reader. Indeed, as a
general rule, it is well that the distance be-
tween such points of support for a tie-beam
should not exceed 13 to 15 feet, without
expedients being used to prevent inter-
mediate sagging. Fig. 693. is the form of
a roof for a span of from 50 to 60 feet, in ^-^— • F;g. 693-
which is seen the connection of the roof with the walls.
2043. For spans above 60 feet we have not given scantlings of timber in the preceding
tables ; but such do not greatly increase beyond 60 feet with practicable spans, and enough
has been already said to make the reader acquainted with that part of the subject. Fig. 694.
is an example of a roof calculated for a span of 70 to 80 feet, and in Jig. 695. a passage or
other conveniency may be practised between the queen-posts.
Nn 3
550
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
Fig. 694.
Fig 695.
2044. In all the cases given, the roof is supposed to receive no support from any but
the external walls, and the trusses to be not more than 10 feet apart.
2045. We shall now proceed to offer a few examples of roofs that have been executed,
all of which have already appeared in works relating to the subject, as specimens of the
most instructive and useful class for the student. The reader who desires to extend his
inquiry into this branch of carpentry, and to become acquainted with a multitude of ex-
amples, is recommended to the celebrated work of Kraaft, Recueil de Charpente, and also to
Rondelet's admirable treatise U Art de Batir. The space to which we are limited pre-
vents the insertion of many specimens which we would have gladly published here. The
principles have, however, been so explained, that we trust the omission will not be felt. In
respect of Gothic examples, a reference to the section of Westminster Hall {fig. 1 96. ) will
exhibit one of the modes adopted to span the large ancient halls of the country. In them
the tie is rarely found connecting the feet of the principal rafters ; for such an arrangement
would have prevented the ornamental system which results from the substitution of a collar
for a tie beam.
2046. Fig. 696. represents a section of the roof of St. Martin's-in- the- Fields, Westminster,
-69 Feet.'
Fig. 696.
designed by Gibbs. The breadth of the building between the walls is 69 ft. ; from centre
to centre of columns the middle aisle is 39 ft. 1 1 in. The roof is well contrived and
framed ; but the timbers are stronger than they need have been. The scantlings of them
are as follow: — A, principal rafter, 13 in. by 10 at bottom, and 11 in. by 10 at top; B,
straining brace, 14 in. by 10 at bottom, and 11 in. by 10 at top; C, king-post, 9 in. by 9;
D, strut, 7 in. by 7^ ; E, queen-post, 8 in. by 9| ; F, strut, 7 in. by 7; G, tie beam, 14 in.
by 9^ ; H, post over the column, 1 4 in. by 9| ; I, brace, 7 in. by 7 ; K, brace, 7 in. by 7 ;
L, post, 8 in. by 9; M, hammer beam, 14 in. by 9|; N, brace, 8 in. by 8; P, post in the
wall ; QQQ,, purline rafters, 4 in. by 6.
2O47. Fig. 697. is a section of the roof to the chapel of Greenwich Hospital, constructed
-51 Feet.
Fig. 697.
by Samuel Wyatt, about 1785. The span is 51 ft., and as a variety from the general
forms of roofs, it is worth the student's attention. The scantlings of the timbers are sub-
joined ; the distance between the trusses is about 7 feet, and the king-posts are of iron. All
the joints are well secured with iron straps. A A, tie beam, whose whole length is 57 ft.,
51 ft. clear between the walls, 14 in. by 12 in. ; B, an iron king-post, 2 in. square ; CC,
CHAP. III.
PRACTICAL CARPENTRY.
551
queen-posts, 9 in. by 12; DDDD, struts, 9 in. by 7; E, straining beam, 10 in. by 7; F,
straining piece, 6 in. by 7; GG, GG, principal rafters, 1O in. by 7; MM, &c. purline
rafters for boarding upon instead of rafters ; H, a camber beam, supporting the platform.
2048. Fig. 698. exhibits the roof of the old Drury Lane Theatre, which was built in
Fig. 698.
1793. It possesses great merit, from the simplicity of its composition and the accommo-
dation afforded in the middle space for the carpenters and painters. By dividing the breadth
of the building into three parts, the roof was kept low, and the scantlings much reduced in
size. The span is 80ft. 3|in., the trusses were 15ft. apart, and the whole length of the
roof was 200 ft. It was destroyed by fire on the 24th of February, 1809. The scantlings
of the timbers were as follow : — A, beams, 12 in. by 7 ; B, principal rafters, 7 in. thick ;
C, king-posts, 1 2 in. by 7 ; D, struts, 5 in. by 7 ; E, purlines, 9 in. by 5 ; F, ridge pieces,
1| in. thick ; G, pole plates, 5 in. by 5 ; H, gutter plates framed into beams, 12 in. by 6 ;
I, common rafters, 5 in. and 4 in. by 2| ; K, beams, 1 5 in. by 1 2 ; L, posts, 1 5 in. by 12:
M, principal braces, 14 in. by 12 and 1 2 ; N, struts, 8 in, by 12; O, oak trusses to the
middle bearing of beams, 5\ in. by 4^; P, straining beams, 12 in. by 12.
2049. The last example we shall present is of the method in which the external dome
of St. Paul's is framed (fig. 699.). The internal dome Aa is of brickwork, two bricks
thick, having, at every five feet, as it rises, a course
consisting of bricks eighteen inches long, which serves
to bind the whole thickness together. This dome
was turned upon a centre, which rested upon the
projection at its springing, without any support from
below, and was afterwards left for the use of the
painter. It was banded together with iron at the
springing. Exterior to the brick dome (which has
indeed, nothing immediately to do with the subject)
is a cone of brickwork BB6, 1 foot 6 inches in
thickness, plastered and painted, part whereof is seen
from the pavement under the cupola through the
opening a. On this cone BB6 is supported the
timber work which carries the external dome, whose
hammer beams CC, DD, EE, FF are tied into the
corbels G, H, I, K with iron cramps, which are well
bedded into the corbels with lead, and bolted to the
hammer beams. The stairs which lead to the Golden
Gallery on the top of the dome are carried between
the trusses of the roof. The dome is boarded from
the base upwards, hence the ribs are fixed horizon-
tally at near distances to each other. The scantling
of the curve rib of the truss is 10 in. by 1 li at the
bottom, and 6 in. by 6 at the top. The sides of the
dome are segments of circles, whose ' centres are
marked in the figure ; and which, if continued, would Fis- 699.
meet at top, and form a pointed arch. Above the dome rises a lantern of Portland
stone, about 21 feet in diameter, and 64 feet high, standing on the cone. The whole of this
struction is manifest from the figure, which exhibits the inner and outer domes with the
cone between them. The combination is altogether an admirable example of the mathe-
matical skill and judgment of Sir C. Wren.
Nn 4
552
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
2050. The largest roof that was, perhaps, ever executed, was over a riding-house at
Moscow, built in 1790, by Paul I. Emperor of Russia, the representation whereof may be
seen in Kraaft, Recueil de Charpente. The span is 235 feet, and the slope with the horizon
about 19 degrees. The external dimensions of the building were 1920 feet long by 310
feet wide. It was lighted by a lantern at top, and had an interior gallery round the build-
ing for spectators. The contrivance is exceedingly ingenious ; but, from the great extent
of the span, considerable settlement took place, and alterations, or rather strengthening
ribs, became necessary.
2051. We shall close this part of the section with a diagram (fig. 700.) of the roof of
Fig. 700.
the basilica of S. Paolo fuori le mura, executed in the fifteenth century. The trusses are
double, each consisting of two similar frames, nearly 1 5 inches apart, at intervals from each
other of about 10 feet 6 inches. The principal rafters abut on a short-king post k.
Between the trusses a piece of timber S is placed and sustained by a strong key of wood
passing through it and the short king-posts. This piece sustains the beams by means of
another strong key at a. The tie beams are in two lengths, and scarfed together, the
scarf being held together by three iron straps. The scantlings of the timbers are as
follow : beams t, 22^ in. full by nearly 15 in. ; principal rafters p, 21 1 in. by nearly 15 in. ;
auxiliary rafters b, lull l'j% in. by full 13\ in. ; straining beam c, near 15 in. by full 12^ in. ;
purlines d, 81 in. square and 5ft. 7 in. apart; common rafters, full 5\ in. by 4|in., and
81 in. apart. The roof, which is constructed of fir, is nearly 78 ft. 6 in. span, and is
covered with the Roman tile, the exact dimensions and form whereof will be found, under
the head TILE, in the Glossary appended to this work. The roof is ingeniously and well
contrived, and, with a different covering, would suit other climates. It was consumed by
fire in the month of July, 1823. (275.)
Philibert Delorme, in his work entitled " Nouvelles Inventions pour bien bdtlr a petits
Frais" Paris, 1561, gives a mode of constructing domes without horizontal cross ties, when
the springing of each rib is well secured at the foot. It is a very simple method, and of
great use in domes, even of large diameter, the principle being that of making the several
ribs in two or more thicknesses, which are cut to
the curve in lengths not so great as to weaken the
timber, and securing these well together by bolts
or keys, and observing especially to break the joints
of the several thicknesses. This method was adopted
in the large Halle aux bleds at Paris, which was
many years since destroyed by fire, and has been re-
placed by an iron- ribbed dome. The fig. 701. will
explain the construction ; and, if necessary, an iron
hoop passed round at different heights will add much to the strength.
2052. The scantlings of the ribs, as given by Delorme, are as under : —
For domes of 24 feet diameter, the ribs to be 8 in. deep, and 1 in. thick.
36 feet diameter, 10 in. deep, and 11 in. thick.
60 feet diameter, 1 3 in. deep, and 2 in. thick.
90 feet diameter, 1 3 in. deep, and 2| in. thick.
108 feet diameter, 13 in. deep, and 3 in. thick.
The work of the author from which we have given this short and summary account
deserves the study of every one that seeks to be an architect, though in these unfortunate
days for the art the reward of study and reading is very doubtful ; patronage being of
much more importance to the professor than a profound knowledge of construction and
design.
2053. The following instructions relative to the lines necessary to be found in the
framing of roofs are from Francis Price's British Carpenter ; and though published
long since, now nearly 100 years, we have not found that any subsequent work on this
particular point gives us more information than is to be there found. Let abed (fig- 702.)
CHAP. III.
PRACTICAL CARPENTRY.
553
be a plan to be inclosed with
a hipped roof, whose height
or slope is Cb. Divide the
plan lengthwise into two
equal parts by the line ef,
which produce indefinitely
at both ends. Make ag
equal ea, and dk equal to
dfi and through k and g,
parallel to ab or cd, draw
lines indefinitely mo, Ip.
With the distance dc or Cc,
either of which is equal to
the length of the common
rafters, set off qe, as also from
h to p, from i to o, and from
fto n ; from k to m, and from
g to I. Make ts equal to Cb,
and ab equal to ta, which
points join ; then either aC or as represents the length of the hip rafter, and joining the
several lines aqb, bpoc, end, and dmla, they will be the skirts of the roof.
2054. To find the back of the hip. Join ge, and from r as a centre describe an arc
touching the hip as, and cutting at in u. Then join gu and ue, and gue is the back of the
hip rafter required.
2055. Fig. 703. represents, in abed, the plan of a building whose sides are bevel to each
other. Having drawn the
central line ef indefinitely,
bisect the angle rag by the
line ae, meeting ef in e.
From e make eg equal to re,
and rg perpendicular to ea ;
then, if e a be made equal
to ea, ra or aq, it will be the
length of the hip rafter from
the angle a. Through e
and /, perpendicular to the
sides db, ca, draw the lines
np, mq indefinitely ; and from
a, as a centre with the radius
aq, describe an arc of a cir-
cle, cutting mq in q, and er
(perpendicular to bo) pro-
duced in 7. By the same
kind of operation oc will be
Fig. 703.
found, as also the other parts of the skirts of the roof. The lines nt, tfv, and vp are intro-
duced merely to show the trouble that occurs when the beams are laid bevel. The angle of
the back of the hip rafter, rwg, is found as before, by means of M as a centre, and an arc of a
circle touching aq. The backs of the other hips may be found in the same manner.
2056. Fig. 704., from Price's Carpentry, is the plan of a house with the method of placing
the timbers for the roof with the upper part of the elevation above, which, after a perusal of
the preceding pages, cannot fail of being understood. The plan F is to be prepared for a
roof, either with hips and vallies, or with hips only. The open spaces at G and H are
over the staircases : in case they cannot be lighted from the sides, they may be left to be
finished at discretion. The chimney flues are shown at IKLMNO. Then, having laid
down the places of the openings, place the timbers so as to "lie on the piers, and as far as
possible from the flues ; and let them be so connected together as to embrace every part of
the plan, and not liable to be separated by the weight and thrust of the roof. P is a
trussed timber partition, to discharge the weight of the roof over a salon below.
2057. Q, is the upper part of the front, and R a pediment, over the small break, whose
height gives that of the blank pedestal or parapet S. Suppose T to represent one half of
the roof coming to a point or ridge, so as to span the whole at once, " which," as Price
truly observes, "was the good old way, as we are shown by Serlio, Palladio," &c., or
suppose the roof to be as the other side U shows it, so as to have a flat or sky-light over the
lobby F, its balustrade being W; or we may suppose X to represent the roof as spanning the
whole at three times. If X be used, the valley and hip should be framed as at Y ; if as T,
the principal rafters must be framed as at Z, in order to bring part of the weight of the roof
and covering on the partition walls. The remainder needs not further explanation.
554
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
Fig. 704.
RIBS FOR GROINS, ETC.
2058. We shall now proceed to the method of forming the ribs for groined arches,
niches, &c. The method of finding the shape of these is the same,
whether for sustaining plastering or supporting the boarding of
centres for brick or stone work, except that, for plaster, the inner
edge of the rib is cut to the form, and, in centering, the outer
edge. Groins, as we have already seen, may be of equal or un-
equal height, and in either case the angle rib may be straight
or curved; and these conditions produce the varieties we are
about to consider.
2059. To describe the parts of a groin where the arches are cir-
cular and of unequal height, commonly called WELSH GROINS. We
here suppose the groin to be right-angled. Let AB (fig. 705.)
be the width of the greater arch. Draw BD at right angles to
AB, and in the straight line BD make CD equal to the width
of the lesser arch. Draw DF and CE perpendicular to BD and
EF parallel to BD. On AB describe the semicircle Eg hi A, and
on EF describe the semicircle EgroF. Produce AB to p, and
FE to m, cutting Ap in y. Through the centre x of the senv-
Fig. 705.
CHAP. III.
PRACTICAL CARPENTRY.
555
circle E^rsF draw ts perpendicular to BD, cutting the circumference of the semicircle in s.
Draw sp parallel to BD. From the centre y, with the distance yp, describe the quadrant
pm. Draw mi parallel to AB, cutting the semicircle described upon AB in the point i.
In the arc Bi take any number of intermediate points a, h, and through the points ghi
draw it, hu, av, parallel to BC. Also through the points ghi draw gk, hi, im parallel to
A B, cutting FE produced in k and Z. From the centre y describe the arcs kn, lo, cut-
ting AB produced in mo. Draw nq, or, parallel to BD, cutting the lesser semicircular
arc in the points q, r. Through the points q, r, s draw qv, ru, st parallel to AB ; then
through the points tuv draw the curve tuvc, which will be the plan of the intersection
of the two cylinders. The other end of the figure exhibits the construction of the framing
of carpentry, and the method in which the ribs are disposed.
2060. To describe the sides of a groin when the arches are of equal height and designed
to meet in the plane of the diagonals. Let of and al (fig. 706.)
be the axes of the two vaults, meeting each other in a, perpen-
dicular to of. Draw AB cutting af in w, and perpendicular to
al, draw BG cutting al in b. Make wA and wB each equal to
half the width of the greatest vault, and make 6B and bG each
equal to half the width of the lesser vault. Draw AH and BE
parallel to af, and draw BH and DF parallel to al, forming the
parallelogram DEHF. Draw the diagonals HD, FE. On the
base AB describe the curve BcdefA, according to the given height
wfof the required form, which must serve to regulate the form
of the other ribs. Through any points cde in the arc Bccfe/A
draw the straight lines cq, dr, es cutting the diagonal HD at q, r, s.
Draw qh, ri, sk parallel to al cutting the chord BG at the points
x, y, z, b. Make xh, yi, zk, bl each respectively equal to tc, ud,
ve, wf, and through the points Ghikl to B, draw the curve
GhiklB. Draw qm, rn, so, ap perpendicular to HD. Make
qm, rn, so, ap respectively equal to tc, ud, ve, wf, and through the
points D, m, n, o, p, H draw a curve, which will be the angle rib
of the groin to stand over H D ; and if the groined vault be right-
angled, all the diagonals will be equal, and consequently all the
diagonal ribs may be made by a single mould.
2061. The upper part of the above figure shows the method of placing the ribs in the con-
struction of a groined ceiling for plaster.
Every pair of opposite piers is spanned
by a principal rib to fix the joists of the
ceiling to.
2062. The preceding method is not
always adopted, and another is sometimes
employed in which the diagonal ribs are
filled in with short ribs of the same curva-
ture (see fig. 707.) as those of the arches
over the piers.
2063. The manner of finding the sec-
tion of an aperture of a given height cut-
ting a given arch at right angles of a
greater height than the aperture is repre-
sented in fig. 708.
2064. When the angle ribs for a square
dome are to be found, the process is the
same as for a groin formed by equal arches
crossing each other at right angles, the
joints for the laths being inserted as in
fig. 707. ; but the general construction for
the angle ribs of a polygonal dome of any number of
sides is the same as to determine the angle rib for a
cove, which will afterwards be given.
2065. When a circular-headed window is above the
level of a plane gallery ceiling, in a church for example,
the cylindrical form of the window is continued till it
intersects the plane of the ceiling. To find the form
of the curb or pieces of wood employed for completing
the arris, let dp (fig. 709.) be the breadth of the window
in the plane of the ceiling. Bisect dp in h, and draw 7*4
perpendicular to dp. Make A4 equal to the distance the
curb extends from the wall. Produce 4/< to B. Make
Fig. 707.
Fig. 708.
556
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
Fig. 711.
Fig. 710.
AB equal to the height of the window above the ceiling, and through the three points
d, B, p describe the semicircle ABC for the head of the window. Divide AB into any
number of equal parts, as 4 at the points k, I, v ; an4 A4 into the same number of equal
parts at the points 1 , 2, 3. Through the points klv draw the lines et, fu, gw parallel to dp, and
through the points 1, 2, 3 draw the lines mg, nr, os. Make 1m, 2n, 3o respectively equal
to he, lf,vg; as also 1 q, 2r, 3s equal to kt,
lu, vw ; that is, equal to he, If, vg. Then
through the points dmno4, and also
through pqrs4, draw a curve which will
form the curb required. In the section X
of the figure, AC shows the ceiling line,
whereof the length is equal to A4, and
AB is the perpendicular height of the
window ; hence BC is the slope.
2066. The construction of a niche,
which is a portion of a spherical surface,
and stands on a plan formed by the seg-
ment of a circle, is simple enough ; for
the ribs of a niche are all of the same
curvature as the plan, and fixed (fig.
710.) in planes passing through an axis
corresponding to the centre of the sphere
and perpendicular to the plane of the
wall. If the plan of the niche be a
semicircle (fig- 711.) the ribs may be disposed in vertical planes.
2067. In the construction of a niche where the ribs are disposed in planes perpendicular
to the horizon or plan, and perpendicular to the face of the wall, if the niches be spherical
all their ribs are sections of the sphere, and are portions of the circumferences of different
circles. If we complete the whole
circle of the plan (./fy.712.), and pro-
duce the plan of any rib to the opposite
side of the circumference, we shall
have the diameter of the circle for
that rib, and, consequently, the radius
to describe it.
2068. Of forming the boards to
cover domes, groins, 8fc. The prin-
ciples of determining the develope-
ment of the surface of any regular
solid have already been given in
considerable detail. In this place we
have to apply them practically to
carpentry. The boards may be ap-
plied either in the form of gores or in
portions of conic surfaces ; the latter Fig 712
is generally the more economical method.
2069. To describe a gore that shall be the form of a board for a dome circular on the plan.
Draw the plan of the dome ABD (fig, 713.), and its diameter BD and Ae a radius per-
pendicular thereto. If the sections of the dome about to be described be semicircular,
then the curve of the vertical section will coincide with that of the plan. Let us suppose
the quadrant A B to be half of the vertical section, which may
be conceived to be raised on the line Ae as its base, so as to be
in a vertical plane, then the arc AB will come into the sur-
face of the dome. Make Ai equal to half the width of a board
and join ei. Divide the arc AB into any number of equal parts,
and through the points of division draw the lines If, 2j, 3k, 41,
cutting Ae in the points efgh and ei in the points ijkl Produce
the line eA to s, and apply the arcs Al, 12, 23, 34 to Am, mo, oq
in the straight line As. Through the points mnoq draw the
straight lines tn, up, vr, and make mn, op, qr, as also mt, ou, qv,
respectively equal to ei,fj, gk; then through the points inpr to
s, and also through the points xtuv to s, draw two curves from
the points x and i so as to meet each other in s ; and the curves
thus drawn will include one of the gores of the dome, which will
be a mould for drawing the boards for covering the surface.
2070. In polygonal domes the curves of the gore will bound
the ends of the boards ; as, for example, in the hexagonal dome
Fig. 714.
Fig. 713.
CHAP. III.
PRACTICAL CARPENTRY.
557
(fig. 714.), the plan being ABCDEFGH. Let » be the centre of the circle in which the
hexagon may be inscribed. Draw the half diagonal iA, iB, iC perpendicular to any side
AB of the plan. Draw the straight line ih, cutting AB in A. Let hlmZ be the outline of
one of the ribs of the dome, which is here supposed to be the quadrant of a circle. Divide
the arc hZ into any number of equal parts from h at the points Imn, and through these
points draw Ix, my, nz, cutting Bi at the points xyz, and ih at the points 1, 2, 3. Extend
the arcs hi, Im, mn, on the line hn, from
h to o, from c to p, from p to q, and
through the points opq draw the straight
lines ru, sv, tw perpendicular to hn. Make
ou, pv, qw, as also or, ps, qt, respectively
equal to 1 x, C2y, 3z ; then through the
points Arst draw a curve, and through
the points uvw draw another curve,
meeting the former one in the point n.
Thus will be formed the gore or cover-
ing of one side of the hexagonal dome.
2071. When the plan of the base is
a rectangle, as fig. 715., draw the plan
ABCD and the diagonals AC and BD,
cutting each other in E. Through E
draw El perpendicular to AB cutting
AB in F, and through E draw EJ per- Fig. 715.
pendicular to BC, cutting BC in G. Let the height of the dome be equal to half its
breadth, and the section over the straight line EF a quadrant of a circle; then from the
centre E describe the arc FH, its base being EF, and with the straight line EG as half
the major axis of an ellipsis, and EF the minor axis, describe the quadrant GF of an ellipsis.
Produce EF to I, and EG to J. Divide the arc of a quadrant FH from F into any
number of equal parts, and extend the parts on the line FI to him, through which draw
the lines kq, Ir, ms, &c. perpendicular to FI. Through the points 1 , 2, 3, &c. draw wt, xu,
yv, &c., cutting AE at w,x,y, and FE at t,u,v. Make k'n', I'o', m'p', also kq, Ir, ms, respec-
tively equal to tw, ux, vy, and through the points n'o'p' draw a curve, also through the
points qrs draw another curve meeting the former in I; then these two curves with the
line AB will form the gore
or boundary of the build- « = = . ? 4 *
ing of two sides of the
dome. Also in the ellip-
tical arc GF, take any
number of points 1, 2, 3,
and draw the lines lw', 2x',
3y', parallel to BC, cutting
EC in the points w'x'y',
and GE in the points t', a',
vf. Extend the arcs Gl,
12, 23 from Gk', k'l', I'm',
upon the straight line GJ,
and through the points
k'l'm' draw the lines n'q',
o'r', p's'. Make k'n', I'o', Fi«- 716.
m'p', also k'q, I'r, ms' respectively equal to t'w', u'x', v'y , and through the points Bn'o'p'
draw the curve BJ, and through the points Cq'r's' draw the curve CJ ; then BJC will be
the gore required, to which the boards for the other two sides of
the dome must be formed.
2072. A general method of describing the board or half gore
of any polygonal or circular dome is shown in fig. 716. Let
DE be half either of the breadth of a board or of one of the
sides of a polygon, E F the perpendicular drawn from the centre.
Draw the straight line AB parallel to EF, and draw EA and
FB perpendicular to EF; then upon the base AB describe the
rib AC of the vertical section of the dome. Divide the curve
AC into the equidistant arcs Al, 12, 23, and through the points
of division draw the lines \g, 2h, 3i perpendicular to AB cutting
E F at ghi and DF at klm. Produce FE to V and extend the arcs
Al, 12, 23 upon the straight line EV from E successively to
the points opq. Through the points opq draw the lines or, ps,
qt parallel to ED. Make or, ps, qt respectively equal to gk,
hi, im ; then through the points r s t draw a curve, and DE V will
be the half arc or half mould of the boarding.
558
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
2073. To cover a hemispherical dome by boards moulded to portions of conic surfaces. Draw
a vertical section of the dome ABC (fig. 717.) and divide the circumference into equal arcs
Cd, de, ef. Through the centre E draw EB perpendicular to AC. Draw the chords Cd,
de, ef, and produce all these chords till they meet the line EB, which they will produced in a
convenient space; but those chords that are next to the bottom AC will require a distance
too remote from AC ; and for the present confining our attention to those chords which, when
produced, would meet the line EB at a convenient distance from AC, let ef meet the axis
EB produced in g, and from the point g as a centre with the distances^ and ^/describe the
arcs eh and fi. Then efih is the form of the board, so that its breadth is
everywhere ^comprehended between the two concentric circles eh and fi, and
when the boards are bent their edges fall on horizontal planes.
2074. We will here shortly repeat a method which has previously been
given of describing an arc of a circle independent of its centre, as connected
with this part of the subject, and useful in cutting out the boards of a dome
where the centre is inaccessible or too distant for convenience. Let AB
(fig. 718.) be the chord of the arc and CD its height in the middle. In this
case AB will be bisected at C by the perpendicular CD. Draw the half chord
AD, and perpendicular thereto draw AE, and through the point D draw
EF parallel to AB ; also draw AG and BH perpendicular to the chord AB
cutting EF in the points G and H. Divide AC and ED each into the same
number of equal parts, and draw lines through the corresponding points of
division; these lines will converge, and if produced with the lines EA and
FB, would all meet in one point. Divide AG into the same number of
equal parts as the lines AC, ED, and from the points of division draw lines
to the point D to intersect the former. A curve drawn through the points
of intersection will form the arc of a circle. The other part DB is found in
the same manner ; and this is a convenient method, because any portion of a
circle may be described within the width of a board.
2075. To find the relation between the height and the chord of the arc. Let abc,
&c. (fig. 719.) be the middle points of the boards
in the arc, and from a draw a line parallel to the
base to meet the opposite curve; also from these
points draw lines to the opposite extremity of the
base ; then each parallel is the base, as fa, and the
distances eg intersected between it, and the point
where the oblique line from its extremity cuts the
middle vertical is the height of the segment.
2076. It is, however, more convenient to describe
the curvature of the board by a continued motion,
which may be done as follows. Let AB (fig. 720.)
be the chord of the arc. Bisect AB at C by the
perpendicular CD, and make CD equal to the height
of the segment. Draw DE parallel to AB, and make DE a little larger than
AD ; then form an instrument ADE with laths or slips of wood, and make it
fast by a cross slip of wood GH. By moving the whole instrument, so that the
two edges DA and DE may slide on two pins A and D, the angular point D of
the instrument will describe the segment of a circle, and if the pin be taken out
of A and put in the point B, the other portion DB of the segment ADB will be
described in the same manner.
2077. The covering of an elliptical
dome is formed by considering each
part a portion of the surface of a cone.
ABC (_/igr. 721.) is a vertical section
through the greater axis of the base ;
the other vertical section through the
axis at right angles being a semicircle ;
the joints of the boards therefore fall in
the circumference of vertical circles.
2078. In the same manner the cover-
ing of an annular vault whose section is semicircular is found, being on the same principles
as now shown for a horizontal dome, which will be evident from an inspection of fig. 72'?.
Fig. 710.
Fig. 720.
Fie- "21-
BRACKETING.
2079. The pieces of wood which sustain the laths of cornices, coves, and the like, are
called brackets, and they take in form the general outlines as nearly as possible of the forms
to which they are to be finished.
CHAP. III.
PRACTICAL CARPENTRY.
559
2080. A cornice bracket of any form being given, to make another
shall have the same proportions in all its parts. Let A
ABCDEF (fig. 723.) be the given bracket. Draw
lines from the angular points CDE, and let Aft be the
projection of the required bracket. The lines AC, AD,
AE, being drawn, draw be parallel to the edge BC, cut-
ting AC in c; draw cd parallel to CD, cutting AD
in d. Draw de parallel to DE, cutting AE in e, and
draw ef parallel to EF, cutting AF in /. Then Abcdef
is the bracket required.
2081. To form an angle bracket to support the plastering
of a moulded cornice. Let fig. 724. X be the plan of the
bracket. Draw the straight line AE equal to the pro-
jection ab of the bracket on the plan X, and Aa per-
pendicular to AE, to which make it equal. Join Ea,
and on AE describe the given form AFGHIKLE of the
bracket which stands perpendicular to the line of con-
course of the wall and the ceiling. From the angular
points FGHIKL, draw the lines Fa, Gb, lo, He, Krf,
La", cutting AE in the points BCD, and aE in the points
a, b, c, d. Draw of, bg, ci, dk, perpendicular to aE. Make
af. bg, ch, ci, dk, dl, each respectively equal to AF, BG,
CH, CI, DL, DK. Join fg, gh, hi, ik, kl, ZE. Then
afghikle is the angle bracket
required.
2082. An angle bracket
for a cove (fig. 725.) may be
described in exactly the same
manner.
2083. When cove brackets Fig. 725.
have different projections, the
method of describing the angle one is shown in fig. 726. Let
AB, BC be the wall lines. Draw any line GD perpen-
dicular to AB and HF perpendicular to BC. Make GD
equal to the projection of the bracket from the wall repre-
sented by the line AB, and make HF equal to the pro-
jection of the bracket from the wall represented by BC.
Then, as one of the brackets must be given, we shall sup-
pose the bracket GAD described upon GD. Draw DE
parallel to AB, and FE parallel to BC, and join BE. In
the curve AD take any number of points Q, S, and draw QP,
SR cutting GD in P, R and BE in p, r. From the points
p, r draw the lines pq, rs parallel to BC, cutting HF in
the points/?, r. Draw pq, rs perpendicular to BE. Make
pq, rs also pq, rs respectively equal to PQ, RS, &c. Ba
and HC equal to GA, then through the points aqs, &c.
draw a curve which forms the bracket for the angle. Also
through the points C, q, s draw another curve, and this
will form the cove bracket.
2084. The angle bracket of a cornice or cove may be
formed by the method shown in X and Y (fig. 727.),
whether the angle of the room or apartment be acute or
obtuse, external or internal. Let ABC be the angle.
Bisect it by the line BE. Draw GF perpendicular to
BC, and make GF equal to the projection of the bracket,
GC equal to its height, and FC the curve of the given
bracket or rib. In the curve FC, take any number of
points PQ, and parallel to BC draw the lines Pr, Qs, cut-
ting BE in the points r, s, and GF in the points R, S.
Draw rp, sq perpendicular to BE, and make the ordinates
rp, sq respectively equal to rp, sq, and through all the
points pq, draw a curve, which will be the bracket as
required.
2085. When the angle is a right angle, it may be drawn
as at fig. 728., which is an ornamental bracket for the string
of a stair, and traced in the same manner as that on a right-
angled triangle.
similar one, or one that
Fig. 723.
Fi£. 726.
560
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
2086. In coved ceilings, the coves meeting at an angle are of different breadths,
plan of the angle is a curve to construct the brackets. Let
ABC (fig. 729.) represent the angle formed by the walls of the
room, and let Rdefg be the plan of the bracket in the angle
of a curvilinear form. Draw HM, and thereon describe the
bracket HOPQ intended for that side, and in the curve HOQ
take any number of points NOP, and draw the lines NR, OS,
PT perpendicular to AB, cutting it in the points R, S, T.
Let MQ, be the height of the bracket, and draw Q,A perpendi-
cular to BA, and through the points NOPQ draw the straight
lines Nrf, Oe, Pf, cutting HM at IKLM. Draw hm perpendi-
cular to BC. Make hr, hs, ht, ha respectively equal to HR,
HS, HT, HA, and draw rn, so, tp, aq perpendicular to BC ;
also from the points defg draw the lines dn, eo, fp, gq, and
through the points hnopq draw a curve, which will form the
other bracket required.
2087. Whether brackets occur in external or internal angles,
the method of describing them is the same, and when the
brackets from the two adjacent walls have the same projection,
one of them must be given to find the angle bracket. WThen
the brackets from these walls have unequal but given projections,
then the form of one of the brackets must be given in form to
find the angle bracket.
2088. To form a bracket for a moulded cornice. On the draw-
ing of such cornice, draw straight lines, so as to leave sufficient
thickness for the lath and plaster, which should in no case be
less than three-fourths of an inch. Thus the general form of
the bracketing will be obtained. Fig. 729.
and the
Fig. 728.
\p
L
^
L
/
e
N
r */
T S R .
1 ?
it-
f
7*
t
e
\
\
2089. We have, in a foregone page, mentioned a method of constructing domes with
ribs in thicknesses. We here present to
the reader two designs for dome-framing,
wherein there is a cavity of framed work
between the inner and outer domes ; with
moderate spans, however, simple framing
is all that is required. Fig. 730. A is a
design for a domical roof. B exhibits the
method of framing the curb for it to
stand upon, the section of the curb being
shown upon fig. A. The design here
given is nearly the same as that used for
the dome of the Pantheon in Oxford
Street, which was destroyed by fire. C is
another design for a domical roof, which is
narrow at the bottom part of the framing,
for the purpose of gaining room within
the dome.
PENDENTIVES.
2090. If a hemisphere, or other portion
of a sphere, be intersected (fig. 731.) by
Fig. 731.
cylindrical or cylindroidal arches, vaults
aa are formed, which are called pendentives.
The termination of these at top will be
a circle, whereon may be placed a dome,
or an upright drum story, which, if ne-
cessary, may be terminated by a dome.
Fig. 730.
CHAP. III.
PRACTICAL CARPENTRY.
561
The reader will immediately perceive that many varieties may be formed. Our object
here is merely to show how the carpenter is to proceed in making his cradling, as it is
called, when pendentives are to be formed in wood.
2091. To cove the ceiling of a square room with conical pendentives. Let ABC (.fig. 732.)
be half the plan of the room, and DFE the half plan of the curb, at whose top the ribs
are all fixed. The hyperbolical arches agb, bhc on each of the four sides are of equal
height. The straight ribs bf, ik, Im, &c. are shown on the plan by FB, IK, LM, &c.
The method of finding the hyperbolical curves agb, bhc will be explained in the following
figure.
Fig. 732.
2092. To find the springing lines of the preceding pendentives, the section in one of the verti-
cal diagonal planes being given. Bisect the diagonal LK (fig. 733.) at the point N by the
perpendicular NW, which make equal to the height of the cone, and draw the sides LW
and K W. Bisect the side MK of the square at a, and on N, with the radius Na, describe
an arc aA, cutting the diagonal LK at A. Then take any points B, C, D, between A and
K, and with the several radii NB, NC, ND, describe the arcs B6, Cc, and DC/, cutting
KM at the points d, c, and 6. From the points A, B, C, and D, draw AE, BF, CG, and
DH perpendicular to the diagonal KL, cutting the side WK of the section of the cone at
E, F, G, H. At the points abed erect perpendiculars ae, bf, eg, and dh to the side ML,
making each equal to their corresponding distances AE, BF, CG, and DH, which will be
one half of the curve for that side from which the other may be traced. The dark parts show
the feet of the ribs.
2093. Fig. 734. shows the method of
coving a square room with spherical penden-
tives, which a few words will sufficiently
describe. CD, DE are two sides of the plan;
AFB is half the plan of the curb. In the
elevation above is shown the method of fixing
the ribs (which, in projection, are portions of
ellipses) on two sides of the plan, ab is the
elevation of the curb AFB; cfd and dge are
ribs on each side of the plan supporting the
vertical ribs that form the spherical surface,
which vertical ribs support the curb afb. On
afb may, if necessary, be placed a lantern or
skylight ; or, if light be not wanted, a flat
ceiling or a dome may be placed. This pen-
dentive is to be finished with plaster ; hence
the ribs must not be farther apart than about
1 2 inches.
2094. For finding (fig. 735.) the intersec-
tion of the ribs of a spandrel dome, whose
section is the segment of a circle, and whose
plan is a square ABCD. Let DEFB be the Fis- 734-
section on the plane of the diagonal. First plan one quarter of the ribs, as at UC, TN
SL, RI, and Q.G, this last being parallel to DC or AB, the sides of the square; on V*
with the radii VG, VI, VL, VN, and VC, describe the arcs GPg, lit, LM/, Nvn, &c. cut-
O o
562
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK
ting the base DB of the angular rib
in g, i, /, and n. Draw gh, ik, Im, and
no, each perpendicular to DB, cutting
the diagonal rib at h, k, m, and o. Then
making the distances GH, IK, LM,
and NO equal to the corresponding
distances gh, ik, Im, and no, through
the points H, K, M, O draw a curve
which will be the under edge of that
for the bottom of the ribs Q,G, RI,
SL, TN, and UC, shown complete on
each side of the square plan. If each
of the circular segments on each side
of the square plan be turned up at
right angles to the plan A BCD, the
ribs will then stand in their true
position.
2095. We shall in this work confine
ourselves to the simplest forms of tim-
ber bridges, which, as well as those of *"**• 735<
stone, will be found fully treated of in the Encyclopaedia of Engineering, by Mr. Cresy,
which forms one of the series. As they mostly depend on the principle of the truss, where
the span is large, and this combination of timbers we have already explained ; so in stone
bridges the principle of construction of the arch is the chief matter for consideration, and
to that a large portion of this work has been devoted ; hence, on the part of the architect,
we do not resign his pretension to employment in such works, for which, indeed, as respects
design, his general education fits him better than that of the engineer.
2096. The bridge over the Brenta, near Bassano, by Palladio, is an example of a wooden
bridge (fig. 736.), which is not only elegant as a composition, but one which is economical
Fig. 736.
and might be employed with advantage where it is desirable that the piers should occupy
a small space, and the river is not subject to great floods. The same great architect, in his
celebrated Treatise on Architecture, has given several designs for timber bridges, the princi-
ples of whose construction have only been carried out further in many modern instances
He was the earliest to adopt a species
of construction by which numerous piers
were rendered unnecessary, and thus to
avoid the consequences of the shock of
heavy bodies against the piers in the
time of floods. Of this sort was the
bridge he threw over the rapid torrent
of the Cismone (fig. 737.) whose span
was 108 feet.
2097. Palladio has given a design
for a timber bridge (fig. 738.) which is
remarkable as having been the earliest
that has come to our knowledge, wherein
the arrangement is in what may be
called framed voussoirs, like the arch
stones of a bridge, a principle in later
uays carried out to a great extent, and
with success, in iron as well as timber
bridges. Fis- 738-
CHAP. III.
JOINERY.
563
2098. We shall conclude our section on practical carpentry with a method of con-
structing timber bridges proposed by Price in his Treatise on Carpentry, and one not
dissimilar in principle to the method of Philibert de Lorme, before mentioned. The
bridge (fig. 739.) is sup-
posed to consist of two
principal ribs ik. The
width of the place is
spanned at once by an
arch rising one sixth part
of its extent. Its curve
is divided into five parts,
" which," says Price, " I
purpose to be of good sea-
soned English oak plank,
of 3 inches thick and 12
broad. Their joint or
meeting tends to the centre
of the arch. Within this
rib is another, cut out of
plank as before, of 3
inches thick and 9 broad,
in such sort as to break
the joints of the other.
In each of these ribs are
made four mortices, of 4
inches broad and 3 high,
and in the middle of the
said 9-inch plank. These
mortices are best set out with a templet, on which the said mortices have been truly
divided and adjusted. Lastly, put each principal rib up in its place, driving loose keys
into some of the mortices to hold the said two thicknesses together ; while other help is
ready to drive in the joists, which should have a shoulder inward, and a mortice in them
outward ; through which keys being drove keep the whole together. On these joists lay
your planks, gravel, &c. ; so is your bridge compleat, and suitable to a river, &c. of 36 feet
wide."
2099. " In case the river, &c. be 40 or 50 feet wide, the stuff should be larger and more
particularly framed, as is shown in part of the plan enlarged, as I. These planks ought to
be 4 inches thick and 1 6 wide ; and the inner ones, that break the joints, 4 inches thick
and 1 2 broad ; in each of these are six mortices, four of which are 4 inches wide and 2
high ; through these are drove keys which keep the ribs the better together ; the other two
mortices are 6 inches wide and 4 high ; into these are framed the joists of 6 inches by 12 ;
the tenons of these joists are morticed to receive the posts, which serve as keys, as shown
in the section K, and the small keys as in L ; all which inspection will explain. That of
M is a method whereby to make a good butment in case the ground be not solid, and is
by driving two piles perpendicularly and two sloping, the heads of both being cut off so
as to be embraced by the sill or resting plate, which will appear by the pricked lines
drawn from the plan I and the letters of reference." Price concludes : " All that I con-
ceive necessary to be said further is, that the whole being performed without iron, it is
therefore capable of being painted on every part, by which means the timber may be pre-
served ; for though in some respects iron is indispensably necessary, yet, if in such cases
where things are or may be often moved, the iron will rust and scale, so as that the parts
will become loose in process of time, which, as I said before, if made of sound timber, will
always keep tight and firm together. It may not be amiss to observe, that whereas some
may imagine this arch of timber is liable to give way, when a weight comes on any par-
ticular part, and rise where there is no weight, such objectors may be satisfied that no part
can yield or give way till the said six keys are broke short off at once, which no weight
can possibly do."
SECT. V.
JOINERY.
2100. Joinery is that part of the science of architecture which consists in framing or
joining together wood for the external and internal finishings of houses, such as the linings
of walls and rough timbers, the putting together of doors, windows, stairs, and the like.
O o 2
5G4 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
It requires, therefore, more accurate and nicer workmanship than carpentry, being of
a decorative nature and near the eye. Hence the surfaces must be smooth and nicely
wrought, and the joints must be made with great precision. The smoothing of the wood
is called planing, and the wood used is called stuff, which consists of rectangular prisms
roughly brought into shape by the saw, such prisms being called battens, boards, and planks,
according to their breadth and thickness.
2101. We shall give but a succinct account of the joiner's tools ; an acquaintance with
their forms and uses being sooner learnt by mere inspection over a joiner's bench than
by the most elaborate description.
TOOLS.
2102. The first is the bench, whose medium height is about 2 feet 8 inches, its length
about 10 or 12 feet, and its width about 2 feet 6 inches. One side is provided with a
vertical board, called the side board, pierced with holes ranged at different heights in
diagonal directions, which admit of pins for holding up the object to be planed, which is
supported at the other end of it by a screw and screw check, together called the bench screw,
acting like a vice. The planes used by the joiner are the jack plane, which is used for
taking off the roughest and most prominent parts of the stuff, and reducing it nearly to its
intended form. Its stock, that is, the wooden part, is about 1 7 inches long, 3 inches high,
and 3.^ inches broad. The trying plane, whose use is nearly the same as that last described,
but used after it, the operation being performed with it by taking the shaving the whole
length of the stuff, which is called trying up, whereas with the jack plane the workman
stops at every arm's length. The long plane, which is used when a piece of stuff is to be
tried up very straight. It is longer and broader than the trying plane, its length being
26 inches, its breadth 3| inches, and depth 3| inches. The jointer, which is still longer,
being 2 feet 6 inches long, and is principally used for obtaining very straight edges, an
operation commonly called shooting. With this the shaving is taken the whole length in
finishing the joint or edge. The smoothing plane, which, as its name imports, is the last
employed for giving the utmost degree of smoothness to the surface of the wood, and is
chiefly used for cleaning off finished work. It is only 7^ inches long, 3 inches broad, and
2^ inches in depth. The foregoing are technically called bench planes.
2103. The compass plane which in size and shape is similar to the smoothing plane,
except that its under surface or sole is convex, its use being to form a concave cylindrical
surface. Compass planes are therefore of various sizes as occasion may require. The
forkstaff plane, resembles the smoothing plane in size and shape, except that the sole is part
of a concave cylindric surface, whose axis is parallel to the length of the plane. The form
is obviously connected with its application, and, like the last named, it is of course of
various sizes. The straight block is employed for shooting short joints and mitres, instead
of the jointer, which would be unwieldy : its length is 1 2 inches, its breadth 3£ inches,
and depth 2\ inches.
2104. There is a species of planes called rebate planes, the first whereof is simply called
the rebate plane, being, as its name imports, chiefly used for making rebates, which are
receding planes formed for the reception of some other board or body, so that its edge may
coincide with that side of the rebate next to the edge of the rebated piece. The length of
the rebate plane is about 9| inches, its depth about 3^ inches, and its thickness varies ac-
cording to the width of the rebate to be made, say from 1^ to £ inch. Rebate planes vary
from bench planes in having no tote or handle rising out of the stock, and from their
having no orifice for the discharge of the shavings, which are discharged on one side or
other according to the use of the plane. Of the sinking rebating planes there are two
sorts, the moving fillister and the sash fillister, whereof, referring the reader to the tool
itself, a sight of which he can have no difficulty in procuring, the first is for sinking the
edge of the stuff next to the workman, and the other for sinking the opposite edge, whence
it is manifest that these planes have their cutting edges on the under side. Without
enumerating many other sorts which are in use, we shall mention merely the plough, a
plane used for sinking a cavity in a surface not close to the edge of it, so as to leave an
excavation or hollow, consisting of three straight surfaces forming two internal right
angles with each other, and the two vertical sides two external right angles with the upper
surface of the stuff. The channel thus cut is called a groove, and the operation is called
grooving or plowing. This species will vary according to the width from the edge ; but it
is generally about 7§ inches long, 3| inches deep.
2105. Moulding planes are for forming mouldings, which, of course, will vary according
to the designs of the architect. They are generally about 9| inches long, and 3| inches
deep. When mouldings are very complex, they are generally wrought by hand ; but when
a plane is formed for them they are said to be stuck, and the operation is called sticking.
2106. The bead plane is used very frequently in joinery, its use being for sticking
mouldings whose section is semicircular ; when the bead is stuck on the edge of a piece
of stuff to form a semi-cylindric surface to the whole thickness, the edge is said to be
CHAP. III. JOINERY. r,65
beaded or rounded. When a bead is stuck so that it does not on the section merely fall in
with its square returns, but leaves a space ^jjjji,) thus, between the junctions at the
sides, it is said to be quirked. The beads or planes vary from very small sizes up to the
| inch and | bead. They may however be larger, and are sometimes stuck double and
triple. The snipebill plane is one for forming the quirk, whereof we have spoken ; but we
do not think a detailed description of it necessary, more than we do of those which are
made for striking hollows and rounds.
2107. The stock and lit is the next tool to be mentioned. Its use is for boring wood,
and the iron, which varies as the size of the bore required, is made in a curve on its edge of
contrary flexure so as to discharge the wood taken out. It fits into what is called the stock,
which has a double curved arm working on spindles, the end opposite to the bit being
pressed by the body, whose weight against the whole instrument is the power whereby
the operation is performed. The bit is also called a pin, or gouye bit. It is an important
tool, and much used.
2108. Countersinks are bits for widening the upper part of a hole in wood or iron for
the head of a screw or pin, and are formed with a conical head. Rimers are bits for widen-
ing holes, and are of pyramidal form whose vertical angle is about 3^ degrees. The hole
is first pierced by means of a drill or punch, and the rimer then cuts or scrapes ofF the in-
terior surface of the hole, as it sinks downwards, by pressing on the head of the stock.
According to the metal on which they are to be used they are differently formed.
2109. The taper shell bit is conical both within and without. Its horizontal section is a
crescent, the cutting edge being the meeting of the interior and exterior conic surfaces. Its
use is for widening holes in wood. Besides the above bits, there are some which are pro-
vided with a screw-driver for sinking small screws into wood with more rapidity than the
unassisted hand will accomplish.
2110. The brad awl, the smallest boring tool, is so well known, that it would be waste
of space to do more than mention it, the commonest of instruments in the science of con-
struction.
2111. The variety of chisels is great. They are well known to be edge tools for cutting
wood by pressure on it, or by percussion with a mallet on its handle. The firmer chisel is
a tool used by the carpenter as well as the joiner for cutting away superfluous wood bv
thin chips. Those are best which are made of cast steel. If much superfluous wood is to
be cut away, a strong chisel, with an iron back and steel face, is first used with the aid of
the mallet, and then a slighter one with a very fine edge. The first is the firmer first
mentioned, and the last is called a paring chisel, in the use whereof the force employed
is from the shoulder or hand.
2112. The mortice chisel, whose use is for cutting out rectangular prismatic cavities in
stuff" is made of considerable strength. The cavity it so cuts out is called a mortice, and
the piece which fits into it a tenon, whence the name of the tool. This chisel is one acted
on only by the percussion of the mallet.
2113. The gouge is used for cutting concave forms in stuff. It is, in fact, a chisel
whose iron is convex.
2114. The drawing knife is an oblique-ended chisel, or old knife, for drawing in the
ends of tenons by making a deep incision with the sharp edge, guided by that of the tongue
of a square, for which purpose a small part is cut out in the form of a triangular prism.
The use of this excavation is to enter the saw and keep it close to the shoulder, and thus
make the end of the rail quite smooth, for by this means the saw will not get out of its
course.
2115. There are many species of the saw, which is a thin plate of steel, whose edge is in-
dented with teeth for cutting by reciprocally changing the direction of its motion. The
varieties are — the ripping saw, which is used for dividing or splitting wood in the direction
of the fibres ; its teeth are large, the measure being usually to the number of eight in
3 inches, such teeth standing perpendicularly to the line which ranges with the points :
the length of the plate or blade of this saw is about 28 inches. The half ripper is used
also for dividing wood in the direction of the fibres : the plate of this saw is as long as of
that last described, but it has only three teeth in an inch. The hand saw, whose plate is
26 inches long, contains fifteen teeth in 4 inches ; it is used for cross cutting, as in the direc-
tion of the fibres ; for which purposes the teeth recline more than in the two former saws.
The panel saw has about six teeth in an inch, the length of its plate being the same as the
last ; but in this and the hand saw thinner than in the ripping saw : it is used for cutting
very thin wood, either with or across the fibres. The tenon saw is most used for cutting
wood transverse to the fibres, as the shoulders of tenons. The plate of a tenon saw is from
14 to 19 inches long, having eight to ten teeth in an inch. This saw not being intended to
cut through the whole breadth of the wood, and the plate being too thin to make a
straight kerf, or to keep it from buckling, it has a thick piece of iron fixed on the edge
opposite to the teeth, called the back. From the Opening for the fingers through the
Oo 3
566 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
handle of this and the foregoing saws being enclosed all round, it is called a double handle.
The sash saw is used for forming the tenons of sashes ; its plate is 1 1 inches in length, having
about thirteen teeth to the inch. It is sometimes backed with iron, but more frequently
with brass. The dovetail saw is used for cutting the dovetails of drawers and the like ; its
plate is backed with brass, it contains fifteen teeth in about one inch, and is about 9 inches
long. The handles of this and the last saw are only single. The compass saw, for cutting
wood into curved surfaces, is narrow, thicker on the cutting edge as the teeth have no set,
and is without a back ; the plate, near the handle, is about an inch broad, and about a
quarter of an inch at the other extremity, having about five teeth to the inch ; the handle
is single. The keyhole, or turning saw, in its plate resembles the compass saw, but the
handle is long, and perforated from end to end for inserting the plate at any distance with-
in the handle ; there is a, pad in the lower part of the handle, through which is inserted
a screw for fastening the plate therein. As its name implies, it is used for turning out
quick curves, as keyholes, and is therefore frequently called a keyhole saw.
2116. The teeth of all saws, except turning and keyhole saws, are bent alternately on
the contrary sides of the plate, so that all the teeth on the same side are alike bent through-
out the length of the plate, for the purposes of clearing the sides of the cut made in the
wood by it. The saw is a tool of great importance in every case where wood is to be
divided, for by its means it can be divided into slips or scantlings with no more waste than
a small slice of the wood, whose breadth is equal to the depth of the piece to be cut
through, and the thickness of it equal to no more than the distance of the teeth between
their extreme points on the alternate sides of the saw measured on a line perpendicular to
them ; whereas, by any other means, such as the axe for instance, large pieces of timber
could only be reduced in size by cutting away the superfluous stuff, which would be no less
a waste of labour than of the material used ; and even then it would have to be reduced
to a plane surface.
2117. Joiners use the hatchet, which is a small axe, for cutting away the superfluous
wood from the edge of a piece of stuff when the part to be cut away is too small to be
sawed.
2118. The square consists of two rectangular prismatic pieces of wood, or one of wood,
and the other, which is the thinnest, of metal, fixed together, each at one of their extremi-
ties, so as to form a right angle both internally and externally ; the interior right angle is
therefore called the inner square, and the exterior one the outer square. Squares are, for
different applications, made of different dimensions. Some are employed in trying up
wood, and some for setting out work ; the former is called a trying square, and the latter a
setting out square. To prove a square it is only necessary to reverse the blade after having
drawn a line on the surface to which it is applied : if the line of the blade 011 reversal
do not coincide with that first drawn, the square is incorrect.
21 1 9. The bevel consists, like the square, of a blade and handle ; but the tongue is
moveable on a joint, so that it may be set to any angle. When it is required to try up
many pieces of stuff to a particular angle, an immoveable bevel ought to be made for the
purpose ; for unless very great care be taken in laying down the moveable bevel, it will be
likely to shift.
21 20. The gauge is an instrument used for drawing or marking a line on a piece of stuff
to a width parallel to the edge. It consists generally of a square piece with a mortice in it,
through which runs a sliding bar at right angles, called the stem, furnished with a sharp
point or tooth at one extremity, projecting a little from the surface ; so that when the side
of the gauge next to the end which has the point is applied upon the vertical surface of
the wood, with the toothed side of the stem upon the horizontal surface, and pushed and
drawn alternately by the workman from and towards him, the tooth makes an incision from
the surface into the wood at a parallel distance from the upper edge of the vertical side on
the right hand. This line marks precisely the intersection of the plane which divides the
superfluous stuff from that which is to be used. When it is required to cut a mortice in a
piece of wood, the gauge has two teeth in it, and is called a mortice gauge, one tooth being
stationary at the end of the stem, and the other moveable in a mortice between the fixed
tooth and the head ; so that the distances of the teeth from each other, and of each from the
head, may be set at pleasure, as the thickness of the tenon may require.
2121. The side hook is a rectangular prismatic piece of wood, with a projecting knob
at the ends of its opposite sides. The use of the side hook is to hold a board fast, its fibres
being in the direction of the length of the bench, while the workman is cutting across the
fibres with a saw or grooving plane, or in traversing the wood, which is planing it in a
direction perpendicular to the fibres.
2122. The mitre box consists of three boards, two, called the sides, being fixed at right
angles to a third, called the bottom. The bottom and top of the sides are all parallel ; the
sides of equal height, and cut with a saw in two directions of straight surfaces at right
angles to each other and to the bottom, forming an angle of 45 degrees with the sides.
The mitre box is used for cutting a piece of tried up stuff to an angle of 45 degrees with two
CHAP. III. JOINERY. 567
of its surfaces ; or at least to one of the arrisses, and perpendicular to the other two sides,
or at least to one of them, obliquely to the fibres.
2123. The straight edge is a slip of wood made perfectly straight on the edge, in order to
make other edges straight, or to plane the face of a board straight. It is made of different
lengths, according to the required magnitude of the work. Its use is obvious, as its appli-
cation will show whether there is a coincidence between the straight edge and the surface
to which it is applied. When joiners wish to ascertain whether the whole surface of a
piece of wood lies in the same plane, they use two slips, each straightened on one edge, with
the opposite edge parallel, and both pieces of the same breadth between the parallel edges ;
whence each piece has two straight edges or two parallel planes. To find, therefore,
whether a board is twisted, one of the slips is placed across one end and the other across
the other end of the board, with one of the straight edges of each upon the surface. The
joiner then looks in a longitudinal direction over the upper edges of the two slips, until his
eye and the said two edges are in one plane ; or otherwise the intersection of the plane
passing through the eye and the upper edge of the nearest slip will intersect the upper edge
of the farthest slip. If it happen as in the former case, the ends of the wood under the
slips are in the same plane ; but should it happen as in the latter, they are not. In the
last case, the surface is said to wind ; and when the surface is so reduced as for every two
lines to be in one plane, it is said to be out of winding, which is the same as to say it is a
perfect plane. From the use of these slips, they are denominated winding sticks.
2124. The mitre square, an instrument so called because it bisects the right angle or
mitres the square, is an immoveable bevel, for the purpose of striking an angle of 45 degrees
with one side or edge of a piece of stuff upon the adjoining side or edge of the said piece
of stuff. It consists of a broad thin board, let or tongued into a piece on the edge called
the fence or handle, which projects equally on each side of the blade, whereof one of the
edges is made to contain an angle of 45 degrees with the nearest edge of the handle, or of
that in which the blade is inserted. The inside of the handle is called the guide. The
handle may be about an inch thick, 2 inches broad ; the blade about T3g to \ of an inch thick,
and about 7 or 8 inches broad. As the different sorts of mouldings used in architecture
will be hereafter properly defined and treated on, we shall not now stop to describe them
otherwise than as immediately connected with the section under consideration. The wood
principally used for joinery is of two sorts, white and yellow deal ; the first for panelling,
and the last for framing. Of late years much American wood has been used, both for panels
and frames. It works easily, is soft, free from knots, but more liable to warp than white
deal. But joinery is not of course limited to the use of a particular sort of wood.
2125. The arris of a piece of sttuT»is the edge formed by two planes.
MOULDINGS.
21 26. When the edge of a piece of wood is reduced to a cylindrical form, it is said to be
rounded, which is the simplest kind of moulded work. (Fig. 740.) When a portion of the
arris is made semicylindrical, so that the surface of the cylindrical part is flush both with
the face and edge of the wood, with a groove or sinking made in the face only, the
cylindrical part is called a bead, and the sinking a quirk ; the whole combination (fig. 741.)
being called a quirked bead.
21 27. If a quirk is also formed on the other or returning face, so as to make the rounded
part at the angle three fourths of a cylinder, the moulding (see Jig. 742.) is called a bead
and double quirk.
Fig. 740. Fig. 741. Fig. 742. Fig. 743. Fig. 744. Fig. 745.
2128. If two semicylindrical mouldings both rise from a plane parallel to the face, and
one comes close to the edge of the piece and the other has a quirk on the further side, and
its surface flush with the face of the wood, as in fig. 743., the combination is called a double
bead or double bead and quirk, wherein the bead next to the edge of the stuff is much
smaller than the other.
2129. Mouldings are usually separated from one another, and often terminated by two
narrow planes at right angles ( fig. 744. ) to each other : these are called fillets, and show
two sides of a rectangular prism. The different pieces of the combination of mouldings
are called members. A semicylindrical moulding, rising from a plane parallel to the face,
and terminated on the edge by a fillet (fig. 745.), is called a torus. In the figure there are
two hemicylindrical mouldings, whence that is called a double torus. The reader must
observe that the distinction between torus mouldings and beads in joinery is, that the outer
edge of the former alwavs terminates with a fillet, whether the torus be single or double ;
O o 4
568
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
whereas a bead never has a fillet on the outer edge. A repetition of equal semicylindrical
mouldings, springing from a plane or cylindrical surface, is called reeds. In joinery,
the f , cima recta, and /-* , cima reversa, are called respectively the ogee and ogee
reverse. The ovolo Jt so named from its egg-like form, and the quarter round, the
fourth part of a cylindrical surface, are the remaining of the principal mouldings used in
joinery. When the margin of any framing terminates on the edges next to the panel, with
one or more mouldings, which both advance before and retire from the face of the framing
to the panelling, the mouldings thus introduced are called bolection mouldings.
2130. We shall now more particularly address ourselves to the subject of aoors and their
mouldings. The most inferior sort of door used in building is the common ledged door, in
which five or six or seven vertical boards are held together by usually three horizontal
pieces called ledges, to which the vertical ones are nailed. Sometimes there is an outer
framing, consisting of the top rail and the two outside styles, but still having ledges as
before ; these are called framed and ledged doors. A door, properly made, is formed by
framing and fitting pieces of stuff together of the same thickness ; those
which are horizontal (fig. 746.) A A A A being called rails, and those which
are vertical BBBB being called styles. These form a skeleton into which
panels, usually of a less thickness, are fitted. And this, indeed, is the general
practice in all systems of framed joinery. In doors, the upper rails are called
top rails; the next in descending, frize rails; the next, which are usually wider
than the two first, are called the lock or middle rails ; and the lowest, from
their situation, are called bottom rails. The styles on the flanks are called out-
side styles, and those in the middle are called middle styles. The panels are also
named from their situations on the door; thus CC, being the uppermost, are Fig. 746
called frize panels ; the next DD are called middle panels, and EE bottom panels. The rails
and styles are wedged together, being previously morticed and tenoned into each other.
The student should, however, to obtain a clear comprehension of the method adopted, see
a door put together at the bench. The varieties and forms of doors are dependent upon
the will of the architect, from whom the design of the whole emanates ; it will be, there-
fore, here sufficient to mention the three sorts, viz. the common door, just described ; the jib
door, which is made with the same finishings and appearance as the room in which it is
placed, so as not to have the appearance of a door ; and, lastly, folding doors, which open
from the centre of the doorway, and are used for making a wider communication between two
apartments than a common door will permit, or, in other words, to lay two rooms into one.
2131. Though the panelling of framed work is generally sunk within the face of the framing, it is for out-
side work sometimes made flush. In the best flush work, the panels are surrounded with a bead formed on
the edge of the framing, and the work is called bead and flush. In the commoner kind of flush framing, the
bead is run only on the two edges of the panel in the direction of the fibres, and is called bead and butt.
2132. The different denominations of framed doors, according to their mou'dings and panels and framed
work in general, are as follows. The figures by which they are represented are sections of doors through
one of the styles, wherein only a small part of the panel is shown, or they may be equally considered as
vertical sections, through the top rail and part of the panel below it.
21 33. Fig. 747. represents the commonest door. It is without mouldings, and the panel
is a straight surface on both sides. It is technically described, first mentioning the number
Fig. 7*9.
Fig. 750.
Fig. 747. Fig. 748.
of panels intended in it, as a door square and flat panel on both sides. We shall not, in the
following, repent the observation as to the number of panels, that being always supposed as
mentioned.
2134. Fig. 748. represents the rail and panel of a door, with a quirked ovolo and a
CHAP. III.
JOINERY.
569
fillet on one side, but having no mouldings on the other. The panel flat on both sides, it
is described as a door with quirked ovolo, fillet and fiat with square back.
2135. Fig. 749. only differs from the last in having a bead instead of a fillet, and is
described as quirked ovolo, bead and fiat panel with square back.
2136. Fig. 750., with an additional fillet on the framing, is described as quirked ovolo,
bead fillet and fiat panel with square back. The back, in the foregoing and following cases,
is described as square, because of its having no mouldings on the framing, and of the panel
being a straight surface on one side of the door.
2137. In fig. 751 . the framing is formed with a quirked ogee, and a quirked bead on one
side and square on the other, the surface of the panel being straight on both sides, and the
door is described as quirked ogee, quirked bead and fiat panel with square back.
2138. Fig. 752. only differs from the last in the bead being raised above the lower part
of the ogee and a fillet. It is described as quirked ogee, cocked bead and fiat panel with
square back.
2139. Fig. 753. is described as a door with cove, cocked bead, fiat panel and square back.
Fig. 752.
Fig. 753.
Fig. 754.
Fig. 755.
2140. Fig. 754. is a combination, by which much strength is imparted to the door, and
it is therefore much used for external doors. It is, however, often in the interior of houses,
and is described, quirked ovolo, bead fillet and raised panel on front and square back. It is
from the raising of the panel that the additional strength is acquired.
2141. Fig. 755. resembles the last in general appearance, the difference being in the
ovolo on the raised panel. It is described, quirked ovolo, bead and raised panel, with ovolo on
the raised panel and square back. When an external door has raised panels, they are always
placed towards the exterior.
Fig. 756 Fig. 757. Fig. 758. Fig. 759.
2142. In fig. 756. there are more mouldings than in the last on the raised panel. It is
described, quirked ogee, raised panel with ovolo and fillet on the rising and astragal on the fiat
of panel in front and square back.
2143. Fig. 757. is described, quirked ovolo, bead fillet and fiat panel on both sides. This
description of doors is used where a handsome appearance is to be equally preserved
on both sides of the door, as between rooms, or between halls or principal passages and
rooms.
2144. Fig. 758. is a combination used, as all bead butt and bead flush work is, where
strength is required. The form here given is described, bead and flush front and quirked
ogee, raised panel with ovolo on the rising, grooved on fiat panel on back.
21 45. The series of mouldings are, as we have before mentioned, called bolection mould-
ings (fig. 759.), and are laid in after the door is framed square and put together. They
570
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
project beyond the framing on each side. When bradded on through the sides of the
quirks, the heads of the brads will be entirely concealed ; but it is to be observed that, in
driving the brads, they must not be directed towards the panels, but into the solid of the
framing. The form of these bolection mouldings is of course varied according to the
pleasure of the architect.
2146. Shutters, which are the doors of window openings, are framed upon the same
principles as doors themselves ; but their backs are very often flush. In the better sort of
buildings they are folded into recesses called boxings, whereof we shall give a figure below
as an example of the ordinary method ; but as the extent and different forms of windows
vary, the ingenuity of the architect will be often required to contrive his shutters within
a very small space. Into minutiae we cannot enter in a work of this nature ; however,
in all their shapes, they are dependent on the leading principles given.
2147. Fig. 760. is a plan of the shutters, architrave, sash-frame, and part of the sash of
common shutters. The cavity which forms the boxing
into which the sashes fold is formed by the ground B
(upon which the architrave A is nailed), the back lining
F of the boxing, and the inside lining G of the sash
frame, whereof H is the inside bead. L is the outside
lining of the sash-frame, M the back lining of it, and
K the parting bead, so called from parting the upper
and lower sash. The vacant space between the pulley
piece I and M, is a cavity which contains the weights
for balancing the sashes, N shows the plan of the sash.
The shutters, when stretched out in their different
folds, are supposed to cover one half of the window,
another series being supposed to be placed on the other
side of it. The front shutter CCC is hung by hinges
at a to the inside lining G of the sash-frame. The
inner shutters DDD and EE are called the back
flaps, the former whereof is hinged on to the front
shutter at b, and the latter is hinged on to DDD at c.
It will be immediately seen that these will thus al-
together turn upon the hinges at a, and cover, in one
straight line, from both sides, the whole of the light of
the window ; it being contrived that each boxing shall
contain as many shutters as will cover one half, that
is, from the centre of the hinge to the centre of the
window. When the boxes are scanty, the hinge may
be placed as shown in X attached to the figure.
2148. It would be impossible to place before the
reader the infinite variety of examples required for the
application of shutters to windows ; in ordinary cases,
the example we have given will sufficiently exhibit the method to be adopted. On occa-
sions wherein it is not applicable, the architect must apply himself to the work pro re natd,
in which, with very little attention, he will not find insurmountable difficulty.
Fig. 760.
2149. A very essential consideration in the neatness and beauty of joiners' work, is the
formation of the joints on which are placed the hinges of doors and shutters. They ought
to be so continued as to preserve the uniformity of the door or shutter on both sides, and
as much as possible to be close enough to exclude a rush of air between the edges of the
bodies to be hinged together, which, in this cold climate, is essential. In these joints, both
angles of one of the bodies is usually beaded, to conceal the open space, which would
otherwise be seen ; and for preserving the appearance of the work, the hinges are made of
such a curvature towards the eye, as to seem, when painted, a part ot the bead itself on
that side where the knuckle is placed, so that when hung the whole may appear to be one
bead.
2150. The section of a door style, and part of the hanging
style at the joint, are represented in A and B (fig. 761.),
wherein the centre of the bead on each side is in the line of
the straight part of the joint from the opposite side. In this
figure, C is the centre of the bead, AG part of the joint in
a line with its edge. Joining AC, draw AB perpendicular
thereto. The other part BH is perpendicular to EF, which Fig. 761.
CHAP. III.
JOINERY.
571
is the face of the door or hanging style. This is a joint suitable for many purposes, and
may be made with common hinges. If crooked, it will assist in excluding the current ot
air, a point of no mean importance.
2151. In fig. 762. A and B exhibit a plane joint, beaded similarly on both sides. In
this case, the plane of the joint is a tangent to the cylindrical surfaces of the two beads ;
and as the margin on each side is alike, no check to the rush of cold air is afforded. The
hinge, moreover, is such that it cannot be made in the usual manner, but must be formed
as at C.
1
j
Fig. 76ii.
Fig. 763.
Fig. 764.
21 52. Fig. 763. A and B represent a hinging wherein the plane of the joint from one
side is directed to the axis of the bead on the other. The principle in it is the same as
that in fig. 761., and it may therefore be hinged with common hinges, as shown in C, in
which the two parts are conjoined. The methods shown in this and^. 761. are useful in
cases wherein a part of the margin is concealed on one side of the door.
2153. Fig. 764. A and B exhibit the beads of similar size on each side, and exactly
opposite to each other, the joint being broken by indenting a part terminated by a plane
directed to the axis of the two opposite beads. The hinges are required merely of the
common form, the arrangement is strong, and the apartment rendered comfortable by their
use. In C the parts are shown as hinged together.
2154. In fig. 765. the beads are on both sides, but not on the same piece, as in the last
figure. The appearance is uniform, but the bead, which projects the whole of its thickness,
l& weakened. The junction is seen in the representation at C.
Fig. 765.
Fig. 766.
Fig. 767.
2155. Fig. 766. is a method that has been adopted for concealing the hinges of shutters.
A is the inner bead of the sash-frame, B the inside lining, C the style of the shutter. For
the form of the joint, let af be the face of the shutter, perpendicular to ar the face of the
inside lining. Let the angle f, a, r be bisected by the straight line aa, and in the centre
take c. Draw dd perpendicular to aa, cutting it in c, which is the centre of the hinge.
From c, as a centre, describe the arc am, which must be hollowed out from the inside
lining of the sash through the height of the shutter. In order to make room for the open-
ing and shutting of the hinge, the internal right angle of the shutter must be cut out of its
edge to the breadth of the hinges. The toils of the hinge are here for the purpose of
strengthening them, represented of different lengths.
2156. In fig. 767. the hinges, which are for a door, are concealed, as the door allows it
in the thickness of the wood, the ends of the hinges being of equal lengths.
2157. Fig. 768. shows the common method
of hingeing shutters, a mode wherein the whole
thickness of the hinge is let into the thickness
of the shutter, the inside lining being assumed
as too thin to afford sufficient hold for the
screws employed to fasten them.
2158. Fig. 769. exhibits the hanging of a
door with the centres concealed. Let ad be
the side of the jamb in contact with the edge of Fte- 768. Fig. 769.
the door ; bisect it in b, and draw be perpendicular to ad, make be equal to ba or Id, and
join ac and cd ; from c, as a centre, describe the arc aed, which will show the portion to
be hollowed out of the jamb. The centres are fixed to the upper and under parts of the
door, and the former is to be so constructed as to allow its being taken out of the socket
to unhang the door when required.
2159. Shutters are usually hung in the way represented \nfig. 770., wherein the centre
572
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
Fig. 771.
of the knuckle of the hinge
is exactly opposite to the
perpendicular part of the
rebate. The dotted lines ex-
hibit the flap when folded
back.
2160. When the axis of
the knuckle cannot be dis-
posed so as to fall opposite to the joint, the hinge is to be placed as shown in Jig.
Thus, ab being the distance of the edge of the flap from that
of the shutter, bisect it in c, which will be the point opposite
whereto the centre of the hinge is to be placed. This ar-
rangement is necessary, both when the shutters are not
square at the ends, and when the boxing is restricted in
space ; the principle being to place the centre of the knuckle
of the hinge at half the distance of the edge of the flap from
the rebate on the edge of the shutter. In fig. 772. the
two parts are shown hinged together.
2161. When a door has attached to it any projection, and,
when open, it is requisite to bring it parallel to its place
when shut, the knuckle of the hinge (fig. 773.) must project
at least as far as the projection in question. An inspection
of the diagram, wherein the dotted lines show the situation
of the door when folded back, will sufficiently convey the
mode of conducting this expedient.
2162. Fig. 774. is the representation of what is called a
rule joint, which is used when the piece to be hung is not
required to open to more than a right angle. In this case,
the centre of the hinge is necessarily in the centre of the arc.
In fig. 775. the expedient shows the method turned to a
right angle.
2163. The various methods
of hingeing to suit every pos-
sible case would occupy a very
large space, were we to enter
into them ; and even after
771
Fig. 773.
Fig. 774.
exhausting all the cases that we may have imagined, others would
arise to which no example given might be applicable ; we there-
fore leave this portion of the subject of joinery, under an impres-
sion that the principles have been sufficiently developed to enable
the student to pursue from them the application to any case that
he may be called upon to put in practice.
Fig. 775.
SASH-FRAMES AND SASHES.
2164. In Jig. 760. the connection between the shutters and sash-frame has been fully
explained ; we may now, therefore, proceed to the detail of a common sash-frame with
its sashes, supposing them to be hung so as to be balanced by weights, suspended by sash-
lines running over pulleys, capable of balancing those of the sashes themselves. On the
case of French sashes, which open like doors, we do not think it necessary to dilate.
They are, in fact, nothing more than glazed doors ; and the principal object for attainment
in their construction, is to prevent the rain from penetrating into the apartments they
serve, as well where they meet in the middle as at their sills, which is a subject requiring
much care and attention.
2165. Infiff. 776. is shown the construction of a sash-frame, and the method of putting
together the several parts, wherein R is the elevation of the frame, of which A BCD is the
outer edge. The thinner lines at EF, GH, FG, are grooves whose distances from the edges
of the sash-frame LM and KI are equal to the depth of the boxing, together with three-
eighths of an inch more that is allowed for margin between the face of the shutter, when, in
the boxing, and the edges ML and KI of the sash-frame next to the bead. S is a horizon-
tal section of the sides, whereon is shown also the plan of the sill. T is a vertical section of
the sill and top, in which is shown the elevation of the pully style m and n, and the pullies let
into the pully piece. U is the horizontal section of the sides, showing also a plan of the
head of the sash-frame. V the elevation of the outer side of the sash-frame ; the outside
lining being removed for the purpose of showing the work within the sash-frame. In this
fg is the parting strip fastened by a pin ; ed one of the weights connected to the sash by
means of a line going over the pulley c, the other end being fixed to the edge of the sash.
CHAP. III.
JOINERY.
573
The weight de is made equal to
one half the weight of the sash.
W is the head of the sash-frame
before put together, and X shows
the edge of W. Y is the edge
of the bottom, exhibiting the
manner of putting the styles in
it, and Z is the plan of Y. Fig.
777., Nos. 1. and 2., are sections
of the sills of sash-frames, with
sections of the under rail of the
sash, showing the best method of
constructing them, in order to
prevent rain from driving under
the sash-rail. In each of these,
A is the section of the bottom
rail, B a section of the bead
tongued into the sill, C a section
of the sill. Fig. 778. exhibits sec-
tions of the meeting rails of the
upper and lower sashes, with side
elevations of the upright bars ;
C is the rebate for the glass, D
a square, E and F an astragal
and hollow moulding, G a fillet.
The smaller letters mark the
same parts of the under sash.
Fig. 779. is the section of an
upright bar with the plans of two
horizontal bars, snowing the
franking or manner in which
they are put together to keep the
upright bars as strong as possible.
The thickness of the tenon in
F
Fin. 776.
FFffi
Fig. 777. Fig. 778.
general is about one sixteenth of an inch to the
edge of the hollow of the astragal, and close to
the rebate on the other side, hh is a dowel to
keep the horizontal bars still firmer together.
In this diagram the letters refer to the same parts
as in the preceding figure ; and it is also to
be observed, that no rebate is made for the glass
on the inside meeting rail, a groove being made
to answer that purpose. Fig. 780. exhibits four
sections of sash bars. But their forms, as in the
case of mouldings, generally depends on the taste
of the architect.
GROUNDS.
2166. Grounds are pieces of wood framed
together, and attached to walls, around windows,
doors, or other openings in buildings, for the
facility of fixing architraves or other mouldings upon them ; in all these cases they ought
to be fixed vertical on the face and edge, and the workman should take especial care to fix
them firm and solid in every part ; for, without accuracy and firmness, the inside work
cannot be well finished, as it is to be recollected that in plastered rooms the plaster is
worked to them.
574 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
2167. In fixing window grounds, the sash-frame must be first carefully placed so as to
stand perfectly vertical ; and then the face of the ground must stand quite parallel to the
face of the sash-frame, and project about three quarters of an inch from the face of the
naked brickwork, so as to leave a sufficient space for the thickness of the plaster. The edge
of the ground should be in the same plane with the edge of the sash-frame, or, as the work-
men term it, "out of winding." The edge of the architrave, when finished, in ordinary
cases, will stand about three eighths of an inch within the inner edge of the sash-frame, so
that a perpendicular line down to the middle of the grounds would stand exactly opposite
to a perpendicular line down to the middle of the sash-frame.
2168. In the laying of floors, the first care to be taken is that they be perfectly level,
which, owing to the nature of the materials whereof they are constructed, is a difficult task.
The chief sorts of floors may be divided into those which are folded, that is, when the boards
are laid in divisions, whose side vertical joints are not continuous, but in bays of three, four,
five, or more boards in a bay or fold ; and those which are straight joint, in which the side
joints of the boards are continuous throughout their direction.
As soon as the windows are fixed, the floors of a building may be laid. The boards
are to be placed on their best face, and put to season till the sap is quite exhausted, when
they may be planed smooth, and their edges shot and squared. The opposite edges are
brought to a breadth by drawing a line on the face parallel to the other edge with a
flooring guage, after which the common guage is used to bring them to a thickness, and
they are rebated down on the back to the lines drawn by the guage.
2169. The next operation is, to try the joints, which, if not level, must be brought so,
either by furring up if they be hollow, or by adzing down if they are convex, the former
being more generally the case.
2170. The boards used for flooring are battens, or deals of greater breadth, whose quali-
ties are of three sorts. The best is that free from knots, shakes, sapwood, or cross-grained
stuff, selected so as to match well with one another. The second best is free of shakes and
sapwood, and in it only small sound knots are permitted. The third, or most common
sort, are such as are left after taking away the best and second best.
2171. The joints of flooring-boards are either quite square, ploughed and tongued, re-
bated, or dowelled ; and in fixing them they are nailed on one or both edges, when the
joints are plain and square without dowels. When they are dowelled, they may be
nailed on one or both sides ; but in the best dowelled work the outer edge only is nailed,
by driving the brad through the edge of the board obliquely, without piercing its surface,
which, when the work is cleaned off, appears without blemish.
2172. In laying the floor-boards, they are sometimes laid one after the other, or one is
first laid, then the fourth, at an interval of something less than the united breadth of the
second and third together. The two intermediate boards are then laid in their places with
one edge on the edge of the first board and the other upon that of the fourth board, the
two middle edges resting against each other, rising to a ridge at the joint. In order to
force these boards into thei'r places, two or three workmen jump upon the ridge till they
have brought the under sides of the boards close to the joints ; they are then fixed in their
places with brads. This method is that first mentioned under this head, and in it the
boards are said to be folded. We have here mentioned only two boards, but four boards
are most commonly folded at a time, and the mode is always resorted to when a suspicion
exists that the boards are not sufficiently seasoned, or they are known not to be so. The
headings of these folds are either square, splayed, or ploughed and tongued. If a heading
occurs in the length of the floor, it should be invariably made to fall over a joist, and one
heading should not meet another.
2173. In dowelled floors the dowels should be placed over the middle of the interjoint
rather than over the joists, so that the edge of one board may be prevented from passing that
of the other. When the boards are only bradded upon one edge, the brads are concealed
by driving them in a slanting direction through the outer edge of every successive board,
with piercing the upper surface. In adzing the under sides of floor-boards opposite each
joist, great care should be taken to clip away the stuff straight, and also to avoid taking
away more of the stuff than is necessary, in which case the soundness of the floor will not
be compromised.
FRAMING.
2174. In fig. 781. are shown several methods for framing angles in dadoes, skirtings,
troughs, and other objects, whereof A exhibits the method of mitring dado on exterior
angles in an apartment. In fixing this together, brads may be driven from each side. B
is a method of framing used for troughs or other rectangular wooden vessels. C is a
method of putting dado or skirting together at any interior angle of a room. This mode
CHAP. III.
JOINERY.
57 5
is also employed for water-trunks, or troughs. In D is
shown the manner of fixing and finishing two pieces of
framing together, with a bead at their meeting, by which
the joint is concealed. It is used only in common finish-
ings. In those of a better sort the angle is kept entire,
and only a three-eighth bead used at the joint, the angle
being kept entire. It is a great point in all joiner's work
to preserve the sharpness of the angles of the work, and
many prefer the method shown in F, without any bead at
the joint. In this the joint is made as close as possible,
and is well glued together. If additional strength be re-
quired, blockings may be glued in the interior angle,
which will make it quite firm. The method, by a simple
mitre at E is not so good as at A, because it has no abut-
ment.
2175. When it is required to glue up large work, those
edges which are to receive the glue should be well warmed
at a fire, and then, while warm, and the glue as hot as
possible, they should be united, inasmuch as glue never
holds well when it is chilled or cold.
Fig. 781.
2176. Stairs and their handrails are among the most important objects of the joiner's
skill. The choice of situation, the design, and what suits the general convenience of the
building, sufficiency of light, and easy ascent, are indeed matters for the exercise of the
architect's talent ; but all these, however well contrived and arranged, are incomplete with-
out a clear and accurate execution of the work.
2177. There are some leading principles which are common to all staircases, of whatsoever
materials they may be constructed. Thus it is a maxim that a broad step should be of
less height than one which is narrower ; and the reason is sufficiently obvious, because in
striding, what a man loses in breadth he can more easily apply in raising himself by his
feet. Now, as in common practice it is found that the convenient rise of a step 1 2 inches in
width is 5k inches, it may be assumed as some guide for the regulation of other dimensions.
Thus 12 x~5^ = 66, which would be a constant numerator for the proportion. Suppose, for
instance, a step 10 inches in breadth, then ^ = 6| inches would be the height ; and this agrees
very nearly with the common practice. The breadth of steps in the commonest staircase
may be taken at 10 inches at a medium. In the best staircases the breadth of the step should
not be less than 12 inches, neither should it be more than 18 inches. (See 2814.)
2178. Having adjusted the proportions of the steps, our next consideration is to ascer-
tain the number of risers which will be necessary to carry us from one floor to another.
Suppose, for example, the height from the top of one floor to that of the next be 15ft.
= 180 in. ; here, if the steps are each of 6 inches rise, we have ±|fi = 30, which is the number
of risers necessary to ascend from floor to floor. If the height divided by the rise of each step
should not give an exact number of risers, it is better to add one rather than diminish the
number. Thus, suppose the distance from floor to floor to be 13ft. 2 in. = 158 in., then
A|5 — 22|. Here it would be better to take 23 risers, for the steps must be equal in height.
2179. The width of the better sorts of staircases should not be less than 4 feet, to allow of
two persons freely passing each other ; but the want of space in town houses often obliges
the architect to submit to less in what is called the going of the stair.
2 1 80. The parts of every step in a staircase are one parallel to the horizon, which is
called the tread of the step, terminated on the edge by a moulded or rounded nosing, and
the other perpendicular to the horizon, which is called the riser of the step.
2181. It is not our intention to detail more than will be necessary for comprehending
the work of the joiner in its application to stairs, which have many varieties of structure,
dependent on the character, situation, and destination of the building. To this end we
shall now, therefore, describe the method of carrying up dog-legged, bracket, and geometrical
stairs.
2182. A DOG-LEGGED STAIRCASE is one which has no opening or well-hole, and in which
the rail and balusters of the progressive and returning flights fall in the same vertical
planes. The steps in it are fixed to strings, newel, and carriages, the ends of the steps of
the inferior kind terminating only upon the side of the string without any housing. Y and
Z in. fig. 782. are the plan and elevation of a staircase of this kind ; AB is the lower newel
whereof the part BC is turned. On the plan, a is the seat of this newel. DE and FG in
Y are the lower and upper string boards framed into newels, KL is a joist framed into the
trimmer I. The lines on the plan represent the faces of the steps in the elevation without
the nosings. MO and FQ, are called the upper and lower ramps, the method of drawing
576
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
Fig. 782.
which is as follows : — In the upper ramp, for ex-
ample, produce the top of the rail HM to P; draw
MN vertical, and produce the straight part ON of
the pitch of the rail to meet it in N, making NO
equal to NM. Draw OP at a right angle to ON.
From P, as a centre, describe the arc MO, and then
the other contrary curve, which will complete the
ramp required. The story rod RS is in the h'xing of
all staircases a necessary instrument ; for in fixing
the steps and other work by a common measuring
rule, bit by bit, the chances are that an excess or
defect will occur, to make the staircase faulty ;
which cannot be the case if the story rod is applied
to every riser, and such riser be regulated thereby.
2183. A BRACKET STAIRCASE is one which has
an opening or well, with strings and newels, and is
supported by landings and carriages. The brackets
are mitred to the end of each riser, and fixed to
the string board, which is usually moulded like an
architrave. In this sort of staircase the same me-
thods are to be observed in respect of dimensions
and laying off the plan and section as in a dog-
legged staircase. Nothing is to be done without
the story rod just described, which must be con-
stantly applied in making and setting up the stairs.
The method of forming the ramps and knees has
been touched upon in the preceding article, and the
few particulars we intend to give respecting scrolls
and handrailing will be reserved for a subsequent
page. In bracket stairs the internal angle of the
steps is open to the end, and not closed by the string, as in common dog-legged stairs ;
the neatness also of the workmanship is as much attended to as in geometrical stairs.
The balusters should be nicely dovetailed into the ends of the steps by twos, and the
face of each front baluster is to be in a plane with the front face of the riser, and all the
balusters being equally divided, the face of the middle one must of course stand in the
middle of the face of the riser of the preceding step. The treads and risers are previously
all glued up and blocked together, and when put in their places the under side of the
step is nailed or screwed into the under edge of the riser, and then rough bracketed to the
strings, as in a dog-legged staircase, in which the pitching pieces and rough strings are
similar.
2184. A GEOMETRICAL STAIRCASE is one whose opening is down its centre, or, as it
is called, an open newel, in which each step is supported by one end being fixed in the wall
or partition, the other end of every step in the ascent having an auxiliary support from
that immediately below it, beginning from the lowest one, which, of course, rests on the floor.
The steps of a geometrical staircase should, when fixed, have a light and clean appearance,
and, for strength's sake, the treads and risers, when placed in position, should not be less
than 1 \ inch thick, supposing the going of the stair or length of the step to be 4 feet. For
every 6 inches in length of the step an eighth of an inch should be added. The risers
should be dovetailed into the cover, and in putting up the steps, the treads are screwed up
from below to the under edges of the risers. The holes for sinking the heads of the screws
ought to be bored with a centre bit and fitted closely in with wood well matched, so that
the screws may be entirely concealed, and appear as a uniform surface without blemish.
Brackets are mitred to the riser?, and the nosings are continued round ; but this practice
induces an apparent defect, from the brackets, instead of giving support, being them-
selves unsupported, and actually depending on the steps, being indeed of no other use
than merely tying together the risers and treads of the internal angles of the steps ; and
from the internal angles being hollow, except at the ends, which terminate by the wall at
one extremity, and by the bracket at the other, there is an appearance of incomplete finish.
The cavetto or hollow is carried all round the front of the slip, returned at the end, and
again at the end of the bracket, thence along the inside of it, and then along the internal
angle at the back of the riser.
2185. The ancient mode, however, was the best, in which the wooden was an imitation
of the method of constructing geometrical stairs in stone, which will be found under
Masonry, in the previous Section III.; that is to say, the making of the steps themselves solid,
and in section of the form of a bracket throughout their length. This is a more expen-
sive method, but it is a solid and good one, and is still practised on the Continent, espe-
cially in France.
CHAP. III.
JOINERY.
577
2186. In fig. 783. X is the plan and Y the elevation, or rather section, of a geometrical
staircase. AB in X is what is called the cur-tail step (curved like the tail of a cur dpg).
which must be the first step fixed. CCC are
the flyers supported from below by rough
carriages, and partly from the string board
DHEF in Y. The ends next the wall are
sometimes housed into a notch board, and the
steps then are made of thick wood and no
carriages used. GGG are winders fixed to
bearers and pitching pieces, when carriages
are used to support the flyers. The winders
are sometimes made of strong stuff firmly
wedged into the wall,
the steps screwed to-
gether, and the other
ends of the steps fixed
to the string DEHF.
In all cases of wooden
geometrical stairs their
strength may be greatly
augmented by a flat bar
of wrought iron coin-
ciding with the under
_ side and screwed to the
" string immediately be-
= low the steps. HIK
h in Y is the wall line of Fig. 7*3.
the sofite of the winding part of the stairs, and LMN part of the
rail supported by two balusters upon every step. Where the space
Fig. 784. of the going of the stairs is confined, the French have long since
introduced, as in fig. 784., the practice of placing the balusters outside the steps, which
affords more room for persons ascending and descending.
, HANDRAILS AND CUR-TAIL STEP.
2187. The upper part of the fence formed by capping the balusters of stairs is called the
handrail, whose use, as its name imports, is for a support to the hand in the ascent and
descent of stairs. The hand, for support to the body, should glide easily over it without
any strain, whence it is evident, that to be properly formed, it must necessarily follow the
general line of the steps, and be quite smooth and free from inequalities. It must be ob-
vious to the reader who has thus far followed us throughout the different previous portions
of our labours, that the chief principle of handrailing will be dependent on the methods of
finding sections of cylinders, cylindroids, or prisms, according to three given points in
or out of the surface, or, in other words, the section made by a plane through three given
points in space. The cylinder, cylindroid, and prism are hollow, and of the same thick-
ness as the breadth of the rail, or the horizontal dimension of its section ; and their bases,
their planes or projections on the floor. Thus is formed the handrail of a staircase of a por-
tion of a cylinder, cylindroid, or prism whose base is the plane of the stair, for over this the
handrail must stand, and is therefore contained between the vertical surface of the cylinder,
cylindroid, or prism. As the handrail is prepared in portions each whereof stands over a qua-
drant of the circle, ellipse, or prism of the base which forms the plane, such a portion may be
supposed to be contained between two parallel planes, so that the portion of the handrail may
be thus supposed to be contained between the cylindrical, cylindroidal, or prismatic surfaces
and the two parallel planes. The" parts to be joined together for forming the rail must
be so prepared that in their place all the sections made by a vertical plane passing through
the imaginary solid may be rectangular : this is denominated squaring the rail, and is
all that can be done by geometrical rules. But handrails not being usually made of
these portions of hollow cylinders or cylindroids, but of plank or thicknesses of wood, our
attention is naturally drawn to the consideration of the mode in which portions of them
may be formed from planks of sufficient thickness. The faces of the planks being planes,
they may be supposed to be contained between two parallel planes, that is, the two faces
of the plank. Such figures, therefore, are to be drawn on the sides of the plank as to leave
the surfaces formed between the opposite figures, portions of the cylindrical, cylindroidal,
or other surfaces required, when the superfluous parts are cut away. A mould made in the
form of these figures, which is no more than a section of them, is called the /wee mould.
2188. The vertical, cylindrical, or cylindroidal surfaces being adjusted, the upper and lower surfaces must
be next formed ; and this is accomplished by bending another mould round the cylindrical or cylindroidal
surfaces, generally to the convex side, and drawing lines on the surface round the edge of such mould. The
Pp
578
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK i I.
superfluous wood is then cut away from top to bottom, so that if the piece were set in its place, and a straight
edge applied on the surfaces so formed, and parallel to the horizon directed to the axis of the well-hole, it
would coincide with the surface. The mould so applied on the convex side for forming the top and bottom
of the piece, is called the falling mould. For the purpose of finding these moulds it is necessary to lay down
the plan of the steps and rail ; next, the falling mould, which is regulated by the heights of the steps ; and
lastly, the face mould, which is regulated by the falling mould, and furnishes the three heights alluded to.
2189. Fig. 785. exhibits two of the most usual forms of handrails. The upper part,
A and B of the figure, are sections of the rail and mitre cap of a dog-legged staircase.
Vertical lines are let fall from the section of the rail A, to the mitre in B ; from thence,
in arcs of circles, to the straight line passing through the centre of the cap at right
angles to the former straight lines ; then perpendiculars are set off and made equal in
length to those in A.
A curve being traced
through the points
gives the form of the
cap. C is called a toad's
back rail, and is used
for a superior descrip-
tion of staircases.
2190. Jfy.786. shows
the method of drawing
the scroll for terminat-
ing the handrail at the
bottom of a geometrical
staircase. Let AB be
the given breadth ;
draw AE perpendicu-
lar to AB, which divide
into eleven equal parts,
and make AE equal to
one of them. Join BE,
.bisect A Bin C and BE
in F. Make CD equal
to CF and draw DG
perpendicular to AB.
From F, with the radius
FE or FB, describe an F1e- 785. Fig. 786.
arc cutting DG at G. Draw GH perpendicular to BE cutting BE nt O. Draw the diagonals
DOK and IOL perpendicular to DOK. Draw IK parallel to BA; KL parallel to ID,
and so on to meet the diagonals. From D as a centre, with the distance DB, describe the
arc BG. From I as a centre, with the distance IG, describe the arc GE. From K as a
centre, with the distance KE, describe the arc EH. From L as a centre, with the distance
LH, describe the arc HP. Proceed in the same manner and complete the remaining
three quarters, which will finish the outside of the scroll. Make BR equal to the breadth
of the rail ; namely, about two inches and a quarter. Then with the centre D and distance
DR describe the arc RS, with the centre I and distance IS describe the arc ST, and
with the centre K and distance KT describe the arc TU, and the scroll will be completed.
Fig. 787.
Fig. 788.
2191. Fig. 787. gives the construction of the cur-tail step, or that which lies under the
scroll, abed is the veneer that covers the riser ; efgh, the nosing of the cover or horizontal
part of the step ; ikl the face of the string board, and mno the projection of the nosing.
CHAP. III.
JOINERY.
579
2192. In jig. 788. is shown the cover board for the cur-tail step, abed and efgh in dotted
lines represent the plan of the scroll ; opqrs, the nosing of the curtail step ; t, u, v, s, the
nosings and ends of the risers. The circle 1 , 2, 3, &c. is described from the centre of the
scroll, and divided into equal parts equal to the distances of the balusters from centre to
centre, and lines are drawn to the centre of the scroll in order to ascertain the middle of
the balusters, by giving a regular gradation to the spaces. The whole of the spiral lines
in this and the previous figure are drawn from the same centres as the scroll.
FORMATION OF BODIES BY JOINING THEM WITH GLUE.
2193. The way in which bodies are glued up together for different purposes will be
given below, and with them will close this section.
2194. Fig. 789. shows at A a section of two boards glued up edge to edge. At B the
face of the same is seen. C shows the section of two boards glued edge to edge, each
piece being grooved, and a tongue inserted at their junction. By similar means a board may
be increased to any width, be the pieces whereof it is composed ever so narrow. D shows
two boards fixed at right angles, the edge of one being glued on the side of the other. A
block for the purpose of strengthening the joint is fitted and glued to the interior side.
Fig. 789. Fig. 790.
2195. Fig. 790. A is a section of two boards to be joined at an oblique angle. They
are mitred and glued together with a block at the angle. B shows the inner sides of
the boards so fixed. It is by repeating this operation that columns are glued up.
2196. Fig. 791. A is the section of an architrave. The moulding is usually, if not
always, glued to the board ; the vertical line therefore, showing the extreme boundary of
the moulded part, is the sec-
tion of the piece to be glued,
B is the face of the archi-
trave, C and D a section
and front of it before it is
moulded, E a section of it
with the button and nail to
show the way in which the
two parts are glued together,
and F shows the back of the
architrave with the buttons
which are used for the pur-
pose of bringing the two sur-
faces to be glued together in contact, till after they are set and fully held together, being
knocked off when the glue has become hard, and then the moulding shown at A and B is
stuck.
2197. Fig. 792. ex-
hibits the method of
gluing up a solid niche
in wood where A is
the elevation. The
work is performed in
the same way as if it
were stone or brick,
except that the joints
are all parallel to the
plane of the base, be-
cause of the difficulty
of making a joint with
curved surfaces, which
would necessarily be
the case if they all
tended to the centre of
the sphere. B and C
are the two bottom
courses, where the vertical joints are made to break, as seen in the elevation A.
2198. In fig. 793. is exhibited the mode in which veneers are glued together for the
purpose of forming cylindrical surfaces. Brackets with their faces upwards are nailed to
P p 2
Fig. 794.
580
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE
BOOK II.
a board. Their ends are perpendicular, and a cavity is left between them sufficient to
receive the veneers and wedges. In A the thin part in the form of an arc shows the
veneers as in the state of glueing, the wedges being on the convex side. B is a section of the
board and bracket. The work when putting together should be dry and warm, and the
glue should be hot. When this last has set hard, the wedges must be slackened, and the
veneers, which now form a solid, taken out.
2199. Fig. 794. is a strong method of forming a concave surface by laying the veneer
upon a cylinder, and backing it with blocks in the form of bricks, which are glued to the
convex side of the veneers and to each other. The fibres of the blocks are to be as nearly
as possible parallel to the fibres of the veneers. A is the section of the cylinder veneer
and blocks, and B shows the convex side of the blocks.
2200. Fig. 795. is another mode of glueing veneers together with cross pieces screwed
to a cylinder, the veneers being placed between the former and the latter.
Fig. 795.
Fig. 796.
Fig. 797.
2201. In fig. 796. is shown the method of glueing up columns in pieces, which here are
in number, each being glued to the other after the manner of fig. 790. The work-
should be careful to keep the joints out of the flutes, when the columns are to be
fluted by which the substance will be more likely to prevent the joints giving way. A is
a section of the column at top, and B at the bottom. After glueing together, the octagons
and mitres should be correctly laid down for the true formation of the joints. In B are
shown two bevels, one
for trying the mitres,
and the other for try-
ing the work when put
together.
2202. Fig. 797. is
the mode of glueing up
the base of a column.
It is formed in three
courses, the pieces in
each of which are made
to break joint over
one another. The
horizontal joints of the
courses must be so
adjusted as to fall at
the junction of two
mouldings, forming a
re-entering angle. After the glue is set quite hard,
the rough base is sent to the turner, by whom it is
reduced into the required profile. The fibres of the
wood should lie horizontally, in which direction the work ?\K. 799
CHAP. III.
JOINERY.
581
will stand much better than when they are vertical. A is the plan of the base inverted,
and B is the elevation.
2203. The formation of a modern Ionic capital is given in jig. 798., wherein A is the
plan inverted, showing the method of placing the blocks ; and B is the elevation.
2204. Fig. 799. is the method of glueing up for the leaves of the Corinthian capital, A is
the plan inverted, and B is the elevation. The abacus is glued up in the same manner
as in the preceding example.
FiK. 800.
Fig. 801.
Fig. 802.
2205. Fig. 800. exhibits the mode of forming a cylindrical surface without veneers, by
means of equidistant parallel grooves, A is the elevation, and B the plan.
2206. Fig. 801. exhibits the method of covering a conic body. It is. in fact, no more
than covering the frustum of a cone, and is accomplished by two concentric arcs terminated
at the ends by the radii. The radius of the one arc
is the whole slant side of the cone, that of the other
is the slant side of the part cut off. In this case,
the grooves are directed to the centre, and filled in
with slips of wood glued as before. The plan is
shown by the circle ABC. The arc HI must be
equal to the circumference ABC.
2207. Fig. 802. shows the same thing for a
smaller segment.
2208. Fig. 803. shows the manner of glueing up
a globe or sphere by the same method. A is the
face of the piece ; B the edge showing the depth
of the grooves; C shows the mould for forming
the piece to the true curvature ; and D the faces
of two pieces put together.
Fig. 803.
SECT. VI.
SLATING.
2209. An account of the materials used by the slater have been detailed in Chap. 11.
Sect. IX., and will not leave us much to say on their application.
2210. The tools used by this artificer are the scantle, which is a gauge by which slates
are regulated to their proper length; the trowel; the hammer; the zax, an instrument
for cutting the slates ; a small handpick, and a hod and board for mortar.
2211. Slating is laid in inclined courses, beginning from the eaves and working upwards,
the courses nearest the ridge of the roof being less in width than those below. The lap of
one slate over another is called its bond, and it is the distance between the nail of the under
slate and the lower end of the upper slate. The bed of a slate is its under side, and the
upper side is called its back. The part of each course which is exposed to the weather
is called its margin. The slates are nailed to close or open boarding lying on the back of
the rafters with nails, which should be of copper or zinc. If iron nails are used they should
be well painted. The operation of cutting or paring the side and bottom edges of the
PP3
582 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
slates is called trimming them; but the head of the slate is never cut. In that part
holes are pierced through the slates by which the nails pass to the boarding. The ope-
rations of the slater are of so simple a nature, that we do not further think it necessary to
detain the reader on this section, which, with that of Sect. IX. Chap. II. in this Book,
affords all the information that can be required.
SECT. VII.
PLUMBERY.
2212. The plumber has but few working tools, for the facility with which the metal in
which he works is wrought does not render a variety necessary. The principal are — a heavy
iron hammer, with a short but thick handle. Two or three different sized wooden mallets,
and a dressing and flatting tool, which is made of beech wood, usually about 18 inches long
and 2| inches square, planed smooth on one side, and rounded on the other or upper side.
It is tapered and rounded at one of its ends for convenient grasping by the workman. Its
use is to stretch and flatten the sheet lead, and dress it into the shape required for the
various purposes whereto it is to be applied, by the use of its flat and round sides as
wanted. The jack and trying planes, similar to those used by carpenters, for planing
straight the edges of their sheet lead when a regular and correct line is requisite. They
also use a line and roller called a chalk line, for lining out the lead into different widths.
Their cutting tools are chisels and gouges, of different sizes, and cutting knives. The latter
are for cutting the sheet lead into strips and pieces to the division marked by the chalk
line. They use also files of different sizes for making cistern heads to pipes, for pumpwork,
&c. For the purpose of soldering, they have a variety of different sized grazing irons,
which are commonly about 12 inches long, tapered at both ends, the handle end being
turned quite round to allow of its being held firmly in the hand whilst in use. The
opposite end is spherical, or more usually spindle-shaped, and proportioned to the different
situations for which they are required. The grozing iron is heated to redness when in use.
The iron ladles are of three or four sizes, and used for the purpose of melting lead or solder.
The plumber's measuring rule is 2 feet long, in three parts, each of 8 inches. Two of the
legs are of box-wood, and the third of steel, which is attached to one of the box legs by a
pivot whereon it turns, and shuts into the other legs in a groove. The steel leg is useful
for passing into places which the plumber has to examine, into which anything fhicker
would not easily enter, and it is often used also for removing oxide or other extraneous
matter from the surface of the heated metal. The plumber moreover is provided with
centre bits of all sizes, and a stock to work them in, for perforating lead or wood where pipes
are to be inserted, as well as with compasses, for striking out circular portions of lead.
Scales and weights are also in constant requisition, as nothing done by the plumber is
chargeable till the lead is weighed.
22 1 3. The method most commonly adopted in laying sheet lead for terraces or flats, is
to place it on a surface as even as possible, either of boarding or plastering. If boards are
employed, they should be sufficiently thick to prevent warping or twisting, which, if it
occur soon, causes the lead to crack or to become unsightly. As sheets of lead are not more
than about 6 feet in width, when the area to be covered with them is large, joints become
necessary, which are contrived in various ways to prevent the wet from penetrating. To
do this, the best method is that of forming rolls, which are pieces of wood about 2 inches
square extending in the direction of the joint, planed and rounded on their upper side.
These being fastened under the joints of the lead between the edges of the two sheets
which meet together, one is dressed up over the roll on the inside, and the other over both
of them on the outside, whereby all entry of the water is prevented. No fastening is re-
quired other than the adherence of the lead by close hammering together and down on the
flat : indeed, any fastening would be injurious, as by it the lead would not have free play
in its expansion and contraction from heat and cold. If rolls are not employed, which
from their projection are in some cases found inconvenient, seams are substituted for them ;
but they are by no means equal to the roll either for neatness or security. They are
formed by merely bending up the two edges of the lead, and then over one another, and
then dressing them down close to the flat thoughout their length. Though some solder
the joints, it is a bad practice, and no good plumber will do it, for the same reason as that
just given in respect of fastenings in flats. A leaden flat, as well as a gutter, should be laid
with a fall to keep it dry. A quarter of an inch in a foot is sufficient inclination for lead,
if the sheets be 20 feet long, so that in this case they will be 5 inches at one end higher
than at the other. This giving a current, as it is called, is usually provided for by the car-
penter previous to laying the lead.
2214. Round the extreme edges of flats and gutters where lead is used, are fixed pieces
CHAP. III.
PLUMBERY.
583
of milled lead which are "called flashings. When the lead work is bounded by a wall of
brick or stone work, the flashings are passed on one edge into and between a joint of the
work, and the edges of the flat or gutter being bent up, the other edge of the flashing is
dressed over it. If there be no joint into which the flashing can be inserted, it is fastened
on that side with wall hooks. Drips in flats and gutters are used when the length of the
gutter or flat is greater than the length of the sheet of lead, or sometimes for convenience,
or to avoid joining lead by soldering it. They are formed by raising one part above
another, and dressing the lead round, as has been described for rolls.
2215. The pipes used for the purposes of building are proportioned to their uses. Those,
for instance, for carrying away the soil from a water closet, or the conveyance of water from
roofs and sinks, are of course of larger diameter than those called service pipes, which are
merely, as their name implies, for laying on water.
TABLE OF THE WEIGHT OF LEADEN PIPES.
Pipes of ^-inch bore weigh per yard lOlbs.
Pipes of 1 -inch bore 1 2 Ibs.
Pipes of 1 |-inch bore 1 6 Ibs.
Pipes of 1 ^-inch bore 1 8 Ibs.
Pipes of 1^-inch bore 21 Ibs.
Pipes of 2-inch bore — 24 Ibs.
2216. The work of the plumber is estimated by its weight and the time employed in
fixing it. The weights and thicknesses of different sizes of sheet lead have been already
given in Chap. II. Sect. VI. of this Book.
2217. The lead generally used in roofing and guttering is from 7 to 12 Ibs. to the su-
perficial foot, and great vigilance on the part of the architect is required, in these days of
contracts, to see that his employer has the thickness, or, which is the same thing, the weight
that has been contracted for.
2218. We do not think it necessary to describe at length the machinery of a water
closet. Every one knows that the principle on which it is formed is that of a head of
water in a cistern placed above it, which by means of a lever attached to a valve in the
cistern allows a body of water to rush down and wash the basin, whose valve is opened for
the discharge of the soil at the same moment that the water is let down from the cistern.
Various instruments for this purpose have been contrived and patented, but we are not
aware of any better than those which were made by the late Mr. Bramah, almost as soon
as the subject formed a matter of inquiry. The reader will obtain by the inspection of
one a far better notion than words or diagrams will convey.
2219. As it is a branch of the plumber's trade to find and fix the pumps for the supply
of water to a dwelling, we think it right to furnish a description of the three sorts com-
monly used, which are the lifting, the common, and the force pump.
2220. Fig. 804. is a diagram of a lifting pump, in which ABCD is a short cylinder
submerged in the well or other reservoir, whence the water is to be raised. In this
cylinder a valve is placed at x, above which the pipe or tube CE
is carried upwards as high as is requisite for the delivery of the
water. In the cylinder AD a water-tight piston moves vertically,
being worked by rod or framework as seen in the diagram. To
this piston is fixed a valve at v opening upwards. On the descent
of the piston the pressure against the water opens the valve ?;, and
the cylinder between the two valves is filled with the water. When
the piston is then raised, the water between the valves being
pressed upwards against the valve x, opens it, and is driven into
the tube CE, from which, on the renewed descent of the piston, its
return is intercepted by the valve x. The water follows the piston in
its ascent by the hydrostatic pressure of the water in the reservoir
outside the cylinder ; and on the next descent of the piston the
water will again pass through the valve v, and will be driven
through the valve x on its next ascent. It is manifest from in-
spection that the valve x relieves the valve v from the pressure of
the column of water in the tube CE during the descent of the
piston ; for if the valve v were subject to that pressure during
the descent of the piston, it could not be opened by the pressure
of the water in the well, inasmuch as its level is necessarily below
the level of the water in the pipe CE. The valve v prevents the
return of the water through the piston during its ascent. In Fig. 804.
raising the piston a force is required sufficient to support the entire column of water from
the valve v to the surface of the water in the tube CE. To estimate this, we must take
the weight of a column of water whose base is equal to the area of a section of the piston
Pp 4
584
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
and whose height is equal to that of the surface of the water above the valve v in the tube
CE. Hence, after each stroke of the pump, the pressure on the piston and the force
necessary to raise it, will be increased by the weight of a column of water whose base is
the horizontal section of the piston, and its height equal to the increase which the elevation
of the column in CE receives from the water driven through the valve x. In the figure
cd is the piston, the bottom of whose rod is at 6 ; m and n are rods which connect it with
the upper part of the work, and WW is the level of the water in the well.
2221. The common, or as it is usually called, suction pump
(shown in fig. 805.), is nothing more than a large syringe con-
nected with a tube whose lower extremity is plunged in the well
from which the water is to be raised. The tube is called a suction
pipe (SO), and its end in the well is represented at O, which, for
the purpose of preventing the ascent of solid impurities, that
might choke the pipe and impede its action, is pierced with holes
like a strainer. At the upper end of this suction pipe is placed the
valve x opening upwards. At this place the tube is connected with
another, BC, which acts as a great syringe, and in which works a
piston having a valve at v, also opening upwards. The piston is
worked alternately upwards and downwards in common pumps by
a lever called the brake, but it may be worked in many ways. In
the figure, W is the level of the water, CD the flange, where the
lower valve is fixed, cd the piston, ab the piston rod, and MN the
cistern into which the water is raised and delivered by its gravity
at the nozzle of the pump e. At the commencement of the opera-
tion the water in the suction tube stands at the same height as the
water in the well, being equally subject to the atmospheric pres-
sure; but as soon as the syringe BC exhausts the air by the
upward and downward action of the piston cd, the pressure of the
air in SO being diminished and rendered less than that on the
surface of the water in the well, will rise in SO by the atmospheric
pressure ; and as the air becomes more completely exhausted in
the column of water in the tube SO below the valve x, so will its
pressure on the surface of the column be diminished, and whilst
that diminution goes on, the height of the column will increase.
If the air could be entirely withdrawn from the tube SO, and a Fig> 805-
perfect vacuum created beneath the valve x, similar to that existing above the mercury in
a barometer, then the atmospheric pressure, acting with undiminirhed effect on the surface
of water in the well, would, in the tube SO, sustain a column of water equal to a column
of mercury of the same base and of the same height as the mercury in the barometer.
Now, the specific gravity of mercury being 1 3| times greater than that of water, a force
capable of sustaining a column of mercury 30 inches high, would sustain a column of
water equal to 30 inches x 13^ = 405 inches = 33^ feet. But an absolute vacuum is never
formed, and, moreover, in this country, as the barometric column varies between 28 and
31 inches in height, the valve x should on no account be more than 28 feet above the
level of the water in the well, taking into consideration all the attendant circumstances.
This is the construction and principle upon which the common
household pump is formed, and in it no other aid is derived
from atmospheric pressure than what we have already stated ;
hence the pump requires as much force to work it as, in general
terms, is equal to the weight of all the water in it at any time,
the atmospheric pressure affording no aid to the workman. The
cistern at the top is placed for the purpose of affording an un-
intermitted discharge of the water by holding more than the
whole accumulation of water which is contrived to be greater
than the spout or nozzle will discharge.
2222. The forcing pump, whose construction is shown in
Hg. 806., is a combination of the common suction and lifting
pump. CEFD is a suction pipe descending into the well, and
it its top is the valve V opening upwards. The pump barrel
A BCD is furnished with a solid piston cd, whose rod is ab,
without any valve. From the side of the barrel, just above the
suction valve, a pipe proceeds, communicating with an upright
cylinder GH, carried to such height as the water is intended to
be raised. At the bottom of this cylinder is placed the valve V Fie- 806-
opening upwards. At the commencement of working, the suction pipe CE and the
chamber between the piston and valves are filled with air. When the piston descends
to the valve V, the air enclosed in the latter chamber becomes condensed, and opening,
CHAP. III. PLUMBERY. 585
therefore, the valve V, a part of it escapes through it. On raising the piston the air below
it becomes partially exhausted, and that in the suction pipe, opening the valve V, by its
greater pressure, expands into the upper chamber. A part of this is expelled when the
piston next descends, by means of the valve V. This action is similar to that of an air
pump or exhausting syringe. When by the repetition of this action the air is suf-
ficiently exhausted, the atmospheric pressure upon the water in the well causes the water
to rise therefrom through the suction pipe and the valve V, into the chamber between the
piston and the valves. When the piston next descends it presses on the surface of the
water, and the valve V closing prevents the return of the water into the suction pipe,
while the pressure of the piston being transmitted by the water to the valve V, opens it,
and as the piston descends, the water passes into the force pipe GH. On the next ascent
of the piston more water is allowed to pass through the valve V, and the next descent
forces this water through the valve V into the force pipe. By repeating the action the
quantity of water in the force pipe increases, receiving equal additions at each descent of
the piston. It is obvious that the position of the force pipe is a matter of no moment ; it
may be perpendicular, oblique, or horizontal ; for in each case the water will be propelled
through it. When the piston is pressed downwards, and the valve V is opened, it is neces-
sary that the force working the piston should balance the weight of the column of water
in the force pipe, for this weight is transmitted by the water between the piston and force
pipe to the bottom of the piston ; the height, therefore, of the column of water in the force
pipe will measure the intensity of the pressure against the base of the piston when the valve
V is open. A column of water suspended 34 feet in height in the force pipe will press
on the base of the piston with a force of about 15 pounds for each square inch; and the
pressure at other heights will be proportional to this. Thus the force necessary to urge
the piston downwards may always be calculated. The valve V is closed in drawing up
the piston, and it then relieves the piston from the weight of the incumbent column. If
the- valve V is opened, the piston is subject to the same pressure as in the suction pump,
and this has already been seen to be equal to the weight of a column of water raised above
the level of the water in the well. From this it follows, that when the height of the force
pipe is equal to the length of the suction pipe, the piston will be pressed upwards and
downwards with equal forces ; but when the height of the force pipe is greater or less than
the length of the suction pipe, the downward pressure must be greater or less, in the same
proportion, than the force which draws the piston up.
2223. The supply of water by the force pipe through the valve V is evidently intermit-
ting, being suspended during the ascent of the piston ; hence the flow from the point of dis-
charge will be subject to the same intermission if means be not taken to counteract such
effect. A cistern at the top of the force pipe, as already shown, for the suction pump,
would answer the purpose ; but it is found more convenient to use an apparatus called an
air vessel (see Jig. 807. ), in which immediately above the valve V a short tube commu-
nicates with a strong close vessel of sufficient capacity, through
the top whereof the force pipe GH passes, and descends to near
the bottom. When the pump is in action the water is forced into
the vessel MN, and when its surface, as at ww, rises above the
mouth H of the force pipe, the air in the vessel MN is confined
above the water ; and as the water is gradually forced in, the
air, being compressed, acts with increased elastic force on the sur-
face of the water. This pressure forces a column of water into
the pipe HG, and maintains it at an elevation proportional to the
elastic force of the condensed air. When the air in the vessel
MN is reduced to half its original bulk it will act on the surface
of the water ww with double the atmospheric pressure ; meanwhile,
the water in the force pipe being subject to merely once the
atmospheric pressure, there is an unresisted force upwards equal
to the atmospheric pressure which sustains the column of water
in the tube, and a column 34 feet high will thus be sustained. If Fig- 807'
the air is reduced to one third of its original bulk, the height of the column sustained will
be 68 feet, and so on. If the force pipe were made to terminate in a ball pierced with small
holes so as to form a. jet (Teau, the elastic pressure of the air on the surface would cause the
water to spout from the holes.
2224. In the formation of all pumps the parts should be nicely fitted, and as air-tight as
possible, otherwise, in using them, much of the power employed will be lost. All expe-
dients which tend to this great desideratum are of value ; indeed any arrangement adapted
to insure the perfect action of a pump is of the utmost importance for the comfort and con-
venience of small no less than large dwellings.
586 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK IT.
SECT. VIII.
GLAZING.
2225. Glazing, or the business of the glazier, consists in fitting glass in sashes, frames,
and casements, either in putty or lead. It may be classed under the heads of sashwork,
leadwork, and fretwork. Glass, as a material, has been already described in Chap. II. Sect.
II. of this Book*.
2226. The tools necessary for sashwork are — a. diamond, polished to a cutting point, and
set in brass in an iron socket, to receive a wooden handle, by which it is held in a cutting
direction. The top of the handle goes between the root of the forefinger and middle
finger, and the under part between the point of the forefinger and thumb. In general, there
is a notch on the side of the socket, which should be held next the lath. Some diamonds
have more cuts than one. Plough diamonds have a square nut on the end of the socket
next the glass, which, on running the nut square on the side of the lath, keeps it in the
cutting direction. Glass benders have their plough diamonds without long handles, as
they cannot make use of a lath in cutting, but direct them by the point of their middle
finger. The ranging lath should be long enough to extend beyond the boundary of the
table of glass. Ranging of glass is the cutting it in breadths, and is best done by one un-
interrupted cut from one end to the other. A short lath is used for stripping the square to
suit the rebate of the sash, as in ranging they are generally cut full. A square, for the more
accurate cutting at the right angles from the range. The carpenter's chisel is used in
paring away some of the rebate of the sash when the glass does not lie so flat as to allow
a proper breadth for front putty. The glazing knife is used for laying in the putty on the
rebates, for bedding in the glass, and finishing the front putty. A bradding hammer is made
with a head in the form of a small parallelepiped, with a socket for the handle, using it at an
obtuse angle from the middle of one of its sides. The square edges of the head drive the
brads in a horizontal direction, and with this tool there is less liability to accident than
with any other. Some use the basil of the chisel for the purpose. Brass points are con-
sidered the best for bradding ; small cut brads are also used. All new work should be
bradded, to prevent the glass being moved out of its bed. The duster is a large brush for
brushing the putties, and taking the oil from the glass. The sash tool is used wet, for
taking the oil from the inside after the back putties are cleared off. The hacking knife is
for cleaning out the old putty from the rebates where squares are to be stopped in. The use
of ihe glazier's rule needs no explanation: it is 2 feet long, doubling in four different pieces.
2227. Leadwork for lights is often used for inferior offices, and frequently in country
buildings. Frames made with crossbars receive these lights, which are fastened with leaden
bars, called saddle bars. Where springs are wanted, a casement is introduced of wood or
iron. Sometimes a sliding frame is used, particularly for church windows.
2228. The tool called the glazier's vice is for preparing the leaden slips with grooves, &c.,
to fit them for the reception of glass. The German vices are esteemed the best, and turn
out a variety of lead in different sizes. There are moulds belonging to these vices in which
bars of lead are cast ; in this form the mill receives them, and turns them out with two
sides parallel to each other, and about | of an inch broad, and a partition connecting the
two sides together, about ^ of an inch wide, forming on each side a groove near T3S by £
of an inch, and 6 feet long. The setting board is that on which the ridge of the light is
worked, and divided into squares, and struck out with a chalk line, or drawn with a lath,
which serve to guide the workman. One side and end is squared with a projecting bead
or fillet. The latterkin is a piece of hard wood pointed, and so formed as to clear the
groove of the lead, and widen it, for the more readily receiving the glass. The setting
knife is a blade with a round end, loaded with lead at the bottom of the blade, and
having a long square handle. The square end of the handle serves to force the squares
home tight in the lead ; being loaded with lead, it is of greater weight, and also cuts off' the
ends of the lead with greater ease, as in the course of working these lights the lead is
always longer than is necessary till trimmed.
2229. The resin box contains powdered resin, which is put on all the joints previous to
soldering. Clips are for holding the irons. All the intersections are soldered on both sides
except the outside joints of the outer side, that is, where they come to the outer edge.
These lights should be cemented, which is done by thin paint being run along the lead
bars and the chasm filled with dry whiting. After it has stood a short time a small
quantity of dry red or white lead is dusted over it, which will enable it to resist the
weather well. Fretwork is the ornamental part of lead-light work, and consists in working
ground or stained glass into different patterns and devices, as may be seen in the old stained
glass windows.
2230. In London a large portion of the glazier's business consists in cleaning windows.
2231. The putty in which the glazier beds the glass is of four sorts. Soft putty, which
is composed of flour, whiting, and raw linseed oil ; hard putty, composed of whiting and
CHAP. III. PLASTERING. 587
boiled linseed oil ; harder putty, the same ingredients as the last, with the addition of a
small quantity of turpentine for more quickly drying it ; hardest putty, composed of oil,
red or white lead, and sand. The first of these putties is the most durable, because it
forms an oleaginous coat on the surface, but it requires a long time for drying. The hard
sorts are apt to crack if not soon well painted, and the hardest of them renders it difficult
to replace a pane when broken ; hence it is altogether unfit for hothouse and greenhouse
work
SECT. IX.
PLASTERING.
2232. In the finishing of our dwellings, the decoration owes much of its effect to the
labours of the plasterer : it is in his department to lay the ceilings, and to give, by means
of plaster, a smooth coat to the walls, so as to hide the irregularities left by the bricklayer
and mason, and make them sightly and agreeable. He also, in the better sort of buildings,
furnishes plain and decorated mouldings for the cornices and ceilings ; and in the external
parts, where stone is expensive or not to be procured, covers the exterior walls with stucco
or other composition imitative of stone.
2233. The plasterer's tools are — a spade or shovel of the usual description ; a rake with two
or three prongs bent downwards from the line of the handle, for mixing the hair and mortar
together ; stopping and picking out tools; rules called straight edges ; wood models ; and trowels
of two sorts and various sizes ; namely, the laying and smoothing tool, consisting of a
flat piece of hardened iron, about 1O inches long, and 2i inches wide, very thin, and
ground to a semicircular shape at one end, but square at the other. Near the square
end on the back of the plate a small iron rod is riveted, with two legs, whereof one is fixed
to the plate, and a round wooden handle is adapted to the other. All the first coats of
plastering are laid on with this tool, as is also the last, or setting, as it is technically called.
The other sorts of trowels are of three or more sizes, and are used for guaging the fine stuff
and plaster for cornices, mouldings, &c. The length of these trowels is, the largest about
7 inches in length on the plate, and the smallest 2 or 3 inches : they are of polished
steel, converging gradually to a point, with handles of mahogany adapted to the heel or broad
end with a deep brass ferrule.
2234. The stopping and picking out tools are of polished steel, of various sizes, about 7
or 8 inches long and half an inch broad, flattened at both ends, and somewhat rounded.
They are used for modelling and finishing mitres and returns to cornices, as also for fill-
ing up and finishing ornaments at their joinings. There is also used a small instrument,
which is a piece of thin fir 6 or 7 inches square, called a hawk, with a handle vertical to it,
for holding small quantities of plaster.
2235. The composition used by the plasterer is a groundwork of lime and hair, on
which, for the finish, a coating of finer material is laid. The sorts of it are various ; as,
for instance, white lime and hair mortar on bare walls ; the same on laths as for partitions
and plain ceilings ; for renewing the insides of walls, roughcasting on laths ; plastering on
brickwork with finishing mortar, in imitation of stone work, and the like upon laths. For
cornices and the decorations of mouldings, the material is plaster of Paris, one which faci-
litates the giving by casts the required form and finish to the superior parts of his work.
The plasterer uses it also for mixing with lime and hair, where the work is required to
dry and set hard in a short time. For inside work, the lime and hair, or coarse stuff, is
prepared, like common mortar, with sand ; but in the mixing, hair of the bullock, obtained
from the tanners' yards, is added to it, and worked in with the rake, so as to distribute it
over the mass as equally as possible.
2236. What is called fine stuff is made of pure lime, slaked with a small quantity of
water, and afterwards, without the addition of any other material, saturated with water,
and in a semi-fluid state placed in a tub to remain until the water has evaporated. In
some cases, for better binding the work, a small quantity of hair is worked into the com-
position. For interior work, the fine stuff is mixed with one part of very fine washed
sand to three parts of fine stuff, and is then used for trowelled or bastard stucco, which makes
a proper surface for receiving painting.
2237. What is called guaye stuff is composed of fine stuff and plaster of Paris, in pro-
portions according to the rapidity with which the work is wanted to be finished. About
four-fifths of fine stuff to one of the last is sufficient, if time can be allowed for the setting.
This composition is chiefly used for cornices and mouldings, run with a wooden mould.
We may here mention that it is of the utmost importance, in plasterers' work, that the
lime should be most thoroughly slaked, or the consequence will be blisters thrown out
upon the work after it is finished. Many plasterers keep their stuffs a considerable
588 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
period before they are wanted to be used in the building, by which the chance of blistering
is much lessened.
2238. When a wall is to be plastered, it is called rendering ; in other cases the first
operation, as in ceilings, partitions, &c., is lathing, nailing the laths to the joists, quarters,
or battens. If the laths are oaken, wrought iron nails must be used for nailing them, but
cast iron nails may be employed if the laths are of fir. The lath is made in three and four
foot lengths, and, according to its thickness, is called single, something less than a quar-
ter of an inch thick, lath and half, or double. The first is the thinnest and cheapest, the
second is about one-third thicker than the single lath, and the double lath is twice the
thickness. When the plasterer laths ceilings, both lengths of laths should be used, by which,
in nailing, he will have the opportunity of breaking the joints, which will not only help in
improving the general key, (or plastering insinuated behind the lath, which spreads there
beyond the distance that the laths are apart,) but will strengthen the ceiling generally. The
thinnest laths may be used in partitions, because in a vertical position the strain of the
plaster upon them is not so great ; but for ceilings the strongest laths should be employed.
In lathing, the ends of the laths should not be lapped upon each other where they termi-
nate upon a quarter or batten, which is often done to save a row of nails and the trouble
of cutting them, for such a practice leaves only a quarter of an inch for the thickness of
the plaster ; and if the laths are very crooked, which is frequently the case, sufficient
space will not be left to straighten the plaster.
2239. After lathing, the next operation is laying, more commonly called plastering. It
is the first coat on laths, when the plaster has two coats or set work, and is not scratched
with the scratcher, but the surface is roughed by sweeping it with a broom. On brick-
work it is also the first coat, and is called rendering. The mere laying or rendering is
the most economical sort of plastering, and does for inferior rooms or cottages.
2240. What is called pricking up is the first coat of three-coat work upon laths. The
material used for it is coarse stuff, being only the preparation for a more perfect kind of
work. After the coat is laid on, it is scored in diagonal directions with a scratcher (the
end of a lath), to give it a key or tie for the coat that is to follow it.
2241. Lath layed or plastered and set is only two-coat work, as mentioned under laying,
the setting being the guage or mixture of putty and plaster, or, in common work, of fine
stuff, with which, when very dry, a little sand is used ; and here it may be as well to men-
tion, that setting may be either a second coat upon laying or rendering, or a third coat
upon floating, which will be hereafter described. The term finishing is applied to the third
coat when of stucco, but setting for paper. The setting is spread with the smoothing
trowel, which the workman uses with his right hand, while in his left he uses a large
flat-formed brush of hog's bristles. As he lays on the putty or set with the trowel, he
draws the brush, full of water, backwards and forwards over its surface, thus producing a
tolerably fair face for the work.
2242. Work which consists of three coats is called floated : it takes its name from an
instrument called afloat, which is an implement or rule moved in every direction on the
plaster while it is soft, for giving a perfectly plane surface to the second coat of work.
Floats are of three sorts : the hand float, which is a short rule, that a man by himself may
use ; the quirk float, which is used on or in angles ; and the Derby, which is of such a
length as to require two men to use it. Previous to floating, which is, in fact, the
operation of making the surface of the work a perfect plane, such surface is subdivided
in several bays, which are formed by vertical styles of plastering, (three, four, five, or even
ten feet apart,) formed with great accuracy by means of the plumb rule, all in the same
plane. These styles are called screeds, and being carefully set out to the coat that is applied
between them, the plaster or floating laid on between them is brought to the proper sur-
face by working the float up and down on the screeds, so as to bring the surface all to the
same plane, which operation is termed filling out, and is applicable as well to ceilings as to
walls. This branch of plastering requires the best sort of workmen, and great care in the
execution.
2243. Bastard stucco is of three coats, the first whereof is roughing in or rendering, the
second is floating, as in trowelled stucco, which will be next described ; but the finishing
coat contains a small quantity of hair behind the sand. This work is not hand-floated, and
the trowelling is done with less labour than what is denominated trowelled stucco.
2244. Trowelled stucco, which is the best sort of plastering for the reception of paint, is
formed on a floated coat of work, and such floating should be as dry as possible before the
stucco is applied. In the last process, the plasterer uses the hand float, which is made of a
piece of half-inch deal, about nine inches long and three inches wide, planed smooth with
its lower edges a little rounded off, and having a handle on the upper surface. The ground
to be stuccoed being made as smooth as possible, the stucco is spread upon it to the extent
of four or five feet square, and, moistening it continually with a brush as he proceeds, the
workman trowels its surface with the float, alternately sprinkling and rubbing the face of
the stucco, till the whole is reduced to a fine even surface. Thus, by small portions at a
CHAP. III. PLASTERING. 58Q
time, he proceeds till the whole is completed. The water applied to it has the effect of
hardening the face of the stucco, which, when finished, becomes as smooth as glass.
2245. From what has been said, the reader will perceive that mere laying or plastering
on laths, or rendering on walls, is the most common kind of work, and consists of one coat
only ; that adding to this a setting coat, it is brought to a better surface, and is two-coat
work ; and that three-coat work undergoes the intermediate process of floating, between
the rendering or pricking up and the setting.
2246. Ceilings are set in two different ways ; that is the best wherein the setting coat is
composed of plaster and putty, commonly called guage. Common ceilings are formed
with plaster without hair, as in the finishing coat for walls set for paper.
2247. Pugging is plaster laid on boards, fitted in between the joists of a floor, to prevent
the passage of sound between two stories, and is executed with coarse stuff.
2248. The following materials are required for 100 yards of render set; viz. li hun-
dred of lime, 1 double load of river sand, and 4 bushels of hair ; for the labour, 1 plas-
terer 3 days, 1 labourer 3 days, 1 boy 3 days ; and upon this, 20 per cent, profit is
usually allowed. For 130 yards of lath plaster and set- — 1 load of laths, 10,000 nails,
2| hundred of lime, 1| double load of river sand, 7 bushels of hair; for the labour, 1
plasterer 6 days, 1 labourer 6 days, 1 boy 6 days ; and upon this, as before, 20 per cent, is
usually allowed.
2249. In the country, for the exterior coating of dwellings and out-buildings, a species
of plastering is used called roughcast. It is cheaper than stucco or Parker's cement, and
therefore suitable to such purposes. In the process of executing it, the wall is first
pricked up with a coat of lime and hair, on which, when tolerably well set, a second coat
is laid on of the same materials as the first, but as smooth as possible. As fast as the
workman finishes this surface, another follows him with a pailful of the roughcast, with
which he bespatters the new plastering, so that the whole dries together. The roughcast
is a composition of small gravel, finely washed, to free it from all earthy particles, and
mixed with pure lime and water in a state of semi-fluid consistency. It is thrown from
the pail upon the wall, with a wooden float, about 5 or 6 inches long, and as many wide,
formed of half-inch deal, and fitted with a round deal handle. With this tool, while the
plasterer throws on the roughcast with his right hand, in his left he holds a common
whitewasher's brush dipped in the roughcast, with which he brushes and colours the
mortar and the roughcast already spread, to give them, when finished, an uniform colour
and appearance.
2250. In forming the coves and cornices which are applied below the ceilings of rooms,
it is of the greatest importance to make them as light as possible, for the plaster whereof
they are formed is heavy, and ought not to depend merely on its adhesion to the vertical and
horizontal surfaces to which it is attached. Hence, when cornices run of large dimensions,
bracketing, as has already been described in the section Joinery (2079, et seq.), must be
provided, of the general form of the cornice or cove, or other work, and on this the plaster-
ing is to be formed. On this, when roughed out, the work is run with wooden moulds,
having brass or copper edges, so as to give the general outline of the cornice. If enrich-
ments are used in it, they are cast in plaster of Paris, and afterwards fixed with that
material in the spaces left for them to -occupy. These enrichments are previously modelled,
and from the model a matrix is formed, as for all other plaster casting. Great nicety is
required in all the operations relative to the moulding and fixing of cornices, and most
especially that the ornaments be firmly fixed, that they may not be detached from their
places by partial settlements of the building, and cause accidents to the occupiers of the
rooms where they are used.
2251. In the present time, the use of ornaments made of carton-pierre, a species of papier
mache, has been reintroduced for cornices, flowers, and other decorations. The basis of it
is paper reduced to a pulp, which having other ingredients mixed with it is pressed into
moulds, and thus ornaments are formed of it. Though they have not all the delicacy of
the plaster cast, their lightness, and the security with which they can be fixed with screws
is such, that we have no hesitation in recommending them for adoption, in preference to
plaster ornaments ; and, indeed, their general use at present warrants the recommendation
we here give. At the same time, we must caution the architect that the thing is at pre-
sent far from the perfection to which the plasterer carries his practice, and that in the
fixing there is all the want of that nicety which a good cornice workman in plaster exhibits.
There has been a great want of competition in this country of the manufacture of carton-
pierre. Indeed of what is made here the modelling is generally very bad, inferior artists
being employed upon it. That manufactured by Waillet and Huber of Paris we have
found to be the best, and their modellers are able artists. We have already adverted to the
cements used in plastering. Parker's, Bailey's, Atkinson's, and Chambers's are the prin-
cipal ones for coating buildings, and the process of laying them on is so similar to that
of other plasterer's work, that it will not be necessary to say more than that they are all
good, and may be used with safety.
590
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
2252. It is scarcely within the branch of the plasterer's practice, but as we shall have no
other place for adverting to it, we may as well here mention a composition which, till
lately, was much in use, but will certainly now be entirely superseded by the carton-pierre,
above mentioned ; we mean what are called composition ornaments, which were never,
however, used in cornices, but principally for the decoration of an inferior class of chimney-
pieces, and the like. The composition is very strong when dry, of a brownish colour, con-
sisting of about two pounds of powdered whiting, a pound of glue in solution, and half a
pound of linseed oil mixed together in a copper, heated and stirred with a spatula till the
whole is incorporated. After heating it is laid upon a stone covered with powdered whiting,
and beaten to a tough and firm consistence, when it is laid by for use, covered with wet
cloths to keep it fresh. This composition is then put into a press, and pressed into
moulds made of boxwood. It is now, however, nearly abandoned, as it ought to be, its
weight being so much against its use.
SECT. X.
SMITHERY AND IRONMONGERY.
2253. Smithery is the art of uniting several lumps of iron into one lump or mass, and
forming them into any desired shape. The operations necessary for this are primarily
performed in the forge, and on the anvil with the hammer ; but for finishing, many other
implements and tools are necessary. These, however, we do not think useful to par-
ticularise, a course we have pursued in the other trades, because the expedients introduced
by the engineer and machinist have of late years, except in rough work, superseded many
of them. It is now, for instance, easier to plane iron to a perfect surface than it was a few
years ago to file or hammer to what was then always an imperfect one. Formerly a man
would be occupied as many minutes in drilling a hole as by machines it now takes seconds
to perform.
2254. We have, in a previous section, given all the particulars relating to the produce
of the metal from the ore ; in this section we propose little more than to enumerate the
different objects which the smith and ironmonger furnish in the construction of buildings ;
and introductory to that it will be convenient to subjoin tables of the weights of round and
bar iron, and also of the weights of 1 foot of close hammered bar iron of different thick-
nesses ; remembering that a cube foot of close hammered iron weighs about 495 Ibs., of
common wrought iron about 480 Ibs., and of cast iron 450 Ibs., whence may be derived the
weight of other solids whose cubic contents are known.
TABLE SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF ONE
FOOT IN LENGTH OF A SQUARE IRON
BAR.
TABLE SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF ONE
FOOT IN LENGTH OF A ROUND IRON
BAR.
Side of
Square
in
inches.
Weight in Ibs.
averdupois.
Side of
Square
in
inches.
Weight in Ibs.
averdupois.
|
0-1875
21
15-0625
0-4687
*I
16-8740
£
0-8125
4
18-8125
1
1-2812
i\
20-8125
|
1 -8740
2|
22-9687
I
2-5625
2?
25-1875
1
3-3125
3
27-75OO
*!
4-2187
3
30-0000
H
5-1875
3s
32-5312
jf
6-3125
3*
35-1875
7-5000
s|
37-9687
if
8-8125
3*
40-7812
J*
10-1875
3|
43-7812
i|
2
11-7187
13-3125
1
46-8740
50-0520
4
53-3125
Diame-
ter in
inches.
Weight in Ibs.
averdupois.
Diame-
ter in
inches.
Weight in Ibs.
averdupois.
0-1562
*i
11-8125
i
0-3750
*j
13-2500
0-6562
2f
14-7500
1-0000
1 -4687
3
16-3437
18-0000
1
2-0000
g
19-7812
1
2-5937
n
21-6250
I]
3-3125
3
23-5625
ij
4-0937
3|
25-5625
lj
4 -9375
3}
27-6562
11
5-9375
si
29-8125
If
6-9052
^
32 -0625
\\
8-0000
3f
34-4062
11
2
9-1875
10-4607
3
36-8125
39-3116
4
41-8740
CHAP. III.
SMITHERY AND IRONMONGERY.
591
TABLE SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF close-hammered FLAT BAR IRON, FROM ONE INCH WIDE
AND AN EIGHTH OF AN INCH THICK TO FOUR INCHES WIDE AND ONE INCH THICK.
Inches,
Thickness in Parts of an Inch, and Weight in Pounds averdupois.
and their
Parts in
breadth.
i
i
I
*
1
I
I
1
1
0-429
0-859
1-289
1-718
2-148
2-578
3-007
3-437
H
0-484
0-968
1-503
1-937
2-422
2-905
3-383
3-868
1;:
0-539
1-078
1 -639
2-148
2-682
3-226
3-758
4-305
1«
0-593
1-187
1-773
2-368
2-953
3-547
4-133
4-72*
1;
0-648
1-289
1-937
2-579
3-218
3-867
4-508
5-156
lj
0-695
1-398
2-093
2-789
3-492
4-187
4-890
5-585
If
0-750
1-500
2-250
3-008
3-758
4-508
5-266
6-016
11
0-804
1-609
2-414
3-218
4-281
4-835
5-641
6-445
2
0-859
1-699
2-578
3-437
4-297
5-156
6-016
6-874
2j
0-913
1-828
2-742
3-356
4-562
5-476
6-391
7-305
21
0-948
1 -937
2-897
3-867
4-835
5-805
6-766
7-734
2|
1-023
2-039
3-062
4-148
5-101
6-125
7-148
8-164
1-069
2-148
3-218
4.297
5-375
6-445
7-547
8-594
2§
1-125
2-250
3-383
4-516
5-641
6-766
7-897
9-023
if
1-179
2-366
3-500
4-726
5-905
7-093
8-273
9-443
1-234
2-468
3-721
4-937
6-180
7-414
8-648
9-882
3
1-289
2-578
3-867
5-156
6-445
7-734
9-023
10-312
38
1-344
2-687
4-031
5-375
6-734
8-055
9-398
1 1 -742
3!
1-398
2.789
4-187
5-609
6-984
8-375
9-773
1 1 -1 72
3|
1-443
2-905
4-335
5-805
7-250
8-703
10-156
1 1 -601
si
1-500
3-007
4-508
6-016
7-516
9-039
10-503
12-031
3|
1-562
3-117
4-672
6-226
7-789
9-344
10-905
12-461
3|
1-609
3-218
4-860
6-445
8-062
9-664
11-281
12-890
31
1-630
3-328
5-000
6-656
8-328
9-992
11-656
13-320
4
1-718
3-437
5-156
6-874
8-593
10-312
12-031
13-750
8
3-436
6-874
10-312
13-748
17-186
20-624
24-062
27-400
12
5-156
10-312
15-469
20-625
25-781
30-937
36-094
41 -250
If of Cast Iron.
12
4-835
9-664
14-500
19-336
24-172
29-000
33-836
38-672
2255. For the carcass of a building the chief articles furnished by the smith are chimney
bars, which are wide thin bent bars or plates of iron, to relieve the weight of brickwork
over wide openings of chimneys, as in kitchens and rooms where a large area of fire is
requisite. In these situations they are subject however to objection, because of their liability
to constant expansion and contraction from the varying temperature, which often produces
fractures about the chimney jambs. They nevertheless, on the whole, produce a security
which sanctions their use. Cramps for holding together courses of stonework. These,
however, are better of cast iron, being far less subject to decay by oxidisation. Balusters
and railing for stairs and the areas of houses towards a public way. Shoes for piles, when
that mode of obtaining a foundation is adopted. Wrought iron columns with caps and bases,
for the support of great superincumbent weights. Cast iron are now preferred both for
economy and stiffness ; as is also that material for girders and bressumers, which have
been already disposed of in a previous page. Area gratings and window bars for securing
the lower stories of houses. Here, again, the founder has stept in to render the employ-
ment of wrought iron much less general than formerly. Ties of all descriptions, and for
the carpenter especially the various sorts of straps, bolts, nuts and screws, plates, washers,
and the like, for connecting the pieces in framing where the strain is greater than the mere
fibres of the wood will resist. Casements, with their fastenings for lead lights, are also
furnished by the smith. But he is now rarely employed, as heretofore, for fancy gates,
sashes, and frames, such works being furnished by the founder, as well as rain-water pipes
with their cistern heads, pavement gutters, air traps, scrapers, coalplates, water-closet
traps, and a number of other objects which will occur to the reader.
2256. The chief articles furnished by the ironmonger are for the joiner's use, and, ex-
cept in particular cases, are kept in store by that tradesman for immediate supply as
required.
592 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
2257. They consist in screws, whose common sizes are from three quarters of an inch up
to 4 inches in length. They are sold by the dozen.
2258. Iron butt hinges, whose name is probably derived from their butting close surface
to surface when closed, used for hanging doors and shutters. They are made both of iron
and brass, the former varying in size from 1 \ to 4 inches in length ; the latter from 1 inch
to 4 inches. These, as well as all other hinges, are in size necessarily proportioned to
the magnitude and consequent weight of the shutters or doors they are to carry ; and
it is to be observed, that for the well-hanging of a door or shutter, the size of the hinge
should be rather on the outside of enough than under the mark. There is a species of
hinge used for doors called the rising joint hinge, a contrivance in which the pivot, having
on it a short portion of a spiral thread, and the part to which the door is fixed having a
correspondent mass, the door in opening rises, and clears the carpet or other impediment
usually placed on the floor. The projecting brass butt is used when the shutter or door is
required to clear some projection, and thus, when opened, to lie completely back in a plane
parallel to its direction when shut. All hinges are purchased from the ironmonger by the
pair.
Besides the hinges above mentioned are those called cross garnets, whose form is J— , that
of a Y lying sidewise. These are only used on the commonest external doors, and are made
from 10 to 2O inches, varying in their dimensions by differences of two inches. f°{ hinges,
the shape of the letter H> showing their form as well as the origin of their name. These
in their sizes range from 3 to 8 inches by differences of an inch. f-L hinges ( J-j and |_
conjoined), whose form is implied by their name, and whose sizes are from 6 to 12 inches,
proceeding by inches. Parliament hinges are made of cast and wrought iron, from 3i to 5
inches, proceeding in size by half inches.
2259. Rough rod bolts are those in which there is no continued barrel for the bolt, and are
for the most common service. Their sizes begin with a length of three inches, and proceed
by inches up to a length of 10 inches; such, at least, are their common sizes. Bright rod
bolts run of the same sizes as the last ; and, as the name indicates, the bolt is polished and
finished, so as to make them a better fastening, as far as appearance is concerned. The
spring plate bolt is contrived with a spring to keep the bolt up to its work, but one which
so soon gets out of order that we wonder it is now manufactured or used. It is made of
lengths from 3 to 8 inches, by variations of an inch in size. Barrelled bolts are those
in which the whole length of the bolt is enclosed in a continued cylindrical barrel, and are
superior to all others in use, as well as the most finished in their appearance. Their com-
mon sizes are from 6 to 12 inches, varying by steps of an inch. All the bolts above
mentioned are sold per piece by the ironmonger, as are those called flush bolts, a name given
to such as are let into the surface to which they are applied, so as to stand flush with it.
They are mostly made of brass, and are of two different thicknesses, viz. half and three
quarter inch. Their lengths vary from 2| to 12 inches, and occasionally, as circumstances
may require, as in book-case doors and French sashes, to a greater length. But for French
casements, what is called the Espaniolette bolt, a contrivance whose origin is French, though
much improved in its manufacture here, is now more generally in use.
2260. Pullies, for hanging sashes and shutters, are made of iron or brass, or with brass
sheaves or brass axles. Their sizes are from one inch and a half to two inches and a half
in diameter.
2261. The varieties of locks, their contrivances for security, and their construction, are
so many, that to describe them minutely would require almost a work of itself. All that
the architect has to deal with, for common purposes in building, we shall mention. For
fastening places where particular security is requisite, as strong closets for plate or cash,
some of the patented locks should be used, and we must leave this matter for inquiry in the
hands of the architect. Every patentee says his invention is the best. We nevertheless
believe, notwithstanding the boasts of all the inventors, no lock has yet appeared which an
expert locksmith acquainted with its construction will not be able to pick. The locks in
common use are stock locks, whose box is usually of wood, and whose sizes vary from 7
to 10 inches. Dead locks, whose sizes are from 4 to 7 inches, and so called from the
key shooting the bolt home dead, without a spring. Cupboard locks of 3, 3^, and 4
inches in size. Iron rim locks, whose box or case is made of iron, and which are fitted
on to one of the sides of a door, and whose sizes are from 6 to 8 inches. Of those
made of the last-named size, there are some, as also of 9 inches, which are used for ex-
ternal doors, called iron rim drawback locks. For the doors of all well-finished apart-
ments, mortice locks are used. These take their name from being morticed into the thick-
ness of the door, and being thus hidden. To these either plain or fancy furniture, that is,
nobs and escocheons, are affixed. Above and below them finger plates are generally directed
to be placed, to prevent the door being soiled in the places where it is mostly laid hold
of.
2262. The different sorts of latches in use are the thumb latch, which receives its name
CHAP. III. PAINTING, GILDING, ETC. 593
from the thumb being placed on the lever to raise its latch ; the Norfolk latch ; the four-
inch bow latch with brass nobs ; the brass pulpit latch ; and the mortice latch.
2263. Besides the articles already mentioned, spikes, holdfasts, and wall hooks, door springs
of various sorts, door chains and barrels, thumb screws and other shutter and sash fastenings,
brass turn buckles, closet knobs, brass jlush rings, shutter bars, brass rollers, bars with latchets,
shelf brackets, drawer handles, wrought iron bars, sash lines and weights, besides many others,
are furnished by the ironmonger. In treating on specifications, in a subsequent section, it
will be seen how the several articles of smithery and ironmongery are applied.
2264. Bolts, straps, and other exposed iron- work are preserved from the action of moisture
on them by the following mixture : — To two quarts of boiling oil add half a pound of
litharge, putting in small quantities at a time, and cautiously. Let it simmer over the fire
two or three hours ; then strain it, and add a quarter of a pound of finely-pounded resin
and a pound of white lead, keeping it at a gentle heat till the whole is well incorporated.
It is to be used hot. A composition of oil and resin and finely levigated brickdust is found
useful in preserving iron from rust. It is to be mixed, and used as a paint of the usual
consistence.
SECT. XI.
FOUNDERY.
2265. The very general use of cast iron by the architect has induced us to give, in a
previous section, a succinct account of the common operations of foundery, or the art of
casting metal into different forms. We do not think it necessary, therefore, to do more
than refer the reader to Chap. II. Sect V. of this Book (1763, et seq.). The foundery of
statues, which is among the most difficult of its branches, belongs exclusively to the
sculptor, and is usually carried on in bronze.
2266. To gain a proper knowledge of the operations of the founder, the student should
attend a few castings at the foundery itself, which will be more useful to him than all which
in words we can express on the subject.
SECT. XII.
PAINTING, GILDING, AND PAPER-HANGING, ETC.
2267. Painting is the art of covering the surfaces of wood, iron, and other materials with
a mucilaginous substance, which, acquiring hardness by exposure to the air, protects the
material to which it is applied from the effects of the weather.
2268. The requisite tools of the painter are — brushes of hog's bristles, of various sizes
suitable to the work ; a scraping or pallet knife ; earthen pots to hold the colours ; a tin
can for turpentine ; a grinding stone and muller, &c. The stone should be hard and close-
grained, about 1 8 inches in diameter, and of sufficient weight to keep it steady. The knots,
especially of fir, in painting new work, will destroy its good effect if they be not first pro-
perly killed, as the painters term it. The best way of effecting this is by laying upon those
knots which retain any turpentine a considerable substance of lime immediately after it is
slaked. This is done with a stopping knife, and the process dries and burns out the tur-
pentine which the knots contain. When the lime has remained on about four and twenty
hours, it is to be scraped off, and the knots must be painted over with what is called size
knotting, a composition of red and white lead ground very fine with water on a stone, and
mixed with strong double glue size, and used warm. If doubts exist of their still remain-
ing unkilled, they may be then painted over with red and white lead ground very fine in
linseed oil, and mixed with a portion of that oil, taking care to rub them down with sand
paper each time after covering them when dry ; so that they may not appear more raised
than the other parts. When the knotting is completed, the priming colour is laid on. The
priming colour is composed of white and a little red lead mixed thin with linseed oil. One
pound of it will cover from 18 to 20 yards. When the primer is quite dry, if the work is
intended to be finished white, mix white lead and a very small portion of red with linseed
oil, adding a little quantity of spirits of turpentine for second colouring the work. Of this
second primer, one pound will cover about 10 to 12 square yards. The work should now
remain for some days to harden ; and before laying on the third coat, it should be rubbed
down with fine sand paper, and stopped with oil putty wherever it may be necessary. If
the knots still show through, they should be covered with silver leaf laid on with japanned
gold size. The third coat is white lead mixed with linseed oil and turpentine in equal
portions, and a pound will cover about 8 square yards. If the work is not to be finished
Qq
594 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
white, the other requisite colour will of course be mixed with the white lead, as in the case
of four coats being used. When the work is to be finished with four coats, the finishing
coat should be of good old white lead as the basis, thinned with bleached linseed oil and
spirits of turpentine ; one of oil to two of turpentine. If the work is to be finished dead
white, the very best old lead must be used, and thinned entirely with spirits of turpentine.
2269. When stucco is to be painted, it will require one more coat than wood- work ; the
last coat being mixed, if the work is as usually executed, with half spirits of turpentine
and half oil, for the reception of the finishing coat of all turpentine or flatting. If the
work be not flatted, the finishing coat should be with one part oil and two of turpentine.
It would be impossible to enter into the details which are to be observed in painting walls
of fancy colours ; all that can be said on this point in instruction to the architect is, that
when fancy colours, as they are called, which in these days a painter construes as anything
but white and a tinge of ochre or umber, each coat must incline, as it is laid on, more and
more to the colour which the work is intended to bear when finished.
2270. In repainting old work, it should be well rubbed down with dry pumice stone,
and then carefully dusted off, and when requisite, the cracks and openings must be well
stopped with oil putty. After this, a mixture of white, with a very small portion of red
lead, with equal parts of oil and turpentine, is used to paint the work, which the painters
technically call second colouring old work. After this, the work being dry, a mixture of
old white lead, adding a small portion of blue black in a medium of half bleached oil and
half turpentine, is used for finishing, or, if flatting be intended, the former preparation will
be suitable for receiving dead white or any fancy colour. The same process will serve for
stuccoed walls, observing that, if more coats be required, the mixture of half oil and half
turpentine is proper.
2271. In respect to outside work, the use of turpentine is to be avoided, for turpentine
is more susceptible of water than oil, and thence not so well calculated to preserve work
exposed to the weather. Oil, however, having from its nature a natural tendency to dis-
colour white, that is necessarily finished with a portion of half oil and half turpentine ;
but in dark colours this is not necessary, and in such cases, boiled oil, with a little turpen-
tine, is the best, or indeed boiled oil only.
2272. White lead, which is the principal basis of all stone colours, is carbonate of lead. It is usually made
either by precipitation, as when carbonic acid or a carbonate is used to decompose a soluble salt, or a subsalt
of lead : or by exposing plates of cast lead to the joint action of the vapour of acetic acid air and carbonic
acid. It is by the latter process only that the resulting carbonate of lead is obtained of that degree of den-
sity, opacity, and perfect freedom from chrystalline texture, which fits it for paint. The last, called the
Dutch process, was introduced into England about 1780. White lead is often largely adulterated with sul-
phate of baryta, which may be detected by insolubility in dilute nitric acid, whereas pure white lead is
entirely dissolved by it. The ill effects on the constitution of parties engaged both in the manufacture and
use of the article, have recently (since the publication of the first edition of this work) induced the French
chemists to find some less deleterious substitute for it, and M. de Ruolz has discovered two substances
hich fulfil the required conditions— viz., combination with oil, good colour, property of concealing, &c.
The first is an arsenical compound (product) hitherto little known, which M. de Kuolz does not describe,
because, although inoffensive it may be made, by very simple chemical reaction, to retake its poisonous
qualities, and be employed criminally. The second, which he considers well adapted for use, is the oxide
of antimony, and possesses the following properties : its colour is a very pure white, rivalling the finest silver
white, it is very easily ground, and forms with oil an unctuous and cohesive mixture ; comparatively with the
white lead of Holland as 46 to 22 ; mixed with other paints it gives much clearer and softer tones than white
lead. It may be obtained directly from the natural sulphuret of antimony, and at one third of the cost of
ordinary white paint. (See " Literary Gazette," 25. Nov. 1843.) If the finishing colour is white, nothing but
white lead should be employed. Lead colours are formed by a mixture of white lead with lamp black ; all
colours, however, that are called/ancy colours, have white lead for their basis, chocolates, black, brown, and
wainscot only excepted.
2273. There is a process used by painters, termed clear-coaling, which is executed with white lead ground in
water, and mixed with size. This is used instead of a coat of paint ; but it has not sufficient body usefully
to answer the end for which it is usually employed. It scales off, and in damp situations its colour almost
immediately changes. The only occasions wherein it is useful, are where the work is greasy and smoky, in
which the use of it prepares better for the reception of paint. It should, however, never be employed upon
joiner's work or cornices to ceilings, where much enrichment is found ; for of all things, it destroys the sharp-
ness and beauty of the ornaments. Painters are very fond of using it ; but their endeavours to persuade the
architect should always be resisted, except in cases of absolute necessity, namely, that in which a fair appear-
ance cannot otherwise be given to the work. Some colours dry badly, black especially, and in damp weather
they require a drier, as it is called, which may be made from equal parts of copperas and litharge, ground
very fine, and added according to circumstances.
2274. Drying oil is made as follows : — To 1 gallon of linseed oil, put 1 Ib. of red lead, 1 Ib. of umber, and
1 Ib. of litharge, and boil them together for two or three hours. Great care must be taken that the oil does
not boil over, on account of the danger to which the premises would be thereby exposed. Thus, in a pot
capable of holding fifteen gallons, it would not be prudent to boil more than one-third of that quantity.
2275. Painters' putty is made of whiting and linseed oil, well beaten together.
2276. The extra or fancy colours used in painting are drabs, French greys, peach blossom, lilac, light
greens, patent greens, blues, vermilion, lake, &c. 411 imitations, too, of woods and marbles, are executed
by the painter, and these are always covered with one or more coats of varnish.
2277. In outside work and stairs, the process of sanding is frequently adopted. It is performed with fine
sand thrown on the last coat of paint while wet. The method of gilding is either through a medium of oil
or water, the former being that most used in gilding the decorations of houses. The gold, of various thick-
ness, is furnished by the goldbeater in books of 25 leaves, each leaf being 3^ by 3 inches, or in the book, 1 ft.
6 in. and | of an inch superficial.
2278. With painting is often connected the practice of paper-hanging by the same
artificer. The various sorts of paper used for lining walls it would be useless to describe.
We have only to mention that papers are printed in pieces of 12 yards in length, and
1 foot 8 inches wide ; hence, 1 yard in length contains 5 feet superficial ; therefore, any
CHAP. III. SPECIFICATIONS. 595
number of superficial feet divided by 60 (the length 36 x 1 ft. 8 ins.) will give the number
of pieces wanted for the work. A ream of printed paper of 20 quires of 24 sheets to the
quire is equal to 28 pieces of paper, or each piece contains 17 sheets.
SECT. XIII.
SPECIFICATIONS.
2279. The importance of an accurate specification or description of the materials and
work to be used and performed in the execution of a building, is almost as great as the
preparation of the designs for it. The frequent cost of works above the estimated sum, and
its freedom from extra charges on winding up the accounts, will mainly depend on the
clearness, fulness, and accuracy of the specifications; though it is but justice to the archi-
tect to state that extras arise almost as often from the caprice of his employer during the
progress of the work, as from the neglect or carelessness of the architect in making the
specification. A specification should be made in all cases of new designs, additions, or
alterations in reference to designs, which; the more they are given in working drawings by
the architect, the better will it be for his employer, no less than for the artificer.
2280. It is impossible to frame a set of directions which shall be applicable in all cases.
What we here propose to do is, to give something like a list or skeleton of the component
parts of buildings, from which the architect may select such as are suitable to the parti-
cular case whereon he may be engaged. We have not carried this into the repairs and
alterations of houses, because, with difference of application, we apprehend what we are
placing before the student will enable him to carry the system forward in such cases without
any difficulty. The works of each artificer are as follow : —
228 1 . EXCAVATOR. To take down any old buildings and impediments that may be on
the site of the new works. If any old materials are to be used again, he is to clean,
sort, and stack them for re-using in such parts of the premises as may be directed.
The rubbish, as well from these as from any superfluous earth that may come out
of the basement and foundations, if not wanted for raising the ground or for other
purposes, he is to cart away, either wholly, or to such part of the premises as may
require it, on direction to that effect, as well as all rubbish that may accumulate
in executing the works.
To dig out for basement story (where one is to be) for the foundations, areas, drains,
floors, and all other works requisite. To beat down to a solid consistence the ground
forming the beds of the trenches for receiving the foundations and walls, and after
they are in, he is to fill in and ram down the ground with wooden rammers ; to
level, and to do such other rough groundwork as may be necessary for forming the
sectional ground lines shown upon the drawings. In basements no earth is to be left
nearer than 9 inches to any floor or other timbers, such cavities being by the speci-
fication to be filled in with dry lime core. And, finally, he is to leave the ground
altogether free from all useless soil or other materials.
To bale out or pump out and remove all soil and water which may be necessary for
laying the foundations, whether arising from springs, drains, cesspools, rain, or
otherwise, and to be answerable for all accidental damage that may occur whilst the
foundations and walls are carrying up, as also, when buildings adjoin, for all damage
that may occur to neighbouring buildings.
2282. BRICKLAYER. The brickwork is to be executed with the very best hard well-burnt
grey stocks (or kiln-burnt red stock bricks, if the others are not to be had*), to be laid in
flat joints, and so that every four courses shall not exceed Hi inches in height.
When better bricks are used for facing external walls, they are to be specified as best
marie stocks, second marie stocks, or Suffolk white, bricks, as the case may be, in which
case it must be specified that no headers of the facing are to be cut off, except
where absolutely necessary to form good bond. Fronts so faced must be described
to be either carried up with a neat flat parallel ruled joint, or to be afterwards tuck-
joint pointed if a very finished face is wanted, though the latter is not altogether a
very sound practice. In old work the joints may be described to be raked out, the
brickwork washed, stained, and tuck-joint pointed.
No place or samile bricks to be allowed in any part of the work, under a penalty of
two shillings for every such brick that may be detected to have been used.
The mortar is to be compounded of stone lime and sharp clean drift sand (if the work
be of importance), to be ground in a pug-mill, or otherwise to be well tempered
and beaten with wooden beaters, and to be in the proportion of one heaped bushel
of lime to two of sand.
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596 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
BRICKLAYER.
When the foundations are bad, concrete should be provided, and is thus described : it
is to be formed in the proportion of six parts of Thames or other unscreened clean
ballast, and one part of fresh-burnt Dorking (or other) stone lime, beaten to powder
on the premises, and unslaked. They are to be thoroughly mixed in small quanti-
ties at a time, the lime at mixing being slaked with as small a quantity of water as
possible. The concrete, after mixing, is to be dropped from a stage to be formed
by the contractor, so as to fall into the trench provided for its reception from a
height of at least 1 2 feet. The thickness of the conrete thus executed may vary
from 4 feet to 1 8 inches in height, according to the badness or goodness of the
foundation.
English bond should be directed, and the work should be specified to be flushed up at
every course with mortar. No bats to be allowed except for closures ; and for
sound work every fourth course to be grouted with liquid mortar, and in the foun-
dations every course, or at least every second course. The walls, chimneys, their
shafts and other works are to be carried up of the height and thicknesses and in the
manner shown and figured on the several plans and drawings, together with all
brickwork requisite for the completion of the house. If the architect prefers, he
may particularise these, but the drawings will show his meaning better. When the
work is within the bills of mortality, and not required to be of particularly great
solidity it will be sufficient to describe that the thicknesses of the walls, their heights
above the roofs, &c., shall be conformable to the regulations contained in the Build-
ing or other Act of the locality where one exists.
When the work is to appear without a stone or plaster facing, there must be described
rubbed and guaged arches for all the external openings that will be seen in the prin-
cipal fronts, of 9 or 14 inches in depth (or more according to their span), accurately
cut, and set closely in front, in back, and on their sofites. To the other openings
the arches are to be described plain arches, closely set ; those which appear exter-
nally to be tuck-pointed on their outside faces. Over all lintels, too, in external
walls, the specification should provide uncut accurately formed arches.
When fascias are formed of brick, they must be described with their projections, as
also all cornices formed by the arrangements of bricks, whereof the heads may be
required to show as modillions ; but a drawing should, for the latter, always appear
on the drawing or specification.
When the shafts of chimneys are carried up above the roof, out of the common way,
they must be referred to drawings ; otherwise what relates to them and their flues is
merely described as follows : — Turn, parget, and core the chimney flues, and finish
the shafts with salient courses 6 inches in height, with double plaintile creesing
thereto, and for each flue provide and fix a large-sized chimney mould ; the upper
courses of the shafts above the creesing to be laid in Parker's cement. In most
cases, now, the flues are covered with square chimney moulds, cast of Parker's
cement, and may be described as plain or moulded, and otherwise ornamented.
When parapets are not to be coped with stone or cement, they must be described as
finished with double plaintile creesing, and a brick on edge thereover, all laid in
Parker's cement.
Generally, where weather is to be provided against in upper courses and elsewhere,
the laying in Parker's cement must be described.
Turn trimmers of 4-inch brickwork to all the fire-places for receiving the hearths
throughout the building, except where the hearths lie on ground in basement stories.
Where there are basement stories, or the story is on the ground. Describe piers 9
inches square, or continued walls 9 inches thick, to carry the sleepers whereon the
joists of the floor or the courses of paving stone are to lie ; in either case the cavity
is to be filled, for at least 9 inches in height, with dry lime core.
Bed in mortar all bond timber, wall or other plates, lintels, wood, bricks, templets,
stone, or other work connected with the brickwork. All the door and window
frames to be bedded in and pointed round with lime and hair mortar. Execute all
requisite beam fitting.
When the building is faced with stone, or stone dressings are used ; to the above
must be added — back up and fill in solid with brickwork all the stone work and
iron work that is set in the brickwork.
If cornices, fascias, &c. are to be run in Parker's cement, or other sort of plaster, the
instruction is — Prepare and fix brickwork, and such Yorkshire stone slabs and
other materials as may be necessary for forming the several external cornices, pedi-
ments, strings, sills, and dressings to openings, in Parker's cement, or other cement,
as the case may be, as shown on the drawings.
Turn arches in cement (if wanted) for carrying entrance or other steps. Provide all
brickwork for stone steps. Turn vaults of brickwork (describe thickness not less
!
CHAP. III. SPECIFICATIONS. 597
BRICKLAYER.
than 9 inches) over the intended cellars, according to the drawing, and properly cut
all groins of intersections. The spandrels to be filled in with solid brickwork up to
the level of the internal crown of the vaulting, the whole grouted Math liquid
mortar. When the centering is struck, the sofites of the vaultings are to be evenly
and fairly cleaned off, and pointed.
Construct round the building a dry drain, as shown on the drawings, the top of the
wall thereof to be level with the sections of the ground. Ram down the ground
at the back thereof as the work is carried up, and provide such stone stays from
the building as may be necessary for maintaining such wall in its place.
To execute proper barrel drains for draining the premises, as shown on the plans, to
fall into a main sewer, or cesspool, as the case may be. The principal drains to be
1 ft. 6 in. and the smaller ones 1 2 inch barrelled drains, with half- brick rims, and the
lower half of each drain composed with pure Parker's cement. At the foot of all
rain-water, soil, and waste pipes, proper brick funnels are to be formed to lead down
to the drain, the same to be constructed in Parker's cement. From all sink-stones
funnels and drains to be formed to lead to the principal drains. N. B. We have here
described the sizes of drains as for a moderate-sized mansion. We might say that
30 inches is the maximum diameter likely to be required for a large building, and
none should be made less than 9 inches wide with half-brick sides, three courses
high, curved top and bottom.
When a portico is designed, provide and execute walls for carrying the columns of
portico, as shown on the plan, all piers or cross walls for receiving the landings, and
brickwork to receive the steps. If the portico be of large size, describe discharging
arches above the architrave in the space over intercolumniations, and from return
columns to main walls. If a pediment, back up with brickwork behind the tym-
panum of pediment quite up to under side of raking cornice of pediment.
Wells, when above 6 feet in diameter, should be described to be steaned in a thickness
of one brick, and when less than that size, in half a brick.
When water cannot be carried off to a public sewer or running stream, cesspools must
be formed to receive it, and allow, if possible, its absorption by the earth. They
are usually 3 feet 6 inches to 5 feet clear diameter, and are to be described as circu-
lar on plan, steaned round with hard stocks, in half a brick thick, laid dry till within
18 inches of the top, which 18 inches are to be laid in Parker's cement. If
there be privies or water-closets far apart, each must be provided with a cesspool.
Cesspools are sometimes domed over in brickwork, with a circular stone let into
the eye or opening at the top of the dome ; or they may be described to be covered
with Yorkshire stone.
If any fence walls are required, their footings, thicknesses, heights, and lengths are to
be mentioned, and of what bricks they are to be built. If any thing peculiar in
their form, a section and elevation should be given.
Bricknogged partitions, which in practice ought, if possible, to be avoided, and are only
to be justified where room is an object, are described as with bricks laid flat, or on
edge, filled in between the quarters, ties, &c. of the partition.
Strong closets for plate or deeds require merely description of thickness of walls and
brick arch, and usually 4-inch walls brought up for holding the requisite number of
shelves. The same of wine cellars, whose bin walls must be mentioned.
Paving with bricks is described to be either of stocks, paving bricks, malm paviors, or
clinkers, which may be laid flat or on edge in sand, mortar, or cement, and either
straight-coursed or herring-bone.
Paving with tiles is usually in mortar ; the tiles may be either 10 or 12 inches square.
All splays, ramps, and chases to be cut where wanted ; the two former to be rubbed
where necessary, and the latter to be pargetted
Brick ovens (one 10 feet wide and 8 feet 6 inches deep will bake tweive oushels of bread,
and one 8 feet wide and 7 feet deep will bake eight bushels, and so in proportion) are
to be constructed with Welsh lumps or fire bricks for fire-place, domed over, and
hooped with iron hoops. The bricklayer is to provide the bars, plate door, bar to the
archway of door, and other ironwork, and to carry up a proper flue from the fire.
Iron ovens. The bricklayer is to set in proper brickwork an iron oven capable of
baking two bushels of bread.
Coppers and stewing stoves to be set neatly in brickwork, the latter in guaged brick-
work with tile top, and proper flues carried up therefrom.
Columns to porticoes or fronts which are to be coated with cement must be described
of such diameters as the drawings for finishing require, with entablature, &c., as the
case may be, carried up in Parker's cement.
In describing stables, besides what may be applicable from the foregoing directions,
two air- flues are to be constructed to each stall and loose box, 9 inches square, and
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598 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
BRICKLAYER.
carried up over the racks within the thickness of the brickwork, communicating at
their tops with the external air by curved tops to secure them from the penetration
of the rain. Dung-pit walls, whose dimensions depend on the size of the stables.
Lime white walls of stables.
If roofs are covered with tiles, either pan or plain. The description for the former
will be either laid dry, or bedded in lime and hair, or pointed outside or inside,
or on both sides ; or if glazed pantiling, to be so described, laid to a 10-inch guage
on stout fir laths, with hip, ridge, and valley tiles, filleting cutting to splays, beam
filling, painted T nails, hip hooks, &c. Plain tiling is described as laid to a close
guage on heart of oak double laths, with all the plaintiles pegged. The hip and
ridge tiles to be set in Parker's cement, with T nails dipped in melted hot pitch
in all the joints. Strong, similarly pitched, wrought iron hip hooks. Filletings of
Parker's cement, with strong cast iron nails for forming a key driven into the walls
or other brickwork at intervals, close enough to secure the same.
In cases of underpinning the bricklayer is to cut all holes for the needles, and to re-
move the old work, and to bring up the work in Parker's cement on concrete
foundation ; and, finally, drive the cast iron wedges for bringing the work to a solid
bearing.
Where inverted arches are used in foundations they must be shown on the drawings.
Provide, according to the extent of the job, a certain number of rods of brickwork for
such extras as may be ordered by the architect ; and if the whole or any part thereof
should not be wanted, a deduction to be made on settling the accounts for so much
thereof as shall not have been used, at a price per rod to be named.
To build all the walls level, except otherwise directed ; to be answerable for all damage
that may occur to the work, by settlements or otherwise, during the time of
building, and to make good the same as the architect shall direct ; and, further, to
perform all such jobbing work as shall be necessary for completely finishing the
building. To provide good sound and sufficient scaffolding, which is to remain for
the use of the mason, carpenter, and other artificers that may have occasion to
use the same.
To pay the proper fees to the district, sewer, and paving surveyors, and to give the
necessary notices and obtain the proper licences in their departments for executing
the works. This only applies in the bills of mortality, where there are such officers.
2283. SLATER. To cover the roofs with the best strong Westmoreland, Tavistock, Welsh
rag, imperial, queen, duchess, countess, ladies, or double slating, (as the architect may
think most appropriate, each being named in the order of the value and quality,)
securely fixed with best strong copper nails. Every part to be properly bonded,
especially at the eaves and heading courses thereof, with slates cut to keep the bond
uniform. No slates to be laid lengthwise.
Fillets against the brickwork, where requisite, of Parker's cement ; such fillets to be
formed with nails driven at proper intervals to form a hold for the cement (where
lead step flashings are intended the fillets need not be described). Fillets of brick
or stone may be built up with the wall, level or raking; and if they should be pre-
ferred by the architect, they must be described in the bricklayer's or mason's works.
All the slating is to be rendered up perfect on completing the building, and all
jobbing work to be performed that may become necessary as the work is carried on.
If the slating is required to be rendered as air-tight as possible, it must be described
to be pointed on the inside with stone lime mortar, with a proper quantity of hair
therein ; but the pointing of either slates or tiles, from the constant expansion and
contraction arising from heat and cold, soon falls out and becomes useless. Slater
to be answerable twelve months for his work.
If slate skirtings and cisterns are intended about the building, they must be par-
ticularly described.
2284. MASON. The stone to be used in a building generally depends of course on the place
where it is to be built, unless, without regard to expense, the employer determines
on the use of any particular sort ; in which case the account of the different quarries
of the provinces, given in Chap. II. Section II. of this Book, will furnish the
architect with the means of describing the best of its sort. For the choice, therefore,
where it is left to the architect to decide, we must refer him to that account. In
the neighbourhood of London that from the island of Portland is most used.
Granite is chiefly used where great strains and pressures occur, or where wear and
tear and the action of the weather indicate its employment.
Having described the sort of stone selected to be of the best quality, free from all
vents, shakes, &c., the next direction is, that it shall be throughout laid in the direc-
CHAP. III. SPECIFICATIONS. 599
MASON.
tion of its natural bed in the quarry ; and if the whole building is of stone, many of
the following particulars will be unnecessary, — which of them will immediately speak
for themselves. Where the building is only faced with stone, the specification will
run as follows : — The . . . fronts (describing them) are to be faced with Portland
(or other, as the case may be) stone, ashlaring in courses to fall in with the courses
of brickwork, carried up after the manner of Flemish bond. • The stretchers of
such ashlaring being 4i inches deep and the headers 9 inches, with bond stones
running through the whole thickness of the wall in the proportion of -^ of the
face, to be introduced where the piers allow. No quoins to show a thickness of
less than 12 inches. The whole to be cramped with iron cramps to the satisfaction
of the architect, the mason finding the same, and properly running them with lead.
In cases where the building is of brick with stone dressings, the specification will run
thus : — To provide and set a Portland stone (or other stone or granite) plinth all
round (or part, as the case may be) the building, . . . feet . . . inches high and 8i
thick, in stones not less than 3 feet in length, the vertical joints to be cramped with
T cramps not less than 12 inches long. Describe whether joints are to be close or
channelled, and whether ashlar is to be rusticked (rockworked). To provide and
fix at the angles of the building, as shown upon the drawings, solid quoins of
Portland (or other, as the case may be) stone [here describe whether close, cham-
fered, or channelled joints, and whether rusticked (rockworked)J of the length and
height shown.
To provide and fix, as shown, string courses, scantling . . . inches by .... inches,
throated and bevelled on the upper face, and the joints plugged with lead.
To provide and fix, as shown on the drawings, a cornice and blocking course, scantling
. . . by . . . , moulded according to the drawings, the bed to be such that the weight
of each block of stone in the projecting part shall not be equal to that on the bed
by one fourth of its cubic contents. The same to be executed according to the
drawings ; to have proper sunk water joints, and to be channelled and plugged with
lead at all the joints.
Blocking course, as shown on tne drawings, . . . inches high, . . . thick on the bed, and
... on the top, plugged with lead at all the joints, with solid block at the quoins
returned at least 24 inches.
Balustrades (if any) to be provided of the heights and sizes snown on the drawings
and section thereof. The balusters to be wrought out of stone, allowing at least 1
inch of joggle at their ends into the plinth and impost. All the vertical joints to
be well plugged with lead; the impost to be cramped with cast iron (or bell
metal), and the whole to be securely fixed. The half balusters to be worked out
of the same block of stone as their adjoining pedestal.
Columns and pilasters (if any), with pedestals, capitals, bases, plinths, &c., and en-
tablature, to be provided and fixed as shown on the drawings. The columns and
pilasters not to be in courses of more than . . . blocks of stone. The architraves to
be joggled from those resting on the columns or pilasters themselves, and these as
well as the frieze and cornice to break joint over the architrave. The architraves,
if blocks of stone can be supplied large enough, to be in one block from centre to
centre of column, with return architraves in like manner. The whole of the en-
tablature (as well as the pediment, if any) to be executed with all requisite joggles
and cramps ; and if a pediment be projected, the apex to be in one stone, as shall be
approved by the architect. The pilasters (if any) to be bonded not less than . . .
inches into the wall, against which they are placed in every other course. The
sofites of the portico to be, as shown on the plan and sections, formed into panels
and ornamented. Provide and let into the top of the architrave good and sufficient
chain bars, with stubs on the under side for letting into every stone composing the
architrave.
If the portico be very large, it is not necessary to make the frieze solid, but concealed
arches should be turned in the space from column to column to support the super-
incumbent weight of the cornice and pediment. If the columns are fluted, it must
be mentioned.
When a pediment, the tympanum may be described to be faced with ashlaring.
To construct and fix dressings and sills to the external windows and doors, as shown
on the drawings, with all such throated, sunk, moulded, carved, rebated, and other
works as may be necessary.
If a portico is shown, to provide and fix of solid . . . stone . . . steps round the por-
tico scantling . . . by . . . , properly back-jointed and worked all over; and within
the portico to provide and fix a complete landing of stone, at least 4 inches thick
(or less, if a small portico), in slabs, as shown. The joints of the steps and land-
ings are to be joggled and run with lead.
Qq 4
600 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
MASON.
All ornaments, carving, enrichment of capitals, of columns and pilasters, and of such
as may be shown in the entablature, is to be executed in an artist-like good style.
Models from the working drawings are to be made at the contractor's expense, and
the whole to be executed to the satisfaction of the architect.
The order may be described if the working drawings are not sufficiently made out.
Provide and fix plinths and base mouldings to the portico, as shown on the drawings,
to be worked out of (describe stone) . . . stone of ... by ... scantling.
Finish the chimney shafts with mouldings as shown in the drawings, or with sunk
moulded and throated copings, . . . inches wide and . . . inches thick.
To describe sills generally, take the following : —
Sills to ... windows of Portland stone, 9^ by 6 inches.
Sills to ... windows moulded and of Portland stone, 1 4 by 8 inches.
Sills to ... windows of Aberdeen granite, finely tooled, scantling 14 inches by 9
inches.
Sills to ... windows of Portland stone, 9 by 5 inches.
All window sills are to be properly sunk, weathered, and throated, and at each end
to be 4 inches longer than the opening.
To provide and lay to all the walls Yorkshire stone 3 inches thick and 4 inches on
each side wider than the several lowest footings, in slabs of one length across the
width of the footing.
If balconies to a house, describe thus : — A balcony landing of Portland stone ....
inches thick, moulded on the edges and the pieces joggled together, and run with
lead, to be provided with holes cut therein for the iron railing. The said balcony
is to be tailed into the wall, and securely pinned up.
Steps to doorways must be described as to scantlings. All external steps should be
weathered.
Where story posts are used in a front, it is well to place along the front two pieces of
parallel square Aberdeen or other good granite curb scantling, 1 2 inches by 9 inches,
cut out to receive the bases of the columns and story posts.
For a back staircase, carry up and construct a staircase from the basement to the prin-
cipal floor, with solid Yorkshire quarry steps 13 inches wide and 6| inches high,
properly back-jointed and pinned into the brickwork ; cut holes for the iron ba-
lustres. N. B. This sort of staircase of Portland will serve also for back stairs
of upper flights. That from the basement may also be made of granite street curb,
1 2 by 7 or 8 inches. A staircase may, for cheapness, be made of Yorkshire stone
paving 3 inches thick, wrought with fair tooled edges, and securely pinned into the
brickwork.
Principal stairs to be of Portland stone (as may be), to extend from principal to ...
floor, with steps and square (or semicircular, as may be) landings, entirely of solid
stone, tailed 9 inches into the brickwork, with moulded nosings and returned
nosings, and also at the back. The sofites to be moulded to the shapes of the ends
of the steps. The landings to be 6 inches thick, with moulded nosings and joggled
joints, run with lead, to be inserted at least 4 inches in the walls, but such as tail
into the walls, as steps, must go at least 9 inches into the walls.
When the under sides of the steps of the geometrical staircase are not moulded, the
nosings are returned so as to fall beyond the upright line of the succeeding tread ;
in this case the sofite or string is plain wrought.
Pave the entrance hall and principal staircase, together with (any apartments wished)
with the best . . . marble, and border according to the pattern drawn.
The back staircase (and such other parts as require it) is to be paved with Portland
stone 2 inches thick, laid in squares, and with a border 8 inches square.
Dairy, if any, to be paved with .... stone, in regular courses .... inches
thick. Provide a shelf or dresser round the said dairy of veined marble 1 inch
thick, and a skirting round it 6 inches high. The dresser to go into the wall 1
inch, and to be supported on veined marble piers 4 inches square.
Pave the scullery, larder, pantry, passages, lobbies (and such other places as may re-
quire mention), with rubbed Yorkshire stone 2| inches thick, laid in regular courses
with close rubbed joints.
Pave the bottom of the air drain with Yorkshire paving.
Yards may be paved with 2^-inch Yorkshire paving, or such other as the place affords,
as in common use. The same to basement stories.
To fit up the wine cellar with bins, as per drawing, with 3-inch Yorkshire stone
shelves (some prefer slate), fairly tooled, and set in Parker's cement.
To provide and fix a warm bath of veined marble ; render waterproof by being properly
set in Dutch tarras, and plugged and cramped with copper at the joints, with all
requisite finishing. A marble step round two sides of the bath. Cut all holes
CHAP. III. SPECIFICATIONS. 601
MASON.
necessary for laying on the water. A bath may be similarly made of slate, which
is of course much cheaper.
Where iron girders are used, describe .... pieces of granite street curb, each ....
feet long, to receive the ends of the cast iron girders.
Where chimneys project without support from below, corbels must be described pro-
portioned to the weight they have to carry. The best corbel, however, is the gradual
projection of the work by inverted steps, which, if there be height to hide them,
should always be the mode of execution.
Cellar doorways should have in each of them three pieces of Portland or other such
stone, 18 inches wide, 18 inches long, and 9 inches high, cut out to receive the hinges
and rim of the lock.
All fire-places should have back hearths of 2l-inch rubbed Yorkshire stone.
The commonest chimney-pieces that can be described are of l|-inch Portland, jambs,
mantels, and shelves, 6 inches wide; slabs of 2-inch Portland stone, 20 inches
wide.
For butler's and housekeeper's rooms drawings are usually given. They may be of
Portland stone slabs, 2 inches thick, 4 feet long, and 1 foot 8 inches wide.
For a kitchen chimney, describe jambs and mantle of 2-inch Portland stone, 10 (or
12) inches wide, with a slab of 2^-inch rubbed Yorkshire stone. The mantel to be
in one piece.
For the several rooms where marble chimney-pieces are to be placed, chimney-pieces
are described to be provided of a given value, varying in the less important to the
best apartments, from eight or ten up to 1 00 guineas or more in value, of such marble
as the employer may select : but if the working drawings have been fully prepared,
this is a matter which need not be left in uncertainty. It must always be provided
in the specification that the slabs are included, and that the price is or is not (as the
case may be) to include the carriage and fixing.
Sinks of Portland or other stones, 7 inches thick (describing the size required), to be
provided and fixed as shown in the drawings, with holes cut for the grating and
socket pipe, and fixed with all requisite bearers complete.
Sink stones to be provided where shown on the plan. The joints generally are to be
where exhibited on the drawings, and the work is to be left perfectly cleaned off, all
necessary joggles, joints, rebates, moulded, sunk, weathered and throated works,
grooves, chases, holes, back joints, and fair edges, that may be necessary in any part
of the work, and all jobbing, though not particularly mentioned under the several
heads, is to be performed that may be requisite for the execution of the building, and
all the work is to be well cleaned off before delivering it up. The whole of the work
is to be warranted perfect, and any damage that may occur to it by reason of frost
or settlement within two years after the completion of the building is to be repaired,
under the architect's direction, at the sole expense of the contractor.
All mortar is to be of the same quality as that described in the bricklayer's work.
The contractor is to provide lead to run the cramps and joints.
In works within the bills of mortality, the contractor is to pay the expense, under the
commissioners of sewers or paving, as the case may be, of making good the street
paving to the areas, plinths, and steps abutting thereon.
To provide and fix under the contract .... cubic feet of .... stone, including
plain work and setting thereto, also .... superficial feet of 21-inch Yorkshire
paving, laid in regular courses ; and in case the whole or any part of either or both
should not be wanted, the quantity not used or directed shall be deducted from
the amount of the consideration of the contract after the rate of .... per foot
of cubic stone and .... per foot superficial for the Yorkshire paving, including the
workmanship and fixing thereof.
In stables, granite should be provided to receive the heel-posts if cast-iron be not em-
ployed, and at the piers of gates, hinge and spur stones, the latter, of granite, if to be
had, should be described. The caps and bars of the last can be described only with
reference to the drawings of them.
The paving of stables and their courts is described thus : Prepare the ground for
paving (stating where) with good and sufficient hard materials, and pave it with
Aberdeen granite paving, properly dressed and sorted, 8 inches deep and 5 inches
wide at the top and bottom thereof. The whole to be laid with good currents upon
a layer 4 inches at least in thickness of good rough gravel, the joints of the surface
to be run with stone lime and river sand grouting. It is to be well rammed, and
the contractor is to relay, at his own expense, all such parts as may sink within
eighteen months of the work being completed.
Where the work is within the bills of mortality, or within a town, specify that a suf-
ficient hoarding is to be erected for enclosing the premises during the execution of the
602 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. HOOK II.
M.vSOX.
works, which is to be remo%*ed and carried away when they are complete. So, a!<,\
all shoring is to be provided, if the works be alterations, or the adjoining buildings
may be injured by carrying them into effect. The shoring is to be performed in a
sate, scientific, and workmanlike manner, of the fronts, floors, or otherwise, as the
case may be.
15, CARFEXTER AXD JOINER. Where the extent of the works requires a clerk of the
works : a direction must be given to provide, erect, and maintain, during their per-
formance, a temporary office for the clerk of the works, with all appurtenances
complete, with stool, table, and all other requisite furniture.
All materials requisite for completion of the buildings according to the drawings are
to be provided by the contractor. The oak is to be of English growth; the timber
not specified of oak is to be of the best Dantzie, Higa. or 3Iemel yellow tir. No
American, Swedish, or Scotch fir to be used in any part of the building. All the
floors and joiner's work are, except where otherwise directed, to be of the best
Christiana deals. The timbers and deals are to be cut square, entirely free from
sapwood, shakes, large knots, and all other defects. If any part or parts of the
joiner's work should shrink or fly within eighteen months from the finishing and
fixing the same, the contractor is to take down, retix, and make good the same, to-
gether with all works that may be affected thereby, at his own expense.
No joists, rafters, or quarters are in any case, unless particularly so directed, to be
more than 1 2 inches clear distance from one another.
To provide and fix, ease, and strike all centering and turning pieces for the vaults,
arches, trimmers, and other works. Provide all temporary shores that may be ne-
cessary. Fix all iron-work of every description. Provide and fix all necessary
templets, linings, blocks, stops, casings, beads, springing fillets, angle starts, grounds
linings, backings, furrings, cappings, and other finishings incident to carpenters' and
joiners' works, together with all necessary grooving, rebating, framing, tongning,
housing, beading, mitring, framing, and other workmanship necessary for completing
the works.
To provide good and secure casing for all the stone dressings, to protect the same from
injury during the execution of the works ; and any accident arising from neglect in
this respect is to be made good at the expense of the carpenter.
Bond timber. One tier is generally enough for basement story.
Two tiers in the other floors, unless very lofty.
One tier in the upper story.
4 inches by 2^ inches all around the walls, except where intercepted by the chim-
neys, to be lapped together, where joints occur, at least 6 inches, and to be pro-
perly spiked together. Party walls may be bonded with iron hooping, if thought
proper, for a greater security against fire.
To find and fix all wood bricks for fixing the fiaishings to.
Provide and fix all lintels, and filling in lintels that may be necessary to the several
openings : each to be 4 inches high, of the width of the brick work, and 16 inches
longer than the opening.
Two small lintels will do if the width of the sofite be considerable, and arc!
directed in the bricklayer's work be turned.
For ground or rather basement Jioors, walls are brought up for receiving oak sleepers,
5 by 3 inches ; on which fir joists 4i by 2i are generally the scantlings employed.
For other floors. \Vall plates 6 by 4 are described.
Girders - * " "1 ~^ which, with their requisite
Joists of all descriptions, according I scantlings, will be found in
to the kind of floor - j Practical Carpentry. (^01 3, et
Trimmers and trimming joists J seq. )
Cradling to the girders and such parts as may be necessary to form
panels and cotters on the under side for the ceiling, if such be
practised.
"SVhere it is necessary to truss the girders, that must be stated.
Cock down all girders on the wall plates. Pin bridging joists to binders with £-inch
oak pins.
For roofs, wall plates should be at least 6 inches by 6 inches.
For the different timbers of the several sorts of roofs, the reader will refer to the
section on Practical Carpentry, where they are described, and scantlings given
of works that have been executed. (2027, et seq. ) Ceiling joists also to be de-
scribed.
To what is there found, we may add, that hips and ridges rounded for lead ought
to be 1 0 by .'.
CHAP. III. SPECIFICATIONS. 603
CAIU-KNTKII AND JOINER.
Where: dose boarding is used, it should not be less than \ to an inch thick. Jf battens
for slating, they should be '!}, inches \vide; the first should be nailed svith eightpenny
nails. Provide lear boards.
We prefer, on many accounts, and, indeed, ourselves usually adopt, the Italian met hod
of laying the rafters horizontally as so many purlines. For the boarding thus lying
lengthwise towards the gable, any wet that may find its way on to it from detective
slates or lead, is not :i])t to lodge against and rot the edges.
Flats are described with wall plates usually (> by (>. Trimmers and trimming joists
against chimneys, and where skylights occur; and ] ^ inch yellow deal boarding,
listed, free from sapwood, laid with a current of 1^-inch to 10 feet lineal, with '2}2
drips to heading joints, of lead rolls to longitudinal joints, and inch yellow deal
risers not less than 4 inches wide next the gutter
Gutters to the roof or roofs are to be as shown on the plan, with inch yellow deal
bottoms on strong fir bearers, and laid with a current of 1£ inches to every 1O
feet ; 2£ rebated drips, and at the sides to have ^-inch deal lear boards, 9 inches wide.
Gutter boards are rarely more than l\ inch thick.
Gutter plates, if any, to be described, but they should never be used without support
from below.
Trim for trap doors, if any, leading to the roof, and provide and fix dormers with all
necessary framing.
Cheeks, doors, beaded stops and linings, and ironmongery. Boarding for slating or
lead to top and cheeks, as the case may be.
Dormers may be similarly described for windows in the roof.
Quartered partitions, where shown on the plan, with heads and sills 4 inches by 4
inches. Ties above the doors 4 inches by 5 inches. Posts 4 inches by 3£ inches.
Braces or struts 3 inches square. Quarters 4 inches by 2 inches, and three tiers
of interties, 1 inch by 2£ inches. In cases where partitions are to be trussed for
carrying either their own or some additional weight, reference must be made to
drawings.
To put to .... floors (or to the whole if desired) sounding boarding of |-inch deal,
chopped and fixed upon fillets to receive the pugging.
All external walls should be described to be battened. The thickness of the battens
is usually from ^-inch to l|-inch, their widths 2| inches, and they are placed
from 7 to 1 2 inches apart. If no bond timber to nail them to, plugs must be let
into the walls.
Bracketing and cradling is usually, for cornices, cones, &c., 1{ inch thick ; for enta-
blatures, circular sofites, and waggon-headed ceilings, 1^ to 2 inches thick.
All bearers to be fixed and provided as shall be necessary.
Weather boarding of the best sort is described as 3-inch yellow deal, wrought, or
wrought and beaded.
Luflfer boarding ought to be of 1-inch deal, wrought two sides and splayed.
Warehouse posts must be described with their relation to the weight they are to carry
(see Mechanical Carpentry, IfiOO, et seq.), the caps to them should be long, so that
they may not press into the girders, and, if practicable, iron dowels should pass
through the girders to catch the bases of the posts in the floor above.
In ordinary cases fir story are about 9 inches square. Oak caps 3 feet long, with
splayed ends 9 by 6. Flools are usually rough, not less than 1^-inch deal re-
bated.
Water trunks are made of sizes from 4 to 6 inches or more square, of f- inch to 1 J-inch
deal. They are always to be described as pitched and fixed complete, with hopper
heads and shoes, wall hooks, holdfasts, &c.
Park paling is of the following varieties, and must be described accordingly : —
4-feet oak cleft pales, 2 arris rails and oak posts.
5-feet oak cleft pales, 2 arris rails and oak posts.
6-feet oak cleft pales, 3 arris rails and oak posts.
If there is to be an oak plank at the bottom, and oak capping at top, they must be
specially mentioned.
To provide and fix ... cubic feet of Baltic yellow fir timber, with all labour thereto,
beyond the quantity necessary for the work herein described, to be used in such
additional works as may be directed by the architect ; and if the whole or any
part thereof should not be ordered, the same shall be deducted from the amount
of the consideration of the contract, after the rate of ... per foot cube. All ad-
ditional fir, if any should be ordered, is to be taken at the like price of ...
per foot cube.
The varieties of floors are as follow, each set of thicknesses being enumerated in
the order of their increasing value. Batten floors are for better rooms.
604 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
CARPENTER AND JOINER.
|-inch white deal, rough, with edges shot.
=j-inch white deal, wrought, and laid folding.
f-inch yellow deal, rough, with edges shot.
f-inch yellow deal, wrought, and laid folding.
f-inch white deal batten floor, wrought, and laid folding.
f-inch yellow deal batten floor, wrought, and laid folding.
-inch white deal, rough edges shot.
-inch white deal, wrought, and laid folding.
-inch white deal, wrought, and laid straight, joint and splayed headings.
-inch yellow deal, rough edges shot.
-inch yellow deal, wrought, and laid folding.
-inch yellow deal, wrought, and laid straight, joint and splayed headings.
-inch white deal batten floor, wrought, and laid folding.
-inch white deal batten floor, wrought, and laid straight, joint and splayed
headings.
-inch yellow deal batten floor, wrought, and laid folding.
-inch yellow deal batten floor, wrought, and laid straight, joint and splayed
headings.
^-inch white deal, rough edges shot.
nch white deal, wrought, and laid folding.
£-inch white deal, wrought, straight joint, and splayed headings.
^-inch yellow deal, rough edges shot.
rinch yellow deal, wrought, and laid folding.
{-inch yellow deal, wrought, straight joint, and splayed headings,
-inch white deal batten floor, straight joint, and splayed headings,
-inch white deal batten floor, straight joint edge nailed, and splayed headings.
^-inch yellow deal batten floor, straight joint, and splayed headings.
|-inch yellow deal batten floor, straight joint, edge nailed, and tongued headings.
ji-inch white deal batten floor, edge nailed, and tongued headings.
3-inch yellow deal batten floor, edge nailed, and tongued headings.
^-inch yellow deal batten floor, dowelled with oak dowels, with mitred and glued
borders.
1 J-inch yellow deal, clean batten floor, dowelled with oak dowels, with mitred and
glued borders.
Warehouse floors are of
1^-inch yellow deal, rough edges shot.
1^-inch yellow deal, wrought, and laid folding.
1^-inch yellow deal, wrought, and straight joint, and splayed headings
2-inch yellow deal, rough edges shot
2-inch yellow deal, wrought, and laid folding.
2-inch yellow deal, wrought, and laid straight, joint and splayed headings.
All these last may be ploughed, rebated, and feather-tongued.
The floors of inlaid or parquetry work must form, when to be provided, special sub-
jects of specification ; they must be described according to drawings, on which are
to be marked the different woods to be used in their formation.
The varieties of skirtings are classed as under, beginning with the commonest sort : —
£-inch deal square skirting,
f-inch deal square skirting,
f-inch deal torus skirting.
1-inch deal square skirting.
1-inch deal square skirting, rebated, and backed plinth, with fillet nailed to floor.
1-inch deal torus skirting.
1^-inch deal square skirting.
1^-inch deal torus skirting.
1 ^-inch deal torus skirting, rebated, and backed plinth, with fillet nailed to floor.
If any of these, as to stairs for instance, are raking, and to be scribed to steps,
they must be so described, and so if any of them are to be ramped, and similarly
if they are to be scribed to moulded nosings, as also if they be circular on the
plan.
Dados in their varieties are as follow, premising that they are nailed to grounds
which should be mentioned,
^-inch deal keyed.
1-inch deal keyed.
1 ^-inch deal keyed.
1^-inch deal keyed, ploughed, and tongued.
1^-inch deal keyed, feather-tongued.
CHAP. III. SPECIFICATIONS. 605
CARPENTER AND JOINER.
Scribed to steps, circular on plan, and wreathed, or ramped : those matters must be
mentioned.
Of wainscotting with fascia and skirting, the different kinds are subjoined in the order
of their quality.
1-inch deal, square framed
1-inch deal, square framed dwarf
If inch deal, square framed
1 finch deal, square framed, dwarf
>• The number of panels high to be specified.
If inch deal, bead butt or moulded
If inch deal, bead butt
1 finch deal, bead flush
When any of these are raking, or to have a beaded or moulded capping, or both or
either, such must be specified.
Partitions of deal for the division of rooms are only used in taverns and the like ; but
where they are wanted, as for a mere separation in servants' rooms, they may be em-
ployed. Their varieties are —
1-inch deal board, and braced with finch panels. | These are scarcel to ^ ^
If inch deal, braced with ^-inch panels. >- , ,
If inch deal, rough, and ledged edges shot. J
If inch deal, wrought both sides, and ploughed.
14- inch deal, wrought both sides, tongued, and beaded.
If inch, square framed.
1 finch, square framed.
If inch, bead butt, moulded, and square.
If inch, bead flush and square.
1 finch, moulded on both sides.
2-inch, square framed.
2-inch, bead butt or moulded and square.
2-inch, bead flush and square.
2-inch, moulded on both sides.
2-inch, moulded and bead flush.
2-inch, bead flush and bead butt.
2-inch, bead flush on both sides.
These, as well as any preceding and following parts of a specification, will, of course,
have reference to what is wanted in the design which it is the architect's object to
describe in such specification.
Grounds. — We have mentioned grounds generally (2166.); but it may be as well
here to insert their several sorts : for instance, —
Those of ^-inch deal, of 1-inch deal, of If inch deal, of If inch deal, and whether
circular; also 1-inch, If inch, and If inch skeleton grounds, which it is, perhaps, for
security against extras, as well as repeat.
Door cases are usually employed on basement stories, and should be of oak, though
fir is constantly used for them. They fit into the brickwork, and are usually
about 5 by 5 inches, and they should be tenoned (the tenon being well pitched '
or set in white lead) into the stone step, on which they ought to be placed ; for
the sill, into which it is the practice to place them, soon rots, however good the
material.
Door linings and their sofites. — These are either plain or framed, the former being
of the commoner sort, and the latter for better work and places. They may be
enumerated as follow : —
1-inch deal, single rebated.
1-inch deal, double rebated (that is, so that the door may hang on either side).
If inch deal, single rebated.
If inch deal, double rebated.
If inch deal, single rebated.
If inch deal, double rebated.
Either of the foregoing, if to be beaded on the edge, must be so described. Of framed
linings and sofites for doors there are —
If inch, square framed in one panel and double rebated.
If inch, square framed in one panel and double rebated, bead butt or moulded.
If inch, square framed in one panel and double rebated, bead flush.
If inch, square framed in one panel and double rebated.
If inch, square framed in one panel and double rebated, bead butt, or moulded.
1 finch, square framed in one panel and double rebated, bead flush.
If the panels in the linings are to be raised, to correspond with panels of doors, they
must be so described.
606' THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
CARPENTER AND JOINER.
Framed back linings are as follow : —
1-inch deal, two panel square.
-inch deal, two panel square, bead butt.
-inch deal, three panel square.
-inch deal, three panel square, bead butt.
-inch deal, four panel square.
-inch deal, four panel square, bead butt.
If there be more than four panels, or they are splayed on the plan, or if bead flush, or
of a greater thickness, they must be so specified.
Sacks, elbows, and sofites to windows are described as —
1-inch deal, keyed.
1-inch deal, keyed, framed square.
If inch deal, framed square.
If inch deal, framed square, moulded, or bead butt.
If inch deal, framed square, bead flush.
If inch deal, square framed sofite, with one edge circular. "1 Applicable to bay win-
1 finch deal, square framed sofite, with two edges circular. J dows.
1 finch deal, square framed sofite, moulded, or bead butt,
li-inch deal, framed square.
If inch deal, framed square, moulded, or bead butt.
1 l-inch deal, framed square, moulded, or bead flush.
If any of these are splayed, fancy moulded, and with cappings, when also they are
circular on the plan, they must be so particularly specified, inasmuch as the price
is thereby enhanced.
Boxings for shutters are of the following varieties : —
1-inch deal, splayed boxings.
1-inch deal, proper boxings.
1 finch deal, splayed boxings.
If inch deal, proper boxings.
If inch deal, boxings with circular head.
1-inch deal, boxings for sliding shutters, with pulley pieces, beads, fillets, and
grooves, complete.
If inch deal, boxings for sliding shutters, with pulley pieces, beads, fillets, and
grooves, complete.
These, if to be double hung, must be so described.
Window shutters. — As in the foregoing parts of a specification, we shall proceed from
the common to the better sorts,
^-inch deal, ledged or clamped.
|-inch deal, ledged, or clamped, in two heights.
1-inch deal, clamped.
1-inch deal, clamped in two heights.
1-inch deal, clamped in two heights, one panel, bead butt, and square.
1-inch deal, clamped in two heights, one panel, bead flush, and square.
1-inch deal, clamped in two heights, one panel, bead flush, and bead butt.
If inch deal, two panels square.
If inch deal, two panels square, in two heights.
If inch deal, two panels square, in two heights, moulded, or bead butt, and square.
If inch deal, two panels square, in two heights, bead flush, and square.
If inch deal, two panels square, in two heights, bead flush, and bead butt.
These may be described of 1 finch deal ; but the back flaps need not be more than one
inch, and the additional panels in height, projecting mouldings, if any, and other
variations from the general description, must be mentioned.
Sliding shutters are to be described in their varieties, as follow : —
1-inch deal, two panels square, hung with lines and weights.
If inch deal, two panels square, hung with lines and weights.
If inch deal, bead butt and square, hung with lines and weights.
If inch deal, bead flush and square, hung with lines and weights.
1 finch deal, bead butt and moulded, hung with lines and weights.
If inch deal, bead flush and bead butt, hung with lines and weights.
These, if of 1 finch deal, and if more panels in height, must be so described; so also if
they are circular on the plan ; and if patent lines are to be used for the hanging,
they must be mentioned.
Outside shutters, now rarely used, even in the provinces, except for shop fronts, must
be mentioned, to make our description complete ; they are of
If inch deal, three panels, bead butt and square.
If inch deal, three panels bead flush and square.
CHAP. III. SPECIFICATIONS. 607
CARPENTER AND JOINER.
l]-inch deal, three panels, bead flush and bead butt.
1^-inch deal, three panels, bead flush on both sides,
ll-inch deal, three panels, bead butt and square.
]i-inch deal, three panels, bead flush and square,
li-inch deal, three panels, bead flush and bead butt.
If these are circular on the plan, or contain more than three panels in height, the
specification must so state.
Staircases are described as under, beginning with the commonest.
1-inch yellow deal, steps, risers, and carriages.
l|-inch deal, steps, inch risers, and carriage.
1^-inch deal, steps and risers glued up and blocked to close string moulded nosings,
and two fir carriages.
1^-inch deal, steps and risers mitred to cut string, and dovetailed to balusters.
1^-inch deal, steps to winders, mitred to cut string, and dovetailed to balusters, one
end circular.
1 ^-inch deal, steps to winders, mitred to cut string, and dovetailed to balusters, both
ends circular.
If the risers are to be tongued to the steps, if feather jointed, or if of clean deal, such
must be stated in the specification.
1^-inch deal, wrought steps, risers, and strong carriage.
2-inch deal, wrought steps, risers, and strong carriage.
1^-inch oak, treads and risers mitred to string and dovetailed with fir carriage (with
solid quarter ends to steps if required), also curtailed step and riser (2187, etseq.'),
returned moulded and mitred nosings, circular, if necessary, with cut plain (and
circular) brackets.
Housings to ends of steps and winders, and the same to moulded nosings and circular
ends, are to be specified.
String boards to staircases to receive the ceilings of stairs (or strings as they are
called), are —
1-inch deal, framed.
1-inch deal, framed, rebated, and beaded.
l|-inch deal, framed string board.
1^-inch deal, framed string board, sunk and beaded.
1^-inch deal, framed string board, sunk, beaded, and moulded.
1^-inch deal, framed string board, sunk, beaded, moulded, and mitred to risers.
1 '-inch deal, wreathed outside, string glued upright, rebated, and beaded.
1^-inch deal, wreathed outside, string glued upright, rebated, beaded, and sunk.
l|-inch deal, wreathed outside, string glued upright, rebated, beaded, sunk, and
moulded.
If the string is to be glued up in thicknesses, that must be specified, as also all plain
or moulded circular cuttings or ramps.
1-inch deal, plain wall string.
1 J-inch deal, plain wall string.
]A-inch deal, plain wall string.
2-inch deal, plain wall string.
If moulded, to be so described.
Handrails to staircases are described as —
IJ-inch deal, plain wreathed.
1^-inch deal, plain wreathed.
2-inch deal, plain wreathed.
If moulded, state so.
Deal moulded 2|-inch handrail.
Deal moulded 2^-inch handrail, ramped (or circular where required).
Deal moulded 21-inch handrail, wreathed and twisted.
Honduras mahogany or wainscot moulded handrail. To be described if necessary
with ramps, circular and twist, or with scroll and twist to the curtail step.
Spanish mahogany handrail is also similarly described.
If grooved for balusters, circular, or sunk for iron cores, mitred and turned caps, such
to be mentioned.
Balusters and newels are described —
Deal square framed newels.
Deal square framed newels, chamfered.
Single and double turnings to newels to be mentioned, as also pendent drops, when
used.
Deal square bar balusters.
Deal square bar balusters, dovetailed.
608 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
CARPENTER AND JOINER.
Turned balusters according to drawing, when necessary.
Planceer rounded on both edges, or moulded, as the case may be.
Fix all iron balusters and stays.
Sash frames are of great variety, whereof the following is a list : —
Deal cased frame for 1^-inch sashes, oak sunk sill with brass pulleys for single
hanging.
Ditto, for double hanging.
Ditto, ditto, with circular head.
Ditto, circular on plan (and with circular head, when required).
Deal cased frames for 2-inch sashes, oak sunk sills with brass pulleys prepared for
single hanging.
Ditto, prepared for double hanging.
If circular on head and plan, or either, such to be specified.
Deal-cased frames for 2-inch sashes, oak sunk sills with wainscot pulley pieces
and beads, brass axle pulleys prepared to hang double.
If circular on head and plan, or either, such to be specified.
Deal cased frames for 2-inch sashes, oak sunk sills, mahogany pulley pieces and
beads with brass axle pulleys, prepared to hang double.
The same description holds for 2|-inch sashes.
If, as before, circular on head and plan, or either, such to be mentioned.
Venetian frames are described as —
Deal cased frames for li-inch sashes, oak sunk sills, and prepared to hang single
or double, as the case may be.
If circular on plan and head, or either, specify the same.
The above description for 1 ^-inch serves also for 2-inch and 2|-inch sashes.
If wainscot or mahogany, they must be so described.
Casement frames for French casements : —
Fir solid wrought frames for li-inch French casements, with oak sunk sills (plain
or circular on the plan, as the case may be).
Fir solid wrought frames for 2-inch French casements and oak sunk sills (as
before).
Fir solid wrought frames for 2-inch French casements and oak sunk sills (as
before), with wainscot or mahogany styles and beads as may be correspondent
with the sashes.
The same for 2^-inch sashes.
Fanlight frames over doors, which have nearly lost their employment from square
lights having superseded them, are of —
1^-inch deal frames, square framed.
Ditto, semicircular head.
2-inch deal, square framed.
Ditto, semicircular head.
If elliptical, so describe them.
Sashes are to be described as follows : —
ll-inch deal ovolo (describe whether with circular head or circular on plan, if so).
2-inch deal ovolo (ditto).
2 -inch deal astragal and hollow (ditto).
2|-inch deal astragal and hollow (ditto).
The above, if of wainscot, Honduras or Spanish mahogany, are to be so described,
as also that they are to be hung single or double, as the case may be, with patent
lines and iron weights, and patent sash-fastenings complete.
French casements are usually decribed as follows : —
2-inch deal ovolo casements. If with marginal lights or circular on plan, or both,
describe them so ; or if with astragal and hollow.
The same of 2|-inch, with the same modifications as in preceding article.
If either of the above be of wainscot, Honduras or Spanish mahogany, let them be so
described.
It is usual to describe with these the hanging, which is commonly with 4-inch iron
or brass butt hinges, and the species of fastening which it is common to place, at
a sum varying from five to twenty shillings. When the turning Espaniolette
fastenings are used, they must be particularly specified.
Shop-window sashes vary so much that we shall merely observe of their thicknesses,
they are from l^to 2^ inches, and in the present extravagant rage for novelty
among tradesmen, there is no end to the forms of their horizontal sections ; —
nothing, however outre, would be considered too extravagant for these people, and
all that we can do is to say that, after describing their thickness, they are to be
executed according to the drawings. In subjects of this kind, too, the stall
CHAP. III. SPECIFICATIONS. GO9
CARPENTER AND JOINER.
board, and other fittings of the like nature, are to be specified in all, whereof the
best way is to describe with reference to such drawings.
Friezes and cradling for cornices should always be referred to drawings, specifying
generally their height.
Skylights, now usually made of metal ; but if not, describe as follows : —
l|-inch deal ovolo skylight (if hipped, and with cross bars, state such).
2-inch deal ditto (ditto).
2|-inch ditto (ditto).
If astragal and hollow, or if of oak, such to be specified.
Kerbs for skylights are to be described —
1^-inch deal kerbs to circular skylights in two thicknesses, bevelled and chamfered.
2-inch ditto ditto.
2|-inch ditto ditto.
If elliptical, to be so specified.
Doors we shall, as in the preceding articles, describe, beginning with the commonest
sort, for out-houses and the like.
|-inch ledged wrought deal door.
Ditto, ploughed, tongued, and beaded,
1-inch wrought deal ledged ditto.
Ditto, ploughed, tongued, and beaded.
1^-inch wrought deal ledged ditto.
Ditto, ploughed, tongued, and beaded,
1 ^-inch and 2-inch deal ledged doors are similarly described.
These doors may be hung with J-L or cross garnet hinges or with butt hinges, and
with bolts, locks, latches, and other fastenings, as the case may require. External
doors with 4-inch butts, if that be the sort used, and internal ones with 3-^-ineh
butts.
Gates and coach-house doors are specified as —
2-inch deal, framed and braced, filled in with 2 -inch deal, and ploughed, tongued,
and beaded.
The same, filled in with battens.
2i-inch deal, framed and braced, filled in with 1-inch deal, ploughed, tongued, and
beaded.
Ditto, filled in with battens.
If filled in with whole deal, it must be so specified.
2-inch deal bead butt and square gates, in eight panels.
2-inch deal bead butt and square gates, beadflush and square.
2-inch deal bead butt and square gates, bead flush on both sides.
If with more panels, or framed with a wicket, such must be specified.
The hanging of gates, and their hinges and fastenings, may be inserted according to
the occasion of the work, at from 10Z. to 151. or even 201., which may be declared
in the specification as to the value at which they are to be provided.
1-inch deal 1 -panel square doors.
1-inch deal 1 -panel square doors, folding.
The above are rarely used : we shall now, therefore, proceed by the number of panels,
up to 6-panel doors, beyond which they are to be so particularly specified, or
with reference to drawings.
IJ-inch, 2 panels, square.
] ^-inch, 2 panels, bead butt and square.
l|-inch, 2 panels, bead flush and square.
1^-inch, 2 panels, moulded and square.
1 |-mch, 2 panels, bead butt on both sides.
1 1-inch, 2 panels, bead butt and bead flush.
1^-inch, 2 panels, bead butt and moulded.
1^-inch, 2 panels, bead flush on both sides.
1^-inch, 2 panels, bead flush and moulded.
l|-inch, 2 panels, moulded on both sides.
When hung folding, to be so specified.
1^-inch deal, 2 panels, square.
1 A-inch deal, 2 panels, bead butt and square,
li-inch deal, 2 panels, bead flush and square,
li-inch deal, 2 panels, moulded and square.
l|-inch deal, 2 panels, bead butt on both sides.
1 i-inch deal, 2 panels, bead butt and bead flush.
1^-inch deal, 2 panels, bead butt and moulded.
1^-inch deal, 2 panels, bead flush on both sides.
Rr
610
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK IL
CARPENTER AND JOINER.
11-inch deal, 2 panels, bead flush and moulded,
li-inch deal, 2 panels, moulded on both sides.
2-inch deal, 2 panels, square.
2-inch deal, 2 panels, bead butt and square.
2-inch deal, 2 panels, bead flush and square.
2-inch deal, 2 panels, moulded and square.
2-inch deal, 2 panels, bead butt on both sides.
2-inch deal, 2 panels, bead butt and bead flush.
2-inch deal, 2 panels, bead butt and moulded.
2-inch deal, 2 panels, bead flush on both sides.
2 -inch deal, 2 panels, bead flush and moulded.
2-inch deal, 2 panels, moulded on both sides.
2i-inch deal, 2 panels, square.
25-inch deal, 2 panels, bead butt and square.
25-inch deal, 2 panels, bead flush and square.
25-inch deal, 2 panels, moulded and square.
inch deal, 2 panels, bead butt on both sides,
inch deal, 2 panels, bead butt and bead flush
•inch deal, 2 panels, bead butt and moulded,
-inch deal, 2 panels, bead flush on both sides.
2i-inch deal, 2 panels, bead flush and moulded.
21-inch deal, 2 panels, moulded on both sides.
All these, as well as the following, must be specified as to be hung folding, if the
nature of the work so requires.
5-inch deal, 4 panels, square.
2-inch deal, 4 panels, bead butt and square.
5-inch deal, 4 panels, bead flush and square.
5-inch deal, 4 panels, moulded and square.
5-inch deal, 4 panels, bead butt on both sides.
2- inch deal, 4 panels, bead butt and bead flush
2-inch deal, 4 panels, bead butt and moulded.
5-inch deal, 4 panels, bead flush on both sides.
5-inch deal, 4 panels, bead flush and moulded.
2-inch deal, 4 panels, moulded on both sides.
2-inch deal, 4 panels, square.
2-inch deal, 4 panels, bead butt and square.
2-inch deal, 4 panels, bead flush and square.
2-inch deal, 4 panels, moulded and square.
2-inch deal, 4 panels, bead butt on both sides.
2-inch deal, 4 panels, bead butt and bead flush.
2-inch deal, 4 panels, bead butt and moulded.
2-inch deal, 4 panels, bead flush on both sides.
2-inch deal, 4 panels, bead flush and moulded.
2 -inch deal, 4 panels, moulded on both sides.
25-inch deal, 4 panels, square.
25-inch deal, 4 panels, bead butt and square.
25-inch deal, 4 panels, bead flush and square.
25-inch deal, 4 panels, moulded and square.
25-inch deal, 4 panels, square, beat butt on both sides.
25-inch deal, 4 panels, square, bead butt and bead flush.
25-inch deal, 4 panels, square, bead butt and moulded.
2^-inch deal, 4 panels, square, bead flush on both sides.
25-inch deal, 4 panels, square, bead flush and moulded.
2rinch deal, 4 panels, square, moulded on both sides.
5-inch deal, 6 panels, square.
5-inch deal, 6 panels, bead butt and square.
rinch deal, 6 panels, bead flush and square.
i-inch deal, 6 panels, moulded and square.
rinch deal, 6 panels, bead butt on both sides.
I -inch deal, 6 panels, bead butt and bead flush.
5-inch deal, 6 panels, bead butt and moulded.
—inch deal, 6 panels, bead flush on both sides.
1 rinch deal, 6 panels, bead flush and moulded.
1 5-inch deal, 6 panels, moulded on both sides.
If the panels of 1^-mch doors are raised, or if double marginal doors, so describe
them.
CHAP. III. SPECIFICATIONS. 61 1
CARPENTER AND JOINER.
Wainscot doors are usually as follow : —
li-inch wainscot, 2 panels, square,
li-inch wainscot, 2 panels, bead flush and square,
li-inch wainscot, 2 panels, moulded and square.
l|-inch wainscot, 2 panels, bead flush on both sides.
1 1-inch wainscot, 2 panels, bead flush and moulded.
2-inch wainscot, 2 panels, square.
2-inch- wainscot, 2 panels, bead flush and square.
2-inch wainscot, 2 panels, moulded and square.
2-inch wainscot, 2 panels, bead flush on both sides.
2-inch wainscot, 2 panels, bead flush and moulded.
25-inch wainscot, 2 panels, square.
2^-inch wainscot, 2 panels, bead flush and square,
2^-inch wainscot, 2 panels, moulded and square.
2^-inch wainscot, 2 panels, bead flush on both sides.
2|-inch wainscot, 2 panels, bead flush and moulded,
li-inch wainscot, 4 panels, square,
li-inch wainscot, 4 panels, bead flush and square,
li-inch wainscot, 4 panels, moulded and square,
li-inch wainscot, 4 panels, bead flush both on sides,
li-inch wainscot, 4 panels, bead flush and moulded,
li-inch wainscot, 4 panels, moulded on both sides.
2-inch wainscot, 4 panels, square.
2-inch wainscot, 4 panels, bead flush and square.
2-inch wainscot, 4 panels, moulded and square.
2-inch wainscot, 4 panels, bead flush on both sides.
2-inch wainscot, 4 panels, bead flush and moulded.
2-inch wainscot, 4 panels, moulded both on sides,
2|-inch wainscot, 4 panels, square.
2i-inch wainscot, 4 panels, bead flush and square.
2i-inch wainscot, 4 panels, moulded and square.
2^-inch wainscot, 4 panels, bead flush on both sides.
2i-inch wainscot, 4 panels, bead flush and moulded.
2i-inch wainscot, 4 panels, moulded on both sides.
2-inch wainscot, 6 panels, square.
2-inch wainscot, 6 panels, bead flush and square.
2-inch wainscot, 6 panels, moulded and square.
2-inch wainscot, 6 panels, bead flush on both sides.
2- inch wainscot, £ panels, bead flush and moulded
2-inch wainscot, 6 panels, moulded on both sides.
2^-inch wainscot, 6 panels, square.
2^-inch wainscot, 6 panels, bead flush and square.
2i-inch wainscot, 6 panels, moulded and square.
2i-inch wainscot, 6 panels, bead flush on both sides.
2|-inch wainscot, 6 panels, bead flush and moulded.
2^-inch wainscot, 6 panels, moulded on both sides.
2- inch wainscot sash-doors, with diminished stiles, lower panel moulded, bead flush,
with astragal and hollow sash.
2-inch wainscot sash-doors, with diminished stiles, lower panel moulded, bead flush,
with astragal and hollow sash, moulded on both sides.
2^-inch wainscot sash-doors, diminished stiles, lower panels moulded, and bead flush,
with astragal and hollow sash.
2^-inch wainscot sash-doors, diminished stiles, lower panels moulded, and bead flush,
with astragal and hollow sash, moulded on both sides.
If any of these are to be hung folding, double margined, or moulded on the raising,
such must be specified.
Mahogany doors as follows : —
2-inch Honduras mahogany doors, 2 panels, moulded and square.
2-inch Honduras mahogany doors, 2 panels, moulded on both sides.
2-inch Honduras mahogany doors, 4 panels, moulded and square.
2-inch Honduras mahogany doors, 4 panels, moulded on both sides.
2-inch Honduras mahogany doors, 6 panels, moulded and square.
2-inch Honduras mahogany doors, 6 panels, moulded on both sides.
2i-inch Honduras mahogany doors, 4 panels, moulded and square.
2i-inch Honduras mahogany doors, 4 panels, moulded on both sides.
2i-inch Honduras mahogany doors, 6 panels, moulded and square,
K r 2
612 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
CARPENTER AND JOINER.
2|-inch Honduras mahogany doors, 6 panels, moulded on both sides.
If any of these are hung folding, with projecting mouldings, or with double margins,
it must be so specified. The last set of doors, if required to be of a better descrip-
tion, may be specified of the best Spanish mahogany,
2-inch Honduras mahogany sash-door, astragal and hollow bottom, panel moulded
and square.
2-inch Honduras mahogany sash-door, astragal and hollow bottom, panel moulded
on both sides.
21-inch Honduras mahogany sash-door, astragal and hollow bottom, panel moulded
and square.
21-inch Honduras mahogany sash-door, astragal and hollow bottom, panel moulded
on both sides.
If hung folding, or with double margin, or diminished stiles, to be so specified.
External doors are of varieties, as follow : —
2-inch deal, 4 panels, the lower panels bead butt and square, and the upper panels
square both sides.
2-inch deal, 4 panels, the lower panels bead butt and square, and the upper panels
bead butt on the back.
2-inch deal, 4 panels, the lower panels bead butt and square, and the upper panels
bead flush on the back.
If the panels have raised mouldings, specify them.
21-inch deal, 4 panels, the lower panels bead butt and square, upper panels square
on both sides.
2J-inch deal, 4 panels square, bead butt on the back.
21-inch deal, 4 panels square, bead flush on the back.
Specify raised mouldings, if any.
2-inch deal, 6 panels, lower panels bead butt and square, upper panels square both
sides.
2- inch deal, 6 panels, lower panels bead butt and square, upper panels square, bead
butt on the back.
Specify raised mouldings, if any.
21-inch deal, 6 panels, the lower panels bead butt and square, and the upper panels
square both sides.
22-inch deal, 6 panels, the lower panels bead butt and square, and the upper panels
square, bead butt on the back.
2i-inch deal, 6 panels, the lower panels bead butt and square, and the upper panels
square, bead flush on the back.
If with raised mouldings, so describe them; also, if double margined, &c.
Any of these external doors, if hung folding, or with circular or curved heads, must
be so specified.
Sash doors are of the following varieties : —
11- inch deal, 2 panels, square, diminished stiles, and ovolo sash.
1 2-inch deal, 2 panels, bead butt and square, diminished stiles, and ovolo sash.
1 2-inch deal, 2 panels, bead flush and square, diminished stiles, and ovolo sash.
1 2-inch deal, 2 panels, moulded and square, diminished stiles, and ovolo sash.
1 2-inch deal, 2 panels, moulded and bead butt, diminished stiles, and ovolo sash.
1 2- inch deal, 2 panels, moulded and bead flush, diminished stiles, and ovolo sash.
1 2- inch deal, 2 panels, moulded on both sides, diminished stiles, and ovolo sash.
2-inch deal, 2 panels square, diminished stiles, and ovolo sash.
2-inch deal, 2 panels, bead butt and square, diminished stiles, and ovolo sash.
2-inch deal, 2 panels, bead flush and square, diminished stiles, and ovolo sash.
2-inch deal, 2 panels, moulded and square, diminished stiles, and ovolo sash.
2-inch deal, 2 panels, moulded and bead butt, diminished stiles, and ovolo sash.
2-inch deal, 2 panels, moulded and bead flush, diminished stiles, and ovolo sash.
2-inch deal, 2 panels, moulded on both sides, diminished stiles, and ovolo sash.
2i-inch deal, 2 panels, square, with diminished stiles, and ovolo sash.
22-inch deal, 2 panels, bead butt and square, diminished stiles, and ovolo sash.
2l-inch deal, 2 panels, bead flush and square, diminished stiles, and ovolo sash.
21-inch deal, 2 panels, moulded and square, diminished stiles, and ovolo sash.
21-inch deal, 2 panels, moulded and bead butt, diminished stiles, and ovolo sash.
2i-inch deal, 2 panels, moulded and bead flush, diminished stiles, and ovolo sash.
21-inch deal, 2 panels, moulded on both sides, diminished stiles, and ovolo sash.
If hung folding, or with marginal lights, to be so described.
It is the practice in describing joiner's work, to specify the ironmongery used with
it, that is, the hinges, locks, fastenings, and furniture ; and we have accordingly men-
tioned the hanging and fastening of common doors, and gates, and coach-house doors
CHAP. HI. SPECIFICATIONS.
CARPENTER AND JOINER.
Common framed 4-panel doors are usually hung with 3*-inch butts and 7-inch
iron rim stock locks. Better doors are hung with 4-inch iron or brass butts, mortice
locks and brass nob furniture. Folding doors, if heavy, should have 41 or 5-inch brass
butts, and if necessary to clear mouldings, they should be hung with projecting brass
butts, and should moreover be provided with flush and other bolts, and mortice locks
and furniture. Doors of dining, drawing, and other rooms, where they are required to
clear the carpet by rising as they open, should have 4 or 4i-inch rising joint butts.
For closet doors, 3i-inch butts are usually described with brass tumbler locks and
keys. External doors require the provision of larger locks, which are usually iron rim
locks with 10 or 12-inch bright rod bolts, chains, staples, &c. Shutters when hung
are with butts, which for the back flaps are of a less size, and spring bar fastenings
should be specified to them. Brass nobs to the front flaps.
Moulded architraves to doors and windows are described by their width.
Columns and pilasters are usually described —
l]-inch deal diminished columns, . . . inches diameter.
li-inch deal diminished columns, . . . inches diameter.
Pilasters similarly specified. Both one and the other to be glued up and blocked.
If fluted, to be mentioned ; as also necking grooves to columns. Caps and bases
according to the order, carved or of papier mach£, as the expense will allow.
Entablatures got out of deal, as per drawing, provide glued, blocked, and fixed with all
necessary brackets and grounds.
Water-closets are fitted up with 1-inch clean deal (wainscot or mahogany), seats, risers,
and clamped flaps, square skirtings, all requisite bearers and pipe-casing ; and the
joiner is to attend on the plumber while fixing the basins and other work. Privies
are described as to seats and risers the same as water-closets.
Cisterns, internal and external, must have their cistern cases proportioned in thickness
to their sizes ; thus one about 3 or 3 feet 6 inches long, and 2 feet 9 inches deep, will do
on 1^-inch deal dovetailed- it should be described with requisite bearers, and a cover
of ^-inch deal with a wood handle. For a good-sized external cistern, we should spe-
cify, provide and fix a wrought and dovetailed 2-inch deal cistern case, . . . feet long,
. . . feet wide, and . . . feet deep in the clear. Find and fix all necessary bearers for
the same, together with all other requisite fittings, and further provide a ^-inch deal
strongly ledged cover, with saddle-back fillets and water channels at each joint, as
shall be directed.
Cisterns for water-closets*
Each to have cistern cases of 2-inch deal capable of containing 36 cubic feet of
water, fixed with strong bearers and ledged covers of |-inch yellow deal tongued
and beaded.
Sinks, describe as under, when wooden ones lined with lead are used.
li-inch dovetailed sink, enclosed with l]-inch deal square-framed front, and door
hung with 3 -inch butts and other necessary ironmongery.
Warm bath.
To be fitted up (of the best Spanish mahogany) with riser, frame, and clamped flap,
provided and fixed with all requisite bearers and other fittings and appurtenances.
The flap to be moulded in front, and hung with 3|-inch butt hinges, and the riser
panelled and moulded as shown in the drawings.
Dressers. The following is a specification for a good house.
Provide and fix a dresser in the kitchen, of 2-inch deal, with cross-tongued top 10
feet long and 2 feet 9 inches wide, supported on strong framed legs and bearers.
1-inch deal pot-board and bearers. Six 1 J-inch sunk shelves, whose widths are to
average 7 inches. Back of the shelves to be of 1-inch deal, wrought, beaded,
grooved, and cross-tongued. 1 -inch deal top, 14 inches wide, with moulded cornice.
Five drawers with bottoms and dovetailed rims of |-inch deal. The fronts to be of
1-inch deal, beaded. A brass drop handle and a good patent tumbler lock to each
drawer, together with all slides, runners, bearers, and other requisite appurtenances.
Dresser top for scullery, 1^-inch clean deal, 2 feet 6 inches wide and 6 feet long, cross-
tongued and fixed upon strong wrought and framed legs and bearers.
Plate-rack for scullery to be provided over the sink, and of the same length. Sink as
above described.
Spit-rack to be provided over the kitchen chimney, or other convenient place, as may
be directed.
Dwarf closets, if any are used, may be of 1-inch deal, square framed and moulded in
front, the doors to be hung with 2-^- inch butts, and to have tumbler locks.
Pipe casings, wrought and framed, to be provided where necessary, to hide lead pipes
of all descriptions, and fronts to unscrew for coming at the pipes in case of defects
therein.
R r 3
614 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
CARPENTER AND JOINER.
Fittings for larder, as follow : —
Provide a clean deal dresser top, 1 \ inch thick, 2 feet 6 inches wide, and . . . feet
long, to be feather-tongued and fixed on strong framed legs and rails. Two meat
rails, 6 feet long, of wrought fir, 3i by 2 inches, suspended from wrought iron
stirrups. Provide also a hanging shelf, 6 feet long, 10 inches wide, and 1^ inch
thick, to be similarly suspended by wrought iron stirrups.
Laundry to be fitted up with ] i-inch clean white deal washing troughs, wrought two
sides, and splayed and put together with white lead, as shown on drawing. l]-inch
deal ironing board, wrought both sides and clamped, properly hung with hinges to
a hanging stile. Provide two clothes racks, hung with pullies and ropes to the
ceiling to raise and lower the same.
Dust bin, with proper slides, where shown on the plan, to contain 30 feet cube, the
whole to be of oak.
Arris gutters to eaves should never be of wood : zinc or copper are better materials,
and we do not therefore think it necessary to describe them.
Fittings to shops are so various that no general description can be given. They must
be referred to drawings, and on them the specification should be written. So of
shop fronts.
Stable fittings are specified as follow : —
Mangers, §r. 2- inch deal bottoms and 11-inch deal sides. Wrought oak manger-
rails, 4 by 3 inches. Wrought, rebated, and rounded oak manger post, 6 by 4
inches, wrought and framed with bearers thereto. Oak heel-posts, wrought, 6 by
5 inches, and groove for partitions. Oak top rails, 5 by 4 inches, grooved and
rounded at the top. Oak bottom rails, wrought, 4 by 4 inches, grooved and arris
rounded off. 1^-inch deal partitions, wrought on both sides, ploughed, tongued,
and beaded. 1^-inch deal rails on each side, board wide, and the arrisses rounded
off.
Fronts to hay-racks. Oak standard, 4 by 4 inches, wrought and framed into oak
bearer under the manger. 1\ inch deal fronts framed for the reception of cast-iron
hay-racks well secured. Fix fir bearers and 1-inch deal partitions at each end of
hay-racks, with fir arris rails 3 inches apart at the bottom of each rack.
Dressings over stalls connected with heel-posts. 1-inch deal frieze, wrought joints,
feather-tongued, and backings thereto, segmental sofites and keystone in centre of
arches. Impost moulding at the springings and moulded cornice to girt about
10 inches.
Line the walls to the height of 5 feet with 1-inch yellow deal, wrought, ploughed,
tongued, and beaded, with a f-inch beaded capping thereon.
Churches. To give general directions for the specification of a church would be impossible.
The principles of its timbering may be collected from what has preceded. Pewing is
executed as planned on the drawings, of whole deal (generally) square-framed
partitions two panels high; 1^-inch framed doors and enclosures one or two panels high,
with stiles, munnions, and top rails 3 inches wide, and bottom rails 6 inches wide.
The panels of the doors and enclosures should not be more than a board in width, and
the framework round them chamfered. The doors are hung with 3-inch butt hinges,
and should have brass nob pulpit latches. Capping to the whole of the pewing,
grooved and moulded according to drawing. Pew fittings are, 1 ^-inch wrought and
rounded seats 12 inches wide, with proper bearers and 1^-inch cut brackets not more
than 3 feet apart. Seats rounded next the pew doors. Flap-seats in the galleries to
have strong joints. All the pews to have |-inch book boards 6 inches wide, with i-inch
rounded capping bearers, and |-inch cut brackets thereunder, not more than 2 feet 6
inches apart, and the ends rounded next the pew doors. If there be an organ, its
enclosure and the free seats adjoining it should correspond with the pew enclosures.
Free seats of 1 |-inch deal, as shown in the drawings. The seats to be 11 inches wide,
rounded in front. Backs framed with stiles, munnions, and rails, 3^ inches wide, and
the standards, ends, and bearers, according to the drawings. Children's seats to be of 1^-
inch deal, with brackets same thickness, not more than 2 feet 6 inches apart ; at least
8 inches wide, and the flap seats, where they occur, to be hung with strong butts.
Pulpits and reading desks are usually of 1 |-inch deal, framed according to drawings, with
1 |-inch doors, hung with brass hinges and pulpit latches. Whole deal floors on bearers,
1 -inch book boards, cappings and bearers. 1 -inch clean deal or wainscot steps and risers,
moulded returned nosings, 1^ inch, beaded, sunk and cut string boards, strong bracketed
carriages. 1-inch square framed sofite under pulpit floor and stairs, mahogany or wain-
scot moulded handrail, with caps turned and mitred ; square bar balusters with one in
ten of iron ; turned newels to block steps ; seats of 1 J-inch deal, 1 3 inches wide, and
proper bearers thereto, together with all appurtenances and requisite fittings for exe-
cuting the drawings.
CHAP III SPECIFICATIONS. 615
CARPENTER AND JOINER.
The carpenter and joiner is to provide all such jobbing work, in following or
preceding the other artificers engaged on the works and their appurtenances, as may
be requisite for the completion thereof in every respect, without any extra charge.
2286. FOUNDER, SMITH, AND IRONMONGER. For describing cast iron girders and columns,
reference must be had to Chap. II. Sect. V. (1753, et seg>.), wherein will be found
the method of determining their scantlings — for which no rule can be given that is
not dependent on the results there laid down. Having determined the weight to be
borne, no girder (and such should be inserted in the specification) should be allowed
to be used, that has not been previously tested by weighing it at the foundery.
Cast iron cradles are sometimes used for openings, which must be described for the
particular occasions as they occur.
Chimney bars are described usually as follows : —
Provide and fix to kitchen chimney two wrought iron cradle bars, each 2 inches wide
and ^-inch thick, long enough to extend to the outside of the chimney jambs, and
turned up and down at each end. The other chimneys are to have wrought iron
chimney bars 3 inches wide and \ inch thick.
Straps, stirrup irons, nuts, bolts, screws, and washers, together with all other wrought
iron work for the roofs and partitions, to be provided, as may be requisite for tying
in and securing all carpentry, and the smith is to deliver to and assist the carpenter
in fixing or attaching the same.
Where the quantity is uncertain, a given weight beyond the above general direction
should be provided in the contract, such part thereof as may not be wanted to be
deducted from the accounts after the rate of ... per cwt.
Provide all necessary cramps of cast and wrought iron, as may be directed, for the
mason, the former to be used where the works are exposed to the air.
Wrought iron doors to be provided for strong room (or if opening in a party wall),
folding, and of the best quality, as shown in drawing ; with hinges and proper
fastenings, of the value at least of 25L
If cast iron sashes are used in any part of a building, they are to be provided with
reference to drawings.
Wedges for underpinning must be described with reference to the thickness of walls
they are to catch : each pair must be at least as long as the wall is thick.
Balusters to a back stone staircase and landings are described —
Wrought iron balusters, ^ inch square, with turned wrought iron newel equal to 1^
inch diameter, with rounded handrail of wrought iron li by \ inch. The balusters
and newel are to be riveted into the handrail at top, and at the bottom let into
the stone work and run with lead.
Balusters to a principal staircase are described —
Ornamental cast iron balusters, as shown on the drawings, with top rail of
wrought iron 1^ by i an inch, let into and firmly screwed to the mahogany (or
wainscot) handrail. The balusters and newels are to be riveted into the iron rail,
and at the bottom they are to be let into the stonework and run with lead
Balusters of wrought iron to be provided for strengthening the principal staircase when
not of stone. Every tenth baluster to be of wrought iron, properly fastened.
Provide and fix ... knockers for . . . doors to ....
Air bricks of cast iron to be provided and fixed in the brickwork for the ventilation of
the floors.
Air gratings, ... in number, to be provided, 9 inches square, and fixed round the
lower part of the walls of the house.
Area gratings, ... to each area (if any there be), to be prepared and fixed of cast iron,
with bars 1^ inch by f of an inch, and not more than 11 inch apart. Frames
1| inch by 1 inch, and with strong flanges to let into the surrounding stone- work.
Window guards of wrought iron to the windows of . . . , and . . . bars to be 1 inch
square and 4 inches apart, with framework of iron of the same substance securely
fixed to the brickwork.
Cast iron rain-water pipe, for a large size stack, is described —
6 inches diameter, to lead from the roof down into the drain, with head and shoe
complete.
Coal plates (if more than one) of cast iron, with proper fastenings to be fixed over the
coal shoot.
Cast iron ornamental railing, as per drawing, to the windows, or to the stone balcony
in front of the house, as the case may be.
Air traps of cast iron to all communications of surface water with drains to be of ap-
propriate size, and provide all gully-hole gratings that may be necessary.
To provide for the carpenter's and joiner's works, and use and fix thereto, besides that
Rr 4
616 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
FOUNDER, SMITH, AND IRONMONGER.
which has been already described, all requisite spikes, nails, screws, and other
proper ironmongery, and all requisite brass work, both to be of the very best
quality.
Provide a copper, . . . inches diameter, and stewing stoves as shown on the drawings,
with all requisite bars and iron work.
For fittings to stables describe —
No. . . . Cast-iron hay-racks, 3 feet wide and 2 feet high in the clear. I'-inch
round staves, about 3 inches apart, the frames 1^ by | of an inch, with the
arris rounded off next the staves. Provide and fix two manger rings in each
stall.
Cast iron coping to the walls of the dung-pit of the thickness of I of an inch, and re-
turned on each side 4 inches down at the least.
Cast iron gratings to stable yards are usually described as of the weight of 1 cwt.
For church and chapel work, the founder's, smith's, and ironmonger's work is so de-
pendent on the design, that no general instructions for specifications can be given.
The following are the only peculiarities : —
Provide cast iron saddle bars for the windows f by 1{ inch, 12 inches longer than the
clear width of each window, laid into and worked up with the brickwork, at the
height shown on the drawings.
Provide to each window wrought iron framework for a hopper casement, as shown on
the drawings, and fit up the same complete, with patent lines, brass pulleys, and all
other requisite appurtenances.
2287. PLASTERER. To lath, plaster, float, and set all the ceilings and strings of stair-
cases, and the quartered partitions of the . . . chambers (such as servants' rooms) on
attic stories.
To render, float, and set all brickwork in attic stories.
To plaster all sides of the kitchen offices and office passages with best floated rough
stucco, lathed where requisite.
All the remainder of the sides of the interior throughout is to be executed with the
very best floated stucco, lathed where requisite. Stucco of offices (or office build-
ings if any) to be finished with rough surfaces ; all the rest of the stucco to be
troweled quite smooth.
All the arched, groined, panelled, and coffered work, and the bands and architraves, to
be executed in guaged stuff, in the best and most accurate manner.
To run plaster cornices round the several rooms, lobbies, passages, and other parts of
the building, with enrichments thereto accurately modelled according to the draw-
ings (the enrichments, if so wished, to be described as of papier mache). A
centre flower to each room on the ground and one-pair floor, where marked, securely
fixed to the ceiling. These are, on all accounts, better for security in the papier
mache, as they can be then screwed to the ceiling.
Basement or ground story (or both, as the case may be) is to be run round in all the
rooms, lobbies, passages, &c. with skirtings of Parker's cement, 10 inches high, l^inch
thick, whited when soft, and finally washed of stone colour.
The plasterer is to execute all necessary beads, quirks, and arrisses. To stucco all in-
ternal and external reveals, to dub out where the work may require it, so as to bring
out all extra thicknesses and projections, and to counter-lath the work over large
timbers and elsewhere, as may be necessary.
The lathing throughout is to be performed with lath-and-half heart of fir laths, free
from sap. Enrichments to be carefully trimmed and finished off, and where heavy
leaves or embossed work may require it, to be screwed with strong copper screws.
The ceilings on the two principal floors are to be distempered by the painter. All the
rest of the ceilings, strings, and mouldings are to be whitened.
The sides of the rooms in the attic or garrett (as the case may be) stories, as well as
the lobbies, closets, passages, &c., are to be finished of such stone colour tints as the
architect may direct.
Lime- white stables and coach-house walls, larders, sculleries, cellars, including vault-
ing under sides of floors where open, &c.
When Parker's cement is used for external works, describe as under : —
To stucco in the very best manner with Parker's cement, jointed to imitate
masonry, the whole (or part, if such be the case) of the exterior of the
building, with columns, pilasters, plinths, entablatures, strings, mouldings,
labels, jambs, reveals, chimneys, chimney moulds, decorations, enrichments, and
appurtenances of every kind, as shown on the drawings and profiles. Such
works to be subject to such further instructions from the architect as lie may
think proper, and to be roughly coloured as each portion is executed, and
finally coloured when the architect shall so direct, with weather-proof colour-
CHAP. III. SPECIFICATIONS. 617
PLASTERER.
ing, fixed with Russia tallow, beer grounds, tar, and the other proper in-
gredients.
Where desired, decorative chimney moulds, of Parker's cement, and of the value of two
guineas, to be provided for each flue.
Pugging. To fill in upon the sounding boarding between the joists, where so provided,
with good lime and hair pugging mortar, laid throughout 1 inch in thickness.
Roughcasting. For the mode of describing this, see Plastering, Sect. IX. (2249.)
2288. PLUMBER. To lay the fiats and gutters with milled lead of 8 Ibs. to the foot
superficial. Where against walls, to be turned up 7 inches ; where against slopes,
as rafters, to turn up 10 inches. Rolls not to exceed 27 inches apart.
W ork flashings of milled lead in the walls of 5 Ibs. to the foot, and to turn down over
gutters and flats. Where flashings adjoin the slopes of a roof, they should be de-
scribed to be laid step wise into the brickwork, and of an average width of 12 inches.
Hips and ridges to be covered with milled lead 6 Ibs. to the foot, and at least 18 inches
wide, well secured with lead-headed nails.
Where eaves gutters are used, describe as follows : —
To put round the eaves at the curb plate 4-inch copper (or zinc) guttering, fixed
complete with bands and brackets, with copper (or zinc) pipes .... inches
diameter, with neat heads and appropriate shoes to lead into the gutter or drain.
Domes should be covered with lead from 6 to 8 Ibs. to the foot superficial, accord-
ing to their size, and must be well secured with proper seams or rolls thereto.
For coverings of zinc the reader is referred to Sect. VII. Chap. II. (1792, et seq.~) of this
Book, where the thicknesses will be found.
Tops and sides of dormers to be covered with 5-lb. milled lead, turned down all
round full 8 inches. A flashing of 5-lb. milled lead 30 inches wide, to be fixed over
the sill of the dormer door or window, as the case may be.
Aprons of 6-lb. milled lead, and 1 0 inches wide, should be described to sky-lights.
External mouldings of wood should be covered with 6-lb. milled lead, to turn up 6
inches, and to have flashings of 4-lb. milled lead let into the brickwork, and to be
turned down 5 inches.
To fix .... stacks of rain-water pipes from the gutters to the drains, of (5) inches bore,
turned up from milled lead of 8 Ibs. to the foot superficial, and securely fixed with
ornamental cistern heads as shall be approved by the architect, and 2-inch strong
overflow discharging pipes. Similar description for conveying water from a
portico.
No pipes but of lead or zinc should be used against stone buildings. Cast iron pipes
should only be used to offices.
In London, it is usual to specify that the water should be laid on for the service of the
house in the following manner : —
To lay on from the main of the Company water with |-inch
strong cast lead pipe to the cistern of the upper water-closet, with ball-cock
complete. Similarly to lower water-closet and to such other cisterns as are
provided, with ball-cocks, &c. complete, and to pay all official fees.
Line the sinks in the scullery and butler's pantry (and other small ones, if any) with
6-lb. milled lead, and fix thereto 2-inch waste pipes, with brass bell traps complete
to go into the drains.
Line the kitchen cistern with milled sheet lead, bottom 9 Ibs. and sides 6 Ibs. to the
foot, with all soldering thereto. To provide to the same a 1^-inch waste pipe. Line
the kitchen sink with lead of 8 Ibs. to the foot, to turn well over the woodwork and
to have a 2-inch strong waste pipe to lead into the drain, with brass bell grate com-
plete. A |-inch service pipe and brass cock to be provided from the cistern for
supplying water to the sink.
Roses pierced with holes of sufficient dimensions to be provided of 10-lb. lead to gutters
and rain-water cesspools.
Water closets to be constructed and fitted up in every respect complete, with blue
basin, the very best patent valve apparatus. Soil pipe of 8-lb. lead and 4^-inch bore
to lead into drain with strong D trap, lead box 1 0 inches by 7 and 6 inches deep, of
milled lead 10 Ibs. to the foot. 1-inch supply pipe to the basin, and all other pipes,
wires, cranks, handles, and other proper fitments. The cistern is to be lined, bottom
with 8-lb. cast lead, and sides with 5-lb. milled lead. 1^-inch waste pipe, soldered
in below the dip, with washer and waste complete.
Inferior water closets to be provided with strong cast iron trapped basin, with water
laid on, and in all respects to be fitted complete.
Provide all stink-traps that may be requisite where the pipes communicate with the
drains.
618 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
PLUMBER.
For cold bath, lay on the water with strong 1^-inch lead pipe, with brass cock, and fix
2|-inch strong lead waste pipe, with brass washer and plug thereto.
If the hot bath be not of marble, describe as follows : —
Provide and fix a hot bath of copper of 16 ounces to the foot superficial, tinned
on the inside, and painted in japan to imitate marble as may be directed. Lay
on the water thereto, with waste pipe, cock, water plug, and all other proper
fittings as for cold bath.
Common pumps are generally described as 3-inch pumps, with neat cast iron cases
fixed complete, with proper lead suction pipe to bring sufficient supply of water
from well, and all other appurtenances.
To provide and fix (this where the water is not laid on, as in London) a 3^- inch lifting
engine pump, with brass barrel ; and provide from the well . . . feet of l±-inch strong
suction pipe. Service pipes as may be necessary to the cisterns, with all cocks and
joints that may be necessary.
Provide all copper nails that may be wanted for laying the works.
To provide in the contract .... cwt. extra of cast sheet lead, including labour and
all proper materials as may be wanted and directed by the architect. ; and if the same
or any part thereof should not be used, there shall be a deduction made for the same
on making up the accounts, after the rate of .... per cwt. for such portion thereof
as shall not have been used.
2289. GLAZIER. To glaze all the windows with the best Newcastle crown glass, or
for offices with second Newcastle crown glass.
The whole of the glazing is to be properly bedded, sprigged, and back-puttied, and to
be left whole and clean on the works being rendered up as complete.
When plate glass is to be used, the same must be specified, and the architect must
direct the manufactory from which it is to be procured.
2290. PAINTER. To knot with silver leaf, pumice down and smooth, and otherwise
prepare all the wood and other works intended for painting.
To paint four times in oil, with the best oil and colour, all the internal and external
wood and iron works, all the stucco, and all other works that are usually painted.
The walls of the principal staircase, lobbies, and entrance hall are to be imitations
of marbles, jointed like masonry, as shall be directed, and varnished twice over with
best copal.
The doors, shutters, dadoes, skirtings, boxings, architraves, and other dressings on the
ground and one-pair floors (and others if required), are to be grained wainscot (or
other wood as may be specified), in an artist-like manner, and varnished twice with
best copal varnish.
If mouldings of doors and shutters are to be gilt, specify the same.
The ceilings and cornices on ground and one-pair floor to be painted four times in
oil, and flatted and picked in such extra colours as may be directed.
To flat extra, of such tints as may be directed, all the rest of the stucco work and wood
work on the principal and one-pair floors.
Sashes to be finished on the outside of .... colour. The plain painting to be of
tints of brown, drab, or stone colour as may be directed.
Distemper ceilings (this to be specified if any are so intended), or paint if intended.
2291. PAPERHANGER. To prepare and bring to a proper face all the walls and surfaces
intended for papering.
To underline with proper paper, and hang with paper of . . . . pence per yard, the
rooms on the one-pair floor, and to provide and fix gold beads thereto .... inches
wide : borders, if thought proper, to be specified.
To hang with figured paper, value .... per yard, the rooms (to be described)
on the .... floor, with borders.
The remainder of the rooms are to be hung with paper .... per yard, with borders.
All the patterns are to be approved of by the architect.
2292. BELLHANGER. To provide and fix with all necessary wires, pulls, cranks, and every
other appendage, bells from the following places : — [Here enumerate the places.]
2293. We now close the general view of a specification (which has been submitted as
nothing more than a skeleton for filling up as different cases may require ; to make
one which would serve all purposes is obviously impossible) by adding the usual form of a
contract.
CHAP. III. SPECIFICATIONS. 619
2294. CONDITIONS. That all the works shall be executed in the best and most workman-
like manner, to the satisfaction of [Here add employer's name], or his architect, without
reference thereon to any other person. If any alterations should hereafter be made by order
of (the employer}, or his architect, by varying from the plans or the foregoing specifi-
cation, either in adding thereto or diminishing therefrom, or otherwise however, such alter-
ations shall not vacate the contract hereby entered into, but the value thereof shall be
ascertained by the said architect, and added to or deducted from the sum hereinafter
mentioned, as the case may be; nor shall such alterations, either in addition, diminution,
or otherwise, supersede the condition for the completion of the whole of the works, but the
contractor shall, if such alterations, of whatever sort, require it, increase the number of his
workmen, so that the same, as well as the works contained in the above particulars, shall
be completely finished, and so delivered up to (the employer), on or before the
day of , in the year , on failure whereof the contractor shall forfeit and pay
to (the employer), the sum of for every day that the work remains unfinished
and undelivered as aforesaid, which sum the said (the employer) shall be allowed to
stop as liquidated damages out of any moneys that may be due and owing to the said con-
tractor on account of the works.
If any doubt or doubts should arise during the execution of the works, or at measuring
the extras should any occur, or at making out the accounts as to any extras or other works
for which the contractor may consider he may have a claim, over and above the sum here-
inafter mentioned, the admission and allowance of any such claim or claims shall be
judged of, determined, and adjusted solely by the architect to (the employer), without
reference in any way to any other person ; it being the intention of these conditions that
all such works of every kind that may be necessay for completely finishing the works pro-
posed, for the rectification of any failure from whatever cause arising, and the well main-
taining, sustaining, and supporting the whole of the works, as well as alterations and
additions, should such be made, so that the whole may remain sound and firm, are implied in
the foregoing specification, although the same may not therein be specifically expressed,
and that on this, as well as all other matters, no reference to any other person than the
aforesaid architect is to be allowed or admitted.
If the contractor should neglect or refuse to carry on the works with such dispatch as is
thought proper by the architect, it shall be lawful for (the employer) or his architect,
and either of them is hereby empowered to employ such other person or persons as
(the employer) or his architect, or either of them, may think fit or necessary, to finish and
complete the several unfinished works, after having given notice thereof in writing six
days before employing such person or persons, such notice to be left either at the con-
tractor's shop, counting-house, or usual place *of abode, without effect, and the amount or
amounts of the bill or bills of any artificers that may be so employed shall be deducted out
of any moneys that may be due and owing to the said contractor, or any part thereof, as
the case may be.
It is hereby agreed, this day of , in the year , between
(the employer), on the one part, and (the contractor) on the other part, that he, the
said (the contractor), for his executors, administrators, and assigns, doth hereby
promise and agree to and with the said (the employer), to do and perform all the
works of every kind mentioned and contained in the foregoing particulars, and according
and subject to the conditions above recited, and according to the plans prepared and referred
to, at and for the sum of pounds ; and the said (the contractor) doth hereby
agree to abide by and be subject to the several clauses, conditions, and penalties herein-
before mentioned and contained.
In consideration whereof the said (the employer) doth hereby promise and agree to
pay to the said (the contractor), on the certificate of the architect, the aforesaid
sum of pounds, in separate payments, it being agreed that neither of'the said
payments, except the last, shall amount to more than two thirds of the value of the work
done at the time of such certificate being given.
In witness whereof the said parties have hereunto set their hand, the day and year
above written.
A. B. (the employer.)
Witness, E. F. C. D. (the contractor.)
620 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
SECT. XIV.
MEASURING AND ESTIMATING.
2295. The practice of measuring is dependent on rules already given under Mensura-
tion, in Sect. VII. Chap. I. of this Book (1212, et se</.), in which are described the methods
of ascertaining the superficial and solid contents of any figure. The application of them to
architecture, in the practice of measuring and estimating the different parts of a building,
forms the subject of this section.
2296. For the purposes of measuring, the common instruments are a pair of 5-feet
rods, divided into feet, inches, and half inches, and a 2-feet rule divided into inches and
eighths and twelfths of inches, beyond which subdivision, measurements are rarely
carried in this country.
2297. The mode of what is called squaring dimensions, as usually practised, is given
under Section I. Arithmetic &c., in this Book (868, et seq.), to which the reader must
refer, if not already fully informed on that head. We shall now at once proceed to the
general principles on which the measurement and estimation of work in the several artificers'
departments are conducted.
2298. DIGGING is performed by the solid yard of twenty-seven cubic feet (that is, 3 feet
x 3 feet x 3 feet = 27 feet). Where the ground is soft in consistence, and nothing more
is necessary beyond cutting with a spade, a man may throw up a cubic yard per hour, or
1 0 cubic yards in a day ; but if of firmer quality, hacking becomes necessary, and an addi-
tional man will be required to perform the same work ; if very strong gravel, more assistance
will be required. If, therefore, the wages of a labourer were 2s. 6d. per day, the price of a
yard would be 3d. for cutting only, without profit to the contractor; 6d. for cutting and
hacking, and 9d. if two hackers be necessary. In sandy ground, where wheeling becomes ne-
cessary, three men will remove 30 cubic yards in a day to the distance of 20 yards, two for
filling and one for wheeling. But to remove the same quantity in a day to a greater dis-
tance, an additional man for every 20 yards will be required.
2299. The method of ascertaining the quantity of excavation will, of course, be obvious ;
the quantity is the length multiplied into the depth and width. In the cases of trenches
merely dug for the reception of walls, which, of course, are sloped to prevent the earth fall-
ing in on the excavators, a mean width is to be taken. Thus, suppose an excavation 24
feet long, 4 feet wide at top, and 2 feet at the bottom (average width therefore 3 feet), and
5 feet deep, we have for the quantity of yard 24x2^x5 = 1 3 -07 cube yards.
2300. BRICKWORK. In measuring and estimating the value of brickwork, the following
points must be remembered. A rod of brickwork is a mass 16^ feet square; hence
the quantity of superficial feet which it contains is 272£ feet (16 '5 x 16 -5), but the \ of
the foot is too trifling to make it worth while to embarrass calculations with it, and con-
sequently 272 feet is universally taken as the superficial standard content of a rod. Its
standard thickness is one brick and a half (or 13^ inches). Hence it follows, that a cubic
rod of brickwork would be 272 feet x 13| inches = 306 feet cube. The allowance for the
number of bricks is taken on an average at 4500. Much, however, depends on the close-
ness of the joints and the nature of the work. In walling, a reduced foot is generally taken
as requiring 1 7 bricks ; a foot superficial in Flemish bond, laid in malm facing, about 8
bricks ; and a foot .superficial of guaged arches, 10 bricks. In paving, a yard requires 82
paving bricks, or 48 stock bricks, or 1 44 Dutch clinkers laid on edge, or 36 bricks laid flat.
2301. In tiling, which is measured by the square of 100 superficial feet, a square will
require 800 at a 6-inch guage, 700 at a 7-inch guage, and 600 at an 8-inch guage. The
guage necessarily regulates the distance of the laths, and, at the same time, must be de-
pendent on the slope of the roof, which, if flat, should not be less than 6 inches, as for in-
stance, above the kerb in a kerb roof; and not more than 8 inches in any case. A square of
plaintiling requires about on an average a bundle of laths, two bushels of lime, and one of
sand, and at least a peck of tile pins. The laths are sold in bundles of 3, 4, and 5-feet
lengths. A bundle of the 3-feet contains eight score, the 4-feet six score, and the 5-feet
five score to the bundle. The nails used are fourpenny ; they are purchased by the long
hundred, that is, of six score, and, in day work, are charged by the bricklayer 5-score to the
hundred. The name of nails, as fourpenny, fivepenny, &c., means fourpence, fivepence, &c,
per hundred. The numbers of nails required for a bundle of 5-feet and 6-feet laths, are
500 and 600 respectively.
2302. A square of pantiiing requires 180 tiles laid at a 10-inch guage, and a bundle of
12 laths 10 feet long.
2303. In lime measure, what is called a hundred is 100 pecks, or 25 striked bushels (old
measure).
CHAP. III.
MEASURING AND ESTIMATING.
621
2304. In sand measure, 18 heaped bushels, or 21 striked bushels,
equal to 1 yard cube, is a single load, and about 24 cubic feet 1 ton.
2305. In mortar 27 cubic feet make 1 load, which on common
occasions contains half a hundred of lime with a proportional quantity
of sand. Eleven hundred and thirty-four cubic inches make a hod
of mortar; that is, a mass 9 inches wide, 9 inches high, and 14
inches long. Two hods of mortar are nearly equal to half a bushel.
The following measures and weights it may be also useful to re-
member : —
23g cubic feet of sand = 1 ton ; hence 1 cubic foot weighs 95 '3 Ibs.
1 1\ cubic feet of clay = 1 ton ; hence 1 cubic foot weighs about
1 30 Ibs.
18 cubic feet of common earth = 1 ton; hence 1 cubic foot weighs
nearly 124 Ibs.
306 cubic feet of brickwork = 13 tons; hence 1 cubic foot is equal
to full 95 Ibs.
2306. In the measurement of brickwork, from the surface being 272
feet and the standard thickness l\ brick, it will be immediately seen
that nothing more is requisite than, having ascertained the thickness of
each part of the work, to reduce it to the standard thickness above
stated, and this will be found sufficiently easy in almost all cases.
Where, however, this cannot be done, we can always ascertain with
sufficient accuracy the cubic contents in feet of any mass of brickwork ;
and dividing by 306 we have the number of rods.
2307. We here present an illustration in a wall of the most
common occurrence (jiff. 808. ), which we will suppose 20 feet long
without reference to any wall which might return from it, and thus di-
minish its length in measuring therewith a returning wall. The follow-
ing is the method of entering and calculating the dimensions.
1J Brick.
2 Bricks
'2h Brick*
Fig. 808.
Length multiplied
by the Height.
Area.
Number of
Bricks in
Thickness.
Factors to reduce
the Area to
Standard of U
Brick.
Thickness reduced
to 1| Brick
in Feet sup.
20-0
6
10-0
4
2§
26-8
20-0
Footings 6 courses
4 6
10-0
3£
2j
23-4
20-0
6
10-0
3
2
20-0
Basement wall -
/ 20-0
I 6'0
.
120-0
21
J§
200-0
Ground-floor wall
f 20-0
I 12-0
•
240-0
2
|1
320-0
One-pair wall
f 20-0
V 14-0
280-0
M
1
280-0
Two-pair wall -
r 20-0
\ 7-0
140-0
i
§
93-4
963-4
Therefore the total is 963'4 superficial feet II brick thick, and || = 3 rods, 147 feet.
2308. Upon this principle the measuring and estimation of brickwork is conducted, and
having the price and quantity of bricks in a rod, and the lime, sand, and labour, which
will presently be given, we may come to a pretty accurate knowledge of its value. But
there are other articles which will require our attention, to which we shall presently
advert. Before proceeding, however, we may as well observe that the above result of
3 rods 147 feet might have been similarly obtained by cubing the mass of brickwork and
dividing the whole mass by 306, but with much more labour.
622
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
2309. In measuring walls faced with bricks of a superior quality, the area of such facing
must be measured, or allowance extra is made in the price per rod of the brickwork.
231 0. All apertures and recesses from any of the faces are deducted.
2311. Guaged arches are sometimes deducted and charged separately, sometimes not;
but whether deducted or not does not signify, as the extra price must be allowed in the
latter case and the whole price in the former. Rubbed and guaged arches, of whatever
form, are measured and charged by the superficial foot.
2312. The angles of groins, outside and inside splays, bird's mouths, bull's noses, are
measured by the lineal or running foot ; but cuttings are measured by the foot superficial.
Chimneys are measured solid to allow for the trouble of forming and pargetting the flues.
The opening at bottom, however, is to be deducted.
2313. Quarters in bricknogging are measured in, as are all sills, stone strings, and
timber inserted in walls. Two inches are also allowed in the height of brickwork for
bedding plates if no brickwork be over them.
2314. Ovens, coppers, &c. are measured as solid work, deducting only the ash holes;
but all fire stone, Welsh lumps, tiles, &c., though measured alone, are not to be deducted
out of the brickwork. Pointing, colouring, &c. to fronts, is measured by the foot super-
ficial. Plantile creesing by the foot lineal.
To estimate the value of a rod of brickwork, the method is as under : —
4500 stocks, at per thousand
II hundred of lime = 37 £ striked bushels containing 27 feet cube to the
hundred _...----
2 loads of sand __..----
Labour and scaffolding
Per cent, profit
Per rod
- O
2315. In measuring and estimating all sorts of artificers' works, the method usually
adopted for saving labour in making out the account is to arrange in separate columns each
sort of work, and then to add them up and carry the total to the bill. In brickwork,
where walls are of different thicknesses, these with their deductions are arranged in sepa-
rate columns, and then all are reduced to the standard thickness.
2316. The common measure for tiling is a square of 10 feet, containing therefore 100
feet superficial. Claims are made for the eaves to the extent of 6 inches ; but in pantiling
this ought not to be allowed, as a claim not founded in justice, though custom is pleaded
for it.
2317. The following table shows the number of bricks necessary for constructing any
number of superficial feet of walling from 1 to 90,000, and from half a brick to 2i bricks
thick ; and thence, by addition only, to any thickness or number required, at the rate of
4500 bricks to a reduced rod. Thus, if it be required to find the number of bricks wanted
to build a piece of work containing 756 feet super, of walling II brick thick, we find by
inspection for 700 feet 1 1580 bricks ; for 50 feet, 827 bricks ; and for 6 feet, 99 bricks ; in
all, 1 1 580 + 827 + 99 = 1 2506.
TABLE SHOWING THE REQUISITE QUANTITY OF BRICKS FOR A GIVEN SUPERFICIES OF WALLING.
No. of Bricks to Thicknesses of
Area
of Wall in
Feet.
| Brick.
1 Brick.
li Brick.
2 Bricks.
2j Bricks.
1
5
11
16
22
27
2
11
22
33
44
55
3
16
33
49
66
82
4
22
44
66
88
110
5
27
55
82
110
137
6
33
66
99
132
165
7
38
77
115
154
193
8
44
88
132
176
220
9
49
99
148
198
248
10
55
110
165
220
275
20
110
220
330
441
551
30
165
330
496
661
827
CHAP. III.
MEASURING AND ESTIMATING.
623
Area
of Wall in
Feet.
No. of Bricks to Thicknesses of
$ Brick.
1 Brick.
1$ Brick.
2 Bricks.
2£ Bricks.
40
220
441
661
882
1102
50
275
551
827
1102
1378
60
330
661
992
1323
1654
70
386
772
1158
1544
1930
80
441
882
1323
1764
2205
90
496
992
1488
1985
2481
100
551
1102
1654
2205
2757
200
1102
2205
3308
4411
5514
300
1654
3308
4963
6617
8272
400
2205
4411
6617
8323
11029
500
2757
5514
8272
11029
13786
600
3308
6617
9926
1 3235
16544
700
3860
7720
11580
15441
19301
800
4411
8823
13235
17647
22058
900
4963
9926
14889
19852
24816
1000
5514
11029
16544
22058
25753
2000
11029
22058
33088
44117
55147
3000
16544
33088
49632
66176
82720
4000
22058
44117
66176
88235
110294
5000
27573
55147
82720
110294
137867
6000
33088
66176
99264
132352
165441
7000
38602
77205
115803
154411
193014
8000
44117
88235
132352
176470
220588
90OO
49632
99264
148896
198529
248161
10000
55147
110294
165441
220588
275735
20000
1 10294
220588
330882
441176
551470
30000
165441
330882
496323
661764
827205
40000
220588
441176
661764
882352
1102940
50000
275735
551470
827205
1102940
1378675
6OOOO
330882
661764
992646
1323528
1654410
70000
386029
772053
1168087
1544116
1930145
8OOOO
441175
882352
1323528
1 704704
2205080
90000
496323
992646
1468969
1985292
2481615
231 8. The next table which we submit for use exhibits the number of reduced feet to
superficial feet from 1 to 10,000, the thicknesses being from \ to 2£ bricks.
Area of
Wall in
super-
ficial
Feet.
Reduced Quantity in
£ Brick.
1 Brick.
1} Brick.
2 Bricks.
2$ Bricks.
Rods. qrs. ft. in.
Rods. qrs. ft. in.
Rods. qrs. ft. in.
Rods. qrs. ft. in.
Rods. qrs. ft. in.
1
0004
0 O O 8
0010
0014
0018
2
0008
0014
0020
0028
0034
3
0010
0020
0030
0040
0050
4
0014
0028
0040
0054
0068
5
0018
0034
0050
0068
0084
6
O O 2 0
0040
0060
0080
0 0 10 0
7
0024
0048
0070
0094
0 0 11 8
8
0028
m 0 0 5 4
0080
0 0 10 8
0 0 13 4
9
0030
O 0 6 0
0090
0 0 12 0
0 0 15 0
10
0034
0068
0 0 10 0
0 0 13 4
0 0 16 8
11
0038
0074
00110
0 0 14 8
0 0 18 4
12
0040
0080
0 0 12 0
0 0 16 0
0 0 20 0
13
0044
O O 8 8
0 0 13 0
0 0 17 4
0 0 21 8
14
0048
0094
0 0 14 0
0 0 18 8
0 0 23 4
15
0050
0 0 10 0
0 0 15 0
0 0 20 0
0 0 25 0
16
0054
0 0 10 8
0 0 16 0
0 0 21 4
0 0 26 8
17
0058
0 0 11 4
0 0 17 0
0 0 22 8
0 0 28 4
624
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE
BOOK II.
Area of
Wall in
super-
]
deduced Quantity ii
i
ficial
Feet.
£ Brick.
1 Brick.
1£ Brick.
2 Bricks.
2£ Bricks.
Rods. qrs. ft. in.
Rods. qrs. ft. in.
Rods. qrs. ft. in.
Rods. qrs. ft. in
Rods. qrs. ft. in.
18
0060
0 0 12 0
0 0 18 0
0 0 24 0
0 0 30 8 :
19
0064
0 0 12 8
0 0 19 0
0 0 25 4
0 0 31 8
20
0068
0 0 13 4
0 0 20 0
0 0 26 8
0 0 33 4
21
0070
0 0 14 0
O 0 21 0
0 0 28 0
0 0 35 O
22
0074
0 0 14 8
0 0 22 0
0 0 29 4
0 0 36 8
23
0078
0 0 15 4
0 0 23 0
0 0 30 8
0 0 38 4
24
0080
0 0 16 0
0 0 24 0
0 0 32 0
0 0 40 0
25
0084
0 0 16 8
0 0 25 0
0 0 33 4
0 0 41 8
26
0088
0 0 17 4
0 0 26 0
0 0 34 8
0 0 43 0
27
0090
0 0 18 0
0 0 27 0
0 0 36 0
0 0 45 4
28
0094
0 0 18 8
0 0 28 0
0 0 37 4
0 0 46 8
29
0098
0 0 19 4
0 0 29 0
0 0 38 8
0 0 48 4
30
0 0 10 0
0 0 20 0
0 0 30 0
0 0 40 0
0 0 50 0
31
0 0 10 4
0 0 20 8
0 0 31 0
0 0 41 4
0 0 51 8
32
0 0 10 8
0 0 21 4
0 0 32 0
0 0 42 8
0 0 53 4
33
00110
0 0 22 0
0 0 33 0
0 0 44 0
0 0 55 0
34
0 0 11 4
0 0 22 8
0 0 34 0
0 0 45 4
0 0 56 8
35
0 0 11 8
0 0 23 4
0 0 35 0
0 0 46 8
0 0 58 4
36
O 0 12 0
0 0 24 0
0 0 36 0
0 0 48 0
0 0 60 0
37
0 0 12 4
0 0 24 8
0 0 37 0
0 0 49 4
0 0 61 8
38
0 0 12 8
0 0 25 4
0 0 38 0
0 0 50 8
0 0 63 4
39
0 0 13 0
0 0 26 0
0 0 39 0
0 0 52 0
0 0 65 0
40
0 0 13 4
0 0 26 8
0 0 40 0
0 0 53 4
0 0 66 8
41
0 0 13 8
0 0 27 4
0 0 41 0
0 0 54 8
0 04
42
0 0 14 0
0 0 28 0
0 0 42 0
0 0 56 0
0 20
43
0 0 14 4
0 0 28 8
O 0 43 0
0 0 57 4
0 38
44
0 0 14 8
0 0 29 4
0 0 44 0
0 0 58 8
0 54
45
0 0 15 0
0 0 30 0
0 0 45 0
0 0 60 0
0 70
46
0 0 15 4
0 0 30 8
0 0 46 0
0 0 61 4
0 88
47
0 0 15 8
0 0 31 4
0 0 47 0
0 0 62 8
0 10 4
48
0 0 16 0
0 0 32 0
0 0 48 0
0 0 64 0
0 1 12 0
49
0 0 16 4
0 0 32 8
0 0 49 0
0 0 65 4
0 1 13 8
50
0 0 16 8
0 0 33 4
0 0 50 0
0 0 66 8
0 1 15 4
60
0 0 20 0
0 0 4O 0
0 0 60 0
0 1 12 0
0 1 32 0
70
0 0 23 4
0 0 46 8
0120
0 1 25 4
0 1 48 8
80
0 0 26 8
0 0 53 4
0 1 12 0
0 1 38 8
0 1 65 4
90
0 0 30 0
0 0 60 0
0 1 22 0
0 1 52 0
0 2 14 0
100
0 0 33 4
0 0 66 8
0 1 32 0
0 1 65 4
0 2 30 8
200
0 0 66 8
0 1 65 4
0 2 64 0
0 3 62 8
1 0 61 4
300
0 1 32 0
0 2 64 0
1 0 28 0
1 1 60 0
1 3 24 0
400
0 1 65 4
0 3 62 8
1 1 60 0
1 3 57 4
2 1 54 8
500
0 2 30 8
1 0 61 4
1 3 24 0
2 1 54 8
3 0 17 4
600
0 2 64 O
1 1 60 0
2 0 56 0
2 3 52 0
3 2 48 0
700
0 3 29 4
1 2 58 8
2 2 20 0
3 1 49 4
4 1 10 8
800
0 3 62 8
1 3 57 4
2 3 52 0
3 3 46 8
4 3 41 4
900
1 0 28 0
2 0 56 0
3 1 16 0
4 1 44 0
5240
1000
1 0 61 4
2 1 54 8
3 2 48 0
4 3 41 4
6 0 34 8
2000
2 1 54 8
4 3 41 4
7 1 28 0
9 3 14 8
12 1 1 4
3000
3 2 48 0
7 1 28 0
11 0 8 0
14 2 46 0
18 1 36 0
4000
4 3 41 4
9 3 14 8
14 2 56 0
19 2 29 4
24 2 2 8
5000
6 0 34 8
12 1 1 4
18 1 36 0
24 2 2 8
30 2 37 4
6000
7 1 28 0
14 2 56 0
22 0 16 0
29 1*44 0
36 3 4 0
7000
8 2 21 4
17 0 42 8
25 2 64 0
34 1 17 4
42 3 38 8
8000
9 3 14 8
19 2 29 4
29 1 44 0
39 0 58 8
49 0 5 4
9000
11 0 8 0
22 0 16 0
33 0 24 0
44 0 32 0
55 0 40 0
1OOOO
12 1 1 4
24 2 2 8
36 3 4 0
49 0 5 4
61 1 6 8
2319. The following table exhibits the value of a rod of brickwork (allowing 4500
bricks to a rod) at the prices from 30s. to 60s. per thousand for the bricks, and for labour,
mortar, and scaffolding the several sums of 31. 5s., 37. 10s., 3/. 15s., 41., 41. 5s., and 41. 10s.
per rod.
CHAP. III.
MEASURING AND ESTIMATING.
625
Bricks per
Thousand.
Labour, Mor-
tar, &c. per
Rod, 31. bs.
Labour, Mor-
tar, &c. per
Rod, 31. 10s.
Labour, Mor-
tar, &c. per
Rod, 31. 15s.
Labour, Mor-
tar, &c. per
Rod, 4/.
Labour, Mor-
tar, &c. per
Rod, 4A 5s.
Labour, Mor-
tar, &c. per
Rod, 41. 10s.
s.
£ s. d.
£ s. d.
£ s. d.
£ s. d.
£ s. d.
£ s. d.
30
10 0 0
10 5 0
10 10 0
10 15 0
11 O 0
11 5 0
32
10 9 0
10 14 0
10 19 0
11 4 0
1190
11 14 0
34
10 18 0
' 11 3 0
11 8 0
11 13 0
11 18 0
12 3 0
36
11 7 0
11 12 0
11 17 0
12 2 0
12 7 0
12 12 0
38
11 16 0
12 1 0
12 6 0
12 11 0
12 16 0
13 1 0
40
12 5 0
12 10 0
12 15 0
13 0 0
13 5 0
13 10 0
42
12 14 0
12 19 0
13 4 0
13 9 0
13 14 0
13 19 0
44
13 3 0
13 8 0
13 13 0
13 18 0
14 3 0
14 8 0
46
13 12 0
13 17 0
14 2 0
14 7 0
14 12 0
14 17 0
48
14 1 0
14 6 0
14 11 0
14 16 0
15 1 0
15 6 0
50
14 10 0
14 15 0
15 0 0
15 5 0
15 10 0
15 15 0
52
14 19 0
15 4 0
15 9 0
15 14 0
15 19 0
16 4 0
54
15 8 0
15 13 0
15 18 0
16 3 0
16 8 0
16 13 0
56
15 17 0
16 2 0
16 7 0
16 12 0
16 17 0
17 2 0
58
16 6 0
16 11 0
16 16 0
17 1 0
17 6 0
17 11 0
60
16 15 0
17 0 0
17 5 0
17 10 0
17 15 0
18 0 0
2320. The following is a table of the decimal parts of a rod of reduced brickwork.
Feet.
Dec. Parts .
Feet.
Dec. Parts.
Feet.
Dec. Parts.
Feet.
Dec. Parts.
Feet.
Dec. Parts.
1
•00367
41
•15073
81
•29779
121
•44485
161
•59191
2
•00735
42
•15441
82
•30147
122
•44852
162
•59559
3
•01102
43
•15809
83
•30515
123
•45220
163
•59926
4
•01470
44
•16176
84
•30882
124
•45588
164
•60294
5
•01838
45
•16544
85
•3125
125
•45956
165
•60662
6
•02206
46
•16912
86
•31617
126
•46323
166
•61029
7
•02573
47
•17279
87
•31985
127
•46691
167
•61397
8
•02941
48
•17647
88
•32353
128
•47059
168
•61765
9
•03309
49
•18015
89
•32720
129
•47426
169
•62132
10
•03676
50
•18382
90
•33088
130
•47794
170
•625
11
•04044
51
•1875
91
•33456
131
•48162
171
•62867
12
•04412
52
•19117
92
•33823
132
•48529
172
•63235
13
•04779
53
•19485
93
•34191
133
•48897
173
•63604
14
•05147
54
•19852
94
•34559
134
•49265
174
•63971
15
•05515
55
•20221
95
•34926
135
•49632
175
•64338
16
•05882
56
•20588
96
•35294
136
•5
176
•64706
17
•0625
57
•20956
97
•35662
137
•50637
177
•65073
18
•06617
58
•21323
98
•36029
138
•50735
178
•65441
19
•06985
59
•21691
99
•36397
139
•51102
179
•65809
20
•07353
60
•22059
100
•36765
140
•51470
180
•661 76
21
•07721
61
•22426
101
•37132
141
•51838
181
•66544
22
•08088
62
•22794
102
•375
142
•52206
182
•6691 2
23
•08456
63
•23162
103
•37867
143
•52573
183
•67279
24
•08823
64
•23529
104
•38235
144
•52941
184
•67647
25
•09191
65
•23897
105
•38604
145
•53309
185
•68015
26
•09559
66
•24265
106
•38970
146
•53676
186
•68382
27
•09926
67
•24632
107
•39338
147
•54044
187
•6875
28
•10294
68
•25
108
•39706
148
•54412
188
•69117
29
•10662
69
•25367
109
•40073
149
•54779
189
•69485
30
•11029
70
•25735
110
•40441
150
•55147
190
•69853
31
•11397
71
•26103
111
•40809
151
•55515
191
•70221
32
•11765
72
•2647O
112
•41176
152
•55882
192
•70588
33
•12132
73
•26838
113
•41544
153
•5625
193
•70956
34
•125
74
•27206
114
•41912
154
•56617
194
•71323
35
•12867
75
•27573
115
•42279
155
•56985
195
•71691
36
•13235
76
•27941
116
•42647
156
•57353
196
•72059
37
•13604
77
•28309
117
•43015
157
•57721
197
•72426
38
•13970
78
•28676
118
•43382
158
•58088
198
•72794
39
•14338
79
•29044
119
•4375
159
•58456
199
•73162
40
•14706
80
•29412
120
•44117
160
•58823
200
•73529
Ss
626
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
Feet.
Dec. Parts.
Feet.
Dec. Parts.
Feet.
Dec. Parts.
Feet.
Dec. Parts.
Feet.
Dec. Parts.
201
•73897
216
•79412
231
•84926
245
•90073
259
•95221
202
•74265
217
•79779
232
•85294
246
•90441
260
•95588
203
•74632
218
•80147
233
•85662
247
•90809
261
•95956
204
•75
219
•80515
234
•86029
248
•91176
262
•96323
205
•75367
220
80882
235
•86397
249
•91544
263
•96691
206
•75735
221
•8125
236
•86765
250
•91912
264
•97059
207
•76103
222
•81617
237
•87132
251
•92279-
265
•97426
208
•76470
223
•81985
238
•875
252
•92647
266
•97794
209
•76838
224
•82353
239
•87867
253
•93015
267
•98162
210
•77206
225
•82721
24O
•88235
254
•93382
268
•98529
211
•77573
226
•83088
241
•88604
255
•9375
269
•98897
212
•77941
227
•83456
242
•88970
256
•941 17
270
•99265
213
•78309
228
•83823
243
•89338
257
•94485
271
•99632
214
•78676
229
•84191
244
•89706
258
•94853
272
1-00000
215
•79044
230
•84559
2321. The subjoined table shows the number of plaintiles or pantiles required to cover
any area from 1 to 10,000 feet.
Feet super-
ficial.
Plaintiles.
Pantiles.
Gauges.
Gauges.
6 inches.
fii inches.
7 inches.
11 inches.
12 inches.
13 inches.
1
71
7
63
fj
M
M
2
15
14
13
^1
3
3
22$
21
19$
5
41
4
4
5
30
28
35
26
3
6
5\
6
45
42
39
10
9
8
7
8
60
49
56
45$
52
III
13$
10$
12
io|
9
67$
63
58$
15
13|
12
10
20
75
150
70
140
65
130
16f
33$
15
30
13$
26§
30
225
210
195
50
45
40
40
300
280
260
663
60
53$
50
375
350
325
83$
75
66§
60
450
420
390
100
90
80
70
525
490
455
116§
105
93$
80
600
560
520
133$
120
106§
90
675
630
585
150
135
120
100
750
700
650
166§
150
133$
2OO
1500
1400
1300
333$
300
266§
300
2250
2100
1950
500
450
400
400
3000
2800
2600
666§
600
533$
500
3750
3500
3250
833$
75O
666§
600
4500
4200
3900
1000
900
800
700
5250
4900
4550
1166]
1050
933$
800
6000
5600
5200
1333$
1200
1066§
9OO
6750
6300
5850
1500
1350
1200
1000
7500
7000
65OO
1666§
1500
1333$
200O
15000
14OOO
13000
3333$
3000
2666§
3000
22500
21000
19500
5000.
4500
4OOO
4000
30OOO
28000
260OO
6666§
6000
5333$
5000
37500
35000
32500
8333$
7500
6666§
6000
45000
42000
39000
10000
9000
8000
52500
49000
4550O
11666§
10500
9333$
,x*>
60000
56000
52000
13333$
12000
10666$
.x^OOO
67500
63000
58500
15OOO
13500
12000
r loooo
75000
70000
65000
1 6666§
15000
13333$
^C /III. MEASURING AND ESTIMATING. 627
The use of the foregoing tables it can scarcely be necessary to explain, They are such
as to indicate, on inspection, their value; and we shall therefore leave them without fur-
ther comment for their application.
2322. When work is performed by the day, or the materials used are to be numbered,
as ofttimes necessarily occurs, fire bricks, red rubbers, best marie stocks for cutters,
second best ditto, pickings, common bricks, place bricks, paving bricks, kiln-burnt bricks,
and Dutch clinkers are charged by the thousand.
2323. Red rubbers, kiln and fire-burnt bricks, are also charged by the hundred. Foot
tiles and ten inch tiles are charged either by the thousand or hundred.
2324. Sunk foot tiles and ten-inch tiles with five holes, now never used in the south of
England, are charged by the piece.
2325. Pantiles, plaintiles, and nine-inch tiles are charged by the thousand.
2326. Oven and Welsh oven tiles, Welsh fire lumps, fire bricks, and chimney pots are
also sold by the piece.
2327. Sand, clay, and loam are charged by the load ; lime sometimes by the hundred
weight ; but the hundred of 1 00 pecks is the more usual measure in and about the metro-
polis. Dutch terras is charged by the bushel, which is also sometimes the measure of
lime, Parker's cement is similarly charged.
2328. Pantile and plaintile laths are charged by the bundle or load ; hair and mortar
by the load ; hip hooks and T tiles by the piece.
2329. Neither here, nor in the following pages, is it intended to convey to the reader
more than the principles on which an estimate is founded. The prices of materials are in
a state of constant fluctuation ; and though when we come to the consideration of the prices
of joiner's work, we intend, from the ingenious computations of Mr. Peter Nicholson, to
give something approaching a constant value from the known performance of a good work-
man, it is to be recollected by the student, that cases so vary as to make it impossible to
give a list of prices and value, that would be of any value at the period of a month from
the time of his reading this paragraph. The details of prices he must constantly watch if
he intends to do justice to his employer.
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.
2330. The works of the CARPENTER are the preparation of piles, sleepers, and planking,
and other large timbers, formerly much, but now rarely, used in foundations ; the centering
on which vaults are turned ; wall plates, lintels, and bond timbers ; naked flooring, quarter
partitions, roofing, battening to walls, ribbed ceilings for the formation of vaulting coves,
and the like in lath and plaster, posts, &c.
2331. In large measures, where the quantity of materials and workmanship is unifoii^,'
the articles are usually measured by the square of 100 feet. Piles should be measured
by the foot cube, and the driving by the foot run according to the quality of the ground
into which they are driven. Sleepers and planking are measured and estimated by the
foot, yard, or the square.
2332. Plain centering is measured by the square ; but the ribs and boarding, being
different qualities of work, should be taken separately. The dimensions are obtained by
girting round the arch, and multiplying by the length. Where groins occur, besides the
measurement as above, the angles must be measured by the foot run, that is, the ribs and
boards are to be measured and valued separately, according to the exact superficial contents
of each, and the angles by the linear foot, for the labour in fitting the ribs and boards, and
waste of wood.
2333. Wall plates, bond timbers, and lintels are measured by the cubic foot, and go
t under the denomination of fir in bond.
H 2334. In the measurement and valuation of naked flooring, we may take it either by
i the square or the cube foot. To form an idea of its value, it is to be observed, that in
/ equal cubic quantities of small and large timbers the latter will have more superficies than
\ the former, whence the saving is not in proportion to the solid contents ; and the value,
therefore, of the workmanship will not be as the cubic quantity. The trouble of moving
timbers increases with their weight, hence a greater expenditure of time ; which, though
not in an exact ratio with the solid quantity, will not be vastly different, their sections not
varying considerably in their dimensions. As the value of the saving upon a cube foot is
comparatively small to that of the work performed by the carpenter, the whole cost of
labour and materials may be ascertained with sufficient accuracy when the work is
uniform.
2335. When girders occur in naked flooring, the uniformity of the work is thereby
interrupted by the mortices and tenons which become necessary ; thus the amount arising
from the cubic quantity of the girders would not be sufficient at the same rate per foot as
is put on the other parts, not only because of the difference of the size, but because of the
"tices which are cut for the reception of the tenons of the binding joists. Hence, for
Ss 2
-Jf5» X,
628 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Boo J.
valuing the labour and materials, the whole should be measured and valued by the cubic
quantity, and an additional rate must be put upon every solid foot of the girders ; or, if
the binding joists be not inserted in the girders at the usual distances, a fixed price must
be put upon every mortice and tenon in proportion to their size. The binding joists are
not unfrequently pulley or chase-morticed for the reception of the ceiling joists ; sometimes
they are notched to receive the bridging joists on them, and they should therefore be
classed by themselves at a larger price per foot cube, or at an additional price for the
workmanship, beyond common joisting. All these matters must be in proportion to the
description of the work, whether the ceiling joists be put in with pulley mortices and
tenons, or the bridgings notched or adzed down.
2336. Partitions may be measured and estimated by the cube foot ; but the sills, top
pieces, and door heads should be measured by themselves, according to their cubic contents,
at a larger price ; because not only the uniform solidity, but the uniform quantity, of the
workmanship is interrupted by them. The braces in trussed partitions are to be taken by
the foot cube at a larger price than the common quartering, on account of the trouble of
fitting the ends of the uprights upon their upper and lower sides, and of forming the abut-
ments at the ends.
2337. All the timbers of roofing are to be measured by the cubic foot, and classed
according to the difficulty of execution, or the waste that occurs in performing the work.
Common rafters, as respects labour, are rated much the same as joists or quarters ; purlins,
which require trouble in fitting, are worth more, because on them are notched down the
common rafters. The different parts of a truss should, to come accurately at the true
value, be separately taken, and the joggles also separately considered, including the tenons
at the ends of the struts ; morticing tie beams and principals, forming the tenons of the truss
posts, morticing and tenoning the ends of the tie beams and principals, is in another class.
The strapping is paid for according to the number of the bolts. Common or bridging rafters'
feet are also to be considered ; the size and description of the work being always matter
for the consideration of the architect.
2338. It is usual and fair to measure the battening of walls by the square, according to
the dimensions and distances of the battening.
2339. Ribbed ceilings are taken by the cubic quantity of timber they contain, making
due allowance for the waste of stuff, which is often considerable. The price of their labour
is to be ordered by the nature of the work, and the cubic quantity they contain.
2340. Trimmers and trimming joists are so priced as to include the mortices and tenons
they contain, and also the tenons at the extremities of the trimmers. But to specify all the
methods required of ascertaining the value of each species of carpenter's work would be
impossible, with any respect to our limits. They must be learned by observation ; all we
,.j\e to do is with the principles on which measuring and estimating is conducted.
2341. When the carcass of the building is completed, before laying the floors or lathing
the work for receiving the plastering, the timbers should be measured, so that the
scantlings may be examined and proved correct, according to the specification ; and in
this, as a general rule, it is to be remembered that all pieces having tenons are measured
to their extremities, and that such timbers as girders and binding joists lie at least 9 inches
at their ends into the walls, or ^ of the wall's thickness, where it exceeds 27 inches. In
the measurement of bond timber and wall plates, the laps must be added to the net lengths.
If a necessity occur for cutting parallel pieces out of truss posts (such as king or queen-
posts), when such pieces exceed 2 feet 6 inches in length, and 2\ inches in thickness, they
are considered as pieces fit for use, deducting 6 inches as waste from their lengths.
2342. The boarding of a roof is measured by the square, and estimated according to its
thickness, and the quantity of boards and the manner in which they are jointed.
2343. Where the measurement is for labour and materials, the best way is, first, to find
the cubical contents of a piece of carpentry, and value it by the cubic foot, including the
prime cost, carting, sawing, waste, and carpenter's profit, and then to add the price of the
labour, properly measured, as if the journeyman were to be paid. It is out of the question
to give a notion of any fixed value, because it must necessarily vary, as do materials and
labour ; hence no tables or price-books are ever to be depended upon ; they gull the
unwary, and mislead the amateur who consults them. The only true method of forming a
proper estimate is dependent on the price of timber and deals, for which general tables may
be formed, and some will be presently given.
2344. It is, perhaps, unnecessary to repeat that a load of fir timber contains 50 cube
feet : if, then, we know the price of the load in the timber merchant's yard, we may
approximate the value of a cube foot as under. We will suppose the price to be, at the
moment of estimating, 41. 10s. per load. We shall then have —
CHAP. III. MEASURING AND ESTIMATING. 629
£ s. d.
Prime cost of a load of fir - - 4 10 0
Suppose the cartage (dependent on distance) - - 0 5 0
Sawing into necessary scantlings - - 0 10 0
550
Waste in converting equal to 5 feet, at 2TLs. per foot, the load being 105s. 010 6
20 per cent, profit on 51. 1 5s. 6d.
£6 18 6
2345. Now, ^|~^ =2-77 shillings, or 2 shillings and 9 pence and nearly 1 farthing per
foot cube.
2346. It is only in this way that we can arrive at the value of work ; and it is much
to be regretted that from no species of labour of the carpenter have been formed tables ca-
pable of furnishing such a set of constants as would, by application to the rate of a journey-
man's wages, form factors, or, in other words, furnish data for a perpetual price-book. As
we have before hinted, the best of the price-books that have ever been published are
useless as guides to the value of work. The method of lumping work by the square is
as much as possible to be avoided, unless the surfaces be of a perfectly uniform description
of workmanship ; as, for instance, in hipped roofs, the principal trouble is at the hips, in
fitting the jack rafters, which are fixed at equal distances thereon ; hence such a price may
be fixed for the cubic quantity of hips and valleys as will pay not only for them, but also
for the trouble of cutting and fixing the jack rafters. Such parts, indeed, as these should
be separately classified ; but the analysis of such a subject requires investigation of enormous
labour ; and as it must depend on the information derived from the practical carpenter, is,
we fear, not likely to be soon, if ever, accomplished.
2347. Mr. Peter Nicholson, a gentleman to whom the architect as well as the practical
man are more indebted than to any other author on this subject, is the only person who
has attempted to promulgate a system founded on the scientific basis to which we have just
alluded ; and we have much pleasure in here alluding to the value of his labour, and of
placing before the reader the extent to which he carried it, regretting much that he did not
further pursue an investigation, which we have carried to a greater extent, though not now
so complete as we could have wished.
2348. It is manifest that if the average time of executing each species of work were
known, no difficulty could exist in fixing uniform rates of charge for it ; but, as we have
observed, the parties who could best instruct us on the subject are those most interested in
withholding such information as would be required for the purpose. We shall now pro-
ceed to the question, premising that, for the present, we are only dealing with the cost of
labour, that of the materials being a simple affair, as we have already seen in the case of
ascertaining the value of a cubic foot of fir, and as we shall hereafter see in ascertaining
the value of superficial feet of deals of any thickness.
2349. In the subjoined tables, the price is represented by the days, or decimal parts of a
day, in which one man can perform the quantity of that sort of work, against which such
price is affixed. Hence, knowing the rate per day of such man's wages, it forms a factor
by which the value of the labour of such quantity of work will be estimated. We begin
by centering.
Centering.
For plain cylindric vaults, fixed per square - - 2-033 days.
For groins of cylindric vaults, fixed per foot super. - -057
For guaged brickwork, per foot super. - -073
For brick trimmers bridgewise, per foot super. - '041
For coach-head trimmers, per foot super. - -057
For apertures, per foot run - *02
2350. To apply this to practice, we will take the first article in the table, that of the
centering of a cylindric vault, a square whereof, we see, will occupy a man 2*033 days to
make and fix. Now, supposing such man's wages to be 5s. per diem, we have only to
multiply 2 '033 by 5s. =10-165, or nearly 10s. 2d. for a square of such work. The other
items being similarly used, will give the results whereof we are in search.
The next table is one composed of several miscellaneous articles, and is as follows : —
Fir in bond and wood bricks, at per foot run - - -008 day.
Fir in templates, lintels, and turning pieces, at per foot run. - -025
Planing fir, from the saw, per foot super. - -017
Rebating fir up to 2 in. by \ - - '025
Rebating fir from 2 in. by \ to 3 in. by 1^ -041
S s 3
V
630
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
Single beading, up to f inch . -O08 day.
Single quirk beading, from ^ inch to 1| - - - -012
Return beads, worth double.
The next table is for quarter partitions : —
Common 4-inch, per square - .1 -033 days.
Common 5- inch, per square - - 1-113
Common 6-inch, per square - - - l -307
Common 6-inch, circular plan, per square - -1-888
Common trussed frame, with king-post, per square - l -743
Common trussed frame, with king and queen-posts, per square 2 -226
The subjoined is a table for naked flooring : —
Ceiling floor, framed with tie beams, binding and ceiling joists, fixed
per square . 1-355 days.
Ceiling floor, with tie beams and ceiling joists only, fixed per
square - . 1-065
Ceiling joists only, fixed per square - . -646
Single-framed floor, trimmed to chimney, and well holes less than
9 inches deep, fixed per square - - - . .1 -355
The same, above 9 inches deep, fixed per square - - - l -646
The same, if trimmed to party walls, add extra per square, -388.
Single-framed floor, with one girder, fixed per square - 1-936
Strutting to be paid for extra.
Single-framed floor-case and tail-bays, fixed per square . 2 -ISO
For every extra bay, add per square, -484.
Framed floors, with girders, binding and ceiling joists, fixed per
square - . 3.531
Ground joists, bedded, fixed per square ... -775
Ground joists, framed to chimneys, fixed per square - - '968
Ground joists, pinned down on plates and framed to chimneys, fixed
per square . 1 055
Girders reversed and bolted, per foot run - . . -097
Truss girder braces, 4 by 4, per foot run - - - -194
If any of the above works be executed in oak, add one third.
The following table is for roofing of various sorts : —
Common shed roofing, one story high, fixed per square - - *968
Common shed roofing, two stories high, fixed per square - -1 -033
Common shed roofing, three stories high, fixed per square - - 1-113
Single span roofing, one story high, fixed per square - . l '065
Single span roofing, two stories high, fixed per square - 1-1 13
Single span roofing, three stories high, fixed per square - - 1 -21O
If the above are with purlins, add -194 per square.
If purlins are framed diagonally, add -388 per square.
Hips and valleys, per foot run - - - -08
In common kerb roofing, add extra per square, when one
side is kerbed « - '194
When three sides .... . .357
When four sides - - - - -51 6
Girt of roofing, with framed principals, collar beams, and purlins,
fixed per square . 2-323
Framed with principals, beams, king-posts, purlins, and common
rafters, fixed per square - - 3-484
If the principals and rafte ^ are framed flush, and the purlins housed
in, add -387 day to the above.
Framed with principals, beams, king-posts, queen-posts, and common
rafters, three stories, fixed per square - . 4-549 days.
The same, four stories, fixed per square - - 4 '84
Hips and valleys, per foot run - • -145
Hip and ridge rolls, fixed in iron, per foot run . -048
Bedded plates to common span roofing, per foot run - . '008
Bedded plates to framed roofing, as above, per foot run - -028
Diagonal and dragon pieces, per foot run - - -065
Angular ties and struts, per foot run - -032
Rafters' feet and eaves bond, per foot run .... *032
The table for guttering is as follows : —
Inch or inch and quarter deal and bearers, including 6-inch layer
board. *^t super. - - '057
The san ^*<r\erb roofs, per foot super. - - - '073
CHAP. III. MEASURING AND ESTIMATING. 631
For furrmgs and battenings, table as follows : —
If the stuff be | by 1A inch, fixed per square - - *872 day.
If it has also to be cut out, add -1 46 per square.
Battenings with quarters, 3 by 2 inches, fixed per square - - -92
Battenings to quarters, 3 by 2 inches to window piers, fixed per
square - - - - - - - • 1 '355
If the battens be fixed to plugs, add -29 per square.
When any of the above are circular on the plan, half as much more
must be added to the price of the work.
Table for bracketing, including plugging, is as under : —
To straight cornices, fixed per foot super. - *089 day.
To coved straight cornices, fixed per foot super. ... *065
If circular on the plan, add one half more.
To groins in passages less than 4 feet wide, fixed per foot super. '162
To the same above 4 feet, fixed per foot super. - - - '121
2351. The works of the JOINER consist in the preparation of boarding, which is measured
and estimated by the foot superficial. Of this there are many varieties ; as, edges shot ; edges
shot, ploughed, and tongued; wrought on one side and edges shot; the same on both sides and
edges shot ; wrought on both sides and ploughed and tongued. Boards keyed and clamped ;
mortice clamped, and mortice and mitre clamped. The value per foot increases according
to the thickness of the stuff. When longitudinal joints are glued, an addition per foot is
made ; and if feather-tongued, still more.
2352. The measurement and estimation of floors is by the square, the price varying as
the surface is wrought or plain; the method of connecting the longitudinal and heading
joints, and also on the thickness of the stuff; as well as on the circumstance of the boards
being laid one after another or folded ; or whether laid with boards, battens, wainscot, or
other wood. Skirtings are measured by the foot super., according to their position, as
whether level, raking, or ramping. Also on the manner of finishing them, as whether plain,
torus, rebated, scribed to floors or steps, or whether straight or circular on the plan.
2353. The value of every species of framing must depend on the thickness of the stuff
employed, whether it is plain or moulded ; and if the latter, whether the mouldings be
struck on the solid, or laid in ; whether mitred or scribed, and upon the number of panels
in a given height and breadth, and also on the form of the plan.
2354. Wainscotings, window-linings, as backs and elbows ; door linings, such as jambs
and sofites ; back linings, partitions, doors, shutters, and the like, are all measured and
valued by the foot super. The same mode is applied to sashes and their frames, either
together or separately.
2355. Skylights, the prices whereof depend on their plans and elevations, are also
measured by the foot super. Framed grounds, by the foot run.
2356. The value of dado, which varies as the plan is straight or circular, or being level
or inclined, is measured by the foot super.
2357. In the measurement of staircases, the risers, treads, carriages, and brackets are,
after being classed together, measured by the foot super., and the string board is some-
times included. The value varies as the steps may be flyers or winders, or from the
risers being mitred into the string board, the treads dovetailed for balusters and the nosings
returned, or whether the bottom edges of the risers ate tongued into the step. The curtail
step is valued by itself, and returned nosings are sometimes valued at the piece ; and if
they are circular on the plan, they are charged at double the price of straight ones. The
handrail, whose value depends upon the materials and diameter of the well hole, or whether
ramped, swan-necked, level, circular, or wreathed ; whether got out of the solid, or in
thicknesses glued up together, is measured by the foot run. The scroll is charged by
itself, as is the making and fixing each joint screw, and 3 inches of the straight part at each
end of the wreath is measured in. The deal balusters, as also the iron ones and the iron
columns to curtail, housings to steps and risers, common cut brackets, square and circular
on the plan, together with the preparing and fixing, are valued all by the piece. Extra
sinking in the rail for iron balusters is valued by the foot run, the price depending on the
rail as being straight, circular, wreathed, or ramped. The string board is measured by
the foot super., and its value is greater or less as it is moulded, straight, or wreathed, or
according to the method in which the wreathed string is constructed by being properly
backed upon a cylinder.
2358. The shafts of columns are measured by the foot super., their value depending
upon the diameter, or whether it be straight or curved on the side, and upon its being
properly glued and blocked. If the columns be fluted, the flutes are taken in linear measure,
the price depending on the size of the flutes, whose headings at top and bottom are
charged by the piece. Pilasters, straight or curved in the height, are similarly measured,
and the price taken by the foot super. In the caps and bases of pilasters, besides the
mouldings, the mitres are charged so much each, according to the size.
Ss 4
\
\
632 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
2359. Mouldings, as in double-face architraves, base and surbase, or straight ones struck
by the hand, are valued by the foot super. Base, surbase, and straight mouldings wrought
by hand, are generally fixed at the same rate per foot, being something more than double-
faced architraves. When the head of an architrave stands in a circular wall, its value is
four times that of the perpendicular parts, as well on account of the extra time required to
fit it to the circular plan as of the greater difficulty in forming the mitres. So all hori-
zontal mouldings on a circular plan are three or four times the value of those on a straight
plan, the trouble being increased as the radius of the circle upon which they are formed
diminishes. The housings of mouldings are valued by the piece. The value of mouldings
much depends on the number of their quirks, for each whereof the price increases. It will
also, of course, depend on the materials of which they are formed, on their running figure,
and whether raking or curved.
2360. Among the articles which are to be measured by the lineal foot are beads, fillets,
bead or ogee capping, square angle staffs, inch ogees, inch quirk ogee, ovolo and bead,
astragals and reeds on doors or shutters, small reeds, each in reeded mouldings, struck by
hand up to half an inch, single cornice or architrave, grooved space to let in reeds and
grooves. And it must be observed, that in grooving, stops are paid extra ; if wrought by
hand, still more ; and yet more if circular. Besides the foregoing, narrow grounds to
skirting, the same rebated or framed to chimneys, are measured by the foot run. Rule
joints, cantilevers, trusses, and cut brackets for shelves are charged by the piece.
2561. Water trunks are valued according to their size by the foot run, their hopper
heads and shoes being valued by the piece. Moulded weather- caps and joints by the piece.
Scaffolding, where extra, must be allowed for. Flooring boards are prepared according to
their length, not so much each ; the standard width is 9 inches ; if they are wider, the rate
is increased, each board listing at so much per list. Battens are prepared in the same
way, but at a different rate.
2362. The following memoranda are useful in estimating : —
1 hundred (120) 1 2-feet-3-inch deals, 9 inches wide (each deal containing, therefore,
2 feet 3 inches cube), equal 5§ loads of timber.
1 hundred (120) 1 2-feet-2|-inch deals, 9 inches wide (each deal containing, therefore,
1 foot 10 inches cube), equal 4i loads of timber.
1 hundred (120) 12-feet -1^-inch deals equal 1 reduced hundred.
1 load of 1^-inch plank, or deals, is 400 feet superficial.
1 load of 2-inch plank, or deals, is 300 feet superficial.
And so on in proportion.
Twenty-four 10-feet boards, at a 5-inch guage, will finish one square.
Twenty 10-feet boards, at 6-inch guage, will finish one square.
Seventeen 10-feet boards, at a 7-inch guage, will finish one square.
Fifteen 10-feet boards, at an 8-inch guage, will finish one square.
Thirteen 10-feet boards, and 2 ft. 6 in. super, at a 9 -inch guage, will finish one square.
Twelve 10-feet boards, and 2 ft. 6 in. super., at a 10-inch guage, will finish one square.
Twenty 12-feet boards, at a 5-inch guage, will finish one square.
Sixteen 12-feet boards, at a 6-inch guage, will finish one square.
Fourteen 12-feet boards, at a 7-inch guage, will finish one square.
Twelve 12-feet boards and 4 feet super., at an 8-inch guage, will finish one square.
Eleven 12-feet boards, and 1 foot super., at a 9-inch guage, will finish one square.
Ten 12-feet boards, and 1 foot super., at a 10-inch guage, will finish one square.
Battens are 6 inches wide.
Deals are 9 inches wide.
Planks are 1 1 inches wide.
Feather-edged deals are equal to f-inch yellow deals ; if white, equal to slit deal.
A reduced deal is 11-inch think, 11 inches wide, and 12 feet long.
2363. It may here be useful to advert to the -.iode of reducing deals to the standard of
what is called a reduced deal, which evide «y contains 1 ft. 4 in. 6 parts cube, for 12 ft.
xllin. xl^in. =1 : 4'46, or in decimal.., 12ft. x '91666 ft. x -125 ft. = 1'375 cube ft.
nearly.' Hence the divisor 1*375 will serve as a constant for reducing deals of different
lengths and thicknesses. Thus let it be required to find how many reduced deals there are
in one 14 feet long, 10 inches wide, and 21 inches thick. Here 14 ft. x -8333 ft. (or 10 in.)
x '20833 (or 2» in.) =2 -43042 cube feet, and ^|^ = 1*767 reduced deal.
2364. The table which is now subjoined exhibits the prices of deals and parts thereof
calculated from 30Z. to 95/. per hundred, a range of value out of which it can rarely happen
that examples will occur, though it has fallen within our own experience during the late
war to see the price of deals at a very extraordinary height. This, however, is not likely to
happen again.
CHAP. III.
/
MEASURING AND ESTIMATING.
633
Price per
hundred.
Thickness.]
10 feet
long
each.
12 feet
long
each.
14 feet
long
each.
Per foot
run.
Per foot
super.
Price per
hundred.
Thickness.
10 feet
long
each.
12 feet
long
each.
14 feet
long
each.
Per foot
run.
Per foot
super.
s d
s d
s d
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2 6
634 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK IT.
2365. The above table we cannot suppose will require explanation ; but as we wish to be
quite explicit, we will merely take one example for illustrating its use, premising, that if
deals are at a price between, above, or below that stated in the first column, the rules of arith-
metic must be applied for the intermediate prices. Suppose deals, then, to be at 451. per
hundred ; an inspection of the table shows that the value of 1 ^-inch deal is 8d. per foot
super., or 6d. run; that a 12-foot deal 2 inches thick is worth 6s. 8^?. ; and that a foot
run of 3-inch deal 1 1 inches wide, which is the standard width, is worth 9s. 8^d. The pre-
ceding table, which is applicable purely to joinery, is all that can be given in general terms
as to the prices of work ; for that which follows we are again indebted, partly to Mr. Peter
Nicholson, and partly to our own industry. The information is not all that could be de-
sired on the subject, nor, as we have before said, can constants of labour be easily obtained
for every article in a building ; but, as far as they go, they must be considered valuable,
though they seem not to have met with the reception they deserved. The value of the
labour is given as before, in parts and decimal parts of a man's labour in each description
of work per diem, so that the factor to be applied to each is the rate per diem at which
the journeyman is engaged. The first table subjoined is one for doors, and in the first
article of it, by way of application, suppose the wages of the joiner be 5s. 6d. per diem, that
= 5-5 shillings will be the factor, and the price, therefore, of the labour on a l|-inch door,
both sides square, will be 5 -5 x -06 = '330 shillings, or nearly 4d. per foot, without fitting
and hanging. If to this be added the price of the quantity of deal used in it, from the
foregoing table, we shall arrive at a result not far from its value. We proceed, then, in
giving the constants of doors according to their most common descriptions.
DOORS, 1 \ INCH THICK.
2-panel, both sides square - - per foot super. -06
4-panel, both sides square - -07
6-panel, both sides square - .... ^>8
2-panel, quirk ovolo and bead, and square back - •!
4-panel, quirk ovolo and bead, and square back - -11
6-panel, quirk ovolo and bead, and square back - •] 2
2-panel, bead and flush front, and square back ... •!
4-panel, bead and flush front, and square back - -II
6-panel, bead and flush front, and square back - - - -12
2-panel, bead and butt front, and square back ... -09
4-panel, bead and butt front, and square back ... -1
6-panel, bead and butt front, and square back • «11
2-panel, quirk ovolo and bead on both sides - *14
4-panel, quirk ovolo and bead on both sides ... -15
6-panel, quirk ovolo and bead on both sides - -16
2-panel, bead and butt on both sides - - -12
4-panel, bead and butt on both ends - - - - -13
6-panel, bead and butt on both ends .... «14
2-panel, bead and flush on both sides - - -14
4-panel, bead and flush on both sides ... -25
6-panel, bead and flush on both sides - - '16
2366. In applying the above table to other thicknesses, for every additional thickness of
one quarter of an inch the rate per foot super, must be increased '005.
2367. When the panels are raised on one side, -002 must be added, and double that
(•004) when raised on both sides. If an astragal or ovolo is on one of the rising sides,
•003 must be added, and double that ( -006) if such occur on both sides. Generally, if the
number of panels be given, and the price per foot square on one side, with extra work on
the other side, its price is one of the same number of panels, and the same number of
panels on both sides minus the rate of the first from that of the last. But adding the
difference of the second, we have the rate extra on both sides. Thus the rate is -06 for
1^-inch two-panel door, square on both sides, and for a two-panel door, square on one side,
with quirk ovolo and bead upon the other, it is -1 . The difference is -04, which added to
•1 ='15 for the rate of IJ-inch two-panel door, with ovolo and bead on both sides.
2368. We now turn to another of the items to be considered in measuring and
estimating works, that of linings, wherein the difference of labour between square-framed
door linings, backs, elbows, sofites, or wainscotings, and door square on both sides, where
the panels and thicknesses are alike, arises only from planing the panels and the framing on
the other side of the door. If the difference, therefore, per foot, on the rate of a door square
on both sides, and one square on one side, with any extra work on the other side, be added
to the rate of door-linings, backs, elbows, sofites, or wainscoting framed square, we shall
have the rate per foot for door-linings, window-linings, or wainscoting, taking the extra
work as above considered. The rails and stiles are taken in the rates as not rebated, and
CHA/ III. MEASURING AND ESTIMATING. 635
the /framed linings for walls or apertures are supposed as made of stuff one quarter of an
inch thinner than the doors. Linings are uusually about an inch thick, being stiffened by
fixing to the wall ; but this depends on the distance of the panel's recess from the framing,
and on the depth of the moulding employed.
FRAMED INCH LININGS.
1 -panel, square as in backs - per foot super. -051
3-panel, square as in backs, and elbows measured together - -071
4-panel, square as in backs, and elbows and sofites - - -061
3-panel, moulded as in backs, and elbows together - -087
4-panel ditto and sofites measured together - *077
3-panel, quirk moulded as in backs, and elbows measured
together _--_.__ -095
4-panel, quirk moulded as in backs, and sofites measured
together ---____ '085
Semicircular moulded sofites in two panels seven times the straight. For each addi-
tional quarter of an inch add '005 to the foot super.
N. B. In the above table the backs, elbows, and sofites, though numbered as of
3 and 4 panels, are only of one panel each, the number being collected.
INCH AND A QUARTER DoOR-LlNINGS, ONE PANEL HIGH,
Rebated - - per foot super. '051
Rebated and beaded ------ -058
Double rebated, not exceeding 7 inches wide - - - '067
Double rebated, not exceeding 7 inches wide, and one edge beaded -071
Double rebated, not exceeding 7 inches wide, and both edges beaded '075
If the plan be circular, the price increases as the diameter diminishes.
Semicircular heads straight on the plan are worth five times as much as straight.
SHUTTERS, two panels in height, either shutters or flaps, inch framed, uncut. If mould-
ings are described, they are considered as to be laid in, but if stuck on the framing,
add '012 to the rate. Add '016 to the rate for every extra panel, and '012 for any
extra height, and -008 if they are quirk moulded.
Square - - - per foot super. -071
Bead butt and square - - -1
Bead flush and square - - '111
Bead flush and bead butt - -131
Two panels in height, inch and quarter, uncut, adding for extras, as in the heading above.
Moulded and square - - per foot super. •!
Moulded bead butt ------ -ill
Moulded bead and flush - - - - - -135
Moulded on both sides - - - - - - '111
Ovolo and bead, or quirk ogee front, and square back - -103
Ovolo and bead, or quirk ogee front, with bead and butt back •! 23
WAINSCOTING, 1^-inch, two panels high, with square fascia, framed up to ceiling.
Square - ... per foot super. -039
Moulded ...--.. -055
Quirk moulded - - - - - - -063
Bead and butt - ... -051
Bead and flush - - - - - -" -059
Bead and flush, with three reeds - - *075
Should either of these be framed with raised mouldings, add -008 to the rate, or
framed with more, *006 is to be added for each additional panel in height.
WAINSCOTING, 1^-inch dwarf, one panel high, including square skirting.
Square - per foot super. -047
Moulded - - ... - -063
Quirk moulded - - 071
Bead and butt - -059
Bead and flush - - - -067
Bead and flush, with three reeds -083
If dwarf wainscoting be framed with two panels in height, add '016 to the rate, as in
full wainscoting. When raked to stairs, -023 extra, and when with raised mould-
ings, -OO7. All cappings are measured run, and the skirtings of stairs must be
taken separately from their wainscoting.
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
THREE-QUARTER-INCH or SLIT DEAL, from the bench.
Edges shot ...
Wrought on one side
Wrought on one side, grooved, tongued, and beaded
Wrought on two sides, and edges shot -
Wrought on two sides, grooved, tongued, and beaded
When joints glued, add per foot '004.
- per foot super. -004
•016
•028
•028
•04
INCH AND QUARTER DEAL.
Wrought on one side, and edges shot - per foot super. -02
Wrought on both sides, and edges shot - - '032
Wrought on one side, and ploughed and tongued - -036
Wrought on two sides, ploughed, tongued, and beaded - '052
With glued joints, add -004 to the rate.
INCH AND HALF DEAL.
Edges shot ------ per foot super. -008
Ploughed and tongued - - -024
Wrought on one side, with edges shot - *02
Wrought on both sides, with edges shot *036
Wrought on both sides, ploughed and tongued - *052
With glued joints, add -01 2 to the rate.
TWO-INCH DEAL, from the bench.
Edges shot - _ - - . per foot super. -02
Ploughed and tongued - - '036
Wrought on one side - - - - - -028
Wrought on both sides - - '044
Wrought on both sides, ploughed and tongued - - '056
With glued joints, add 016 to the rate.
TWO-AND-HALF-INCH DEAL, from the bench.
Edges shot - - ... per foot super. -028
Ploughed and tongued - ... '048
Wrought on one side .... *048
Wrought on both sides ... -063
Wrought on both sides, ploughed and tongued '083
With glued joints, add '01 6 to the rate.
THREE-INCH DEAL.
Edges shot -.-..-- per foot super. -032
Ploughed and tongued ... - -056
Wrought on one side ..... -056
Wrought on both sides - - -08
Wrought on both sides, ploughed and tongued - -103
With glued joints, add -016 to the rate.
INCH BOARDING, one side planed.
Ploughed and tongued ------ per foot super. '24
Glued joint ------- -03
Clamped .... -056
Mortice clamped - - '063
Laid with straight joint in floors - -02
Keyed dado - - - '044
Keyed in backs and elbows - - -056
Wrought on both sides, ploughed and tongued -036
Wrought on both sides, glued joint - - -04
Groove-clamped flaps to shutters, in one height - - *053
Clamped flaps to shutters, in two heights -07 1
Inch mortice, clamped, outside shutters - - '063
Ledged doors, with plain joint '044
Ledged doors, ploughed, tongued, and beaded *056
PREPARING FLOORING BOARDS, guaged to a width, and rebated to a thickness not more
than 9 inches wide.
Inch deals, 10 feet long - for each board '063
Inch deals, 12 feet long -075
III. MEASURING AND ESTIMATING. 637
CHAPJ
[PARING FLOORING BOARDS.
Inch deals, 14 feet long - - for each board -087
Inch and quarter deals, 10 feet long .... -071
Inch and quarter deals, 1 2 feet long - ... -083
Inch and quarter deals, 14 feet long .... «I
Inch and quarter battens, 1 0 feet long - -O44
Inch and quarter battens, 12 feet long - - *056
Inch and quarter battens, 14 feet long - - -075
MOULDINGS, from the bench.
Double-faced architraves - - per foot super. -1 1 1
Base and surbase - .... -127
When above 4 inches girt, struck by hand •! 27
In a combination of mouldings, with more than two quirks, add *01 6 for each.
INCH AND INCH AND QUARTER FRAMED GROUNDS TO DOORS, from the bench.
Both edges square - per foot run -028
One edge square, and the other rebated and beaded - -032
Rebated on one edge, and beaded on both edges .036
Framed to a circular plan with flat sweeps, the head to be thrice the rate of straight,
but the smaller the sweep the greater the rate.
RUNNING ARTICLES.
Beads and fillets - per foot run -004
Bead or ogee capping ----- -016
Inch ogee ..---.. '016
Inch quirked ogee, or ovolo and bead - - -023
Square angle staff, rebated - -028
Angle staff, rebated and beaded ... -048
Single cornice or architrave - -048
Small reeds in reeded mouldings, stuck by hand to \ an inch - -004
Reeds above i an inch, stuck by hand, including grooved space - -008
Grooves in ornamental work ... - -004
Narrow ground to skirting - - - - - -Oil
Narrow ground to skirting, rebated or grooved -01 6
Narrow ground, framed to chimneys - -032
Double-beaded chair rail - -023
Plugging is included in the above rates. Such of the articles as are circular on
plan, to be double rate.
Legs, rails, and runners to dressers - - per foot run -055
Rule joints to shutters - - -063
STAIRS, inch and quarter nailed steps, with carriages.
Flyers - - per foot super, fixed -08
Winders - -111
Flyers, moulded and glued, with close string board '103
Winders, moulded and glued, with close string board - -135
Moulded planceer under steps - -04
Housings to flyers .... each -127
Housings to winders .... -2
Common cut brackets to flyers - - -143
1 Common cut brackets to winders - '286
Fancy brackets to be paid for extra, according to their value
HANDRAIL, 2 inches deep and 2| inches broad.
Deal, moulded - per foot run fixed •] 1 1
Deal, moulded and ramped - '495
Deal, moulded, level, circular -413
Deal, moulded, wreathed - - 1-2
Mahogany, moulded, straight - '263
Mahogany, moulded, ramped -831
Mahogany, moulded, ramped, swan-necked - - -927
Mahogany, moulded, level, circular 1 -08
Mahogany, moulded, wreathed, from 1 2 in. and above - 1-6
ji Mahogany, moulded, wreathed, under 12 in. 1 -8
~ -.Mahogany, moulded, wreathed, not less than 12 in. opening - 2 -3
"^Mahogany, moulded, wreathed, under 12 in. opening 3-4
.„.
638 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Boc
HANDRAIL. X)4
Extra sinking to rail, for iron balusters
Extra sinking to rail, in ramp or wreath
Mahogany moulded cap, wrought by hand, each
Mahogany moulded cap, turned and mitred, each
Mahogany scroll, each ...
Making and fixing each joint with joint screw
Making model and fixing iron balusters
Making model and fixing iron columns to curtail, each
Preparing and fixing deal bar balusters, each
per foot run fixed nl 6
•1^8
•4i8
•4
1-8
•231
2-095
2-142
•04
Preparing and fixing deal bar balusters, dovetailed to steps - '056
Every half rail is measured two-thirds of a whole one ; and all rails are measured
3 inches beyond the springing of every wreath or circular part.
All cylinders used in rails, glued up in thicknesses, to be paid for extra.
The following have not been before computed : —
FRENCH CASEMENT FRAMES.
Plain solid frames, oak sunk sills, weathered and throated for
1£ inch French casements, quarters not exceeding 4 by 3 - per foot super, fixed -043
Ditto, for 2-inch French casements, quarters 4 by 4 -057
Deal-cased frames, oak sunk sills, with wainscot stiles and
beads, for 2- inch French casements - -086
Circular head, measured square - *258
Circular circular head, curve \ inch to a foot '727
If with mahogany stiles and beads, add on the wainscot - -021
If any of the above are for 2^-inch sashes or casements, add
on the deal ........ -014
If any on the wainscot - - -021
If any on the mahogany ----- -028
Extra grooves or beads, add - per foot run '014
Circular on plan, flat sweep, once and a half the straight.
Quirk on plan, double.
SASHES AND FRAMES, fitted and hung.
Deal cased frames, oak sunk sills, li-inch ovolo sashes, single
hung brass pulleys, best white lines, and iron weights - per foot super. '086
Ditto, double hung - - -10O
Ditto, double hung, circular head, measured square - -257
Ditto, circular on plan, flat sweep
Deal cased frames, oak sunk sills, 2-inch ovolo sashes, single hung
brass pulleys, best white lines, and iron weights
Ditto, double hung -
Ditto, double hung, circular head, measured square
Ditto, double hung, circular on plan, flat sweep
•143
•100
•107
•272
•157
Circular circular head, \ inch to the foot '770
Deal cased frames, oak sunk sills, wainscot pulley pieces and
beads, 1 |-inch wainscot astragal sashes, brass axle pulleys, single
hung with patent lines - - '121
Ditto, double hung - - '143
Deal cased frames, oak sunk sills, wainscoat pulley pieces and
beads, 1^-inch wainscot astragal sashes, brass axle pulleys with
patent lines, circular on plan, flat sweep - '172,
Circular circular head, { inch to the foot - - -866 '
Deal cased frames, oak sunk sills, wainscot pulley pieces and
beads, 2-inch wainscot astragal sashes, brass axle pulleys, double
hung with patent lines
Ditto, circular head, measured square - '342
Ditto, circular on plan, flat sweep
Circular circular head, \ inch to the foot - '909
Deal cased frames, oak sunk sills, mahogany pulley pieces and
beads, 1^-inch Spanish mahogany astragal sashes, brass pulleys
and patent lines, single hung
Ditto, double hung
Ditto, circular head, measured square -
Ditto, circular on plan, flat sweep
Circular circular head, \ inch to the foot - J^5
Deal cased frames, oak sunk sills, mahogany pulley pieces arid
CHAP. III. MEASURING AND ESTIMATING. 639
SASHES AND FRAMES.
beads, 2-inch Spanish mahogany astragal sashes, brass pulleys
and patent lines - per foot super. -178
Ditto, circular head, measured square - - -399
Ditto, circular on plan, flat sweep -272
Deal cased frames, oak sunk sills, mahogany pulley pieces and
beads, 2i-inch Spanish mahogany astragal sashes, brass axle
pulleys and patent lines - '243
Ditto, circular on plan, flat sweep - -315
Circular circular head \ inch to the foot 1 -123
If Honduras mahogany, deduct from the straight '029
If Honduras mahogany, deduct from the circular -043
If lamb's tongue, or other modern modelled bar, add on the
astragal - - - - - -014
VENETIAN AND PALLADIAN SASHES AND FRAMES, fitted and hung.
Venetian deal cased frames, oak sunk sills, 1^ inch ovolo sashes,
brass pulleys, double hung with best flax line and iron weights, per foot super. -Ill
Ditto, with 2-inch sashes _ _ _ . -129
Ditto, circular on plan, flat sweep •! 72
Palladian head, measured square - '286
Circular Palladian head, measured square -866
Venetian deal cased frames, wainscot pulley pieces and beads,
1 |-inch wainscot astragal sashes, brass pulleys and patent lines,
double hung ... -157
Ditto, with 2-inch sashes -172
Ditto, circular on plan, flat sweep ... *200
Ditto, Palladian head, measured square -342
Circular Palladian head, measured square ... -952
If any of the above are in 2^-inch wainscot, add on the 2-inch
straight - -014
Ditto, on the circular - ... . -028
Ditto, on the circular circular - - -043
If in Spanish mahogany, add on similar article in straight wainscot -043
Ditto, on the circular - - - - - - '114
If lamb's tongue, add on the astragal - - -007
When any of the above sashes are with a bevelled bar up to the
rebate, add on the astragal .... -014
FRENCH CASEMENTS, fitted and hung.
1^-inch deal ovolo - - - - per foot super. -057
2- inch deal ovolo ...... -064
2^-inch deal ovolo --.._. -071
li-inch wainscot •>• '078
2-inch wainscot -._.__ '086
2^-inch wainscot .... -10O
1^-inch Honduras mahogany ... . O86
2-inch Honduras mahogany - .... -100
2±-inch Honduras mahogany - - "114
Tl-inch Spanish mahogany - -10O
2 -inch Spanish mahogany ... _ -114
2|-inch Spanish mahogany .... -1 29
If with margin lights, add on the deal - . -018
If with margin lights, add on the wainscot - - -029
If with margin lights, add on the mahogany - -03 6
If in two heights, add ... -021
If in two heights add, on the wainscot - ... -029
If in two heights, add on the mahogany - -043
Circular on the plan, flat sweep, once and a half the straight, and
exceeding \ inch to the foot, double.
If astragal and hollow lamb's tongue, or other modern bar, add - -01 4
If with bevelled bars up to the rebate, add on the astragal and
hollow - ... -007
Extra rebated edges, grooves, or beads, in deal - per foot run '014
Extra rebated edges, grooves, or beads, in wainscot - -021
Extra rebated edges, grooves, or beads, in mahogany - - -028
SKYLIGHTS, fixed.
l.^-inch deal ovolo - - - per foot super. '043
640 1HEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
SKYLIGHTS.
2-inch deal ovolo - per foot super. -050
2- inch oak ovolo - -071
If astragal and ovolo, add - -007
DADO.
f-inch deal, keyed - per foot super. -043
1-inch deal keyed - ... -050
Raking and scribed to steps, add . . -01 2
If ploughed and tongued, add - ... -007
If feather-tongued, add - . -012
Circular on plan, flat sweep - ... -143
Circular on plan, quirk sweep - ... '229
If 1^-inch deal, add on the straight .... -007
If 1 ^-inch deal, add on the circular .... -014
Narrow dado grounds ..... -018
Narrow dado grounds, circular flat sweep - - -043
2369. We have now enumerated the principal articles of joinery in use. If further in-
formation be sought, and the reader have not the means of tracing the value in the way
by which the constants already given have been obtained, he may refer to some of the
price books, whereof we consider Skyring's to be as well digested as any of those that are
annually published.
2370. SLATER. The work of the slater is measured and estimated by the square of 100
feet superficial. Of the different sorts of slate, and how much a given quantity of each
will cover, we have already spoken in Chap. II. Sect. IX. (1798, et seq.) To measure
slating, in addition to the nett measure of the work, 6 inches are allowed for all the eaves,
and 4 inches by their length for hips ; such allowance being made in the first-named case
because the slates are there double, and in the latter case for the waste in cutting away the
sides of the slates to fit. When rags or imperial slates are used an additional allowance of
9 inches is made for the eaves, because those slates run larger than the other sorts.
2371. MASON. Solid works, such as pilasters, cornices, coping, stringings, and other solid
works, should be first measured to ascertain the cubic quantity of stone they contain as
going from the banker to the building ; and on this, work, as it may happen to be the
plain work, sunk work, moulded or circular work, must be measured in superficial feet
and separately valued. It is usual to allow a plain face to each joint, but no more than
one should be taken to a 3-feet length. In staircases the flyers should be taken where
splayed on the back, their full length and width by three fifths of the depth of the riser, to
allow for waste in getting two of the steps from the same block of stone. The measure-
ment for the winders seems to be most properly conducted by ascertaining the nett cubic
contents of them, and then making the allowance for waste. Indeed this is a more proper
and satisfactory mode for the flyers. The top of the treads are then taken on the super-
ficies as plain work, and the fronts and ends of the risers as moulded work. In an open
staircase, the under side of the flyers is measured as plain work ; the under side of the
winders as circular plain work; the rebates, cuttings out, pinnings in, &c., as they are
found. Cylindrical work, such as of columns, after the cube quantity is ascertained, is
measured as equal to plain work twice taken. In Portland dressings to chimneys, where-
ever edges appear, it is customary to add an inch to the dimensions for extra labour ; to
marble, | of an inch ; or to take the running dimensions of the edges.
2372. Paving slabs and stones under 2 inches thick are taken by superficial measure.
Cornices are measured by obtaining their girt, and multiplying by their length for the
quantity of moulded work in them.
2373. The following are a few constants of the chief articles of labour in mason's work,
applicable, as before mentioned, in the carpenter's and joiner's works.
Plain work - per foot super. •! 66
Plain work, rubbed to face •! 8
Plain work, tooled - -208
Sunk work - - '222
Moulded work ... -278
Moulded work, stopped - '333
Gothic moulded work - '445
Gothic moulded work, stopped - '528
Gothic moulded work, circular - "556
Circular plain work '264
Circular sunk plain work
Circular moulded plain work - "361
Circular, plain moulded work, stopped - '416
CHAP. III. MEASURING AND ESTIMATING. 641
2374. FOUNDER. The proper mode of estimating cast iron is by the ton or cwt.
Moulds for the castings, when out of the common course, are charged extra. Very often,
too, cast iron pipes and gutters are, according to their sizes, charged by the yard. (See
1754, et seq.}
2375. SMITH and IRONMONGER. Wrought iron for chimney bars, iron ties, screw bolts,
balusters with straps, area gratings, handrails and balusters, hook-and-eye hinges, brackets
for shelves, chains for posts, wrought iron columns with caps and bases, fancy iron railing,
casements, shutterbars, and the like, are charged by the pound, at various prices, according
to the nature of the work. In the ironmonger's department nails and brads are charged by
the hundred, though sold by weight, seldom exceeding 900 to the 10OO. Screws, which
take their names from their length, are charged by the dozen. Cast, and also wrought butts
and screws, cast and wrought back flaps, butts and screws, side or H hinges, with screws, by
the pair. All sorts of bolts with screws, of which the round part of the bolt determines the
length, by the inch. ^ hinges and cross garnet hinges, by the pair. Other hinges and
screws by the piece. Locks by the piece. Pulleys according to their diameters. On all
ironmongery 20 per cent, is charged on the prime cost. (See 2253, et seq.)
2376. PLASTERER. The work of the plasterer is measured, generally, by the yard. The
most usual way of measuring stucco partitions and walls is, to take the height from the
upper edge of the ground to half way up the cornice, the extra price of the stucco making
good for the deficiency of floated work under it. In ceilings and other work, the surface
under the cornice is often taken, because there is no deficiency but in the setting, and that
is compensated for by the labour in making good. Cornices are measured by the foot, and
estimated according to the quantity of mouldings and enrichments they contain. Where
there are more than four angles in a room, each extra one is charged at the price per foot
run extra of the cornice. Stucco reveals are charged per foot run, and according to their
width of 4 or 9 inches or more. Quirks, arrisses, and beads by the foot run, as are margins
to raised panels, small plain mouldings, &c. In the case of enriched cornices and mould-
ings, and flowers to ceilings, they must be considered with reference to the size and quantity
of ornament. For these, the papier mache ornaments, (see 2251.) which are much lighter,
are coming now into very general use, and from the ease and security with which they are
fixed, will, we have no doubt, within no very distant period, supersede all use of plaster
ornaments. In subsection 2248 will be found some information useful in the investigation
of the value of plasterers' work, and which might form the basis for a set of constants
under that head. But we have not been able to obtain sufficient data for carrying them
completely out ; which, from the minor importance of this branch of building, is perhaps
of no very great consequence.
2377. PLUMBER. The work of this artificer is charged by the cwt., to which is added the
labour of laying the lead. Water pipes, rain-water pipes, and funnel pipes are charged by
the foot, according to their diameter ; so also are socket pipes for sinks, joints being
separately paid for. Common lead pumps, with iron work, including bucket, sucker, &c.,
at so much each ; the same with hydraulic and other pumps, according to their diameters.
In the same manner are charged water-closets, basins, air traps, washers and plugs, spindle
valves, stop-cocks, ball-cocks, &c. (See 2212, et seq.)
2378. GLAZIER. The work of the glazier is measured and estimated by the superficial
foot, according to the quality of the glass used ; it is always measured between the rebates.
(See 2225, et seq.)
2379. PAINTER. In the measurement and estimation of painting, the superficial quantity
is taken, allowing all edges, sinkings, and girths as they appear. When work is cut in on
both edges it is taken by the foot run. The quantity of feet is reduced to yards, by which
painting is charged for large quantities. In taking iron railing the two sides are measured
as flat work ; but if it be full of ornament, once and a half, or twice, is taken for each side. Sash
frames are taken each, and sash squares by the dozen. On gilding we have already spoken
in Sect. XII. (2267, et seq.} Cornices, reveals to windows and doors, strings, window sills,
water trunks and gutters, handrails, newels, &c., are taken by the foot run. Many small
articles by the piece. Plain and enriched cornices by the foot run, according to the quan-
tity of work in them. Work done from a ladder is paid for extra. The price depends on
the number of times over that the work is painted ; and the labour is usually considered as
one third of the price charged. Imitations of woods and marbles are also charged extra.
2380. PAPERHANGER. In common papers the price varies according to the colours or
quantity of blocks used in printing it. Embossed and other papers are of higher prices.
These, as well as lining paper, are charged by the piece, containing 63 feet super. The
hanging is charged separate, and borders, mouldings, &c. by the yard run. (See 2278.)
Tt
642 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
CHAP. IV.
MEDIUM OF EXPRESSION.
SECT. I.
DRAWING IN GENERAL.
2381. UNDER this section it is not our intention to enter into the refinements of the
art, but merely to make the attempt of directing the student to the first principles of a
faithful representation of ordinary and familiar objects, with all their imperfections ; or,
in other words, of transferring to a plane surface what the artist actually sees or con-
ceives in his mind. This power is of vital importance to the architect, and without it
he is unworthy the name. The practice, in these days, of employing draughtsmen to
make drawings for competitions, is not less disgraceful to those who have recourse to such
a practice, than to the committees and other bodies, who are, in nine cases out of ten,
grievously misled and deceived by the practice. Every work in a competition should be
strictly limited to lines in its representation, and without colour or shadow. It is not very
long since that, in a great competition, we saw drawings shadowed in a way that must
have had some other luminary than the sun to light them, unless he had changed for the
moment the usual course in which he travels through the heavens, for the gratification of
the luminous draughtsman who craved his special aid. We regret that architects generally
do not throw aside the pernicious system. There are some few who have done so, and are
indebted to the practice for the rank they hold. We shall here merely add, before entering
on the subject, that in our opinion, the greatest curse that in these days has fallen on archi-
tecture, is the employment of draughtsmen, who with their trumpery colouring and violent
effects mislead the silly men and common-place critics that usually decide upon the merits
of their works. In the days of Jones, Wren, and Vanbrugh, this was fortunately not the
case. We ourselves possess more than one drawing of Wren, which fully prove that the
medium of expression for the workman in our own art was then simple, and wanted not such
silly aids as those whereof we have been speaking. If proof be required, let the authori-
ties, who ought better to direct these matters, make a pilgrimage to Oxford, and there
examine the drawings of Wren, whose equal we cannot point to in the present age. Let
them examine the way in which Inigo Jones went to work from the MS. notes on his copy
of Palladio, now at Worcester College, and we may hope to see better days. The present
mode is that of making a pretty picture ; and he who makes the prettiest, provided he have
a reasonable number of friends in a committee, is the lucky candidate. But we are wan-
dering from the subject, and must return to that which heads the section.
2382. The usual mode of teaching drawing now in use is, as we conceive, among the
most absurd and extravagant methods of imparting instruction that can be well conceived.
The learner is usually first put to copying drawings or prints, on which he is occupied for
a considerable time. How much more would he learn, and how much more quickly, by
drawing at once from the figure or its parts ; thus at once, for that the thing is quite
possible, we know from experience, acquiring the power of transferring to a plane sur-
face the representation of that which is placed before his eye? And here we deem it
proper to apprise the reader that the representation of form is all that the architect
requires. The power of doing this is no slight acquirement. Under perspective, we
shall see in the following section, that for all geometrical solids the representation is
dependent on mechanical means, of which every one may easily possess himself ; and these
may, if it be desirable, be shadowed truly by the methods given in Section III. ; but the un-
dulating form of the figure, and the infinite variety of a landscape, by changing the situation
of the spectator, is more the matter now to be considered. As to the materials to be used
for the purpose, a black lead pencil and some Indian ink or sepia are all that the architect
can want. On them we shall not therefore stop to waste his and our own time. It is the
practice of going further that has excited the observations with which we began.
2383. We are fully aware of the impossibility by writing merely, without the aid of a
master at the student's back, to teach any one the art of drawing. Much, nevertheless,
may be imparted, namely, the mechanical means, assisted by a general knowledge of per-
spective, to place the different parts of a figure or landscape not so violently out of their
proper places in the representation as to offend the eye. Here let us mention that our
impression is, and we do not believe that any artist will venture to contradict it, that he
CHAP. IV. DRAWING IN GENERAL. 643
who can draw the figure will be able to draw any other object or objects that are submitted
to him for representation. Besides this, the freedom he will obtain in the use of his pencil
by first employing it in this way, will impart a facility which is by no other means to be
attained. This was one of the great powers possessed by the artists of Italy ; this made
them painters, sculptors, and architects, combining the three arts in one person, and this, lost,
has separated the three arts, and the want of it reduced our Academy, with a few exceptions,
to parties of whom, with all our best feelings towards them, it cannot be said they are those
upon whom the mantle has fallen to do the like. Portrait painting, good enough of itself,
has banished real art. This, however, is not the fault of the Academy, but of the selfish
feeling of the nation.
2384. We have also, before entering on the few principles to be given, to premise that
though for the painter and sculptor a knowledge of anatomy is absolutely requisite, we do
not insist upon that for our purpose. It is only to be so far known as to remember that
the carpentry of man is his skeleton, and the muscles and integuments the lath and plaster
put on the framing. We mean, in fact, that a general knowledge of it for drawing is well
to be possessed.
2385. The method proposed in the following pages is as old, at least in principle, as the
time at which we ourselves began to learn the art ; and we are therefore surprised that it
should have been lately published as new in Paris, by M. Dupuis. (" De V Enseignement du
Dessin sous le point de vue industriel" 1836.) The principles of the work, however, are
perhaps better expressed and arranged, in some respects, than we might have presented
them to the reader : and we shall not, therefore, apologise to our readers for the free use
we intend to make of it, premising, however, that we do not in any way admit its novelty,
and that, in respect to the whole figure and the application of the method to landscapes,
what follows is not found in the work of M. Dupuis.
2386. Outline is the foundation of all drawing, the elementary alphabet of graphic art.
Every representation of an object, or series of objects, however complicated, is, in reality,
but a set of outlines modified by right and curved lines. The knowledge of these lines,
and of their several properties, will greatly abridge the labour of the student, inasmuch as
the power, if we may so express ourselves, of reading and writing them by calculating
the relations of size and distance which exist between their parts, is, in fact, the faculty of
drawing. The elements of perspective may be previously so far entered upon as to acquire
facility in drawing in every position, without the aid of those rules which are given in
Sect. II. ; the cube, cylinder, sphere, pyramid, and other solid bodies, upon which, from the
objects themselves actually before him, the student may begin to work. Having acquired
freedom and power of accurate representation in this respect, and also a dexterity in the
use of his pencil generally, he may commence his operations on the figure itself.
2387. Between the ancient mode of teaching the student (we will take the head, for
instance, shown in fig. 809. as the first roughing of the leading lines of that which in
fig. 812. has reached its completion) and
the method practised by M. Dupuis, the only
difference is this, that M. D., instead of let-
ting the student form the rough outline at
once from the finished bust, roughing out
on paper the principal masses, provides a se-
ries of models roughly bossed out in their
different stages, which he makes the student
draw. The system is ingenious ; but as the
greatest artists have been made without the
modification in question, we do not think it
material ; at all events, the principles are the
same. M. Dupuis, for this purpose, has a
series of sixteen models, the first of each four
of the series are quite sufficient to show the
old as well as his own practice. Thus, in
fig. 809.; the general mass of the oval of the head is given, in which it is seen that the
profile is indicated by an obtuse angle, whose extreme point corresponds with the lower
part of the nose, and the lines at one extremity terminate with the roots or commencement
of the hair, and at the other with the lower jaw. The form of the rest of the head is the
result of combining the most projecting points of it by curved lines, in short, of supposing
a rough mass, out of which the sculptor might actually, in marble or other material, form
the head.
2388. The next step is exhibited mfig. 810., with the four principal divisions : the occi-
pital to the beginning of the hair, the forehead to the line of the eyes, the projection of the
nose, and the inferior part of the face, with some indication of the mouth.
2389. In fig. 81 1. it will be seen that another step is gained. The eyes (here only one
appears, but we speak with reference to the subject, being less in profile), the mouth, the
Tt 2
644
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II
Fig. 811.
chin, and the ear are more clearly marked out,
with some sort of expression of the whole work,
but still without details, though sufficiently in-
dicating that little more is necessary to bring
the rude sketch of fig. 809. to a resemblance.
2390. In fig. 812. this is obtained ; but still,
according to the degree to which an artist con-
siders finishing necessary, to be further pursued
and carried through to make a perfect drawing ;
all that is here intended being to show the
principles upon which the matter is conducted,
and upon which we shall presently have further
observations to make. It will be observed that
on the shadowing and finishing in this way, the
drawings the student may make we set no
value : when he can draw, if those matters be
of importance to him, they will not be difficult of acquisition. We scarcely think it here
necessary to repeat that, having accomplished the art of drawing with tolerable correct-
ness the figure, the architect will have few difficulties to contend with in drawing the most
complex and elaborate ornaments employed in architecture. The principles are precisely
the same ; but we wish here to impress upon him the necessity of recurring to nature herself
for his ornaments : a practice which will always impart a freshness and novelty to them
which even imitation of the antique will not impart.
2391. The port crayon, whether carrying chalk or a black lead pencil of moderate weight
and size, say full seven inches long, is the best instrument to put into the hands of the be-
ginner. The first object he must consider in roughing the subject, as in fig. 809., is the
relation the height of the whole bears to its width ; and this determined, he must proceed
to get the general contour, without regard to any internal divisions, and thus proceed by
subdivisions, bearing the relative proportions to each other of the model, comparing them
with one another and with the whole. We will now show how the port crayon assists in
this operation. Let the pupil be supposed seated before the model, at such a distance from
it that at a single look, without changing the position of his head upwards, downwards, or
sideways, his eye takes in the whole of it. The strictest attention to this point is necessary,
for difficulties immediately present themselves if he is too near, as well as if he is too far
from it. And here let it be observed that the visual rays (see Jig. 813.) upon every object
Fig. 813.
may be compared to the legs of a pair of compasses, which open wider as we approach the
object and close as we recede from it. This is a law of perspective well known, and which
the student may easily prove by experiment, keeping the head of the compasses near his
eye, and opening the legs to take in, in looking along them, any dimension of an object.
He will soon find that as he approaches such object he must open the legs wider in order
to comprise within them the given dimension. Hence every diameter or dimension, sepa-
rately considered, is comprised in the divergence of the visual rays. It is on this account
that, being at a proper distance, any moveable measure which with a free motion of his
body he can interpose upon some one of the points of the distance between his eye and the
model, may, though much less than the model itself, take in the whole field of view, reach
the extremities of the dimension, and consequently become of great assistance in certain
mathematical measures. For by applying such a measure to one division only of the model,
we shall obtain, as it were, an integer for finding a great many others into which the model
may be subdivided.
2392. Thus, taking fig. 809., which is profile, and supposing the width at the neck
unity, if this is twice and a half contained in the general height of the bust, we have imme-
diately the proportions of one to two and a half, which may be immediately set out on the
paper or canvas. This is not all ; the integer or unity obtained by the diameter of the
CHAP. IV.
DRAWING IN GENERAL.
645
neck serves also for measuring the horizontal diameter of the head, and also of the bust ;
whence new proportions may be obtained. So much for the first casting of the general
form. Now, in the entire bust, as respects the head only, suppose we wish to obtain the
proportions of the principal divisions, — for example, from the base of the bust to the base
of the chin, — we may establish another integer to measure other parts ; as, if from the
point of view, the distance from the base of the bust to the base of the chin is the same as
from the last to the summit of the head, the learner would have nothing more to do in that
respect than to divide the whole height into two equal parts. On the same principle, pass-
ing from divisions to subdivisions, the distance between the base of the chin and the point
whence the nose begins to project, may be found a measure for the height of the nose, and
from thence to the top of the cranium. We are here merely showing the method of ob-
taining different integers for measuring the different parts mentioned ; others will in prac-
tice occur continually, after a very little practice. We do not suppose our readers will believe
that we propose to teach drawing by mathematical rules ; we now only speak of obtaining
points from which undulating and varying lines are to spring and return, and which none
but a fine and sensitive eye will be able to express. But to return to the port crayon,
which is the moveable measure or compasses whereto we have alluded, and requires only
skilful handling to perform the offices of compasses, square, plumb rule, and level. By
interposing it (see Jig. 813.) on the 'divergence of the visual rays between the eye and the
object, we may estimate the relative proportions; since in the field of view the learner may
apply it to the whole or any of the parts, and make any one a measure for another. For
this purpose he must hold it, as shown in the figure, steadily and at arm's length. Any
portion of it that is cut by the visual rays between any two parts of the object, becomes the
integer for the measurement of other parts whereof we have been speaking. This in
the drawing will be increased according as the size is greater or less than the portion of the
port crayon intercepting the visual rays. This process may be easily accomplished by
making, upon one and the same line of the visual ray, the extreme point of the port crayon
to touch one of the extremities of the proportion sought upon the model, so that they may
exactly correspond. Then at the same time fixing the thumb or fore-finger where the visual
ray from the other extremity is intercepted, we shall find any equal length by moving the
port crayon with the thumb and fore-finger fixed to any other part we want, as to size, to
compare with the first, or by using the same expedient to other parts, other integers may be
found. The different integers, indeed, which may be thus obtained is infinite. The port
crayon will also serve the purpose of a plumb bob by laying hold of it by the chalk, and
holding it just only so tight between the fingers as to prevent its falling, so that its own
gravity makes it assume a vertical direction.
Doing so, if it then be held up to intercept
the visual rays, we may discover the pro-
portion in which a line swells whose direc-
ton approaches the vertical, as also the quan-
tity one part projects before another in the
model ; and comparing this again with the
integer, obtain new points for starting from.
Again, by holding it before the eye in an
horizontal direction, we shall obtain the
different parts of the model that lie before
the eye in the same horizontal line. By
degrees we shall thus soon find the eye be-
come familiarised with the model it con-
templates ; judgment in arranging the parts
supervenes ; the hand becomes bold and
unhesitating, and the leading forms are
quickly transferred to the paper or canvas
to be subdivided to such extent as is re-
quired by the degree of finish intended to be
bestowed upon the drawing.
2393. The process that we have consi-
dered more with relation to the bust is
equally applicable to the whole figure. In
fig. 814. we have more particularly shown
by the dotted lines the horizontal and verti-
cal use of the port crayon ; but the pre-
vious adjustment of some measure of unity
for proportioning the great divisions to each
other is also applied to it as already stated.
In the figure, EE is the line of the hori-
zon, or that level with the eye ; it will be
T t 3
Fig. 814.
646
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK IT.
seen passing through the knee of that leg upon which the principal weight of the body is
thrown.
2394. Though our object in this section is to give only a notion of the way of trans-
ferring to paper or canvas such objects as present themselves, we think it proper to hint at
a few general matters which the student will do well to consider, and these relate to the
balance and motion of the human figure. Geometry and arithmetic were with the painters
of antiquity of such importance that Pamphilus the master of Apelies declared, without
them art could not be perfected. Vitruvius particularly tells us the same thing, and, as
follows, gives the proportions of the human figure : — " From the chin to the top of the
forehead, or to the roots of the hair, is a tenth part of the height of the whole body ; from
the chin to the crown of the head is an eighth part of the whole height ; and from the nape
of the neck to the crown of the head, the same. From the upper part of the breast to the
roots of the hair, a sixth ; to the crown of the head, a fourth. A third part of the height of
the face is equal to that from the chin to the under side of the nostrils, and thence to the
middle of the eyebrows the same: from the last to the roots of the hair, where the forehead
ends, the remaining third part. The length of the foot is a sixth part of the height of the
body ; the fore-arm, a fourth part ; the width of
the breast a fourth part. Similarly," continues
our author, " have the other members their due
proportions, by attention to which the ancient
painters and sculptors obtained so much reputa-
tion. Just so, the parts of temples should corre-
spond with each other and with the whole. The
navel is naturally placed in the centre of the
human body ; and if a man lie with his face up-
wards, and his hands and feet extended, and from
his navel as the centre, a circle be described, it j
will touch his fingers and toes. It is not alone by J
a circle that the human body is thus circumscribed, j
as may be seen (fig. 815.) by placing it within a f
square. For, measuring from the feet to the [
crown of the head, and then across the arms fully I
extended, we find the latter measure equal to the !
former ; so that the lines at right angles to each
other, enclosing the figure, will form a square."
2395. " How well," says Flaxman (Lectures on Sculpture), "the ancients understood the
balance of the figure, is proved by the two books of Archimedes on that subject ; besides,
it is impossible to see the numerous figures, springing, jumping, dancing, and falling, in the
Herculaneum paintings, on the painted vases, and the antique basso-rilievos, without being
assured that the painters and sculptors must have employed geometrical figures to
determine the degrees of curvature in the body, and angular or rectilinear extent of the
limbs, and to fix the centre of gravity." Leonardo da Vinci has illustrated the subject in his
Trattato di Pittura, a perusal of which cannot fail of being highly beneficial to the student.
2396. As in all other bodies, the centre of gravity of the human figure is that point from
which, if suspended, the figure would remain
at rest when turned round upon it. Flaxman,
by some strange mistake, has described the
centre of gravity as " an imaginary straight
line, which falls from the gullet between the
ankles to the ground, when it (the figure) is
perfectly upright, equally poised on both feet,
with the hands hanging down on each side. "
(Fig. 816.). The fact is, that the centre of
gravity is found to be in a line so drawn, or
rather removed backwards from it, in a verti-
cal plane returning from that line.
2397. Motion implies change of position ;
for instance, in fig. 817., the weight of the
figure is thrown on one leg, hence a line pass-
ing through the centre of gravity falls from
the gullet on one leg, on which side also the shoulder becomes lowered, and that on the
opposite side raised ; the hip and knee sinking below those on the side supporting the
weight. In fig. 818. the dotted lines terminated by the letters ABCD represent lines of
motion, as also the extent of such motion. The same are also shown in fig. 819., wherein
A shows the inclination of the head to the breast ; B the extreme bend of the back over
the legs, without changing their position ; C that of the back bent backwards, the legs
Fig. 816.
Fig. 817.
CHAP. IV.
remaining in the same
position. If the back
be bent as far as D, the
thighs and legs will pro-
ject as far as E.
2398. Referring back
to fig. 817. for compari-
son, as the commence-
ment of motion, with
fig. 820., we shall imme-
diately see that the pre-
paration for running
consists in throwing the
balance beyond the ..
standing foot ; and that (£
when the centre of gra- N
vity, which is now about
to take place, falls out of
the common base, the
hinder leg must be out,
and off the ground, to
DRAWING IN GENERAL.
647
\
X
:^j
Fig. 818.
Fig. 819.
balance the fore part of the figure, which would otherwise fall.
2399. In preparing to strike (fig. 821.), the figure is thrown back at the beginning of
Fig. 820. Fig. 821.
the action to give force to the blow : the dotted line shows the extent of the springing
forward, in which the action is ended by the fall of the blow upon the object.
2400. In fig. 822., bearing a weight, the combined centres of gravity of the figure and
Fig. 822. Fig. 823. Fis. 824.
the weight to be borne must be found ; and through it the line falls between the feet, if
the whole weight rests equally on both, or on the supporting foot, if the weight is thrown
upon one. Flaxman, who was a finer artist than a geometrician, has, in his lectures, fallen
into another mistake on this head, by saying the centre of gravity is j;he centre of the
incumbent weight, which is absurd ; because the figure has not only to balance the weight
itself, but also its own weight.
2401. In leaping (fig. 823.), the body and thighs are drawn together to prepare for the
spring ; the muscles of the leg draw up the heel, and the figure rests on the ball of the
foot ; the arms are thrown back to be ready immediately for swinging forward, and thus
assisting in the impulse. When the figure alights, the arms, at the instant of alighting,
will be found raised above the head ; and a line dropped from the centre of gravity will be
found to fall near the heels.
2402. In leaning (fig. 824. ), if on more than one point, the greatest weight is about that
point on which the figure chiefly rests.
T t 4
>48 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
2403. Fig. 825. is a flying, and
^.826'. a falling figure, both where-
of being in motion through the air
rest on no point. In the first i I will
be observed that the heaviest por-
tion of the figure is bounded by
lines inclined upwards ; as in fall-
ing the heaviest portion of it has
a downward direction We have
thought these elements would be
useful, as exhibiting those leading
principles without the comprehen-
sion whereof no motion or action Fi*- 825- Fig. 826.
can be well expressed. " Every change," says Flaxman, " of position or action in the human
figure will present the diligent student with some new application of principles, and some
valuable example for his imitation."
2404. We shall close this section with the application of the principles detailed in the
management of the port crayon to the drawing of landscapes. The subject of figs. 827.
Fig. 823.
CHAP. IV.
PERSPECTIVE.
649
and 828. is from a spot a little way out of Rome, the tower of Ca?cilia Metella being seen
in the distance.
2404a. \nfig. 826. the masses are roughed in from the objects themselves ; and the principal mass abcOld
on the left side is first very carefully drawn by itself, being, as respects leading lines and thicknesses, cor-
rected until the eye is satisfied of the truth of its general form. The eye is as high as E and E, which
therefore show the height of the horizontal line, and are also, in fact, the vanishing points for the wall on
the right-hand side of the picture, and the house on the same side a little beyond it. Holding the port
crayon level, and taking on it with the thumb or forefinger the distance 01, we shall find that twice that
measure in 2 and 3 will give the junction of the wall with the pier ; and that a line continued horizontally
from d cuts the top of the plinth of the gate pier. The picture happens to be divided into two equal parts
by a vertical line drawn through the break in the city wall in the distance, dl, continued upwards, deter-
mines one side of the house on the right-hand side of the road, and from a point at a break in the foreground
intersects the projecting wall at e : a vertical line determines the left side of the tower. The remaining
horizontal lines, it will be seen, determine other points and lines ; and thus it is manifest that the whole
arrangement has been accomplished by making the mass abcOld a measure or unit for ascertaining the size
and relative position of the other parts. In Jig. 828. the detail is filled in, and brought to a higher state of
finish.
24046. There is a mechanical method of obtaining the exact relative sizes of objects, and their positions
in making drawings from nature or casts, which we will endeavour to explain. If the draftsman take a
pair of pretty large sized compasses, and, fastening a piece of string at the joint end of them, hold the points
open before his eye, so as to take in the extent of space his drawing is intended to occupy ; then tie a knot
in the string to keep it between his teeth, so that the compasses' points may be kept in any plane always
equally distant from the eye ; he may, for the various parts of his drawing, by opening or closing the com-
passes, have their exact relative heights, widths, and positions, to be at once transferred to the drawing.
SECT. II.
PERSPECTIVE.
2405. A perspective delineation is the linear representation of any object or objects, as
it or they appear to the eye, and is such a figure of an object as may be supposed to be
made by a plane making a section of the body or pyramid of visual rays directed from the
eye to the different parts of the object. A delineation so made, being properly coloured
and shadowed, will convey a lively idea of the real object, and at the same time indicate its
position and distance from the eye of the observer.
2406. DEFINITIONS. — 1. An original object or objects is or are an object or number of
objects proposed to be delineated : for instance, a house, a ship, a man, or all or any of
tiicm together. In fig. 829. the house ABCDFHK is the original object.
Fig. 829.
2. Original lines are any lines that are the boundaries of original objects, or of planes
in those objects. The lines AB, BC, CD are original lines, being partly the
boundaries of the original object ABCDFHK.
3. The ground plane is that upon which the objects to be drawn are placed, and is
650 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
always considered a boundless level plane. The plane X in the figure is the ground
plane, upon which is placed the object ABCDFHK.
4. The point of view or point of sight is the fixed place of the eye of the observer,
viewing the object or objects to be delineated : E in the figure is such point.
5. The station point is a point on the ground plane, perpendicularly under the point of
sight or eye of the observer, and expresses on the plan the station whence the view is
taken. S is the station point in the figure, being a point on the ground plane ver-
tically under the eye of the observer at E.
6. The plane of delineation or the picture is the canvas or paper whereon it is intended
to draw any object or number of objects. Thus, in the figure, the plane GIKL is
the plane of delineation ; but, in the extensive sense of the word, the plane of
delineation is considered a boundless plane, however circumscribed may be the
delineation made thereon.
7. The horizontal line or the horizon is a line on the plane of delineation in every part
level with the eye of the observer or point of view. VZ is the horizontal line on
the plane of delineation GIKL. It is supposed to be obtained by the intersection
of a plane passing through the eye of the observer, parallel to the ground plane,
produced till it touches the plane of delineation.
8. The centre of the picture is a point perpendicularly opposite the eye of the observer,
or point of view, and is consequently always somewhere in the horizontal line.
O in the horizontal line VZ is the centre of the picture, being perpendicularly
opposite to the eye at E.
9. The vertical line is a line drawn through the centre of the picture perpendicular to
the horizon. In the figure PR is the vertical line. It is here worthy of notice
that the vertical line determines how much of the view lies to the right and how
much to the left of the eye of the artist.
10. The distance of the picture is a direct line from the eye to the centre of the picture.
EO is the distance of the picture, or plane of delineation, GIKL.
1 1 . The ground line is that where the ground plane intersects the plane of delineation,
as GL in the figure.
12. An intersecting point is one made on the plane of delineation, by producing a line in
an original object till it touches the plane of delineation. Thus, T is the inter-
secting point of the original line BA.
13. An intersecting line is one made on the plane of delineation, by producing any
plane in an original object till it touches the plane of delineation, or where, if pro-
duced, it would touch it. Thus WT is the intersecting line of the original plane
ABCDN, being the line, where that plane, if produced, would touch the plane of
delineation.
14. A vanishing point is that point on the plane of delineation to which two or more
lines will converge, when they are the perspective representations of two or more
parallel lines in an original object, whose seat is inclined to the plane of delineation.
The point V in the figure is the vanishing point of the line AB, being found by the
line EV, drawn from the eye of the spectator parallel to it, and produced till it
touches the plane of delineation in the point V. For a similar reason, V is the
vanishing point of the line CN ; it is also the vanishing point for any other line
parallel to the line CN, as BA ; all parallel lines having the same vanishing point.
The point Z is the vanishing point of the line AK, being obtained by a line drawn
from the eye parallel to the line AK, and produced till it touches the plane of
delineation. The point Z, moreover, is the vanishing point of the original lines
DF and NH. And it is to be recollected by the student, that there will be as
many different vanishing points of lines in the delineation of an original object as
there are different directions of lines in that original object. The point Y is the
vanishing point of the parallel original lines DN and FH, being found by the line
E Y being drawn from the eye parallel to them till it touches the plane of delineation.
So also Q, is the vanishing point of the line CD. In the process of perspective
delineations, as we shall presently see, the plan of the object being drawn, the places
of the various vanishing points are found on the ground line, whence they are
transferred to the horizontal line by means of perpendiculars raised from them.
15. A vanishing line is one supposed to be made on the picture by a plane passing
through the eye of the observer parallel to any original plane produced till it
touches the picture. The line VZ is the vanishing line of an horizontal plane, and
of all horizontal planes, being found by the intersection of a plane passing hori-
zontally through the eye, or parallel to an horizontal plane. The vertical line YVM
is the vanishing line of the original vertical plane, ABCDN being the line where a
plane passing the eye of the spectator parallel to that plane would touch the plane
of delineation. There will be as many different vanishing lines on the plane of
delineation as there are different positions of planes in the object or objects ; and
CHAP. IV.
PERSPECTIVE.
651
all parallel planes will have the same vanishing line. Similarly, all lines lying in
the same plane will have their vanishing points in the vanishing line of that plane.
All planes or lines in an original object which are situated parallel to the plane of
delineation can have no vanishing lines or vanishing points on the plane of de-
lineation.
16. A visual ray is an imaginary right line, drawn from the eye to any point of
observation. EA and EY, &c. are visual rays, being right lines drawn from the
eye to the points A and Y. Hence a number of visual rays directed to every part
of an object will form a pyramid of rays, whereof the eye is the apex, and the object
the base.
17. A perspective delineation, then, is the section of a pyramid of rays producing a
perspective projection, and is most commonly considered as being made between the
object and the eye. But the section of rays may be taken when they are extended
beyond the object ; in which case such a section is called a projected perspective re-
presentation of the object.
2407. It will then be seen that a knowledge of perspective is, as Addison has said, a
knowledge of " the science by which things are ranged in picture, according to their ap-
pearance in their real situation."
2408. The situation of the objects being given with the plan and position of the plane of
delineation and the height and distance of the eye of the observer, the delineation of such
objects is truly determinable by rule. The mechanical operations necessary for this pur-
pose form the subject of what follows. It is however necessary, before proceeding to lay
them before the reader, to premise that he must thoroughly study and understand the pre-
ceding definitions before he can proceed with profit to himself, and we recommend a repeated
perusal of them until that be effectually accomplished.
2409. Example I. In fig. 830., No. 1., we have the plan of the original object
EBADCF, whereof ABCD is a cube, and BCEF a double cube, that is, twice the height
of CBAD. GL is the plan of the ground line ; S, the station point. Through S draw
XY parallel to the plane of delineation GL, and draw SG and SL respectively parallel to
the sides EA and AD of the united cubes ABCD and BCFE ; and these produced to meet
652 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK IT.
the plane of delineation will determine the vanishing points (Def. 14.) of the horizontal
lines AE and AD, and of all other horizontal lines parallel to them. Draw the line SO
perpendicular to GL, which line being the direction of the eye perpendicular to the plane
of the picture determines the point thereon to which the eye should be directly opposite to
view it when completed, showing also how much of the object is on one side, and how much
on the other of the point of view. We have now to draw the visual rays SA, SB, SE, SF,
SC, SD, cutting the plane of the picture or delineation in b, x, w, c, and d ; the point A of
the nearest cube touching, itself, the picture at that point. The preparation on the plan
is now completed.
2410. The picture (No. 2.) or plane of delineation is to be prepared as follows : First
draw the ground line GL, and to such ground line transfer, by dropping verticals, the
points KxbwcA and d. Above, and parallel to GL, at such convenient height as may be
necessary to show more or less of the upper surfaces of the cubes or otherwise, as desired,
draw the horizontal line VZ ; mark on such horizontal line the point O, to which the eye
is supposed to be perpendicularly opposite for viewing the delineation when completed.
All the other preparations are obtained from the plan, and may be obtained as follows : —
First set off on the horizontal line VZ the points V and Z, which are the vanishing points
of the sides AE and AD respectively. As A, the nearest angle of the object, touches the
plane of delineation, it is manifest that a line vertically drawn from that point will be of the
same height as the object itself, that is, as the figures are cubes, equal to AB or AD in the
plan No. 1. Take, therefore, AB No. 2. of the height required, and draw the lines BV
and AV, also AZ and BZ, which being crossed by verticals carried up from xbwcd will
determine the points ke and i at the bottom, and in f and h at the top, and pq and r in the
part where the cube is double the height. Drawing hV it is intersected by the verticals
from the visual rays at c and w, cutting in g and n. The line KK forms another line of
heights, if desired, for finding the height Fq; indeed, by continuing any line BC (No. 1.)
to K, intersecting the picture, a line of height may be obtained. The representation of the
cube marked A will be understood without difficulty, if what has preceded be well com-
prehended. As by Definition 15. we have seen that all planes or lines in an original object
situated parallel to the plane of delineation have no vanishing lines or points in the plane
of delineation, so two of the sides of the cube will be bounded by horizontal and vertical
lines, inasmuch as those sides lie parallel to the plane of delineation. The vanishing points
for the other lines will of course be found in O, which passes through the picture at right
angles to it from S, the station point.
2411. Example II. To find the representation of a quadrangular building, situated
inclined to the picture, covered with a single spanned roof, having a gable at each end.
2412. Let the rectangle ABCD (No. 4.) (fig. 831.) be the plan of the building, the
line EF will be the place of the ridge of the roof extending from end to end. Let the line
QL be the place of the plane of delineation, and let S be the station point.
241 3. Find O the centre of the picture, also the points Q, and L, the vanishing points
of the lines AB and AD, and their parallels, by lines drawn from S parallel to such lines,
and intersecting the picture. Produce the face of the building AD to I for an intersection
with the picture, and draw the visual rays intersecting the ground line of the picture
in the points beaf and d. These need not, however, be drawn beyond the plane of
delineation.
2414. Prepare the picture (No. 5.) by drawing the horizontal and ground lines VZ and
G R at any distance from each other at pleasure ; fix upon the centre of the picture O, and
draw the vertical line OO; set off the distances of the vanishing points OV and OZ, equal
the distances of the vanishing points OQand OL in No. 4. Draw the intersecting line
IL (No. 5.), and all the visual lines, through the points beaf and d, taken from their
respective places and distances fcea/and d (No. 4.), and proceed as follows: —
2415. On the intersecting line IL (No. 5.) set up the height IK equal to the height of
the building BC or HG (Nos. 1. and 2.), and draw the lines KZ and IZ, determining the
plane gmop for the front of the building. Draw the lines mV and #V, determining the
end of the building ghim. It now remains to place the roof, which is readily done, but
which, however, requires some circumspection in the process.
2416. Place the height of the roof XD (No. 1.) on the intersecting line at IL (No. 5.),
and draw LZ, which will give the height of the roof on the angular line of the building gm
at r ; from which spot it may readily be transferred to its proper place in the visual line ek by
the line rV, which cuts the line ek in the point k, the point required. From the point k
draw the lines ki and km, completing the gable end of the building. Draw the ridge of the
roof kZ, cutting the end visual line, in the point n ; and lastly, draw the line no, completing
the whole linear delineation of the building ghiknop. It is to be observed, that whatever
original plane is produced to the picture to obtain an intersection, such intersection
serves only to obtain heights in the direction of that plane ; whence they may be transferred
to other planes in contact with it, as in the present instance. The intersecting line IL
( No. 5. ) is the intersecting line of the plane gmop ; hence any original height set up
CHAP. IV.
PERSPECTIVE.
Fig. 851.
thereon can only be transferred throughout the direction of that plane. Thus the height
of the roof IL was transferred by the line LZ along that plane to its other extremity .s- ;
but the line rs is not the place of the ridge of the roof, which lies in the middle of the
plane ghikm, proceeding from the point k ; but any height on the angular line gr is easily
transferred along that plane by means of its horizontal vanishing point V, by which means
the height of the roof was obtained by the line rV at k. If, instead of the plane over the
line AD (No. 4.) being produced for an intersection, the plane of the middle of the house
in the direction of the ridge of the roof had been drawn, and the height of the roof had
been set up on that line, it would at one application be transferred to its proper place.
2417. Let the line FE (No. 4.) be produced to P for an intersection, set off the distance
OP at OP (No. 5.), and draw the intersecting line PR. On PR set up the height of the
ridge of the roof equal XD (No. 1.), and draw the ridge line RZ, and it determines the
exact ridge of the roof between the proper visual lines, and will be found to correspond
exactly with the ridge obtained by the former process.
2418. The roof may, however, be found by another process, thus: — The slant lines of the
roof have their vanishing points on the picture as well as any other direction of lines in the
same object. The line km (No. 5.) being in the vertical plane ghikm, will have its vanish-
ing points somewhere in the vanishing line of that plane. (Def. 15.) A vertical line
drawn through the horizontal vanishing point V will be the vanishing line of the plane
ghikm ; therefore the vanishing point of the lines km, /«', and of all lines parallel to them,
will be somewhere in the vertical GVXQ.
2419. Two lines drawn from the eye parallel to any two lines in an object, finding their
vanishing points, will make the same angle at. the eye as the lines in the object make with
each other ; for the two lines in the one instance are respectively parallel to the two lines
in the other.
2420. The line SQ is drawn from the station S parallel to the line AB (No. 4.), and a
line drawn from the station S, making the same angle with SQ, as ED does with EC,
(No. 1.), will find the vanishing point of the line ED, and this point must be evidently
somewhere in a vertical line through the point Q,. To obtain this point in practice, take
the distance of the vanishing line it is in, that is, the length from S to Q, in the compasses,
and set off the same in the horizon (No. 5.) from V. to W. At the point W make an angle
VWX equal to the inclination of the roof, that is, equal to the angle CED (No. 1.), and
654 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
produce the line till it intersects the vertical line through the vanishing point V in the
horizon in the point X. The point X will be the vanishing point of the line of the roof km
(No. 5.), and of the line no, parallel to it. The slant lines of the roof Am and no, already
obtained, will, on application of a ruler, be found to tend to the point X, as above stated.
2421. In the same way the line of the roof ki (No. 5.) will also have its vanishing point,
and in the same vertical line GVQ,. It will be found to be as much below the horizontal
vanishing point V as the point X is above it. (Def. 14.)
2422. Let the line AB (No. 6.) be the line of the horizon, and CD the vanishing line of
a vertical plane, being the gable end of a house, and let the angle ABC be that of inclina-
tion, finding the vanishing point of the slant lines of a roof in one direction. Let the
line BD be the line, finding the vanishing point of the slant lines in the other direction,
having the same inclination to an horizontal line; then the angle ABD will be equal to
the angle ABC, and the distance AD equal to the distance AC.
2423. Example III. To find the representation of a quadrangular building situated
inclined to the picture, covered with a single hipped roof.
2424. Let the quadrangle GDHK (No. 7.) be the plan of the building ; the line MN
will represent the ridge of the roof. The former line QL may be the place of the plane of
delineation, and it may be viewed from the same station S. The position and direction of
the lines of this object being the same as those of the last example, the preparatory lines
will also answer for this. We have then only to draw the visual rays MS, NS, CS, PS,
and KS, intersecting the picture in the points m, n,g,p, and k, and to produce the line DG
for an intersecting point at R.
2425. Prepare the picture (No. 8.) ; let the line VZ be the horizon, GR the ground
line, O the centre of the picture, and the points m, n, g p, and k coresponding with
m, n, g,p and k. (No. 7.) Draw the visual line lines through those points and the intersect-
ing point R, and proceed as follows : —
2426. On the intersecting line RE set up the height RT, equal the height of the
object HG (No. 2.), and draw the lines TV and RV, cutting the visual lines of the front
of the building in the points z and o, y and/), determining the plane ypoz for the represent-
ation of the plane of the front. From the angular points z and y draw the lines zw and yx
to their vanishing point Z determining the plane yzwx for the end of the building.
2427. On the intersecting line set up the height of the roof TE equal the height NK
(No. 3.), and draw EV cutting the angular visual line of the building in the point e, from
which point draw the line ez, cutting the visual line pa in the point a, the point of direction
of the ridge of the roof. Draw the line a V, which, cutting the visual lines through the points
m and n in the points t and v, determines the exact position of the ridge of the roof tv, which
is the representation of OP (No. 3.), or of the ridge MN (No. 7.); draw the lines to, vz,
and vw, which will complete the whole representation required. In No. 8., if the lines
az and aw be drawn, they will form a gable end yzawx, of which the point a is the point of
the gable, and will answer for the direction of the ridge, whether it be a gable end or a
hipped roof, for in both cases it lies in the middle of the breadth of the house ; wherefore
the line a V answers as well the edge of a hipped roof as of a gable end.
2428. In examining the plans (Nos. 4. and 7.) of the two buildings, it will be seen that
they are placed at right angles to each other, and in contact at the point D, so that the
second example might have been easily accomplished from the first, without the aid of
another intersection and other preparatory lines, than the additional visual rays from the
angles, which the student will have surely no difficulty in carrying through, without the
necessity of encumbering these pages with the detail.
2429. Example IV. In fig. 832. No. 1. is the general plan of a church similar to
many country churches. ABCD is the main body of it; EFGH its tower; IKLM and
MLNO subordinate parts of the building, and abed the porch. No. 2. is its geometrical
elevation; the ends and measurements, AB and BC, answering to IM and MO in No. 1.,
and the points of the roofs D, E, and F. (No. 2.) answering to the lines of the ridges
Q.R, TV, and PL, No. 1. To find the perspective representation of this building en the
plane of delineation YZ, the station being at S, the following is, perhaps, the readiest
process.
2430. Find the vanishing points Y and Z of the horizontal lines of the building by the
lines SY and SZ being drawn from the station parallel to them. O is the centre of the
picture. Draw the visual rays from the visible angles of the object in direction to the
station S, to intersect the plane of delineation.
2431. When a complicated object, that is, one composed of many parts, is to be drawn,
it requires, of course, a great number of visual rays for the precise determination of those
parts, and the whole together forms an apparently confused number of lines. The eye,
however, which views them properly, does not perceive that confusion ; and, if it perplex
the student, different coloured inks, or of different shades of depth, may be used to parti-
cularise different parts. In the delineation of such an object as the present example, the
most important consideration is the choice of a proper intersection ; for though any inter-
CHAP. IV
PERSPECTIVE.
655
Fix- 832.
section will do, that should be chosen which unites most parts in its direction with the
greatest exactness and the least trouble. In the case under consideration, none seems
more eligible than the direction of the roof PLM, which produce to \V.
2432. In the picture No. 3., GL is the ground line, GV the height of the horizon,
the line VX being then the horizontal line. O in the horizon is then the centre of the
picture, from which, place the distances of the horizontal vanishing points OV and OX
equal OY and OZ, No. 1. AB (No. 3.) is the intersecting line, and all the visual lines
on the plane of delineation are drawn conformably to their intersections on the ground
line in the plan. On the intersecting line the height AC is made equal to the height AG
of the elevation No. 2. ; and the lines Cc and Aa, being drawn in direction to the vanishing
point V, determine the height ac ; being the height of that part of the building on the visual
line answering to the ray from the point M in the plan No. 1 . Through the points a and c
draw the lines de and bf to their vanishing point X, determining the plane bdef, the repre-
sentation of the plane AGHC, No. 2.; the visual lines Id and fe answering to the rays
from the points I and O in the plan. Draw the lines dh and bg tending to their vanishing
point V, to the ray from K in the plan completing the plane bghd. On the intersection
make the height AD equal to the height of the roof NE of the elevation No. 2., and
draw Di in direction to V. Through i draw the line Jtl to the vanishing point X, touching
the visual lines of the roofs in the points k and I. Draw the lines km, mh, kd, kc, Ic and le,
which will complete the whole of the structure over the plan IKNO, No. 1.
2433. The height of the roofs of the low buildings is equal to the height of the
upright walls of the body of the building, as shown by the line PR in the elevation No. 2. ;
hence, the line mo, and the return line on, may be drawn to the visual lines corresponding
with the intersections from the angles A and B of the plan From the angle g the line gs
may also be drawn, which will determine the lines sr, rt, and tp of the porch. Make AE
on the intersection equal to the height of the roof BF in the elevation, and draw the line
EV determining the ridge of the roof between the two visual lines from the points P and
L of the plan. Draw the lines of the gable end vo and vz, the point z being obtained by
the line om drawn to its vanishing point X, cutting the visual line from the angle D of
the plan in the point z.
656 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
2434. Make AG and AF on the intersection equal to the heights of the tower BO and
BM of the elevation, and draw the lines GV and FV cutting the visual line from P in the
plan, in the points a and b ; through which points draw the lines ac and ef to their vanish-
ing point X; and the lines cd&nd eg to their vanishing point V; the points g, e, and /being
in the proper visual lines from the angles of the tower F, E, and H in the plan. The
tower will be completed by drawing the lines dg, de, ae, and af.
2435. This example elucidates the general practice of vanishing points, which are as well
to be obtained of other positions of lines as horizontal ones. It is not always that the
vanishing points of inclined lines are required, but they are often useful, and sometimes
absolutely necessary. In the geometrical elevation No 2. the lines MO, PF, GD, IE are
all parallel lines, as also are the lines OV, FR, EH, and DI, and though situated in dif-
ferent, yet they are in parallel planes, and will therefore have a common vanishing point.
A line drawn perpendicularly to the horizon through the vanishing point X (Jig. 3. ), as
LQ, will be the vanishing line of the plane of the end of the church over the line IO of the
plan, also of the end of the body AD, likewise of the side of the tower EH ; and a line
drawn through the point V (No. 3.) perpendicularly to the horizon, as GM, will be the
vanishing line of the planes over the lines (No. 1.) IK, AB, ab of the porch, and FE of the
tower, and all lines in those planes, or the boundaries of those planes, will have their
vanishing points somewhere in those vanishing lines.
2436. To obtain the vanishing points of the inclined lines of the roofs and tower, take
the distance of the vanishing point Z from the station S in the compasses, and apply it on
the horizon from X to H. At the point H make an angle with the horizontal line equal
the angle of the roofs aPc (No. 2.); the curve KI and the distance of it from the centre
H being equal to the curve ac, and distance of it from its centre P: then is the angle KHI
equal to the angle of the roof a PC (No. 2.). Produce the line HK to Q; Q, will be the
vanishing point of the line ea of the tower, also of the parallel lines ov, dk, and cl, which,
though obtained by a different process, will all be found, by application of a ruler, to tend
truly to that point, as is shown by the dotted lines in the example. Proceeding in the
same way with the distance of the vanishing point Y from the station S, we obtain the
vanishing point of the same inclination of lines in the other planes of the object. Take the
length SY in the compasses, and set it off on the horizon from V to N. At the point N
make an angle INT on the horizon equal the angle KHI, that is, equal the angle of in-
clination of the roof aPc (No. 2.). The line NT produced to M in the vanishing line
GM will be the vanishing point of the line de of the top of the tower, also of the lines w3
and y5 of the porch (the inclination of the roof of the porch being the same as the other
roofs of the body of the church), as shown by the dotted lines in the example. The
walls of the porch are obtained from the height AP on the intersection, equal the height
AT, No. 2., Pm being drawn to the vanishing point V, and mn to X, give the lines n5, 53,
and 32. We may observe that the inclined lines af, le, kc, and vz have a common vanish-
ing point, which, if required, may be obtained ; it will be in the same vanishing line with
the point Q, and as much below the horizontal vanishing point X as the point Q is above
it, to which point, were it obtained, the lines already drawn will be found exactly to tend. It
is seldom absolutely necessary to have both those points ; in this instance one only of them,
the point Q, is obtained, which answers every end required of both ; for, supposing it were
left to that vanishing point for finding the inclined lines, the visual lines being drawn, and
the heights of the upright walls being found, the line dk being drawn in direction to the
vanishing point Q, determines one side of the gable end at the visual line in the middle ;
the other is accomplished by joining the points k and c together. So of the other gable,
cl being drawn, le is also had by joining together the points I and e.
2437. To complete the whole, draw the line xq on the tower from the point x to the
angle of the tower, in direction to the vanishing point Q ; then draw the lines qh and nh to
their proper visual lines and vanishing points V and Q. The putting on of the spire re-
quires some consideration, and in it we must proceed with some thought and care. The
base of it is intended to be a regular octagon. If the two external lines in the geometrical
elevation of the spire be continued till they touch the sides of the tower, as is done at K
and L (No. 2.), and an octagon be there constructed, extending the square of the tower, it
will be the base of the spire. Set up the height of the spire BW (No. 2.) on the inter-
section (No. 3.) at B ; also the height of the base line KL at R, and draw the lines BV and
RV ; the first, cutting the visual line through the centre of the tower in the point O, de-
termines the height of the spire ; the other, cutting the tower in the point u, determines its
base. Through the point u draw a line round the lower, and find the points of the octagon
in the middle of each face of the tower, to which let lines be drawn from the top O, and
the whole will be completed, as shown in the example.
2438. Thus have we gone through the process of finding the representation of rather a
complicated object with as little confusion of lines as possible ; but one thing succeeding
another, and each being required to remain for the student's observance, the whole
unavoidably becomes intricate. Indeed, it is not now so perfectly executed but that
CHAP. IV.
PERSPECTIVE.
657
something remains for the student to complete, which must result from his own study or
occupy more space than all we have already written on it. We allude to the intersections
that take place at the lodgment of the spire on the top of the tower, to elucidate which it
is drawn to a larger scale at No. 4., the mere inspection whereof will convey a full and,
we hope, satisfactory idea of what we advert to. The student has been left to complete
the base of the octagon, a process so simple that we cannot, if he retain what he has read,
believe he will find difficulty in accomplishing, either by visual rays or otherwise. It is
next to an impossibility to describe intricate matters like these so as to leave nothing for
the exercise of the reader's judgment; for, however copious the instruction, there will
always remain sufficient unexplained to keep his mind in action, and afford him the oppor-
tunity of exercising his own ingenuity.
2439. Example V. In fig. 833. the objects X and Y are plans of columns with bases
and capitals, whose general forms are shown at X and Y (No. 1.). YZ, as before, is the
plane of the picture, S the station point. The picture, as previously, is prepared with the
vanishing points VZ, and the ground line GL. OO is the central line of the picture, and
BA, BA are, it will be seen, lines of height.
2440. In the squares X and Y the dotted lines show the diagonals and boundaries of
squares inscribed in the circles, by which so many more lines are gained for obtaining the
curves which the circles form in the perspective representations. The visual rays are
drawn as in the preceding examples, and transferred to the picture, the process being, in
fact, nothing more than making squares following the profiles, which, at the different
heights, guide the formation of circles within and around them, of which the upper ones
only, for preventing confusion, are shown in the perspective representation. In each
series, the extreme width of the appearance of the circle may be obtained by visual rays, as
at 6, 6, b.
2441. At Z and z (Nos. 3. and 2.) are the plan and elevation of an arcade, from which
it will be seen that the principle of inscribing squares and diagonals is equally applicable
to the vertical representation of circles. Presuming that we have sufficiently described the
diagram to enable the student to proceed in drawing the examples at large, we shall now
submit an example of general application.
2442. Example VI. In fig. 834. YZ is the plane of delineation, and the plan of the
building, with its projections, roof, and chimneys, is shown in No. 1 . In practice, this is ge-
nerally made on a separate drawing board, to enable the draughtsman to make his perspective
U u
558
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK If.
outline without injury from constantly working over the paper. Here the vanishing points
are too distant to be shown on the diagram ; but the reader, from the tendency of the
several lines, will easily find where they lie. In the same manner, he will find whereabout
the station point is placed. B A, BA, BA, No. 2., are lines for the transference of the heights.
The projection of the cornice is dotted round the leading lines of the building on the plan.
The rest of the figure cannot fail of being understood and put in practice by the student
who has made himself master of the preceding examples.
2443. We shall now turn to a point whereon much difference of opinion has prevailed,
namely, the adjustment of what may generally be considered the best angle of vision, within
which objects should be seen to obtain the most agreable representation of them. For as
this angle is enlarged or decreased by viewing the objects at greater or less distances, their
appearance will vary, and their delineation, in consequence, be affected thereby, and dis-
tortion of the objects will be the result.
2444. By the angle of vision or angle of view is understood the expansion of the lines
proceeding from the eye, by the two extreme visual rays
embracing the whole extent of the view, and this whe-
ther it consists of one object or of many. Let A {fig.
835. ) represent the plan of a mansion ; let B be the
outhouse contiguous to the mansion, and let the places
of trees be at CCC and DDD. Let S be the station
or point of view from which the whole is seen. Con-
sidering the mansion A as a lone object, the extreme
visual rays Sa S6 form at the eye the angle aS6 ; then
aS6 is the angle of view under which that object is
seen, Sa and S6 being the two extreme visual rays em-
bracing the whole extent of the object. Again, if the
outhouse B be taken as a single object, then will the ex-
treme visual rays cS and dS form, at the eye, the angle
cSd, being the magnitude of the angle under which
that object is seen. So of any object, the visual rays
that embrace its whole extent form the angle of view
under which it is said to be seen. It is then mani- Fig. 835.
fest that the angle of view will be either large or small, as the eye is near to or remote from
the object. Suppose both the objects A and B are to be taken into the view, with the ad-
CHAP. IV. PERSPECTIVE. 659
dition of the trees to their right and left. Let visual rays be drawn from the trees on. both
sides to the station S. The angle CSD is the angle of view under which the whole extent
is seen, and the rays CS and DS are denominated the extreme visual rays of the view.
2445. Objects may not only be placed too near the eye for comfortably viewing them,
but they may be so nearly placed to the eye as to give it pain. The eye only contemplates
a small portion at a time ; it is only by its celerity and continual motion that it becomes
perfectly sensible of a whole and of the many forms whereof it is composed. But when an
object, or many objects, widely extended, are placed too near, the traverses of the eye in
viewing the whole become painful. Every one must have experienced that this is so, and
why so we must leave to others to account for. When the eye is removed to an agreeable
distance, the extent of the view to be delineated is at once seen without turning the head to
one side or the other, so that all the objects are at once comprehended.
2446. In taking a view, the turning of the head is to be avoided. The view should on
no account comprise a greater extent than can be taken by a coup d'oeil, or than can be
viewed by the traverse of the eye alone ; and this necessarily confines the extent of that
with which we have to deal, and brings the angle of view within certain limits. What the
eye can contemplate without trouble it views with pleasure, and beyond a certain extent
the eye becomes distracted.
2447. Smallness of object has no relation to the angle of view ; a die, or the smallest
possible object, may be brought so near the eye as to give pain in looking at it, and a large
extent of view may be contemplated with as much ease as a small one, by merely placing
the larger one at a greater distance. If the place of the plane of delineation be at FG,
then FSG will be the angle of view. If a section of the same visual rays be taken at HI,
then HI will be the extent of the picture, and the angle HSI is the angle of view ; but
the angles FSG and HSI are the same, therefore the eye views both with equal satis-
faction : but in this case one must be placed at the distance SO, and the other at the
distance SP.
2448. The attempt to select an angle suitable to all the cases that may occur, as the best
angle of view, would be as vain as it would be absurd. Different subjects require different
treatment. External subjects differ from internal ones ; and the last from each other, accord-
ing to circumstances. Some authors on the subject have laid it down as a rule, that the
greatest distance of the eye from the picture should not exceed the width of the picture
laterally, which makes the angle of view about 53 degrees ; others have insisted that the
distance should be less, requiring that the angle of view should not be smaller than
60 degrees ; and others allow of a still larger angle. The elder Malton, and his son, to
whom we are indebted for all that is valuable in this section, and whose (both of them)
experience in the matter was very extended, advise that the angle of view should never
exceed from 53 to 60 degrees ; the former recommending an angle of 45 degrees as the
best, because neither too large nor too small. The elder Malton advises to keep between
the one and the other, that is, not to let the angle of view exceed 60 degrees, nor be less
than 45, the first being likely to distort the objects, and the last rendering them too tame
in the outline. We can add, from our own experience, that the advice is sound ; for
though, under very particular circumstances, it may be necessary to use a larger angle of
view than 60 degrees, such a case does not frequently occur. Much must always be left
to the discretion of the artist in respect to points which are to guide the angle of view he
adopts. After a little experience, he will find that angle best suited to the circumstances
under which his drawing is to exhibit the object or objects.
2449. Example VII. The principles upon which we delineate any of the interior parts of
a building are in no wise different from those used for the representation of their external
views, for it is of course immaterial whether we represent the external faces of their sides, or
those which form their internal faces ; the only difficulty which arises in making an internal
view being that which arises from the inability, on account of the restricted distance under
which they are in reality viewed, of placing the station point at such a distance as to take
in a sufficient quantity of the objects to be represented. A person placed in a room can
of course only see the whole of one and part of another wall ; in short, in every direction
he cannot see comfortably more than, as we have above mentioned, forty, or, at the most,
fifty, degrees of the objects around him. On this account, and for the purpose of showing
more than in reality can be seen, it is customary, and perhaps justifiable, in order to give
a more comprehensive view of the interior to be delineated, to place the station point of the
spectator out of the room or place, supposing one or more of its sides to be removed. This
is, in fact, a delusion, as is every view of an interior possessing any merit that has come
under our notice. But for picturesque delineation, it is not only one which is necessary,
but one without the practice whereof no satisfactory representation can be given of an in-
terior whose dimensions are not very extended. The section whereon we are now engaged
is not supposed to be a treatise on Perspective, but merely a concise developement of its
principles so as to give the reader such a general knowledge of the subject as may enable
Uu 2
660
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
him to pursue it, if he please, from the hints it affords. With this apology for not pro-
ducing to him a more complicated, though not less useful subject, we proceed.
2450. Fig. 836. (No. 1.) represents the plan of a staircase one third the size used for the
Fig. 836.
purposes of the delineation ; YZ (No. 1 . ) is the plane of the picture, O is its centre. From
the data, therefore, there will be no difficulty of obtaining the vanishing points of the sides
Ya and ab. The diagram is not encumbered with the visual rays necessary for the deline-
ation, which we are to suppose drawn and transferred to their proper places on No. 3.,
wherein HH is the horizontal line. No. 2. is a longitudinal section of the staircase, wherein
are shown the rising and descending steps, and the dotted line cd gives the section of the
vaulted ceiling over the staircase. It will be immediately seen that the ends of the steps
will be determined by visual lines, notwithstanding the ascent and descent of them, because
either is determined by referring to any lines of height, which may be obtained from the
plan and section, by which the portions seen of the nights will be immediately found and
CHAP. IV.
PERSPECTIVE.
661
transferred to their respective places on the picture. With these observations we leave the
diagram for the exercise, on a larger scale than here given, of the ingenuity of the student.
2451. Example VIII. The last perspective example to be submitted is that of a cornice
No. 1
No. 2.
No. 3.
(fig. 837.), wherein the contrivance of the elder Malton is used for finding the places
of the modillions and the other parts.
2452. Let EM, FN, GO (No. 1.) represent the angles of a building in perspective,
LMNO being the lower horizontal line of the cornice, whose geometrical elevation and
profile are shown in No. 2. Make MQ equal to mq the depth of the cornice, supposing
the edge EQ to be in the plane of projection ; draw PQRS, &c., the lines of the top of the
cornice, to their respective vanishing points. Make QT, QT' in RQ, PQ, produced equal
to the perspective projection of the cornice qt. Then place the depths of the various
mouldings along MQ, and fix the lengths of their projections on the lines drawn to the
vanishing points through those in EQ,, an operation which may be much facilitated by
drawing MT, MT', by which, in many places, the points of the mouldings are at once
determined, as in the case of the top and bottom of the fillets of the ovolo ; and very often, if
the drawing is not on a very large scale, mt and its perspective images MT, MT', &c. will
enable the eye to proportion the mouldings. Thus the perspective projections MQT,
MQT' of the sections of the cornice by the planes of the sides EN, EL, supposed to be
prolonged or extended, may be found ; and it is manifest that lines through the points
of these sections to the proper vanishing points will give the perspective forms of the cor-
nice mouldings as they would appear.
2453. The lines found will by their intersections supply the mitre MQU ; but where
the scale is large, it is better to obtain mitre sections at each principal angle of the building
as shown by the lines MQU, NRX, &c. The planes of the mitres form, of course, angles
of forty-five degrees with the sides of the building itself, consequently the vanishing points
of QU, RX, &c. may be found by bisecting perspectively the right angles found, or by
drawing on the plan lines parallel to the diagonal lines or mitres from the station point to
intersect the picture. If these, indeed, are found in the first place, there would be no
necessity to draw the square sections MQT, MQT', inasmuch as lines drawn from the
mouldings intersecting the mitre sections to the vanishing points will at once form the
perspective representation of the cornice. In practice, this is the usual mode of proceeding,
because a skilful draughtsman can pretty well proportion by his eye most mouldings as seen
in perspective ; but where great accuracy is required, the method of proceeding by square
sections is recommended, because, from the great foreshortening of the diagonal line, the
smallest inaccuracy of intersection on it will cause very large errors in the mouldings.
Uu 3
662
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
Pig. 837.
Fig. 837. b.
When the diagonal sections alone are used, it is clear that the geometrical profile, No. 2.,
will not be the same as that formed by the oblique section of the cornice : this last must
therefore be obtained from a plan and elevation of the mouldings as shown in No. 3.
2454. Instead of finding the square section made by the plane FNGO at the angle OG,
it may be drawn on the plane TQM, where it is more readily found by producing the lines
whereby the section TQM was obtained; so the lines T'T", MO" are set out in per-
spective equal to the projection of the break of the building ON : moreover by the line
TV'O" we may obtain the mouldings of the cornice on the face of the wall GH as produced
or prolonged to T"O", and conversely f
the cornice in perspective may be drawn
Q from this imaginary section, if it be pre-
viously found. Where vanishing points
are at an inconvenient distance in draw-
ings, a mode may be adopted to obviate
the inconvenience, the principle whereof
is this. Let A (fig. 837 a.) be the vanishing point, CDB a segment
of a circle whose centre is A; then if CB be bisected in D, AD will be
a vanishing line for such bisection; and if CD be bisected, and a ruler applied to join CD, it
will, by the application of a square on CD, give the vanishing line for the new bisection.
Fig. 837. 6.
2455. Our next care is to find the vanishing point of the raking mouldings, which may be found from what
has already been said, and a perspective section must be made of these mouldings by means of any vertical plane
where most convenient; but the best place is through the apex of the pediment, which, as it could not, lor
want of room, be done in the present example, is taken through the line oo, No. 2., passing through the ex-
treme left angle of the tympanum of the pediment.
2456. As the mouldings of the pediment (j?^. 837.) here are of the same depth and projection as in the hori-
zontal parts, they will not, when inclined, coincide with the diagonal section of the horizontal cornice at OS;
hence that section, if found in perspective at OS, cannot be used for drawing the perspective representation of
the pediment cornice, except for the bead or fillet above the corona, which, from the construction of the
pediment, will coincide at this mitre, as we may see in No. 2. ; whence it may also be seen that the point x
does not coincide with t. X'* cannot, therefore, in the perspective representation, be drawn through X, the
point answering to t in the diagonal section NRX. OO' in the line OH is to be made in perspective equal
to mo, No. 2., and the whole depth oo, and those of the several mouldings on the oblique section, being set
upon EQ produced, they are to be transferred to OO' by means of the vanishing points. The distance O'l
is the perspective distance of the projection at of the cornice as before, and is most readily obtained from the
section O"T", which is transferred to the plane O'l, and will be easily comprehended from the figure; the
quantity of projection of each raking moulding of the pediment is equal to that of the same moulding where
horizontal. Thus the perspective representation of an oblique section made by a plane passing through oo,
No. 2., is obtained, and the mouldings are then drawn to the vanishing point through the various points, the
line IX' cutting T"X in the point corresponding to f, No. 2. As to the modillions, their representations are
found with less confusion by planning them apart and using visual rays ; but if no plan is used, the following
method, invented by the elder Malton, may be adopted: —
2457. Draw BC, the line intersecting the plane of thesofite of the corona, Nos. 2. and 3. .through the proper
point x in MQ at right angles to it, and draw xy to the vanishing point. Produce the line corresponding to A in
No. 3. to A in xy, and transfer A to 1 in BC, so as to be proportional to it in respect of the whole extent.
Then set off the proportional widths and intervals of the modillions, as shown on Nos. 2. and 3. on BC, and
transfer them by means of the same proportioning point by which % was transferred to 1 ; and from the
points 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, &c. in xy thus obtained, draw on the perspective of the sofite by the. use of the vanishing
point the lines representing the tops of the modillions corresponding to 2, 3, 4, &c., No. 2. The cymatium
round them and the inner angle of the sofite may be drawn by the eye, or where great accuracy is required,
the mitre or diagonal sections may be determined as for the principal
mouldings already described. At the backs of the modillions the
verticals are to be determined either by means of visual rays from a
plan, or through the medium of intersections of the perspective lines
of the upper parts of them on the sofite, which is as much as can be
requisite for guiding us to a correct delineation. The same process is
to be used for the modillions on the other sides.
The following is an easy method for dividing vanishing lines in
perspective. Let AB, CD be the perspective representation of two
parallels, no matter in what plane, It is required to divide the given
portion of AB on one of them so that its parts shall be the perspective
representation of equal portions of the real line (or in any assigned
ratio). Draw BE parallel to CD and equal to AB, and divide it into
the required number of equal parts or of parts in the desired propor- F'B- 837> e
tion beginning at E. Join AE and produce it to meet CD in F. From F draw lines to each of the points
of division PQRS of the line AE, and they will cut AB in the required points of subdivision p q r s.
SECT. III.
SHADOWS.
2458. Sciography, or the doctrine of shadows, is a branch of the science of projection,
and some preparation has been made for its introduction here in Sect. VI. Chap. I. (111O,
et. seq.) on Descriptive Geometry, which, if well understood, will remove all difficulty in
comprehending the subject of this section.
2459. The reader will understand that in this work, which is strictly architectural, the
only source of light to be considered is the sun, whose rays, owing to his great distance,
are apparently parallel and rectilineal. It is moreover to be premised, that such parts of
any body as may be immediately opposed to the rays of light are technically said to be in
CHAP. IV.
SHADOWS.
663
Fig. 838.
light, and the remaining parts of such body are said to be in shade. But when one
body stands on or before another, and intercepts the sun's rays from the latter, which
is thereby deprived of the action upon it of the rays of light, the part so deprived of the
immediate action of the light is said to be in shadow. It seems hardly necessary to ob-
serve, that the parts of any body nearest the source of light will be the brightest in
appearance, whilst those furthest removed from it will, unless under the action of reflected
light, be the darkest.
2460. It has been the practice, in architectural drawings, to represent the shadows of
their objects at an angle of forty-five degrees with the horizon, as well on the elevations as
on the plans. The practice has this great convenience, namely, that the breadth of the
shadow cast will then actually measure the depth of each projecting member which casts
it, and the shadowed elevation may be thus made to supply a plan of the external parts of
the building. Now, if in the elevation the shadows be cast at an angle of forty-five degrees,
it will on a little consideration be manifest, that, being only projections of a more length-
ened shadow (for those on the plan are at an angle of forty-five degrees), the actual shadow
seen diagonally must be at such an angle as will make its projection equal to forty-five
degrees upon the elevation ; because all elevations, sections, and plans, being themselves
nothing more than projections of the objects they represent, are determined by perpen-
dicular, horizontal, or inclined parallel lines drawn from the
points which bound them to the plane of projection, and simi-
larly, a shadow in vertical projection, which forms an angle of
forty-five degrees with the horizon, can only be the representa-
tion on such projection of an angle, whose measure it is our
business now to determine.
2461. In the cube ABCDEFGH (fig. 838.) the line BD,
forming an angle of forty-five degrees with the horizon, is a
projection or representation of the diagonal AH on the ver-
tical plane ABD ; and our object being to find the actual angle
AHB, whereof the angle ADB is the projection, we have the
following method. JLet each side of the cube, for example,
= 10. Then(by 907.) AD2+DH2=AH2.
That is, 10 x 10+ 10 x 10 = 200 = AH2, consequently AH = 14-142100.
As BAH is a right angle, we have by Trigonometry, using a table of logarithms, —
As AH ( = 14-14142100) or Ar. Co. Log. . 9*8494850
To tangent 45° . . . . 10-0000000
So AB ( = 10-00000000) log. . 1-0000000
To tangent of angle FHB = 35° 16' . . =9 -8494850
The angle ABH is therefore 54° 44/.
Hence it follows, that when shadows are projected on the plan as well as on the eleva-
tion, at an angle of forty-five degrees, the height of the sun which projects them must be
35° 16'.
2462. It is of the utmost importance to the student to recollect this fact, because it will
be hereafter seen that it will give him great facility in obviating difficulty where confusion
of lines may lead him astray, being, in fact, not only a check, but an assistance in proving
the accuracy of his work.
2463. We now proceed to submit to the student a series of examples, containing the
most common cases of shadowing, and which, once well understood, will enable him to
execute any other case that may be presented to his notice.
2464. In fig. 839. we have on the left-hand side of the diagram the common astragal
fillet and cavetto occurring in the L
Tuscan and other pilasters, above in
elevation and below in plan. The
right-hand part shows the same con-
nected with a wall, whereon a shadow
is cast by the several parts. L.L is a
line showing the direction of the light
in projection at an angle of forty-five
degrees. It will on experiment be
found, by a continuation of the line,
or by one parallel to it, to touch the
side of the astragal at a, whence an
horizontal line drawn along it will
determine its line of shade. We here again repeat, to prevent misunderstanding, that
in the matter we are now attempting to explain we are not dealing with reflected light,
nor with the softening off of shadows apparent in convex objects, but are about to
Uu 4
Fig. 839.
664
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
determine the mere boundaries of shade and shadow of those under consideration. The
rest must be learned from observation, for the circumstances under which they are seen
must constantly vary. This, however, we think, we may safely state, that if the bound-
aries of shade and shadow only be accurately given in a drawing (however complex),
the satisfaction they will afford to the spectator will be sufficient, without further refine-
ment. But it is not to be understood from this that we discountenance the refine-
ment of finish in architectural subjects ; all that we mean to say is, that it is not necessary.
To return to the diagram : it is manifest that if the boundary of shade be at a from that
point parallel to the direction of the light a line ab will determine the boundary of shadow
on the fillet at b, and that from the lower edge of such fillet at f a line again parallel to
the direction of the light will give at c the boundary of the shadow it casts upon the
shaft S. As, in the foregoing explanation, a was the upper boundary of shade, so by pro-
ducing the horizontal line which it gave to a on the right-hand side of the diagram we
obtain there a corresponding point whence a line aa' parallel to the direction of the light is
to be drawn indefinitely ; and on the plan a line aa, also parallel to the direction of the light,
cutting the wall WW whereon the shadow is cast at a. From the point last found a vertical
line from a, where the shadow cuts the wall on the plan, cutting aa' in a', will determine the
point a' in the shadow. The point e, by a line therefrom parallel to the direction of the light,
will determine similarly the situation e' by obtaining its relative seat on the diagonal cd,
which perhaps will be at once seen by taking the extreme point d of the projection of the
astragal, and therefrom drawing dd' parallel to the direction of the light. From the line
dd, drawn similarly parallel to the direction of the light, and cutting WW in d, we have the
boundary of the shadow on the plan, and from that point a vertical c?d being drawn, the
boundary of shadow of the extreme projection of the astragal is thus obtained. The
boundary of shadow of the fillet on the right-hand side at b, similarly by means of bb,
and by the vertical bb', gives the boundary point of the shadow from b. The same
operation in respect of cc gives the boundary of shadow from c to c' in the latter point.
We have not described this process in a strictly mathematical manner, because our desire
is rather to lead the student to think for himself a little in conducting it ; but we cannot
suppose the matter will not be perfectly understood by him even on a simple inspection of
the diagram.
2465. In the diagram (fig. 840.)
is represented a moulding of com- L>
mon occurrence in architectural sub-
jects, and, as before, the right-hand
side is the appearance of its shadow
on the wall WW on the plan. It
will be immediately seen that LL
being the projected representation
of the rays of light, the line aa de-
termines the boundary of shadow
on the ovolo, and that at b, the
boundary of its shade, is also given
by a line touching that point parallel
to the rays, or rather projected rays,
of light. On the right-hand side
of the figure oo', drawn indefinitely
parallel to the direction of the light,
and determined by a vertical from a", the intersection by a"a" with the wall, will give o'a",
the line of shadow of oa'. The line aa determines the shadow on the ovolo, and this
continued to a' horizontally gives also a like termination to a" in the shadow ; b, the boun-
dary upwards of the ovolo's shade,
is represented to the right by b', and
to the right on the plan by 6, whence
by a vertical cutting the line b'b" in
b", the boundary of shadow which
b' will cast is obtained, cc on the
plan is in projection the distance
of the line of shade c' from the
wall whereon the shadow is cast,
and its place in the shadow is at
c", ee"b" being the length of hori-
zontal shadow produced by the cir-
cumstances.
In fig. 841., which, it will be seen,
is a common fillet and cavetto, LL
is, as before, the direction of the Flg> 841t
CHAP. IV.
SHADOWS.
665
from a' a line drawn indefinitely parallel to the direction of the light, and terminated by
the intersection of a vertical from a' in a", will give the point a' in the shadow. So is
bb found through a vertical from b on the wall, by a line drawn parallel to the direction
of the light from b on the plan. The several points being connected by lines, we gain the
boundaries of the shadow, wherein a'a'" is represented by a"a".
2466. Fig. 842. exhibits a fillet and cyma reversa or ogee, wherein, as before, LL is the
direction of the light at a similar
angle to that used on the plan.
From the lower edge of the fillet,
parallel to the direction of the
light, is obtained the point a on
the ogee, and from b a similarly
parallel line gives the boundary of
shadow in c. A line from o in di-
rection of the light, drawn indefi-
nitely, intercepted by a vertical
line from d', its projection on the
plan in d determines o'd, the
boundary of the shadow of the
fillet on the wall WW. cc'" is
the line of profile of the project-
ing boundary in elevation, of the
shade of the ogee before the wall,
whereon its shadow is terminated
from c and c'" by a vertical c'" c'".
bb', the boundary of shade of the
ogee itself, is found in shadow by the line b b'" drawn indefinitely parallel to the direction
of the light, and terminated by a vertical from &', the point on the wall correspondent to
6 on the plan, the place of the shade's point in the elevation. By the junction of the
lines so found, we shall have the outline of the shades and shadows cast. It is here to
be observed, that the portion of light a'b' which the moulding retains is represented in
the shadow by a"b'", all the other parts of its curved form being hidden, first by the pro-
jection of the fillet, and secondly by the line of shade bb", which acts in the same way as the
fillet itself in producing the line aa', for the moment the light is intercepted, whether by
a straight or curved profile, shadow must follow the shade of the moulding, whatever it
be ; and this is by the student to be especially observed.
2467. Fig. 843. exhibits the mode of obtaining the shadows and shade in the cyma
recta. LL is the direction of the
light, parallel whereto the line ab
determines the line of horizon-
tal shadow cast by the lower edge
of the fillet upon the cyma, and
cd that of the under part of the
cyma itself upon the fillet at d.
cc' is the upper boundary of the
shade of the cyma, and e the point
for determining the shadow of the
lower fillet, the points abed corre-
sponding with abed on the plan.
WW on the right hand is the face
of the wall, whereto the lines e'e",
d'd", c'c", bb", and a'a" are drawn
parallel to the direction of the
light. From e"d"c"b"a" vertical
being drawn, cutting the indefi-
nite lines oo', a'a", &c. parallel
to the direction of the light in Fig. 843.
e", d"', c", b", and a", we have the
form of the shadow in elevation. The part from b' to c' of the cyma being in light, its
shadow will be the curve c"b", wherein, if it be required on a large scale, any number
of points may be taken to determine its form by means of correspondent points on the plan
as for the parts already described.
2468. Fig. 844. is the plan and elevation of some steps, surrounded by a wall, and P in
the plan is a square pillar standing in front of them. It will be seen that the line AB
666
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
corresponds with ab on the plan, as do the points
E, F, G, H with efgh, from which verticals deter- I
mine them in the elevation. The projection of the '
plinth on the lower step is found by KI and a
corresponding line and vertical, which, to prevent
confusion, is not shown on the plan. The shadow
of the square pillar P is found in a similar manner
by the line CD corresponding to cd on the plan, the
shadows on the steps being also determined by the
points L, M, N, O, through the medium of verticals
from 1, m, n, o. The left-hand side of the shadow of
the pillar is determined in a similar way by the
line pq, and QR in the elevation is given by qr in
the plan, and is the line representing the back ps
of the top of the pillar. It will be observed that
we have not described any of the preceding dia-
grams in a strict way, neither shall we do so in
those that follow, presuming that the reader has,
from the perusal of the section on Descriptive Geo-
metry acquired sufficient knowledge to follow the
several lines.
2469. The fig. 845. is a sort of skeleton plan
and elevation of a modillion cornice, but deprived
Fig. 845.
Fig. 84 fi.
of a corona, so as to show the shadows of the modillions, independent of any connection
with other parts of the assemblage. FG, HI, and AB parallel to the direction of the light
determine, by means of verticals from d and i, the points of shadows from the correspond-
ent points c, 1, the points D, L, and I, whereof L is the point of shadow of M.
2470. In fig. 846. we approach a little nearer to the form of a modillion cornice. The
line EF determines the shadow of the corona, and AB by means of the lines cd, Ik, and the
verticals dD, kK, the boundary of the side HL of the modillions. A line also drawn
horizontally from B will give the under sides of their shadows. FG is a line representing
the shadow of the corona.
2471. Fig. 847. gives the finished modillion, and the lines Aa, Bb, Cc, Dd will deter-
mine, by horizontal lines drawn from
them, the shadows which we are seek-
ing. The auxiliary lines, to which no V
letters are attached, cannot fail of being
understood ; but if difficulty arise in
comprehending them, it will be removed
by planning the several points, and
therefrom drawing on the plan, to meet
what may be called the frieze, vertical
lines to intercept those from the corre-
spondent points in the elevation, and the
operation will be facilitated, perhaps,
by projecting the form of the curved
lines (as seen in the figure) whereof Fig. 847.
the modillion is formed.
2472. Fig. 848. will scarcely require a description. It is a geometrical elevation of the
CHAP. IV.
SHADOWS
667
Fig. 848.
Doric triglyph and frieze, with the usual acces-
sories. AB gives the boundary of shadow on
the femora of the triglyph, AC the boundary of
shadow on the light sides of the glyphs, and AD
of the shadow of the corona on the frieze.
2473. Fig. 849. is a skeleton representation Fig< 819>
of a three-quarter column, forming part of an
arcade. The abacus is the mere block of material Ak. In the plan ab shows the
length of the line of shadow AB, and is determined by the vertical bB. In the same way,
CD is found by cd and the vertical dD. kG is
the representation of kg on the plan, and by a
vertical from g the line GH is also determined ;
H giving also by the horizontal line FH, in which
H is already found, the situation of shadow of the
point E of the abacus, as also by a vertical from
f. LMNare places of the shadow of the column
on the impost moulding of the arch, whereof two
correspondent points are seen in 1 and n.
2474. The form of shadow of the console in
fig. 850. will be seen on inspection to have been
found from the lines aa, cc, dd, &c. on the eleva-
tion, corresponding with aa, cc, dd, &c. on the
section, all which are parallel to the direction of
the light, and sufficiently explain themselves.
2475. Fig. 851. is the elevation and section of
a hemispherical niche, wherein are shown the
shadows cast thereon by the vertical wail in which
it is placed. Through the — UMMH.
centre O draw DD at right
angles to the direction of the
light, and from O draw OA
parallel to the direction of the
light : A will be found the point
in the wall casting the longest
shadow. Produce AO indefi
nitely; and from a, the corre-
sponding point in the section
to A on the elevation, draw aa',
parallel to it, which will cut
the surface of the uiche in a'.
Draw the horizontal line a' a"
cutting AO produced in a!",
and a" will represent in the
shadow the point A in the cir-
cumference. Take any other
point B in the edge of the niche, and by means of a line drawn therefrom horizontally we
have the correspondent point of B in the section. From B draw in the direction of the
light the line Bb'" b", cutting DD on the diameter in b"' ; transfer the point b"' in the
elevation to 6 in the section, and draw bb' in the direction of the light indefinitely.
Then with Bb'" as a radius from 6 as a centre, describe an arc cutting bb' in b' ; and
from b' draw the horizontal line b' b", cutting Bb'" produced in b", and b" will be the
point in the shadow corresponding to B in the elevation. To avoid the confusion which
Fig. 850.
668
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
would follow the description of the remainder of the operation, we have not encum-
bered the diagram with more letters of reference ; the lines showing, on inspection,
similar applications of the process for all parts of the curve. The fact is, that the whole
of the shadow may be completed by taking the line DD as the transverse axis of an
ellipsis, and finding the semi-conjugate axis Oa by the means above described, for Da"D is
a semi-ellipsis in form, inasmuch as it is the projection of a section of a hemisphere. This
example is applicable to the shadow of a cylindrical niche with a hemispherical head. The
line NN shows the shadow of the portion of the head, and the remainder is obtained by
the mere intersection of lines in the direction of the light from different points to the left
of N, of which enough has been already given in the previous examples to make the appli-
cation intelligible.
2476. Fig. 852. is the representation of a pediment wherein the section A is that of the
Fig. 852.
mouldings of the pediment at its
apex. In the section, ab drawn
from the projection a of the corona
in the direction of the light, de-
termines the point b therein, where-
from the horizontal line intercepted
by the line ab in the elevation, also
drawn parallel to the direction of
the light, gives the point b in the
elevation. A line from b, parallel
to the inclined sides of the pedi-
ment on the left, will give the shadow
of the corona on the tympanum on
that side, and similarly the line of
shadow from b on the right side, cd
determines the line of shadow on the
frieze, and B is the section of the
shadow of the assemblage of mould-
ings on the right.
2477. In fig. 853. is given the
plan, elevation, and section of a
square recess, covered with a cylin-
drical head. The lines A A, BB,
CC of the elevation are determined
by aa, bb, and cc of the plan ; and in
the section c'c' is the representation of
the line cc of the plan. D, the point
at which the direction of the light
begins to touch the circular head,
is d' in the section.
2478. Fig. 854. is the elevation of
an arch, below which is its plan and the
shadow cast by it on the plane upon
which it stands. A A is shown by
aa on the plan, the corresponding
points in the rear of the arch being
a' a', and a" a" the points in the
shadow. In a similar way, by BB
corresponding with bb' on the plan
the points b" b" are obtained in the
shadow.
2479. Fig. 855. is the plan and
elevation of the upper part of a house,
CHAP. IV.
SHADOWS.
669
Fig. 855.
wherein the upper story is occupied
by an attic in the centre, against
which, on each flank, the sloping roof
is terminated, aa on the plan in
the direction of the light, produced
to intersect the hip at b, gives, by a
vertical to B on the elevation, the
direction BB of the shadow thereon ;
and BB cut by A A in the direction
of the light, the length BA of the
line of shadow, which may, by let-
ting fall the vertical Aa, determine
the length aa on the plan. The
line of shadow ac is determined by
letting fall a vertical from C, where
the line of shadow is intercepted
by the hip of the roof; and from c
the shadow will be found on trial to
return as shown in the diagram. E
and D on the elevation are found,
as seen in previous examples, in ee, and d on the plan, and their shadows at e'e' and d'.
2480. What is called an attic base is given in plan and elevation by fig. 856. The me-
thod of obtaining the shadows thereof
in plan and elevation is now to be
explained. It is an example which
constantly occurs in architectural
subjects, and should be well studied
and understood. The operations re-
quisite for obtaining a representation ^ \ ( A
of the lines of shadow of the different
mouldings in this example depend
upon the principles developed in the
preceding subsections. The lower
portion of the figure exhibits the
plan, and the middle portion the ele-
vation of the attic base in question.
The uppermost portion of it presents
three sections of the mouldings of the
base in question cut in three different
places parallel to the direction of the
light. This last portion of the figure
is not absolutely necessary, inasmuch
as the profiles in question might
have been obtained upon the eleva-
tion ; but we have preferred keeping
it separate to prevent a confusion of
subsidiary lines. There is moreover
another advantage in thus separating
the parts from each other, namely,
that of immediately and more dis-
tinctly seeing the lines at each select-
ed place, in which the rays of light
separate the parts actually in light
from those in shadow; and where
She student is likely to meet with Fig. 856.
matters of perplexity, nothing should be left untried to save his time, and, what is often
more important, his patience. The mode to be adopted is as follows : —
Make on the plan any number of sections a'a'a'a', b'b'b'b' in the direction of the light, and
draw on the elevation the corresponding sections aaaa, bbbb. LL being the direction of the
light, draw parallel thereto tangents to the curves of the convex mouldings, and the bounda-
ries of their shades will be obtained, as will also those of their shadows, by continuing them
from such boundaries till they cut the other parts in each section, as will be more especially
seen at cc. It will be recollected that in our first mention of the projected representation of
the line of light and shadow we found that it was an angle of 54° 44' of the diagonal of a
cube. This angle is set out in xyz on the plan. We have therefore another mode of
finding the boundaries of shade and shadow on the moulding, by developing the sections
a' a' a' a', b'b'b'b', &c., as at A, B, and C, and drawing tangents yz to the convex mouldings for
670
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
boundaries of shade thereon, and continuing them, or otherwise, for the other parts, as
shown in the diagram.
2481. Infig. 857., which represents
the capital of a column, a similar me-
thod is used to that last mentioned for
obtaining the shades and shadows, by
means ofa'a'a'a' and b'b'b'b', which are
shown on the elevation by aaaa and
bbbb. We apprehend this will be un-
derstood by little more than inspec-
tion of it.
It is obvious that the means here
adopted for obtaining the lines of
shadow are precisely similar to those
used in the preceding example. In
this, however, the sections of the ca-
pital parallel to the direction of the
light are made on the elevation, and
it will be seen that many of them are
not required to obtain an accurate
boundary of the lines of shadow
sought ; for after having obtained
those points from which the longest
shadow falls, and on the other side
those where the line of shadow com- Fis- 857.
mences, a curve line of an elliptical nature connects the points found. If the drawing to
be made be on a large scale, it may then be worth the architect's while to increase°the
number of points wherefrom the shadow is to be projected, so as to produce the greatest
possible accuracy in the representation.
2482. The shadows of an Ionic capital are given in fig. 858. The shadow of the volute
on the column is obtained by any number of lines A A, BB, CC, &c. from its different
Fig. 8.08.
parts and verticals from their corresponding ones act, bb, cc, &c. on the plan, and similarly
the shadow of the capital on the wall. In this example, as in those immediately preceding,
the employment of sectional lines parallel to the direction of the light is again manifest.
The use of them is most especially seen in the example of the Corinthian capital which
follows. As a general rule, it may be hinted to the student of sciography, that in the diffi-
culties that may occur, they will be most expeditiously and clearly resolved by the use
of the sectional lines, whereon we have thought it proper so mvich to dilate.
2483. The Corinthian capital in fig. 859. will require little more than inspection to
understand the construction of its sciography ; and all that we think necessary to particu-
larise are the developed projections A, B, C, D, E, F of the abacus and the leaves, whereon
the termination of the shadows at angles of 54° 44', as explained in fig. 856., give their
respective depths on the elevation.
There is another method of arriving at the result here exhibited, by drawing sectional
lines parallel to the direction of the light through the different parts and leaves of the
CHAP. IV.
WORKING DRAWINGS.
671
Fig. 859.
capital on its elevation, as in fig, 857., and such was the mode we were formerly in the habit
of adopting. It however induces such a confusion of lines, that we have long since aban-
doned it, and have no hesitation in recommending the process here given as the best and
most likely to avoid confusion. It is of course unnecessary, in making drawings, to project
more than the shadow of one capital, as in a portico, or elsewhere, similar capitals, similarly
exposed to the light, will project similar shadows, so that the projection on one serves for
the projection on all of them.
2484. For instruction upon the mode in which reflected light acts upon objects in shade
and shadow, we must refer the learner to the contemplation of similar objects in relief.
The varieties of reflexes are almost infinite ; and though general rules might be laid down,
they would necessarily be so complicated, that they would rather puzzle than instruct, and
under this head we recommend the study of nature, which will be found the best instructress
the student can procure.
SECT. IV.
WORKING DRAWINGS.
2485. Working drawings are those made of the parts at large for executing the works,
which could not be well done from drawings on a small scale, wherein the small parts
would not be either sufficiently defined, or could not be figured so as to enable the work-
man to set out his work with accuracy. They are generally in outline, except the sectional
parts, which are frequently hatched or shaded to bring the profiles more readily before the
eye.
2486. It is obvious that though drawings made to a twelfth or a twenty-fourth part of
their real size may well enough supply the wants of the workman where there is no com-
plication in the distribution and arrangement, and in cases where there is a simple treat-
ment of regular forms, of right angles and the like ; yet in all cases wherein we have to
deal with the minor details of architecture, and in construction, where the variety of forms
used is infinite from the variety of the circumstances, nothing short of drawings of the
full or at the least of half the size will safely guide the workman.
2487. The art of making working drawings, which must have been well understood at
all periods of the practice of architecture, involves a thorough knowledge of projection, or
descriptive geometry, and consists in expressing by lines all that occurs for the develope-
ment of every part of the details of a building, in plan, elevation, and profile, each part
672 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK II.
being placed for the use of the workman with clearness and precision. All the rules by
which working drawings are wrought are dependent on the matter in this work already
communicated to the reader, excepting only those details of the orders, and some other
matters, which will be found in Book III. But we shall here, nevertheless, briefly replace
before him the leading principles whereon working drawings are to be prepared. And
first, he is to recollect that solids are only represented by the faces opposite to the eye ;
secondly, that the surfaces by which solids are enclosed are of two sorts, that is, rectilinear
or curvilinear. Those bodies in which these properties are combined may be divided into
three sorts : 1 . Those which are bounded by plane surfaces, such as prisms, pyramids, and
generally all straight work. 2. Those in which there is a mixture of straight and curved
lines, as cylinders, cones, or portions of them, voussoirs of vaulting, and the like ; and 3.
Those solids wherein a double flexure occurs, as in the sphere, spheroid, and in many
cases of voussoirs.
2488. We should, however, unnecessarily use the space allotted to us by further entering
on these matters, on which enough has been already said in previous sections. The plain
truth is, that working drawings are to be so made for the use of the artificer as to embody
on a scale, by which no mistake ought to occur, all the information which this work has
already given on construction, and that which follows in the more refined view of architec-
ture as a fine art.
248 9. In works whose magnitude is not of the first class, the drawing of every part, both
in construction and in those which involve the work as one of art, every portion should be
given of the full size whereof it is proposed to be executed. Where the building is large,
as also the parts, this may be dispensed with ; but then it becomes (the detail being drawn
on a smaller but fully intelligible scale) the duty of the architect to see that the drawings
he furnishes are faithfully drawn out to the full size by the artificer on proper moulds.
Often it is useful, never, indeed, otherwise, to offer up, as it is called, small portions of
mouldings on the different parts of a building, to ascertain what the effect may be likely to
be at the heights fixed for their real places. In these matters he should leave no means
untried to satisfy himself of the effect which what he has first planned in small is likely to
produce when executed.
2490. We have presumed that the architect is so far educated as to have acquired a full
knowledge of all that rules can teach, and that, strictly speaking, he has proportioned his
work in conformity with them. Still, in real practice, there are constantly so many
circumstances which concur in making it almost necessary to depart from established rules,
such as surrounding buildings, where it is of importance to give predominance to a part for
the purpose of making it a feature, that the expedient of trying a portion of the proposed
detail in the place it is actually to occupy, is a matter that we would advise every architect
to adopt after he has made and studied the working drawings whereof we treat.
2491. We have not alluded to the matters of carpentry and joinery, in which it is often
necessary to give the artificer information by means of working drawings ; but the methods
of trussing in carpentry, and of framing in joinery, often require working drawings. What
has already been exhibited under those heads (2031, et seq.) will prevent his being left
uninstructed, and will, moreover, have afforded such information as to prepare him, by the
exercise of his own ingenuity, for such cases as may not have been specially given in the
examples herein contained. We therefore here close our observations under this section
by an intimation to the student, that the proper preparation of working drawings for the
use of the artificer tests his acquaintance with the theory and practice of the art, and is of
the utmost importance to the pocket of the employer, which it is his duty as a gentleman
incessantly to protect.
CHAP. I. BEAUTY IN ARCHITECTURE. 673
BOOK III.
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
CHAP. I.
THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A BUILDING.
SECT. I.
BEAUTY IN ARCHITECTURE.
'2492. IHE existence of architecture as a fine art is dependent on expression, or the
faculty of representing, by means of lines, words, or other media, the inventions which the
architect conceives suitable to the end proposed. That end is twofold ; to be useful, and
to connect the use with a pleasurable sensation in the spectator of the invention. In
eloquence and poetry the end is to instruct, and such is the object of the higher and histo-
rical classes of painting ; but architecture, though the elder of the arts, cannot claim the
rank due to painting and poetry, albeit its end is so much more useful and necessary to
mankind. In the sciences the end is utility and instruction, but in them the latter is not
of that high moral importance, however useful, which allows them for a moment to come
into competition with the great arts of painting, poetry, and eloquence. It will be seen
that we here make no allusion to the lower branches of portrait and landscape painting,
but to that great moral and religious end which fired the mind of Michael Angelo in the
Sistine Chapel, and of Raffaelle Sanzio in the Stanze of the Vatican and in the Cartoons.
Above the lower branches of painting just mentioned, the art whereof we treat occupies
an exalted station. In it though the chief end is to produce an useful result, yet the ex-
pression on which it depends, in common with the other great arts, brings each within the
scope of those laws which govern generally the fine arts whose object is beauty. Beauty,
whatever difference of opinion may exist on the means necessary to produce it, is by all
admitted to be the result of every perfection whereof an object is susceptible, such perfec-
tions being altogether dependent on the agreeable proportions subsistent between the
several parts, and those between the several parts and the whole. The power or faculty of
inventing is called genius. By it the mind is capable of conceiving and of expressing its
conceptions. Taste, which is capable of being acquired, is the natural sensation of a mind
refined by art. It guides genius in discerning, embracing, and producing beauty. Here
we may for a moment pause to inquire what may be considered a standard of taste, and
that cannot be better done than in the words used on the subject by Hume (Essay xxiii.):
" The great variety of tastes," says that author, " as well as of opinion, which prevails in the
world, is too obvious not to have fallen under every one's observation. Men of the most
confined knowledge are able to remark a difference of taste in the narrow circle of their
acquaintance, even where the persons have been educated under the same government and
have early imbibed the same prejudices. But those who can enlarge their view to con-
template distant nations and remote ages are still more surprised at the great inconsistence
and contrariety. We are apt to call barbarous whatever departs widely from our own
taste and apprehension, but soon find the epithet of reproach retorted on us, and the
highest arrogance and self-conceit is at last startled on observing an equal assurance on all
sides, and scruples, amidst such a contest of sentiment, to pronounce positively in its own
favour." True as are the observations of this philosopher in respect of a standard of taste,
we shall nevertheless attempt to guide the reader to some notion of a standard of taste in
architecture.
2493. There has lately grown into use in the arts a silly pedantic term under the name of
^Esthetics, founded on the Greek word 'AiffQ-rjTiicbs, one which means having the power of
perception by means of the senses ; said to be the science whereby the first principles in all
the arts are derived, from the effect which certain combinations have on the mind as con-
nected with nature and reason : it is, however, one of the metaphysical and useless additions
Xx
674 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
to nomenclature in the arts, in which the German writers abound, and in its application to
architecture of least value ; because in that art form is from construction so limited by
necessity, that sentiment can scarcely be said to be further connected with the art than is
necessary for keeping the subordinate parts of the same character as the greater ones under
which they are combined ; and, further, for thereby avoiding incongruities.
2494. It is well known that all art in relation to nature is subject to those laws by which
nature herself is governed, and if we were certain that those rules of art which resulted
from reason were necessarily and actually connected with sensation, there would be no
difficulty in framing a code of laws whereon the principles of any art might be firmly
founded. " Principles in art," as well defined by Payne Knight, " are no other than the
trains of ideas which arise in the mind of the artist out of a just and adequate consider-
ation of all those local, temporary, or accidental circumstances upon which their propriety
or impropriety, their congruity or incongruity, wholly depend." By way of illustrating
the observation just made, we will merely allude to that maxim in architecture which
inculcates the propriety of placing openings over openings and piers over piers, disallowing,
in other words, the placing a pier over an opening without the exhibition of such pre-
paration below as shall satisfy the mind that security has been consulted. There can be
no doubt that a departure from the maxim creates an unpleasant sensation in the mind,
which would seem to be immediately and intimately connected with the laws of reason ;
but there is great difficulty in satisfying one's self of the precise manner in which this
operates on the mind, without a recurrence to the primitive types in architecture, and
thence pursuing the inquiry. But in the other arts the types are found in nature herself,
and hence in them no difficulty occurs in the establishment of laws, because we have that
same nature whereto reference may be made. We shall have to return to this subject in
the section on the Orders of Architecture, to which we must refer the reader, instead of
pursuing, the subject here.
2495. Throughout nature beauty seems to follow the adoption of forms suitable to the
expression of the end. In the human form there is no part, considered in respect to the
end for which it was formed by the great Creator, that in the eye of the artist, or rather,
in this case the better judge, the anatomist, is not admirably calculated for the function it
has to discharge ; and without the accurate representation of those parts in discharge of
their several functions, no artist by means of mere expression, in the ordinary meaning of
that word, can hope for celebrity. This arises from an inadequate representation having
the appearance of incompetency to discharge the given functions ; or, in other words, they
appear unfit to answer the end.
2496. We are thus led to the consideration of fitness, which, after all, will be found to be
the basis of all proportion, if not proportion itself. Alison, in his Essay on Taste, says,
" I apprehend that the beauty of proportion in forms is to be ascribed to this cause,"
(fitness) " and that certain proportions affect us with the emotion of beauty, not from any
original capacity in such qualities to excite this emotion, but from their being expressive
to us of the fitness of the parts to the end designed." Hogarth, who well understood the
subject, concurs with Alison in considering that the emotion of pleasure which proportion
affords does not resemble the pleasure of sensation, but rather that feeling of satisfaction
arising from means properly adapted to their end. In his Analysis of Beauty that great
painter places the question in its best and truest light, when, speaking of chairs and tables,
or other common objects of furniture, he considers them merely as fitted from their pro-
portions to the end they have to serve. In the same manner, says Alison, " the effect of
disproportion seems to me to bear no resemblance to that immediate painful sensation
which we feel from any disagreeable sound or smell, but to resemble that kind of dissatis-
faction which we feel when means are unfitted to their end. Thus the disproportion of a
chair or table does not affect us with a simple sensation of pain, but with a very observ-
able emotion of dissatisfaction or discontent, from the unsuitableness of their construction
for the purposes the objects are intended to serve. Of the truth of this every man must
judge from his own experience." We cannot refrain from continuing our extracts from
this most intelligent author. " The habit," he says, " which we have in a great many
familiar cases of immediately conceiving this fitness from the mere appearance of the form,
leads us to imagine, as it is expressed in common language, that we determine proportion by
the eye, and this quality of fitness is so immediately expressed by the material form, that we
are sensible of little difference between such judgments and a mere determination of sense ;
yet every man must have observed that in those cases where either the object is not
familiar to us or the construction intricate our judgment is by no means speedy, and that
we never discover the proportion until we previously discover the principle of the machine
or the means by which the end is produced."
2497. The nature of the terms in which we converse shows the dependence of proportion
on fitness, for it is the sign of the quality. The natural answer of a person asked why the
proportion of any building or machine pleased him, would be, because the object by such
proportion was fit or proper for its end. Indeed, proportion is but a synonyme of fitness,
CHAP. I. BEAUTY IN ARCHITECTURE. 675
for if the form be well contrived, and the several parts be properly adjusted to their end,
we immediately express our opinion that it is well proportioned.
2498. There is, however, between proportion and fitness, a distinction drawn by our
author, which must be noticed. " Fitness expresses the relation of the whole of the means
to the end ; proportion, the proper relation of a part or parts to their end." But the dis-
tinction is too refined to be of importance in our consideration ; for the due proportion of
parts is simply that particular form and dimension which from experience has been found
best suited to the object in view. " Proportion," therefore continues Alison, " is to be
considered as applicable only to forms composed of parts, and to express the relation of
propriety between any part or parts and the end they are destined to serve."
2499. Forms are susceptible of many divisions, and consequently proportions ; but these
are only subordinate to the great end of the whole. Thus, for instance, in the constantly
varying forms of fashion, say in a chair or table, the merely ornamental parts may bear no
relation to the general fitness of the form, but they must be so contrived as to avoid
unpleasant sensation, and not to interfere with the general fitness. If we do not under-
stand the nature of its fitness, we cannot judge of the proportion properly. " No man,"
says Alison, " ever presumes to speak of the proportions of a machine of the use of which
he is ignorant." When, however, we become acquainted with the use or purpose of a
particular class of forms, we at the same time acquire a knowledge which brings under our
view and acquaintance a larger circle of agreeable proportions than the rest of the world
understand ; and those parts which by others are regarded with indifference, we contem-
plate with pleasure, from our superior knowledge of their fitness for the end designed.
The proportions of an object must not in strength be carried beyond what
is required for fitness, for in that case they will degenerate into clumsiness,
whilst elegance, on the contrary, is the result of the nicest adjustment of
proportion.
2500. Fitness cannot exist in any architectural object without equilibrium
in all the parts as well as the whole. The most complete and perfect notion
that can be conceived of stability, which is the result of equilibrium, may
be derived from the contemplation of an horizontal straight line ; whilst,
on the contrary, of instability nothing seems more expressive than a vertical
straight line. These being, then, assumed as the extremes of stability and
instability, by carrying out the gradations between the two extremes, we
may, extending in two parts the vertical line, obtain various forms, more or
less expressive of stability as they approach or recede from the horizontal
line. In fig. 860. we have, standing on the same base, the general form of
the lofty Gothic spire ; the pleasing, solid, and enduring form of the Egyptian
pyramid; and that of the flat Grecian pediment: which last, though in its
inclination adjusted on different grounds, which have been examined in
Book II. Chap. III. subsect. 2027, etseq., is an eminent instance of stability. Fig. 860.
The spire, from its height and small base, seems to possess but a tottering equilibrium
compared with the others.
2501 . Stability is obviously dependent on the laws of gravitation, on which, under the
division of statics, not only the architect, but the painter and sculptor, should bestow consi-
derable attention. We cannot for a moment suppose it will be disputed that at least one
of the causes of the beauty of the pyramid is a satisfactory impression on the mind of the
state of rest or stability it possesses. Rest, repose, stability, balance, all meaning nearly
the same thing, are then the very essential ingredients in fitness; and therefore, in architec-
tural subjects, instability, or the appearance of it, is fatal to beauty. Illustrations of this
exist in the famous Asinelli and Garisendi towers at Bologna, and at Pisa in the cele-
brated leaning Campanile.
2502. It may be objected to what we have written, that fitness alone will not account
for the pleasure which arises in the contemplation of what are called the orders of archi-
tecture, and Alison seems very much to doubt whether there be not some other cause ot
beauty. It will, however, be our business to show how the ancients, their inventors, con-
sidered principally their fitness ; and upon these grounds to show, moreover, how the
proportions in ancient examples varied, and may be still further varied, without infringing
upon the principles which guided them in the original invention. Payne Knight has well
observed, " that the fundamental error of imitators in all the arts is, that they servilely
copy the effects which they see produced, instead of supplying and adopting the principles
which guided the original artists in producing them ; wherefore they disregard all those
local, temporary, or accidental circumstances upon which their propriety or impropriety,
their congruity or incongruity, wholly depend." " Grecian temples, Gothic abbeys, and
feudal castles were all well adapted to their respective uses, circumstances, and situations ;
the distribution of the parts subservient to the purposes of the whole ; and the ornaments
and decorations suited to the character of the parts, and to the manners, habits, and em-
ployments of the persons who were to occupy them : but the house of an Eno-Hsh noble-
Xx 2
676 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
man of the 1 8th or 1 9th century is neither a Grecian temple, a Gothic abbey, nor a
feudal castle ; and if the style of distribution or decoration of either be employed in
it, such changes and modifications should be admitted as may adapt it to existing circum-
stances, otherwise the scale of its exactitude becomes that of its incongruity, and the de-
viation from principle proportioned to the fidelity of imitation." This is but anothei
application of the principle of fitness which we have above considered, the chief foundation
of beauty in the art. We have shown how it is dependent on stability as a main source of
fitness, and here subjoin some maxims which will lead the student to fitness in his designs,
and prevent him from running astray, if he but bring himself to the belief that they are
reasonable, and founded upon incontestable grounds, which we can assure him they are.
First. Let that which is the stronger part always bear the weaker.
Second. Let solidity be always real, and not brought to appear so by artifice.
Third. Let nothing be introduced into a composition whose presence is not justified by
necessity.
Fourth. Let unity and variety be so used as not to destroy each other.
Fifth. Let nothing be introduced that is not subordinate to the whole.
Sixth. Let symmetry and regularity so reign as to combine with order and solidity.
Seventh. Let the proportions be of the simplest sort.
Eighth. Let him recollect that nothing is beautiful which has not some good and
useful end.
If, after having made his design, he will scrupulously test it by these maxims seriatim,
and will strike out what is discordant with the tenor of them, he will have overcome
a few of the difficulties which attend the commencement of his career.
2503. We are not of the same opinion with those who, on a geometrical elevation of a
building, draw lines from its apex, which, bounding the principal parts of the outline, find
a pyramidal form, and thence infer beauty of general outline. If those who favour such a
notion will but reflect for a moment, they must see that this cannot be a test of its effect,
inasmuch as the construction of a geometrical elevation of any edifice supposes it to be
viewed at an infinite distance, whereas, in fact, it is most generally viewed under angles
which would puzzle the most learned architect, without full investigation, to discover the
primary lines which they assume to be the causes of its beauty. The obscurations and
foreshortenings that take place are at points of view near the building itself; and, however
judicious it may be to form the general masses in obedience to such a system, so as to pro-
duce an effect in the distance thai may be in accordance with the principle, it would be
extremely dangerous to lay the principle down as a law. The finest view of St. Paul's is
perhaps a little east of Fetter Lane, on the northern side of Fleet Street ; but it would
puzzle any one to discover its pyramidal form from that point of view.
2504. The beauty of the proportions of architecture in the interiors of buildings is
dependent on those which govern the exteriors. Much has been said on proportions of
rooms, which, hereafter, we shall have to notice : we mean the proportions of their length
to their breadth and height. That these are important, we cannot deny ; but whether the
beauty of a room is altogether dependent on the due adjustment of these, we have some
doubts ; that is, under certain limits. We here address ourselves more particularly to that
fitness which, in ornamenting a ceiling, for example, requires that the beams which appear
below the general surface should invariably fall over piers, and that in this respect cor-
responding sides should be uniform. In the study of this point, Inigo Jones is the great
English master who has left the student the most valuable examples of this branch of
the art.
2505. It may, perhaps, be useful to observe generally that the bare proportions of the
interiors of apartments depend on the purposes for which they are intended, and according
to these we seek immediately for the expression of their fitness. This point, therefore,
involves on the part of the architect so general an acquaintance with the most refined
habits of his employers, that we should be almost inclined to agree with Vitruvius on the
multifarious qualifications necessary to constitute a good one. Certain k is that no
instructions he can receive for building a mansion will qualify him without an intimate
acquaintance with the habits of the upper classes of society.
2506. We have already stated that it is hopeless to arrive at a fixed standard of taste.
That considered worthy of the appellation will not be so considered in another. " The
sable Africans," says Knight, quoting from Mungo Park, "view with pity and contempt
the marked deformity of the Europeans, whose mouths are compressed, their noses pinched,
their pheeks shrunk, their hair rendered lank and flimsy, their bodies lengthened and
emaciated, and their skins unnaturally bleached by shade and seclusion, and the baneful
influence of a humid climate." In the countries of Europe, where some similarity of taste
may be expected, the tyranny of fashion, no less than that of habit and circumstance, has,
and always will have, its influence on the arts. Within the short space of even a few
months we have seen what is called the renaissance style of architecture imported from
France, drawing into its vortex all classes of persons, many of them among the higher
CHAP. I. BEAUTY IN ARCHITECTURE. 677
ranks, possessed of education to have patronised better taste ; and in architecture, and some
other arts, no one solves the question of what is really right by saying that there have been
errors in the tastes of different ages.
2507. The specimens of Greek sculpture, whose beauty is founded in nature herself,
will throughout all time excite the admiration of the world; because in this case, the
standard or type being nature, mankind generally may be supposed to be competent judges
of the productions of the art. But it is very different in architecture, whose types in
every style are, as respects their origin, uncertain ; and when we are asked whether there
be a real and permanent principle of beauty in the art, though we must immediately reply
in the affirmative, we are at the same time constrained to refer it to the quality of fitness.
If this were not the case, how could we extend our admiration to the various styles of
Egyptian, Grecian, Roman, Gothic, and Italian architecture ? These at first appear, com-
pared with each other, so dissimilar, that it seems impossible to assign beauty to one without
denying it to the rest. But on examination each will be found so fitted to its end, that
such cause alone will be found to be the principal source of the pleasure that an educated
mind receives from each style ; and that thence it arises, rather than from any certain or
definable combinations of forms, lines, or colours that are in themselves gratifying to the
mind or agreeable to the organs of sensation. If this be true, what becomes of the doctrine
of the German a;sthetical school, so vaunted of by self-constituted critics and reviewers,
who pass their judgment ex cathedra on works they have never seen, and, strange to say,
are tolerated for a moment by the public? The truth is, the public rarely give themselves
the trouble to judge ; and unless led, which is easily done by the few, do not undertake the
trouble of judging for themselves. That the Egyptian pyramid, the Grecian and the
Roman temple, the early Christian basilica, the Gothic cathedral, the Florentine palace,
the Saracenic mosque, the pagoda of the East, are all beautiful objects, we apprehend none
will dispute ; but there is in none of them a common form or standard by which we can
judge of their beauty : the only standard on which we can fall back is the great fitness of
them, tinder their several circumstances, for the end proposed in their erection.
2508. We are thus unavoidably driven to the conclusion that beauty in its application
to architecture changes the meaning of the word with every change of its application ; for
those forms which in one style are strictly beautiful on account of their fitness, applied to
another become disgusting and absurd. By way of illustrating this, let us only picture to
ourselves a frieze of Grecian triglyphs separating the nave and clerestory of a Gothic
cathedral. From what we have been taught to consider the type of the Doric frieze con-
nected with its triglyphs an idea of fitness immediately arises in the mind ; but we cannot
trace its fitness in a dissimilar situation, neither can we comment on such an incongruity
better than in the oft-quoted Lines of Horace : —
" Humano capiti cervicem pictor equinam
Jungere si velit, et varias inducere pluinas
Undique collatis merabris, ut turpiter atrum
Desinet in piscem mulier formosa supernfe ;
Spectatum admissi risum teneatis amici ? "
The influence of circumstances in every age has imparted to each style of architecture its
peculiar beauty and interest ; and until some extraordinary convulsion in society give the
impetus to a new one, we are constrained to follow systems which deprive us of other
novelty than those of changes which are within the spirit of the universally established
laws of the art. Turn to the Gothic churches of the present day, — the little pets of the
church commissioners and clergy. What objects of ineffable contempt the best of them
are ! The fact is, the religious circumstances of the country have so changed that they are
wholly unsuitable in style to the Protestant worship. Had, with the scanty means afforded
to the architects, such a model as St. Paul's, Covent Garden, been adopted, we might have
seen a number of edifices in the country, though
" Facies non omnibus una
Nee diversa tamen,"
that might have been an honour to the age in which we live, and suitable to the circum-
stances of the times.
2509. Unity and harmony in a work necessarily enter into that which is beautiful ; and
it will not therefore require any argument to show that from a mixture of styles in any
building incongruity and unfitness, and consequently a want of unity and harmony, must
be the result. Hence we cannot agree with those wise reviewers who advocate the pos-
sibility of amalgamating the arch with the severe Grecian style. We leave them to their
dreams, and trust that before we give them credence we may have some proof of their
practical power in this respect.
2510. Symmetry is that quality which, as its name imports, from one part of an assem-
blage of parts enables us to arrive at a knowledge of the whole. It is a subordinate, but
nevertheless a necessary, ingredient in beauty. It is necessary that parts performing the
same office in a building should be strictly similar, or they would not ex vi termini be
X x 3
678 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III,
symmetrical ; so, when relations are strictly established between certain parts, making one
the measure of another, a disregard of the symmetry thus induced cannot fail of destroying
beauty. But here again we have to say, that for want of attention to the similarity of the
parts, or neglect of the established relations on which the whole is founded, they have lost
their symmetry, and have thus become unfit for their purpose ; so that thus again we return
to fitness as the main foundation of beauty.
2511. Colour abstractedly considered has little to do with architectural beauty, which is
founded, as is sculpture, on fine form. We are here speaking generally, and are not inclined
to assert that the colour of a building in a landscape is unimportant to the general effect of
that landscape, or that the colours used on the walls of the interior of a building are
unessential considerations ; but we do not hesitate to say that they are of minor consequence
in relation to our art. We believe it would be difficult to paint (we mean not in the
sense of the artist) the interior of the banqueting room at Whitehall, were it restored to
its original destination, and divested of the ruinous accessories which from its original pur-
pose have turned it from a banqueting room into a chapel, — we believe, we say, that it would
be difficult to paint it so as to destroy its internal beauty. But as we intend to be short
under this head, we shall quote a brochure touching on this subject published by us in 1837.
2512. One of the beauties tending to give effect to the edifices of Greece has been, on
the testimony of almost all travellers, the colour of the materials whereof they are com-
posed. Dr. Clarke observes that a warm ochreous tint is diffused over all the buildings of
the Acropolis, which he says is peculiar to the ruins of Athens, " Perhaps," says the
author, " to this warm colour, so remarkably characterising the remains of ancient buildings
at Athens, Plutarch alluded" (/» Vita Periclis) "in that beautiful passage cited by
Chandler, where he affirmed that the structures of Pericles possessed a peculiar and un-
paralleled excellence of character ; a certain freshness bloomed upon them and preserved their
faces uninjured, as if they possessed a never-fading spirit, and had a soul insensible to age." It
is singular that recent discoveries have incontestably proved that this species of beauty at
all events did not originally exist in them, inasmuch as it is now clearly ascertained that it
was the practice of the Greeks to paint the whole of the inside and outside of their temples
in party colours. It had been some time known that they were in the habit of painting
and picking out the ornaments on particular parts of their buildings ; but M. Schaubert,
the architect of the King of Greece, found on examination that this fell far short of the ex-
tent to which this species of painting was carried, and M. Semper, another German archi-
tect, has fully corroborated the fact in his examination of the Temple of Theseus. The
practice was doubtless imported into Greece from Egypt, and was not to be easily aban-
doned, seeing the difficulty of falling away from the habits of a people whence it seems
certain the arts of Greece more immediately came. It is by no means uncommon for a
person to be fully alive to all the beauties of form, without at the same time having a
due feeling or perception of the beauty resulting from harmony in colouring. It is
therefore not to be assumed that the Greeks, though given to a practice which we would
now discourage, possessed not that taste in other respects which has worthily received
the admiration of posterity. The practice of painting the inside and outside of buildings
has received the name of polychromatic architecture, and we shall here leave it to the
consideration of the student as a curious and interesting circumstance, but certainly with-
out a belief that it could add a charm to the stupendous simplicity and beauty of such
a building as the Parthenon.
251 3. After all that we have said of fitness, it will be expected that in decoration it shall
form a principal ingredient. By the term decoration we understand the combination of
objects and ornaments that the necessity of variety introduces under various forms, to
embellish, to enrich, and to explain the subjects whereon they are employed. The art of
decoration, so as to add to the beauty of an object, is, in other words, that of carrying out
the emotions already produced by the general form and parts of the object itself. By its
means the several relations of the whole and the parts to each other are increased by new
combinations ; new images are presented to the mind whose effect is variety, one great
source of pleasure. From these observations two general rules may be deduced in respect
of decoration. First, that it must actually be or seem to be necessary. Second, that
such objects must be employed in it as have relation to the end of the general object of
the design. We are not to suppose that all parts of a work are susceptible of ornament.
Taste must be our guide in ascertaining where decoration is wanted, as well as the quantity
requisite. The absence of it altogether is in many cases a mode of decoration. As in
language its richness and the luxuriance of images do not suit all subjects, and simplicity
in such cases is the best dress, so in the arts of design many subjects would be rather
impoverished than enriched by decoration. We must therefore take into consideration the
character of the building to be decorated, and then only apply such ornament as is neces-
sary and suitable to that character. We may judge of its necessity if the absence of it
causes a dissatisfaction from the void space left ; of its suitableness, by its developing the
character. History has recorded the contempt with which that decorator was treated who
CHAP. I. BEAUTY IN ARCHITECTURE. 679
ornamented the senate house with statues of wrestlers, and the gymnasium with statues of
senators.
2514. By some the art of architecture itself has been considered nothing more than
that of decorating the buildings which protection from the elements induces us to raise.
2515. The objects which architecture admits for decoration result from the desire of
producing variety, analogy, and allegory. We here follow Quatremere de Quincy. (Encyc.
Method. ) The first seems more general than the others, as being common among all
nations that practise building. It is from this source we have such a multitude of cut-
work, embroidery, details, compartments, and colours, more or less minute, which are
found in every species of architecture. It would be useless for the most philosophical
mind to seek for the origin of these objects in any want arising out of the mere construc-
tion, or in any political or superstitious custom. Systems of conjecture might be exhausted
without arriving one point nearer the truth. Even in the most systematic of the different
kinds of architecture, namely, that of the Greeks, we cannot avoid perceiving a great number
of forms and details whose origin is derived from the love of variety, and that alone. In a
certain point of view, thus considered, an edifice is nothing more than a piece of furniture,
a vase, an utensil, the ornaments on which are placed more for the purpose of pleasing the
eye than any other. Such, for instance, are the roses of caissons in ceilings and sofites, the
leaves round the bell of the Corinthian capital, the Ionic volutes, and many others, besides
universally the carving of mouldings themselves. These ornaments, drawn from the store-
house of nature, are on that account in themselves beautiful ; but it is their transference to
architecture, which in the nature of things can have but a problematical and conjectural
origin, that seems to indicate a desire to vary the surface. Unless it was the desire of
variety that induced them, we know not what could have done so.
2516. It has been well observed by the author we have just quoted, that though the art
has been obliged to acknowledge that many of its decorations depend in their application
on such forms as necessity imposes, and in the formation of them on chance, caprice, or
whatever the love of variety may dictate, yet in the disposition of them there must reign
an order and arrangement subordinate to that caprice, and that at this point commences
the difference between architecture as an art subservient to laws which are merely de-
pendent on the pleasure imparted to the eye, and those which depend on the mere me-
chanical disposition of the building considered as a piece of furniture. Architecture, of all
the arts, is that which produces the fewest emotions of the minds of the many, because it
is the least comprehensible in regard to the causes of its beauty. Its images act indirectly
on our senses, and the impressions it seems to make appear reducible chiefly to magnitude,
harmony, and variety, which after all are not qualities out of the reach of an architect of
the most ordinary mind, and therefore not — at least the first and last — unattainable
where economy does not interfere to prevent the result to be attained.
2517. Analogy, the second of the objects by which decoration is admitted into archi-
tecture, seems to be resultant from the limited nature of all human inventions in the arts,
and the power of being unable to invent except by imitation and alteration of the forms of
objects pre-existent. It is most difficult to discard altogether what have been considered
types in architecture, and that difficulty has so prevailed as to limit those types to their
most probable origin in the case of the orders.
2518. The reader will begin to perceive that our analogy in decoration tends upon trees
for columns, the ends of beams for triglyphs, and the like. Whatever truth there may be
in this analogy, it is now so established as to guide the rules of decoration that are in-
volved in it ; and it must be conceded, that if we are desirous of imitating the peculiar art
of any country, we have no hope of success but by following the forms which the con-
struction in such country engenders ; and we must admit that, as far as external circum-
stances can direct us, the architecture of Greece, which, modified, has become that of the
whole of Europe, and will become that of America, seems so founded on the nature of
things, that, however we may doubt, it would not be prudent to lead the reader away from
the consideration, and perhaps from a belief, that such is the truth. Without holding
ourselves bound by the analogy of the types of the tree and the cross beam, which appear
to have guided the architects of Greece, we can without hesitation assert, that whenever
those have been abandoned the art has fallen on the most flagrant vices ; witness the
horrors of the school of Borromini, where the beams are broken, pediments, which are the
gables of roofs, are broken into fantastic forms, and none of the parts seem naturally con-
nected with each other. The works of the school in question seem indeed so broken up,
that the study of them would almost convince an impartial and competent judge that the
converse of its practice is sufficiently beautiful to establish the truth of the types whereon
we have here and before expressed our scepticism. " Sitot," says De Quincy, "que le genie
decorateur s'est cru libre des entraves de 1'analogie, toutes les formes caracteristiques se
sont contournees, pervertees, et denaturees, au point qu'il y a entr'elles et celle de la bonne
architecture, plus de distance qu'entre celles-ci et les types de la primitive construction."
251 9. In the decoration of architecture, neither of the other two means employed are
X x 4
680 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
more important than that ocular language which architecture occasionally employs in its
ornaments. By its use architecture is almost converted into painting, and an edifice be-
comes a picture, or a collection of pictures, through the aid of the sculptor. We shall
refer to no other building than the Parthenon to prove the assertion. Here the history of
the goddess is embodied in the forms of the building, and to the decoration thus intro-
duced the subordinate parts of the sculpture, if it be not heresy so to call them, is kept so
under that we are almost inclined to cry out against their not having been principals in-
stead of accessories. This is the true principle upon which buildings should be decorated
to impress the mind of the spectator with the notion of beauty, and the principle which,
carried out, no matter what the style be, will insure the architect his most ample reward,
reputation. The matter that is supplied by allegory for decoration in architecture may be
considered under three heads — attributes, figures, and paintings.
2520. The first takes in all those foliages, plants, flowers, and fruits, which from their
constant use in sacrifices were at last transferred from the altar to the walls of the temple.
The garlands, festoons, chaplets, and crowns which we find sculptured on temples seem to
have had their origin from the religious ceremonies performed in them ; as do the instru-
ments of sacrifice, vases, the heads of the victims, paterae, and all the other objects em-
ployed in the worship of the ancients. Thus, in architecture, these have become conven-
tional signs, indicating the destination of the buildings to which they are applied. From
the particular application of some ornaments on temples we derive in the end a language
in the arts of imitation. It was thus that the eagle grasping in his talons the attribute of
Jupiter, came to represent eternity and omnipotence ; the myrtle and dove of Venus, the
passion of love ; the lyre and laurel of Apollo, to point to harmony and glory ; the spear
and helmet of Mars, to represent war. Palms and crowns became the emblems of victory,
as did the olive the emblem of peace. In the same way the ears of corn of Ceres, the
serpent of Esculapius, the bird of Minerva, and the cock of Mercury were equivalent to
the expression of abundance, science, and vigilance. Instruments of the arts, sciences, in
short, all objects useful to the end for which an edifice is erected, naturally become signs of
that edifice ; but applied otherwise become absurd. What, for instance, could be more
ridiculous than placing ox sculls and festoons on the frieze of a Protestant church? — and
yet this has been done in our own days.
2521. Figures of men and animals come under the second head. The application of
these may be seen to their highest perfection in the Parthenon, to which we have already
alluded. They may be introduced in low, high, or full relief. In the last case their
situation is usually that of a niche. We shall say no more on the subject of figures than
that of course they must have relation to the end for which the edifice is erected, and if
not in that respect perfectly intelligible are worse than useless.
2522. The walls of Pompeii furnish ancient examples of the decoration obtained by the
aid of painting, as do the loggie of the Vatican and the ceilings of the Farnesina modern
examples of it. Herein the moderns have far surpassed anything we know of the ancient
application of painting. Sculpture, however, seems more naturally allied to architecture
than painting, and, except in purely decorative painting on walls and ceilings, the intro-
duction of it seems bounded within narrow limits. The rules as to fitness of the subjects
introduced, applicable to the first two heads, are equally so under that of painting.
SECT. II.
THE ORDERS.
2523. An order in architecture is a certain assemblage of parts subject to uniform esta-
blished proportions, regulated by the office that each part has to perform. It may be
compared to what organisation is in animal nature. As from the paw of a lion his dimen-
sions may be deduced, so from a triglyph may be found the other parts of an example of
the Doric order, and from given parts in other orders the whole configuration may be
found. As the genus may be defined as consisting of essential arid subservient parts, the
first-named are the column and its entablature, which, as its name imports, is as it were
the tabled work standing on the column. The subservient parts are the mouldings and
detail into which the essential parts are subdivided, and which we shall hereafter separately
consider. The species of orders are five in number, Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and
Composite, each of whose mass and ornaments are suited to its character and the ex-
pression it is intended to possess. These are the five orders of architecture, in the proper
understanding and application whereof is laid the foundation of architecture as an art.
The characters of strength, grace, and elegance, of lightness and of richness, are dis-
tinguishing features of the several orders, in which those characters ought to be found
not only in the column employed, but should pervade the whole composition, whereof the
CHAF. I.
THE ORDERS.
681
column is, as it were, the regulator. The mode of setting up, or, as it is technically
termed, profiling an order, will be given in a subsequent part of this section. Here we
shall merely observe that the entablature is subdivided into an architrave, which lies
immediately upon the column, a frieze lying on the architrave, and a cornice, which is its
uppermost subdivision. The height of these subdivisions together, that is, the whole
height of the entablature, is one fourth that of the column according to the practice of the
ancients, who in all sorts of entablatures seldom varied from that measure either in excess
or defect. " Palladio, Scamozzi, Alberti, Barbaro, Cataneo, Delorme, and others," says
Sir William Chambers, " of the modern architects, have made their entablatures much
lower in the Ionic, Composite, and Corinthian orders than in the Tuscan or Doric. This,
on some occasions, may not only be excusable but highly proper ; particularly where the
intercolumniations are wide, as in a second or third order, in private houses, or inside
decorations, where lightness should be preferred to dignity, and where expense, with every
impediment to the conveniency of the fabric, are carefully to be avoided ; but to set
entirely aside a proportion which seems to have had the general approbation of the
ancient artists is surely presuming too far."
2524. As rules in the fine arts which have obtained almost universal adoption are
founded on nature or on reason, we may be pretty certain that they are not altogether
empirical, albeit their origin may not be immediately apparent. The grounds on which
such rules are founded will, however, in most cases become known by tracing them to
first principles, which we shall here endeavour to do in respect of this very important
relation of height between the column and its entablature. We were first led into this
investigation by the perusal of a work by M. Lebrun, entitled Theorie de V Architecture
Grecque et Romaine deduite de V analyse des Monumens antiques, fol. Paris, 1807 ; but our
results differ very widely from those of Lebrun, as will be seen on reference to that work.
2525. One of the most obvious principles of proportion in respect of loads and supports,
and one seemingly founded on nature herself, is, that a support should not be loaded with
a greater mass or load than itself; or, in other words, that there should be an equality
between weights and supports, or, in the case in point, between the columns and en-
tablature. In respect of the proportion of the voids below the entablature between the
columns or supports, a great diversity of practice seems to have prevailed, inasmuch as
we find them varying from 1 -03 to 2-18, unity being the measure of the supports. Lebrun
makes the areas of the supports, weights, and voids equal to one another, and in what
may be termed the monumental examples of the Doric order, such as the Parthenon, &c.,
he seems borne out in the law he endeavours to establish ; but in lighter examples, such
as the temple ( Ionic) of Bacchus at Teos, where the supports are to the voids as 1 : 2 -05,
and in the temple of Minerva Polias, where the ratio is as 1 ; 2 '18, he is beyond all
question incorrect : indeed there hardly seems a necessity for the limitation of the voids
he prescribes, seeing that, without relation separately to the weight and support, sta-
bility would be obtained so long as the centre of gravity of the load fell within the ex-
ternal face of the support. If it be admitted that, as in the two examples above men-
tioned, the voids should be equal to the supports jointly, we have a key to the rule, and
instead of being surprised at the apparently strange law of making the entablature one
fourth of the height of the column, we shall find that no other than the result assumed
can flow from the investigation.
2526. In fig. 861. let AB be the height of the column, and let the distance between the
columns be one third of the height of the column = CD. Now if
A B be subdivided into four equal parts at a, b, and c, and the hori-
zontal lines ad, be, and cf be drawn ; also, if CD be divided hori-
zontally into four equal parts, and lines be drawn perpendicularly
upwards intersecting the former ones, the void will be divided into
sixteen equal parallelograms, one half whereof are to be the measure
of the two whole supports BC and DE ; and DE being then made
equal to one half of CD, it will be manifest, from inspection, that
the two semi-supports will jointly be equal to eight of the parallelo-
grams above mentioned, or one half of the void. We have now to
place the entablature or weight AGHI upon the supports or co-
lumns, and equal to them in mass. Set up from A to F another
row of parallelograms, each equal to those above mentioned, shown
on the figure by AFKI. These will not be equal to the supports
by two whole parallelograms, being in number only six instead of
eight ; dividing, therefore, 8, the number in the supports, by 6, the
number already obtained, we have 1 '333, &c., which is the height
to be assigned to AG, so that the weight may exactly equal the
supports, thus exceeding one quarter of the height of the support (or column) by T^0 of
such quarter, a coincidence sufficient to corroborate the reason on which the law is
founded.
682
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
2527. From an inspection of the figs. 861, 862, 863, it appears that when the void is one
third the height of the supports in width, the supports will
be 6 diameters in height ; when one fourth of their height,
they will he 8 diameters high ; also that the intercolumni-
ation, called systylos or of two diameters, is constant by the
arrangement. When the surface of the columns, as they
appear to the eye, is equal to that of the entablature, and
the voids are equal to the sum of those surfaces, the height
of the entablature will always be one third of that of the
columns. Thus, let the diameter of the columns be = l,
their height = A, their number = n. Then the surface of
the columns is nh; that of the entablature the same. As
the surface of the voids is double that of the columns, the
width of the intercolurnniations is double the width of the
columns, that is, 2n diameters, which, added to the n dia-
meters of the columns, gives 3n diameters for length of the
entablature ; therefore, the surface of this entablature is
nh, and its length being 3n, its height must be ^ = - exactly.
2528. Trying the principle in another manner, let jig. 864. be the general form of a
tetrastyle temple wherein the columns are assumed at pleasure 8 diameters in height.
Fig. 864.
Fig. 865.
Then 4 x 8 = 32 the areas of the supports; and as to fulfil the conditions the three voids
are equal to twice that area, or 64, they must consequently be in the aggregate equal to 8
diameters, for 6B4 = 8, and the whole extent will therefore be equal to 12 diameters of a
support or column. To obtain the height of the entablature so that its mass may equal
that of the supports, as the measures are in diameters, we have only to divide 32, the
columns, by 12, the whole extent of the facade, and we obtain two diameters and two
thirds of a diameter for the height of the entablature, making it a little more than one
quarter of the height of the column, and again nearly agreeing in terms of the diameter
with many of the finest examples of antiquity. If a pediment be added, it is evident, the
dotted lines AC, CB being bisected in a and b respectively, that the triangles AEa, 6FB
are respectively equal to CDa and DfeC, and the loading or weight will not be changed.
2529. Similar results will be observed in fig. 865., where the height is ten diameters, the
number of columns 6, the whole therefore 180, the supports being 60. Here fg = 3^
diameters will be the height of the entablature. This view of the law is further borne out
by an analysis of the rules laid down by Vitruvius, book iii, chap. 2, ; — rules which did
not emanate from that author, but were the re/ult of the practice of the time wherein he
lived, and, within small fractions, strongly corroborative of the soundness of the hypothesis
of the voids being equal to twice the supports. Speaking of the five species of temples,
after specifying the different intercolurnniations, and recommending the eustylos as the
most beautiful, he thus directs the formation of temples with that interval between the
columns. " The rule for designing them is as follows : — The extent of the front being
given, it is, if tetrastylos, to be divided into Hi parts, not including the projections of
the base and plinth at each end; if hexastylos, into 18 parts; if octastylos, into 24i
parts. One of either of these parts, according to the case, whether tetrastylos, hexa-
stylos, or octastylos, will be a measure equal to the diameter of one of the columns." ....
" The heights of the columns will be 81 parts. Thus the intercolumniations and the
heights of the columns will have proper proportion." In the same chapter he gives
directions for setting out araeostyle, diastyle, and systyle temples, which directions it is
not here necessary to investigate, and our limits do not indeed permit us so to do. We
CHAP I.
THE ORDERS.
683
will therefore now examine the directions quoted. The tetrastylos is 111 parts wide
and 81 high; the area therefore of the whole front becomes Il^x8^ = 97jf. The four
columns are 4x81=34, or a very little more than one third of the whole area; the
remaining two thirds, speaking in round numbers, being given to the intercoluirms or
voids.
2530. The hexastylos (see Jig. 865.) is 18 parts long and 81 high ; the whole area there-
fore is 18x81=153. The six columns will be 6x81 = 51, or exactly one third of the
whole area ; the voids or intercolumns occupying the remaining two thirds.
2531. The octastylos is 24| parts in extent and 81 in height. Then 241x81 = 208^.
The eight columns will be 8 x 81=68, being a trifle less than one third of the area, and the
voids or intercolumns about double, or the remaining two thirds.
The average of the intercolumns in the first case will be
In the second case - - -
In the third case ...
— — =
24=2-8
2| diameters.
= 2| diameters.
:2iffiR5 diameters.
A discrepance between practice and theory, unless extremely wide, must not be allowed to
interfere with principles, and we have therefore no hesitation in candidly submitting a synop-
tical view of some of the most celebrated examples of antiquity in which a comparison is
exhibited between the voids and supports ; certain it is that in every case the former exceed
the latter, and that in the earlier examples of Doric, the ratio between them nearly ap-
proached equality. In comparing, however, the supports with the weights, there is every
appearance of that part of the theory being strictly true; for in taking a mean of the six
examples of the Doric order, the supports are to the weights as 1 : 1*16; in the five of
the Ionic order as ] : 1 -05 ; and in the four of the Corinthian order as 1 : 1 -04 , a coin-
cidence so remarkable, that it must be attributed to something more than accident, and
deserves much more extended consideration than it has hitherto received.
Building.
Order.
Number
of
Columns.
Supports.
Weights.
Voids.
Temple of Jupiter Nemeus -
Doric
6
1-00
0-79
•03
Parthenon -
^_
8
1-00
1-07
•04
Temple at Bassae -
_
6
1-00
I'M
1-16
Temple of Minerva at Sanium
Temple of Theseus at Athens
Temple of Jupiter Panhellenius
Temple of Erectheus -
Temple of Fortuna Virilis at Rome -
Ionic
6
6
6
6
4
1-00
1-00
1-00
1-00
1-00
1-40
Ml
1-45
0-89
1-15
•17
1-21
1-36
•24
•71
Temple on the llyssus
Temple of Bacchus at Teos .
Temple of Minerva Polias, Athens -
Portico of Septimius Severus -
Corinthian
4
8
4
6
1-00
1-00
1-00
1-00
0-96
1-35
1-01
0-93
1-72
2-05
2-18
1-37
Maison Carrie at Nismes
__
6
1-00
0-93
1-58
Temple at Jackly -
6
1-00
0-90
1-62
Pantheon Rome - • •
—
8
1-00
1-43
1-84
If instead of taking the apparent bulk of a column, that is, as a square pier, we take its real bulk, which is
about three quarters (f ) that of a square pier of the same diameter and height ;
the height of the entablature will be one fourth of the height of the column;
forfof * = *
3 4'
There is a curious fact connected with the hypothesis which has been sug-
gested that requires notice ; it is relative to the area of the points of support
for the edifice which the arrangement affords. In fig. 866. the hatched squares
represent the plans of quarter piers of columns in a series of intercolum-
niations every way, such intercolumniations being of two diameters, or four
semidiameters. These, added to the quarter piers, make six semidiameters,
whose square 36 is therefore the area to be covered with the weight. The
four quarter piers or columns=4, hence the points of support are ^ of the area
=0-111. Now in the list (1583.) of the principal buildings in Europe the mean
ratio is 0'168, differing only 0*057 from the result here given; but if we select
the following buildings, the mean will be found to differ much less.
Temple of Peace - 0-127
S. Paolo fuori le Mura 0118
S. Sabino - - 0-100
Fig. 866.
S. Filippo Neri -
0-129 Sum =0-474. Mean
0474
=0-118.
MOULDINGS.
2532. The subservient parts of an order, called mouldings, and common to all the orders,
are eight in number. They are — 1. The ovolo, echinus, or quarter round. (Fig. 867.) It is
formed by a quadrant, or sometimes more of a circle, but in Grecian examples its section
is obtained by portions of an ellipse or some other conic section. This latter observation is
Fig. 867.
Fig.:
Fig.
(CD
Fig. 870.
Fig. 871.
Fig. 872.
M f& & t& & & /& \
Fig. 873.
Fig. 874.
applicable to all mouldings of Greek examples, and we shall not repeat it in enumerating
the rest of them. It is commonly found under the abacus of capitals. The ovolo is also
almost always placed between the corona and dentils in the Corinthian cornice : its form
gives it the appearance of seeming fitted to support another member. It should be used
only in situations above the level of the eye. 2. The talon, ogee, or reversed cyma
(fig. 868.) seems also, like the ovolo, a moulding fit for the support of another. 3. The
cyma, cyma recta, or cymatium (fig. 869.) seems well contrived for a covering and to shelter
other members. The cyma recta is only used properly for crowning members, though in
Palladio's Doric, and in other examples, it is found occasionally in the bed mouldings
under the corona. 4. The torus (fig. 870.), like the astragal presently to be mentioned,
is shaped like a rope, and seems intended to bind and strengthen the parts to which it
is applied ; while, 5. The scotia or trochilos (fig. 871.), placed between the fillets which
always accompany the tori, is usually below the eye ; its use being to separate the tori, and
to contrast and strengthen the effect of other mouldings as well as to impart variety to the
profile of the base. 6. The cavetto, mouth, or hollow (fig. 872.) is chiefly used as a crown-
ing moulding, like the cyma recta. In bases and capitals it is never used. By workmen
it is frequently called a casement. 7. The astragal (fig. 873. ) is nothing more than a small
torus, and, like it, seems applied for the purpose of binding and strengthening. The astragal
is also known by the names of bead and baguette. 8. The fillet, listel, or annulet (fig. 874.)
is used at all heights and in all situations. Its chief office is the separation of curved
mouldings from one another.
2533. Sir William Chambers observes on these different mouldings that their inventors
meant to express something by their different figures, and that the destinations above men-
tioned " may be deduced not only from their figures, but from the practice of the ancients
in their most esteemed works ; for if we examine the Pantheon, the three columns in the
Campo Vaccino, the temple of Jupiter Tonans, the fragments of the frontispiece of Nero,
the basilica of Antoninus, the forum of Nerva, the arches of Titus and Septimius Severus,
the theatre of Marcellus, and indeed almost every ancient building, either at Rome or in
other parts of Italy and France, it will be found that in all their profiles the cyma and
cavetto are constantly used as finishings, and never applied where strength is required.
That the ovolo and talon are always employed as supporters to the essential members of
the composition, such as the modillions, dentils, and corona ; that the chief use of the
torus and astragal is to fortify the tops and bottoms of columns, and sometimes of pe-
destals ; " . . . " and that the scotia is employed only to separate, the members of bases, for
which purpose the fillet is likewise used not only in bases but in all kinds of profiles." It
is the fitness of these forms for their ends in their several situations that gives them a
positive and natural beauty, which is immediately destroyed by their change of position, as
primary forms of architecture ; and the author just quoted well observes, " that Palladio
erred in employing the cavetto under the corona in three of his orders, and in making such
frequent use through all his profiles of the cyma as a supporting member. Nor has
Vignola been more judicious in finishing his Tuscan cornice with an ovolo ; a moulding
extremely improper for the purpose, and productive of a very disagreeable effect ; for it
gives a mutilated air to the whole profile, so much the more striking, as it resembles ex-
actly that half of the Ionic cornice which is under the corona."
2534. The simplest method of describing the contours of mouldings is to form them of
CHAP. I. THE ORDERS. €85
quadrants of circles. Those of the ovolo, talon, cyma, and cavetto being equal to their
height, and those of the curve parts of the torus, and astragal equal to half their height.
Circumstances, however, often justify a variation from the rule ; and if that, be the case, the
ovolo, talon, cyma, and cavetto may be either described from the summits of equilateral
triangles, or be composed of portions of the ellipsis, which latter was almost constantly
used by the Greeks. By means of it also the scotia may be produced, as well as by
quadrants of circles ; but the curved part of the torus and astragal is always semicircular
in form, and if more projection is wanted it is obtained by the use of straight lines.
ORNAMENTS OF MOULDINGS.
2535. In ornamenting the profile of an order, repose requires that some mouldings should
be left plain. If all were enriched, confusion instead of variety would result. Except for
particular purposes, the square members are rarely carved. There are but few examples
in the best age of the art in which the corona is cut ; indeed at this moment the only one
that occurs to us wherein work is in fine style is that of the three columns in the
Campo Vaccino. So where the ovolo above and talon below it are carved, the dentil
band between them should be uncut. Scamozzi, in the third chapter of his sixth book,
inculcates that ornaments should be neither profuse nor abundant, neither are they to be
too sparingly introduced. Thus they will be approved if applied with judgment and dis-
cretion. Above all things, they are to be of the most beautiful forms and of the exactest
proportions; ornaments in buildings, being like the jewels used for the decoration of
princes and princesses and persons of high rank, must be placed only in proper situations.
Neither must variety in ornaments be carried to excess. We have to recollect that, being
only accessories, they must not obtrude upon but be kept subordinate to the main object.
Thus ornaments applied to mouldings should be simple, uniform, and combining not more
than two distinct forms in the same enrichment; and when two forms are used on the same
moulding they should be cut equally deep, so that an uninterrupted appearance may be
preserved. Mouldings of the same form and size on one and the same profile should be
similar ; and it is moreover a requisite of the greatest importance, so to distribute the
centres of the ornaments employed that the centre of one may fall exactly over the centres
of those below, of which the columns of the Campo Vaccino form an example for imitation
in this respect. Nothing is more offensive than, for example, to see the middle of an egg
placed over the edge of a dentil, and in another part of the same moulding to see them
come right, centre over centre, and the like negligent and careless distribution. This may
always be avoided by making the larger parts regulate the smaller. Thus where there are
modillions they must be made to govern the smaller ornaments above and below them, and
these smaller ones should always be subdivided with a view to centring with the larger
parts. The larger parts are dependent on the axes of the columns and their inter-
columniations ; but all these must be considered in profiling the order. It will of course
be necessary to give the ornaments such forms as may be consistent with the character of
the order they enrich. The enrichment of a frieze depends upon the destination of the
building, and the ornaments may have relation to the rank, quality, and achievements of
the proprietor. We do not agree with Chambers in condemning the introduction of arms,
crests, and cyphers, as an unbecoming vanity in the master of the fabric. These may often
be so introduced as to indicate the alliances of the family, and thus give a succinct history
of its connections. In Gothic architecture we know the practice induced great beauty
and variety. We have before observed, in Sect. I. of this Book (2520. ), that the instru-
ments and symbols of pagan worship are highly indecorous, not to say ludicrous, on
edifices devoted to the Christian religion.
2536. In carving ornaments they must be cut into the solid, and not carved as if they
were applied on the solid, because the latter practice alters their figure and proportion. In
fact, every moulding should be first cut with its contour plain, and then carved, the most
prominent part of the ornament being the actual surface of the moulding before carving,
observing that all external and re-entering angles are kept plain, or have only simple leaves
with the central filament expressed on or in the angle. In the circular temple of Tivoli
the principle of cutting the ornament out of the solid is carried out so far, that the leaves,
as usual in most examples of the Corinthian order, instead of being mere appliquees to the
bell of the capital, are actually cut out of it.
2537. The degree of relief which ornaments ought to have is dependent on their distance
from the eye and the character of the composition : these matters will also regulate the
degree of finish they ought to possess. There are some mouldings whose profile is in-
dicative of bearing weight, as the ovolo and talon, which by being deeply cut, though
themselves heavy in character, are thereby susceptible of having great lightness imparted to
them, whilst such as the cyma and cavetto should not be ornamented deep in the solid. The
imitation from nature of the objects represented should be carefully observed, the result
whereof will impart beauty and interest to the work on which such attention is bestowed.
686 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Boo;c III.
CHARACTERS OF THE ORDERS.
2538. In the First Book of this work, Sect. XL (133, et seq.~) we have considered the
history of the five orders of architecture; we shall here offer some general observations
upon them before proceeding to the detail of each separately. The orders and their several
characters and qualities do not merely appear in the five species of columns into which they
have been subdivided, but are distributed throughout the edifices to which they are applied,
the column itself being the regulator of the whole composition. It is on this account the
name of orders has been applied to the differently formed and ornamented supports, as
columns, which have received the names of the Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan, and
Composite orders, whereof the three first are of Grecian origin, and the two last, it is sup-
posed, of Italian or Roman origin. Each of these, by the nature of its proportions, and
the character resulting from them, produces a leading quality, to which its dimensions,
form, and ornaments correspond. But neither of the orders is so limited as to be confined
within the expression of any single quality. Thus the strength indicated in the Doric order
is capable of being modified into many shades and degrees of that quality. We may satisfy
ourselves of this in an instant by reference to the early compared with the later Doric
column of the Greeks. Thus the columns of the temple at Corinth are only four diameters
high, while those of the portico of Philip are six and a half.
2539. As the Doric seems the expression of strength, simplicity, and their various modes,
so the Ionic, by the rise in height of its shaft and by the slenderness of its mass, as well
as by the elegance of its capital, indicates a quality intermediate between the grave solidity
of the Doric and the elegant delicacy of the Corinthian. Bounded on one side by strength,
and by elegance on the other, in the two orders just named, the excess of elegance in the
Corinthian order ends in luxury and richness, whereof the character is imprinted on it.
2540. We cannot here refrain from giving, in the words of the excellent Sir Henry
Wotton, a quaint and homely, but most admirable description of these five orders, from his
Elements of Architecture. " First, the Tuscan is a plain massive rural pillar, resembling
some sturdy, well-limbed labourer, homely clad, in which kind of comparisons, Vitruvius
himself seemeth to take pleasure. " (Lib. iv. cap. 1,) . . . " The Dorique order is the gravest
that hath been received into civil use, preserving, in comparison of those that follow, a more
masculine aspect and little trimmer than the Tuscan that went before, save a sober garnish-
ment now and then of lions' heads in the cornice, and of triglyphs and metopes always in the
frize." ..." To discern him will be a piece rather of good heraldry then of architecture,
for he is knowne by his place when he is in company, and by the peculiar ornament of his
frize, before mentioned, when he is alone." ..." The lonique order doth represent a kind
of feminine slendernesse ; yet, saith Vitruvius, not like a light housewife, but, in a decent
dressing, hath much of the matrone." ..." Best known by his trimmings, for the bodie
of this columne is perpetually chaneled, like a thick-pleighted gowne. The capitall dressed
on each side, not much unlike women's wires, in a spiral wreathing, which they call the
Ionian valuta." ..." The Corinthian is a columne lasciviously decked like a courtezan,
and therefore in much participating (as all inventions do) of the place where they were
first born, Corinth having beene, without controversie, one of the wantonest towns in the
world." ..." In short, as plainness did characterise the Tuscan, so, much delicacie and
varietie the Corinthian pillar, besides the height of his rank." ..." The last is the com-
pounded order, his name being a briefe of his nature : for this pillar is nothing in effect but
a medlie, or an amasse of all the precedent ornaments, making a new kinde by stealth, and
though the most richly tricked, yet the poorest in this, that he is a borrower of his beautie."
Each of the orders, says De Quincy. is, then, in the building to which it is applied, the
governing principle of the forms, taste, and character of that system of moral order met
with in Grecian architecture which alone seems to have suited the physical order of pro-
portions with each part, so that what is agreeable, ornate, and rich is equally found in the
whole as in the parts.
2541. On the two Latin orders we do not think it necessary to say more than that they
will be fully described in following pages. The invention of new. orders must arise out of
other expressions of those qualities which are already sufficiently well and beautifully
expressed ; hence we consider, with De Quincy, to attempt such a thing would be vain.
Chambers thus expresses himself on this subject, without the philosophy of De Quincy,
yet with the feelings of a learned and experienced architect : " The ingenuity of man has,
hitherto, not been able to produce a sixth order, though large premiums have been offered,
and numerous attempts been made, by men of first-rate talents to accomplish it. Such is
the fettered human imagination, such the scanty store of its ideas, that Doric, Ionic, and
Corinthian have ever floated uppermost, and all that has ever been produced amounts to
nothing more than different arrangements and combinations of their parts, with some
trifling deviations, scarcely deserving notice ; the whole tending generally more to diminish
than to increase the beauty of the ancient orders." Again: " The suppression of parts of
CHAP. I. THE ORDERS. 687
the ancient orders, with a view to produce novelty, has of late years been practised among
us with full as little success ; and though it is not wished to restrain sallies of imagination,
nor to discourage genius from attempting to invent, yet it is apprehended that attempts to
alter the primary forms invented by the ancients, and established by the concurring appro-
bation of many ages, must ever be attended with dangerous consequences, must always be
difficult, and seldom, if ever, successful. It is like coining words, which, whatever may be
their value, are at first but ill received, and must have the sanction of time to secure them
a current reception."
2542. In the progress of the five orders, from the Tuscan up to the Composite, taking
seven diameters for the height of the Tuscan column, and eleven for that of the Composite,
if the entablature be taken of the same absolute height in all, and at the same time in
height one quarter of that of the column, we shall have the height of the entablature in
terms of the diameter of the column, as follows : —
In the Tuscan order . \ of \ — \\ entablature diameters high.
In the Doric order . \ of f = 2 entablature diameters high.
In the Ionic order . \ of \ = 2\ entablature diameters high.
In the Corinthian order \ of if = 2^ entablature diameters high.
In the Composite order ^ of ^ = ll\ entablature diameters high.
HEIGHT AND DIMINUTION OF COLUMNS.
2543. Vitruvius tells us that the ancients were accustomed to assign to the Tuscan
column seven of its diameters for the height ; to the Doric, eight ; to the Ionic, nine ; and
to the Corinthian and Composite, ten. Scamozzi, the leader of the moderns, adopts
similar proportions. But these are not to be considered as more than an approximation to
the limits, nor as relating to the proportions between the heights and diameters of the
ancient Doric examples, whereof in our First Book we have examined certain specimens.
This work cannot be extended to a representation of the variety under which the orders
have appeared in their various examples of each order. The works in which they are
contained must be consulted for particulars of detail in this respect. Our intention is to
give general information on the subject, and to follow, with few exceptions, in that respect,
the precepts of Vignola, as tending to the most generally pleasing results, and as being
also those which have been adopted on the Continent for general instruction in the art.
2544. We have already spoken (2524, et seq.) of the general proportion of the height of
the entablature to that of the column as one fourth, and, without returning to the discussion
of the propriety of that proportion, will only here incidentally mention that Scamozzi, Bar-
baro, Alberti, and Palladio have not assigned so great a height to their entablatures, chiefly,
it appears, because they seemed to consider the slenderness of the columns in the more deli-
cate orders unsuited to the reception of heavy burdens. If, however, the reader will bear in
recollection what has been said at the beginning of this section relative to the supports and
weights, it will directly occur to him that the practice these great masters sanctioned is
not founded upon just deductions. Chambers seems to have had a glimpse of this theory,
but without any notion of its developement, when he says, " It must be remembered that,
though the height of an entablature in a delicate order is made the same as in a massive
one, yet it will not, either in reality or in appearance, be equally heavy, for the quantity of
matter in the Corinthian cornice A (fig. 875.) is considerably less than in the Tuscan
cornice B, and the increased number of parts composing the former of these will of course
make it appear far lighter than the latter." He was, however, nearer the exact truth
where he speaks in a previous passage of the possibility of increasing the intervals between
the columns.
2545. The diminution or tapering form given to a column, whereof all the authors find
the type, whether truly or not, in that of the trunk of a tree, in the ancient examples, some-
times commences from the foot of the shaft, sometimes from a quarter or one third of its
height, in which case the lower part is a perfect cylinder. Though the latter method has
been mostly adopted by modern artists, the former seems more to have prevailed among the
ancients. Of the method of entasis, that is, of swelling columns as they rise, we have already
spoken in the First Book (144.). A curve of diminution, if we may so term it, in which the
lower part does not much vary from the cylinder, but never much exceeding its boundary
for the height of one third upwards, is the best, and to something like that we now come.
Blondel (Resolution des quatre principaux Problemes d' Architecture) says, that the best and
simplest instrument for the diminution of columns is that invented by Nicomedes for
describing the first conchoid, which, applied at the bottom of the shaft, gives, by continued
motion, both the swelling and the diminution. Vignola had not strictly anticipated Blondel
in this method, which, it is said, was that used for the columns in the Pantheon ; but the
old master had come so near to it that we shall first describe Vignola's method, and then
that proposed by Blondel. Vignola having already spoken of the common practice, says,
688
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
Fig. 876.
(Stampani's edit. Dei cinque Ordini d1 Architettura, Roma, 1770, cap. 7. p. 51.), " In re-
spect of this second mode, it is my own discovery, and will be soon understood by the
figure, though not so well known as the first named. The measures of the column
having been fixed, namely, the height of the shaft and its upper and lower diameters,
from C {fig. 876.), draw an indefinite line through D perpendicular to the axis of the
column. From A, the extreme point of the upper semi- diameter, to B, a point in the
axis, set off' CD the lower semidiameter. Through B from A draw the line ABE, cutting
the indefinite line CD in E, and from the point of intersection E and through the axis of
the column draw any number of rays, as EBa, whereon, from the axis towards the circum-
ference, setting off* the interval CD, any number of points aaa may be found, and through
them a curve being drawn gives the swell and diminution of the shaft.
2546. This method is so far defective as to require the curve to be drawn by hand on
the application of a flexible ruler through the points found. To remedy the defect, Blon-
del, who on investigation of the curve found it to be a conchoid, applied the instrument
of Nicomedes for the purpose, the description of which instrument here follows. The
height of the shaft and the upper and lower diameters of the column having been deter-
mined, as also the length (fig. 876.) of the line CDE, take three rulers, FG, ID, and AH,
of which let FG and ID be fastened together at right angles in G. From top to bottom
let a dovetail groove be cut down the middle of FG, and at E on the ruler ID, whose
length from the centre of the groove in FG is the same as that of the point of intersection
from the axis of the column, fix a pin. On the ruler AH set off the distance AB equal
to the lower semidiameter of the column CD, and at the other end of the ruler cut a slit
through it from H to K, the length whereof must at least be equal to the difference in
length between EB and ED, and its breadth sufficient to admit the pin fixed at E to pass
through the slit, and allow the ruler to slide thereon. Now, the middle of the groove in
the ruler FG being placed exactly over the axis of the column, the ruler AH in moving
along the groove will with its extremity A describe the curve AaaC, which curve is the
same as that produced by Vignola's method, except that the operation is performed by the
continued motion of the ruler AH. If the rulers be of an indefinite size, and the pins at
E and B be made to move along their respective rulers, so as to be able to increase or
diminish at pleasure the lengths AB and DE, the instrument will answer for drawing
columns of any size.
2547. The diminution of the column as respects quantity is rarely in ancient examples
less than one eighth of the lower diameter of the column, nor often more than one sixth, as
will be seen in the subjoined examples. One sixth is the diminution recommended by
Vitruvius, and followed by Vignola, in all his orders, except the Tuscan. In the following
table the first column contains the order ; the second, the example ; the third, the height
of the column in English feet and decimal parts of a foot ; the fourth column shows its
diameter in similar terms ; and the fifth the ratio of diminution. The dimensions are from
Perrault. reduced here from French to English feet.
CHAP. I.
THE ORDERS.
689
Order.
Examples.
Height of
Column in
English Feet.
Diameter of
Column in
English Feet.
Ratio of
Diminution*
Doric
Theatre of Marcellus -
22-386
3-198
0-200
Coliseum -
24-384
2-865
0-077
Ionic
Temple of Concord ...
Temple of Fortuna Virilis -
38-376
24-340
4-485
3-109
0-182
0-125
.___
Coliseum ....
24-518
2-909
0-166
Corinthian
Temple of Peace ...
Portico of Pantheon -
52-400
38-998
6-041
4-796
0-111
0-106
__
Altars of Pantheon ...
11-548
1-465
0-133
—
Temple of Vesta - - -
Temple of the Sybil at Tivoli
29-226
20-254
3-109
2-487
0-111
0-133
—
Temple of Faustina -
Columns of Campo Vaccino -
38-376
39-975
4-796
4-840
0-133
0-111
Basilica of Antoninus ...
39-442
4-752
0-106
Arch of Constantine -
23-097
3-435
0-117
__
Interior of Pantheon -
29-314
3-642
0-133
Composite.
Portico of Septimius -
Baths of Diocletian - -
39-442
37-310
3-632
3-553
0-125
0-200
Temple of Bacchus - -
11-371
1-443
OM11
Arch of Titus - -
17-056
2-102
0-117
—
Arch of Septimius Severus
23-097
2-877
0-117
2548. The recommendation of Vitruvius (lib. iii. c. 2.) to give different degrees of
diminution to columns of different heights has been combated by Perrault in his notes on
the passage; and we are, with Chambers, of opinion that Perrault is right in his judgment,
inasmuch as the proper point of view for a column fifty feet high (fig. 876. unshaded part)
ought not to be at the same distance as for one of fifteen, the point being removed more
distant as the column increases in height, and therefore the apparent relation between the
upper and lower diameters would appear the same. For supposing A to be a point of view
whose respective distance from each of the columns fg FG, is equal to the respective
heights of each, the triangles /Ag FAG will be similar; and A/, or Ah, which is the same,
will be to A.ff, as AF, or its equal AH, is to AG: therefore, if de be in reality to be as
DE is to BC, it will likewise be apparently so : for the angle dA.e will then be to the angle
6 Ac, as the angle DAE is to the angle BAG ; and if the real relations differ, the apparent
ones will likewise differ. " When, therefore," observes Chambers, "a certain degree of
diminution, which by experience is found pleasing, has been fixed upon, there will be no
necessity for changing it, whatever be the height of the column, provided the point of view
is not limited ; but in close places, where the spectator is not at liberty to choose a proper
distance for his point of sight, the architect, if he inclines to be scrupulously accurate, may
vary ; though it is, in reality, a matter of no importance, as the nearness of the object
will render the image thereof indistinct, and, consequently, any small alteration imper-
ceptible." Our author afterwards adds : " It must not, however, be imagined that the
same general proportions will in all cases succeed. They are chiefly collected from the
temples and other public structures of antiquity, and may by us be employed in churches,
palaces, and other buildings of magnificence, where majesty and grandeur of manner should
be extended to their utmost limits, and where, the composition being generally large, the
parts require an extraordinary degree of boldness to make them distinctly perceptible from
the proper general points of view. "
SUBDIVISION OF ENTABLATURES.
2549. We have spoken of the entablature as the fourth part of the height of the column.
In general terms, its subdivisions of architrave, frieze, and cornice are obtained by dividing
its height into ten equal parts, whereof three are given to the architrave, three to the frieze,
and four to the cornice ; except in the Roman Doric order, in which the whole height of
the entablature is divided into eight parts, of which two are given to the architrave, three
to the frieze, and three to the cornice. From these general proportions variations have
been made by different masters, but not so great as to call for particular observation. They
deviate but little from the examples of antiquity ; and the ease with which they may be
recollected render them singularly useful.
MODE OP MEASURING THE ORDERS.
2550. Several methods have been used for forming the scale of equal parts, by which the
orders are measured ; but they are all founded on the diameter of the column at the bottom
of the shaft; for those that use the module or semi-diameter as the measuring unit (which
all hAve done in the Doric order) must still recur to the diameter itself. The authors have
also usually divided it into thirty parts, but all concur in measuring by an unit founded
on the diameter. We shall follow the practice of Vignola in describing the orders, that
master dividing the diameter into two equal parts, of which each is the unit of the scale tor
Yy
690
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
profiling the order. The module for the two first orders, the Tuscan and Doric, is divided
into twelve parts or minutes; and for the Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite orders into
eighteen parts, by which minute fractions are avoided.
2551. For drawing or profiling, as it is called, an order, the proper way is to set out the
height of the leading parts and their projections, and then proceed to the subdivisions of
each. As a general rule, we may mention that it is usual to make projections of cornices
nearly or quite equal to their heights.
APPLICATION OF THE ORDERS.
2552. The application of the orders among the ancients was exceedingly extensive.
Porticoes abounded about their cities ; their temples were almost groves of columns, with
which also were profusely decorated their theatres, baths, basilicae, and other public
buildings, as were no less the courts, vestibules, and halls of their private dwellings. The
moderns have in a great measure imitated their example, and their use has very much
exceeded the limits of propriety. The maxim of Horace, " Nee Deus intersit," has in no
case been more violated by architects than in the unnecessary introduction of the orders on
the fafades of their buildings. The test of fitness being applied to their employment is
the best that the young architect can adopt.
SECT. III.
THE TUSCAN ORDER.
2553. The reader, \nfig. 877., has before him the geometrical representation of the Tuscan
order and its details. A shows the
plan of the sofite of the cornice, and
B is a plan of the capital. The exam-
ple is from Vignola's profile, whereon
we consider it proper to remark, in
conformity with an opinion before ex-
pressed (2532, 2533.), that the ovolo
which crowns the cornice is an im-
proper moulding for the situation it
occupies. The substitution for it of
a fillet and cyma recta would have
been much more suitable, and would
have also been more pleasant in
effect.
2554. " The Tuscan order," says
Chambers, " admits of no ornaments
of any kind ; on the contrary, it is
sometimes customary to represent on
the shaft of its column rustic cinc-
tures, as at the Palace Pitti in Flo-
rence, that of the Luxembourg in
Paris, York Stairs in London, and
many other buildings of note. This
practice, though frequent, and to be
found in the works of many cele-
brated architects, is not always ex-
cusable, and should be indulged with
caution, as it hides the natural figure
of the column, alters its proportions,
and affects the simplicity of the
whole composition. There are few
examples of these bandages in the
Fig. 877.
remains of antiquity, and in general it will be advisable to avoid them in all large designs,
reserving the rustic work for the intercolumniations, where it may be employed with great
propriety, to produce an opposition which will help to render the aspect of the whole
composition distinct and striking." Our author proceeds to observe, that " in smaller
works, of which the parts being few are easily compreht-nded, they may be sometimes
tolerated, sometimes even recommended, as they serve to diversify the forms, are produc-
tive of strong contrasts, and contribute very considerably to the masculine bold aspect of
CHAP. I.
THE TUSCAN ORDER.
691
the composition." Le Clerc allows their propriety in the gates of citadels and prisons,
and also considers them not out of place for gates to gardens or parks, for grottoes, foun-
tains, and baths. Delorme made abundant use of them in several parts of the Thuilleries,
covering them with arms, cyphers, and other enrichments. They are to be found in the
detail of the Louvre, with vermiculated rustics. De Chambrai, who banishes the Tuscan
order to the country, nevertheless admits that the Tuscan column may be consecrated to
the commemoration of great men and their glorious actions, instancing Trajan's column,
one of the proudest monuments of Roman splendour, as also the Antonine column.
2555. Having adjusted the size of the module with its subdivisions of twelve parts,
so that the paper or other material on which the order is profiled may contain the whole
of the order, it always being understood that the representation for practical purposes need
not include the whole height of the shaft of the column, whose minutiae of diminution
may form the subject of a separate drawing, the first step is to draw a perpendicular line
for the axis of the column. Parallel to the base lines are then to be drawn, according to
the dimensions (parts of the module) given in the table subjoined ; and the beginner, as
well as the more practised man, is recommended not to set up these as they are given
separately, but in every case to add the succeeding dimensions to those preceding rather
than to set them off one by one, which, on a small scale, causes minute errors in reading
off from the scale to become in the end large in amount. By the adoption also of
such a practice the work corrects itself as it proceeds. As the heights are set up, the
projection of each member from the axis of the column is to be set off, and this should
be always done on both sides at the same time, by which gulling of the paper from
the point of the compasses, and errors in other respects, are avoided. The jig. 878. is
Fig. 878.
but the detail on a larger scale of the general representation exhibited in that preceding
The measures of each part are given in the following table.
Y y 2
692
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
TABLE OF THE PARTS OF THE TUSCAN ORDER.
Mouldings whereof the Parts are composed.
Heights of
Mouldings in
Parts of a
Module.
Projection
from the Axis of
Column in Parts
of a Module.
ENTABLATURE.
Cymatium,
and parts.
Quarter round
Astragal -
Fillet ....
4
1
274
231
Cornice A,
Conge, or cavetto -
Corona ...
1
5
1
1 6 parts.
Drip ....
I
Sinking from corona, or
hollow
i
jgl
Fillet ....
I
142
Bed moulding Ogee - - - -
4
181
Frieze B, 1
14 parts. J
14
91
Architrave C, f Fillet'
1 2 parts. Fascia.
Fillet, or listel
r Conge, or small cavetto -
. Fascia -
2
2
8
1 '
The height of the drip under the corona is taken on that
member, and that of the hollow in the height of the
fillet.
COLUMN.
'Fillet -
1
141
Capital D,
Abacus.
Conge, or cavetto -
Band - - - -
Ovolo ....
1
2
3
131
13;
13
12 parts.
Cymatium.
Fillet .---
1
Conge, or cavetto -
1
9i
Neck, or Hy
>otrachelion -
3
9.
Shaft,
12 modules.
Astragal, or
necking.
Shaft "
Bead -
Fillet ....
Conge, or cavetto -
'Shaft -
1
11 mod. 8 parts.
11
104
I Conge, or apophyge
14
122
Base, E,
1 2 parts.
[Fillet -
•! Torus ----
[Plinth ....
1
5
6
131
1 6»
PEDESTAL.
i
Cornice G, r
'Listel -
2
20i
6 parts. 1 *-/yma*lum-
Ogee - - -
4
20
Die F,
" Die, or dado
3 mod. 4 parts.
16^
44 parts. \
Conge, or apophyge
2
164
Base, f
•Fillet -
1
181
6 parts. \
^ Plinth ....
5
2556. Vitruvius in this order forms the columns six diameters high, and makes their
diminution one quarter of the diameter. He gives to the base and capital each one module
in height. No pedestal is given by him. Over the capital he places the architrave of
timber in two thicknesses connected together by dovetailed dowels. He however leaves
the height unsettled, merely saying that their height should be such as may be suitable to
the grandeur of the work where they are used. He directs no frieze, but places over the
architrave cantilevers or mutuli, projecting one fourth part of the height of the column,
including the base and capital. He fixes no measure for the cornice, neither does he give
any directions respecting the intercolumniations of this order. The instructions are not so
specific as those which he lays down for the other orders, and there have been various
interpretations of the text, which unfortunately cannot in any of the suppositions be tested
CHAP. I.
THE DORIC ORDER.
693
on ancient remains. The whole height, according to the measuring unit which we have
adopted from Vignola, is 1 6 modules and 3 parts.
2557. Palladio makes the height of his Tuscan column 6 diameters, and diminishes the
shaft one fourth of a diameter. The height of the base and capital are each half a diameter.
He provides no pedestal, but, instead thereof, places the base of the column on a zoccolo,
or lofty plinth, whose height is equal to the diameter of the column. He leaves the inter-
columniation unsettled, merely hinting that as the architraves are of timber, they, the
inter col umniations may be wide. The whole height by him assigned to the order is 9
diameters and three quarters of the column. The whole height according to our scale is
1 9 modules and 6 parts.
2558. Serlio makes the column of the order 5 diameters exclusive of base and capital,
each of which are half a diameter in height, and his diminution is one quarter of the
diameter. He gives half a diameter to the height of the architrave, and an equal height
to the frieze and to the cornice. His pedestal is with a plinth and base, a die, and
cymatium, the whole being a third of the height of the column. He gives no rules for the
intercolumniations, though in book 4. he inserts a diagram wherein intercolumns appear,
merely saying that they are equal to 3 diameters. The total height according to our
measure is 19 modules and 3 parts.
2559. Scamozzi makes the shaft of his column 6 diameters, and diminishes it one fourth
part of its diameter. The heights of the base and capital are each half a diameter. To
the entablature he assigns for height one fourth of the height of the column, including its
base and capital, less half its diameter. He places a sort of triglyph in the frieze, which
arises from a misconception of the text of Vitruvius. The height of his pedestal is a fourth
part of that of the column, with base and capital, less half a diameter. The whole height
in our measure is 21 modules and 9 parts.
SECT. IV.
THE DORIC OIIDEK.
2560. The Doric order of the moderns is of two sorts : mutular and denticular, the
former is represented in Jig. 879. A is a plan of the sofite of the corona ; B, a plan of the
Fig. 879.
capital ; and C, a plan of the base. In the frieze the channelled projections are called
triglyphs, and the spaces between them metopce, which should in breadth be equal to their
694
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
height, which is that of the frieze. The shaft is usually channelled with twenty flutes.
Over the triglyphs are distributed intitules or modillions, and another peculiarity is the
introduction of guttce or drops, which decorate the sofite of the cornice and the feet of the
triglyphs.
2561. Daviler, speaking of the two Doric entablatures given by Vignola, admires the
elegance of their composition, and scarcely knows which of them to select as the most
beautiful. " The first " (or denticular), hereafter immediately subjoined, says Chambers,
following that author, " which is entirely antique, is the lightest, and consequently pro-
perest for interior decoration or objects intended for near inspection ; the other, composed
by Vignola himself from various fragments of antiquity, being bolder, and consisting
of larger parts, seems better calculated for outside works and places where the point of
view is either distant or unlimited. On polygonal plans, however, the mutule cornice
must be avoided, because the sofites of the angular mutules would form irregular and very
disagreeable figures : neither should it be employed in concaves of small dimensions, for
the same reason ; nor in places where frequent breaks are requisite, it being extremely
difficult, often impossible, to prevent the mutules from penetrating and mutilating each
other in various unsightly manners ; and wherever this cornice is used on a convex surface,
the sides of the mutules must be made parallel, for it would be both disagreeable and un-
natural to see them broader, and consequently heavier in front than where they spring out
of the mutule band." We have elsewhere observed that there is very great difficulty in
distributing the parts of the Doric entablature, on account of the intervals between the
centres of the triglyphs, which necessarily confine the composer to intercolumniations
divisible by three modules, thus producing spaces which are often too wide or too narrow
for his purposes.
Fig. 880.
2562. In Jig. 880. the entablature of the mutular Doric order is given to a larger scale
than that of the preceding figure ; and we subjoin, as in the Tuscan order, —
CHAP. 1. THE DORIC ORDER. 695
TABLE or PARTS OF THE ENTABLATURE OF THE MUTULAR DORIC.
Mouldings whereof the Parts are composed.
Heights of
Mouldings in
Parts of a
Module.
Projections
from Axis of
Column in Parts
of a Module.
Fillet of the corona - _ -
1
34
Cyma - - - - -
3
31
Fillet -----
I
31
Cyma reversa -
1
303
Corona ....
31
30
Cornice A,
Cyma reversa ...
1
291
18 parts.
Mutule ....
3
281
Drip
|
28
Gutta of the mutule -
I
26
Echinus, or (juarter round
2
13|
Fillet - ...
1
U|
Capital of the triglyph
2
11
Frieze B, f Triglyph
18
101
18 parts. 1 Metope -
18
10
f Listel .....
2
12
Architrave C, Capital of the gutt^ -
I Guttae ....
•I
114
12 parts.
First fascia -
62
io|
Second fascia -
4
10
D is the plan of a triglyph to double the scale.
E is the plan of the round or square guttas.
F is the elevation of the triglyph and its gutta?.
2563. To obviate the difficulties mentioned in 2561. relative to the triglyphs, they have
often been omitted and the entablature left plain, as in the Coliseum at Rome, the colon-
nades of St. Peter's of the Vatican, and in many other buildings. This, says Chambers, is
an easy expedient ; but as it robs the order of its principal characteristic distinction, the
remedy is a desperate one, and should only be employed as a last resource.
2564. The Doric order was used by the ancients in temples dedicated to Minerva, to
Mars, and to Hercules. In modern buildings, Serlio (lib. iv. c. 6.) recommends it in
churches dedicated to saints remarkable by their suffering for the Christian faith. Le Clerc
suggests its use for military buildings. " It may," says Chambers, " be employed in the
houses of generals, or other martial men, in mausoleums erected to their memory, or in
triumphal bridges and arches built to celebrate their victories."
2665. As the difference between the mutular and denticular Doric lies entirely in
the entablature, we give in the following table the whole of the details of the order,
observing, that from the capitals downwards, the measures assigned to them are the
same for each. Fig. 881. represents the entablature of the denticular Doric and its parts,
696 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
which, with those of the capital, base, and pedestal, are in fig. 882. given to a larger
FJR. 882.
scale, as we have before represented the parts of the Tuscan order. The general table is
subjoined : —
Members composing the Order.
Heights in
Parts of a
Module.
Projections in
Parts of a
Module from
Axis of Column.
ENTABLATURE.
Fillet of corona
1
34
Cavetto ....
3
31
Fillet - ...
i
26
Cyma reversa -
•I
30
Corona ...
4
281
A, Cornice,
Drip -
1
27£
18 parts.
Fillet -
25
Gutta under the corona
1
241
Dentil ....
3
15
Fillet - - -
i
13
Cyma reversa - - .
2
121
Capital of triglyph
2
11
B, Frieze, f Triglyph
1 8 parts. \ Metope
18
18
10|
10
CHAP. I.
THE DORIC ORDER.
697
Members composing the Order.
Heights in
Parts of a
Module.
Projections in
Parts of a
Module from
Axis of Column.
Listel
2
HI
C, Architrave,
Capital of guttae
5
11
10 parts.
Guttae
Fascia - -
M
10
11
10
COLUMN.
Listel
i
15^
Cyma reversa -
i
15}
Band -
2£
14
D, Capital,
Echinus or quarter round
Three annulets ...
3
13|
14
12 parts.
Neck of capital
4
10
TOvolo
1
12
Astragal < Fillet
fLConge
M
111
10
SHAFT OF THE COLUMN, 14 modules.
Apophyge or conge
2
12
E, Base,
12 parts.
Fillet -
Astragal -
Torus -
*
14
14|
17
Plinth ...
6
17
PEDESTAL.
Listel
\
23
F, Cornice,
Echinus -
Fillet -
1
22|
21f
6 parts.
Corona ....
21
Cyma reversa -
»J
18£
DIE OF THE PEDESTAL, 4 modules.
Conge" -
1
17
Fillet
k
18
G, Base,
Astragal ....
1
18^
10 parts.
Inverted cyma ...
2
19
Second plinth
2i
21
First plinth -
4
21 1
2566. Vitruvius, with more clearness than in the others, describes the Doric order
(book iv. chap. iii. ). In order to set out its proportions, he tells us, though not giving a
direct rule, that its pedestal is composed of three parts, the cymatium or cornice, the die,
and the base ; and that the base and cimatium are composed of many mouldings, whose
individual proportions, however, he does not give. He assigns no particular base to the
Doric order ; but, nevertheless, places under half a diameter in height the attic base, whose
members are the plinth, small fillet, scotia, and the upper torus with its superior and inferior
fillets, together with the apophyge of the column. He gives to the projection of the base
a fifth part of the diameter of the column. The height of the shaft he makes of 6 diameters,
and its diminution a sixth part of the diameter. The capital's height he makes equal to
half a diameter, and divides it into three parts, one for the abacus and its cymatium,
another for the echinus and its fillets, the third for the hypotrachelium. To the architrave he
assigns the height of one half diameter of the column, and to the frieze 50 parts of the module
(semidiameter divided into 30 parts), including the fascia, forming the capital of the tri-
glyphs. His cornice consists of 30 parts of the module, and its projection 40. The whole
height which he gives to the order is, in the measure here adopted, 17 modules and 20 parts.
2567. Palladio makes the Doric pedestal rather less than 2£ diameters of the column,
dividing it into three parts, the base, die, and cymatium. To the die he assigns nearly a
diameter and one third of the column. To the cymatium a little more than one third' of
the diameter. He uses the attic base to the order, but, for the sake of carrying off the
water, turns the plinth into an inverted cavetto (guscio), ending in the projection of the
698
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOR 111
cymatium of the pedestal. To the shaft of the column he assigns various proportions,
directing that if accompanied with pilasters, it should be of the height of 8T55 diameters,
and if entirely isolated, 7 or at most 8 diameters high. He cuts the shaft into 24 flutes,
and diminishes it the tenth part of its diameter. The height of his capital is half a
diameter, and, like the annotators on Vitruvius, he decorates the neck or frieze, as they
both call it, with roses, adding, however, other flowers, and making its projection a little
more than a fifth part of the diameter. To the architrave, frieze, and cornice he gives a
little more than one fourth part of the height of the column, so that the whole height of
his order is in our measure 24 modules and a fraction above 2^ parts.
2568. Serlio makes the height of the pedestal of his column a little less than 3 dia-
meters, with its base, die, and cymatium. The height of the die is set up equal to the
diagonal of a square, formed on the plinth of the column. The height of the cymatium,
according to the strict text of Serlio, should not be less than that of the base ; but he
altogether omits any mention of its projection. His base is the attic base, to which he
assigns a projection of a quarter of a diameter. The column is 6 diameters high, and has
20 flutes. His capital differs only from that of Vitruvius in its projection, which is rather
more. The architrave and frieze do not much differ from those already described. The
projection given to the cornice is equal to its height. The whole height in our measures
amounts to 23 modules and 5 parts.
2569. The Doric order as described by Scamozzi is not very dissimilar to those already
described. The pedestal is by him made 2 diameters and a little more than a quarter, with
a base, die, and cymatium, and the projection barely a quarter of the diameter of the
column, to which he gives the attic base. His column is 1\ diameters high, and the dimi-
nution a fifth part of the diameter. There are 26 flutes on the shaft, separated from each
other by fillets, whose width is one third of the flute. This author gives three different
sorts of capitals for the order : the first has three annulets ; the second has only the lower
annulet, the two upper ones being changed to an astragal ; the third, instead of the two
lower annulets, has a cyma reversa. Lastly, above the corona he places a cyma reversa,
and in the other parts does not vary much from the preceding authors, especially in the frieze
and architrave, except that in the last he uses two fasciae. To the cornice he assigns the
projection of five sixths of a diameter of the column. His whole entablature is a little less
than one fourth the height of the column, including base and capital. The whole height
of the order in our measures is 23 modules and 8 parts.
2570. In fig. 883. the profile of the Grecian Doric from the Parthenon at Athens
is given. Though very different to those we have
already described of this order, the resemblance is
still considerable. Its character is altogether sacred
and monumental, and its application, if capable of ap-
plication to modern purposes, can scarcely be made to
any edifice whose general character and forms are not
of the severest and purest nature. The various absurd
situations in which the Grecian Doric has been in-
troduced in this country, has brought it into disre-
pute ; added to which, in this dark climate the closeness
of the intercolumniations excludes light, which is so
essential to the display of architecture under the cloudy
skies with which we are constantly accompanied in
high latitudes. The diameter of the columns in the
original is 6 feet 2 '7 inches.
2571. Lest we may be reproached with neglecting
to submit to the student in this place (and the remark
equally applies to the following section on the Ionic
order) more examples of the Grecian Doric, we would
here observe that this work is not to stand in place of
a parallel of the orders. Nothing would have been
easier than to "have placed before him an abundance
of examples; but they must be sought elsewhere, Fig. 883.
inasmuch as the nature of our labours requires general, not special, information in
this respect. We have not, however, refrained in the first book (142, et seq.} from entering
into details respecting the Grecian Doric, which we consider much more valuable to the
reader than would be the exhibition of a series of profiles of its principal examples. We
have, moreover, at that place, suggested some criteria of their comparative antiquity. We
do not think the nice copying of a profile into a modern work any other than a disgraceful
exhibition of the want of ability in the man, we cannot call him artist, who adopts it, and
shall be much better pleased to leave the student in doubt, so that he may apply himself
pro re natd to the matter which calls his genius into play. From what we have said on
the orders in Sect. II. of this Book, (2523, et seq.), relative to the order, and on mouldings
CHAP. I.
THE IONIC ORDER.
(2532, et seq.}, it must be quite clear that the variety of every order, keeping to first prin-
ciples, has not been yet exhausted, neither is it likely to be so.
TABLE OF THE PARTS OF THE GRECIAN DORIC (PARTHENON).
Members composing the Order.
Heights in
Parts of a Mo-
dule and Deci-
mals.
Projections in
Parts of a
Module from
Axis of Column.
ENTABLATURE.
'Fillet -
0-60
22-10
Echinus -
3-12
20-4O
Fillet, with sunk cyma reversa
2-20
A, Cornice,
Corona -
4-88
18-98
15-32 parts.
Fillet -----
1-10
18-80
Capital of mutules
1-10
Mutules -
0'32
18-66
Bead and capital of triglyphs -
2-00
11-46
B, Frieze, f Frieze (in metope)
15-12
14-88 parts. 1 Triglyph
14-88
11-40
Fillet -
1-50
12-50
C, Architrave,
Cap of guttas -
1-00
12-40
17 '10 parts.
Guttae ...
0-20
Architrave below guttae
14-40
11-20
COLUMN.
Abacus -
4-40
12-90
D, Capital,
11-16 parts.
Echinus - - •
Fillets and hollows, with cavetto
Neck
3-60
0-80
2-20
12-60
9-44
Groove or sinking -
0-16
Shaft - - -
20-30-fatt°P 9'38
\ at bottom 12-00
First step or plinth
6-90
12-80
Second step or plinth -
6-70
21-80
Third step or plinth
6-90
30-84
2572. The minutias of the Grecian Doric, as we have just observed, cannot be given in
a general work of this nature. In its smaller refinements it requires plates on a much
larger scale than this volume allows. The reader, therefore, must be referred to Stuart's
Antiquities of Athens (original edition), and the publications of the Dilettanti Society, for
further information on the subject of the Grecian Doric. All that was here possible was to
give a general idea of the order. In the figure, E is the section of the capitals of the inner
columns of the temple on a larger scale. DD relate to the principal columns. F is a
section of one of the ant* or pilasters to double the scale of the capital. The centre inter-
columniation 4 modules -^jj, from axis to axis of columns. The principal Grecian Doric
examples are — the Parthenon, the temple of Theseus, the propylaeum and the portico of
the Agora a,t Athens; the temple of Minerva at Sunium ; the temple at Corinth; of
Jupiter Nemasus, between Argos and Corinth ; temple of Apollo and portico of Philip in
the island of Delos ; the temple of Jupiter Panhellenius at Egina, and of Apollo Epicurius
at Phigalia ; the two temples at Selinus ; that of Juno Lucina and Concord at Agri-
gentum; the temple at Egesta, and the three temples at Passtum. (See 142, etseq.)
SECT. V.
THE IONIC ORDER.
2573. Of the Ionic order there are many extant examples, both Grecian and Roman ;
and, except the debased later examples of the latter, there is not that wide difference
between them that exists between the Grecian and Roman Doric. The Ionic has been
considered as deficient in appearance as compared with the other orders, on account of
700
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
the irregularity of its capital, which, on the return, presents difficulties in use. These
difficulties are not obviated by the practice of the Greeks, who made an angular volute on
each extremity of the principal fa9ade, and then returned the face of the capital. With
all our respect for Greek art, we think the expedient, though ingenious, a deformity ;
albeit, in the case of the type being a timber architrave, we must admit that the face of the
capital should lie in the direction of the superincumbent beam.
2574. In the example given (fig. 884.) we have, as in the examples of the preceding
Fig. 884.
orders, selected the profile of Vignola as the most elegant of the moderns ; and the reader
will here recollect that in the Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite orders, the module or semi-
diameter of the column is divided into 18 parts. In the figure, A is a plan of the sofite of
the cornice, and B a plan of the capital. The method of tracing the volute will be given
in a subsequent figure : previous to which, as in the orders already given, we subjoin a table,
showing the heights and projections of the parts of the order.
Members composing the Order.
Heights in Parts
of a Module.
Projections
from Axis of
Column in Parts
of a Module.
ENTABLATURE.
Fillet of cyma
H
46
Cyma recta
5
Fillet ---
I
41
Cyma reversa
Corona
2
6
401
381
A, cornice,
Fillet of the drip
Ovolo
1
4
29{
34 parts.
Astragal -
1
25*
Fillet
Dentel fillet -
4
241
21
Dentels
6
24
Fillet -
1
20
Cyma reversa -
4
191
B, Frieze -
27
15
CHAP. I.
THE IONIC ORDER.
701
Members composing the Order.
Heights in Parts
of a Module.
Projections
from Axis of
Column in Parts
of a Module.
Listel
!i
20
C, Architrave,
Cyma reversa - - -
First fascia - - -
3
71
19§
17
221 parts.
Second fascia - -
6
16
Third fascia -
4i
15
f Capital on the side
' I Capital on the coussinet, or cushion
19
16
20
171
COLUMN.
Fillet -
1
20
Cyma reversa -
2
19^
Listel --- -
1
1^5
E, Capital,
Channel of the volute -
Ovolo -
3
5
17
22
17 parts.
f Bead ...
2
18
Astragal \ Fillet
1
17
[ Conge, or cavetto
2
15
{"above
.
15
Shaft of the column j
16 mod. 6 parts.
^below
-
18
Apophyge
2
18
r Fillet -
H
20
Torus - - - -
5
22|
Fillet -
\
201
Scotia -
2
20
F, Base,
Fillet -
^
22
1 91 parts.
Two beads -
2
221
Fillet -
^
22
Scotia -
2
21
Fillet -
1
24
Plinth - -
6
25
PEDESTAL.
Fillet -
2
35
Cyma reversa -
*'j
34^
Corona -
3
33 \
G, Cornice,
Fillet of the drip
1
30
llf parts.
Ovolo -----
3
291
Bead - ...
1
27
Fillet -
1
26}
Conge
1J
25
Die, 4 modules
12f
1 mod. 7.
Conge ....
2
25
Fillet -----
1
27
H, Base,
Bead -----
] i
28
10 parts.
Cyma reversa -
3
27^
Fillet -
§
Slf
Plinth
4
33
The flutes in this order are separated by a listel.
2575. The letters to the leading divisions of the above table reff.r to the jig. 885.,
wherein the parts are drawn to a larger scale, and wherein I is the eye of the volute, pre-
sently to be described.
702
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
Fig. 885.
2576. Fig. 886. shows the method of drawing the volute, the centre of whose eye, as it
is called, is found by the intersection of an horizontal line from E, the bottom of the
CHAP. I.
THE IONIC ORDER.
703
echinus, with a vertical from D, the extremity of the cyma reversa. On the point of
intersection, with a radius equal to one part, describe a circle. Its vertical diameter is
called the cathetus, and forms the diagonal of a square, whose sides are to be bisected, and
through the points of bisection (see I, fig. 885.) the axes 1, 3 and 2, 4 are to be drawn,
each being divided into 6 equal parts. The points thus found will serve for drawing the
exterior part of the volute. Thus, placing the point of the compasses in the point 1, with
the radius ID, the quadrant DA is described. With the radius 2 A another quadrant may
be described, and so on. Similarly, the subdivisions below the points used for the outer
lines of the volute serve for the inner lines. The total height of the volute is 16 parts of
a module, whereof 9 are above the horizontal from E, and 7 below it.
2577. Vitruvius, according to some authors, has not given any fixed measures to the
pedestal of this order. Daniel Barbaro, however, his commentator, seems to think other-
wise ; and, on this head, we shall therefore follow him. The height of the pedestal is made
nearly a third part (including its base and cymatium) of the height of the column. To
the base of the column he assigns half a diameter, and to the shaft itself nearly 8 diameters,
its surface being cut into 24 flutes, separated by fillets from each other. His method of
describing the volute is not now thoroughly understood ; and it is, perhaps, of little
importance to trouble ourselves to decypher his directions, seeing that the mode of forming
it is derived from mathematical principles, as well understood now as in the days of the
author. The architrave he leaves without any fixed dimensions, merely saying that it must
be larger or smaller according to the height of the columns. He prescribes, however, that
the architrave, frieze, and cornice should together be somewhat less than a sixth part of the
height of the column, with its base and capital. The total height he makes the order,
according to our measures, is 25 modules and nearly 9 parts.
2578. Palladio gives to the pedestal 2 diameters and nearly two thirds of the height of
the column. He adopts the attic, though without rejecting the Ionic base, and makes it
half a diameter high, adding to it a small bead, which he comprises in the height of the
shaft, which he makes 8 diameters in height. To the architrave, frieze, and cornice, taken
together, he assigns a little less than one fifth of the height of the column, including its
base and capital, and makes the projection of the cornice equal to its height. The total
height of the order, in our measures, is, according to him, 27 modules and nearly 8 parts.
2579. Serlio, in this order more than any of the others, varies from Vitruvius. To the
pedestal he gives, including base, die, and cymatium, a little more than a third part of the
height of the column, with its base and capital. To the shaft of the column he gives
7 diameters, and diminishes it a sixth part of its diameter. His capital is that of Vitruvius,
as far as we can understand that master. His mode of constructing the volute differs from
other authors. His directions are, that having found the cathetus, which passes through
the centre of the eye, it must be divided into eight parts, from the abacus downwards, one
whereof is to be the size of the eye of the volute, four remain above the eye, and three
below that part comprised below the eye. The cathetus is then divided into six parts,
properly numbered by figures from 1 to 6. With one point of the compasses in 1, and
the other extended to the fillet of the volute, he describes a semicircle, and so on with
semicircles consecutively from 2 to 6, which will ultimately fall into the eye of the volute.
We cannot speak in high terms of Serlio's method, and therefore have thought it unne-
cessary to accompany the description with a figure. It is rather a clumsy method, and we
fear, if exhibited in a figure, would not satisfy our readers of its elegance. The height of
his architrave, frieze, and cornice together is a little
less than a fourth part of the height of the column,
including the base and capital. The whole height of
his order, in our measures, is 25 modules and 6 parts.
2580. Scamozzi directs that the pedestal shall be
with its base and cornice two diameters and a half of
the column. He uses the attic base, and, like Pal-
ladio, gives an astragal above the upper torus. To the
shaft of the column he assigns a height of little less
than 8 diameters, and makes its diminution a sixth
part of the diameter. He adopts the angular capital,
something like the example of that in the temple of
Fortuna Virilis. The height of his architrave, frieze,
and cornice is a little less than a fifth part of the
height of the column, with its base and capital. The
total height of his order, in our measures, is 26 mo-
dules.
2581. The principal examples of the Grecian Ionic
are in the temples of Minerva Polias, of Erectheus,
and the aqueduct of Hadrian, at Athens ; in the
temple of Minerva Polias at Priene ; of Bacchus at
704
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
Teos ; of Apollo Didymaeus at Miletus ; and of the small temple on the Ilyssus, near
Athens, whereof in fig. 887. the profile is given, and below, a table of the heights and
projections of the parts. It is to be observed, that in the Grecian Ionic volute the fillet
of the spiral is continued along the face of the abacus, whilst in the Roman examples
it rises from behind the ovolo. Some of the Athenian examples exhibit a neck below the
echinus, decorated with flowers and plants. The entablatures of the early Ionic are
usually very simple. The architrave has often only one fascia, the frieze is generally plain,
and the cornice is composed of few parts. In Book I. Chap. II. (153, et seq.*) we have
already examined the parts of the Grecian Ionic, and thereto refer the reader.
TABLE OF THE PARTS OF THE GRECIAN IONIC IN THE TEMPLE ON THE ILYSSUS.
Members composing the Order.
Heights in
Parts of a Mo-
dule and Deci-
mals.
Projections in
Parts of a
Module from
Axis of Column.
ENTABLATURE.
1
Fillet -
restored.
restored.
Cyma recta
restored.
restored.
Fillet ....
restored.
restored.
Cornice, sup-
Echinus -
2-040
34 -440
posed height
Corona -
6-240
33-960
18-33 parts.
Drip -
4-680
Cyma reversa - - - -
2-700
20-520
Fillet -
0-720
Echinus -
1-260
18-360
Frieze
29-901
17-400
(Fillet -
1-920
30-520
Echinus -
2-520
20-100
Bead -
1-200
17880
Fascia -
27 -600
17-160
COLUMN.
Echinus -
2-040
19-860
Fillets, or beads of volutes
1-050
Channel ....
7-320
Fillets, or beads of volutes
1-050
Capital, 19-32
Channel -
0-600
parts.
Cathetus
-
17-550
Echinus -
4-650
18-960
Bead -
1-080
17-250
Fillet -
0-450
15-720
Conge ....
1-080
Shaft -
,-fabove 15-360
17mod.7-HO(below 18.OOQ
Apophyge - -
1-080
Fillet ...
0-450
18-960
Bead
1-080
19-320
Base, 33-27
Horizontally fluted torus
Fillet -
6-120
0-450
22 -500
22-5OO
parts.
Scotia
6*000
21-840
Fillet
0-450
23-640
Torus
5-760
24-960
Plinth
1 1 -880
26-520
The height from the top of the echinus to the centre of the eye of the volute is 15-72
parts.
Total projection of the volute from axis of column, 27 '90.
The flutes are elliptical on the plan (see fig. 887.). and the distance between axes of
columns, 6 modules 3-24 parts.
CHAP. I.
THE CORINTHIAN ORDER.
705
SECT. VI.
THE CORINTHIAN ORDER.
2582. For the Corinthian order, we must seek examples rather in Rome than in any part
of Greece. The portico at Athens, and the arch of Hadrian at Athens, do not furnish us
with specimens of art comparable with the three columns in the Campo Vaccino, belonging,
as is generally supposed, to the temple of Jupiter Stator. Those in the temple near Mylassa,
and the Incantata, as it is called, at Salonica, do not satisfy the artist, as compared with
the examples in the remains of the temple of Mars Ultor at Rome, the temple of Vesta
at Tivoli, and others, for which the reader may refer to Desgodetz.
2583. The reader is again here reminded that the module or semidiameter is to be
Fig. 888.
divided into eighteen parts. In fig. 888. is a representation of the Corinthian order, whose
measures are given in the following table : —
Members composing the Order.
Heights in
Parts of a
Module.
Projections
from Axis in
Parts of a
Module.
ENTABLATURE.
r Fillet of cornice
1
53
Cyma recta
5
53
Fillet
1
48
Cyma reversa
$
45$
Corona
5
46
Cima reversa -
11
45£
A, cornice,
Modillion
6*
44f
38 parts.
Fillet (remainder of modillion band) -
4
28f
Ovolo ....
4
28
Bead ....
1
25
Fillet
|
24J
Dentils ....
6
24
Fillet -
£
20
Hollow or conge
3
19f
Zz
706
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
Members composing the Order.
Heights in
Parts of a
Module.
Projections
from Axis in
Parts of a
Module.
B, - Frieze, 1 mod. 1\ parts high -
-
15
Fillet -
1
20
Cyma reversa -
4
19§
Bead
1
17
C, architrave,
First fascia - - -
7
161
27 parts.
Cyma reversa - - - -
Second fascia - - - -
2
6
151
Bead ....
1
15J
Third fascia -
5
15
COLUMN.
Echinus
Fillet
? (
iagonally 36,
n plan 33£,
Lower member of abacus
3
D, capital,
Inverted echinus of the bell
2
22§
42 parts.
Large volutes - -
Upper small leaves -
6
4
31g
Large leaves -
12
at top, 241
Lower leaves
12
at top, 201
Astragal -
2
18
Fillet
1
17
Shaft,
Conge
2\
17 modules
o, n I" Upper part -
.
15
1£ part.
j_ Lower part - - -
-
18
Apophyge -
2
20
Fillet
lh
211
Torus ....
3
22
Fillet
1
201
Scotia ....
20
Fillet
I
21|
E, base,
Two beads ....
I
22
14^ parts.
Fillet
\
21|
Scotia
U
2 1 1
Fillet
1
23
Torus
4
25
Plinth ....
6
25
PEDESTAL.
Fillet
§
33^
Cyma reversa ...
33^
Corona ....
3
32
F, Cornice,
Throat
M
303
14\ parts.
Bead
i
26|
Fillet
^
Frieze
5
25*
Bead ....
H
261
Fillet
;
26}
Die,
91 \ parts.
Conge
Die -
Fillet
87;
1,
25
25
25
Conge
26*
Bead
u
271
G, Base,
14i parts.
Inverted cyma reversa
Fillet
Torus
3
1
3
26|
303
Plinth
6
321
CHAP. I.
THE CORINTHIAN ORDER.
707
Fig. 889.
2584. Fig. 889. shows the details of the entablature, &c. and also the profile and front
of the Corinthian modillion to a larger scale. On the profile is shown the caisson or sunk
panel on the sofite of the corona. The height is six parts, and the projection sixteen. As
seen in the figure, a distance equal to three parts and a half is taken for the height of the
smaller volute, and on this distance a scale of sixteen equal parts is made ; the figure shows
the dimensions to be given to the small squares, whose angles serve as centres to describe
the curves. Having drawn the line AB, it is divided into four equal parts by lines per-
pendicular to it, which, meeting vertical lines from A and B, give the points, which serve
as centres for striking the curve of the modillions. The acanthus leaf which supports it,
as well as the curves which form the profile of the roses in the caisson, are also struck by
compasses.
2285. In Jig. 890., which exhibits the method of drawing the Corinthian capital, one half
of the plan shows the capital in plan, and the other half of it laid down diagonally. Having
drawn the axis of the plan correspondent to the axis of the elevation of the capital, with a
radius equal to two modules, describe a circle, which divide into sixteen equal parts.
Their lines of division will each correspond to the centre of each leaf. The vase of the
capital is determined by a circle whose radius is 14| parts. The figure shows the circles
which bound the leaves upwards on the vase.
2586. The elevation shows the heights whereon are carried the projections of the plan.
Zz 2
70S
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
2 Modules
Fig. 890.
Above the leaves come the sixteen volutes, whereof the eight larger ones support the four
angles of the abacus, and the eight smaller ones support the flowers which decorate the
middle of the abacus. The volutes seen in profile may be drawn geometrically with the
compasses, but they are always more agreeable and easy when drawn by the eye with a
hand which feels the contours.
The different parts of the capital are as follow : A, plan of the leaves and abacus ; B,
plan of the larger and smaller volutes ; C, the vase or body of the capital; D, the first
tier of leaves ; E, the second tier of leaves ; F, the caulicolus ; G, the larger volute ; H,
the smaller volute ; I, the flower ; K, the abacus ; L, the lip of the vase.
2587. Vitruvius is scanty in the information he gives on the Corinthian order, and what
he says respecting it relates more to the origin of the capital and the like than to the pro-
portions of the detail. He makes the capital only 1 diameter high, and then forms upon
the plan a diagonal 2 diameters long, by means whereof the four faces are equal accord-
ing to the length of the arc, whose curve will be the ninth part in length and its height
the seventh part of the capital. He forms the order with a pedestal, with base and cornice,
as Daniel Barbaro would have it. The whole height given to it in our measures is about
27 modules and 2 parts.
2588. Palladio uses the pedestal with its ordinary subdivisions, making it between a
third and fourth part of the height of the column, including its base and capital. To
the base he gives 1 module, the shaft of the column a little less than 8 diameters, and
places twenty-four flutes upon it, which two thirds downwards are channelled, and on the
other or lower third neatly fitted with convex pieces of segments of cylinders called cab-
lings. He makes the capital 1 diameter and a sixth in height, giving it two tiers of
leaves, caulicoli, and abacus. To the architrave, frieze, and cornice he assigns a little less
CHAP. 1.
THE COMPOSITE ORDER.
709
than a fifth part of the column, including the base and capital. The whole height given
to the order by this author is about 27 modules and 10 parts of our measures.
2589. Serlio makes his pedestal pretty nearly as the rest. To the base of the column
he assigns half a diameter for the height, when that is about level with the eye, but when
much above it he directs all the members to be increased in height accordingly, as where
one order is placed above a/iother, he recommends the number of parts to be dimi-
nished. To the shaft of the column he gives a little more than 7 diameters, and to
the capital the same height as that given by Vitruvius, whom, nevertheless, he considers
in error, or rather that some error has crept into the text, and that the abacus ought not to
be included in the height. The height of the architrave, frieze, and cornice he makes a
little less than a fourth part of the column, including its base and capital. The whole of
the order, according to him, is 28 modules and a little more than 1 part of our measures.
2590. Scamozzi gives to the pedestal of this order the height of 3 diameters and one
third, composing it with the usual parts of base, die, and cornice ; to the base of the
column the same height and mouldings as Palladio. To the shaft of the column he
assigns the height of 8 diameters and one third, and diminishes it on each side an eighth
part of its thickness at bottom. The capital is of the same height as that by Palladio. The
architrave, frieze, and cornice he directs to be a little less than a fifth part of the height of
the column. By our measures the whole height of his order is 30 modules and 20 parts.
SECT. VII.
THE COMPOSITE ORDER.
2591. The Composite order, as its name imports, is a compound of others, the Corin-
thian and Ionic, and was received into the regular number of orders by the Romans.
Philander, in his notes on Vitruvius, has described its proportions and character. Its
capital consists, like the Corinthian, of two ranges of acanthus leaves distributed over the
surface of a vase, but instead of the stalks or branches, the shoots appear small and as
though flowering, adhering to the vase and rounding with the capital towards its
middle. A fillet terminates the vase upwards, and over the fillet an astragal is placed,
and above that an echinus, from which the volutes roll themselves to meet the tops
of the upper tier of leaves, on which they seem to rest. A large acanthus leaf is bent
above the volutes, for the apparent purpose of sustaining the corner of the abacus, which
is dissimilar to that of the Corinthian order, inasmuch as the flower is not supported by a
stalk seemingly fixed on the middle of each face of the abacus. The principal examples of
'/, z 3
710
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
the order are at Rome, in the temple of Bacchus, the arches of Septimius Severus, of the
Goldsmiths, and of Titus ; also in the baths of Dioclesian.
2592. Fig. 891. (see preceding page) is a representation of Vignola's profile of the order.
Its measures are subjoined in the following table : —
Members composing the Order.
Heights in
' Parts of a
Module.
Projections from
Axis in Parts of
a Module.
ENTABLATURE.
Fillet of cornice -
11
51
Cyma recta -
52
51
Fillet
1
46
Cyma reversa ...
2
451
Bead ....
1
433
A, Cornice,
36 parts.
Corona -
Cyma under the corona
Fillet
5
43
41
33
Cyma reversa -
4
32A
Fillet of the dentils ...
i
28
Dentils ....
71
29
Fillet ....
23
Ovolo ....
5
22
Bead ....
1
17
B, Frieze,
27 parts.
Fillet
Conge -
Upright face -
IT|
16}
15
15
Apophyge
7*
22
Fillet ....
1
22
Cavetto
2
20|
C, Architrave,
Ovolo -
Bead ....
3
1
20
27 parts.
First fascia - -
10
17*
Cyma reversa
2
16§
Second fascia -
8
15
COLUMN.
Capital,
42 parts.
Echinus and fillet ...
Lower member of abacus
Volute ....
Bend of upper leaves
Upper leaves ....
2
4
12
3
9
20§
diagonally 32|
diagonally 30|
24
Bend of lower leaves -
3
90J
Lower leaves -
9
Astragal - ...
2
17i
Fillet
1
Ig!
Conge ....
2
15?
Column,
f Above
_
15*
16 mod. 12 parts.
Shaft 4
[Below
16 mod. 12 par
ts.
18
Apophyge
2
20
Fillet
H
20
Conge ....
2
20
Fillet ....
1 1
20
Torus ....
3
22
Fillet ....
i
20i
Scotia ....
H
•
20
E, Base of co-
Fillet ....
I
lumn, 18 parts.
Bead ....
I
213
Fillet
I
211
Scotia »
2
202
Fillet ..,«-.
\
3
Torus « •
4
25
Plinth ....
6
25
CHAP. I.
THE COMPOSITE ORDER.
711
Members composing the Order.
Heights in
Parts of a
Module.
Projections from
Axis in Parts of
a Module.
PEDESTAL.
Fillet -
1
33
Cyma reversa
M
32^
Corona
3
31£
F, Cornice,
14 parts.
Cyma recta -
Fillet ... -
1
281
26}
Cavetto -
1
25}
Frieze
5
25
Bead -
1
27
Fillet -
1
27}
Conge -
u
25
Die, 94 parts.
Die - ...
883
25
Apophyge
2
27
Fillet
1
27 •
Bead
1
271
G, Base,
Inverted cyma reversa
Fillet
3
1
30}
12 parts.
Torus -
3
33*
Plinth
4
33
2593. The flutes in this order are separated by a fillet between them, and are, when
used, twenty-four in number.
Fig. 892.
Zz 4
712
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
2594. Fig. 892. (see preceding page) shows the parts of the entablature, base, and pedestal
to a larger scale, and^. 893. gives, similarly, a more intelligible, because larger, represent-
18 15 12 9 63 1\^ **-- ZModute$
Fig. 893.
ation of the mode of setting up the capital, which, as we have already observed, has only
eight volutes. In this figure A is the plan, as viewed frontwise ; B, that of the capital,
viewed diagonally ; C, the vase or body of the capital ; D, the first tier of leaves ; E, the
second tier of the same ; F, the volutes ; G, the flower ; H, the abacus.
2595. Vitruvius has not given any instructions on this order; we are therefore obliged
to begin our parallel, as in the other orders, with —
2596. Palladio, whose examples of it are light and much decorated. To the pedestal's
height this master assigns 3 diameters and three eighths of the column, adding to it a
lower plinth of the height of half a diameter. He makes the base of the column half a
diameter in height, and assigns to the shaft 8 diameters and a little more than one fourth, and
cuts on it twenty-four flutes. The height of this capital is 1 diameter and a sixth, his
volutes being very similar to those he prescribes for his Ionic. The architrave, frieze, and
cornice he makes a little less than a fifth part of the height of the column. The whole
height of his profile in our measures is 30 modules and 1 2 parts.
2597. Serlio seems to have founded his profile of this order upon the example in the
Coliseum at Rome. He makes the height of the pedestal a little less than 4 diameters of
the column. To the shaft of the column he assigns 8 diameters and a half. To the
height of the capital he gives 1 diameter, differing therein from his profile of the
Corinthian order in the disposition of the volutes and leaves. His entablature, which is a
little less in height than one fourth of the column, he divides into three equal parts for the
CHAP. I.
PEDESTALS.
713
architrave, frieze, and cornice. The total height of his profile in our measures is 32 mo-
dules and 9 parts, being much higher than that of Palladia
2598 Scamozzi's profile greatly resembles that of Palladio. His pedestal is 3 dia-
meters,'and the base of his column half a diameter in height. The shaft of his column-
withou't base or capital, is 8 diameters and one twelfth high, and the capital 1 diameter
and a sixth. The entablature is one fifth part of the column in height, and the whole
of the profile in our measures is nearly 29 modules and 7 parts.
SECT. VIII.
PEDESTALS.
2599. We think it necessary to devote a small portion of this chapter to the consider-
ation of pedestals, on account of the great difference which exists in the examples of the
orders, and this we shall place in a tabular form, previous to the general remarks it will be
necessary to make.
TABLE SHOWING THE HEIGHT OF PEDESTALS IN ANCIENT AND MODERN WORKS.
Plinth In
Minutes.
Mouldings
above
Plinth in
Minutes.
Die in
Minutes.
Cornice in
Minutes.
Total
Height io
Minutes,
f Palladio
Donc i Scamozzi -
26
30
14
15
80
68}
2O
14O
Temple of Fortuna Vi-
rilis
44
19|
93|
23}
180^
Ionic
Coliseum
Palladio
33}
28§
811
971
17
211
1411
162}
Scamozzi
30
15
821
09!
150
IArch of Constantino -
17£
29
153
291
228
Coliseum
Palladio^
23
23^
111
78
93
19*
150*
Scamozzi
30
155
132^
221
200
Arch of Titus
55
30
141
29
255
Arch of the Gold-
smiths
46
25}
144»
25}
241
Composite
Arch of Septimius Se-
verus
30
30|
140£
29|
182i
Palladio
33
17
133
17
200
Scamozzi
30
15
I1SJ
22*
18O
2600. The minutes used in the above table are each equal to one sixtieth of the diameter
of the shaft.
2601. Whether the pedestal is to be considered a component part of an order is of little
importance. There are so many cases that arise in designing a building, in which it
cannot be dispensed with, that we think it useful to connect it with the column and
entablature, and have consequently done so in the examples already given of the several
orders. Vitruvius, in the Doric, Corinthian, and Tuscan orders, makes no mention of
pedestals, and in the Ionic order he seems to consider them rather as a necessary part in
the construction of a temple than as belonging to the order itself.
2602. A pedestal consists properly of three parts, the base, the die, and the cornice.
" Some authors," says Chambers, " are very averse to pedestals, and compare a column
raised on a pedestal to a man mounted on stilts, imagining they were first introduced
merely through necessity, and for want of columns of a sufficient length. " It is indeed
true," he continues, " that the ancients often made use of artifices to lengthen their
columns, as appears by some that are in the baptistery of Constantino at Rome ; the shafts
of which, being too short for the building, were lengthened and joined to their bases by an
undulated sweep, adorned with acanthus leaves ; and the same expedient has been made
use of in some fragments which were discovered a few years ago at Nismes, contiguous to
the temple of Diana. Nevertheless, it doth not seem proper to comprehend pedestals in
714 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
the number of these artifices, since there are many occasions on which they are evidently
necessary, and some in which the order, were it not so raised, would lose much of its
beautiful appearance. Thus, within our churches, if the columns supporting the vault
were placed immediately on the ground, the seats would hide their bases and a good part
of their shafts ; and in the theatres of the ancients, if the columns of the scene had been
placed immediately on the stage, the actors would have hid a considerable part of them
from the audience ; for which reason it was usual to raise them on very high pedestals,
as was likewise necessary in their triumphal arches ; and in most of their temples the
columns were placed on a basement or continued pedestal (stylobata), that so the whole
might be exposed to view, notwithstanding the crowds of people with which these places
were frequently surrounded. And the same reason will authorise the same practice in our
churches, theatres, courts of justice, or other public buildings where crowds frequently
assemble. In interior decorations, where, generally speaking, grandeur of style is not to
be aimed at, a pedestal diminishes the parts of the order, which otherwise might appear
too clumsy ; and has the farther advantage of placing the columns in a more favourable
view, by raising their base nearer to the level of the spectator's eye. And in a second order
of arcades there is no avoiding pedestals, as without them it is impossible to give the
arches any tolerable proportion. Sometimes, too, the situation makes it necessary to
employ pedestals, an instance of which there is in the Luxembourg at Pariu ; where, the
body of the building standing on higher ground than the wings, the architect was obliged
to raise the first order of the wings on a pedestal, to bring it upon a level with that of the
body or corps de logis of the building, which stands immediately on the pavement."
2603. The dies of pedestals are occasionally decorated with tablets or with sunk panels
whose margins are moulded ; but, generally speaking, such practices are to be avoided.
In very large pedestals the surface may be thus broken, as in single monumental columns,
which, at best, are but paltry substitutes for originality. Habit has reconciled us to view
with pleasure the Trajan and Antonine columns, the monument of London, and the co-
lumn of Napoleon in the Place Vendome at Paris, in each of which the pedestals are
ornamented in some way or other, so as to tell in some measure the story of the person
in whose honour they were erected, or, as in the basso-relievo of the London column, the
event which it records. But care must be taken when inscriptions are used to preserve
a rigid adherence to truth, and not to perpetuate a lie, as was the case in the monument
just named, against a most worthy portion of the people of the British empire.
2604. As respects the employment of pedestals, we should advise the student, except
under very extraordinary circumstances, to avoid the use of them under columns which
are placed at a distance from the main walls of an edifice, as, for example, in porches
peristyles, or porticoes, — a vice most prevalent in the Elizabethan architecture, or rather
the cinque-cento period, which the people of this day are attempting with all its ab-
surdities to revive. Here we must again quote our author, Sir William Chambers,
whose excellent work we have used above, and on which we shall continue to draw largely.
" With regard," he says, "to the application of pedestals, it must be observed, that
when columns are entirely detached, and at a considerable distance from the wall, as
when they are employed to form porches, peristyles, or porticoes, they should never be
placed on detached pedestals, as they are in some of Scamozzi's designs, in the temple
of Scisi ( Assisi) mentioned by Palladio, and at Lord Archer's house, now Lowe's hotel, in
Covent Garden ; for then they indeed may be compared to men mounted on stilts, as they
have a very weak and tottering appearance. In compositions of this kind, it is generally
best to place the columns immediately on the pavement, which may be either raised on a
continued solid basement, or be ascended to by a flight of fronting steps, as at St. Paul's,
and at St. George's Bloomsbury ; but if it be absolutely necessary to have a fence in the
intercolumniations, as in the case of bridges or other buildings on the water, or in a second
order, the columns may then, in very large buildings, be raised on a continued plinth, as in
the upper order of the western porch of St. Paul's, which in such case will be sufficiently
high : and in smaller buildings, wherever it may not be convenient or proper to place the
balustrade between the shafts, the columns may be placed on a continued pedestal, as they
are in Palladio's designs for Signer Cornaro's house at Piombino, and at the villa Arsieri,
near Vicenza, another beautiful building of the same master." The same author continues:
" The base and cornice of these pedestals must run in a straight line on the outside through-
out, but the dies are made no broader than the plinths of the columns, the intervals between
them being filled with balusters, which is both really and apparently lighter than if the
whole pedestal were a continued solid." The author quoted then proceeds to caution the
student against the employment of triangular, circular, and polygonal pedestals, and such
as are swelled and have their die in the form of a baluster, or are surrounded by cinctures.
These extravagances were rife in the age of Louis XV., but notwithstanding the zeal of
the jobbing upholsterers and decorators of the present day, who are the curse of all archi-
tectural art, we hope they will never be permanently revived in this country, though their
introduction has already proceeded to a considerable extent.
CHAP. I.
INTERCOLUMNIATIONS.
715
SECT. IX.
INTERCOLUMNIATIONS.
2605. Aii iiitercolumniation is the clear distance between two columns measured at the
lower diameter of their shafts. This distance must depend principally on the order em-
ployed : in the Tuscan, for example, the nature of its composition allows a greater width
between columns than would be admissible in the Corinthian order, independent of what
has already been stated in Sect. II. (2524, et seq.) in respect of supports and loading ; and
this because of the enrichments of the several orders requiring that they should take their
departures (to use a phrase borrowed from another science) from the axes of their re-
spective columns. The ancient names (which are still preserved) of the different inter-
columniations are described by Vitruvius in his second and fourth books. They are — the
pycnostyle, wherein the space between the columns is 1 diameter and a half, as its etymology
from TTVKVOS and arvXos imports (thick in columns), an iiitercolumniation used only in the
Ionic and Corinthian orders ; the systyle (ffv(TTv\o$, with columns a little more apart),
wherein the interval between the columns is a little greater ; the eustyle (euoTuAos, or well-
contrived interval), wherein the intercolumniation is of 2 diameters and a quarter ; the
diastyh (StaffTvXos, with a more extended interval between the columns), having an inter-
columniation of 3 diameters ; and the arceostyle (apctio(TTv\os) with few columns), wherein
the interval is 4 diameters. In the Doric order the triglyphs necessarily regulate the
intercolumniations, inasmuch as the
triglyph should fall over the axis of
the column ; hence the intercolumnia-
tions in this order are either systyle
monotriglyph (that is, with a single tri-
glyph in the intercolumniation), or
\\ diameter; diastyle, or of 2f dia-
meters ; or araeostyle, which will make
the interval 4 diameters, as will be
immediately understood on refer-
ence to fig. 894. ; wherein A is the
sysytle monotriglyph intercolumnia-
tion of 3 modules ; B, that of the dia-
style, or 6 modules ; and C, the arseo-
style, or of 8 modules. The inter-
columniation marked D serves for
the application of coupled columns, wherein the rule seems necessarily to be that the space
between the columns may be increased, so that the requisite number of supports accord-
ing to the order and intercolumniation is preserved.
fis-
N Fig. 895.
2606. The intervals of the Tuscan order are indicated \r\fig. 895., wherein A shows the
intercolumniation called eustyle of 4i modules ; B, the diastyle of 6 modules ; and C, the
arasostyle of 8. D, of 1 module, is the space of coupled columns.
The intercolumniations in this order are scarcely susceptible of rules other than those we
have indicated in our previous discussion on the orders generally in Sect. II. (2523, et seq.),
wherein we have entered on the subject at such length that we refrain from saying more
in this place. We may, however, observe, that the application of the principles there
mentioned are so intimately connected with this section, that the separation of one from the
other would destroy all our scheme for keeping the student in the right path. Hereafter
the principles in question will be applied to and tested on arcades.
716
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
Fig. 896.
Fig. 897.
2607. In fig. 896., of Ionic inter-
columniations, A is the eustyle ar-
rangement ; B, that of the diastyle ;
C, that of the araostyle ; and D, that
of coupled columns.
2608. Fig. 897. is a similar ap-
plication of the inter columniations to
the Corinthian order, wherein also A
exhibits the eustyle ; B, the diastyle ;
and C, the araeostyle intervals : D
also showing the space used of 1 mo-
dule for coupled columns.
2609. Sir William Chambers, for
whose observations we have much
respect, — and, indeed, to whose va-
luable labours we acknowledge our-
selves much indebted, — seems to have
had a distant glimpse of the doc-
trine of equal weights and supports,
but knew not exactly how to jus-
tify his notions on the subject. He
therefore avoids the main question by
attributing the pycnostyle interco-
lumniation rather to necessity than
choice ; observing, that " as the ar-
chitraves were composed of single
stones or blocks of marble, extending
from the axis of one column to that
of another, it would have been diffi-
cult to find blocks of a sufficient
length for diastyle intervals in large
buildings." But this is a reason al-
together unsatisfactory, inasmuch as
we know that they were sufficiently
masters of masonry to have conquered any such difficulty. We are much more inclined to
agree with him when he says (always, however, reverting to the principle of equal supports
and weights), " With regard to the araeostyle and Tuscan intercolumniations, they are by
much too wide either for beauty or strength, and can only be used in structures where
the architraves are of wood, and where convenience and economy take place of all other
considerations : nor is the diastyle sufficiently solid in large compositions." These consider-
ations, however, may be always safely referred to the doctrines laid down in Section II.
of this Chapter, already alluded to ; and, indeed, that reference is justified by the instruc-
tions of Vitruvius in the second chapter of his third book, wherein he directs that the
thickness of the column should be augmented in an enlarged intercolumniation : as, for
example, supposing the diameter of a column in the pycnostyle species to be taken one
tenth of the height, it should in an araeostyle be one eighth ; arguing, that if in an areeostyle
the thickness of the columns exceed not a ninth or tenth part of their height, they appear
too slender, and in the pycnostyle species the column at one eighth of its height is clumsy
and unpleasant in appearance. Upon this passage Chambers observes, " that the intention
of Vitruvius was good, but the means by which he attempts to compass it insufficient.
His design was to strengthen the supports in proportion as the intervals between them
were enlarged ; yet according to the method proposed by him this cannot be effected,
since one necessary consequence of augmenting the diameter of the column is enlarging the
intercolumniation proportionably. Palladio and Scamozzi have however admitted this
precept as literally just, and by their manner of applying it have been guilty of very con-
siderable absurdity." We are not at all inclined to admit the truth of the opinion of
Chambers ; for, again reverting to the doctrine of the supports and loading, which was un-
known to him, it is to be remembered that increase in the space of the intercolumniation
immediately involves increase of weight in the load or entablature, and therefore seems
to demand increase of diameter to the supports. Palladio and Scamozzi were not there-
fore guilty of the absurdity laid to their charge.
2610. Among the other reasons for our adopting the practice of Vignola is that he has
observed so much uniformity in his intercolumniations, except of the Doric order, wherein
the triglyphs prevent it, aware as we are that the practice has by many able writers been
much condemned. Chambers even says that his practice in this respect is " preferable to
any other, as it answers perfectly the intention of Vitruvius, preserves the character of each
order, and maintains in all of them an equal degree of real solidity."
CHAP. I. INTERCOLUMNIATIONS. 717
2611. With the exception of the Doric order, wherein the most perfect arrangement of
the detail results from the interval produced by the ditriglyph, there can be no doubt that,
abstractedly considered, the diastyle and eustyle intercolumniations are very convenient
in use, and may be employed on most occasions, except, as just mentioned, in the Doric
order.
2612. In setting out the intervals between columns especial care must be taken that the
centres of modillions, dentils, and other ornaments in the entablature fall over the axes of
the columns. It is on this account that Vignola gives about two diameters and a third to
the intervals in all the orders except the Doric, instead of two diameters and a quarter, as
required by Vitruvius; an alteration which removes the difficulty and greatly simplifies the
rules.
2613. Cases from many circumstances often occur where greater intercolumniations
than the eustyle and diastyle are too narrow for use, and the moderns, headed by Perrault,
have adopted an interval which that master has called araeosystyle. This disposition is
obtained without infringing on the law of weights and supports, to which we have already
so often alluded. In it the columns are coupled, as shown in the preceding figures, the in-
terval being formed by swo systyle intercolumniations, the column separating them being,
as Chambers observes, " approached towards one of those at the extremities, sufficient room
being only left between them for the projection of the capitals, so that the great space is
3i diameters wide, and the small one only half a diameter." One of the finest ex-
amples of this practice is to be seen in the fa9ade of the Louvre, (see Jig. 176.) which in
many respects must be considered as the finest of modern buildings. The objections of
Blondel to the practice are not without some weight, but the principal one is the extra
expense incurred by it ; for certain it is that it requires nearly double the number of
columns wanted in the diastyle, besides which it cannot be denied that it causes con-
siderable irregularities in the entablatures of the Doric, Corinthian, and Composite orders,
which, however, are not apparent in the other two. It is, nevertheless, so useful in cases
of difficulty which constantly arise, that we should be sorry to exclude the practice alto-
gether, though we cannot recommend it for unlimited adoption.
2614. A great many expedients have been employed to obviate the irregularity of the
modillions in the Corinthian and Composite orders, arising from the grouping of columns.
We, on this head, agree with Chambers, whose instructions we subjoin in his own words :
" The simplest and best manner of proceeding is to observe a regular distribution in the
entablature, without any alteration in its measures, beginning at the two extremities of the
building, by which method the modillions will answer to the middle of every other column,
and be so near the middle of the intermediate ones, that the difference will not easily be
perceivable. The only inconvenience arising from this practice is, that the three central
intercolumniations of the composition will be broader by one third of a module than is
necessary for eleven modillions : but this is a very trifling difference, easily divided and
rendered imperceptible if the extent be anything considerable." In the Doric order, the
grouping of columns is not so easily managed, and therein our author recommends the
expedient employed by Palladio, in the Palazzo Chiericato, and in the Basilica at Vicenza.
In the last-named, the coupled columns are only 21 minutes apart, thus making the space
between the axes 2 modules and 21 minutes, that is, 6 minutes beyond the breadth of a
regular metope, and 2 half-triglyphs. To conceal the excess, the triglyphs are 31 minutes
broad, and their centres are carried 1 minute within the axis of the column, and the
metope is 3 minutes broader than the others. These small differences are not perceptible
without a very critical and close examination of the distribution. In this arrangement
the attic base of Palladio should be employed, because of its small projection, and the
larger intercolumniation must be areeostyle.
2615. Intercolumniations should be preserved of equal width in all peristyles, galleries,
porticoes, and the like ; but in loggias or porches, the middle interval may be wider than
the others by a triglyph, a modillion or two, and a few dentils, that is, if there be no
coupled columns at the angles nor groupings with pilasters, in which cases all the other
intervals should be of the same dimensions. It has been observed by Blondel, that on
occasions where several rows of columns are used, as, for instance, in the curved colonnades
of the piazza of St. Peter's, the columns ought as much as possible to be in straight lines,
because otherwise the arrangement can only be understood by viewing it from the centre of
the figure employed. The observation is well worth the student's consideration, for the
resulting effect of a departure from this rule, as Chambers has properly observed, is
" nothing but confusion to the spectator's eye from every point of view. " The same
author condemns, and with justice, though in a smaller degree, the use of " engaged
pilasters or half columns placed behind the detached columns of single, circular, oval, or
polygonal peristyles, as may be seen in those of Burlington House. Wherefore," he
says, " in buildings of that kind, it will perhaps be best to decorate the back wall of the
peristyle with windows or niches only." We can hardly suppose it here necessary to
caution the student against the use of intercolumniations without reference to the absolute
718 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
size of them : they must not be less than three feet even in small buildings, because, as
Sir William Chambers seriously says, " there is not room for a fat person to pass between
them."
261 6. Before leaving the subject which has furnished the preceding remarks on inter -
columniations, we most earnestly recommend to the student the re-perusal of Section II. of
this Book. The intervals between the columns have, in this section, been considered more
with regard to the laws resulting from the distribution of the subordinate parts, than with
relation to the weights and supports, which seem to have regulated the ancient practice :
but this distribution should not prevent the application generally of the principle, which
may without difficulty, as we know from our own experience, be so brought to bear upon
it as to produce the most satisfactory results. We may be perhaps accused of bringing a
fine art under mechanical laws, and reducing refinement to rules. We regret that we
cannot bind the professor by more stringent regulations. It is certain that, having in this
respect carried the point to its utmost limit, there will still be ample opportunity left for
him to snatch that grace, beyond the reach of art, with the neglect whereof the critics are
wont so much to taunt the artist in every branch.
SECT. X.
ARCADES AND ARCHES.
2617. An arcade, or series of arches, is perhaps one of the most beautiful objects at-
tached to the buildings of a city which architecture affords. The utility, moreover, of
arcades in some climates, for shelter from rain and heat, is obvious ; but in this dark
climate, the inconveniences resulting from the obstruction to light which they offer, seems
to preclude their use in the cities of England. About public buildings, however, where
the want of light is of no importance to the lower story, as
in theatres, courts of law, churches, and places of public amuse-
ment, and in large country seats, their introduction is often
the source of great beauty, when fitly placed.
2618. In a previous section (2524.) we have spoken of
Lebrun's theory of an equality between the weights and sup-
ports in decorative architecture : we shall here return to the
subject, as applied to arcades, though the analogy is not, per-
haps, strictly in point, because of the dissimilarity of an arch to
a straight lintel. In fig. 898. the hatched part AEMFDCOB
is the load, and ABGH, CDIK the supports. The line GK
is divided into six parts, which serve as a scale to the diagram,
the opening HI being four of them, the height BH six, NO
two, and OM one. From the exact quadrature of the circle
being unknown, it is impossible to measure with strict accu-
racy the surface BOC, which is necessary for finding by sub-
traction the surface AEMFDCOB ; but using the common
method, we have
AD x AE-BC2*785- = to that surface; or, in figures,
= 11-72.
Now the suports will beIKxICx2 (the two piers) = the piers ; or, in figures,
1x6x2 = 12-00.
That is, in the diagram the load is very nearly equal to the supports, and would have been
found quite so, if we could have more accurately measured the circle, or had with greater
nicety constructed it. But we have here, where strict mathematical precision is not our
object, a sufficient ground for the observations which follow, and which, if not founded on
something more than speculation, form a series of very singular accidents. We have chosen
to illustrate the matter by an investigation of the examples of arcades by Vignola, because
we have thought his orders and arcades of a higher finish than those of any other master ;
but testing the hypothesis, which we intend to carry out by examples from Palladio, Sca-
mozzi, and the other great masters of our art, not contemplated by Lebrun, the small
differences, instead of throwing a doubt upon, seem to confirm it.
2619. In Jiff. 898. we will now carry, therefore, the consideration of the weights and
supports a step further than Lebrun, by comparing them with the void space they sur-
round, that is, the opening HBOCI ; and here we have the rectangle HBCI = HBxHI,
that is, 6x4 = 24, and the semicircle BOC equal, as above, to 4-x— 3^ = 6-28. Then
24 4-6-28 = 30-28 is the area of the whole void, and the weight and support being 11 -72 +
CHAP. I.
ARCADES AND ARCHES.
719
12 = 23 '72, are a little more than two thirds the areas of the whole void; a proportion
which, if we are to rely on the approval of ages in its application, will be found near the
limits of what is beautiful.
2620. We shall now refer to the examples of Vignola alluded to ; but to save the repe-
tition of figures in their numbers, as referred to, each case is supposed in what immediately
follows as unconnected with the entablatures which they exhibit, it being our intention to
take those into separate consideration.
Fig. 899. Fig. 900.
2621. Suppose the Tuscan example (fig. 899.) without an entablature, we have the
Supports, 9'75 x 3 = 29'25
The whole of rectangle above them, 4-25 x 9'5 = 40-375
Less semi-arch, 6'5 x 6'5g x 7854 = 16-6
23-775
— 53-025 solid parts.
The area of the void is 16'6 + 9 -75 x 6-5 = 79'97, whereof 53'025, the portion of solid
parts, is not widely different from two thirds.
In Vignola's Doric example, (fig. 900- ), again without the entablature, we have
Supports, 10-5x3 = 31-50
The whole rectangle above them, 5'5 x 10 -0 = 55 '00
Less semi-arch,
7x7x-7854
35-76
67 '26 solid parts.
The area of the void is 1 9'24 + 10-5 x 7 = 92-74, whereof 67'26, the portion of solid parts,
is not much different from two-thirds.
In the Ionic example (fig. 901.), still without considering the entablature, the following
will result : —
Supports, 12-64 x 2-66= 33 '61
The whole rectangle above them, 10-88 x 5-2 =56-57
T . , 6-4 x6'4x 7854
JLess semi-arch, ~ = 16*08
40-49
74-10 solid parts.
The area of the void is 16-08 + 12-64 x 7-1 = 105-82, whereof 74-10, the portion of
solid parts, differs little in amount from two thirds of the void.
720
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
Fig. 901.
Fig. 902.
In the Corinthian example (fig. 902. ), not taking into consideration the entablature, the
following is the result : —
Supports, 14-11 x 3-55= 50-O9
The whole rectangle above them, 11 '33 x 5 '88 = 66 -62
Less semi-arch, 7>76*7?X'7854 =23-65
=32-97
83-06 solid parts.
The area of the void is 23-65+ 14-111 x 7-76 = 133-15, whereof 83-O6, the portion of
solid parts, is somewhat less than two thirds of the void.
2622. The result which flows from the above examination seems to be that, without
respect to the entablature, the ratio of the solid part to that of the void is about -666.
Bearing this in mind, we shall next investigate the ratio of the supports and weights, con-
sidering the entablature above the arcade as a part of the composition ; and still following
Vignola, whose examples, as we have above stated, do not so much differ from those of
other masters as to make it necessary to examine those of each, we will begin with that
architect's Tuscan arcade, without pedestals, exhibited in fig. 899. on the preceding page.
In this example, from centre to centre of pier,
The whole area, in round numbers, 17*5 x 9-5 - =166 -2
Area of semi-arch, 6-5x6-52x7854 - =16-6
Rectangle under it, 9'75 x 6*5 - =63-3
Total void, therefore, =79 '9
86-3
Entablature, 9-5x3-5 - - =33-2
Leaves for the supporting parts - 53-1
In this example, therefore, the supporting parts are 53, those supported 33, and the
voids 79. The ratio between the solid and void parts = -9, and the ratio of the supports
to the weights is §§= -62.
The distance between the axes of the columns is 9 modules and 6 parts ; the height of
the semi-arch, 3 modules and 3 parts ; and between the crown of it and the under side of
the architrave is 1 module; the whole height, including entablature, being 17 modules
and a half.
CHAP. I. ARCADES AND ARCHES. 721
2623. Following the same general method, we submit the Doric arcade (Jig. 900.)
without pedestal. Measuring, as before, from centre to centre of piers,
The whole area, in round numbers, 20 -2 x 1O - - =202'O
Area of semi-arch 7x7*'7854 - -=19-2
Rectangle under it, 10-5 x 7 - =73 -5
Total void, therefore, = 92-7
109-3
Entablature, 10x4-2 - - - - - 42-0
Leaves for the supporting parts - - - 67 '3
In this example, therefore, the supporting parts are 67, those supported 42, and the
voids 92. The ratio between the solid and void parts is -85, and the ratio of the supports
to the weights is jff = -63.
The distance between the axes of the columns is 1 0 modules, the height of the semi-arch
is 3 modules and 6 parts, and between the crown of it and the underside of the architrave
is 2 modules ; the whole height, including the entablature, being 20 modules 3± parts.
2624. The Ionic arcade, without pedestal, is shown in Jig. 901. The measurements,
as above, from centre to centre of pier,
The whole area, 22-64 x 10-88 in round numbers - - =246-3
Area of semi-arch, Si*-*-**™* . _ 16 l
Rectangle under it, 12-64 x 7-1 - =89'7
Total void, therefore, =105-8
140-5
Entablature, 10-88 x 4-8 - - - - - - 52-2
Leaves for the supporting parts - 88 -3
Hence, in the example, the supporting parts are 88, those supported 52, and the voids
105 ; so that the ratio of the voids to the solids, in this order, is -8, and the ratio of the
supports to the weights does not materially differ from the other orders, being || = -6.
The distance between the axes of the columns is 10 modules 16 parts, the height of the
semi-arch is 3^ modules 3 parts, and between the crown of it and the under side of the
architrave is 2 modules ; the whole height, including the entablature, being 22 modules
13^ parts.
2625. Fig. 902, represents the Corinthian arcade without pedestal. The measurement,
as before, is from centre to centre of pier.
The whole area, 25 -2 x 1 1 -33, in round numbers = 288-5
Area of semi-arch, 7^^^ = 23-6
Rectangle under it, 14-11x7-76= 109-5
Total voids, therefore, = 133-1
155-4
Entablature, 10-36 x 5-6 - - 58-0
Leaves for the supporting parts 97-4
In the Corinthian example, therefore, the supporting parts are 97, those supported 58,
and the voids 133. The ratio between the solid and void parts = -8, and the ratio of the
supports to the weights §f='59. The distance between the axes of the columns is
11 modules and 6 parts, the height of the semi-arch is 3 modules 16 parts, and between
the crown of it and the under side of the architrave is 2 modules 3^ parts ; the whole
height, including the entablature, being 25 modules 3| parts.
2626. The laws laid down by Chambers for regulating arcades are as follow : — " The
void or aperture of arches should never be much more in height nor much less than
double their width ; the breadth of the pier should seldom exceed two thirds, nor be less
than one third of the width of the arch, according to the character of the composition,
and the angular piers should be broader than the rest by one half, one third, or one fourth."
..." The height of the impost should not be more than one seventh, nor need it ever be
less than one ninth of the width of the aperture, and the archivolt must not be more than
one eighth nor less than one tenth thereof. The breadth of the console or mask, which
serves as a key to the arch, should at the bottom be equal to that of the archivolt, and
its sides must be drawn from the centre of the arch. The length thereof ought not to
be less than one and a half of its bottom breadth, nor more than double."
3 A
722
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
2627. The ratios that have been deduced by comparing the void and solid parts, if there
be any reason in the considerations had, show that this law of making arches in arcades of
the height of 2 diameters is not empirical, the following being the results of the use of the
ratios in the arcade without, and that with pedestal, of which we shall presently treat. Thus
in the
Diameters. Diameters.
Tuscan arcade without pedestal,
Doric arcade without pedestal,
Ionic arcade without pedestal, -^To
Corinthian arcade without pedestal, ^§
2628. In the examples of the arcades with pedestals, we shall again repeat the process by
which the results are obtained, first merely stating them in round numbers. Fig. 903. is a
= 2-0 —
:2'3
1-2=2.08
I I I 1 [ I I -4 I | | \
3 5 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
4 Modules
Fig. 903.
Tuscan arcade from Vignola's example, as will be the following ones. In this the whole
area is 306, omitting fractions, the area of the void is 1 56, that of the entablature 50,
and the supports 100. The ratio of the supported part (the entablature), therefore,
is ^5= '5, and the supports and weights are very nearly equal to the void. The height of
the pedestal is almost 3 modules and 8 parts, the opening 9 modules 6 parts, and the
width of the whole pier 4 modules and 3 parts.
The detail of the above result is as follows : —
The whole area, 22-30 x 13-75 ....
Area of semi-arch, ^X9-52X'7854 = 35-43
Below that, 12-75 x 9'75 - =121 -12
Total voids, therefore,
Entablature, 13-75x3-66 - ...
Leaves for supporting parts ...
= 306-62
= 156-55
150-07
= 50-32
99-75
CHAP. I.
ARCADES AND ARCHES.
723
It will be seen that we have taken the numbers in the preceding paragraph without supply-
ing strictly the decimal parts that arise from the multiplication and subtraction of the
several portions compared. The coincidence of the hypothesis with the apparent law is no
less remarkable in this example than it will be found in those that follow ; and, scep-
tical as we at first were on the appearances which pointed to it, we cannot, after the ex-
amination here and hereafter given, do otherwise than express our conviction that, in carry-
ing out the principles, no unpleasant combination can result.
Fig. 904.
2629. Fig. 904. exhibits the Doric arcade, whose whole area from centre to centre of
columns is 374. The area of the void is 189, that of the entablature 62, and of the sup-
porting parts 112. The ratio of the entablature to the supports is therefore f^= '55, and
that of the supports and weights to the voids '9. The height of the pedestal is almost
5 modules and 4 parts, the opening 10 modules, and the width of a pier 4 modules and
9 parts.
As in the preceding example, we think it will be useful to detail the process by which
the general results stated have been arrived at. It is curious and interesting to observe
the similarity between the cases. It is scarcely possible to believe that accident could
have produced it. May not the freemasons of the middle ages have had some laws of this
nature which guided their operations ? But we will now proceed to the calculation.
The whole area, 25-4 x 14-75 - - =374-65
Area of semi-arch, M")xiO-OxT85* „
Below that, 12-75 x 9'75
Entablature, 14-75 x 4-25
Leaves for supporting parts
: 150-00
Total voids, therefore,
= 189-27
185-38
= 62-68
122-70
Herein, as before, the general result in the preceding paragraph has been given in round
3 A 2
724
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
numbers, that the mind of the reader may not be distracted from the general proportions.
The detail again corroborates the hypothesis, as in the preceding subsection was predicated,
and the further we proceed, as will be presently seen, its truth becomes more manifest.
0 1 2
1 8 9 10 tl 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Modulet
Fig. 905.
2630. The Ionic arcade with a pedestal is shown in fig. 905. The whole area is 448
between the axes of the columns ; that of the void, 228. The entablature's area is 73,
and the supporting parts 146. The ratio, therefore, of the load to the support is ^|= -5,
and supports and weights are very nearly equal to the void. The height of the pedestal is
6 modules, the opening 11 modules, and the width of a pier 4 modules and 12 parts.
Once more returning to the detail on which the above proportions are based, and which
in this as in the following example we think it better to supply, observing, as before, that
the numbers above stated are given roundly, we shall have in the Ionic arcade,
Whole area, 28 -66 x 15-66 -
Area of semi-arch, Ilxn2*'7854 = 47-01
Below it, 16-5 x 1 1 - = 181 -50
Total area of voids, therefore,
Entablature, 15-66 x 4-7
= 448-81
: 228 -51
220-30
= 73-50
146-80
Leaves for supporting parts -
Whence it will be seen that the round numbers first given are shown to be sufficiently
accurate for exemplification of the law, and that the further we examine the hypothesis the
more closely we find it connected with the theory of weights and loads that has occupied a
very considerable portion of this Book, and which we hope may not have had the effect of
exhausting the reader's patience. We trust we shall have his pardon for pursuing the course
we have taken.
CHAP. I.
ARCADES AND ARCHES.
725
0 1 2 34 6 67 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 1« 20 Module*
Fig. 906.
2631. Fig. 906. is an arcade with pedestals of the Corinthian order. Its total area is
528, that of the void 284, the area of the entablature 84, and that of the supporting
parts 1 59. Hence, the ratio of the load to the support is -^ = -52, and the supports and
weight are equal in area to the void within a very small fraction. The height of the
pedestal is 6^ modules, the opening is 12 modules wide, and the width of a pier is
4 modules and 9 parts.
We here close the curious proofs of a law whose existence, we believe, has never been
suspected by modern architects. It was clearly unknown to Rondelet, and but for the
work of Lebrun already quoted, we might never have been led to the investigation of it.
That author himself, as we believe, did not entertain any notion of it.
In the Corinthian arcade with pedestal we have
Whole area, 32 x 16-5
Area of semi-arch, "*"xT85*M 56.05
=228-00
Below it, 19x12
Entablature, 16-5 x 5'09
Leaves for supporting parts -
Total area of voids, therefore.
= 528-00
284-05
243-95
= 84-10
159-85
Thus, again, the law seems to be borne out, and to prove that the assumptions we have
been making are not those of empiricism.
2632. In fy. 907. are collected the imposts and archivolts used in the arcades of the
different orders.
3 A 3
726
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
Imposts
of the
different Orders.
Fig. 907.
2633. We are not of the opinion of Sir William Chambers in respect of the arcades
which Vignola has given ; that author had not, we think, critically examined their compo-
sition, and we confess we do not think his own examples are improvements on those of the
master in question ; but we are willing to admit that in the examples of arcades with
pedestals, they would have been much improved by assigning a greater height generally
to the plinths of the pedestals, which are, doubtless, much too low, and might be well
augmented by adding to them a portion of the dies of the pedestals.
2634. Great as is our admiration of Palladio, we do not think it necessary to say more
relative to his arcades, than that he has given only designs of arches with pedestals, and
that their height is from one and two thirds to two and a half of their width. His piers
are generally 3f modules, except in the Composite order, wherein they are 4| modules.
2635. Scamozzi makes his Tuscan arch a little less than double its width, increasing the
height gradually to the Corinthian arch with pedestals to nearly twice and a half the
width. He diminishes his piers as the delicacy of the order increases, his Corinthian
piers being only 3| modules in width. We do not, however, think it necessary to dwell
longer on this part of the subject, and shall close it by observing that the impost of the
arch should not much vary from half a module in height, and that the width of the
archivolt, which should touch the shaft of the column or pilaster in the geometrical ele-
vation, at its springing, is necessarily prescribed by the width of pier left after setting out the
column upon it. Where columns are used on piers, their projection must be such that the most
prominent member of the impost should be in a line with the axis of the column on the
transverse section. In Ionic, Composite, and Corinthian arcades, however, it may project
a little beyond the axis of the columns, to avoid the disagreeable mutilations which are
otherwise rendered necessary in the capitals. Arcades should project not less than their
width from the front of the wall which backs them." With regard to their interior deco-
ration," says Chambers, " the portico may either have a flat ceiling or be arched in va-
rious manners. Where the ceiling is flat, there may be on the backs of the piers, pilasters
of the same kind and dimensions with the columns on their fronts ; facing which pilasters
there must be others like them on the back wall of the portico. Their projection as well
as that of those against the back of the piers may be from one sixth to one quarter of their
diameter. These pilasters may support a continued entablature, or one interrupted and
running across the portico over every two pilasters to form coffers ; or the architrave and
frieze only may be continued, while the cornice alone is carried across the portico over the
pilasters as before, and serves to form compartments in the ceiling, as is done in the vestibule
of the Massini palace at Rome, and in the great stable of the King's mews, near Charing
Cross," — no longer in existence, having been destroyed to make way on its site for the
execrable mass of absurdity to which the government who sanctioned it have facetiously
CHAP. I.
ARCADES AND ARCHES.
727
given the name of National Gallery. Chambers thus continues : — " Where the portico
is arched, either with a semi-circular or elliptical vault, the backs of the piers and the
inner wall of the portico may be decorated with pilasters, as is above described, supporting
a regular continued entablature, from a little above which the arch should take its spring,
that no part of it may be hid by the projection of the cornice. The vault may be enriched
with compartments of various regular figures, such as hexagons, octagons, squares, and
the like, of which, and their decorations, several examples are given among the designs
for ceilings." Of these we shall hereafter give figures in the proper place. " But when
the vault is groined, or composed of flats, circular or domical coves, sustained on pen-
dentives, the pilasters may be as broad as are the columns in front of the piers, but they
must rise no higher than the top of the impost, the mouldings of which must finish and
serve them instead of a capital, from whence the groins and pendentives are to spring, as
also the bands or arcs-doubleaux which divide the vault."
2636. In the examples of arcades, we have followed those given by Chambers, as ex-
hibiting a variety which may be instructive to the student, and at the same time afford
hints for other combinations. Fig. 908. is one of the compositions of Serlio, and is an
Fig. 908.
Fig. 909.
expedient for arching in cases where columns have been provided, as in places where the
use of old ones may be imposed on the architect. The larger aperture may be from
4i to 5 diameters of the column in width, and in height double that dimension. The
smaller opening is not to exceed two thirds of the larger one, its height being determined
by that of the columns. Chambers thinks, and we agree with him, that this sort of dis-
position might be considerably improved by adding an architrave cornice or an entablature
to the column, by omitting the rustics and by surrounding the arches with archivolts. It
is not to be inferred, because this example is given, that it is inserted as one to be followed
except under very peculiar circumstances. Where an arrangement of this kind is adopted,
care must be used to secure the angles by artificial means.
2637. Fig. 909. is given from the cortile of the castle at Caprarola by Vignola, a struc-
ture which in the First Book of this work we have (346. ) already mentioned. The height of
the arches is somewhat more than twice their width. From the under side of the arch to
the top of the cornice is one third of the height of the arch, the breadth of whose pier is
equal to that of the arch, and the aperture in the pier about one third of its breadth.
2638. A composition of Bramante, executed in the garden of the Belvedere at Rome, is
given at fig. 910. The arch in height is somewhat more than twice its width, and the
Fig. 910.
3 A 4
Fig. 911.
728
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
breadth of the pier equal to the opening. By dividing the latter into twelve parts we
have a measure which seems to have prevailed in the mind of the architect, inasmuch as
two of them will measure the parts of the pier supporting the archivolts, four the space
for the two columns, two for the intervals between the niche and the columns, and four for
the niche. Half the diameter of the arch measures the height of the pedestal ; the columns
are of the height of ten diameters, and their entablature one quarter of the height of the
columns. The impost and archivolt are each equal to half a diameter of the column.
2639. Fig. 911. is an example whose employment is not uncommon in the designs of
Palladio, and was considered by our great countryman Inigo Jones to be worthy of his
imitation. The arch may be taken at about twice its width, and the pier not less than
one nor more than two thirds of the width of the aperture.
Fig. 912.
Fig. 913.
2640. The example in fig. 912. is from the hand of Vignola, and was executed for one
of the Borghese family at Mondragone, near Frascati. In it the arch is a little more
in height than twice its width, and the breadth of the pier columns supporting the arth
includes a little less than the width of the arch itself. We are not quite satisfied in having
here produced it as an example, though, compared with the following one, we scarcely
know whether we should not on some accounts prefer it.
2641. The last, example (fig* 913.) is one by that great master, Palladio, from the basilica
at Vicenza. From the figure it is impossible to judge of its beauty in execution, neither
can any imitation of it, unless under circumstances in every respect similar, produce the
sensation with which the building itself acts on the spectator ; yet in the figure it appears
meagre and nothing worth. We can therefore easily account for the conduct of the critics, as
they are called, who, never having seen this master's works, indulge in ignorant speculations
of the pictorial effects which his compositions produce. Though not entirely agreeing
with Chambers in his concluding observations on arcades and arches, we may safely
transfer them to these pages. " The most beautiful proportion," he observes, " for com-
positions of this kind is, that the aperture of the arch be in height twice its width ; that
the breadth of the pier do not exceed that of the arch, nor be much less ; that the small
order be in height two thirds of the large columns, which height being divided into nine
parts, eight of them must be for the height of the column, and the ninth for the height of
the architrave cornice, two fifths of which should be for the architrave and three for the
cornice. The breadth of the archivolt should be equal to the superior diameter of the
small columns, and the keystone at its bottom must never exceed the same breadth. "
SECT. XL
ORDERS ABOVE ORDERS.
2642. Vitruvius, in the fifth chapter of his book " On the Forum and Basilica," in both
which species of buildings it is well known that orders above orders were employed, thus
instructs his readers: — " The upper columns are to be made one fourth less than those
below" (quarto, parte minores quam inferiores sunt constituendce'), " and that because the latter,
being loaded with a weight, ought to be the stronger ; because, also, we should follow the
practice of nature, which in straight-growing trees, like the fir, cypress, and pine, makes
the thickness at the root greater than it is at top, and preserves a gradual diminution
throughout their height. Thus, following the example of nature, it is rightly ordered that
bodies which are uppermost should be less than those below, both in respect of height and
thickness." It is curious that the law thus given produces an exactly similar result to that
CHAP. I.
ORDERS ABOVE ORDERS.
729
laid down by Scamozzi, p. 2. lib. v. cap. ii., whereon we shall have more presently to speak.
Galliani, Chambers, and others have considered the above-quoted passage of Vitruvius in
connection with another in chap. vii. of the same book, which treats of the portico and other
parts of the theatre, wherein the author states, after giving several to this question unim-
portant details, " The columns on this pedestal" (that of the upper order) " are one fourth
less in height" (quarta parte minores altitudine sint) " than the lower columns. " The reader
will here observe the word altitudine is introduced, which does not appear in the passage
first quoted ; and we beg him, moreover, to recollect that the last quotation relates entirely
to the scene of the ancient theatre, in which liberties were then taken with strict architec-
tural proportion as much as they are in these later days. Those who think that because
Vitruvius interlarded his work with a few fables, he is therefore an author not worth
consulting, as ephemeral critics have done in respect of that great master of the art, Pal-
ladio, may opine we have wasted time in this discussion ; but, adopting the old maxim of
Horace, " Non ego paucis offendar maculis," we shall leave them to the exposure which,
with the instructed architect, their own ignorance will ultimately inflict on them, and to
the enjoyment of the felicity attendant on a slight knowledge of the subject a person is in
the habit of handling.
2643. We will now place before the student our own reading and explanation of the
passage of Vitruvius relative to the use of orders above orders, and attempt
to show what we conceive to be its real meaning. \\\fig, 914. the diagram
exhibits an Ionic placed above a Doric column : the entablature (which
however does not belong to the consideration) being in both cases one
fourth of the height of the column. Inasmuch as in our previous rules
(following Vignola) it will be recollected that the module of the Doric
order is subdivided into twelve, whilst that of the Ionic is subdivided into
eighteen parts, we must, for the purpose of obtaining an uniformity of
measures in both orders, reduce those of either to the other to obtain si-
milar dimensions. Instead, therefore, of measuring the upper order by itself,
which would not afford the comparison sought, we shall have to reduce
its established measures to those of the lower one, or Doric, and this, as
well as the measurement of the lower order itself, is taken in modules and
decimal parts of its semidiameter. Thus, the lower order being 2 modules
at its bottom diameter and 1 -666 modules at its upper diameter, the
mean, without descending to extreme mathematical nicety, may be taken
at 1 -833, which multiplied by the height, 1 8 modules = 32'994, the area of
a section through the centre of the column. Now if the upper columns
are to be the same thickness at the bottom as the lower ones are at the top,
that is, 1 -666 module of the lower order, their upper diameters will be 1 -387
(that is, five sixths of the lower diameter), and the mean will be 1 \526,
which, multiplied by 16, the height, = 24-416 the area of a section down
the centre of the column, and just one fourth less than that of the lower
column. The investigation tends to show us that we should not lightly
treat the laws laid down by Vitruvius and his followers at the revival of
the arts, for we may be assured that in most cases they are not empirical,
but founded on proper principles. We cannot, however, leave this point
without giving another reason, which is conclusive against Chambers's
construction of the passage ; it is, that supposing the upper column's lower
diameter to be the same or nearly so as the lower column's upper diameter,
if the fourth part had relation to the height instead of the bulk, we should have had the
absurdity in the illustration above given, of an Ionic column in the second order only
six and three quarters diameters high, whilst the lower or Doric is nine diameters in height.
2644. Scamozzi, we doubt not, thought as we have expressed ourselves on this subject, and
we here translate the words he uses in the eleventh chapter of his sixth book (second part).
" Hence it is more satisfactory, and they succeed better and are more pleasing to the eye,
when these columns (the upper ones) are made according to their proper diminution, so
that the lower part of the upper column may be just the thickness of the upper part of the
lower one, and so from one to the other, as may be seen in the Ionic order of the Theatre
of Marcellus and other edifices ; and this is the reason and natural cause that it is the same
as though out of a long and single tree the shafts were cut out one after the other."
2645. The laws of solidity seem to require that where more than one order is used, the
strongest is to occupy the lower situation ; thus the Doric is placed on the Tuscan, the
Ionic on the Doric, the Corinthian on the Ionic, and the Composite on the Corinthian ;
though, with respect to the last, we find examples of importance wherein the reverse has
been the case. Two tiers of columns should not be of the same order, neither should an
intermediate order be omitted ; such, for instance, as placing the Ionic on the Tuscan
column, or the Corinthian on the Doric ; for by this practice many irregularities are
introduced, especially in the details of the members.
730
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
HOOK III
2646. Frontwise the axes of the upper and lower columns must be in the same vertical
plane, but viewed in flank this is not absolutely necessary ; they should not, however, deviate
too much from it. In the theatre of Marcellus the axes of the upper columns are nearly a
foot within those of the Doric below them ; but circumstances required this, and there is
no great objection to the practice if the solidity of the structure be not lessened by it.
Chambers observes that the retraction should never be greater than at the theatre of
Marcellus, where the front of the plinth in the second order is in a line with the top of the
shaft in the first. When the columns are detached, they should be placed centrally over
each other, so that the axes of the upper and under ones may form one continued line, by
which means solidity is gained as well as a satisfactory result to the eye. As to the false
bearings of the bases of the upper order on the profile, this is a matter neither really affect-
ing stability nor the appearance of the design.
2647. In England there are not many examples of orders above orders, while on the
Continent the practice has not been uncommon ; but it is always a matter of great difficulty
so to arrange them as to avoid irregularities where triglyphs and modillions in the same
design meet in the composition. We have used the figures of Chambers for our illustration
here, because they are nearly coincident with the rules of Vitruvius and Scamozzi, and we
shall now place them before the reader, observing that the irregularities alluded to are
almost altogether avoided.
D
j "
*
-
i
=^
=
y
i
v^
-
!
r
c A. ^
< B
j
4
V
jj
-!„
LJi
.
^
it
Fig. 916.
2648. Fig. 915. exhibits the Doric over the Tuscan order. The intervals A, B, and C
are respectively 2£, 4\, and 6£ modules ; and A', B', and C', 3, 5£, and 8 modules of their
order. The entablature of the lower order is 31 modules, the column, including base
and capital, being 14 modules high ; and the entablature of the upper order is 4 modules
high, the column with its base and capital being 16 modules in height.
2649. The distribution of the Doric and Ionic orders is given in fig. 916., wherein the
intervals A, B, and C are respectively 3, 5^, and 8 modules ; D, '7 module ; and A', B', C',
and D' respectively 4, 7, 10, and 1^ modules. The Doric order in this example is 20
modules high, whereof 4 are assigned to the entablature ; the Ionic 22 modules high,
whereof 4 belong to the entablature,
2650. In fig. 917. is represented the Corinthian above the Ionic order; the intervals
A, B, C, D are respectively 5, 6, 7, and 1 modules, and those .of A', B', C" D' respectively
6-4, 7-6, 8-8, 1-6 modules; the lower order is 221 modules high, 18 being given to the
column with its base and capital ; and the upper or Corinthian order is 241 modules high,
whereof 20 belong to the height of the column, including its base and capital.
2651. The last (fig. 918.) is of the Corinthian order above and Composite below. In
the lower order the intervals A, B, C, D are 4§, 6, 7, and 1 modules respectively, and
A', B', C', and D', in the upper order, 6, 7 '6, 8-8, and 1-6 modules respectively. The
whole height of the Corinthian order is 25 modules, whereof 5 are given to the entablature ;
the Composite order here is 24£ modules, of which 20 belong to the column, including the
base and capital.
2652. We insert the observations of Chambers relative to the above four figures, which,
CHAF. I.
ORDERS ABOVE ORDERS.
731
Fig. 917.
Fig. 918.
as we have adopted them, shall be in his own words. " Among the intercolumniations
there are some in the second orders extremely wide, such as the Ionic interval over the
Doric araeostyle ; the Composite and Corinthian intervals over the Ionic and Composite
araeostyle, which, having a weak meagre appearance, and not being sufficiently solid,
excepting in small buildings, are seldom to be suffered, and should seldom be introduced.
The most eligible are the eustyle and diastyle for the first order, which produce nearly
the diastyle and araeostyle in the second." Speaking of the use of pedestals in orders
above orders, the author thus proceeds : — " Many architects, among which number are
Palladio and Scamozzi, place the second order of columns on a pedestal. In compositions
consisting of two stories of arcades this cannot be avoided, but in colonnades it may and
ought ; for the addition of the pedestal renders the upper ordonnance too predominant, and
the projection of the pedestal's base is both disagreeable to the eye and much too heavy a
load on the inferior entablature. Palladio, in the Barbarano palace at Vicenza, has placed
the columns of the second story on a plinth only, and this disposition is best ; the height of
the plinth being regulated by the point of view, and made sufficient to expose to sight the
whole base of the column. In this case the balustrade must be without either pedestals or
half balusters to support its extremities, because these would contract and alter the form
of the column ; its rail or cap must be fixed to the shafts of the columns, and its base made
level with their bases ; the upper torus and fillet of the columns being continued in the
interval, and serving as mouldings to the base of the balustrade. The rail and balusters
must not be clumsy ; wherefore it is best to use double-bellied balusters, as Palladio has
done in most of his buildings, and to give the rail a very little projection, that so it may
not advance too far upon the surface of the column, and seem to cut into it. In large
buildings the centre of the baluster may be in a line with the axis of the column ; but in
small ones it must be within it, for the reason just mentioned. The height of the balus-
trade is regulated in a great measure by its use, and cannot well be lower than three feet,
nor should it be higher than three and a half or four feet. Nevertheless, it must neces-
sarily bear some proportion to the rest of the architecture, and have nearly the same relation
to the lower order, or whatever it immediately stands upon, as when a balustrade is placed
thereon chiefly for ornament. Wherefore, if the parts are large, the height of the balustrade
must be augmented, and if they are small it must be diminished ; as is done in the Casino
at Wilton, where it is only two feet four inches high, which was the largest dimension that
could be given to it in so small a building. But that it might, notwithstanding its lowness,
answer the intended purpose, the pavement of the portico is six inches lower than the bases
of the columns, and on a level with the bottom of the plat-band that finishes the basement."
We must here leave this subject, recommending the student to an intimate acquaintance
with the various examples that have been executed, and further advising him to test each of
the examples that may fall under his notice by the principles first adverted to in this section,
as the only true means of arriving at a satisfactory result.
732 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
SECT. XII.
ARCADES ABOVE ARCADES.
2653. As the disposition of one arcade upon another is, under certain regulations, subject
to the same laws of voids and solids as the simple arcade of one story, which has formed the
subject of a previous section, we shall no further enter into the rules of its combination
than to offer a few general observations on the matter in question ; and herein, even with
the reproach of a want of originality, we shall draw largely on our much-quoted author,
Chambers, whose language and figures we are about to use. So sound, indeed, is the
doctrine of Chambers in this respect, and so well founded on what has been done by those
whom we consider the greatest masters, that we should not be satisfied without transferring
his dicta to these pages, and that without any alteration.
2654. " The best," says Chambers, " and, indeed, the only good disposition for two
stories of arcades, is to raise the inferior order on a plinth, and the superior one on a
pedestal, as Sangallo has done at the Pallazzo Farnese ; making both the ordonnances of
an equal height, as Palladio has done at the Basilica of Vicenza."
2655. " Scamozzi, in the thirteenth chapter of his sixth book, says that the arches in the
second story should not only be lower, but should also be narrower, than those in the first ;
supporting his doctrine by several specious arguments, and by the practice, as he says, of the
ancient architects in various buildings mentioned by him. In most of these, however, the
superior arches are so far from being narrower, that they are either equal to or wider than
the inferior ones. In fact, his doctrine in this particular is very erroneous, entirely con-
trary to reason, and productive of several bad consequences ; for if the upper arches be
narrower than the lower ones, the piers must of course be broader, which is opposite to
all rules of solidity whatever, and exceedingly unsightly. The extraordinary breadth of
the pier on each side of the columns in the superior order is likewise a great deformity ;
even when the arches are of equal widths it is much too considerable. Palladio has, in the
Caritd at Venice, and at the Palazzo Thiene in Vicenza, made his upper arches wider than
the lower ones, and I have not hesitated to follow his example ; as by that means the
weight of the solid in the superior order is somewhat diminished, the fronts of the upper
piers bear a good proportion to their respective columns, and likewise to the rest of the
composition. "
2656. " In a second story of arcades there is no avoiding pedestals. Palladio has,
indeed, omitted them at the Carita, but his arches there are very ill proportioned. The
extraordinary bulk and projection of these pedestals are, as before observed, a considerable
defect ; to remedy which in some measure they have been frequently employed without
bases, as in the theatre of Marcellus, on the outside of the Palazzo Thiene, and that of the
Chiericato in Vicenza. This, however, helps the matter but little ; and it will be best to
make them always with bases of a moderate projection, observing at the same time to
reduce the projection of the bases of the columns to ten minutes only, that the die may be
no larger than is absolutely necessary ; and in this case particular care must be taken not
to break the entablature over each column of the inferior order, because the false bearing
of the pedestal in the second order will by so doing be rendered far more striking, and in
reality more defective, having then no other support than the projecting mouldings of the
inferior cornice. There is no occasion to raise the pedestals of the second order on a
plinth, for as they come very forward on the cornice of the first order, and as the point
of view must necessarily be distant, a very small part only of their bases will be hid from
the eye."
2657. " The balustrade must be level with the pedestals supporting the columns ; its
rail or cornice and base must be of equal dimensions, and of the same profile with theirs.
It should be contained in the arch and set as far back as possible, that the form of the arch
may appear distinct and uninterrupted from top to bottom ; for which reason, likewise, the
cornice of the pedestals must not return nor profile round the piers, which are to be con-
tained in straight perpendicular lines from the imposts to the bases of the pedestals. The
back of the rail may either be made plain or sunk into a panel in form of an open surbase,
for so it will be most convenient to lean upon, and it should be in a line with or somewhat
recessed within the backs of the piers. The back part of the balustrade may be adorned
with the same mouldings as the bases of the piers, provided they have not much projec-
tion ; but if that should be considerable, it will be best to use only a plinth crowned with
the two upper mouldings, that so the approach may remain the more free."
2658. In fig. 919. is a Doric above a Tuscan arcade, from the example given by
Chambers, whereon, before giving the dimensions of the different parts, we shall merely
observe of it that the voids or arcades themselves are in round numbers to the solids as 295
to 205, being vastly greater. We are inclined to think that the voids in this case are rather
too great in volume, and that, had they been reduced to one half their height exactly, the
CHAP. I.
ARCADES ABOVE ARCADES.
733
Fig. 919.
proportions would have been somewhat more pleasing. It is
true that a trifling irregularity would have been introduced
into the triglyphs of the upper order, or rather the metopae
between them ; but that might have been easily provided against
by a very trifling alteration in the height of the frieze itself.
This fault of making the voids too large pervades Chambers's
examples, and but that we might have been thought too pre-
suming we should have slightly altered the proportions, little
being requisite to bring them under the laws which we have
thought to be founded on reason and analogy. We have indeed
throughout this work refrained from giving other than approved
examples, preferring to confine ourselves to observations on
them when we have not considered them faultless.
2659. In the figure the clear width of the lower arcade is
7§, and its height 141 modules. The width of each pier is 1
module. Of the upper arcade the width is 9^, and the height
18-233 modules. The width of the piers is 1^ module each.
The height of the plinth of the lower order is 11 module, that
of the column, including base and capital, 141 modules, the
entablature 31. The height of the pedestal of the upper order
is 3-733 modules, of the column with its base and capital 16,
and of the entablature 3-733 modules. In the proportions
between the voids and solids above taken the balustrade is not
considered as a solid, because, in fact, it is nothing more than
a railing for the protection of those using the upper story.
As we have expressed our desire to give the examples of others
rather than our own, we feel bound to recommend the student
to set up the diagram in question, with the simple alteration of reducing the solids
nearly to an equality with the voids, which may be done with sufficient accuracy by as-
signing to the lower arcade a module less in width than Chambers has done ; and we
venture to say that he will be surprised at the difference, as regards grace and elegance,
which will result from the experiment. It is to be understood that no change is proposed
in the other dimensions of the ordonnance, the width of piers, orders, entablatures, all re-
maining untouched.
2660. In fig. 920. we give another example from Chambers, which, in our opinion,
requires a rectification to bring it into proper form. Herein the Ionic is used above
the Doric arcade, and the voids to the solids are as 3*33 to 2-98, being much more
than equal to them. In this, as in
the former example, we should have
preferred a greater equality between
the solids and voids, though in that
under consideration there is a nearer
approximation to it.
2661. In the figure the clear width
of the lower arch is 8^, and its height
1 6£ modules ; the width of each pier
is 1 module. Of the upper arcade
the width is 10|, and the height 201
modules. The width of the piers is
1J module each. The height of the
plinth of the lower order is 11 module
that of the column, including the base
and capital, 1 6£ modules, and of the
entablature 4 modules. The height
of the pedestal of the upper order 4
modules, of the column, including
base and capital, 18 modules, and of
the entablature 4, and of the balus-
trade above it 31.
2662. The dimensions of the Ionic
and Corinthian arcades in fig. 921.
are as follow : — Clear width of
lower arch 9 modules, its height 18^
modules. The width of each pier is
1 module. Of the upper arcade the
width of an arch 15f modules, and its
height 23 modules. The width of
Fig. 920.
734
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
the piers is 1\ module each. The height of the plinth to the lower order is 1| module ;
of the column, including base and capital, 18 modules; the
entablature 4| modules. The pedestal of the upper order
is 4| modules high ; column, including base and capital, 20
modules ; entablature 4^ modules ; and, lastly, the balus-
trade is 3§ modules in height.
2663. Fig. 922. is an arrangement adopted by Palladio
in his basilica at Vicenza, being the dimensions, or nearly,
of the arcades on the flanks. The intermediate ones are
much wider. In the basilica, however, the entablature
breaks round the columns of the orders. The width
between the axes of the columns of the lower order is 15
of their modules. The arch is 15 modules high and 7jj
wide. The order wherefrom the arch springs is 10| modules
high ; from axis to axis of the small columns in the lower
arcade is 9 modules. The height of the plinth is 1 ^ module,
of the principal columns, including bases and plinths, 16\
modules, and of their entablature 4 modules. In the upper
arcade the distance between the axes of the principal
columns is 18 of their modules. Their pedestals are 4
modules high, the columns, including bases and capitals, 18
modules, and entablature 4 modules high. The width of the
arch is 9§ modules, and its height 20| modules. The height
of the small columns is 1 1 -733 modules high, including
their entablature.
2664. The use of arcades above arcades seems from its
nature almost confined to public buildings, as among the
ancients to their theatres and amphitheatres. In the in- Fig. 922.
terior quadrangles or courts of palaces they have been much employed on the Continent,
and in the magnificent design made by Inigo Jones for the palace at Whitehall are to
be found some very fine examples.
SECT. XIII.
BASEMENTS AND ATTICS.
2G65. When the order used for decorating the fa9ade of a building is placed in the middle
or second story, it is seated on a story called the basement. The proportion of its height to
the rest must in a great measure depend on the use to which its apartments are to be
appropriated. " In Italy," observes Chambers, " where their summer habitations are very
frequently on that floor, the basements are sometimes very high. At the palace of Porti,
in Vicenza, the height is equal to that of the order placed thereupon ; and at the Thiene,
in the same city, its height exceeds two thirds of that of the order, although it be almost
of a sufficient elevation to contain two stories ; but at the Villa Capra, and at the Loco
Arsieri, both near Vicenza, the basement is only half the height of the order ; because in
both these the ground floor consists of nothing but offices." It may hence be gathered that
no absolute law can be laid down in reference to the height of a basement story. Yet we may
state, generally, that a basement should not be higher than the order it is to support, for it
would in that case detract from the principal part of the composition, and, in fact, would be
likely to interfere with it. Besides which, the principal staircase then requires so many steps
that space is wasted for their reception. " Neither," says Chambers, " should a basement
be lower than half the height of the order, if it is to contain apartments, and consequently
have windows and entrances into it ; for whenever that is the case the rooms will be low,
the windows and doors very ill formed, or not proportional to the rest of the composition,
as is observable at Holkham : but if the only use of the basement be to raise the ground
floor, it need not exceed three, four, or at the most five or six feet in height, and be in the
form of a continued pedestal."
2666. Basement stories are decorated generally with rustic work of such various kinds,
that we fear it would be here impossible to describe or represent their varieties. Many
are capriciously rock-worked on their surface, others are plain, that is, with a smooth sur-
face. The height of each course, including the joints, should on no account be less than
one module of the order which the basement supports ; their length may be from once and
a half to thrice their height. As respects the joints, these may be square or chamfered
off. When square joints are used, they should not be wider than one eighth part of the
CHAP. I. PILASTERS. 735
height of the rustic itself, nor narrower than one-tenth, their depth not exceeding their
width. When the joints are chamfered, the chamfer should be at an angle of forty-five
degrees, and the whole width of the joint from one third to one fourth of the height of the
rustic.
2667. The courses are sometimes (often on the Continent) laid without showing vertical
joints ; hut, as Chambers says, this " has in general a bad appearance, and strikes as if the
building were composed of boards rather than of stone. Palladio's method seems far pre-
ferable, who, in imitation of the ancients, always marked both the vertical and the hori-
zontal joints ; and whenever the former of these are regularly and artfully disposed, the
rustic work has a very beautiful appearance." We shall presently make a few remarks on
the subject of rustics ; but here, to continue and finish that more immediately under con-
sideration, have to add, that when a high basement is used, it is not uncommon to crown it
with a cornice, as may be seen mfig. 909. ; but the more common practice is to use a plat-
band only (as in^. 911.), whose height should not be greater than that of a rustic exclu-
sive of the joint. Of a similar height should be made the zoccolo or plinth ; but this may,
and ought, perhaps, to be somewhat higher. When arches occur in basements, the plat-
band, which serves for the impost, should be as high as a course of rustics, exclusive of the
joint ; and if the basement be finished with a cornice, such basement should have a regularly
moulded base at its foot ; the former to be about one thirteenth of the whole height of the
basement, and the base about one eighteenth, without the plinth.
2668. The Attic — which is used instead of a second order where limits are prescribed
to the height of a building, examples whereof may be seen at Greenwich Hospital, and in
the Valmarano palace, by the great Palladio, at Vicenza — should not exceed in height
one-third of the order whereon they are placed, neither ought they to be less than one
quarter. Bearing some resemblance to a pedestal, the base, die, and cornice whereof they
are composed may be proportioned much in the same way as the respective divisions of
their prototypes^ They are sometimes continued without, and sometimes with, breaks
over the column or pilaster of the order which they crown. If they are formed with
pilasters, such ought to be of the same width as the upper diameter of the order under
them, never more. In projection they should be one quarter of their width at most.
They may be decorated with sunk moulded panels if necessary ; but this is a practice
r«ther to be avoided, as is most especially that of using capitals to them — a practice much
in vogue in France under Louis XV.
2669. We now return to the subject of the rocK-worked rustic, whereof, above, some
notice was promised. The practice, though occasionally used by the Romans, seems to have
had its chief origin in Florence, where, as we have in a former Book (329.) observed, each
palace resembled rather a fortification than a private dwelling. Here it was used to excess ;
and if variety in the practice is the desire of the student, the buildings of that city will
furnish him with an almost infinite number of examples. The introduction of it gives a
boldness and an expression of solidity to the rustics of a basement which no other
means afford. In the other parts of Italy it was sparingly applied, but with more
taste. Vignola and Palladio seem to have treated it as an accident productive of great
variety rather than as a means of decoration. The last-named architect has in the Palazzo
Thiene carried it to the utmost extent whereof it is susceptible. Yet, with this extreme
extent of application, the design falls from his hands full of grace and feeling. To imitate
it would be a dangerous experiment. De Brosse failed at the Luxembourg, and produced
an example of clumsiness which in the Palazzo Pitti does not strike the spectator.
2670. Rustics and rockwork on columns are rarely justifiable except for the purpose of
some particular picturesque effect which demands their prominence in the scene, or street
view, as in the gateway at Burlington House in Piccadilly, — a splendid monument of the
great talent of Lord Burlington.
SECT. XIV.
PILASTERS.
2671. Pilasters, or square columns, were by the Romans termed antce, by the Greeks
parastatce. This last word implies the placing one object standing against another, a suffi-
ciently good definition of the word, inasmuch as in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred they
are engaged in or backed against a wall, or, in other words, are portions of square columns
projecting from a wall.
2672. It is usual to call a square column, when altogether disengaged from the wall,
a pillar or pier ; and we are inclined to think, notwithstanding the alleged type of trees,
that the primitive supports of stone buildings were quite as likely to have been square
736 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
as round, and that the inconvenience attendant upon square ' angles may have led the
earliest builders to round off the corners, and gradually to bring them to a circular plan.
Isolated pillars are rarely found among the examples left us by the ancients ; the little
temple at Trevi furnishes, indeed, an example, but not of the best period of the art. The
principal points to be attended to in their use are their projection, diminution, the mode
of uniting the entablature over them with that of their columns, and their flutings and
capitals.
2673. In respect of the projection of pilasters, Perrault says they should project one half,
and not exceed that by more than a sixth, as in the frontispiece of Nero, unless circumstances
require a different projection. The pilasters of the Pantheon project only a tenth part of their
width ; and sometimes, as in the forum of Nerva, they are only a fourteenth part. But when
pilasters are to receive the imposts of arches against their sides, they are made to project a
fourth part of their diameter ; and this is a convenient proportion, because in the Corinthian
order the capital is not so much disfigured. Hence, when pilasters are made to form re-en-
tering angles, they should project more than half their diameter. Many and various opinions
have been formed on the propriety of diminishing pilasters. Perrault, with whom we incline
to agree, thinks that when one face only projects, pilasters should not be diminished.
Those at the flanks of the portico of the Pantheon are without diminution. But when
pilasters are on the same line as columns, we want to lay the entablature from one to the
other without any projection, in which case the pilaster must be diminished in the same
degree as the column itself, speaking of the front face, leaving the sides undiminished, as in
the temple of Antoninus and Faustina. When the pilaster has two of its faces projecting
from the wall, being on the angle, and one of those faces answers to a column, such face is
diminished similarly to the column, as in the portico of Septimius, where the face not cor-
responding to the column receives no diminution. There are, however, ancient examples
where no diminution is practised, as in the interior of the Pantheon, where it is so small as
not to be very apparent, being much less than that of the column, as is also the case in the
temple of Mars Ultor, and in the arch of Constantine. In these cases, the custom of the
ancients is sometimes to place the architrave plumb over the column, which brings it
within the line of the pilaster. This may be seen in the temple of Mars Ultor, in the
interior of the Pantheon, and in the portico of Septimius. Sometimes this excess is divided
into two parts, one whereof goes to the excess of projection of the architrave above the
column, and the other hah0 to the deficiency of extent above the pilaster, as in the forum of
Nerva. The whole matter is a problem of difficult solution, which Chambers has avoided,
but which, with reference to the examples we have cited, will not be attended with diffi-
culty to the student in his practice.
2674. We have above seen that pilasters, when used with columns, are subject to the
form and conditions of the latter. As to their flutings we are left more at liberty. In
the portico of the Pantheon we find the pilasters fluted and the columns plain. This,
however, may have been caused by the difficulty of fluting the latter, which are of
granite, whilst the pilasters are of marble. On the other hand, we sometimes find the
columns fluted and the pilasters plain, as in the temple of Mars Ultor. and the portico of
Septimius Severus. Generally, too, it may be observed that when pilasters project less than
half their diameter, their return faces are not fluted. In respect of the number of the flutes,
if the examples of the ancients were any guide, there could have been no fixed rule ; for in
the portico of the Pantheon, the arch of Septimius Severus, and that of Constantine, seven
flutes only are cut on the pilasters, whilst the flutes of the pilasters in the interior of the
Pantheon are nine in number. This, however, is to be observed, that the flutes must
always be of an odd number, except in re-entering pilasters, wherein four are placed instead
of three and a half, and five instead of four and a half, when the whole pilaster would have
nine. This is done to prevent the ill effect which would be produced in the capital by the
bad falling of the leaves over the flutes.
2675. We shall hereafter give from Chambers some representations of pilaster capitals,
which, except as regards their width, resemble those of the order they accompany. The
practice of the ancients in this respect was very varied. Among the Greeks the form of the
pilaster capital was altogether different from that of the column, seeming to have no
relationship to it whatever ; but on this point the student must consult the works on Gre^
cian antiquities, an example whereof will be found in fig. 883.
2676. A pilaster may be supposed to represent a column and to take its place under
many circumstances ; and, notwithstanding all that was said on the subject by the Abbe
Laugier, many years ago, against the employment of pilasters altogether, we are decidedly
of opinion that they are often useful and important accessories in a building. It would be
difficult to enumerate every situation wherein it is expedient to use pilasters rather than
insulated or engaged columns. In internal apartments, where the space is restricted, a co-
lumn appears heavy and occupies too much room. The materials, morever, which can be
obtained, often restrict the architect to the use of pilasters, over which the projections of
the entablature are not so great ; indeed, as the author in the Encyflopedie Methodique ob-
CHAP. I.
PILASTERS.
737
FiK. 923.
serves, a pilaster may be considered as a column in bas-relief, and is thus, from the
diminished quantity of labour and material in it, simpler and more economical in appli-
cation. That in houses and palaces of the second class the decoration by pilasters is of
great service may be amply shown by reference to the works of Bramante, San Gallo,
Palladio, and the other great masters of Italy, no less than in this country to those of
Jones, Wren, and Vanbrugh.
2677. In profiling the capitals of Tuscan and Doric pilasters there can of course arise
no difficulty ; they follow the profiles of those over the columns themselves. In the capitals,
however, of the other orders, some difficulties occur : these are thus noticed by Chambers.
" In the antique Ionic capital, the extraordinary projection of the ovolo makes it necessary
either to bend it inwards considerably towards the extremities, that it may pass behind the
volutes, or, instead of keeping the volutes flat in front, as they commonly are in the an-
tique, to twist them outwards till they give room for the passage of the ovolo. Le Clerc "
(Traite d" Architecture) "thinks the latter of these expedients the best, and that the
artifice may not be too striking, the projection of the ovolo may be considerably diminished,
as in the annexed design " (fig. 923. ), " which, as
the moulding can be seen in front only, will
occasion no disagreeable effect."
2678. " The same difficulty subsists with re-
gard to the passage of the ovolo behind the an-
gular Ionic volutes. Le Clerc therefore advises
to open or spread the volutes sufficiently to leave
room for the ovolo to pass behind them, as in
the design " (fig. 924.)" annexed; which may
be easily done, if the projection of the ovolo is
diminished. Inigo Jones has in the Banqueting
House made the two sides of the volutes parallel
to each other, according to Scamozzi's manner,
and at the same time has continued the ovolo
in a straight line under them, so that the volutes
have an enormous projection ; which, added to
the other faults of these capitals, renders the
whole composition unusually defective and ex-
ceedingly ugly."
2679. " What has been said with regard to the passage of the ovolo behind the volutes
in the Ionic order is likewise to be remembered in the Composite ; and in the Corin-
thian the lip or edge of the vase or basket may be bent a little inwards towards its ex-
tremities, by which means it will easily pass
behind the volutes. The leaves in the Corin-
thian and Composite capitals must not project
beyond the top of the shaft, as they do at San
Carlo in the Corso at Rome, and at the Ban-
queting House, Whitehall ; but the diameter of
the capital must be exactly the same as that of
the top of the shaft. And to make out the
thickness of the small bottom leaves, their edges
may be bent a trifle outwards, and the large
angular leaves may be directed inwards in their
approach towards them, as in the annexed de-
sign " (fid- 925.), " and as they are executed in
the church of the Roman college at Rome.
When the small leaves have a considerable
thickness, though the diameter of the capital is
exactly the same as that of the shaft, in each
front of the Composite or Corinthian pilaster
capital, there must be two small leaves with
one entire and two half large ones. They must
be either of olive, acanthus, parsley, or laurel,
massed, divided, and wrought, in the same
manner as those of the columns are, the only Fig. 925.
difference being that they will be somewhat broader."
2680. It is desirable to avoid the use of pilasters at inward angles penetrating each
o her because of the irregularity such practice produces in the entablatures and capitals
e break is quite as much as should be ever tolerated, though in many of the churches in
Rome they are mulUphed with great profusion of mutilated capital and entabTature
than which," observes Chambers, « nothing can be more confused or disagreeable *
Fig. 924.
738
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
2681. Neither should columns be allowed to penetrate each other, as they do in the
court of the Louvre, inasmuch as the same irregularity is induced by it as we have above
noticed in the case of pilasters.
SECT. XV.
CARYATIDES AND PERSIANS.
2682. The origin of caryatides we have in the First Book (165, etseq.") so far as regards
our own opinions, explained, and in that respect we shall not trouble the reader. Our object
in this section is merely to offer some observations on the use of them in modern practice.
The figures denominated Persians, Atlantes, and the like, are in the same category, and we
shall not therefore stop to inquire into their respective merits ; indeed, that has already been
sufficiently done in the book above alluded to. The writer of the article in the En-
cyclopedic Methodique has, we think, thrown away a vast deal of elegant writing on the sub-
ject of caryatides ; and using, as we have done, to some extent, that extraordinary work,
we think it necessary to say that we cannot recommend anything belonging to that article
to the notice of the reader, except what is contained in the latter part of it, and with that
we do not altogether agree.
2683. The object, or apparent object, in the use of caryatides is for the purpose of support.
There is no case in which this cannot be better accomplished by a solid support, such as a
column, the use of the attic order, or some other equivalent means. But the variety in
quest of which the eye is always in search, and the picturesque effect which may be in-
duced by the employment of caryatides, leads often to their necessary employment. The
plain truth is, that they are admissible only as objects necessary for an extreme degree of
decoration, and otherwise employed are not to be tolerated. There can, as we imagine,
be no doubt that the most successful application of these figures as supports was by Jean
Gougeon in the Louvre ; as was the most unfortunate in the use of them in a church
in the New Road, which at the time of its erection was much lauded, but which we hope
will never be imitated by any British architect.
2684. As to the use of what are called Persians or male figures, originally in Persian
dresses, to designate, as Vitruvius tells us, the victory over their country by the Greeks, the
observations above made equally apply, and in the present day their application will not
bear a moment's suspense in consideration.
2685. We have been much amused with the gravity wherewith Sir William Chambers,
not with his usual sound sense, treats the claims of the personages whose merits we are dis-
cussing : he says, " Male figures may be introduced with propriety in arsenals or galleries of
armour, in guard-rooms and other military places, where they should represent the figures
of captives, or else of martial virtues ; such as strength, valour, wisdom, prudence, fortitude,
and the like." He writes more like himself when he says, " There are few nobler thoughts
in the remains of antiquity than Inigo Jones's court " (in the design for the great palace at
Whitehall), " the effect of which, if properly executed, would have been surprising and
great in the highest degree." (See _/?<?. 207.)
2686. What is called a terminus, which is, in fact, nothing more than a portion of an
inverted obelisk, we shall not observe upon further than to say that it is a form, as applied
to architecture, held in abhorrence. For the purpose, when detached and isolated, of sup-
porting busts in gardens, it may perhaps be occasionally tolerated : further we have no-
thing to say in its favour. Those who seek for additional instruction on what are called
termini, may find some account of them, as the boundary posts of land among the Romans,
in books relating to the antiquities of that people.
2687. We shall now proceed to submit some examples of caryatides for the use of those
whose designs require their employment. Fig. 926. is from a model of Michael Angelo
Hg. 926
Fig. 927.
fig. 929
CHAT. I.
BALUSTRADES AND BALUSTERS.
739
Buonarotti, and is extracted from the Treatise on Civil Architecture, by Sir William
Chambers, as are the succeeding examples.
2688 Figs. 927. and 928. are also designs by Michael Angelo, which, though not
designed for a building, are well adapted for the purpose under certain conditions.
2689. Fig. 929. is the design of Andrea Biffi, a sculptor of Milan, in the cathedral of
which city it is one of the figures surrounding the choir. The statue possesses mucn grace,
and was admirably suited to the edifice wherein it was employed.
2690. Fig. 930. comes from Holland, having been executed by Artus Quellinus in the
judgment-hall of the Stadthouse at Amsterdam.
Fig. 93'i
Fig. 934.
0. FiK. 931.
2691. Fig. 931. is by Michael Angelo, and is at the Villa Ludovisi at Rome.
2692. Fig. 932. is from the design by the last-named master for the monument of Pope
Julius, whereof we have had occasion already to make mention in the First Book of this
work. (335.)
2693. Fig. 933. is a representation of one of the celebrated caryatides by Jean Gougeon
in the Swiss guard-room of the old Louvre at Paris, and does not deserve less admira-
tion than it has received. The scale on which this and the preceding figures are given
does not admit of so good a representation as we could wish.
2694. Fig. 934. is from the arch of the goldsmiths at Rome, being thereon in basso
rilievo, but considered by Chambers as well as ourselves a suitable hint for carrying out
the purpose of this section.
SECT. XVI.
BALUSTRADES AND BALUSTERS.
2695. A baluster is a species of column used as an ornamental railing in front of
windows, or in arcades, or on the summit of a building, whose professed object is the
protection of its inhabitants from accidents : analogously, too, it consists of a capital, shaft,
and base.
2696. The baluster is not found in the works of the ancients, and we believe it owed
its introduction in architecture to the restorers of the arts in Italy, in which country a vast
variety of examples are to be found. They made their first appearance in the form of
stunted columns, not unfrequently surmounted by a clumsily-shaped Ionic capital. The
term is said to have had its rise (with what truth we cannot pronounce) from the Latin
balaustium, or the Greek /3oAai/<moj', the flower of the wild pomegranate, to which in form
the architectural baluster is said by some to bear a resemblance. The writer in tne
Encyclopedic Methodique has taken the opportunity, in the article " Balustre," of launching his
anathema against the use of it, but we by no means agree with him ; and instead of calling
it, as he does, " une invention mesquine," we incline to think that it was almost the only
invention of the modern architects that deserves our admiration. It is true that the form
has been abused in every possible shape ; but we are not, in art more than in morals, to
arrive at the conclusion that anything is bad because it has been abused and misapplied.
Such, then, being the case, we shall proceed in a serious vein to consider its proportions,
founded on the best examples that have come to our hands. We must first premise with
J. F. Blondel, that balusters and balustrades, which last are a series of the first, should in
form and arrangement partake of the character of the edifice. They have even been in
their species so subdivided as to be arranged under as many classifications as the orders
themselves, a distinct sort having been assigned for employment with each order. We are
not quite certain that such an arrangement is necessary, but are rather inclined to think it
fanciful ; though we are quite willing to allow that where the lighter orders are em ployed,
3 B 2
740
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
the balustrades to be used over them are susceptible of a more minute and lighter sub-
division of their parts.
2697. The general rules to be observed in the use of the balustrade are, that its balusters
be of an odd number, and that the distance between them should be equal to half their
larger diameter, from which will result an equality between the open and solid spaces. Blon-
del disapproves of a half baluster on the flanks of a subdivision of a balustrade : in this we
dissent from him, and would always recommend its adoption if possible. In respect of the
detailed proportions of the balusters themselves, we are to recollect that the subdivisions
are of the capital, the shaft or vase of the baluster, and its base. For proportioning these
to one another, Chambers (and we think the proportions he uses not inelegant) divides the
whole given height into thirteen equal parts, whereof the height of the baluster is eight,
that of the base three, and of the cornice or rail two. If the baluster is required to be less,
he divides the height into fourteen parts, giving eight to the baluster, four to the base, and
two to the rail. He calls one of these parts a module for the measurement of the rest, and
that measure we think convenient for adoption in this work. The module he divides into
nine parts,
2698. Balusters intended for real use in a building, as those employed on steps or stairs,
or before windows, or to enclose terraces, should not be less than three feet in height, nor
more than three feet six inches ; that is, sufficiently high to give security to the persons using
them : but when merely used as ornamental appendages, as in crowning a building, they
should bear some proportion to the parts of the building. Chambers says that their height
never ought to exceed four fifths of the height of the entablature on which they are placed,
nor should it ever be less than two thirds, without counting the zoccolo or plinth, the height
of which must be sufficient to leave the whole balustrade exposed to view from the best point
of sight for viewing the building. We can scarcely admit these rules to pass without noting
the examples in Palladio's works, which give a much greater latitude for variety. When
balusters fill in between the pedestals, as in the fa9ade of the Palace Chiericato at Vicenza,
the balustrade's height is of course regulated by that of the pedestal itself; but in the
court of the Porti palace the crowning balustrade is not higher than the cornice of the
entablature on which it stands. The same proportion is observed in the atrium of the
Carita at Venice. In the Valmarana palace the height of the balustrade is equal to that
of the entablature of the small order. It is true that in a few instances this master made
the height of the balustrade equal to that of the whole entablature, and Inigo Jones has in
some instances followed his example ; but this was not the general practice either of the
one or the other.
2699. We have already said that the baluster generally varies in form, so as to be
appropriate to the order over which it is used. It is moreover to be observed that the
baluster is susceptible of a pleasing variety of its form by making it square instead of cir-
cular on the plan, whereof examples are given in figs. 938, 939, and 940. ; but when the
situation requires an expression of solidity, almost all the circular examples we submit to
the reader may be changed from a circular to a square form on the plan, and thus as re-
quired we may obtain the character suitable to their respective situations. These changes,
from one to another form in details of this description, are in their adoption much more
the index to the capacity and genius of the architect than the restless and capricious longing
after variety recently exhibited in some of the latest works produced in the city of London,
works which reflect no credit on the age in which we live. In Jig. 935. is given a baluster
Fig. 935.
Fig. 936.
Tig. 937.
suitable to the Tuscan order ; and using the module of nine parts above mentioned, the
following is a table of its dimensions: —
CHAP. I.
BALUSTRADES AND BALUSTERS.
741
Members.
Heights in
Parts of a
Module.
Projections in
Parts of a
Module from
Centre of
Baluster.
Fillet
3
271
Rail,
Corona -
8|
34J
2 modules.
Quarter round
Fillet
ll
Abacus _ _ - -
52
1J2
Cyma reversa
4
Neck ....
5
5\
Astragali
S1
Baluster,
8 modules.
Fillet J
Centre of belly
From same to astragal
27
9
13
Astragal ~\
Fillet J
2*
10£ fillet
Inverted cyma
6$
Plinth ....
73
13
Inverted cavetto
5
Pedestal,
Fillet -
2
3 modules.
Astragal -
5
Plinth ....
15
24
2700. Infiy. 936. is given the form of a baluster suited to the Doric and Ionic orders, of
which also the table of dimensions is subjoined : •*—
Members.
Heights in
Parts of a
Module.
Projections in
Parts of a
Module from
Centre of
Baluster.
Fillet ....
2
27
Rail,
2 modules.
Cyma reversa . - -
Corona -
Quarter round -
7^
4
22
Fillet
M
Abacus -
52
11
Echinus -
s\
Fillet ....
1
Neck ....
5
5
Baluster,
8 modules.
Astragal "1
Fillet J
Centre of belly ...
From same to astragal
3
27
9
«i
Astragal ....
2
Fillet ....
1
Inverted cavetto - - -
6
10 (upper part)
Fillet ....
2j»
Plinth ....
73
12J
Fillet - -
jl
Pedestal,
3 modules.
Inverted ogee - „ _
Fillet
Astragal - - . _
5
Jj
Plinth ....
15
231
2701. A suitable baluster for the Corinthian or Composite order is exhibited \nfig. 937.
thereof the measures are as follow : —
3 B 3
742
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III,
Members.
Heights in
Parts of a
Module.
Projections in
Parts of a
Module from
Centre of
Baluster.
Fillet
||
26$
Echinus -
2|
Rail,
,' 2 modules.
Fillet
Corona - -
Cyma reversa -
6*
3§
fill
Astragal 1
Fillet /
2§
Abacus
5
10^
Echinus - -
3
Fillet 1
Cavetto J
H
Neck ....
5
4f
Baluster,
8 modules.
Astragal 1
Fillet J '
Centre of belly
From same to astragal
2§
27
9
12
Astragal 1
Fillet J '
21
Scotia -
4|
4\ (at top)
Fillet ....
1
Astragal •
3§
Plinth
6
12
Fillet 1
Astragal J
2§
Pedestal,
Inverted cyma recta -
4£
3 modules*
Fillet
1
Astragal ....
4
Plinth ....
15
23
2702. The Tuscan baluster (fig. 938.) is suitable for terraces and basements: its rail
Fig. 940.
Fig. 938. Fig. 939.
and pedestal may be the same height as in the fig. 935
follow : —
H
Fig. 941. Fig. 942. Fig. 943.
Its principal measures being
Projections in
Heights in
Parts of a
Members.
Parts of a
Module from
Module.
Centre of
Baluster.
Abacus
3
6
Cyma reversa
2
Neck 1
I 3
Fillet J
4
1
Baluster
5 modules.
fat top ] -
Rustic belly j 1 " "
[at bottom J
27
«|
u
Bottom of belly 1
24
Fillet J
2
Inverted cavetto and fillet
3
3
Plinth ....
?4
n
CHAP. I.
BALUSTRADES AND BALUSTERS.
743
Other forms of Tuscan balusters are given in figs. 939. and 940., but it is not ne-
cessary to give the detail of the parts, as the proportions are sufficiently preserved in the
figures.
2703. The double-bellied baluster is used in situations where greater lightness is
required from the smallness of the parts and the delicacy of the profiles. The proportions
for the bases and rails need not vary from those already given. Perhaps they need not be
quite so large.
2704. Fig. 941. is an example of a double-bellied baluster, suitable to the Doric order.
Its parts are as follow : —
Projections in
Heights in
Parts of a
Members.
Parts of a
Module from
Module.
Centre of
Baluster.
Abacus -
H
8
Echinus 1
i
Fillet J
42
Baluster,
8 modules.
Upper part -
Middle part -
Lower part -
243
243
f4 neck
18 belly
6 centre
[8 belly
14 neck
Fillet j
t
Inverted echinus/
42
Plinth ...
4*
8
2705. \nfig. 942. we give an example of the double-bellied baluster for the Ionic order,
and its measures are subjoined : —
Heights in
Projections in
Parts of a
Members.
Parts of a
Module from
Module.
Centre of
Baluster.
Abacus -
«J
9
Fillet and cyma reversa
3
Baluster,
10 modules.
Upper part - -
Middle part -
Lower part -
30|
9
30|
f4i neck
19 belly
7i centre
(9 belly
I4i neck
Inverted cyma and fillet
H
[Plinth -
^
9
2706. The last example we shall give of the double-bellied baluster (Jig. 943.) is suit-
able to the Corinthian order. The measures are as follow : —
Members.
Heights in
Parts of a
Module.
Projections in
Parts of a
Module from
Centre of
Baluster.
Abacus -
5
11
Echinus and fillet -
4
Neck
5k
^
Astragal and fillet -
^
Baluster,
1 2 modules.
Upper part -
Middle ....
Lower part -
Fillet and astragal -
29
6
29
8*
I" 5\ at top
111 at belly
fll at belly
1 5\ at bottom
Neck ....
53
51
Fillet and inverted echinus -
4
Plinth ....
5
11
3 B 4
744 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
2707. We do not deem it necessary to give any examples of the scroll and Guiloche
balustrades, which were so much in vogue during the reigns of Louis XIV. and
Louis XV., though the present taste seems almost to require it. As that taste has been
mainly generated by house decorators, as they are called, and upholsterers, these gentry
will soon find out another means of amusing the public, by driving them out of fashion
and finding all that is beautiful in some renovated and equal absurdities.
2708. We have already observed that the intervals between balusters should not be more
than half the diameter of the baluster at its thickest part ; to this we may here add, that
they should not be less than one third of that diameter. The pedestals for supporting the
rail ought neither to be too frequent nor too far apart ; for in the first case they impart a
heavy appearance to the work, and in the last the work will seem weak. Seven or nine
balusters are good numbers for a group, besides the two half ones engaged in the pedestals.
The disposition, however, and number of the pedestals depend on the places below of the
piers, columns, or pilasters, for over these a pedestal must stand ; and when, therefore, it
happens that the intervals are greater than are required for the reception of nine balusters,
the distance may contain two or three groups each, flanked with half balusters, and the
width of the dies separating the groups may be from two thirds to three quarters the width
of the principal pedestals. The rail and base should not be broken by projections, but
run in unbroken lines between the pedestals.
2709. When the principal pedestals stand over columns or pilasters, their dies should not
be made wider than the top of the shafts, and on no account narrower ;
indeed, it is better to flank them on each side when the ranges are long
with half dies, and give a small projection to the central pedestal, and
to let the base and rail follow the projection in their profiles. This
practice will give real as well as apparent solidity to the balustrade.
2710. Fig. 944. shows the application of a balustrade to a portion
of a staircase, and herein the same proportions are observed as on
level ranges. Some masters have made the mouldings of the different
members of the baluster, follow the rake or inclination of the steps ;
but the practice is vicious : they should preserve their horizon tality, as
exhibited in the figure, in which, at A and B, is also shown the me-
thod in which the horizontal are joined to the inclined mouldings
of the base and rail. In the balustrades of stairs the spaces between
the balusters are usually made narrower than they are on level beds ;
and Le Clerc recommends that the height of the plinth should be
equal to that of the steps ; but this is not absolutely required, though
it must on no account be less.
2711. The bulbs or bellies of balusters and their mouldings may be
carved and otherwise enriched : indeed, in highly decorated interiors, FiR ^t.
this seems requisite.
2712. The following observations as to the height of statues placed upon balustrades
are from Sir William Chambers : — " When statues are placed upon a balustrade their
height should not exceed one quarter of the column and entablature on which the balus-
trade stands. Their attitudes must be upright, or, if anything, bending a little forwards,
but never inclined to either side. Their legs must be close to each other, and the draperies
close to their bodies, for whenever they stand straddling with bodies tortured into a variety
of bends, and draperies waving in the wind, as those placed on the colonnades of St.
Peter's, they have a most disagreeable effect, especially at a distance, from whence they
appear like lumps of unformed materials, ready to drop upon the heads of passengers.
The three figures placed on the pediment of Lord Spencer's house, in the Green Park,
which were executed by the late ingenious Mr. Spang, are well composed for the purpose. "
2713. " The heights of vases placed upon balustrades should not exceed two thirds of
the height given to statues," says the same author. We are not altogether averse to the
application of either statues or vases in the predicated situations, but we think the greatest
discretion is required in their employment. When it is necessary to attract the eye from
an indispensably obtrusive roof, they are of great value in the composition ; but we shall
not further enter on this point of controversy, for such it is, inasmuch as many object to
their use altogether, and have considerable reason on their side. We must, however, briefly
state the ground of objection, and Chambers's answer as respects statues. There are, he
says, some " who totally reject the practice of placing statues on the outsides of buildings,
founding their doctrine, probably, upon a remark which I have somewhere met with in a
French author, importing that neither men, nor even angels or demi-gods, could stand in
all weathers upon the tops of houses or churches."
2714. " The observation is wise, no doubt," (we doubt the wisdom of it,) "yet, as a
piece of marble or stone is not likely to be mistaken for a live demi-god, and as statues,
when properly introduced, are by far the most graceful terminations of a composition, one
of the most abundant sources of varied entertainment, and amongst the richest, most
CHAP. 1. PEDIMENTS. 745
durable, and elegant ornaments of a structure, it may be hoped they will still continue to
be tolerated." We fear that if the only reasons for their toleration were those assigned by
the author, their doom would soon be sealed.
SECT. XVII.
PEDIMENTS.
2715. A pediment, whose etymology is not quite clear, consists of a portion of the
horizontal cornice of the building to which it is applied, meeting two entire continued
raking cornices, and enclosing by the three boundaries a space which is usually plain,
called the tympanum. It is not, however, necessary that the upper cornice should be
rectilinear, inasmuch as the cornice is sometimes formed by the segment of a circle. The
arrangement in question was the Roman fastigium, and is the French fronton. The Greeks
called pediments aeroi, or eagles ; why, this is not the place to inquire. The origin of the
pediment, according to authors, seems to have arisen from the inclined sides of the primitive
hut. This is a subject, however, which in the First Book (subsec. 5.) has been already
considered, and we shall therefore in this section confine ourselves to its employment in the
architecture of the day.
2716. Of the varied forms which, by masters even of acknowledged talent, have been
given to the pediment, whether polygonal, with curves of contrary flexure, with mixed
forms, broken in the horizontal part of the cornice or in the raking parts of it, or reversed
in its office with two springing inclined sides from the centre, we propose to say no more
than that they are such abuses of all rules of propriety, that we shall not further notice
them than by observing that in regular architecture no practice is to be tolerated where
the pediment is composed otherwise than of two raking unbroken and one horizontal
unbroken cornice, or of the latter and one continued flexure of curved line. To these
only, therefore, we now apply ourselves.
2717. Generally, except for windows and doors, the pediment ought not to be used,
except for a termination of the whole composition ; and though examples are to be found
without number in which an opposite practice has obtained, the reader, on reflection, will
be convinced of the impropriety of it, if there be the smallest foundation for its origin in
the termination of the slant sides of the hut.
2718. The use of the pediment in the interior of a building is, perhaps, very questionable,
though the greatest masters have adopted it. We think it altogether unnecessary ; if the
pyramidal form is desirable for any particular combination of lines, it may be obtained by
a vast number of other means than that of the introduction of the pediment. Hence we
are of opinion that the attempted apology for them in Sir William Chambers's work, is alto-
gether weak and unworthy of him, and only to be explained by that master's own practice.
2719. Vitruvius ordains that neither the modillions nor dentils which are used in the
horizontal cornice should be used in the sloping cornices of a pediment, inasmuch as they
represent parts in a roof which could not appear in that position : and the remains
generally of antiquity seem to bear him out in the assertion ; but the Roman remains seem
to bear a different testimony to the validity of the law, and to our own eyes the trans-
gression affords pleasure, and we should recommend the student not to feel himself at all
bound by it ; for, as Chambers most truly observes, " The disparity of figure and enrich-
ment between the horizontal and inclined cornices are such defects as cannot be compen-
sated by any degree of propriety whatever, and therefore to me it appears best, in imitation
of the greatest Roman and modern architects, always to make the two cornices of the
same profile, thus committing a trifling impropriety to avoid a very considerable deformity."
2720. Different sized pediments in the same fa9ade are D
to be avoided ; but as respects their forms in ranges of
windows and niches a pleasing variety is often obtained by
making them alternately curved and rectilinear, as in the
temple at Nismes and in the niches of the Pantheon at
Rome.
2721. In the horizontal part of a cornice under a pe-
diment the two upper mouldings are always omitted, and
the intersection of the inclined with the horizontal lines,
supposing the inclined members of the cornice to be of the
same height as those which are horizontal, will not fall into
the profile (fig. 945.) whereof AB and BC are the lead-
ing lines. To obviate this inconvenience, some architects
have made a break in the cymatium and fillet, as shown
746
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
in the figure. But this is a bad practice, and to it we prefer either making the cyma and
fillet higher, as the dotted line AD indicates, or altogether lowering the height of the cyma
on the horizontal line. If the inclined cornice is joined on each side by horizontal ones, the
best expedient is to give only such small projection to the cyma as that it may meet the
inclined sides.
2722. The heights of pediments should be regulated by their lengths, independent of the
consideration of climate. (See Book II. Chap. III. Sect. IV. 2027.) Thus, when the base of
the pediment is short, the height of the pediment may be greater ; and when long, it should
be diminished ; for in the former case the inclined cornice leaves but scanty space for the
tympanum, and in the latter case the tympanum will appear overcharged. From one fifth
to one quarter of the length appears to have been agreed on as the limits ; but we subjoin,
from a work by Stanislas L'Eveille ( Considerations sur Us Frontons, 4to. Paris, 1 824), the
method which we consider the best for determining the height of a pediment, observing, by
the way, that a strict adherence to the ordinary rules for finding the height may produce
the absurdity of a pediment higher than the columns by which it is borne, a condition
which would not at all accord with the view we have taken of the orders in Sect. II.
Fig. 946.
Chap. I. of this Book. In fig. 946. we have a synoptical view of pediments of various
extents, and as the letters applied to the central pediment will apply to all the rest, we
shall restrict our description to that. Suppose the points a and b to be the extremities
of the fillet of the corona. Then, with a radius equal to db, from the points a and b,
describe the arcs ax, bx, and from their intersection x with the same radius let the arc ayb
be described. From y, as a centre, with a radius equal to the height of the horizontal
part of the cornice, describe the portion of the circle /#, and from a and b draw thereto
tangents intersecting in y. Then yb and ya will be the proper inclination of the fillet of
the corona to which the other members of the inclined parts will necessarily be parallel.
2723. We conclude this section by the words of Chambers. " The face of the tympan
is always placed on a line perpendicular with the face of the frieze ; and when large, may
be adorned with sculpture, representing the arms or cypher of the owner, trophies of
various kinds, suited to the nature of the structure, or bas-reliefs, representing either
allegorical or historical subjects ; but when small it is much better left plain. "
SECT. XVIII.
CORNICES.
2724. In many cases the fa9ades of buildings are erected without any of the orders
appearing in the design, other, perhaps, than those which are applied as the dressings of
windows, niches, or doors. The palaces of Florence and Rome abound with such examples,
in most of which the edifice is crowned with a cornice, which adds dignity to the building,
producing a play of light and shadow about it of the utmost importance as regards its
picturesque effect. The moderns have generally failed in this fine feature of a building,
and it is only within the last few years, in this country, that a return to the practice of the
old masters, a practice properly appreciated by Jones, Wren, Vanbrugh, and Burlington,
has manifested itself. If a building be entirely denuded of pilasters and columns, and
there are very few common instances that justify their introduction, it seems rational to
CHAP. 1.
CORNICES.
747
deduce the proportion of the height and profile of its cornice from the proportions that
would be given to it if an order intervened.
2725. If we consider the height of the crowning cornice of a huildmg in this way, and
as the portion of an entablature whose height is, as in the case of an order, one fifth of that
of the building, we should immediately obtain a good proportion by dividing the whole
height into 25 parts and giving two of them to the height of the cornice. For the
entablature being one fifth of the whole
height, and its general division being into
10 parts, four whereof are given to the
cornice, we have for its height the T40 of £ = ^5
= 52,, or the twelfth and a half part of the
total height of the building = OO8.
Now there are circumstances, such as
when the piers are large, and in other
cases when the parts are not very full in
their profiles, which may justify a de-
parture from the strict application of this
rule ; but it will be seen that in the
following ten well-known examples the
practice has not much differed from the
theory, nearly the greatest deviation being
in the celebrated cornice of the Farnese
palace, which is here placed (fig. 947.) as
an extraordinary work of art in connection
with the building it crowns. The ex-
amples alluded to are as follow, and we
shall begin with those of earlier date,
the diminution in height being almost a chronological table of their erection, with the
exception of those by Palladio : —
In the Spannocchi palace, at Siena, the cornice is -j^j of the whole height of building,
or 33r=-081.
In the Picolomini palace, at Siena, the cornice is -^ of the whole height of building,
In the Pojana palace, built by Palladio, at Pojana, in the Vicentine territory, the cornice
is ^j of the whole height of building, or ^ = 071.
In the Strozzi palace, at Florence, the cornice is -y^g of the whole height of building,
In the Pandolfini palace, at Florence, by Raffaelle, the cornice is T§^ of the whole
height of building, or 22g = '069.
In the Villa Montecchio, by Palladio, the cornice is -j^j of the whole height of building,
or ^= -069.
In the Villa Caldogno, by Palladio, the cornice is T§|5 of the whole height of building,
or |j = -069.
In another villa by Palladio, for the family of Caldogno, the cornice is ^ of the whole
height of building, or ^ = -066.
In the Farnese palace, at Rome, the cornice is T|§5 of the whole height of building, or ^
= -059.
In the Gondi palace, at Florence, the cornice is ^ of the whole height of building, or 323
= -057.
From these examples it appears that the mean height of the cornices under consideration
is something more than one fifteenth of the height of the building, and experience shows
that, except under particular circumstances, much more
than that is too great, and much less too little, to satisfy
an educated eye. The grace beyond the reach of art
is, if we may use an Hibernicism, in the power of few,
but the bounds have been passed with success, as is
testified in the Farnese palace. It may be objected to
the system that we have generally adopted in this work,
that we are too much reducing the art to rules. But
this is a practice of which the painter is not ashamed
in the proportions of the human figure, and we must
remind our reader and the student that all rules are more
for the purpose of restraining excess than bounding- the
flights of genius.
2726. Fig. 948. is an entablature by Vignola, which
possesses great beauty, and has been often imitated in
various ways for crowning a building ; this must be con- Fig Mg
748
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
sidered more in relation to a building than a mere cornice, and requires rustic quoins, if
possible, at the angles when used. Chambers, speaking of this example, says, that " when
it is used to finish a plain building, the whole height is found by dividing the height of
the whole front into eleven parts, one of which must be given to the entablature, and the
remaining ten to the rest of the front." We suspect that the smallness which is assigned
by this author to its height has been induced by some error, and that a better rule would
be induced by assigning to the cornice its proper height, according to the laws above
hinted at, and proportioning the rest of the entablature from the cornice thus obtained.
Fig. 951.
Fig. 950.
Fig. 949.
2727. In figs. 949, 950, and 951. are given three examples of block cornices (the
second being by Palladio), whose proportions the figures sufficiently show without here
giving a detail of their parts. The height of either should not be less than one fifteenth of
the height of the building.
Fig. 952.
Fig. 954.
Fig. 953.
2728. Figs. 952. and 953. are block cornices, which we have adopted from Chambers,
the first being from a palace at Milan, and the other, by Raffaelle, in a house in the
Lungara at Rome. The height of these, says the author, and we agree with him, need
not exceed one sixteenth part of the whole front, nor should either be less than one
eighteenth. Fig. 954. is what is called an architrave cornice, which was frequently employed
by the old masters. It seems well adapted to the entablatures of columns bearing arches,
being rather in the nature of an impost ; but it is useful, changing it to suit the order in
cases where the height does not admit of the whole of the entablature being used over the
order.
SECT. XIX.
PROFILES OF DOORS.
2729. One of our objects in this work has been to impress throughout on the minds of
our readers that architecture does not depend on arbitrary laws; and though we may not
have proved satisfactorily to the student that the precise laws have been exactly stated, we
trust we have exhibited sufficient to show and convince him that there was a method and
limit in the works of the ancients which in the best times prevented the artists from falling
on either side into excess.
2730. In fig. 955. we give a door with its architrave, frieze, and cornice, without re-
lation to mouldings, but merely considered in the masses. Its proportions correspond
with those most usually adopted ; that is, its height is twice its width, the entablature is
one fourth of the height of the opening, and the architraves on each side, together, two
sixths of the width. The opening, therefore, measuring it in terms of the width of the
architrave, will be 6 parts wide and 12 high, and its area consequently 72 parts. Now
CHAP. L PROFILES OF DOORS. 749
. . t
it will be found that the solid parts of this are exactly on their
face two thirds of this area ; for up to the top of the opening each
architrave being equal to 12, the sum will be 24 ; and the entabla-
ture being 8 wide and 3 (one fourth of twelve) high, 8 x 3 = 24;
which added to 24 for the architraves gives 48 for the solids, and
48 — 2 as above stated. The same analogy does not seem to hold
in respect of doors and windows, of making the voids equal to the
supports and weights, as in intercolumniations ; nor indeed ought
we to expect to find it, for the conditions are totally different,
inasmuch as no door can exist except in a wall, whereas the office
of columns is connected with the weight above only. We trust,
therefore, we have shown enough to keep the reader's mind alive
to some such law as above developed, without insisting very strongly
on a minute attention to it in detail.
2731 . We shall now, before submitting any examples of doorways Fis- 955-
to the reader, touch upon some important points that must be attended to ; the first of which
is, that all gates and doors, independent of all other considerations, must be of sufficient size
for convenient passage through them. Hence internal doors must never be reduced under
2 feet 9 or 10 inches, and their height must not be under 6 feet 10 inches or 7 feet, so as to
admit the tallest person to pass with his hat. These are minimum dimensions for ordinary
houses in the principal floors; but for houses of a superior class, which are provided with what
may be called state apartments, widths of 4, 5, and 6 feet, folding doors and the like, will not
be too great for the openings, and the heights will of course be in proportion. The entrance
doors of private houses ought not to be under 3 feet 6 inches, nor ordinarily more than
6 feet in width ; but in public buildings, where crowds of people assemble, the minimum
width should be 6 feet, and thence upwards to 10 or 12 feet. No gate should be less than
9 feet wide; and when loaded waggons or carts are to pass through it, 11 or 12 feet
will not be too much. As a general observation we may mention that all doors should open
inwards, for otherwise the person entering pulls the door in his face, which is an inconvenient
mode of entering a room. Also when the width of a door is greater than 3 feet 8 inches
it should be formed in two flaps, by which three advantages accrue : first, that the door
will not occupy so much space for opening ; second, that each door will be lighter ; and,
third, that the flaps will more nearly fold into the thickness of the wall. Chambers pro-
perly says, " That in settling the dimensions of apertures of doors regard must be had to
the architecture with which the door is surrounded. If it be placed in the intercolumniation
of an order, the height of the aperture should never exceed three quarters of the space
between the pavement and the architrave of the order ; otherwise there cannot be room for
the ornaments of the door. Nor should it ever be much less than two thirds of that
space, for then there will be room sufficient to introduce both an entablature and a
pediment without crowding ; whereas if it be less it will appear trifling, and the inter-
columniation will not be sufficiently filled. The apertures of doors placed in arches are
regulated by the imposts, the top of the cornice being generally made level with the top
of the impost ; and when doors are placed in the same line with windows, the top of the
aperture should be level with the tops of the apertures of the windows ; or if that be
not practicable without making the door much larger than is necessary, the aperture
may be lower than those of the windows, and the tops of all the cornices made on the same
level."
2732. To say that the principal door of a building should if possible be in the centre of
the front would seem almost unnecessary ; but it is not so, perhaps, to inculcate the necessity
of its being so situated in connection with the internal arrangement of the building as to
lead with facility to every part of it, being, as Scamozzi observes (Parte Secunda, lib. vi.
c. 4. ), like the mouth of an animal placed in the middle of the face, and of easy communi-
cation with the inside. In the internal distribution the doors should as much as possible
be opposite one another on many accounts, not the least whereof is the facility thus given
to ventilation ; but such a disposition also gives the opportunity of a far better display of
a series of rooms, which on occasions of fetes imparts great magnificence to the apartments.
In this climate it is well to avoid too great a number of doors, and they should never, if
it can be avoided, be placed near chimneys, because of subjecting to draughts of air those
who sit near the fire. Generally the doors in a room should be reduced to the smallest
number that will suit the distribution, and the practice of making feigned or blank doors,
though sometimes necessary, should if possible be excluded.
2733. The ornaments with which doors are decorated must of course depend on the
building in which they are used ; and as this is a matter in which common sense must
direct the architect, it is hardly necessary to say that the ornaments applied to them in a
theatre would ill suit a church.
2734. The composition and designing of gates and their piers must of necessity suit the
occasion, as well as the folding gates attached to them, for the enclosure of the parks,
750
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III,
gardens, and other places they are to serve. There are few finer examples in the higher
class of this species of design than the celebrated gates at Hampton Court.
2735. The evil days on which we have fallen in this country, in respect of the arts, pre-
cludes the hope of again seeing the doors of our buildings ornamented with bassi relievi and
bronze ornaments, a practice common among the ancients no less than among the revivers
of the arts ; witness the doors of St. Peter's, and, above all, those monuments of the art, the
doors of the baptistery at Florence by Lorenzo Ghiberti, wherein art rises by being made
only subservient to the holy purpose to which it is the mere handmaid. In the mention
of doors those of San Giovanni Laterano at Rome must not be omitted ; they have the credit
of having been the enclosures to the temple of Saturn in the ancient city.
2736. The manufacture of doors has been already sufficiently noticed in the Second
Book ; and it therefore only remains for us to subjoin a few examples, which, we think,
among many others, deserve the attention of the student.
Fig. 957.
Fig. 9/56.
Fig. 958.
2737. Fig. 956. is an external doorway designed and executed by Vignola, at Caprarola,
not a great distance north of Rome ; it must speak for itself: if the reader be of our
mind, he will see in it a beautiful handling of the subject ; but we cannot further answer for
our opinion, knowing as we do that some of the reviewers of these days may find out that
it possesses no (esthetic beauties. There are cases where imitation has been permitted ; and
the sanction for our opinion is, that it has been imitated by one whom we and all others
hold in reverence at Greenwich Hospital, though, as we think with Chambers, for the
worse. " The aperture is in the form of an arch, and occupies somewhat more than two
thirds of the whole height. It is adorned with two rusticated Doric pilasters and a re-
gular entablature. The height of the pilasters is 16 modules, that of the entablature 4.
The width of the aperture is 7 modules, its height 14, and the breath of each pier is
3 modules." To the detail of Chambers we have to add that the void in this example,
which has no analogy to that which as a general rule we gave in the commencement of
the section, is about one third of the area of the whole design, the void being to such area
as 7-57 to 20-88.
2738. Fig. 957. is a design by the last-mentioned master, in which the void is as nearly
as possible equal to one third of the area, the supports another, and the weights the other
third : in other terms, the aperture occupies two thirds of the whole height and one half
of the whole breadth, being, in fact, a double square. Its entablature has an alliance with
the Tuscan order, and the cornice is equal to one fifteenth of the whole height of the door.
These two examples are especially external ; those which follow are from their nature
applicable in general form to either external or internal doorways.
2739 Fig. 958. is a doorway in the Cancellaria at Rome, and is from the design of
Vignola. The width is one half
the height, and the height of the
entablature is equal to one third of AHiMMMMMMi
the height of the aperture. The
breadth of the architrave is one
fifth of the aperture's width, and the
pilasters below the consoles are
half as broad as the architrave.
It is heavy, as might have been ex-
pected from the proportion between
the voids and the solids.
274O. Fig. 959. is a design by
Michael Angelo Buonarotti, and its
aperture may be twice its height,
Fig. 959. Fig.
CHAP.
WINDOWS.
751
the whole entablature a quarter of its height, and the architrave one sixth of the width
of the aperture. The face of the pilasters or columns at the sides must be regulated
by the lower fascia of the architrave, and their breadth is to be a semidiameter.
2741. Fig- 960. is by Vignola, and is in the Farnese palace at Rome. The opening is
twice the width in height, and the entablature is three elevenths of the height of the aper-
ture, one of the foregoing elevenths being given to the architrave. The whole of the orna-
ment on the sides is, including architraves and pilasters, equal to two sevenths of the width
of the aperture. The cornice is Composite, with modillions and dentils, and the frieze is
enriched with a laurel band.
2742. Fig. 961., another of the examples given by Chambers, is believed to be by
Cigoli. The void is rather more in height than twice its width. The impost of the arch
is equal to half a diameter, the columns are rather more than nine diameters high, and
rusticated with five square cinctures. The entablature is not so much as one quarter of
the height of the column, and its tablet is equal to the width of the aperture.
Fig. 962
Fig. 963.
2743. Fig. 962. is by Inigo Jones, and the aperture may be twice as high as it is wide.
The architrave may be a sixth or seventh of the width of the aperture, the top of it being
level with the astragal of the columns, which are Corinthian, and ten diameters in height.
They must be so far removed on each side from the architrave as to allow the full projec-
tion of their bases. The entablature may be from two ninths to one fifth of the column,
and the pediment should be regulated by the rules given in Sect. XVII. (2722.).
2744. Fig. 963. is by Serlio. The aperture may be a double square, or a trifle less ;
the diameter of the columns a quarter of the width of the aperture, or a trifle less ; their
height 8 to 8^ diameters ; the entablature about a quarter of the height of the columns,
and the pediment should be drawn in conformity with the directions in Sect. XVII.
SECT. XX.
WINDOWS.
2745. Windows, of all the parts of a building, are those which require the greatest nicety
in adjustment between the interior and exterior relations of them. The architect who
merely looks to the effect they will produce in his fa9ades has done less than half his work,
and deserves no better name or rank than that of a mere builder. It seems almost use-
less to observe that the windows of a building should preserve the same character, that
those in each story must be of the same height, and that the openings must be directly over
one another. Blank windows are, if possible, to be avoided ; they always indicate that
the architect wanted skill to unite the internal wants of the building with its external de-
coration. Windows, moreover, should be as far removed as the interior will permit from
the quoins of a building, because they not only apparently, but really, weaken the angler,
when placed too near them.
2746. Vitruvius, Palladio, Scamozzi, and Philibert de 1'Orme, besides many other mas-
ters, have given different proportions to them as connected with the apartments to be
lighted. That these should be different is indicated by the different places in which those
masters have written. Nothing, indeed, seems so much to disallow general laws as the
proportion of windows to an apartment ; according to the climate, the temperature, the
752 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
length of the days, the general clearness of the sky, the wants and customs of commerce
and of life generally. In hot climates the windows are always few in number and small in
dimension. As we approach those regions where the sun has less power and the winter is
longer, we observe always an increase in their size and number, so as to enable the in-
habitants to take as much advantage as possible of the sun's light and rays. It seems,
therefore, almost impossible to give general rules on this subject. We shall on this account
endeavour, in the rules that this section contains, to confine ourselves to the sizes which
seem suitable in this climate, as resoects the proportion of light necessary for the comfort
of an apartment.
2747. It is a matter of experience that tne greatest quantity of light is obtained for an
apartment when lighted by an horizontal aperture in the ceiling. Of this a very extra-
ordinary verification is to be found in the Pantheon at Rome. This edifice, whose clear
internal diameter is 142 feet 6 inches, not including the recesses behind the columns, is
nearly 74 feet high to the springing of the dome, which is semicircular. The total clear
number of cubic feet in it may therefore be taken in round numbers at 1,934,460 cubic
feet. Those who have visited it well know that it is most sufficiently and pleasingly
lighted, and this is effected by an aperture (the eye, as it is technically called,) in the crown
of the dome, which aperture is only 27 feet in diameter. Now the area of a circle 27 feet
in diameter being rather more than 572 feet, it follows that each superficial foot of the
area lights the astonishing quantity of nearly 3380 cubic feet. Independent of all consi-
derations of climate, this shows the amazing superiority of a light falling vertically, where
it can be introduced. But in a majority of cases the apertures for light are introduced in
vertical walls ; and the consequence is, that a far greater area of them for the admis-
sion of light becomes necessary. In considering the question it must be premised that
a large open space is supposed before the windows, and not the obstructed light which
it is the lot of the inhabitants of closely-built streets to enjoy. Again, it is to be recollected
that in the proportioning of windows it is the apartments on the principal floor that are to
be considered, because their width in all the stories must be guided by them, the only va-
riety admissible being in the height. In this country, where the gloom and even darkness
of wet, cloudy, and foggy seasons so much prevails, it is better to err on the side of too
much rather than too little light, and when it is superabundant to exclude it by means of
shutters and blinds. We are not very friendly to the splaying of windows, because of the
irregularity of the lines which follows the practice ; but, it must be admitted, it often be-
comes necessary when the walls are thick, and in such cases a considerable splay on the
inside increases the light in effect by a great diminution of shade. It is well, if possible,
to have an odd number of windows in an apartment ; nothing wherein contributes more
to gloom than a pier in the centre.
2748. We do not think it necessary to advert to the rule of Palladio for the dimensions
of windows given in the first book of his work, chap. 25. ; because, were it true for the
climate of northern Italy, it would not be so for that of Great Britain ; neither are we at
all satisfied with that which in his practice Sir William Chambers says he adopted, and
which is as follows, in his own words : — " I have generally added the depth and height"
we suppose width " of the rooms on the principal floor together, and taken one eighth
part thereof for the width of the window ; a rule to which there are few objections : ad-
mitting somewhat more light than Palladio's, it is, I apprehend, fitter for our climate than
his rule would be." This rule is empirical, as indeed is that on which we place most
dependence, and to which we shall presently introduce the reader, being ourselves inclined
to the belief that in the lighting a room there is a direct relation between the area of the
aperture admitting the light and the quantity of cube space in the room. Indeed the law
which we are about to give is one founded on the cubic contents of the apartment ; and if
the results bore a regular ratio to that quantity, the discussion would be at an end, for we
should then have only to ascertain the cubic contents, and, knowing how much an area of
light one foot square would illuminate, the division of one by the other would supply the
superficies of windows to be provided. Our own notion on this subject is, that 1 foot super-
ficial of light in a vertical wall, supposing the building free from obstruction by high
objects in the neighbourhood, will in a square room be sufficient for 100 cube feet if placed
centrally in such room. It will, however, immediately occur to the reader, that this rule
cannot in many cases satisfy the requirements of an apartment as respects the quantity of
light necessary for its proper illumination. The subject is beset with numerous difficulties,
which to overcome requires the greatest skill. In the case of an apartment, long as com-
pared with its width, it is well known to every practical architect that windows of the same
collective area at either of the narrow ends of such apartment will light it much more
effectively than if the same area of light were admitted on either of the long sides, and most
especially so, if it should happen that on such long side there were a pier instead of a window
in the centre of such side. In illustration of what we mean, let us refer the reader to the
ball room at Windsor Castle, an apartment 90 feet long, 34 feet wide, and 33 feet high.
This room is lighted from the northern narrower side by a window nearly occupying the
CHAP. I.
WINDOWS.
753
width, and is supplied by an abundance of light. But had the same quantity of light been
admitted from either of the long sides of the room, so many masses of shadow would have
been introduced through the interposition of piers, that its effect would have differed most
widely from the cheerful and airy aspect it now presents. We have taken this as an
example that more presently occurs to us, but the reader from his observation will have no
difficulty in supplying instances in corroboration of our impressions on this subject.
But we shall now proceed to give, in the author's own words, the rules of which we
have spoken. That author is Robert Morris, and the work quoted is Lectures on Archi-
tecture, consisting of Rules founded on Harmonick and Arithmetical Proportions in Building.
London, 8vo. 1734. " There are rules, likewise, for proportioning of light according
to the magnitude of the room by which any room may be illuminated, more or less,
according to the uses of them, and at the same time preserve an external regularity ;
which, as it is on an uncommon basis, I shall explain to you as well as I conveniently
can. Let the magnitude of the room be given, and one of those proportions I have
proposed to be made use of or any other ; multiply the length and breadth of the room
together, and that product multiply by the height, and the square root of that sum will
be the area or superficial content in feet, &c. of the light required."
Breadth 16 ft. -
Fig. 964.
Breadth 12/f. —
Fig. 965.
2749. "Example. Suppose a room (fig. 964.), whose magnitude is the arithmetical
proportion of 5, 4, and 3, and is 20 feet long, 1 6 feet broad, and 1 2 feet high, the cube or
product of its length, breadth, and height multiplied together is 3840, the square root of
which sum is 62 feet. If the height of the story is 12 feet as before mentioned, divide
that 62 feet into three windows ; each window will contain 20 feet 8 inches of superficial
light, and those will be found to be 3 feet 2± inches broad, and 6 feet 5 inches high, which
are windows of two diameters."
2750. " Let us now suppose another room on the same range whose height is 1 2 feet, as
the preceding example is, and its proportion (fig. 965.) shall be the cube. The product of
that cube is 1728, and its root is 41 feet 4 inches, or thereabouts: divide that 41 feet
4 inches in two parts for two windows, and each will be 20 feet 8 inches of superficial
light, and those will be two diameters in height, and the magnitude the same as the pre-
ceding room."
2751. " For example sake, I will only suppose one more room (fig. 966 ) upon the same
range, and 12 feet in height,
whose proportion shall be the
arithmetical of 3, 2, and 1 ;
that is, its height being 12
feet, the breadth will be 24
and length 36, the product of
those numbers multiplied to-
gether will be 10368, and its
root 101 feet 8 inches, or
thereabouts : divide this room
into five windows, each win-
dow will have 20 feet 4 inches
superficial light, and the mag-
nitude will be near or equal to
!<. 36 Feet. ^
Fig. 966.
the others, and if the proportion be 6, 4, and 3, and coved, the light is the same."
2752. " There is," says the author, rather perhaps simply, « but one objection to this
rule to make it universal for all kinds of proportioned rooms on the same floor, and that
is, the square root doth not always happen to be exact enough for to make them alike; but
as the variation will be so small, it may be made use of; and if the area something exceeds
the standard of the principal room, that room may be converted to a use which requires
more than standard light, and the necessities of families sometimes require it. But, how-
ever, the rule will serve for the purpose near enough for any practice."
3 C
754
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK 111.
2753. " If you extend the rule to larger rooms, the same methods will be preserved
even if the height be continued through two stories, if the upper windows be made square,
and to have two tire " (tiers) " of windows. Let us suppose the room {fig. 967.) with two
tire of windows in height, to be 50 feet long, 40 feet wide, and 30 feet high, the arith-
metical proportion of 5, 4, and 3, the product of those numbers multiplied together will be
60000, the square root of which sum is 245 superfical feet ; divide that sum for the tire "
(tiers) " of windows into three parts, or take one third of it, and that makes the attic or
square windows 81 feet 8 inches superficial light ; divide this into 5 windows, and they are
4 feet and half an inch square, and the five lower windows, consisting of 163 feet 4 inches
superficial light, being what remains out of the 245 feet, the root, each of these windows is
4 feet and half an inch by 8 feet 1 inch, or two diameters, which 245 feet, the whole sum
of the square root of the room, will sufficiently illuminate the same."
2754. The extreme piers should not, if possible, be less than half the width of the
principal piers. This cannot always be obtained, but a much less width causes great
irregularity, and that more especially when one of such end piers falls opposite a chimney
breast, besides causing a great mass of shadow on the other side of the chimney, which
has a tendency towards making the room dark and gloomy.
2755. Windows in the same story should be similar. There may be an occasional de-
viation for a great central window, but such deviation must be used with much caution.
Another practice, most properly reprobated by Chambers, is that of intermitting the archi-
trave and frieze of an order in the intervals between the columns to make room for windows
and their enrichments, as on the flanks of the Mansion House in the city of London ; a
practice from which Sir Christopher Wren was, unfortunately, not exempt, as may be
noticed in St. Paul's Cathedral.
2756. What are called Venetian windows are occasionally allowable, when so ranged
and introduced as not to interfere with the composition, — a task often difficult to effect.
They should not be much repeated, as in the front at Holkham, where they become actually
disgusting. Though in the examples which follow there be two which are composed
with semicircular-headed centres, we do not approve of the general use of examples de-
signed on such principles, and would advise the student rather to study the composition of
the Venetian window, when required, as in fig. 968.,
which we do not present as one of beauty, but rather
of propriety, where the want of light to the apartment
renders a Venetian window expedient. The method
of making sashes, shutters, and the other accessories of
windows has been described in a previous section ; we
therefore proceed to offer a few of the most celebrated
examples of windows. It is not necessary, after the
investigation relative to the voids and solids of doors,
to pursue the inquiry into the relative proportions of
windows as respects that part of the subject. They
are, in a measure, in regard to windows, subject to
the same principles, and this, by trial, will be immedi-
ately apparent to the student ; and we therefore shall
not stop for such investigation. Fig. 9f.s.
CHAP. I.
WINDOWS.
755
2757. Fig. 969. is after the lower story of windows at St. Peter's at Rome, by Michael
Anjrclo, and is rather less than the double square in height. The architrave is one seventh
Fig. 969. Fig. 070.
of the aperture's width, being the same as that of the pilasters. The length of the consoles
is one third of the width of the aperture, and the entablature one quarter of its height.
2758. Fig. 970. is from the Mattel palace at Rome, and is the design of Bartolomeo
Ammanati. It possesses, though rather heavy, considerable beauty, and well deserves the
attention of the student. Chambers, from whom we have selected many of our examples
in this and others sections, says, " the parts made somewhat less would succeed better, as
would also a pediment instead of the sloped covering at top : " but we entirely disagree
with him, and are of opinion that what he proposes would ruin the design.
Fig. 971.
Fig. 972.
2759. Fiys. 971. and 972. are the compositions of Bernardo Buontalenti. The aper-
tures are a double square, or something less, the architraves a sixth or seventh of the
apertures, and the pilasters may be about the same. The height of the entablature should
not be more than a quarter that of the aperture, nor much less. The greatest length of
the consoles should not exceed half the width of the aperture, nor should their least length
be less than one third of it.
2760. Fig. 973. is from the old Louvre at Paris, and is by the celebrated Pierre Lescot,
3 C 2
756
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
abbot of Clugny in the reigns of Francis I. and Henry II. Its proportions are not much
dissimilar from the two last examples,
Fig. 975.
2761. Fig. 974. is a window constantly used by Palladio. The opening is a double
square, the breadth of the architrave equal to one sixth of the aperture, and the frieze and
cornice together equal to double the height of the architrave. The breadth of the con-
soles equal to two thirds the width of the architrave. The breaks over the consoles in the
bed mouldings of the cornice are perhaps not strictly correct, but are deviations from pro-
priety which may be tolerated. The breaks in the upper vertical parts of the architrave
would perhaps be better omitted. The practice generally should be avoided, except in
cases where a greater length of cornice is wanted for the purpose of filling the bare walls
to which the windows are applied.
2762. Fig. 975. is from the Banqueting House at Whitehall, by Inigo Jones. The
aperture is a double square, the entablature one fourth of its
height, and the architrave somewhat more than one sixth of its
width.
2763. Fig. 976. is by Michael Angelo, and executed at the
Farnese palace at Rome. It possesses all the wildness and
fancy of the master, and though abounding with faults, is
redeemed by its grandeur and originality.
2764. In fig. 977. is given the design by Ludovico da Cigoli
of a window from the ground floor of the Renuccini palace
in Florence. It can scarcely be properly estimated without its
connection with the fa9ade, to the character whereof it is in
every respect suitable.
2765. Fig. 978. is a design of Palladio, nearly resembling
that executed in the Barbarano palace at Vicenza. It has
been imitated by Inigo Jones, and perhaps improved on by him,
in the flanks at Greenwich Hospital.
Fifi. 976.
Fig. 977.
Pig. 978.
Fig. 979.
2766. Fig. 979. is also by Palladio, and executed by him in the Porto palace at Vicenzn.
2767. Fig. 980. is the design of Raffaelle Sanzio, and worthy of the reputation of that
CHAP. I.
WINDOWS.
757
great painter and architect. It is executed in the Pandolfini palace at Florence, on the
principal floor. The height of the aperture is a very little more than twice its width, the
architrave is one seventh the width of the aperture. The columns, which are Ionic, are
Fig. 980. Fig. 981.
9 diameters high, and should be as much detached from the wall as possible. The distance
of them from the architrave of the window is a quarter of a diameter, which is also the
distance of the entablature from the top of the same architrave. The total height of the
entablature is two ninths of that of the column, and the height of the pediment is one
quarter of its base or somewhat less. The pedestals are one quarter of the height of the
whole order.
2768. Fig. 981. is one of the windows of the Bracciano palace at Rome, by Bernini.
The aperture is more than a double square, and the architrave about one sixth the width
of the aperture. The entablature is only one fifth of the height of the columns, in-
cluding their sub-plinths, and the pediment is less in height than one quarter of its extent.
Pig. 982. PiR. 983.
k2769. Fig. 982. is from the principal floor of the Palazzo Thiene at Vicenza. The
pei ture is two and two tenths of its width in height ; the columns are nine diameters high,
nd one quarter engaged in the wall. The under sides of the Ionic capitals are level with
he top of the aperture, having angular volutes with an astragal and fillet below the volute,
The bases are Tuscan, and there are on each shaft five rustic dies of an equal breadth'
3 C 3
758 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
whose inner sides are on a line with the sides of the aperture, and their projection equal to
that of the plinth of the base, that is, one fifth of a diameter of the column. The keystones
incline forwards towards the top, and they are hatched, only the surface being left rough,
as are likewise the dies on the columns, except at their angles, which are rubbed smooth.
The entablature is Ionic, the architrave consisting of only two fascia?, the frieze swelled,
and the dentil band placed immediately on the frieze, without any intervening mouldings,
a practice not very unusual with Palladio. The pedestals are rather more than one thiru
the height of the columns. The dies and balusters stand on the platband of the basement,
which was done to diminish the projection.
2770. Fig. 983. is a design by Inigo Jones, which has been much used in this country.
It is rather higher than a double square. The width of the architrave is one fifth that of
the aperture, and the rustics are a trifle less than the third of it. The entablature is two
ninths of the height of the opening, and the height of the pedestal is ^75, or nearly so, of
the height of the aperture and pedestal taken together.
Fig. 984. Fig. 9S.5.
2771. Fig. 984. is the design of a Venetian window by Colin Campbell, the compiler
of the three first volumes of the Vitruvius Britannicus ; and
2772. Fig. 985. is very similar to the Venetian windows in the west fa9ade of the Horse
Guards, executed by Kent. It is perhaps as favourable an example of this species of
window as can be produced.
SECT. XXI.
NICHES AND STATUES.
2773. A niche is a recess constructed in the thickness of a wall for the reception of different
objects, such as statues more especially, but occasionally also for that of busts, vases,
and tripods. Vitruvius makes no mention of niches, and but for an inscription published
by Visconti in the Monumenti Gabini we should not have known that they were by the
ancients called zotheca;, or place for the reception of a figure. Our English word niche is
evidently derived from the Italian nicchio, a shell.
2774. In the early Greek temple the niche is not found ; at a later period, as in the
monument of Philopappus, we find a circular and two quadrangular -headed niches occupied
in the time of Stuart by statues ; and it does not seem improbable that in the Gymnasia,
Agora, Stadia, &c. of the nation mentioned, the use of the niche was not uncommon. But
the different forms of the ancient tomb, and the early methods of sepulture, would soon
suggest to the Greeks and Romans the use of the niche, especially in such tombs as were
devoted to the use of a particular family. These sepulchres, whose subdivisions were
called columbaria, had their walls ornamented with small niches for the reception of
cinerary urns, or those containing the ashes of the dead. In these, a large-sized niche
occupies the principal place in the apartment, and in this was deposited the urn or sarco-
phagus of the head of the family.
2^75. The small temples (cedicula) of the Romans are often found decorated with niches ;
and in the small building on the Lake of Albano, generally supposed to have been a
Nympheum, we find each side of the interior dressed with six niches, whose height suffi-
ciently indicates that they were provided for the reception of statues. In the temple of
Diana, usually called the maison carree, at Nismes, which, however, is usually considered to
CHAP. I. NICHES AND STATUES. 759
have been a building sacred to the Nymphs, the interior has two sides decorated with
six Corinthian columns, and in the wall between each intercolumniation is a niche of the
sort called tabernacles by the moderns. Each is placed on a pedestal, and is finished on
the sides by pilasters alternately surmounted by segmental and triangular pediments. We
do not, however, consider it necessary to enumerate the various Roman works wherein the
niche finds a place, and shall therefore do no more than refer the student to the Pantheon,
the temple of Peace, the arch of Janus, at Rome, and to its exuberant employment at
Palmyra, Baalbek, and Spalatro. The buildings cited will furnish him with examples of
all sorts and characters.
2776. The dresses of niches seem to bear an analogy to those of windows and doors in
their form and decoration ; the niche, indeed, may be considered as an opening in a wall,
and indeed there are, in the arch of Claudius Drusus, now the Porta.Maggiore, at Rome,
openings used as niches, in which an object placed may be seen from either side of the
wall. It therefore appears not improper to dress the niche with the ornaments which
custom has sanctioned for doors and windows. The author of the article " Niche'' in the
Encyclopedic Methodique, has divided niches into three classes. The first are such as are
square on the plan, and either square or circular-headed. These are the simplest, and are
without dressings of any sort. Second, such as are square on their plans, and with square
heads, but ornamented with dressings, or crowned with a simple platband supported by two
consoles. In the third class are included all niches whose plan and heads are semicircular,
either ornamented with festoons, or with dressings, or with columns and entablature.
These, says the author, are to be introduced into buildings according to their several cha-
racters, from simple to highly enriched, as requisite.
2777. Some architectural authors have laid down positive rules for the proportions of
niches. According to others the proportion is found in a niche twice and a half its width
in height ; and indeed this produces a proportion not inelegant. But in considering the
classes separately, they have divided the width of the niches invariably into twelve parts.
To a niche of the first class they give twenty-eight of such parts ; to one of the second
class, thirty ; and to one of the third class, thirty-one parts. This reduction, however, of
the proportions of a niche seems to us to partake of empiricism ; and we would rather
always trust to an educated eye than to rules which seem to have no basis on fitness and
propriety. It is, however, to be recollected that all rules of art can be considered only as
mean terms, serving more as approximations than positive laws for the guidance of the
artist in the different combinations he imagines.
2778. The use of tiers of niches over each other is condemned by J. F. Blondel, unless
separated by a line of entablature between them, which may seem to indicate the existence
of a floor ; otherwise, he observes, one figure seems to stand on the head of another.
This, however, is an abuse of reasoning ; not that it is to be understood that we think the
practice very allowable. The recommendation of this master in respect of the relation
between niches and the statues that are to occupy them is worthy of attention. He
opposes, and we think with great propriety, the placing a statue without a plinth in the
niche. The plinth is, indeed, necessary to the good effect of every statue ; and to pretend
that the imitation in marble could or ever was intended to be mistaken for the object it
imitates, would be to leave behind all those matters of convention in art for which the
spectator is well prepared. In architectural decoration, no less than in the abstract imita-
tion of the objects of sculpture, no one is desirous of believing them natural and living, but
only as models of imitation.
2779. The following observations are from Chambers, relative to the size of the statues
used in niches. " The size of the statue depends upon the dimensions of the niche : it
should neither be so large as to seem rammed into it, as at Santa Maria Maggiore, in
Rome, nor so small as to seem lost in it, as in the Pantheon, where the statues do not
occupy above three quarters of the height of the niche, and only one half of its width.
Palladio, in arched niches, makes the chin of his statues on a level with the top of the im-
post (springing), so that the whole head is in the coved part. In the nave of St. Peter's, at
Rome, the same proportion has been observed, and it has a very good effect. The distance
between the outline of the statue and the sides of the niche should never be less than one
third of a head, nor more than one half, whether the niche be square or arched ; and when
it is square, the distance from the top of the head to the soffite of the niche should not ex-
ceed the distance left on the sides. The statues are generally raised on a plinth, the height
of which may be from one third to one half of a head ; and sometimes, where the niches
are very large in proportion to the architecture they accompany, as is the case when an
order comprehends but one story, the statues may be raised on small pedestals, by which
means they may be made lower than usual, and yet fill the niche sufficiently, it being to be
feared lest statues of a proper size to fill such niches should make the columns and entabla-
ture appear trifling. The same expedient must also be made use of whenever the statues
in the niches, according to their common proportions, come considerably larger than those
placed at the top of the building. A trifling disparity will not be easily perceived, on ac-
3 C 4
760
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
count of the distance between their respective situations ; but if it be great, it must have a
very bad effect ; and therefore this must be well attended to and remedied, either by the
above-mentioned method, or by entirely omitting statues at the top of the building, leaving
the balustrade either free, or placing thereon vases, trophies, and other similar ornaments."
Further on in the same work, the author says that " niches, being designed as repositories
for statues, groups, vases, or other works of sculpture, must be contrived to set off the
things they are to contain to the best advantage ; and therefore no ornaments should ever
be introduced within them, as is sometimes injudiciously practised, the cove of the niche
being either filled with a large scollop shell, or the whole inside with various kinds of pro-
jecting rustics, with moulded compartments, either raised or sunken, or composed of dif-
ferent coloured marbles, for all these serve to confuse the outline of the statue or group.
It is even wrong to^ continue an impost within the niche, for that is of considerable dis-
advantage to the figures, which never appear so perfect as when backed and detached on a
plain smooth surface. An excess of ornaments round the niche should likewise be avoided,
and particularly masks, busts, boys, or any representation of the human figure, all which
serve to divide the attention, and to divert it from the principal object. "
2780. " The depth of the niche should always be sufficient to contain the whole statue,
or whatever else it is to contain, it being very disagreeable to see statues, or any other
weighty objects, with false bearings, and supported on consoles or other projections, as is
sometimes done, and in the case of niches, the side views become exceedingly uncouth ; for
in these a leg, an arm, a head, in short, those parts alone which project beyond the niche,
appear and look like so many fragments, stuck irregularly into the wall." We trust we
shall be excused for this and many other long quotations from Chambers, on account of the
strong common sense with which they abound, though not always expressed in the most
elegant language that might have been selected.
2781. We conclude the section with a few examples of niches, whose general propor-
tions are sufficiently to be derived from the figures which represent them, and which,
therefore, will not require our more minute description in this place, the diagrams them-
selves being the more useful mode of submitting the subject to the student.
Fig. 98 R.
Ffc.
Fig. 989.
2782. Fig. 986. is the simple niche, square and circular in the head and in the plan ; in
the latter we have before, as a general rule, given the proportion of its height as twice and a
half that of its width ; but the former, or the square-headed one, may be a double square,
yet it never should exceed in height twice and a half its width.
2783. Fig. 987. is a common form of using the niche where the opening of windows
with which it is accompanied requires a correspondent square recess for the niches, as also
in interiors where the leading lines may require such an expedient.
2784. Fig. 988. shows the method of introducing niches in a rusticated basement, which
is often requisite. The rustics are received on a flat ground, in which the niche is formed.
The reader is not to understand that any of the
figures are intended as models for imitation, but
merely as modes on which, in using them, he may
so work as to reduce them to his own views in
the design whereon he is engaged.
2785. Fig. 989. is from the plate of Palladio's
Egyptian Hall, and exhibits the violation of Cham-
bers's excellent maxim of not allowing the impost
to be continued round the springing of the niche.
If niches are merely introduced for play of light
and shadow without reference to their reception
of statues, the practice of this abuse may be to-
lerated ; but certainly not in cases where statues
are to be placed in them.
2786. Fig. 990. is the niche accompanied by
entablature, pediment, architraves, consoles, and
pedestals, as in the windows which have already
Fig. <WO.
Fig. 1)91.
CHAP. I.
CHIMNEY PIECES.
761
been given, and their proportions will serve as a guide in this ; the only difference being,
that a niche is inserted within the architrave of the opening.
2787. Fig. 991. is imitated from one of the niches of the Pantheon, for the details
whereof the reader may refer to Desgodetz.
SECT. XXII.
CHIMNEY riECES.
2788. It is not our intention to devote much of a space, necessarily restricted, to the
consideration of designs for chimney pieces ; not because we consider them unworthy of the
serious attention of the student, nor because the ever-varying fashion of the day seems to
create a desire for new forms, but because they come under the category of doors and win-
dows (strange as it may seem) in respect of the relation of the void to the solid parts. We
are not aware that any view of this nature has heretofore been involved in the consideration
of them, but we are not the more on that account to be driven from our hypothesis. The
examples of chimney pieces that have been given by Chambers, and, before him, by old
Serlio, were but fashions of their respective days ; and if it be possible to establish some-
thing like a canon on which they might be designed, we apprehend it would be useful to
the student.
2789. A chimney piece is the ornamental decoration applied to the aperture of a chimney
opening, and it seems but reasonable that in its general distribution it should be subject to
those laws which regulate the ornaments of other openings. The forms and fancies into
which this ornament of a room may be changed are infinite, and we therefore consider that
if its appendages can be drawn into a consistent shape we shall be of service in the few
I
Fig. 992.
Fig. 993.
Fig. 994.
remarks subjoined. In fig. 992. the chimney opening to be decorated is 4-0 wide and
3 feet 6 inches high; its area is therefore equal to 4:0x3:6 = 14 feet. The principle
here recommended is to make the two supporting pieces equal to one half of that area, or
seven feet, and the supported piece B equal to the other half. Now, as the height is 3 : 6,
we shall have ^ = 2 for the width of the two piers, that is, each will be one foot wide. By
the addition of these to the width of the opening, the dimension becomes six feet ; and as
B is to contain seven feet superficial, it follows that | = lg is the height of B that it may
contain 7 feet.
2790. In fig. 993. we have shown the method of developing the principle ; in it the
supports, load, and void bear the same relation to each other as in the preceding figure.
The entablature is divided into three equal parts for the architrave, frieze, and cornice, and
trusses are placed on the pilasters by the sides of the architrave. The tablet is of course
not absolutely required, and the trusses may be formed of leaves instead of being plain, as
here shown.
2791. Fig. 994. is another mode of using the proportions given in fig. 992., and upon
it, as well as that last given, we have only to observe, they are not introduced as specimens
of design, but solely with the view of illustrating a principle. The projection of chimney-
pieces should not generally be greater than the whole width of the support, nor less than
half.
2792. We wish we could give some rule for adjusting the size of a chimney opening to
that of the room it is to warm. Morris, in his Lectures on Architecture, before quoted,
imagined that he had found out one, and he speaks with confidence on the results which
follow its use ; but we confess we are not satisfied with them. We nevertheless should
be wrong in omitting it, and therefore give his words for the consideration of the student.
The first rule is as follows : — "To find the height of the opening of the chimney from any
given magnitude of a room, add the length and height of the room together, and extract
the square root of that sum, and half that root will be the height of the chimney." The
*<>™nA r,,io \* oc fxn««re . « TO find the breadth of a chimney from any given magnitude
second rule is as follows :
762 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
of a room, add the length, breadth, and height of the room together, and extract the square
root of that sum, and half that root will be the height of the chimney." The third rule he
gives is, " To find the depth of a chimney from any given magnitude, including the breadth
and height of the same, add the breadth and height of the chimney together, take one
fourth of that sum, and it is the depth of the chimney." His fourth and last rule is, " To
find the side of a square or funnel proportioned to clear the smoke from any given depth
of the chimney, take three fourths of the given depth, and that sum is the side of the
square of the funnel. Observe, only, that in cube rooms the height is equal to the breadth,
and the foregoing rules are universal." The rules given by Chambers are extremely vague
and general. He says that " in the smallest apartments the width of the aperture is never
made less than from three feet to three feet six inches ; in rooms from twenty to twenty-
four feet square, or of equal superficial dimensions, it may be four feet wide ; in those of
twenty-five to thirty, from four to four and a half; and in such as exceed these dimensions,
the aperture may be extended to five or five feet six inches ; but should the room be
extremely large, as is frequently the case of halls, galleries, and salons, and one chimney of
these dimensions neither afford sufficient heat to warm the room nor sufficient space round
it for the company, it will be much more convenient, and far handsomer, to have two
chimney pieces of a moderate size than a single one exceedingly large, all the parts of
which would appear clumsy and disproportioned to the other decorations of the room."
It is well so to place the chimney as that persons on entering a room may at once see it.
In this climate a cheerfulness is imparted by the sight of a fire ; but it is not to be so
placed as to be opposite a door, neither ought it, if possible to be avoided, to be so placed
as to have a door on either side of it. There are, however, circumstances under which
even the last-named category cannot be avoided, but it is always well if it can. The fact
is, that the further the door can, generally speaking, be removed from a chimney, the better ;
and the architect must, if the plan admit it (and he ought so to distribute his parts), avoid
all cross draughts of air in a room. Angular chimneys are only admissible in small rooms
where space and other considerations permit no other means of introducing a chimney.
We can hardly think it necessary to say, with Chambers, that " whenever two chimneys are
introduced in the same room they must be regularly placed, either directly facing each
other, if in different walls, or at equal distances from the centre of the wall in which they
both are placed. He observes, however, with a proper caution to the student, that " the
Italians frequently put their chimneys in the front walls, between the windows, for the
benefit of looking out while sitting by the fire ; but this must be avoided, for by so doing
that side of the room becomes crowded with ornaments, and the other sides are left too
bare ; the front walls are much weakened by the funnels, and the chimney shafts at the
top of the building, which must necessarily be carried higher than the ridges of the roofs,
have, from their great length, a very disagreeable effect, and are very liable to be blown
down." All these objections, however, may be easily answered, and the funnels collected,
or shafts, as they then become, be, with skill, made even ornamental to a building. It is
in cases like these that the power of the architect above the artisan is manifest.
2793. Where the walls of a building are sufficiently thick, their funnels rise within the
thickness of the walls, but in walls of a mean thickness this cannot be accomplished, for
under such circumstances the walls and chimney pieces will necessarily project into the
rooms, and if the break be great, the effect is unpleasant ; but this may always be obviated
by making arched recesses on each side, which, in commoner rooms, may be occupied by
presses or closets, thus enabling the architect to carry the cornice unbroken round the
room, a point which should never be forgotten, inasmuch as by the cornice or entablature
of the apartment being carried round it without a break, which gives the ceiling an unbroken
and regular form, a regularity is preserved infinitely more satisfactory to the eye than the
disagreeable appearance of a broken, and, we may say, disjointed cornice.
2794. Of the materials employed in the construction of chimney pieces, nothing more is
requisite than to say that the costliness of the material must follow the wealth of the
founder of the building. Marble, however, is the material usually employed, and the
various sorts known are not unfrequently intermixed, so as to produce a pleasing effect.
When the aid of the sculptor is called in, much latitude is allowed in the proportions ; but
on this head we hope we may, without prejudice, deliver our opinion, that the effect has
never amounted to anything like what might have been expected from his extraneous aid :
and the solution is easy : his object is not to produce a work in harmony with the apart-
ment, but rather to exhibit his own powers.
2795. In the external appearance of chimney shafts, so as to group them with the
building to which they belong, no architect can be put in competition with Sir John Van-
brugh. Those of Blenheim, Castle Howard, and other of his buildings, exceed all praise,
and deserve the closest investigation of the student. They become in his works, as they
always should do, parts of the building, inseparably connected with it, and their removal
would detract from the majesty of the structure with which they are connected. On this
point we are certain that the best advice that can be given to the student is a constant
CHAP j. STAIRCASES. 763
contemplation of the works of Vanbrugh. In these days there seems to be a return to
good feeling in this respect ; and we hope it will, for the credit of the English school, be
followed up.
SECT. XXIII.
STAIRCASES.
2796. A staircase is an enclosure formed by walls or partitions, or both, for the reception
of an ascent of stairs, with such landings as may be necessary. Of the construction of
stairs we have treated in previous sections ; this will be confined to general observations on
them and their enclosures.
2797. Scarcely any subdivision of a building is of more importance, as respects the
character of the architect and the comfort and pleasant occupancy of it by his employer, than
its principal and subordinate staircases. There is, moreover, no part, perhaps, in which
more room is left for architectural and picturesque display. In our own country there
are some extraordinary examples of great beauty produced in staircases on comparatively
small scales ; whence the student may learn that without great space he may produce very
imposing effects. One of these may be still seen, though in a very neglected state, as are
most of the buildings attached to the collegiate church of Westminster, at one of the pre-
bendal houses there built by our great master Jones. It is a specimen of his consummate
skill as an artist, and well worth the attention of the student, if he can obtain admittance to
view it ; but if he cannot, we may refer him to some plates executed from drawings made
by us many years since, and published in the first and best edition of Illustrations of the
Public Buildings of London (Lond. 1828). The extreme space occupied by the staircase in
question does not exceed 24 by 23 feet ; and within these small dimensions he contrived a
staircase fit for a palace. So highly did the late Sir John Soane think of this bijou that he
had a series of drawings made to illustrate its parts, and exhibited them in his lectures at
the Royal Academy.
2798. It is almost unnecessary to impress upon the student that an excess rather than a
deficiency of light is requisite in a staircase, and that it should be easily accessible from all
parts of the building. Those laws upon which the ease of persons ascending and descending
depend will form the subject of two subsections shortly following (2804. and 2814.), to which
we particularly recommend the reader's attention. They are of the utmost importance,
and we record with surprise that they have not been attended to by architects generally of
late years. We have crept up staircases in houses of consequence, which deserved Httle more
than the name of ladders, and we are sorry to say that this defect is found even in the works
of Chambers himself; but never in those of Jones and Wren. We shall with these re-
marks proceed to further observations on the subject, which has already been partially
touched upon in 2176. et seq.
2799. We know little of the staircases of the Greeks and Romans, and it is remarkable that
Vitruvius makes no mention of a staircase, as an important part of an edifice ; indeed his
silence seems to lead to the conclusion that the staircases of antiquity were not constructed
with the luxury and magnificence to be seen in more recent buildings. The best preserved
ancient staircases are those constructed in the thickness of the walls of the pronaos of
temples for ascending to the roofs. Of this sort remains are found in several peripteral
temples. That of the temple of Concord at Agrigentum is still entire, and consists of
forty-one steps. According to Pausanias, similar staircases existed in the temple of the
Olympian Jupiter at Elis. They were generally winding and spiral, like the inside of a
shell, and hence are called scale a lumaca by the Italians, and by the French escaliers en
limafon. Sometimes, as in the Pantheon at Rome, instead of being circular on the plan,
they are triangular ; so were they in the temple of Peace, and in the baths of Dioclesian.
2800. Very few vestiges of staircases are to be seen in the ruins of Pompeii ; from which
it may be inferred that what there were must have been of wood, and, moreover, that few
of the houses were more than one story in height. Where they exist, as in the building at
the above place called the country house, and some others, they are narrow and incon-
venient, with steps sometimes a foot in height. Occasionally, too, we find private staircases
mentioned, as in the description of Pliny's Tusculan villa, where one was placed by the side
of the dining room, and appropriated to the use of the slaves who served the repast.
2801. The author of the article " Escalier" in the Encyc. Method, observes that the mag-
nificence of the staircase was but tardily developed in modern architecture, and that it owed
much of its luxury to the perfection to which a knowledge of stereotomy brought the
science of masonry. The manners too and the customs of domestic life for a length of
time rendered unnecessary more than a staircase of very ordinary description. Thus in
the earliest palaces the staircases seem to have been constructed for the use of the inha-
764 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
bitants only, possessing in fact no more beauty than we now give to a back staircase. They
are for the most part dark, narrow, and inconvenient. Even in Italy, which in the splen-
dour of its buildings preceded and surpassed all the other nations of Europe, the staircase
was, till a late period, extremely simple in the largest and grandest palaces. Such are the
staircases of the Vatican, Bernini's celebrated one being comparatively of a late date. The
old staircases of the Tuilleries and of the Louvre, though on a considerable scale, are, from
their simplicity, construction, and situation, little in unison with the richness of the rest
of these palaces. And this was the consequence of having the state apartments on the
ground floor. When they were removed to a higher place, the staircase which conducted
to them necessarily led to a correspondence of design in it.
2802. It will be observed that our observations in this section are confined to internal
staircases. Large flights of steps, such as those at the Trinitd de1 Monti and Araceli at
Rome, do not come within our notice, being unrestricted in their extent, and scarcely
subject to the general laws of architectural composition. In these it should however be
remembered that they must never rise in a continued series of steps from the bottom to the
summit, but must be provided with landings for resting places, as is usually the case in the
half and quarter spaces of internal stairs. An extremely fine example of an external flight of
stairs may be cited in those descending from the terrace to the orangery at Versailles. For
simplicity, grandeur, design, and beauty of construction, we scarcely know anything in
Europe more admirable than this staircase and the orangery to which it leads.
2803. The selection of the place in which the staircase of a dwelling is to be seated,
requires great judgment, and is always a difficult task in the formation of a plan. Palladio,
the great master of the moderns, thus delivers the rules for observance in planning them,
that they may not be an obstruction to the rest of the building. He says, " A particular
place must be marked out, that no part of the building should receive any prejudice by
them. There are three openings necessary to a staircase. The first is the doorway that
leads to it, which the more it is in sight the better it is ; and I highly approve of its
being in such a place that before one comes to it the best part of the house may be seen,
for although the house be small, yet by such arrangement it will appear larger : the door,
however, must be obvious, and easy to be found. The second opening is that of the win-
dows through which the stairs are lighted ; they should be in the middle, and large
enough to light the stairs in every part. The third opening is the landing place by which
one enters into the rooms above ; it ought to be fair and well ornamented, and to lead
into the largest places first."
2804. " Staircases," continues our author, " will be perfect, if they are spacious, light,
and easy to ascend ; as if, indeed, they seemed to invite people to mount. They will be
clear, if the light is bright and equally diffused ; and they will be sufficiently ample, if they
do not appear scanty and narrow in proportion to the size and quality of the building.
Nevertheless, they ought never to be narrower than 4 feet" (4 feet 6 inches English *), " so
that two persons meeting on the stairs may conveniently pass each other. They will be
convenient with respect to the whole building, if the arches under them can be used foi
domestic purposes ; and commodious for the persons going up and down, if the stairs &re
not too steep nor the steps too high. Therefore, they must be twice as long as broad.
The steps ought not to exceed 6 inches in height ; and if they be lower they must be so to
long and continued stairs, for they will be so much the easier, because one needs not lift
the foot so high ; but they must never be lower than 4 inches." (These are Vicentine
inches. ) " The breadth of the steps ought not to be less than a foot, nor more than a foot
and a half. The ancients used to make the steps of an odd number, that thus beginning to
ascend with the right foot, they might end with the same foot, which they took to be a
good omen, and a greater mark of respect so to enter into the temple. It will be sufficient
to put eleven or thirteen steps at most to a flight before coming to a half-pace, thus to help
weak people and of short breath, as well that they may there have the opportunity of
resting as to allow of any person falling from above being there caught." We do not pro-
pose to give examples of other than the most usual forms of staircases and stairs ; their
variety is almost infinite, and could not even in their leading features be compassed in a
work like this. The varieties, indeed, would not be usefully given, inasmuch as the forms
are necessarily dependent on the varied circumstances of each plan, calling upon the
architect almost on every occasion to invent pro re nata.
2805. Stairs are of two sorts, straight and winding. Before proceeding with his design,
the architect must always take care, whether in the straight or winding staircase, that the per-
son ascending has what is called headway, which is a clear distance measured vertically from
any step, quarter, half-pace, or landing, to the underside of the ceiling, step, or other part
immediately over it, so as to allow the tallest person to clear it with his hat on; and this is
the minimum height of headway that can be admitted. To return to the straight and
winding staircase, it is to be observed, that the first may be divided into Iwo flights, or be
* The Vicentine foot is about 13-6 inches English.
CHAP. I.
STAIRCASES.
765
Fig. 995.
Fig. 096.
made quite square, so as to turn on the four sides round a close or open newel, as in fig. 995.
in which the former is the case, light being obtained by windows in the walls which enclose
the newel ; or, as in fig. 996. : in which case, the newel is open, and the light may be received
either from a vertical light above, or from side windows in the walls. Palladio says these
two sorts of stairs were invented by Sig. Lewis Cornaro, a gentleman of much genius, who
erected for himself a magnificent palace at Padua.
2806. Of winding or spiral stairs, some are circular on the plan, either open or with a
solid newel ; others elliptical, also with open or solid newels. Those with the open newel
are preferable, because of their allowing the staircase to be lighted additionally, if requisite,
by the light obtainable from above ; besides which, persons passing up and down may see
each other. Palladio thus directs the setting out of spiral staircases. " Those," he says,
" which have a newel in the middle are made in this manner. The diameter being divided
into three parts, two are given for the steps, and the third is for the newel ; or, otherwise,
the diameter may be divided into seven parts, three of which are for the newel and four
for the steps. " Thus," he says, " was made the staircase of the column of Trajan at Rome ;
and if the stairs are made circular, " (that is, the treads segments of circles on the plan,)
"they will be handsomer and longer " (of course) " than if made straight."
2807. " But as it may happen that the space will not give room for these measures,
the diameter may be reduced and divided according to the plates." The essence of these
plans, omitting the step whose plan is segmental, we here subjoin.
2808. Fig. 997. is a plan and section of a staircase with a solid newel, in which the
whole diameter is divided into twelve parts, and of these four are given to the newel,
and the remainder divided equally between the steps.
766
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
r
Fig. 997.
Fig. 99S.
2809. Fig. 998. is the plan and section of a spiral staircase with an open newel, wherein
the diameter is divided into four parts, two being given to the newel, and the remainder
equally divided between the steps.
2810. Fig. 999. is the plan and section of an elliptical staircase with an open newel. The
conjugate diameter is divided into four parts, whereof two are given to the conjugate
diameter of the newel, and the remainder one on each side to the steps.
2811. \nfig. 1000. the same staircase is given, but with a solid newel, and of course re-
quiring many openings on the sides to light it.
2812. It is not the difficulty of multiplying the examples of staircases which prevents
our proceeding on this head, but the space into which our work is to be condensed. Enough
of example has been given, by using portions of the examples, to meet every case, the deco-
ration being dependent on the design of the architect, and the distribution on his good sense
in the application of what we have submitted to him.
28 1 3. There is, however, one important point in the construction of a staircase to which
we must now advert, and that is easiness of ascent. Blondel, in his Cours <F Architecture,
was, we believe, the first architect who settled the proper relation between the height and
width of steps, and his theory, for the truth whereof, though it bears much appearance of
it, we do not pledge ourselves, is as follows.
2814. Let ar = the space over which a person walks with ease upon a level plane, and
z = the height which the same person could with equal ease ascend vertically. Then if A be
the height of the step, and w its width, the relation between h and w must be such that
when w = x, h=0, and when h — z, w=0. These conditions are fulfilled by equations of the
form h — % (x — w) and w = x — 2h. Blondel assumes 24 (French) inches for the value of
x, and 1 2 for that of z. We are not sufficiently, from experiment, convinced that these are the
proper values; but, following him, if those values be substituted in the equation h = £ (24 — to),
and «> = 24 — 2A: if the height of a step be 5 inches, its width should be 24— 10 = 14 inches,
and it must be confessed that experience seems to confirm the theory, for it must be ob-
served, and every person who has built a staircase will know the fact, that the merely
CHAP. I.
CEILINGS.
767
Fig. 999.
Fig. 1000.
reducing the height of the risers without giving a correspondent width of tread to the step
is inconvenient and unpleasant.
SECT. XXIV.
2815. Economy has worked so great a change in our dwellings, that their ceilings are,
of late years, little more than miserable naked surfaces of plaster. This section, therefore,
will possess little interest in the eye of speculating builders of the wretched houses erected
about the suburbs of the metropolis, and let to unsuspecting tenants at rents usually about
three times their actual value. To the student it is more important, inasmuch as a well-
designed ceiling is one of the most pleasing features of a room.
2816. There is, perhaps, no type in architecture more strictly useful in the internal distri-
bution of apartments than that derived from timber -framing ; and if the reader has understood
our section on floors, he will immediately see that the natural compartments which are formed
in the carpentry of a floor are such as suggest panels and ornaments of great variety.
Even a single-framed floor with its strutting or wind-pieces between the joists, gives us
the hint for a ceiling of coffers capable of producing the happiest effect in the most insig-
nificant room. If the type of timber-framing be applied to the dome or hemispherical
ceiling, the interties between the main ribs, diminishing as they approach the summit,
form the skeletons of the coffers that impart beauty to the Pantheon of Agrippa. We
allude thus to the type to inculcate the principle on which ornamented ceilings are designed,
being satisfied that a reference to such type will insure propriety, and bring us back to that
768
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
fitness which, in the early part of this Book, we have considered one of the main ingre-
dients of beauty. If the panels of a ceiling be formed with reference to this principle,
namely, how they might or could be securely framed in the timbering, the design will be
fit for the purpose, and its effect will satisfy the spectator, however unable to account for
the pleasure he receives. Whether the architrave be with plain square panels between it
and the wall, as in the temples of the Egyptians, or as at a later period decorated with coffers,
for instance in the Greek and Roman temple, the principle seems to be the same, and verifies
the theory. The writer of the article " Plafond" in the Encyc. Meth. has not entered into the
subject at much length, nor with the ability displayed in many other parts of that work ;
but he especially directs that where a ceiling is to be decorated on the plane surface with
painting, the compartments should have reference to the construction. With these preli-
minary observations, we shall now proceed to the different forms in use. Ceilings are either
flat, coved, that is, rising from the walls with a curve, or vaulted. They are sometimes,
however, of contours in which one, more, or all of these forms find employment. When a
coved ceiling is used, the height of the cove is rarely less than one fifth, and not more than
one third the height of the room. This will be mainly dependent on the real height of
the room, for if that be low in proportion to its width, the cove must be kept down ; when
otherwise, it is advantageous to throw height into the cove, which will make the excess of
the height less apparent. If, however, the architect is unrestricted, and the proportions
of the room are under his control, the height of the cove should be one quarter of
the whole height. In the ceilings of rooms whose figure is that of a parallelogram,
the centre part is usually formed into a large flat panel, which is commonly decorated
with a flower in the middle. When the cove is used, the division into panels of the ceil-
ing will not bear to be so numerous nor so heavy as when the ceiling appears to rest on
the walls at once, but the same sorts of figures may be employed as we shall presently
give for other ceilings. If the apartment is to be highly finished, the cove itself may be
Fig. 1001.
Fig. 1002.
Fig. 1003.
Fig. 1004.
Fig. 1005.
Fig. 1006.
decorated with enriched panels, as in the figs. 1001, 1002, 1003, 1004, 1005, 1006. In all
ceilings it is desirable to raise the centre panel higher than the rest, and the main divi-
sions representing the timbers in flat ceilings should, if possible, fall in the centre of the
piers between the windows.
2817. Fig. 1007. shows the ceiling of a square room in two ways as given on each side
of the dotted line, or it may be considered as representing the ends of a ceiling to a room
whose form is that of a parallelogram. The same observation applies to figs. 1 008. and
1009. The sofites of the beams should in all cases approach the width they would be,
ClIAV. I.
PROPORTIONS OF ROOMS.
769
Fig 1007,
Fig. 1009.
Fig. 1008.
considered as the sofites of architraves of the columns of the order to which the cornice
belongs, and they may be decorated with guiloches, as in jfy. 1010., or with frets. (See the
word " Fret" in Glossary.)
Fifj, 1010.
2818. In the two following figures (1011. and 1012.) are given four examples of rooms
which are parallelograms on the plan, and above each is a section of the compartments.
Fig. 1011
Fig. 1012.
2819. As to the proportion of the cornice, it ought in rooms to be perhaps rather less
than in halls, salons, and the exterior parts of a building ; and if the entablature be taken at
a fifth instead of one fourth of the height, and a proportional part of that fifth be taken for
the cornice, it cannot be too heavy. Perhaps where columns are introduced it will be better
to keep to the usual proportions. Chambers, if followed, would make the proportions still
lighter than we have set them down. He says that if the rooms are adorned with an entire
order, the entablature should not be more than a sixth of the height nor be less than a
seventh in flat-ceiled rooms, and one sixth or one seventh in such as are coved ; and that
when there are neither columns nor pilasters in the decoration, but an entablature alone,
its height should not be above one seventh or eighth of those heights. He further says
that in rooms finished with a simple cornice it should not exceed one fifteenth nor be less
than one twentieth, and that if the whole entablature be used its height should not he more
than one eighth of the upright of the room. In the ceilings of staircases the cornices must
be set out on the same principles ; indeed in these, and in halls and other large rooms, the
whole of the entablature is generally used. In vaulted ceilings and domes the panels are
usually decorated with panels similar to those \nfigs. 1O01, 1002, 1003, 1004, 1O05, 1006.,
but in their application to domes they of course diminish as they rise towards the eye of
the dome. (See 2837.)
SECT. XXV.
PROPORTIONS OF ROOMS.
2820. The use to which rooms are appropriated, and their actual dimensions, are the
principal points for consideration in adjusting the proportions of apartments. Abstractedly
considered, all figures, from a square to the sesquialteral proportion, may be used for the
plan. Many great masters have carried the proportion to a double square on the plan ;
but except the room be subdivided by a break the height is not easily proportioned to it.
This objection does not however apply to long galleries which are not restricted in length,
3 D
770 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
on which Chambers remarks, " that in this case the extraordinary length renders it im-
possible for the eye to take in the whole extent at once, and therefore the comparison be-
tween the height and length can never be made."
2821. The figure of a room, too, necessarily regulates its height. If a room, for example,
be coved, it should be higher than one whose ceiling is entirely flat. When the plan is
square and the ceiling flat the height should not be less than four fifths of the side nor
more than five sixths ; but when it leaves the square and becomes parallelogramic, the
height may be equal to the width. Coved rooms, however, when square, should be as high
as they are broad ; and when parallelograms, their height may be equal to their width, in-
creased from one fifth to one third of the difference between the length and width.
2822. The height of galleries should be at least one and one third of their width, and at
the most perhaps one and three fifths. " It is not, however," says Chambers, " always
possible to observe these proportions. In dwelling-houses, the height of all the rooms on
the same floor is generally the same, though their extent be different ; which renders it
extremely difficult in large buildings, where there are a great number of different-sized
rooms, to proportion all of them well. The usual method, in buildings where beauty and
magnificence are preferred to economy, is to raise the halls, salons, and galleries higher
than the other rooms, by making them occupy two stories ; to make the drawing-rooms or
other largest rooms with flat ceilings ; to cove the middle-sized ones one thii d, a quarter, or
a fifth of their height, according as it is more or less excessive ; and in the smallest apart-
ments, where even the highest coves are not sufficient to render the proportion tolerable, it
is usual to contrive mezzanines above them, which afford servants' lodging-rooms, baths,
powder ing-rooms," (now no longer wanted !) " wardrobes, and the like ; so much the more
convenient as they are near the state apartments, and of private access. The Earl of
Leicester's house at Holkham is a masterpiece in this respect, as well as in many others :
the distribution of the plan, in particular, deserves much commendation, and does great
credit to the memory of Mr. Kent, it being exceedingly well contrived, both for state and
convenience."
2823. In this country, the coldness of the climate, with the economy of those who build
superadded, have been obstacles to developing the proper proportions of our apartments ;
and the consequence is, that in England we rarely see magnificence attained in them. We
can point out very few rooms whose height is as great as it should be. In Italy, the rules
given by Palladio and other masters, judging from their works, seem to be sevenfold in
respect of lengths and breadths of rooms, namely, — 1. circular ; 2. square ; 3. the length
equal to the diagonal of the square ; 4. length equal to one third more than the square ;
5. to the square and a half; 6. to the square and two thirds ; or, 7. two squares full. As
to the height of chambers, Palladio says they are made either arched or with a plain
ceiling : if the latter, the height from the pavement or floor to the joists above ought to be
equal to their breadth ; and the chambers of the second story must be a sixth part less
than them in height. The arched rooms, being those commonly adopted in the principal
story, no less on account of their beauty than for the security afforded against fire, if square,
are in height to be a third more than their breadth ; but when the length exceeds the
breadth, the height proportioned to the length and breadth together may be readily found
by joining the two lines of the length and breadth into one line, which being bisected,
one half will give exactly the height of the arch. Thus, let the room be 12 feet long
and 6 feet wide, — ?,— = 9 feet the height of the room. Another of Palladio's methods of
proportioning the height to the length and breadth is, by making the length, height, and
breadth in sesquialteral proportion, that is, by finding a number which has the same ratio
to the breadth as the length has to it. This is found by multiplying the length and breadth
together, and taking the square root of the product for the height. Thus, supposing the
length 9 and the breadth 4, the height of the arch will be «/9 x 4 = 6, the height required ;
the number 6 being contained as many times in 9 as 4 is in 6.
2824. The same author gives still another method, as follows : — Let the height be
assumed as found by the first rule ( = 9), and the length and breadth, as before, 12 and 6.
Multiply the length by the breadth, and divide the product by the height assumed; then
^-— - = 8 for the height, which is more than the second rule gives, and less than the first.
CHAF. II. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION. 771
CHAP. II.
COMBINATION OF PARTS.
SECT. I.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION.
2825. THE end of architecture, without whose aid no other art can exist, is not merely
to please the eye, but so to provide against the changes of the seasons as to be serviceable
to man. Pleasure to the eye may, however, result from the useful, well combined with the
beautiful modifications whereof it is susceptible. It is in combining thus that the genius
of the architect is exhibited. The art of decorating a well-proportioned edifice is a
very secondary and comparatively easy part of his work, though requiring, of course, the
early cultivation of his taste and an intimate acquaintance with the parts, whereof this
may be taught and that acquired ; but the distribution and arrangement of the several
portions on the plan, upon which every accessory is dependent, requires great knowledge
and considerable experience. And in this is involved not only the general convenience and
effect of the building, but what is of much consequence to the proprietor, the cost of the
work. None but those practically conversant with the planning of a building would be-
lieve the saving that may be produced by proper distribution. In the case of many external
breaks, for instance, much addition arises in the length of walls enclosing the edifice,
without generally increasing the convenience of the interior, but always when the elevation
comes to be adapted to the plan, with the certainty of breaking up the masses, and destroying
the simplicity of the effect. This is mentioned merely as an instance of simplicity of plan
always producing simplicity of section and elevation. The luxury and richness of de-
coration and the general appearance of a facade is the main source of the pleasure derivable
from the exercise of the art, by persons unacquainted with it ; and it is curious that these are
the only matters with which the reviewer-critics of the day trust themselves, well knowing
how quickly their ignorance would be discovered the moment they should pass the threshold,
and discourse on the economy and distribution of a building. It is, indeed, singular in
these days of art-reviewing, that for the last twenty years not a single paper of any value has
appeared in any of the periodicals, in which the writer has ventured on that part of the
subject. The fact is, that the number is very limited of those who can comprehend the plan
of a building, or who, on walking over it, can so arrange in their minds the distribution of
the several portions as to have the smallest notion whether it has been skilfully composed.
The spectator, like the reviewer, looks at the fa£ade, perhaps connects it in an angular
view with one of the flanks, says it is heavy and mean, or grand and magnificent, according
to his temperament and education, always excusing himself by admitting he does not
understand architecture, but " he knows what pleases him." Now we doubt whether such
persons in reality do know what pleases them, and we are certain they would be more
suited for judges if they had " reason for the faith " that is in them.
2826. All ornament in architecture is non-essential, inasmuch as the pleasure received
by the eye is not its end. To public and private utility, the welfare and comforts of indi-
viduals, which are the ends of the art, every other point must be sacrificed ; and it is
only when these have been accomplished that we are to think of decoration. We well
remember the time, in our younger days, when the facade of the building to be designed
was with us the important object of consideration. We have lived to know better ;
and the first time we seriously began, now many years since, to fall away from the error,
arose from the anecdote told of a certain nobleman, who, having boasted to a friend of
the beauty of the facade of his house, which within was exceedingly ill contrived, was tola
that he thought the peer would do well to take the house opposite, that he might be thus
always able to look at it. Those who make the internal parts of an edifice subservient to
the project of a facade, and adjust their plan and section to the elevation, must be considered
as making the end of less importance than the ornament of the building. Those who work
in this mode produce little variety in their designs, which, numerous though they be,
consist of but few different combinations, whilst those that result from the natural order of
making the facade subservient to the internal parts which the plan and section impose, are
susceptible of infinite variety and decoration.
2827. It is not, however, to be supposed that we are, in what has been said, sanctioning
the student's neglect of careful composition and adjustment of the fa9ades. Upon the
adaptation of the different fronts of the building to sort with the internal convenience,
3 D 2
772 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
the greatest care should be bestowed. It is from these his reputation is likely to flow, be-
cause they are the parts most susceptible of comprehension by the public. The architect will,
upon every succeeding day's experience, find that the two objects are not incompatible ;
but if such a case, which is possible, arise, he had far better sacrifice the fa9ade, consider-
ing first the comforts of those who are to inhabit the house, and then the gratification
of those who are only to look at it.
2828. Durand has well observed that compositions conducted on the above principles
must please. " Has not nature," says that author, *' attached pleasure to the satisfaction of
our wants, and are our most lively pleasures other than the satisfaction of our most press-
ing wants ? These wants are better satisfied in the interior distribution of a building than
in the exterior." Who leaves the Pantheon without more satisfaction than he expected
from the view of the portico, fine though it be? Again, faulty as are both St. Peter's and
St. Paul's, will any one who understands the subject aver that he has received more plea-
sure from their respective facades than from their noble interiors ? The pleasurable sensa-
tions produced by both are entirely dependent on their interior distribution. But when we
find that in the former of these buildings there is no mockery of a dome, the interior and
exterior being as far dependent on each other as the circumstances of construction would
permit, whilst the dome of the latter is worse than a mockery, the interior and exterior
domes having nothing in common with each other, the last being no more than a timber
leaded appurtenance to the fabric, Wren, with all his greatness, for great he was, shrinks
into nothingness by the side of Michael Angelo, although the external form of the dome of
London be more elegant than that of the Vatican. This is a strong but not a forced illus-
tration of our opinions, the good sense whereof must be left for appreciation to our readers,
who, we doubt not, on a little reflection, will concur with us.
2829. In ninety-nine cases out of a hundred the student will find that a good distribution
of his plan leads him, with anything like ordinary tact, to the composition of good sections
and good elevations, far better, indeed, than he could arrive at by pursuing an opposite
course. In domestic Gothic architecture, this is notorious, for in that a regular distribu-
tion of the openings would often produce the tamest and least picturesque effect. The
Gothic architects placed windows internally where only they would be serviceable, letting
them take their chance in the exterior. It is not to be understood, because such would be
rather ontre, that this method will exactly suit the principles of composition in Italian archi-
tecture ; but it is well known to practical men that a required opening in a particular place,
instead of being a blemish, may be converted on many occasions into a beauty. Indeed, it
is incontrovertibly true that distribution and disposition are the first objects that should
engage the architect's attention, even of him whose great aim is to strike the attention by
ornament, which can never please unless its source can be traced to the most convenient
and economical distribution of the leading parts. Theorists may be laughed at, but it does
not move us, nor diminish our regret to see many architects without any other theory than
that whereon, in an inverted position, their own wild fancies are grafted. If what we have
stated be true, and from the nature of things we cannot imagine a controversy can arise
upon our observations, the talent of the architect is to be estimated, as Durand properly
observes, according to his solution of the two following problems: —
First. For a given sum, as in private buildings, to erect the most convenient and suit-
able house for his employer.
Second. The requisites in a building being given, as in public buildings, to erect it at
the smallest possible expense.
2830. An investigation of all the modes of accomplishing these desiderata can only be
fully effected in a work of much larger extent than this; but we have, in the practical
parts of our volume, so prepared the reader, that he will not generally be at a loss in respect
of the construction of a building, whatever its nature or destination.
SECT. II.
DRAWINGS NECESSARY IN COMPOSITION.
2831. In the preceding parts of the work, we have described at as great a length as
could be necessary the different parts that enter into the composition of a building, such as
the orders, windows, doors, balustrades, and the like, which may be compared to the notes
of the scale used in musical composition. These were placed in the foremost rank of our
arrangement, otherwise we must have been, as it were, without words for our discourse or
notes for the symphony we would produce. We have, moreover, under the section on
drawing, given such general hints for what the musician might technically call scoring
them, as ought to leave him in no difficulty as to what now follows ; and we have arrived
at the period when he cannot be supposed to want further instructions in these respects.
CHAP. II.
DRAWINGS NECESSARY IN COMPOSITION.
773
2832. For the thorough comprehension of a projected edifice, at least three drawings
are necessary, the plan, the section, and the elevation. The first is an horizontal section of it,
the second the vertical section, which shows the building as if it were cut in half, and that
half nearest the spectator, removed from its plan, so as to permit the inner parts to become
visible, and the third is the geometrical appearance of the front represented as if viewed
from an infinite distance, in which no convergence of the lines would be seen.
2833. In making a design, it is always better to put
the general idea together on a single sheet of paper, and
consequently, in most cases, on a small scale. This,
in afterwards making the drawings, is, as may be ne-
cessary, increased in size. The three parts being drawn
under one another, as shown in fig. 1013., wherein the
middle diagram is the plan, the lower one the section,
and the upper one the elevation. By thus beginning on
a single sheet, in which the whole is before the eye, the
corresponding lines are more readily transferred from
one part to another. Having drawn through the middle
of the paper the vertical A A, cut at right angles by
the horizontal line BB, draw the required centres or
axes of the walls CC and DD, and supposing the build-
ing is to be square, with the same opening of the com-
passes set out the axes of the return walls EE and
FF. Having determined the thickness of the walls,
one half may be set out on each side the axes, as in
ee, ff, cc, and dd, and then the lines showing the thick-
nesses of the walls may be drawn. The width of
openings in the walls may be next set out, half on each
side the axes BB and AA, first drawn towards bb and
aa, and the lines drawn to their places. Having thus
proceeded, we shall discover that not only has the plan
been drawn, but at the same time a considerable portion
of the section and elevation. To distinguish the voids
from the solids, the latter should be coloured or
hatched, and then the next step will be as follows : —
Parallel to the principal axis BB, draw the ground lines
GG and GG. From these lines the heights of the
building, its cornice and openings, may be set up in the
section and elevation ; and afterwards, the height of the
roof and projection of the cornice having been de-
termined, they may be set out and drawn. In the
section, as in the plan, it is usual either to colour or
hatch the solid parts, as we have done in the figure.
2834. Simple as the above process maybe, it contains
the whole elementary part of the mechanical process
necessary for making a design. It might have been
conducted on a more complicated mass, but had we done
so, it would not have been so well understood, and we
therefore deprecate any observations on the simpleness
of our process by those who have been brought to know
these things by practice and experience. We do not, G"
however, feel we should discharge our duty before
closing this section, without a censure on the attempt
to convert drawings of geometrical elevations and sec-
tions into picturesque representations, because such
practice is not only injurious to the art, but is dishonest, and has a tendency to mislead
the architect's employer ; and we are sorry to say that it is not unfrequently done with
such a view. We denounce it, and without hesitation aver that the casting of shadows
on a design is only admissible for the purpose of showing the relative depths of projecting
parts ; and when so admitted, the medium should be confined to Indian ink or sepia, and
thrown in merely in masses, the apertures being just slightly filled in with the same
colour.
3 D 3
774
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
SECT. III.
CAISSONS IN CYLINDRICAL AND HEMISPHERICAL VAULTING.
2835. Previous to further proceeding, it will be expedient to touch on the method of
setting out the caissons or sunken panels in cylindrical vaults and domes, a process
required almost in every building of importance, and imparting great beauty to the effect
of the interior when properly introduced : it is, indeed, one of the elements in composing
them, and must therefore be welt understood before the student can succeed in developing
his ideas.
2836. In setting out the ribs of cylindrical vaulting, the vertical ones are supposed as
falling on supports below the springing ; but if such supports fall too wide apart, the
caissons themselves will be too wide, and the space must be divided into a greater number ;
in which case, if practicable, an odd number is to be preferred, taking care that the caissons
are not too much reduced in width. This, however, is only for the purpose of ascertaining
roughly how many caissons may be used in the circuit of the vault and it is to be remem-
bered that they must be of an odd number, because a tier of caissons should always extend
Fig. 1014.
Fig. 1015.
along the crown of the vault. Fig. 1014. is an example of a cylindrical vault wherein the
number of caissons is five. A is one half of its transverse section, and B a small portion of
the longitudinal section. The width of the ribs between the caissons is one third of them ;
hence, if the number of caissons, as in the example, be five, the arch must be divided into
twenty-one parts, one of which parts will be the width of a rib, and three will be given to the
width of a caisson. As we have just observed, a caisson is always placed in the centre ;
we shall therefore have the half-arch = l£ + 1+3 + 1+3 + 1 = 10£ and 1QJ x2 = 21. The
vertical lengths of the sides of the caissons thus found will regulate the horizontal lengths
of their sides, inasmuch as they should be made square. If the caissons in the vault be
seven in number, as \afig. 1015., the sofite or periphery must be then divided into twenty-
nine parts ; if their number be nine, into thirty- seven parts; and so on increasing by eight
each step in the progression. The caissons may be single or double sunk, or more, accord-
ing to the richness required ; their centres may be moreover decorated with fleurons, and
their margins moulded with open enrichments. Where the apartment is very highly orna-
mented, the ribs themselves are sunk on their face, and decorated with frets, guiloches, and
the like, as mentioned for ceilings in Chap. I. Sect. XXIV. Durand, in his Covrs
d' Architecture, regulates the width of the caissons entirely by the interases of the columns of
the building ; but this practice is inconvenient, because the space may in reality be so great
as to make the caissons extremely heavy, which is, in fact, the case in the examples he gives.
2837. In the case of dome or hemispherical vaulting, the first point for consideration is
the number of caissons in each horizontal tier of them ; and the student must recollect that
allowing, as before, one third of the width of a caisson as the width of a rib, the number
of parts into which the horizontal periphery (whereof e'e' on the plan A is one quarter, and
its projected representation at ee on the section B) is to be divided {fig. 1016.) must be
multiples of 4, otherwise caissons will not fall centrally on the two axes of the plan.
Thus,
A dome having 16 caissons in one horizontal tier must be divided into 64 parts.
20 ditto 80 ditto.
24 ditto 96 ditto.
28 ditto 112 ditto.
3 2 ditto 128 ditto.
and so on increasing by 16 for each term in the progression. In the figure the number of
caissons is sixteen. The semi-plan is divided into thirty-two parts, three whereof are given to
each caisson, and one and a half to each half-caisson on the horizontal axis of the plan. From
CHAP, II.
CAISSONS IN VAULTING.
•75
the divisions thus obtained lines are car-
ried up to the section ab, ab, cd, cd. As
the projected representations of the great
circles of a sphere are ellipses, if from
b, b, d, d we construct a series of semi-
ellipses whose transverse diameters are
equal to the semi-diameter of the sphere,
and their conjugate axes determined
from the points of intersection 6, 6, d, d,
we shall have the vertical sides of the
caissons. The next part of the process
is to ascertain the ratio of diminution
in the heights of the tiers of caissons
as they rise towards the vertex, so that
they may continue square in ascending.
Upon a vertical line CC', whose length
is equal to the developed length of the
line of dome ef, or in other words,
whose length is equal to one quarter of
the length of a great circle of the sphere,
to the right and left of C set out at g and
g the half width of the caisson obtained
from the plan, and make hg, hg equal
to one third of the caisson for the width
of the ribs on each side. Draw lines to
the vertex of the developement from hh
and gg. A diagonal hi being then drawn,
the horizontal line ik will determine the
lower edge of the next caisson upwards.
Proceed in this way for the next from I
and so on. The heights of the caissons
thus obtained, being transferred to the
section on the quadrant ef, will give the
proportionate diminution thereon of the
caissons as they rise. They are discon-
tinued, and the dome is left plain, when
they become so small as to lose their effect from below, and indeed they could not beyond
a certain limit be executed.
h. g
Fig. 1016.
SECT. IV.
HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL COMBINATIONS OF BUILDINGS.
2838. The different elements of a building are ranged by the side of or above each other,
and in designing an edifice both these combinations must be kept in mind, though in the
study of the subject, in order to lighten the labour, they may be separately considered.
The two species of disposition are horizontal, as in plans, and vertical, as in sections and
elevations.
2839. As respects horizontal disposition of the elements of a fabric, beginning with
columns, their distance in the same edifice should be equal, but that distance may be varied
as circumstances require. In buildings of small importance, the number is reduced as
much as possible, on the score of economy, by increasing the distance between them ; but
in public buildings they should be introduced in greater number, as contributing to the
greater solidity of the edifice by affording a larger number of points of support. They
ought not, however, to be at all introduced except for the formation of porticoes, galleries,
and the like subdivisions. The least distance at which they can be properly placed from a
wall is that which they are apart from one another. This distance, indeed, suits well
enough when the columns are moderately wide apart ; but when the intercolumniations
are small compared with their height and the diameter of the columns, their distance from
the walls in porticoes must be increased, otherwise these would be much too narrow for
their height, affording shelter neither from the sun's rays nor from the rain. On this
account, under such circumstances, they may be set from the walls two or three times the
distance between the axes of the columns. From this arrangement will result an agreeable
and suitable proportion between the parts.
2840. The ceiling of a portico may be level with the under side of the architrave, or it
3 D 4
776
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK IH.
may be sunk the depth of the architrave, which may return in a direction towards the walls,
thus forming sunk panels in the ceiling, or the sinking of the panels may be as much as
the whole height of the entablature, whose mouldings should then be carried round them.
When several ranks of columns occur in a portico the central part is sometimes vaulted, the
two central columns of the width being omitted. The method of disposing pilasters in
respect of their diminution has been treated of in a former part of this work. (267 1, et seq.}
2841. The exterior walls which enclose the building should run as much as possible in
straight continued lines from one angle to another ; a straight line being the shortest that
can be drawn. The internal walls, which serve for subdividing the building into its several
apartments, should, as much as may be, extend from one side to the opposite one. Where
they are intercepted by openings, they should be connected again above by lintels or other
means.
2842. In Jiff. 1017. is shown the method of forming apian or horizontal distribution, and
combining it with the vertical distribution in the section
and elevation. The thing is so simple that it can hardly
want explanation. The equidistant parallel axes being
drawn and cut at right angles by similarly equidistant
ones, the walls, according to the required accommoda-
tions, are placed centrally upon the axes ; and the
columns, pilasters, &c. upon the intersections of the
axes. The doors, windows, niches, and the like are then
placed centrally in the interaxes, which must be bisected
for that purpose. Above and below the horizontal com-
bination the section and plan are to be drawn. These
vertical combinations are infinite, and from every plan
many sections and elevations may be formed. The figure
exhibits a building of one story only, with a central
apartment occupying the height of two stories. But on
the same plan a building of two or more stories may be
designed. These may have two tiers of porticoes, one
above the other, or one only on the ground story, form-
ing by its covering a terrace on the first floor ; or a
portico might receive on its columns the walls of the
next story, and thus become recessed from the main
front. So, again, the stories may be equal in height, or
of different heights, as circumstances may require. The
most usual practice is, above a basement to make the
succeeding story higher ; but above a principal floor the
height of succeeding ones is diminished. The method
of placing orders above orders does not require that any
addition should be made to what has been said on that
subject in Chap. I. Sect. 11. of this Book, and by the
same methods arcades over arcades may be conducted.
2843. Not the least important of the advantages re-
sulting from the method of designing just submitted to
the reader is the certain symmetry it produces, and the
prevention, by the use of these inter axal lines on each
floor, of the architect falling into the error of false
bearings, than which a greater or more dangerous fault
cannot be committed, more especially in public build-
ings. The subterfuge for avoiding the consequence of
false bearings is now a resort to cast iron, a material
beneficially enough employed in buildings of inferior
rank ; but in those of the first class, wherein every part
should have a proper point of support, it is a practice
not to be tolerated. Neither should the student ever
lose sight, in respect of the ties he employs in a building,
of the admirable observation of Vignola on the ties and
chains proposed by Tibaldi, in his design for the bap-
tistery at Milan : " Che le fabbriche non si hanno da
sostenere colle stringhe ; " — Buildings must not depend
on ties for their stability. The foregoing figure is from
Durand's Precis cT Architecture. We now submit, in Jig.
1018.,anillustration of the principles of interaxal division Fig. ion.
from the celebrated and exquisite Villa Capra, near Vicenza, by Palladio, wherein it will be
seen, on comparing the result with what has actually been executed, how little the design
varies from it. It will from this also be seen how entirely and inseparably connected with
CHAP. II. HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL COMBINATIONS.
777
/
!
the horizontal are the vertical combinations in the sec-
tion and elevation, the voids falling over voids, and the
solids over solids. Whatever the extent of the build-
ing, if it is to be regular and symmetrical in its compo-
sition, the principles are applicable, and that even in
buildings where no columns are used ; for, supposing
them to exist, and setting out the design as though
they did exist, the design will prove to be well pro-
portioned when they are removed. The full appli-
cation of the principles in question will be seen in
the works of Durand, the Precis and Cours d' Architec-
ture^ which we have used freely ; and where we have
had the misfortune to differ from that author, we have
not adopted him.
2844. The student can scarcely conceive the infinite
number of combinations whereof every design is sus-
ceptible by the employment of the interaxal system
here brought under his notice ; neither, until he has
tested it in many cases, will he believe the great
mastery in design which he will acquire by its use.
In the temples and other public buildings of the an-
cients, it requires no argument to prove that it was the
vital principle of their operations, and in the courts,
cavaedia, &c. of their private buildings it is sufficiently
obvious that it must have been extensively used. That
its use in the buildings of those who are called the
Gothic architects of the middle ages was universal, a
glance at them will be sufficient to prove. The system
of triangles which appears to have had an influence on
the proportions of the early cathedrals may be traced
to the same source (see the early translation of Vitru-
vius by Caesar Cesarianus), and indeed, followed up to
that source, would end in the principle contended for.
2845. It is impossible for us to prove that the
interaxal system was that upon which the revivers of
our art produced the astonishing examples many
whereof are exhibited in our First Book ; neither
can we venture to assert that it was that upon which
our great master Palladio designed the example above
given, unquestionably one of his most elegant works ;
but, to say the least of the coincidence which has been
proved between the actual design and the theory upon
which it appears to have been founded, it is a very
curious, and, if not true, a most extraordinary circum-
stance. Our belief, however, is, that not only Pal-
ladio but the masters preceding him used the system
in question, and that is strengthened by the mode
(not strictly, we allow, analogous) in which Scamozzi,
in the tenth chapter of his third book, directs the
student to adopt in buildings seated on plots of ground
whose sides are irregular.
2846. To Durand, nevertheless, the public is
greatly indebted for the instruction he has imparted
to the student in his Precis d1 Architecture more espe-
cially, and we regret that in our own country the art
is treated by its professors too much in the manner
of a trade, and that the scramble after commissions
has prevented their occupation upon works similar to
those which have engaged the attention of professors
on the continent. The fault, however, is perhaps not,
after all, so much attributable to them as to a govern-
ment, whatever the party in power, till within the last
five years (nay perchance even now) totally indifferent to the success of the fine arts, whose
palmy days here were under the reign of the unfortunate Charles. Our feelings on this sub-
ject, and love for our art, betray us perchance too much into expressions unsuitable to the
subject under consideration, and thereon we entreat, therefore, the patience of our readers,
knowing " we have a good conscience."
2847. Our limits preclude the further enlargement on this part of the subject, which in
n
778
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
detail would occupy the pages of a separate work, and which, indeed, from its nature,
could not be exhausted. We trust, however, enough has been given to conduct the student
on the way to a right understanding of this part of the laws of composition.
SECT. V.
SUBDIVISIONS AND APARTMENTS OF BUILDINGS AND THEIR POINTS OF SUPPORT.
2848. The subdivisions, apartments, or portions whereof a building consists are almost as
many as the elements that separately compose them : they may be ranked as porticoes,
porches, vestibules, staircases, halls, galleries, salons, chambers, courts, &c. &c* All these
are but spaces enclosed with walls, open or covered, but mostly the latter, as the case may
require. When covered, the object is accomplished by vaults, floors, terraces, or roofs.
In some of them, columns are employed to relieve the bearing of the parts above, or to di-
minish the thrust of the vaulting. The horizontal forms of these apartments — a general
name by which we shall designate them, be their application what it may — are usually
squares, parallelograms, polygons, circles, semicircles, &c. ; their size, of course, varying
with the service whereto they are applied. Some will require only one, two, or three inter-
axal divisions ; others, five, seven, or more. It is only these last in which columns become
useful ; and to such only, therefore, the system is usefully applied. The parts whereof we
speak may belong to either public or private buildings : the former are generally confined
to a single story, and are covered by vaults of equal or different spans ; the latter have
usually several stories, and are almost invariably covered with roofs or flats.
2849. When columns are introduced into any edifice to diminish the action of the vaults
and increase the resistance to their thrust, the choice of the species of vault must be well
considered. If, for example, the vault of a square apartment (fig. 1019.) of five interaxal
Fig. 1019.
Fig. 1020.
Fig. 1021.
divisions be covered with a quadrangular dome, or, in other words, a quadrantal cove,
mitred at each angle, twelve columns would be required for its support. If the vault were
cylindrical (fig. 1020.) eight columns only would be necessary ; but if the form of the
covering be changed to the groined arch (fig. 1021.), four columns only will be required.
Supposing a room of similar form on the plan contained seven interaxal divisions each way,
twenty columns must be employed for the coved vault, twelve columns for that whose
covering was semi-cylindrical, and still but four for the groined vault. It is obvious, therefore,
keeping economy in mind, that the consideration and well weighing of this matter is
most important, inasmuch as under ordinary circumstances we find it possible to make four
columns perform the office of twelve and even twenty. Here, again, we have proof of the
value of the interaxal system, whose combinations, as we have in the previous section ob-
served, are infinite. But the importance of the subject becomes still more interesting when
we find that economy is inseparable from that arrangement whose adoption insures stability
and symmetry of the parts. These are considerations whereof it is the duty of the archi-
tect who values his reputation and character never to lose sight. If honour guide him not,
the commission wherewith he is intrusted had better have been handed over to the mere
builder, — we mean the respectable builder, who will honestly do his best for his employer.
2850. What occurs in square apartments occurs equally in those that are oblong, for the
first or square is but the element of the last. If it happen that from the interaxal divisions
contained in the length of an oblong or parallelogram, the subdivisions will not allow of three
bays of groins, it does not follow that the arrangement must be defective, for one may be
obtained in the middle bay. In subdivisions of width, allowing five interaxes, at least four
columns would be saved, and in those of seven interaxes eight columns might be dispensed
with. (See fig. 1022.)
2851. When the subdivisions on the plan, supposing it not square, take in five interaxes
which in the longitudinal extent of the apartment include several bays of groins, whose num-
ber must always be odd, one column is sufficient to receive each springing of the arch, but
in those of seven interaxal divisions two columns will be necessary. (See fig. 1023, A.)
2852. If the vaulting be on a large scale, its weight and thrust are necessarilv increased,
CHAP. II.
COMBINATION OF PARTS, ETC.
779
and the columns may be changefl into pilasters connected with the main walls, as in
f.g. 1024., or as II in the preceding figure.
2853. The height of the apartment from the floor to the springing of the arches will be
found three interaxes in apartments whose horizontal combination is of five interaxes,
and four and a half for the height to springing of such as are of seven interaxal divisions on
the plan. Where the combinations are different in the adjoining apartments the heights
just mentioned afford the facility of lighting the larger one above the crown of the lower
one, as at B in fig, 1025.
/NL
(VI
Fig. 1022.
/
\
\
/
X
-H
i
\
H_
x
/
\
J
Fig. 1024. Fig. 1023.
2854. Sometimes the springing is from the walls themselves, as at C, fig. 1023., instearl
of from the columns as at L. The first of these arrangements should be permitted only
when en suite with the apartment there is another, D, wherein the springings are from
columns. When the apartment is the last of the suite, the springings must be from piers
or columns, one interaxis at least from the wall. If all these matters are well understood,
as also the sections upon the orders, and upon the different elementary parts of a building,
a graphic combination has been established by which we shall be much aided in the com-
position or design of all sorts of buildings, and enabled, with little trouble, and in a much
shorter period of time than by any other process, to design easily and intelligently. To do
more distinguishes the man of genius from the man who can be taught only up to a certain
point.
SECT. VI.
COMBINATION OF THE PARTS IN LEADING FORMS.
2855. Having shown the mode whereby the parts of a building are horizontally and verti-
cally combined in the several apartments, which may be considered the grammar of com-
position, we shall now show its application in the leading forms or great divisions of the plan.
Keeping in mind the advantage, upon which we have before touched, of arranging the walls of
buildings as much as possible in straight lines, we should also equally endeavour to dispose
the principal apartments on the same axes in each direction. Upon first thoughts the stu-
dent may think that a want of variety will result from such arrangement, but upon proper
reflection he will in this respect be soon undeceived. The combinations that may be made
of the different principal axes are, as above stated, numberless, that is, of those axes whereon
the parts may be advantageously placed so as to suit the various purposes to which the
building is destined, paying also due regard to the nature of the ground whereon the
fabric is to be erected
780
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
•m
JLL
Fig. 1025.
2856. Let us, for example, take a few only of the
combinations which may be formed from the simple
square, as in the first sixteen diagrams of fig. \ 025.,
by dividing it in both directions into two, three,
and four parts. The thick lines of the diagrams
may be considered as representing either walls or
suits of apartments, in which latter case the open
spaces between them become courts. In reference
also to the vertical combinations connected with the
dispositions in question, some parts of them may con-
sist of one, other parts of two and three stories, as
well for additional accommodation of the whole build-
ing to its purpose as for producing variety of out-
line in the elevation. If, as in some of the dia-
grams, we omit some of the axes used for the divi-
sion, such omissions produce a new series of subdivi-
sions almost to infinity. By this method large edifices
may be most advantageously designed ; it enables us
to apply to the different leading axes the combinations
suitable to the destination of the building. Considered
however as merely an exercise for the student, the use
of it is so valuable that we do not believe any other
can be so beneficially employed by those masters who
profess to teach the art. We have not gone into the
subdivisions of the circle in detail, contenting ourselves
with the two most obvious dispositions. These are
susceptible of as great variety as the square, observing
however that the leading axes must be concentric.
2857. Following up the method just proposed, let
us imagine a design consisting of a certain number of
similar and dissimilar parts placed in certain relations
to each other. Now, having fixed clearly in our mind the relative situations of the several
parts and the mode by which they are connected with each other, we shall have a distinct per-
ception of the work as a whole. We may abbreviate the expression of a design by a few
marks, as mfig. 1026., wherein the crosses represent square apartments, and the simple lines
are the expressions of parallelograms, whose relative lengths may be expressed by the lengths of
the lines. The next step might be to ex-
pand these abbreviations into the form I __ _______^ I
given in Jiff. 1027., on which we may indi-
cate by curves and St. Andrew's crosses,
as dotted in the diagram, the way in which
the several apartments are to be covered.
2858. We may now proceed with the
design ; but first it will be well to consider
one of the apartments, for which let one of
the angles B be taken (see Jiff. 1027. and
1 028. ). Suppose it, for instance, to be five F*' 1026'
or any other number of interaxal parts square. This, then, will be the width of the apartments
whose forms are that of a parallelogram ; and inasmuch as in this apartment the diameter
of the vault will be diminished by two interaxes, which results from the use of the four
angular columns, the groined vault will be of the width of three interaxes, and the same
arrangement will govern the rest of the apartments. In the centre an open court is at-
tendant on the disposition, as indicated by the diagram. The section which is the result
of the combination, subject however to other regulation in the detail, is given under the
plan of the figure, and the elevation above it entirely depends upon, and is regulated by,
the joint combination of the plan and section. The example is given in the most general
way, and with the desire of initiating the student in the theory of his art. The building
here instanced might serve some public purpose, such as a gallery for the reception of
painting or sculpture, or at least give the hint for one ; but our object is not to be mis-
understood, — we seek only to give the tyro an insight into the principles of composition.
2859. It is not our intention to enter further on the variety which follows the method of
designing, of which the foregoing are only intended as hints ; but we cannot leave the
subject without submitting another example for the study of the reader. Our desire
is that of establishing general principles, whereof fig. 1029. is a more complete illus-
tration than those that have preceded it. The abbreviated form of the horizontal disposition
is shown at A, and in B it is further extended, and will be found to be very similar to that
of No. 15. in fig. 1O25. In the example the interaxal divisions are not drawn through the
CHAP. II.
COMBINATION OF PARTS, ETC.
781
I
| n n n I
Fig. 1028. Fig. 1029.
plan, but it will be immediately seen that the space allotted to the whole width of the
apartments is three in number. In the centre a circular apartment is introduced and
covered with a dome, which might have been raised, in the vertical combination, another
story, and thus have added more majesty to the elevation. And here we repeat, that in
num.
Fig. 1030.
782 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
designing buildings of more than one story, (for it cannot be too often impressed on the
mind of the student,) the combination of the vertical with the horizontal distribution will
suggest an infinite variety of features, which the artist may mould to his fancy, although it
must be so restrained as to make it subservient to the rules upon which fitness depends.
2860. We close the chapter, not without regret, (because the subject is pleasant to us,
but a treatise would not fully carry out the principles inculcated,) with an example from
Durand in perspective. The general plan, A, jig. 1030., will be found similar to No. 1 1.
uijiy. 1025., and the distribution may be a good practice for the student to develope. It is
an excellent example for exhibiting of what plastic nature are the buildings which the
vertical combinations will admit as based on those which are horizontal.
CHAP. III.
PUBLIC BUILDINGS.
SECT. I.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON PUBLIC AND PRIVATE BUILDINGS.
286'1. THIS chapter will be devoted to such remarks on public and private buildings as
may be necessary to guide the architect in their general composition. To enter into a
detail of each would be impossible, neither indeed could it be useful, for there are rarelv
two buildings destined to the same purpose which could be erected exactly similar. More
or less accommodation may be required in one than another. The site may not be suitable
for the reception of similar buildings. A city will require very different buildings as to
magnitude from those necessary for a town, besides many other considerations which will
immediately occur to the reader.
2862. In designing public and private buildings the first object of the architect is to
make himself acquainted with the uses for which the building is destined, and the con-
sequent suitableness of the design for its purpose. He must enter into the spirit which
ought to pervade the building, examining and adjusting with care those qualities which
are most essential to the end proposed. Thus, though solidity be an essential in all
buildings, it is more especially to be attended to in lighthouses, bridges, and the like. In
hospitals, not only must the site be healthy, but the interior must be kept wholesome by ven-
tilation and other means. In private houses almost everything should be sacrificed to the
convenience and comfort of the proprietor. Security is an essential in the design and con-
struction of prisons. Cleanliness in markets and public slaughter-houses, which we hope
will, on every account, be ultimately established in suburbs, and not in the heart of every
great town of the empire. Stillness and tranquillity should be provided for in places of
study ; cheerfulness and gaity must be the feelings with which the architect arranges
places of public amusement. The next step will be to consider whether the building
should consist of a single mass, and whether it will be necessary that the Avhole should be
solid, or whether it should open interiorly on one or more courts or quadrangles ; whether
the different solid parts should communicate with or be separate from each other. He
must also consider whether the building will abut immediately on the public way, or be
placed away from it in an enclosure ; whether, moreover, all the solid parts should or
should not have the same number of stories.
2863. From the whole the architect must pass to the different parts or divisions, deter-
mining which of them should be principal and which subordinate ; which should be near
and which distant from each other, and consequently their relative places and dimensions ;
how they should be covered, whether by vaulting or flooring ; if the former, what species
of vault should be selected, and whether the bearing of the timbers or the extent of the
vault will require the aid of intermediate columns. Under these considerations, the sketch
being made, the interaxal divisions of each apartment set out and written thereon, the
architect may add them together, and thus ascertain the whole number of interaxal divisions,
so that he may see that they can be contained on the given site. This done, he should
take care th;it none of the interaxes are too wide or too narrow compared with the scale.
Should that be the case, the number of interaxal divisions must be increased or diminished
accordingly, either throughout or in those parts wherein the arrangement is defective.
2864. As the number of interaxes is greater or less in the apartments, so we may now
determine the order to be used below the springing of the arches. On a sketch thus
CHAP. III. BRIDGES. 783
conducted we shall have little more to do than to determine the profiles, ornaments, and
other detail that the edifice requires. The student, by pursuing the course thus pointed
out, will soon find his progress much advanced in the facility and success of designing. It
is the course indicated by common sense as much in the study of the art as in the com-
position of designs, both of which are but an uninterrupted series of observations and
reasonings.
SECT. II.
BRIDGES.
2865. Unless the design for a bridge be triumphal (a species now quite out of use), the
composition can scarcely possess too much simplicity. If, indeed, in the design of a bridge
we strictly adhere to the principles which regulate its convenience, stability, and economy,
it will possess every beauty that can be desired. It is clear, therefore, that all applications
of columns to the piers of bridges will fall under our severest censure. They can be of no
service to the fabric, and are therefore unsuitable and absurd ; their use moreover is a
great waste of money, hence they are violations of an economical disposition in the design.
We may, for illustration sake, point to the last bridge of importance erected in this
country, viz. London Bridge, which is well and properly designed in comparison with
Waterloo Bridge, which, though not behind the other in the requisites of strength and
solidity, is inferior in the unfortunate application of columns to its piers. Had they been
omitted, the deserved reputation of the engineer under whose designs it was executed would
have been greatly increased, were his reputation and well-earned fame in jeopardy. The
same comparison may be made between the bridge at Neuilly and that of Louis XVI., now
the bridge de la Concorde. In the last decoration is attempted, in the former it is avoided ;
the last is hideous, the first agreeable.
2866. There are certain rules respecting bridges which must not be lost sight of, whereof
the principal one is, that their direction must, if possible, be at right angles to the stream,
and in the line too of the streets which they connect on the opposite banks of the stream.
From a want of regard to these points many unfortunate blunders have been committed,
which a prodigal expenditure of public money will not afterwards rectify, as we have seen
in the operations consequent on the rebuilding of London Bridge. We allude to this
point without the intent of blaming the parties concerned, but rather as a beacon to warn
future authorities of the rock on which they may be wrecked.
2867. We had almost determined not to have introduced the section now under our pen,
from the circumstance of the course of employment of the architect having latterly been so
changed in favour of the engineer ; but on reflection we have thought it proper, however
short the notice, to say at least a little on the subject, which may be useful, from the engineer,
strictly speaking, having but rarely the views in his designs of an accomplished artist; and
we say this without the smallest feeling against or disrespect to the very able body of men
called engineers in this country. On the equilibrium of arches and their piers, which are
the chief parts of a bridge, we have in a previous part of the work already spoken, and so
far explained our views on those points as to render further discussion here unnecessary.
In most of the bridges of the ancients the arches were semicircular, in those of modern date
they have been segmental or semi-elliptical. The last two forms are very much more
suitable, because of the freer passage of the stream, especially in the case of floods.
2868. In the bridge at Pavia, over the Tesino, which is of an early period, and also a
covered bridge, (a practice useless perhaps, but not uncommon in Italy and other parts of
the Continent,) the arches are pointed ; a form very favourable in every respect, and most
especially so in rivers subject to sudden inundations, but unfavourable certainly in cases
where the span of the arch is required to have a large width in proportion to its height.
But the bridge just named has no common comparison with the ancient bridge. The
effect resultant from its disposition is nevertheless satisfactory and magnificent, which
abundantly proves that forms and proportions have less influence in producing beauty than
have the qualities of propriety and simplicity.
2869. The position of a bridge should be neither in a narrow part nor in one liable to
swell with tides or floods, because the contraction of the waterway increases the depth and
velocity of the current, and may thus endanger the navigation as well as the bridge
itself. It is the common practice, except under extraordinary circumstances, to construct
bridges with an odd number of arches, for the reason, among many others, that the stream
being usually strongest in the middle, egress is there better provided by the central arch.
Further, too, if the bridge be not perfectly horizontal, symmetry results by the sides rising
towards the centre, and the roadway may be made one continued curve. When the road-
way of a bridge is horizontal, the saving of centring for the arches is considerable because
two sets of centres will be sufficient for turning all the arches. If, however, the bridge be
734 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
higher in the middle than at the extremities, the arches on each side of that in the centre
must diminish similarly, so that they may be respectively symmetrical on each side of the
centre. From this disposition beauty necessarily results, and the centring for one of the
sides equally suits the other. A bridge should be constructed with as few arches as
possible, for the purpose of allowing a free passage for the water, as well as for the vessels
that have to pass up and down the stream, not to mention the saving of materials and
labour where the piers and centres are fewer in number. If the bridge can be constructed
with a single arch, not more should be allowed. The piers must be of sufficient solidity to
resist the thrust of the arch, independent of the counter thrust from the other arches ; in
which case the centring may be struck without the impendent danger of overturning the
pier left naked. The piers should also be spread on their bases as much as possible, and
should diminish gradually upwards from their foundations. The method now usually
employed for laying the foundations is by means of coffer-dams, which are large enclosures
formed by piling round the space occupied by the pier so as to render it water-tight, after
which the water is pumped out, and the space so enclosed kept dry till the pier is built up
to the average level of the water. When, however, the ground is loose, to the method men-
tioned recourse cannot so well be had ; and then caissons must be employed, which are a
species of flat bottomed boat, wherein the pier is built up to a certain height and then sunk
over the place where it is intended to remain, the bed of the river having been previously
dredged out to receive it, or piles driven on which it may lodge when the sides of the chest
or caisson are knocked away. The centre should be so constructed as to be unsusceptible
of bending or swerving while the arches are in the course of construction, or its form will
be crippled. We have diverged a little from the limits by which this section should have
been circumscribed, because no other place in the work allowed us to offer the practical
observations here submitted to the reader.
SECT. III.
CHURCHES.
2870. The churches whereof we propose speaking are not such as the present com-
missioners for building churches in this country sanction, but true good churches, such as
appeared here under the reign of Queen Anne ; true honest churches, one whereof is better
than a host of the brick Cockney- Gothic things that are at present patronised, wherein the
congregations are crammed to suffocation and not accommodated. These, therefore, we shall
leave to the care of the peculiar school in which they originated, and the society to whom
they more properly belong, to speak of buildings that deserve the name. Neither do we
think it useful to inquire into the designs of the temples of the ancients, seeing that pa-
ganism has passed away, never to return. The largest of these temples compared to the
cathedrals of the moderns was but a small affair.
2871. The early Christian worship, attended by large congregations, required for its
exercise edifices whose interiors were of great extent and well lighted. Nothing was so well
adapted for the purpose as the basilica?, which, bearing the name from their resemblance to the
ancient courts of justice, were raised for the purpose. Such was that of St. Paul without
the walls of Rome {figs. 141. and 142.), the ancient St. Peter's, and many others. That of
S. Giovanni Laterano was divided by four ranks of columns, which supported the walls,
carrying the roofs of five aisles formed by the ranks of columns, the middle one or nave
being wider and higher than the others. Each aisle being lower than that adjoining
parting from the centre, admitted lights to be introduced in the several walls. The direction
of the length of the nave and aisles was from east to west, and was crossed by a transverse nave
called a transept from north to south. In front an ample porch or portico was provided
for the assembling of the people, and for their shelter from the seasons. The distribution
we have just described was, as we have mentioned in an earlier part of this work, the type
of the Gothic cathedral, though it passed through two or three steps before the adaptation
assumed the magnificence that would have been displayed in the church at Cologne had
that structure ever been completed,
2872. The portico we consider essential to any building which deserves the name of a
church, not less on account of the beauty it imparts to the edifice than for its use.
2873. The use of the modern church being the same as that of the first Christian basi-
lica?, it may be doubted whether for extremely large assemblies a better disposition could
be chosen. The desire, however, of novelty, says Durand, induced Bramante to imitate
the temple of Peace in the design for the new church of St. Peter, although that building
was less a temple than a public depot or treasury destined by Vespasian to receive the
spoils from Judea. The desire, moreover, continues that author, of surpassing the ancients,
by gathering into a single edifice the beauties of several, induced the same architect to
CHAP. III. CHURCHES. 785
crown the edifice imitated from the temple of Peace with another, imitated from the Pan-
theon ; and in this country the same sort of thing was done by Wren in St. Paul's.
2874. It is easy to perceive that these buildings are not so well calculated for worship
as the ancient basilicae. The obstruction to seeing and hearing caused by the large piers
of the modern churches is a great defect when compared with the little obstruction that
the columns of the basilica present. But this is not the only blemish in the cathedral of
Italian origin, as may be shown from the fact of basilica of the time of Constantine being
still in existence ; whilst the church of St. Peter, erected long posterior to that period,
would in this day have been a heap of ruins, but for the enormous repairs constantly be-
stowed on the fabric, and the iron chains with which the dome has been girt. The cost is
another serious objection to them, most especially in the construction of their domes, which
are, with their tambours, buildings deficient in real solidity, from the large portion of
false bearing they must involve ; creating a very different sensation to that experienced in
viewing the louvre of a Gothic cathedral, to which, without being insensible to the beau-
ties of St. Peter's, St. Paul's, and other buildings of the class, we do not hesitate to give
the preference.
2875. The facilities of designing a church on the principle of the basilica will be ob-
viously those of interaxal divisions, and will not require further developement. The same
method will be useful in designing the smaller parish church, with its nave and an aisle on
each side, which is not only the most economical, but the best form. It was that which
best pleased Sir C. Wren, whose churches are generally so planned ; and we shall here give
a short account of one of his best of this form, that of St. James's, Westminster, whose
interior is worthy of all praise. It is an excellent example of Wren's love of harmony in
proportions ; the breadth being half the sum of its height and length, its height half its
length, and its breadth the sesquialtera of its height : the numbers are 84, 63, and 42 feet.
The church is divided transversely into three unequal parts, by a range of six columns on
each side the nave, forming aisles which are each one fifth of the whole breadth, the re-
maining three fifths being given to the breadth of the nave. The roof is carried on these
columns, and is as great a proof of the consummate skill of the architect as any portion of
the fabric of St. Paul's, on account of its extreme economy and durability. It is not further
necessary to describe the building ; but the observations of the architect upon it are of the
utmost value, emanating from such a man, to the church-builders of the present day, if it
be possible to reclaim them from their pasteboard style. " I can hardly think it possible."
says our architect, " to make a single room so capacious, with pews and galleries, as to hold
above two thousand persons, and all to hear the service, and both to hear distinctly and see
the preacher. I endeavoured to effect this in building the parish church of St. James's,
Westminster, which, I presume, is the most capacious, with these qualifications, that hath
yet been built ; and yet at a solemn time, when the church was much crowded, I could
not discern from a gallery that two thousand were present. In this church I mention,
though very broad, and the middle nave arched up, yet as there are no walls of a second
order, nor lanterns, nor buttresses, but the whole roof rests upon the pillars, as do also the
galleries, I think it may be found beautiful and convenient, and, as such, the cheapest of any
form I could invent." On the place of the pulpit in a church of this class, the same architect
continues : " Concerning the placing of the pulpit, I shall observe, a moderate voice may
be heard fifty feet distant before the preacher, thirty feet on each side, and twenty behind
the pulpit ; and not this, unless the pronunciation be distinct and equal, without losing the
voice at the last word of the sentence, which is commonly emphatical, and if obscured
spoils the whole sense. A Frenchman is heard further than an English preacher, because
he raises his voice, and not sinks his last words. I mention this insufferable fault in the
pronunciation of some of our otherwise excellent preachers, which schoolmasters might
correct in the young, as a vicious pronunciation, and not as the Roman orators spoke : for
the principal verb is in Latin usually the last word ; and if that be lost, what becomes of the
sentence ? " Speaking of the dimensions of a church, the following are Wren's own words,
after stating that a proposed church may be 60 feet broad, and 9O feet long, " besides a
chancel at one end, and the belfry and portico at the other." " These proportions," he says,
" may be varied ; but to build more room than that every person may conveniently hear
and see, is to create noise and confusion. A church should not be so filled with pews, but
that the poor may have room enough to stand and sit in the alleys, for to them equally is
the gospel preached. It were to be wished there were to be no pews, but benches ; but
there is no stemming the tide of profit, and the advantage of pew-keepers ; especially, too,
since by pews in the chapels of ease the minister is chiefly supported." We shall close the
section by the following quotation from the same admirable artist. Quaint though the lan-
guage now seem, and simple as the mind of the writer, it is of great value, and would be
respected by any but commissioners for building churches. " As to the situation of the
churches, I should propose they be brought as forward as possible into the larger and more
open streets, not in obscure lanes, nor where coaches will be much obstructed in the passage.
Nor are we, I think, too nicely to observe east or west in the position, unless it falls out
3 E
786 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
properly : such fronts as shall happen to lie most open in view should be adorned with
porticoes, both for beauty and convenience ; which, together with handsome spires or lan-
terns, rising in good proportion above the neighbouring houses, (of which I have given
several examples in the city, of different forms,) may be of sufficient ornament to the town,
without a great expense for enriching the outward walls of the churches, in which plainness
and duration ought principally, if not wholly, to be studied." Such are the common-sense
remarks of a man of whom this country has to be proud, but who died neglected, the com-
mon fate of all artists who do not minister to the vanity of their employers.
2876. Churches are usually constructed on the plan of a Greek cross, which is that
wherein the length of the transverse part, or transept, is equal to that of the nave ; of a
Latin cross, wherein the nave is longer than the transept ; in rotondo, where the plan is
a circle ; simple, where the church has only a nave and choir ; with aisles, when a subdivision
occurs on each side of the nave; and those with aisles, as we have above seen, may have more
than one of such aisles on each side of the nave.
SECT. IV.
PALACES.
2877. We regret that in this country we can offer no model of a palace for the student.
Windsor Castle, with all its beauties, which however consist more in site and scenery than
in the disposition of a palace, will not assist us. A palace is properly an edifice destined
not only for the residence of the sovereign or prince, but for the reception also of persons
who have the privilege of public or private audience. It being impossible for the whole
of the parties to be present together, besides the apartments which are occupied by the
sovereign and his family, there must be ample room and apartments for the attendants in
waiting of every degree, and the consequent accessories. A palace should be disposed with
porticoes, vestibules, galleries, halls of waiting suited to every season, wherein those to be
admitted may wait with convenience and comfort till their turn of admission arrives. It is
evident that, from the nature of such an edifice, much magnificence should be displayed in
it. The palaces of the Escurial, Versailles, and the Tuileries are, though extremely spacious,
and consequently imposing, but ill disposed and imperfect examples of a palace. Perhaps
the most perfect in Europe is that of the King of Naples at Caserta, commenced in 1752, which
is described by Milizia as follows: — " The plan of this palace is a vast rectangle, 731 feet
long from east to west, 569 from north to south, and 106 feet in height. The interior is
divided into four courts, 162 feet by 244. The depth of building that surrounds these
courts, in which are the apartments, passages, &c. , is 80 feet, including the thickness of the
walls, which are in some instances 15 feet. The two principal fa£ades have five stories
besides that below the ground, and each contains thirty-seven windows. There are three
entrances, one in the centre, and the others at equal distances between it and the extreme
angles, where, as well as in the centre, the building breaks forward a little, is carried up to
the height of 60 feet, and formed into pavilions by columns 42 feet high. Thus the whole
height of the building is 102 feet from the foundation to the top of the pavilion, at the
angles 162 feet, and in the centre 190 feet. The basement, which is rusticated, comprises
the lower offices, the ground floor and its mezzanine. Above is placed an Ionic order of
columns and pilasters, which contains the two ranges of state apartments; the lower win-
dows are ornamented with pediments ; in the frieze are introduced the windows of the
upper mezzanine. The centre entrance leads to a superb portico, which traverses the build-
ing from north to south, and is sufficiently spacious to allow carriages to pass under from
either fa§ade to the centre of the building, where is a large octangular vestibule, which
unites the arms of the cross produced by dividing the plan into four courts : two sides of
the octagon are open to the portico, four to the four courts, one to the grand staircase, and
the eighth is occupied by a statue of Hercules crowned by Virtue, with this inscription : —
4 Virtus post fortia facta coronal.' "
2878. " The grand staircase, which is on the right, is lighted by twenty-four windows,
and decorated in a beautiful style. At the first landing it is divided into two flights ; the
hundred steps of which it is composed are 1 8 feet long, and each of one piece of marble ;
it is lighted also from the top by a double skylight. The upper vestibule is also octangular,
and surrounded by twenty-four columns of yellow marble 1 8 feet high. Four doors lead
from thence to the apartments, the one opposite the landing to the chapel, that to the right
to the apartments of the king, which comprehend the south-west angle of the building
overlooking the sea and the plains of Naples and Capua. To the left are the apartments
of the queen, occupying the north-west angle, the remainder of these floors being occupied
by the princes. The chambers throughout are vaulted, and admirably arranged ; the
CHAP. III. GOVERNMENT OFFICES. 787
apartments of the king and queen are separated by a gallery 138 feet long, 42 wide, and
52 high. The palace contains a small elegant theatre, on a circular plan, divided into nine
compartments, with four tiers of boxes. The chapel is rectangular in its plan, with the
end terminated semicircularly, and decorated with isolated Corinthian columns on pedestals,
with an entablature, in which the cornice is not omitted. The marbles and sculptures
throughout are of the richest kind ; the apartments generally well arranged and distributed,
of magnificent dimensions, and of various forms. The whole is a rare assemblage of vast-
ness, regularity, symmetry, richness, ease, and elegance. The multiplicity of windows may
certainly be a little at variance with propriety.
" But the most wonderful part of this grand work has not as yet been described.
There are ranges of aqueducts of a great height, and of sufficient length to unite the two
Tifati mountains near the Furche Caudine. The waters on the mountains are collected
into a canal for the purpose of supplying these aqueducts, and conducted to various lakes
and fountains of every description. To the embellishments," adds Milizia, " of this royal
residence are added a convenience and solidity that throw into shade all that has been done
before or since. " The plans, &c. of this palace may be referred to in Durand's Parallele des
Edifices.
2879. Great as this work is, it would not have eclipsed the palace at Whitehall pro-
jected by Inigo Jones, and published in Kent's Designs, (see Jig. 207., supra,) had the edi-
fice, whereof the banqueting-house is not the hundredth part, been carried to completion.
This palace has already been described in the First Book of this work, in turning to which
the reader will find that the proposed palace consisted of six courts, and, with greater
beauties of composition, would have occupied a much larger site than the palace at Caserta.
2880. We have been diffuse in the description of the last-named palace, because it con-
tains the leading, and, indeed, governing principles, upon which the palace for a sovereign
should be constructed ; and from the description, the student might almost be at once led
to the design of such an edifice.
2881. The designs which Bernini made at the request of Louis XIV., instigated, no
doubt, by his minister Colbert, (for they were both of them lovers and patrons of the fine
arts,) for uniting the Tuileries and Louvre, would, had they been executed, added another
palace to which the student might have been referred for information on the subject of
palaces. They may be seen in Durand's " Parallel " above mentioned, and, we think, will bear
out the propriety of reference ; and we fully agree with Le Grand, except in the inflated
language he adopts, that " Le gouvernement qui attachera son nom a cette execution sera
proclame grand dans la posterite ; il honorera la nation par les arts en reunissant ainsi les
beautes eparses, incompletes de ces deux palais, pour n'en former qu'un seul, il s'assurera
la gloire d'effacer par cette merveille celles dont, excepte les pyramides d'Egyptes 1'ex-
istence n'est plus que dans 1'histoire."
2882. It is almost unnecessary to observe, that the site on which a palace is to be seated
must be open and free in every respect, that a large expanse of gardens should be attached
to it for the use of the public as well as the sovereign, in which respect the palaces of the
Tuileries and Versailles are unparalleled. All should have a royal bearing, parsimony
being inadmissible in works of this nature.
SECT. V.
GOVERNMENT OFFICES.
2883. The offices of government should be designed consistently as regards their distri-
bution and magnificence, with some respect to the power and importance of the nation for
whose use they are to be constructed. Whilst on the Continent, and especially in Paris,
some of the finest examples of art provide for the convenience of the different depart-
ments, the only building that can be named here in this respect are the offices at Somerset
House, built by the late Sir W. Chambers. And herein so mean and indifferent to the
arts has of late been every set of ministers in this country, that but for the appropriation of
the eastern part of the site to a joint-stock college, it is probable the river front would
never have been finished.
2884. The nature of the disposition of government buildings must of course depend on
the particular department, for which the building is destined, full information on which
must be had in every particular before the architect can begin to imagine the building to
be designed. The most ample space should be allotted to them, and no rooms for the per-
formance of the duties attached to the department should be allowed above the first story
over the ground floor. The public, indeed, ought not to have to ascend or descend even
one flight of steps. The access to the different apartments should be spacious and easy ;
3 E 2
788 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
the quadrangles, where they are necessary, should be ample, so as to afford abundance of
light and air ; porticoes should be provided for the shelter of the public who have to
transact business, and the fa9ades should be in a broad simple style.
2885. Without intending any affection for the fanciful style adopted by their architect,
we would, in this country, point to the mode in which the offices at the Bank of England
were disposed and planned by the late Sir John Soane, and the beautiful method of
lighting, as highly valuable studies for the architect. The skill here exhibited by him, if"
not obscured by his successors, and the restless desire of change that the directors seem to
exhibit, will be lasting monuments of that architect's ability, however disfigured his designs
may have been by the caprice of their ornaments.
2886. The splendour of the government offices in this country seems, in every case, to
be in an inverse ratio to the renown of the department. Thus, let the Admiralty be the
example for consideration, and it would be difficult to decide which was worst, the interior
or the exterior. On the Treasury jumble of buildings, it would be difficult to bestow a
serious word. If the country be too poor to accomplish all the works at once which would
be necessary for putting us in possession of buildings worthy the country, surely designs
on a proper scale for rebuilding all these edifices might be made, and rigidly adhering to
the designs approved after due consideration, portions might be annually executed, so as to
distribute the outlay over a series of years. But we regret to say that we fear any hints
under this section will be thrown away, while political parties are contending for power,
and consider the comfort of the public and the promotion of the fine arts subjects of com-
parative insignificance. The source of the evil is in the nature of the constitution ; and
though, speaking as Englishmen, we do not wish to see that changed, yet we think a little
more absolute power, under which there is invariably less jobbing, would be in some mea-
sure beneficial to the arts.
2887. We have hinted that there is no government building to which we should wish to
refer the reader, Somerset House excepted. In Paris he will find an abundance of exam-
ples. The Admiralty there, a recent building of the most simple exterior, on which there
are neither dolphins, tridents, nor anchors, as in that near Charing Cross, is a stupendous
mass of building, well calculated for the narrow street in which it stands, to which it im-
parts unmeasured dignity. The Garde Meuble, as it was formerly called, in the Place de
la Concorde (formerly de Louis XV.) is one of the most beautiful compositions in Europe.
This is, perhaps, an example rather too florid for imitation (we do not mean in lines, but
in spirit) in this country, though it is known that a well and richly-designed building
costs little, if any, more than a bad, ill- digested one. The Mint of Paris is another of the
French government offices worthy of the nation. But we need not multiply the instances,
Paris being now almost as well known to the Englishman as London itself. It is, how-
ever, to be recollected that in France all the government buildings are of as much interest
to the government in the provinces as in its metropolis, and that the great hospital at
Lyons, by Soufflot, is not surpassed in Europe. In England, we know not one that ap-
proaches it.
SECT. VI.
COURTS OF LAW.
2888. A court of law in this country, speaking in more senses than one, but chiefly,
here, to preserve the gravity of our work architecturally, is a building in which every one,
whose business unfortunately leads him to it, sits in pain, the judges and counsel excepted.
Attorneys, witnesses, jury, and audit-nee, or public, are equally doomed to be pent up and
cramped like the poor sheep at Smithfield, or a sailor in the bilboes, if that punishment be
still in existence. The practice is infamous and inexcusable ; it originates not with the
architect, but with the government, which affords neither space nor money for the erection
of courts suitable to the administration of justice, though the public are, by a pleasing
assumption of the administrators of the laws, supposed to know all the decisions that take
place in them, and treated by an answer to those that plead ignorance, which, but from
the little of their proceedings that oozes out by that useful organ, the public press, would
really be the case — " Ignorantia non excusat legem." It came out in evidence before a
committee of the House of Commons on the late rebuilding of the courts at Westminster,
that Sir John Soane, their architect, was told by a chief of one of the courts then pro-
posed to be built and since executed, that his court, as planned, would be quite large
enough to hold all that had any business there; rather a strange dictum for a personage
whose duty, sitting on the judgment-seat, was to tell the people that their unaffected
ignorance of the laws he was sworn to administer was no excuse for violating the law
which might bring them before him.
CHAP. III. TOWN HALLS. 789
2889. We have thus prefaced our short observations on this section for the purpose of
impressing on the mind of the architect who may be called on to furnish designs in the
provinces (for in London there is not much chance of his employment on such an occa-
sion), that there are other persons who have equal right to as good accommodation as the
judges and the bar, who are extremely well paid for the duties they perform ; the parties
to which we allude being the jury who are to decide upon the evidence, the witnesses from
whom such evidence is derived, the attorneys whose instructions to counsel are from instant
to instant necessary for the proper conduct of a case, and, though last not least, the public,
who have an undoubted right to be present, not only because they are entitled to instruct
themselves, as the axiom requires, that they may not be ignorant of the law, but because,
in this country, the conduct of the judge himself may be open to public opinion, and his
character properly transmitted to posterity, and estimated by the public.
2890. After the foregoing remarks, we apprehend it will be scarcely necessary to
impress on the mind of the architect the importance of providing an ample space for the
audience or public, rooms for jurymen in waiting, and full space for the latter when they
are placed in what is called their box, so that the pain of the body may not distract the
mind from the evidence of the witnesses and the charge of the judge. The artist, therefore,
must be careful to supply such accommodation as shall render the office of all parties
engaged a pleasing duty rather than an irksome task.
2891. To every court of law should be attached a large vestibule or salon, sufficiently
large to afford a promenade for those of all classes engaged in the courts. In Westminster,
bad as the courts are, this is well provided in the magnificent room called Westminster
Hall, to which had the courts that open on it been in character our opening observations
had been spared. It is almost needless to observe that apartments and accommodation are
to be provided for the robing and occasional refreshment of the judges, the bar, and the
different officers attached to the court. In courts for the trial of felons it may be ne-
cessary, if the prison has no communication with the court, to add some few cells for
securing criminals. This, however, will be dependent on the circumstance mentioned, and
should be provided accordingly.
2892. In these, as in other buildings where there is often congregated a great number of
persons, the entrances, and at the same time outlets, should be increased in number as much
as convenience and the situation will permit ; and another indispensable requisite is, that
the court itself should be so placed in the design that no noise created on the outside of
the building may be heard in the interior, so as to interfere with the attention of those
engaged on the business before them.
2893. In the provinces the observations we have made may be of some use to the
student, and on this ground we have thought it our duty to offer them.
SECT. VII.
TOWN HALLS.
2894. The town hall of a city or town will necessarily vary with their extent and
opulence. In towns of small extent it should stand in the market-place ; indeed, in a
large proportion of the towns of this country the ground floor is usually on columns, and
forms the corn market of the place, the upper floor being generally sufficiently spacious for
transacting its municipal business. Where the sessions or assizes, as in pities, are held in
the town hall, it is necessary to provide two courts, one for the civil and the other for the
criminal trials ; and in this case the observations on courts of law in the preceding section
equally apply to this in that respect.
2895. In cities and corporations where much municipal business occurs, the number of
apartments must of course be increased to meet the exigencies of the particular case ; and,
if possible, a large hall should be provided for the meetings of the corporation. A certain
appearance of its being the property of the public is the character to be imparted to it, and
this character must be stamped on the disposition as well as the elevation. Thus, on the
ground floor of the first class of town halls, courts, porticoes, or arcades, and spacious stair-
cases should prepare for and lead to the large apartments and courts of law on the first
floor. Every means should be employed in providing ample ingress and egress to the
persons assembling. Fire-proof rooms, moreover, should be always provided for the
records and accounts belonging to the town. The exterior of the building should not be
highly decorated, but designed with simplicity, yet with majesty, as it is an index to the
wealth and importance of the place for whose use it is erected.
2896. For the disposition of these buildings the student may turn with profit to the
examples abroad, in which, generally, apartments are provided for every branch of the
3 E 3
790 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
government of the city. Durand, in his Parallels des Edifices, has given several examples,
among which that of the city of Brussels is a beautiful instance of the application of
Gothic to town architecture. It was commenced at the beginning and finished in the
middle of the fifteenth century, having a tower and spire which, together, rise upwards of
360 feet from the level of the place. The interior of this edifice presents all the accom-
modations which are required for a municipality ; and the principal facade, though a little
disfigured by the tower not rising in the centre of it, is composed with great unity,
harmony, and simplicity. Though rich, the ornaments are introduced with great order and
symmetry, and the system of design pervading the front is by pyramidal masses, whose
effect is exceedingly light though bold.
2897. The most celebrated of town halls in Europe is that of Amsterdam, erected
during the first half of the seventeenth century by Van Campen. The design is given in
Durand's ParalUle, and also forms the subject of a volume, in folio, published in Holland ;
the cost of its erection was more than thirty millions of florins, and the fabric stands, they
say, on 13,659 piles, which were required from the marshy nature of the ground. The
plan is nearly a square ; it is 282 feet long and 255 feet wide, and its height is 1 1 6 feet.
To describe the disposition of the plan would be impossible ; it can only be comprehended
by reference to it. The ground story in the principal fa9ade forms the basement on which
rises an order of Corinthian pilasters, containing two ranges of windows ; then an en-
tablature, and above that a repetition of similar pilasters, containing two ranges of windows.
The latter are simple, having no ornament except a festoon between each range. At the
angles are two pavilions, ornamented with four pilasters, and in the centre one with eight,
which projects forward a little. On this a pediment rises ornamented with historical bas
reliefs, and thereover, more distant, is an elegant cupola for the clock. Instead of one large
principal entrance there are seven small ones, alluding, as it is said, to the seven united
provinces ; and it is also pleasantly said that the smallness of the provinces are typical of the
smallness of the doors.
2898. We cannot, however, laud the composition of this building, which, by the way,
encloses the bank and public treasury. Its merit consists mainly in the disposition of the
plan, the restraint in decoration, and the good construction of the work, whilst its im-
posing effect results from its magnitude as a mass. The use of the Corinthian and Composite
orders for such a building was almost an abuse, for their proportions vary so little from
each other as almost to create confusion between the two. Again, the similarity of the
subdivision in the two stories, each divided into two ranks of windows, produces a cold
monotony. The windows too, without architraves, have an effect as mean as the festoons
which are introduced between the windows are insipid. Neither will the excuse given for
the seven small doors justify the introduction of such poverty in a building whose dimen-
sions are so great, besides their appearance seeming to give strength to the impression that
they are only entrances to the basement story. The student, on the subject of town halls,
may be referred also to those of Antwerp and Maestricht and Louvain. And here we cannot
refrain from alluding to the works we noticed but a little time past in the restoration, and
indeed completion, of the Hotel de Ville at Paris, first commenced in 1533 on the designs of
Fran£ois de Cortonne, in what is now called the style of the renaissance. The additions
which became necessary in consequence of the extended business of the city are executing in
the same style, and will present one of the most picturesque features of the city. Such an
occasion as this is a legitimate one for the employment of the style of the renaissance, and
not in the trumpery stuff that appears in this country, without any solid reason for its
adoption. The interior of this building, with its court or quadrangle, is not without
grandeur ; and the interior distribution of it, with its beautiful staircase, is a sufficient
proof that what the Germans and their admirers now denominate "aesthetics" in art was
well understood and practised in Italy, France, and even England, on the renaissance, whilst
their country, as respects architecture, was in a state of barbarism. We regret we have
not the opportunity of referring to any town hall in England which meets in all respects
what we deem the requisites of such a building. We do not say that none such exist,
only that it has not come to our knowledge.
SECT. VIII.
COLLEGES.
2899. A college, which is an establishment for the education of young men, generally
consists in this country of one or more courts or quadrangles, round which are disposed the
rooms for the students, with the chapel, library, and eating hall ; apartments for the head
of the establishment and for the fellows ; a combination room, which is a spacious apart-
CHAP. III. COLLEGES. 791
ment, wherein the latter assemble after dinner ; kitchen, buttery, and other domestic offices,
laitrines, gardens, &c.
2900. In these particulars, we are speaking of English habits, for on the Continent the
college is quite a different sort of thing. As, however, we consider the best instruction to
the student will be concise information on those which exist, we shall shortly mention the
most celebrated abroad and in England.
2901. At Rome, the college formerly that of the Jesuits, now the Roman College, is a
very large edifice, simple in character, as this species of building seems to demand. Its
length is 328 feet, and its height, without the attic, 87 feet. Two large gateways are placed
in the middle compartment, and form the entrances to the building. In these there is
nothing particularly to admire, nor in the fa9ade generally, which is encumbered, from the
nature of the edifice, with a great number of windows. The great quadrangle is, however,
one of the finest in Rome, consisting of two stories of arcades, a distribution particularly
applicable to buildings of this class, and which we are surprised has never found adoption
in this country. In these galleries the different classes or lecture rooms are placed, under
their divisions of literae humaniores, rhetoric, and philosophy. Had the building been
finished as Ammanati designed it, there would not have been in Italy a finer structure nor
one more suitable to its destination. It has, by the alterations from the original plan, been
much cut up ; yet it is a magnificent pile of building, consisting of corridors, dormitories,
gardens, refectories, and other accessories, which, with the church which forms a part of
the plan, occupy a circuit of upwards of 1 500 feet. The other buildings in Rome which
pass under the name of colleges are not to be considered as establishments for education,
being destined to the study of theology and other sciences : such are the Propaganda and
the Sapienza, which last is one of the finest modern buildings of the eternal city.
2902. At Genoa is a magnificent college, which was formerly the palace of the Balbi
family, by whom it was given to the Jesuits for a place of education ; but, from the
original destination of the building, it possesses none of the essential character which be-
longs to an edifice of this class.
2903. Paris, we believe, still contains nine colleges, hardly one whereof, says the author
of the article " College" in the Encyclopedic Methodique, deserves notice. The same writer
says that in England alone are found examples of what a college ought to be ; and from
all that we have seen on the Continent, we believe him to have come thereon to a correct
conclusion.
2904. The universities of Oxford and Cambridge furnish a study for the architect in
this class of building nowhere else to be found ; and though the greater part of their
colleges are extremely irregular in plan, they are generally convenient in disposition and
highly picturesque in effect. In Oxford, the most regular in plan is Queen's College, and
this is of modern construction, having been commenced as late as 1710, and in the Italian
style. We are not, however, about to describe the style, which is not an example for study,
but the disposition of the building. The principal front stands towards the High Street.
The whole site on which the college stands is 300 feet by 220, which is divided by the
chapel and hall on the right and left of the intervening building into two spacious courts.
The south court, which is that nearest the street, is 140 feet long and 130 broad, having an
arcade round it on the south, east, and west sides. Over that on the west side are two
stories, which contain the apartments of the fellows, those of the provost, and a gallery
communicating with the hall and common or combination room. The east side, which is
uniform with that on the west, comprises the apartments for students of the society, and on
the north side are the chapel and hall. The south side of the court or quadrangle has no
dwelling in it, but is composed of a decorated wall, in whose centre is the great entrance,
above whose arch an open cupola stands upon columns, and under the cupola the statue of
Queen Caroline, the consort of George II. The interior court or north quadrangle is
130 feet by 90. On the north, east, and south sides are provided apartments for the members
of the society, and the west is occupied by the library : the entrance to it is by a passage
between the hall and chapel. The dimensions of the hall are 60 by 30 feet ; those of the
chapel are necessarily, as to width, the same, but it is 100 feet long. The library, which
was completed earlier than the rest of the building, is 1 23 feet long and 30 feet broad.
That the student may form an idea of the accommodation afforded on the site described, it
may be taken as holding about 170 persons, including the provost and fellows, whose
apartments, of course, occupy a considerable portion of the space. Hawksmoor is, as we
believe, the architect; certainly, as far as we can judge, not Sir Christopher Wren, to whom
some have attributed it.
2905. We have no intention to pursue the description of the colleges in either of the
universities. We have selected the above as a model of disposition only, because, as we
have hinted, it is in very bad taste : so bad, indeed, in that respect, as to be a model for
avoidance. We shall, however, give a few more memoranda as to the parts of colleges in
existence, here merely observing that a bed and sitting room, both of moderate dimensions,
are as much as can be afforded to the students of the establishment.
3 E 4
792 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
2906. Of the colleges in Oxford, Christchurch is past question the most magnificent.
Its extent, towards the street, is 400 feet. Its hall is 1 1 5 feet long, 40 feet broad, and 50
feet in height, and the entrance to it is by a very noble staircase. The chapel is the
cathedral of Oxford, and is 1 54 feet long, and the breadth, including aisles, 54 feet. The
great quadrangle is nearly 280 feet square, and this communicates with another called
Peckwater quadrangle, of considerable dimensions, in which, on the south side, stands the
noble library of the college, the upper room whereof is 141 feet long, 30 feet broad, and
37 feet high. At the side of and adjoining the last are the Canterbury quadrangle and Fell's
Buildings, and on the other side the chaplain's quadrangle. What is called the Christ-
church Meadow, attached, affords the most delightful walks for the exercise and recreation
of the members, being bounded on the east by the Cherwell, on the south by the Isis, and
on the west by a branch of the same river. The whole establishment is worthy of the
princely founder, whose spirit seems still to reign in the conduct of those connected with
it. Such a magnificent foundation cannot elsewhere be referred to.
2907. In Cambridge, the library and court of Trinity College, the former one of the
finest works of Wren, and the extraordinary and beautiful chapel of King's College, are
the principal features of the university. There are also some beautiful pieces of architec-
tural composition ; but as there is nothing we could select as a model for a college, which
is the principal object of the section, we do not consider it necessary to detain the reader
by an account of them. We may, however, mention that the chapel of King's College is
316 feet long, 84 feet broad, and 90 feet from the ground to the top of the battlements.
Corpus Christi College is, perhaps, the last college in either of the universities that has
been rebuilt; but in disposition, and most especially in design, it is rather an index
rerum vitandarum than a model we should recommend to the student's attention.
SECT. IX.
PUBLIC LIBRARIES.
2908. Although a public library would seem to require a grave and simple style of
treatment, it is, nevertheless, properly susceptible of much richness, if the funds admit, and
it comports with the surrounding buildings to use much decoration. A public library
may be considered as the treasury of public knowledge ; indeed its treasures are even
more important to society than the public treasures of gold and silver. It is also to be
considered as a temple consecrated to study. Security against fire is the first important
consideration in its construction ; indeed that point ought to be deemed indispensable ;
and the next consideration for the accomplishment of its purpose is quietness. The
first requires that no materials except stone, brick, and iron should be employed in the
walls, floors, and roofs ; and the last, that it should stand far removed from a public
thoroughfare. Within, especially in this climate, there can scarcely be too much light,
because there are always modes of excluding the excess in the brightest days of our short
summers ; and in the dark days of our winters no such excess can occur. Neither should
the light be placed high up for the purpose of obtaining more room for the presses which
are to receive the books, because even a greater space may be obtained, as in the magni-
ficent library at Trinity College, Cambridge, by Wren, by making the presses stand against
the piers at right angles with the longitudinal walls, and placing the windows between
them. Moreover, the presses, when placed longitudinally against the walls, the windows
being above, have the titles of the books they contain indistinct, from being too much in
shadow. The library just mentioned is in every respect one of the finest works of Sir
Christopher Wren. It stands on an open arcade, at the north end whereof is a vestibule,
whence the ascent is by a spacious staircase to the library itself, which is 20O feet long,
40 feet wide, and 38 feet high, flooied with marble, and decorated with pilasters and an
entablature of the Corinthian order. Though this library is of no mean extent, we do not
adduce it as an example of a large public library suited to a nation, but as a perfect model
of the mode of distribution, which might be carried in principle to any extent. If the
readers be very numerous, a reading room, of course, becomes necessary, which should be
placed as centrally as may be to the whole mass of building, so that the labour of the
attendants may be lessened, and the readers at the same time more readily served with the
books wanting. The best mode of warming the apartments is by a furnace and boilers, not
at all adjoining to or communicating with the building, but by carrying pipes round the
apartments or in the floor, through which pipes a constant circulation of the boiling liquid
is kept up, and from which a radiation of the heat takes place.
2909- The most ancient and celebrated library in existence is that of the Vatican ; in the
latter respect, as well on account of its size as of the number of valuable manuscripts it con-
CHAP. III. MUSEUMS. 793
tains : it occupies in the suite of its apartments one of the sides of the Vatican 900 feet
in length. The presses containing the books are decorated with the finest specimens of
Etruscan vases. The long gallery terminates at one end by the Museum Christianum and
the Stanza de' Papyri, and at the other end by the new museum, with which it communi-
cates by a marble staircase. The ante-salon to the library is about 200 feet long and about
87 wide. In the architecture or arrangement there is nothing particularly to admire, and
indeed it was not originally intended for the purpose to which it has been appropriated.
2910. We do not think it necessary to stop the reader for an account of the Medicean
library at Florence though the work of Michael Angelo. Its proportions are grand, but the
dctavls are as capricious as that great man could possibly have invented ; but of the library
of St. Mark at Venice we entertain the greatest admiration. We have already described
this in the First Book when speaking of the Venetian school. Notwithstanding the diffi-
culties that Sansovino had to encounter in respect of its site and connection with other
buildings, which restricted the design in the facade, because of the height of the adjoining
Procurazie Fecchie, and the width of the ground ; — notwithstanding all these, and the jea-
lousy of his enemies superadded, Palladio considered the success of it to have been so great
as to have made it worthy of any age.
291 1. The splendid collection of books at Paris, containing 900,000 and upwards printed
volumes, called the Bibliotheque du Roi, is, speaking architecturally, though of immense
extent, little more than a warehouse for holding the books : that, however, of the abbey of
St. Genevieve in the same city, though containing less than a quarter of the number just
mentioned of printed volumes and 30,OOO MSS., is a well-conceived and well-designed
building, and particularly suited to its destination. The plan is that of a large Greek cross,
which affords on the plan four large halls, connected by a central circular apartment crowned
with a dome.
2912. Perhaps one of the most absurd distributions of plan for the buildings under
consideration is to be seen in the Radcliffe Library at Oxford. It is circular on the plan,
and hence vast loss of room is experienced ; but we do not think it necessary further to
enter into its demerits, merely stating here that it was unworthy of Gibbs, who in most of
his works exhibited great good sense.
SECT. X.
2913. A museum is a building destined to the reception of literary or scientific curiosities,
and for that of the works of learned men and artists. The term was first applied to that
part of the palace at Alexandria appropriated solely to the purpose of affording an asylum
for learned men ; it contained buildings and groves of considerable magnificence, and a
temple wherein was a golden coffin containing the body of Alexander. Men of learning
were here lodged and accommodated with large halls for literary conversations, and porticoes
and shady walks, where, supplied with every necessary, they devoted themselves entirely to
study. The establishment is supposed to have been founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus,
who here placed his library. It was divided into colleges or companies of professors of the
several sciences, and to each of such professors was allotted a suitable revenue. Museums,
in the modern sense of the word, began to be established about the sixteenth century, when-
collections were formed by most of the learned men who studied natural history.
2914. Museums on a small scale are becoming every day more common in the principal
towns of this country, and we hope the day is not distant when none will be without its
collections of science, literature, and art. Where economy requires it, and the collection in
each department be not too large, the whole may be properly and conveniently comprised
within one building. In respect of security against fire, and quietness of the situation, the
same precautions will be necessary as are indicated for libraries in the preceding section,
and must always be observed.
2915. Great skill is necessary in introducing the light properly on the objects in a
museum, inasmuch as the mode of throwing the light upon objects of natural history is
very different from that which is required for pictures, and this, again, from what sculpture
requires.
2916. Specimens illustrating natural history, sculpture, vases, and the like, should, if pos-
sible, be lighted vertically ; and we have seen in subsec. 2774., where reference is made to
the light introduced into the Pantheon, how very small an opening jn a spherical ceiling will
produce abundance of light. There are subjects, nevertheless, in all these classes, (in
mineralogy for example,) for which strong side lights are essential to an advantageous
exhibition of them. In such cases small recesses may be practised for the purpose. At the
794 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
Hotel de Monnaies at Paris, the presses which contain the collection of mineralogy form a
circle which encloses a small lecture theatre, and thus become doubly serviceable. We
mention this en passant that the student may be aware how room is to be gained when the
area of a site is restricted. Picture galleries in a museum, as elsewhere by themselves,
when containing large paintings, should be lighted from above. In this case the lights
should be in square or polygonal tambours, whose sashes should be vertical or slightly
inclined inwards, their forms following the form on the plan of the rooms. The noble
pictures of Paul Veronese at the Louvre could not be seen with side lights. For small
cabinet pictures side lights are well adapted to their display. Every one will recollect
how miserably lighted for exhibiting the pictures is the long gallery of the Louvre ; the
same may be said, though not to so great an extent, of the collection of sculpture, whilst
the models and other objects, paintings excepted, in the Vieux Louvre, are exhibited to
perfection.
2917. Where the same museum is to contain several classes of objects the suites of rooms
for the different departments should be accessible from some central one common to all :
this may be circular or polygonal, as may best suit the arrangement and means ; and, if
possible from the site, the building should not consist of more than one story above the
ground ; on no account of more than two.
2918. For the objects it contains we question whether the British Museum is surpassed,
as a whole, in Europe ; and those of the Vatican, of the Uffizj at Florence, of Portici, and
of Paris, are none of them of sufficient architectural importance to detain the reader by de-
scription ; neither would they, if so described, be useful to the student as models. At
Munich the Glyptotek for sculpture, and the Pinacotek for pictures, are in some respects
well suited to the exhibition of the objects deposited in them, better, indeed, than is the
museum at Berlin. These have all been much praised by persons of incompetent judg-
ment as specimens of fine architecture ; but we cannot recommend the study of them to any
one who is desirous of acquiring a pure taste in the art, nor indeed any other works of the
modern German school.
2919 In the composition of museums decoration must not be exuberant. It must be
kept in the interior so far subordinate as not to interfere with the objects to be exhibited,
which are the principal features of the place. With this caution we do not preclude the
requisite degree of richness which the architecture itself requires. Using the shorthand of
the previous chapter -o-, the Greek cross, connected by a dome in the centre, for the
great hall of communication, is perhaps as good a form for a museum on a small scale as
could be adopted : however, this is a matter which would form an admirable exercise for
the student.
SECT. XI.
OBSERVATORIES.
2920. We had great doubts upon the admission of this section, not because of its want
of importance, but because we can scarcely bring ourselves to the conviction that traversing
domes for equatorial instruments and chases in a roof for fixed ones can be ever united with
beauty of design. The observatory at Paris, from the designs of Perrault, is a noble
building, but, we believe, is universally admitted to be very ill suited to the purposes for
which it was built. Hence we shall be brief in what we have to say under this section.
2921. A regular observatory is one where instruments are fixed in the meridian, whereby,
with the assistance of astronomical clocks, the right ascensions and declinations of the
heavenly bodies are determined, and thus motion, time, and space are converted into
measures of each other. On the observations and determinations made in such establish-
ments they are therefore, to maritime states, of vital importance, and ought to be liberally
endowed by their governments. As the subject will be better understood by a plan, we
subjoin, in. fig. 1031., a plan and elevation of the observatory at Edinburgh. The general
form of the plan, as will be therein seen, is a Greek cross, 62 feet long, terminated at its
feet by projecting hexastyle porticoes, which are 28 feet in front, and surmounted by
pediments. The intersecting limbs of the cross at their intersection are covered by a dome
1 3 feet diameter, which traverses round horizontally, and under its centre a pier of solid
masonry is brought up of a conical form 6 feet in diameter at the base, and 1 9 feet high.
This is intended either for an astronomical circle or for an equatorial instrument for obser-
vations of the heavenly bodies made out of the meridian. In the eastern foot of the cross (bb)
are stone piers for the reception of the transit instrument ; c is the stone pier to which the
transit clock is attached ; and d is a stone piece on which an artificial horizon may be
placed, when observations are taken by reflection : this is covered by a floor board when
CHAP. ill.
OBSERVATORIES.
795
Fig. 10 31
not in use, being just under the level of the floor ; act are the slits or chases running through
the walls and roof, but closeable by means of shutters when the observation is completed. On
the western side (ee) are chases as in the transit room; /a large stone pier for the reception
of a mural circle ; g the clock pier ; h the pier for an artificial horizon as before ; i is the
conical pier above mentioned, over which the moveable dome is placed, having an opening
(T) in the elevation for the purpose of observation ; k is the observer's room ; and m the
front entrance.
2922. It is to be especially observed that the piers for the reception of the instruments
must not be in any way connected with the walls of the building ; they should stand on the
firmest possible foundation, which, if at all doubtful, must be formed with concrete, and the
piers should, if possible, be out of a single block of stone ; but if that cannot be obtained,
the beds must be kept extremely thin ; partial settlement being ruinous to the nicety of the
instruments as well as to the observer's business. The observation applies also to the
clock piers, all vibration and settlement being injurious also to them. At the Campden
Hill observatory, near Kensington, belonging to Sir James South, there is a traversing
dome 30 feet diameter in the clear.
2923. A dry situation should be chosen for the site, for, except in the computing rooms,
no fire heat can be allowed ; and it is important that the brass whereof the instruments are
made should not be corroded by the action of moisture. In large public observatories
there should be the readiest access from one part to another, and rooms for a library and
computers independent of the chief astronomer's room.
796 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
" SECT. XII.
LIGHTHOUSES.
2924. It may perhaps be thought that we are touching on the province of the engineer
in devoting a section to lighthouses ; but we cannot forego the completion of the pre-
vious section by some few observations on lighthouses, which are the handmaids to the
important results which flow from observatories, being the spots which verify the course of
the navigator, and serve as precautions for his guidance when near the shores of a country.
2925. The lighthouse dates from the earliest period; and without entering into the
question whether the ancient lighthouses were dedicated to the gods, or whether the
towers erected for the purpose of warning the mariner were nautical colleges, where
astronomy and the art of navigation were perfectly taught, we may at once proceed to
state that in the earliest times they appear to have consisted of a tower of masonry, some-
times of a circular form, but usually square, and consisting of various apartments, as the
establishment was greater or less, wherein was a raised altar upon which the beacon was
established.
2926. Those who wish to pursue the history of the lighthouse must be referred by us
to Jacob Bryant, whose theory is so pleasant that to it we must apply the old Italian
saying, " Se non £ vero e ben trovato." We therefore leave the reader to consult our author
on the subject of the purait or fire-towers. So also we shall not touch upon their per-
version, nor the alleged dissoluteness and barbarity of the priests and priestesses who had
the care of them, which we believe to be fables.
2927. Certain however it is that the whole of the ancient establishment of fire-towers or
lighthouses at an early period common on the shores of the Mediterranean, the Archi-
pelago, the Bosphorus, and Red Sea, have long since disappeared. Among the most
celebrated of these was the Pharos of Alexandria, which has given its name in French
and Italian to all lighthouses. It was accounted one of the seven wonders of the world,
and, in history at least, has perpetuated the glory and name of its founder, Ptolemy Phila-
delphus. If Pliny may be relied on, it was the work of Sostratus, 300 years before the
Christian aera, and bore an inscription to the following effect : " Sostratus the Gnidian, the
son of Dexiphanes, to the gods preservers, for the benefit of those who use the sea."
Lucian, however, says that this inscription was craftily covered with plaster, on which the
name of Ptolemy was inscribed, but that the decay of the plaster left the name of Sostratus
only. The story is however improbable, and is dependent entirely on the authority of the
satirist. The dimensions of this building are not satisfactorily known : some have said
its height was 300 cubits, or 100 times the height of a man, which would assign to it a
height of 550 feet. On its top a fire was constantly kept, which, according to Josephus, was
seen at the distance of three hundred stadia, equal to about forty-two British miles, which
is a reasonable account ; but those who have delighted in marvellous stories have made the
distance one hundred miles, and others have wonderfully gone beyond the last by assigning
seven hundred miles as the distance, from which the speculum used distributed light !
That this work was one of extraordinary magnificence cannot be doubted; the cost has been
stated at 800 talents (300,OOOZ. sterling) ; and there is reason to suppose that it was quasi
the parent of all others : but all we have said must be taken with great allowance, except
that we believe it was a splendid monument of the time.
2928. We have thus far extended in this case our observations, not perhaps in very
strict accordance with the plan of this chapter, which relates rather to principles than
history ; and the only excuse we offer is, that we know not where in our work they might
have been more appropriately introduced. We perhaps may not better satisfy the reader
in what follows ; which, from the nature of the subject, must be more instructive from what
has been actually executed than from the general principles upon which the construction
of a lighthouse depends.
2929. The most architectural of modern lighthouses is that of Corduan on the coast of
France, which stands on a large rock, or rather on a low island, about three miles from land,
at the entrance of the river Garonne. Like that of Alexandria, this lighthouse seems to
have been intended for the commemoration of an aera in the history of France from the
eminent utility of the building and the magnificence of its structure. Founded about the
year 1584, in the reign of Henry II. king of France, it was carried on under the reigns
of three successive monarchs, arriving at its completion in 1610, in the reign of Henry IV.
It stands upon a platform of solid masonry, and is surrounded by a parapet about 145
feet in diameter, which is equal to the height. The lightkeepers' apartments and store
rooms are not in the main tower, but form a detached range of buildings on the great
platform, the interior of the tower itself being finished in a style of magnificence top
splendid for the use of common persons. Over the fuel cellar, which is formed in the
solid masonry of the platform, is the great hall, 22 feet square. 20 feet high, with an arched
CHAP. III.
SLAUGHTER-HOUSES.
797
ceiling. On this floor are two wardrobes and other conveniences. Above the last-men-
tioned room is the king's room, 21 feet square and 20 high, with an elliptical ceiling,
There are on this floor a vestibule, two wardrobes, and other conveniences. On the third
floor is placed the chapel, for a priest who occasionally says mass is attached to the esta-
blishment, and this is 21 feet in diameter, domed, and 40 feet high, and lighted by eight
windows. There is an eye in the dome through which is seen the ornamental roof of the
room above, and that is 14 feet diameter and 27 feet high. This is used by the lightkeepers
as a watch room. Over it rises an apartment, which is immediately under the light room,
used for holding sufficient fuel for one night's consumption, and capable itself of being
converted into a place for the exhibition of a light in case of repairs being required to any
extent in the main light room, which, as we have said, is immediately over it, and is
surrounded by a balcony and circular stone parapet. The height from the floor to the top of
the cupola of the original lantern or light room was 1 7 feet, and being unglazed, the smoke
was carried out on either side in the direction of the wind. The roof, moreover, formed a
kind of chimney in the form of a spire, terminating with a ball. The height of the light
room, which was entirely of stone, was 31 feet from the light room floor to the ball on the
top of the spire. The fuel first used for the light was oak, after which pit coal was in-
troduced ; but in modern times lamps and reflectors have succeeded the last, and the light
is now seen at a proper distance.
2930. In England the student may turn to the Eddystone lighthouse, by the celebrated
Smeaton, not only as an object of great beauty, but of
that soundness of construction, which is the most essen-
tial requisite in works of this kind. The general form is
seen in fig. 1032. This is a fine illustration of fitness
producing beauty. The resistance it affords against the
waves arises from the beautiful curved line which leads
them up it instead of being broken against it. Indeed,
in stormy weather, the waves actually roll up the side,
and fall in a contrary curve over the top of the light-
house. The beds of the masonry are so laid and dove-
tailed and joggled into the rock itself as to become a
part of it. The foundation stone of it was laid on the
12th of June, 1757, and it was first lighted on the 16th
of October, 1759. A narrative of the work was pub-
lished by Mr. Smeaton, to which for detail the reader
is referred. The two lower stories are used as store
rooms ; the next above serves for the kitchen, above
which is the bedroom, over which is the light room.
2931. Thus, we see, there is no reason why lighthouses
should not be beautifully formed structures, instead of
absurd misshapen masses of masonry, as they generally
are. The attempt to make them resemble columns is
intolerable ; they should possess, according to the dif-
ferent situations, a character peculiar to themselves :
hence the application of a column for the purpose is
the worst of abuses. The North Foreland lighthouse,
whose plan is polygonal, would be a good example had
the details been properly attended to in the design. We
do not here touch upon the mode of lighting, which
has of late years occupied much attention, having con-
sidered the duty of the architect performed when he Fig. icwa.
has provided a beautiful, lasting, and secure fabric for the reception of the lights.
SECT. XIII.
ABATTOIRS OR PUBLIC SLAUGHTER-HOUSES.
2932. It may be thought unnecessary to assign a section in this work to the consideration
of a species of building unfortunately unknown to this country, in which its non-employ-
ment is truly a reproach. The improvements lately made in the metropolis, and those
still in progress, are at length in the course of being crowned by the removal of that long
reprobated nuisance Smith field market, so that we shall shortly be secured from the danger
and unwholesomeness of the present practice. If to this were added the establishment of
public slaughter-houses or abattoirs round London, as has long since been done about the
798 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
city of Paris, we might have another source of congratulation for its inhabitants. This is
a subject that ought to be forced on the attention of the government. It ought not to be
left to individuals to take charge of the comforts and security of London and its suburbs.
The public cemeteries established by companies have doubtless been most useful, but such
matters concern the public welfare, and should be in the hands of their rulers.
2933. The accidents arising from overdriving cattle through the narrow streets of Paris,
and the infectious effluvia from the slaughter-houses often causing contagious maladies in
their neighbourhood, induced the French government, in 1811, to execute a project which
had been entertained for nearly a century previously, that of removing all the slaughter-houses
from the heart of their capital. The result of this determination has been, not only the
prevention of all cause of complaint of the former inconveniences, but has produced a set of
buildings bearing a character of grandeur and magnificence proportionate to their destination.
It was a worthy exercise of the power of the government ; it has obviated the disgraceful
sights almost every day witnessed in London, sights tending to deprive the lower classes
of humanity, and to render them ferocious, to corrupt the mind, to offend the eye,
and to injure the public health. Without strictly adhering to the term abattoir, which
would more properly signify a slaughter-house where the cattle are slaughtered, we mean
by our proposition, not only the place for killing the cattle, but an establishment where,
after they are killed, under the inspection of proper officers, the skins are arranged for sale,
as well as the tallow obtained from the fat, before these are distributed to the respective
trades.
2934. Political economists have doubted whether an individual ought to be restricted in
the exercise of his industry wherever he may think it most conducive to his interest ; we
are however inclined to apply to the principle the maxim of the lawyers, " sic utere tuo ut
alienum non laedas," and think that disagreeable and unwholesome establishments should
be removed from all large cities. The experiment however, at all events, has been most
successfully made in Paris, where butchers are no longer allowed to kill their cattle, except
in the public abattoirs. For the purpose five open airy spots have been selected in the
outskirts of the city, corresponding in size to the demand of those parts of the town to
which they are correspondent. Those of Menilmontant and of Montmartre are the most
considerable and extensive ; but the rest are constructed on similar plans, in which there is
no difference except in the number and extent of the buildings. We shall therefore describe
generally the first named, that of Menilmontant.
2935. The slaughter-house of Menilmontant at Paris is situated on a declivity, which con-
tributes to its good drainage, and the consequent salubrity of the establishment. It stands on
a site about 700 feet by about 620 feet, being insulated between four streets. Through an
iron railing, -about 108 feet in extent, flanked by two lodges, or pavilions, in which are ac-
commodated the officers of the establishment and their bureaux, is the principal entrance of
the edifice. On entering from this a large square space presents itself, from the centre
whereof may be seen the whole of the buildings, twenty-three in number, composing the
abattoir. This court is about 315 feet broad, and on its great sides about 475 feet long,
and on its right and left are four double buildings, separated by a road which traverses the
whole ground parallel to the principal fa£ade. These are the slaughter-houses, each whereof
is about 200 feet long by 136 feet in breadth, and they are separated by a paved court,
in the direction of their length, so inclined as to carry off the filth, such court dividing
them into two piles of building, each of which contains eight slaughter-houses for the
particular use of the butchers. Each slaughter-house is lighted and ventilated from openings
in the front walls. Above them are attics for drying the skins and depositing the tallow,
and to keep them cool the flat roofs project very considerably. Behind the slaughter-
houses, and parallel to them, are two sheepfolds, and at their extremities two stables, each
of which contains lofts for the hay, and on each side of the court complete the two masses
of building which compose the design. At the end of the court is a convenient watering
place, and two folds for the first distribution of the cattle ; and also two insulated buildings
for melting the tallow. These are intersected by a broad corridor, giving access to four
separate melting-houses, with vaulted cellars, which serve as coolers. Beyond these,
parallel to the enclosing wall, are two long buildings, divided into many warehouses on the
ground and first floor, and standing on cellars, in which the undressed leather is kept, the
upper floor being destined for the reception of calves' and sheep skins. The last point to
be noticed is a large double reservoir of water, of masonry, carried on two series of vaults,
which serve as stands for carriages. A steam-engine between the two basins pumps the
water into the reservoir. The basins are about 323 feet in length. Happe was the archi-
tect; and the cost was something above 120,000?. The rent which some years ago the
five establishments yielded to the city was about 1 2,OOOZ. per annum.
2936. The description we have given shows the general distribution of the buildings,
which are the subject of the section. Although general, we apprehend that, with the
particular information of which in every case the architect must possess himself, enough
has been .said on the subject.
CHAP. III. EXCHANGES. 799
SECT. XIV
EXCHANGES.
2937. An exchange is a place of meeting and resort for the merchants of a city to trans-
act the affairs relating to their trading. We are not aware that the ancients had any
edifices exactly in their destination resembling the modern exchange, as used by us in
these days ; there is, indeed, every reason to believe that the ancient basilica served at the
same time for the accommodation of the officers of the law and for the assembling of the
merchants.
2938. All modern cities with any pretension to commerce have some place appropriated
to the reception of the merchant, to which at a certain hour he resorts. Sometimes we
find it a place surrounded with porticoes and planted with trees. Often it is a building,
including several porticos on the ground floor, surrounded by offices for the bankers and
money-changers, which latter use has given among us the name of exchange to the
building.
2939. The Exchange at Amsterdam seems for a long time to have prevailed as the
model for all others. It was commenced in 1608, and finished in 1613, and its architect
was Cornells Bankers de Ry. It is about 271 feet long, and about 152 feet wide. The
whole edifice is supported on three large arches, under which flow as many canals. On
the ground floor is a portico surrounding a court, above which are halls supported on
forty-six piers. The divisions which they form are numbered and assigned each to a par-
ticular nation or class of merchants. In the court, and within the enclosure, is the place of
meeting for mercantile affairs. At the top is another large hall, and a warehouse for
various kinds of merchandise.
2940. The exchange is, perhaps, next in importance to the cathedral of the city, and
should be commensurate in appearance and accommodation with its wealth and conse-
quence ; it should, moreover, if possible, be placed in the most central part. Such was
Sir Christopher Wren's idea in forming the plan of London after the conflagration. He
considered the forum of the ancients to be the true model upon which a modern ex-
change might be engrafted, and we think he was correct. Any edifice which in appear-
ance resembles an ancient temple is unfit in character, and shows puerility and poverty of
imagination in the designer. Porticoes are the principal features of such a building, and
the variety in which they may be used for the purpose is infinite, and will afford ample
scope for the artist's talent.
2941. No offices or shops, as about to be constructed in the new Royal Exchange, for
the purpose of obtaining rent, should be connected with the fabric, save only as in Paris, for
example, a Tribunal de Commerce with its accessories, an establishment much wanted in
England ; and perhaps in addition to this, in a maritime country like ours, a large hall and
offices for the transaction of business relating to the shipping interest.
2942. In London and other places it has been usual to leave the court of resort open to
the heavens ; an absurd practice, which, we suppose, because it was so before, has been re-
adopted in the exchange about to be rebuilt in this city. The French are wiser, and
though the weather is, generally speaking, much finer in France than it is here, they build
their exchange with a roof, for the comfort of those that use it. If, however, our merchants
prefer exposure to the inclemency of the seasons, it is not our business to complain of the
fancy.
2943. As we consider the Bourse at Paris an admirable model, both in distribution and
design, we shall briefly here describe it. The edifice in question was begun in 1 808, under
the designs of Brongniart, and completed by Labarre at a much protracted period. The
general form on the plan is a parallelogram of 212 feet by 126 feet. It is surrounded by
an unbroken peristyle of sixty-six Corinthian columns, supporting an entablature and attic.
The peristyle forms a covered gallery, to which the ascent is by a flight of steps extending
the whole width of the western front. The intercolumniations on the walls are filled in
with two tiers, one above the other, of arched windows, separated by a Doric entablature,
and surmounted by a decorated frieze. The roof is formed entirely of iron and copper.
In the centre of the parallelogram is the Salle de la Bourse, or great hall, 116 feet long and
76 feet broad, wherein the merchants and brokers assemble. The Doric order is that used
with arcades round the sides, and between the arcades are inscribed the names of the prin-
cipal mercantile cities in the world. The ceiling is formed by a cove, and in the centre a
large skylight serves for lighting the great hall just described. It is rich in sculpture, and
decorated with monochrome paintings, to imitate bassi relievi, sixteen in the whole, that is,
five on each long and three on each short side. They are all allegorical. The hall con-
veniently contains 2OOO persons. At its eastern end is a circular space railed off for the
convenience of the agens de change : these only are admitted within it, and to it there is
a communication from their hall of business. On the right are rooms for the committee
800 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
and syndicate of the agens de change, for the courtiers de commerce, and a hall of meeting
for the latter. On the left is an ample staircase leading to the gallery, supported by Doric
columns, and to the hall of the Tribunal de Commerce, with its several apartments and
waiting rooms. From the gallery, as on the ground floor, a corridor extends round the
Salle, communicating with the Chamber of Commerce, the Court of Bankruptcy, and other
public offices. The cost of this very elegant and splendid building was about 326,000/. ;
but the merchants and city of London disgrace themselves by allowing 150,OOOZ. for a
similar purpose here ; and even for this sum they cut up their building into little slices, to
reimburse themselves by rents for the miserable outlay. So much for the spirit and liberality
of the British merchant !
SECT. XV.
CUSTOM-HOUSES.
2944. It is almost unnecessary to inform our readers that a custom-house is an establish-
ment for receiving the duties, or, as they are called, customs levied on merchandise
imported into a country, as well as of regulating the bounty or drawback on goods ex-
ported. According, therefore, to the importance and wealth of a city, the building to
receive it is of considerable consequence. The first point that immediately presents itself
is, that it should be provided with spacious warehouses for holding the merchandise which
arrives, and in which it is, as it were, impounded till the duties are paid ; and next, that
there must be provided ample accommodation for the officers who are to supervise the
levying of the imposts. Now, these being the data, it is manifest that there can be no
building so subject to modification in every respect as a custom-house, and that that which
might be well suited to a small town or city, looking to its trade, would be ridiculous
either in excess or smallness in another. Yet there are general principles which should
guide the student in designing the smallest as well as the largest establishment of this
sort, and these are contained in the two maxims, of ample capaciousness for the merchandise
to be received into the warehouses, and a panoptical view, on the part of the proper
officers, of that which passes in the establishment. Without these requisites, a custom-
house is an ill-planned building ; but it is not to be supposed that such an observation can
apply to an establishment of this nature in a metropolis like London, the subdivisions and
details of whose commerce have found as yet all the delegations of the customs in the
various docks and sufferance wharfs still even too small for the commerce of the country,
and have induced the government to extend the collection of the dues beyond the central
establishment. We must, however, return to the custom-house calculated for a port of
ordinary size, and not that of a metropolis like London, though presently we must refer to
what on that has been thought necessary for our guidance in smaller matters. Security
against fire must be strictly attended to. The warehouses and covered places for examining
and stowing the goods should therefore be arched in brick or stone, and should, moreover,
be as much as possible on the ground floor. The offices for the public and heads of the
establishment may be over them on the first floor. Both of these are, of course, to be
regulated in size by the extent of trade in the place. The general character should be that
of simplicity ; decoration is unsuited, and should be very sparingly employed. The
species of composition most suitable seems to be pointed out in arcades and arched open-
ings. The site should be as near as may be to the river or port, so that the merchandise
may be landed and housed with as little labour as possible.
2945. The following is a general view of the apartments and offices of the London
Custom House. The long room, which is the principal public room for the entries &c., is
190 feet long and 66 wide. This, as well as the rooms next enumerated, are on the first
or principal floor, viz. a pay office for duties, treasury, bench officers or commissioners'
rooms, secretary's room, rooms for the inspector general, surveyor of shipping, registrar of
shipping, surveyor of acts of navigation, strong rooms, comptrollers, outward and inward,
surveyor of works ; Trinity light office, bond office, board room, chairman's room, com-
mittee room and plantation clerk's office. On the ground floor are the following offices :
for minute clerks, clerk of papers, petitions, messengers, landing surveyors, wood farm
office, tide waiters, tide surveyors, inspectors of river, guagers, landing waiters, coast
waiters, coast office long room, coast bond office, coffee office, housekeeper, searchers,
merchants and brokers' rooms, comptrolling searchers, appointers of the weighers and office
for the plantation department. Besides these apartments there are warehouses for the mer-
chandise.
2946. The above long list will give a notion of what would be wanted on a smaller
scale ; but on such matters the special instructions on each case must be the guide to the
architect in making his design. Many of the above offidfes would, of course, be unnecessary
CHAP. III. THEATRES. 801
in a small port, neither would the dimensions be so large as in the example quoted. The
staircases, corridors, and halls must be spacious in all cases, the building being one for the
service of the public.
SECT. XVI.
THEATRES.
2947. A taste for dramatic representations prevailed at a very early period among the
people of antiquity, and this was not diminished by the introduction of Christianity, even
when the temples were deserted and paganism seemed extinct. The destruction of these,
however, was its concluding triumph. It would be a difficult matter to fix the precise date
of the abolition of the pagan theatre, but it seems likely to have resulted rather from the
falling into decay of the old theatres than from a disinclination on the part of the people
to the pleasure they received at them. It is not, however, the object of this section to trace
the history of the theatre ; though we think it right to say a few more words on the subject.
With the revival of the arts, the taste for scenic representations appeared with the literature
on which they are dependent. In Italy we find, therefore, the drama at this period repre-
sented in very large enclosures, such as the amphitheatre constructed by Bramante in the
large court of the Vatican, whence the taste soon spread over all the nations of Europe.
2948. The pleasure which flowed from this renewal of an ancient art was at first con-
fined to few, and those were either men of learning or select societies, who bore the expenses,
and again raised in the country a renewal of a theatre much resembling those of the
ancients as respected the form and disposition. To prove this, we need only cite the
example of the celebrated theatre at Vicenza, built by Palladio in 1583, and designed in
imitation of the ancient theatres. Its form is a semi-ellipsis, whose transverse axis is parallel
with the scene, encompassed with fourteen ranges of steps for the spectators. The greater
diameter of this ellipse is 97| feet, and the lesser, as far as the stage, about 57| feet. At
the summit is a corridor of the Corinthian order, which, from the want of ground, could
not be detached all round from the external wall. The nine central and the three external
intercolumniations, therefore, where the columns touch the external wall, are filled with
niches and statues. The stage is designed with two tiers of Corinthian columns surmounted
with an appropriate attic. In the front of the stage are three openings through which
three avenues of magnificent buildings appear, and at the end of each is a triumphal arch.
All these are executed in alto relievo, but are foreshortened and diminished perspectively.
A full account of this building, which is well worth the student's attention, is given in
L1 Origine dell' Academia Olympica, Sfc. Opera di Ottavio Bertotti Scamozzi. Vicenza, 1 690.
For dramatic representations this theatre is no longer used, and at present it is only recog-
nised as a monument of the extraordinary skill of the architect, and a memorial of the
dramatic buildings of its period. The theatre at Parma, built by Aleotti, is another
building belonging to the same class, and preserved, like the last-mentioned, as a curiosity.
2949. When, however, the taste for scenic amusements began to spread, the sovereign
princes, who alone could support the expense of such establishments, began to make them a
necessary part of their palaces ; and the theatre, no longer a public and essential building,
became what it now is, not an edifice for the reception and accommodation of the whole
population of a city at certain periods, but a place which served for the habitual amuse-
ment of those who could afford it. The drama again revived, and its history is an index
to the edifices that rose for its representation. Becoming thus necessary for the amusement
of the better classes of society, the establishment of theatres was undertaken by individuals
in almost every city, and competition was the natural consequence. Then began the
division of the theatre into different parts, the entry to which was marked by different
prices, and the separation of the common people from those of rank and fortune.
2950. Italy does not contain so many theatres, nor of such consequence, as might be
predicated from the taste of its inhabitants. Among the earliest of consequence was that
built at Bologna in 1763 by Antonio Galli Bibiena, (not to mention that built at Verona
under the direction of the celebrated Scipio Maffei by Francesco Galli Bibiena,) with a
noble portico in front and salons in the angles, possessing moreover great merit in its
interior distribution. In the Italian theatres there is almost invariably a certain feeling of
grandeur and unity about the interior little to be expected from the exterior, which in no
way leads the spectator to the suspicion of a fine Salle de Spectacle behind it.
2951. France has the credit of having erected the first modern theatre that can be deno-
minated an example in this species of monumental architecture. That to which we allude
is the theatre at Bordeaux, which is 325 feet in length, and half that measure in width. It
is surrounded by arcades, whose piers are decorated with pilasters of the Corinthian order,
running up the whole height through the ground and one-pair stories. Set back, an attic
3 F
802 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
is raised, which conceals the roof, wherein the necessary accommodations which a theatre
requires are disposed. Whether we consider the exterior or interior of this edifice, every-
thing is grand ; the accessories are worthy of the whole, and the richness of the interior
decoration is only equalled by the fine forms whereon the decorations are used. The
ingress and egress are admirable ; and a splendid concert-room and magnificent staircases
complete the destination, to which it is so suited, as to afford the finest model of a theatre
to which we can refer the student. The plans, &c. of this work were published by the
architect, under the title of Salle de Spectacle de Bourdeaux, atlas folio, Paris, 1782.
Paris but followed Bourdeaux in improving its theatres, and latterly the metropolis of Eng-
land followed in the wake.
2952. The principal points for the consideration of the architect in the composition of
a theatre, may be classed under the heads of utility, suitableness for the purpose, and taste
in combining them. Under the first head must be placed the accomplishment of two main
objects, those of seeing and hearing what passes on the stage. These, indeed, are inti-
mately connected with each other, and are entirely dependent on the form adopted for the
plan of the interior, that is, the general form given to the boxes which surround the part
before the curtain. We are not aware of any plan which, in this respect, is not based on a
quadrangular, elliptical, or circular form.
2953. The quadrangular form, besides its want of beauty, is not well adapted for ful-
filling the objects with which we set out. In this, the greater number of spectators or
audience who occupy the side boxes, are so inconveniently placed, that, to observe what is
going on, their heads must be turned sidewise, and they are hence in a false position for
the object. The actor being generally the point to which all eyes are directed, the spec-
tator opposite the proscenium will look at him in a right direction ; but as the spectator
removes to the extremity of the side, it is manifest that the angle in which the head must
be turned becomes sharper, and the position is then painful. Besides this objection, the
form is known to be unfavourable to hearing or to the propagation of sound.
2954. The truncated oval is in some measure subject to the same inconveniences on the
sides as the last-mentioned figure. It removes also a large portion of the spectators to a
considerable distance from the centre of the scene, besides which, in the boxes near the
proscenium, their seats tend in opposite directions to the actor. It has been to remedy these
faults that the form of the horseshoe has been adopted, which is a sort of mean between the
quadrangular and oval forms: and where the plot of ground is much longer than it is wide,
it is a suitable figure, and one which affords the opportunity of increasing the number of
boxes.
2955. When, however, the circumstances concur in allowing it, the adoption of the
semicircular plan is doubtless the best. It is a figure which allows each spectator to be at
an equal distance from the scene, that also by which the spectators in adjoining boxes less
interfere with one another, that which affords the means of all seeing equally well, that in
which the sound is most equally distributed, and that whose uniformity and simplicity seems
to engender the best decoration. The semi-elliptic, with the transverse axis parallel to the
proscenium, has interior advantages in some respects over the semicircle ; but it induces
great difficulty in connecting the proscenium itself with the auditory part of the house,
and, by increasing the width of the proscenium, increases the perplexity in framing the roof
conveniently for the painting rooms, and securely as respects the walls.
2956. Upon the destruction by fire of Drury Lane Theatre, a pamphlet appeared,
entitled " Observations on the Principles of a Design for a Theatre," by Benjamin Wyatt,
London, 8vo. 1811. These observations are so well worth the notice of the student that
we shall close this section by giving the substance of them. The heads for consideration,
says the author, are —
2957. First The size or capacity of the theatre, as governed by the width of the
proscenium or stage opening ; and by the pecuniary return to be made to those whose
property may be embarked in the concern. Second. The form or shape of the theatre, as
connected with the primary objects of sound and vision. Third. The facility of ingress
and egress, as materially affecting the convenience of those who go to every part of the
house respectively, as well as their lives, in cases of sudden accident or alarm. Fourth.
Decorum amongst the several orders and classes of the visitants to the theatre, as essential
to the accommodation of the more respectable part of those visitants, and consequently of
great importance to the interests of the theatre. Fifth. Security against fire, as well with
relation to the expense of insurance as with relation to the lives of individuals going to the
theatre.
2958. The size or capacity will necessarily depend very much on the width of the
proscenium or stage opening, inasmuch as it is from the extremities of that opening that
the form of the theatre must spring. The annexed is a statement of the width of proscenium
at the theatres named : —
Argentine, at Rome - - - - - 36 feet.
Covent Garden 38 feet.
CHAP. III.
THEATRES.
Theatre Italien, Paris (burnt) - - 38 feet.
Turin 39 feet.
Bourdeaux 39 feet.
Parma - - - - - - - 40 feet.
Milan 40 feet.
San Benedetto, at Venice - 4O feet.
Theatre Fran9ois, at Paris - - - - 40 feet.
Drury Lane ------ 40 feet 6 inches.
A width beyond 40 feet seems to be considered by the performers as inconvenient from
the space they would have to pass over in the business of the drama. A greater width,
indeed, than that stated prevents the easy and secure working of the scenes, for the machinery
is increased in magnitude and weight as the height and breadth of the scenes increase. In
mere spectacle and scenic grouping a reduction in the width of the proscenium reduces the
number of extra performers, or supernumeraries as they are called, which become necessary
for filling the stage. Again, every additional foot given to the stage opening increases the
quantity of canvass used in the scenes, as well as the framing whereon they are fixed.
In the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, vol. xxvii., there are, by Mr. J. S. Russell,
some elementary considerations of certain principles in the construction of buildings designed
to accommodate spectators and auditors, well worth the architect's notice. In every large
room, says the writer, a perfectly good seat is one in which, without uneasy elevation of the
head or eye, without straining or stretching, we can calmly and quietly take any easy
position, or variety of positions, which we may be disposed to assume, and yet may in all
of them see and hear the speaker with equal clearness and repose, so as to give him patient
and undisturbed attention. The object, then, is to ascertain in what manner the interior
cf a building for public speaking should be formed, so that throughout the whole range
which the voice of a man is capable of filling, each individual should see and hear without
interruption from any of the rest of the audience, with equal comfort in an easy posture,
Fig. 1033.
and as clearly as if no other individual auditor or spectator were present. (See jigs. 1033.
and 1034.) The position of the seats is first investigated. In the usual variety of station
Fig. 1034.
and of position, it appears from experiments that the range required for the purpose is more
than a foot and less than 18 inches, so that these may be taken as the limits; that is, over
the head of the person before you there must be a clear range of 12 or 18 inches, through
which the head may be moved upwards or downwards without interruption. In other
words, that a straight line drawn from the speaker's head over that of the anterior spectator
shall intercept the straight line which forms the back of the seat of the posterior observer,
so as to cut off a height of 12 or 18 inches, within which the head of the spectator shall at
3 F 2
804
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK III.
times be comprehended while sitting in a comfortab e position. Thus let S ( fig. 1033. ) be the
speaker and X YZ be three successive ascents ; then the line SX must fall below SY, so as
to leave the space Ya: = 18 inches = Zy.
2959. Applying this formula to every individual place in the room or building, we shall
have the form required to satisfy the auditors. Let 2A feet be assumed as a constant
representing the distance of one spectator behind another, measured horizontally; and l\
feet as the clear space, measured on the vertical line, for the mean range of comfortable
vision for each. If the level of the floor, that is, of the lowest seats, be already determined,
the form of the interior accommodation maybe thus described. AY (fig. 1034.), the
height of the speaker, YX the level floor. From Ay take Y# = 4 feet. Draw yx parallel
to YX. Take Ay to yx as 1} to 2±, that is, as h, the range of position of the spectator, to d,
the distance between the seats. Take horizontal distances 1 , 2, 3, 4, &c. = 21 feet, prolong
A.r to x', then the height x' to l = }\ feet. Join Al and prolong it to x", and take a dis-
tance x" to m=l\ feet. Through in draw Am, and prolong it to x'", and take x'"n = \\
feet. Continue the process in the same manner to p, g, r, s, t, &c., and the points will be
found of the successive places which the heads of the auditors should occupy.
2960. But it is not only in receding that the back
seats must rise ; those too far forward may be also
unpleasant. They are too low ; they also should be
raised : but this must be done so as not to inter-
rupt those who are behind. It may be accom-
plished in a similar way ; for, as formerly set off,
I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, &c. = 2± feet (fig. 1035.), 1 is the first
anterior point. Join Al, and let it cut the vertical
line through 2 in x", the portion downwards x"l= l\
feet ; then I is the point found. Join Al, make x'"k
— l\feet; join Ak and x""i=l\ feet; and so on.
g, h, i, k, I, are the places found which the heads of the
spectators should occupy, and show the elevation to
be given to the seats successively. Fie- 1035-
2961. If the simple process described be accurately performed, the points which indicate
the places of the spectators will lie in the branches of a very beautiful curve, which may be
termed the iseidomal or the isacoustic curve, that is, one of equal seeing or hearing : it will
be of the form \nfig. 1036. A being the place of the speaker, and the heads of the spec-
tators being placed on the line Amn, continued as far as the voice will reach, XAX being
the axis of the curve, and YY its parameter. This curve has two branches on opposite
sides of A, showing that if the building extend behind the speaker, or if the spectacle be
visible or the sound audible on every side, the same may be continued all round. By
means of this curve, the position of seats in a theatre may be satisfactorily determined.
2962. For any great assemblage, where it is desirable that one individual or group of
individuals should be seen or heard, an amphitheatre of this form might be constructed
from the surface of revolution generated by moving the curve round its axis, which would
perfectly accommodate 10,OOO individuals.
2963. According to the arrangement of London audiences, Mr. Wyatt calculates that a
theatre consisting of three fourths of a circle on the plan, with a stage opening of 35 feet,
will contain
78 boxes, in four tiers, and holding - 1004
4 boxes of larger size, on each side next the stage - 188
A pit, capable of containing - 911
A two-shilling gallery - - 482
A one-shilling gallery - - 284
2869 persons, exclu-
sive of four boxes in the proscenium, and fourteen in the basement of the theatre, imme-
diately under the dress boxes.
CHAP. III.
THEATRES.
805
2964. We have already given some general hints relative to the form ; we shall here add
the author's view of this matter ; and thereon he very properly says that, with reference to
distinct sound, the safest method is to adopt a form known to be most capable of conveying
sound with facility, to construct that form of materials that are conductors of sound, and to
avoid all breaks and projections on the surface of that form, because they obstruct and
impede the progress of the sound. It is well known that a circular enclosure without
breaks possesses the power of conveying sounds with facility, and that wood is an admirable
conducting material for the purpose. Count Algarotti, in his treatise on the Opera, says,
daily experience teaches vis that in a box whose walls are naked, the singer's voice is rever-
berated in a particular manner ; it sounds crude and harsh, and by no means flattering to
the ear ; the accents are quite lost if the box be hung with tapestry ; whereas they are
reflected full, sonorous, and agreeable to the ear when the boxes are only boarded, which is
an obvious proof, and confirmed by experience, that the best lining for the interior part of
a theatre is wood.
2965. Whatever be the form of the theatre, it ought in every part to be limited in extent
to such distance as the voice will distinctly reach ; and the nearer that figure conforms to
the proportions which the natural voice is heard in each direction, the more equally will
the sound be heard in every part of the theatre. The experiments tried by Mr. Wyatt
proved that the reach of the voice when moderately exerted was in the proportion of
about two ninths further in a direct front line than laterally ; and that being distinctly
audible on each side of the speaker at a distance of seventy-five feet, it will be as plainly
heard at a distance of ninety-two feet in front of him, declining in strength behind him so as
not to be clearly heard at much more than thirty feet. " According," says Mr. Wyatt,
" to these data, it would appear that the geometrical figure, which comes the nearest to the
extreme limits of the natural expansion of the voice, is a semicircle of 75 feet radius, or 15O
feet in diameter, continued on each side to the extent of 17 feet, or in the proportion of
about two ninths of its lateral expansion (fig.
1037.) beyond the limits of the semicircle,
and then converging suddenly until the two
lines meet at C, behind the back of the speaker."
But though the voice may be heard at these dis-
tances, it does not follow that a theatre of this
extent should be erected ; indeed, it would be
absurd to do so, for the actor varies his place
almost every moment ; and as he removes from
the centre, from which it has been assumed he is
speaking, he would become inaudible to some
parts of the audience as he receded from it. It
is evident, therefore, in planning a theatre, the
radius or semi-diameter must be so reduced as
to bring the extreme distance at which he may
in any case be placed within the space of 75 feet,
that is, that when the speaker is placed at the
extremity of either side of the stage, his voice may be heard by those seated on the opposite
side of the house. In the diagram, the widest part of the theatre inscribed in the larger
figure is 58 feet upon the level of the dress boxes ; and allowing 9 feet 6 inches for the
depth of the boxes on that floor, by means of a projection of 18 inches more than the boxes
above, there will be 67 feet 6 inches between the extreme part of the stage on one side and
the back wall of the boxes on the opposite side : but as the speaker is in no case placed at
either extremity of the stage, and even if so situated, the distance between him and the
opposite side of the house would be within 8 feet of the reach of his voice in its lateral
direction, and 25 feet within its limits in a direct line ; it hence appears that the circular
is preferable to any other form ; and if we fix a limit for the diameter of that form, we are
in possession of the rules which limit the length of the theatre, or the distance from the
front line of the stage to the boxes immediately in front of that line. Taking 75 feet
for the distance at which the voice can be heard laterally, as the space between the front
line of the stage and its immediately opposite boxes may occasionally be in the lateral
direction of the voice, the greatest distance from the front wall of the stage to the back
wall of the boxes opposite the stage should not exceed 75 feet, the limit of the voice
in its lateral direction, because of the turns of head which he must often make for the
business of the scene, when that which was opposite might become lateral ; and thus those
persons sitting in the opposite boxes would be 92—75 feet = 17 feet beyond the reach of his
voice.
2966. The use of a semicircle without modification would, however, involve the exten-
sion of the stage opening to an inconvenient width ; and Mr. Wyatt very properly considers
that the whole area of a theatre should contain little more than one third of the space over
3 F 3
806 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
which the voice can reach ; " the one," he says, " being (independently of the space behind
the back of the speaker) a superficies of 11,385 feet, and the other of 4003." This, he
thinks, will compensate for the absorption of sound consequent on the number of the
audience, the woollen garments they wear, and the state of the atmosphere, and would
ensure a good hearing in every part of the house.
2967. According to the author's statement, he recommends that the distance from the
front of the stage to the back wall of the boxes immediately opposite should be about
54 feet ; in the old Drury Lane it was 74 feet, and in the old Covent Garden Theatre,
built about 1 730, it was 54 feet 6 inches. In the Opera House, built by Vanbrugh, it
was 66 feet. At Milan it is 78 feet. At the old San Carlos, at Naples, 73 feet ; and at
Bologna, 74 feet. The distance in the present Covent Garden Theatre is 69 feet 8 inches,
or nearly 16 feet more than it ought to have been. How, then, can people wonder at not
seeing and hearing in such theatres, where the cupidity of the projectors has overstepped
the mark, and>*ery much contributed to the ruin of the drama?
2968. In an opera house the band as it were sustains the voice, and the spectacle of the
ballet is more addressed to the eye than to the understanding ; but even in that the theatre
is universally too large for the pleasure of those who appreciate properly what is transacted
in the scene. It is satisfactory to know that the theatre which we in our introductory
remarks selected as a model should coincide in the main points. here in question with
Mr. Wyatt's project. We are not certain whether he has visited it, but are certain that if
he has he would not change his opinion.
2969. In respect of vision in a theatre, there can be no question that the semicircle gives
the best chance for the whole of the audience ; but the objections to it are, that it requires
that either the stage opening should be of inconvenient width or that the size of the house
should be too small. It is therefore, without modification, inadmissible. It is on this
account that the ellipse, the horseshoe, and other flat-sided forms, have in later theatres been
adopted, though it is manifest that a large proportion of the audience, says our author,
" must be placed with their backs inclining towards the scene, and that in all of them (if
the house be not of extremely small dimensions) the front boxes must be at a great distance
from the stage ; for in proportion as the sides shall approximate each other the front must
recede, provided the circumference be not varied." The summing up of the question on
this head is thus given by Mr. Wyatt : " There is no object connected with the formation
of a theatre which, in all its bearings, is of more importance than that the part of the house
which faces the scene should be within a moderate distance from the stage. Unless that
be the case, it is obvious that a very large proportion of the spectators must be excluded
from a clear and distinct view of that play of the features which constitutes the principal
merit of the actor in many of the most interesting scenes." Mr. Wyatt does not believe
that the height of the ceiling injures or affects the sound of the voice in the lower parts of
the theatre, and observes that it must in every theatre " be much too high to act as a
reverberator or sounding board to the lower parts of the house." But we do not agree with
him on this point, and think we could refer him to more than one theatre in the metropolis
which is defective in the conveyance of the sound from this cause alone. Besides this, we
do not feel quite certain that the diagonal line drawn from the actor to the upper tier of
boxes should not be the regulating distance, instead of the horizontal one which has been
mentioned above.
2970. Ingress and egress should be provided on each side of the house, so that whatever
doors, passages, and staircases are placed on one side, there must be corresponding ones on
the other. The spectators are thus divided, and pressure avoided. Angles should as much
as possible be avoided, as well as steps in passages, for which no excuse can be offered.
Doorways ought not to be less than six feet wide, nor should staircases be of less dimen-
sions. In large staircases, which consist of a centre and two side nights, the central one
should be equal in width to the side flights added together. In calculating the size,
regard should in some measure be had to the number of persons which the part they serve
will contain.
2971. It is only in an English theatre that the public have to complain of the admission
of the most unfortunate members of the community, and of their subjection to scenes of
great indecency. Nothing of this sort occurs on the Continent, whilst here the proprietors
of theatres allow the admission of such persons at a reduced rate of payment if they take an
admission for the season. As, in this country, it is impossible to exclude any particular
class of persons, it would be well so to contrive the access to the dress circle of boxes that
it may be arrived at without passing near the saloons, which are generally the resort of the
class of people alluded to.
2972. With the exception of the dressings and interior ornaments of the building, and
those parts of the stage and machinery which must be made of wood, it would be possible,
though perhaps somewhat inconvenient, to erect a theatre, though not absolutely fire-proof,
yet very secure against fire. This is, however, a subject not to be treated here ; but we ought
not to omit that the supply of water from large reservoirs provided in the upper parts of the
CHAP. III. HOSPITALS. 807
building, is a precaution which should never be omitted. Pipes may be laid on from
them to those parts, such as the carpenters' room, scene room, and painting room, where
fires would be most likely to break out, and where, if they did break out, they would
be likely to be most dangerous.
SECT. XVII.
HOSPITALS.
2973. The buildings called hospitals are destined for the reception of the sick poor, for
insane persons, and sometimes for particular diseases, among which old age may be enu-
merated, or disability from wounds, &c. in the public service, of which last class are the
royal hospitals of Greenwich and Chelsea. There are some for the reception and education
of foundlings, and others for the reception and delivery of pregnant women ; and the term
is sometimes used to denote a building appropriated to poor persons, where they have an
alloAvance for their board and are lodged free ; in short, what is otherwise called an alms-
house.
2974. The ancients seem to have had no establishments like our nospitals for the sick ;
neither do they seem, to have had asylums for those who suffered in the public service,
though at Athens they were fed in the Prytaneum. In Sparta there does not appear to
have been any such establishments ; neither under the kings, consuls, or emperors of Rome
does it seem there was any institution for the reception of poor sick persons. After the
establishment of Christianity many hospitals were built by the emperors at Constantinople
for poor infants, for aged persons, orphans, and strangers. To the honour of the nations of
Europe, no city in it is unprovided with one or more hospitals. In Paris there are thirty-
two hospitals, and in London, we believe, some few more. The governments of France,
Russia, Germany, and Turkey support these institutions ; but in England, with the ex-
ception of Chelsea and Greenwich Hospitals, they depend upon the charity and foundations
of benevolent individuals, as at Guy's, Bartholomew's, and the other hospitals of London.
There is great reluctance often on the part of the poor to enter an hospital ; and on
this account we do not think that money ill bestowed which tends to impart to it an
agreeable and cheerful exterior. It is almost unnecessary to insist upon a thorough
warming, and, what is equally important, ventilation of the edifice: no means should be
omitted to render the place wholesome, and to prevent infection spreading from one part to
another. If possible, the hospitals of a city should be seated in the least populous parts, if
the health of the city be consulted, or on each suburb ; in which latter case the establish-
ment would be nearer the quarter it is to serve, and more accessible in a short time in the
case of accidents.
2975. The plans of some of the finest hospitals in Europe are given in Durand's
Parallele cT Edifices ; among them may be mentioned that of Milan as a very fine example of
disposition. It is indeed the most celebrated in Italy. A large portion of it remains
still unfinished. The architect was Filarete, and, being commenced in 1457, it is of course
in a half- Gothic sort of style. The accommodations for the men are on one side of a very
large cloistered court, 152 feet wide and 204 feet long, and are in the form of a cross,
304 feet long on each side and 30 feet wide. In the intervals of the cross are four court
yards, on whose remaining sides are rooms for the assistants. A canal flowing at the side
answers the domestic purposes of the place, and also turns a mill for the use of the
establishment. On the opposite side of the cloistral court above mentioned are similar
accommodations for the women. And in the middle of the narrow side of the great
cloister, opposite the entrance, is a church, which serves for the whole establishment. The
cloisters of the large court and the main body of the building are in two stories, so that
they form galleries of communications. This edifice has served for model to many others ;
and though it is now many years since we visited it, its excellence will not easily be
effaced from our recollection. The hospital, given by Durand in the plates above quoted,
De la Roquette, in the suburbs of Paris, designed by Poyet, was conceived on a magnificent
scale, and was admirably planned. In this design each room, as well those on one side of
the establishment for the males as those on the other side for the females, is appropriated
to one particular disease. Each of these rooms is about 32 feet wide and 30 feet 6 inches
high. Behind the beds (which are in -two rows in each room) runs a passage about 3 feet
4 inches wide, which removes them so much from the walls, and allows therefore of the
necessary waiting on the invalids, and hides the wardrobe attached to each bed in the
window recesses. Above these passages, which are about 6 feet 6 inches high, is arranged
on each side a row of windows, by which ventilation as well as light is obtained. The
ground floor contains the halls and offices necessary for such an establishment. The de-
signs for this building were made about 1788, on the instructions drawn up, after several
3 F 4
808 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
years' investigation, by a number of the most skilful and learned medical men of France, so
as best to unite health and convenience in such an edifice. One of the conditions pre-
scribed by their programme was the complete insulation of each apartment, as well as an
easy communication by covered galleries round the building, and these were required to be
of such extended dimensions that the air around should be unobstructed and circulating
in every part with freedom, thus affording a wholesome promenade for the patients.
2976. The hospitals of Greenwich and Chelsea are good examples for establishments of
this nature ; the former, indeed, adds to its other excellencies a magnificence in the archi-
tecture worthy the object, though not so originally intended. The Hotel des Invalides at
Paris is another monument worthy of all praise ; and indeed we scarcely know a quadrangle
more imposing than the court of this edifice with its double tier of arcades. This hospital
contains 7000 veterans, and has attached to it a library of 20,000 volumes. We know
not how better to close this section than with the maxims, or rather general observations,
of Durand upon the subject: " Dans des hospices," says the author, " dont la disposition
repondraient si parfaitement a 1'importance de leur objet, on ne craindrait plus de venir
chercher des secours. Leur aspect seul, si non magnifique, du moins noble et agreable,
influerait sur I'efficacite des remedes. En -entrant dans des tels edifices, ou tout annonce
le respect que Ton porte a 1'humanite, et surtout a 1'humanite souffrante, on se sentirait
soulage du poids de la honte, fardeau souvent plus insupportable et plus accablant que
celui du malheur meme."
SECT. XVIIL
PRISONS.
2977. In considerable cities and towns, humanity, and indeed justice, demands, in-
dependent of the injury done to the morals of the public, that the same building which
confines the convicted felon should not enclose the debtor and the untried prisoner, as well
as him whose offence is not of an aggravated nature. Where there is a mixture of the
several classes of those that have violated the laws, they that are young soon become in-
fected by the old offenders with whom they come in contact, and return to society, after
undergoing their punishment, much worse members of it than before their incarceration.
In small towns, where there is only one, perhaps small, prison, the separation of the
prisoners is more difficult to accomplish ; but it ought always to be obtained. We hardly
need say that the separation of the sexes in a prison is indispensable.
2978. For whatever class of prisoners a building is erected, salubrity and ventilation are
as essential as the security of those confined. The loss of liberty is itself a punishment
hard to endure, without superadding the risk of disease and death in their train, to persons
who may be even innocent of the crimes with which they are charged. Besides which, the
disease engendered in a gaol called the prison fever may spread into the city and carry off
its inhabitants.
2979. We shall here place before the student the principal requisites which the cele-
brated Howard has specified for prisons. " A county gaol, and indeed every prison,
should be built on a spot that is airy, and, if possible, near a river or brook. I have com-
monly found prisons near a river the cleanest and most healthy. They generally have not
(and indeed could not well have) subterraneous dungeons, which have been so fatal to
thousands ; and by their nearness to running water another evil almost as noxious is pre-
vented, that is, the stench of sewers. I said a gaol should be near a stream ; but I must
annex this caution, that it be not so near as that either the house or yard shall be within
the reach of floods." ..." If it be not practicable to build near a stream, then an
eminence should be chosen ; for as the wall round a prison should be so high as greatly to
obstruct a free circulation of air, this inconvenience should be lessened by rising ground,
and the prison should not be surrounded by other buildings, nor built in the middle of a
town or city. That part of the building which is detached from the walls, and contains
the men felons' wards, may be square or rectangular, raised on arcades that it may be more
airy, and have under it a dry walk in wet weather. These wards over arcades are also
best for safety ; for I have found that escapes have been most commonly effected by under-
mining cells and dungeons. If felons should find any other means to break out of the
raised ward, they will still be stopped by the wall of the court, which is. the principal
security ; and the walls of the wards need not then be of that great thickness they are
generally built, whereby the access of light and air is impeded. I wish to have so many
small rooms or cabins that each criminal may. sleep alone; these rooms to be ten feet
high to the crown of the arch, and to have double doors, one of them iron-latticed for the
circulation of air. If it be difficult to prevent their being together in the daytime, they
should by all means be separated at night. Solitude and silence are favourable to reflec-
CHAP. III. PRISONS. 809
tion, and may possibly lead to repentance." . . . "The separation I am pleading for,
especially at night, would prevent escapes, or make them very difficult, for that is the time
in which they are generally planned and effected. Another reason for separation is, that it
would free gaolers from a difficulty of which I have heard them complain : they hardly
know where to keep criminals admitted to be evidence for the king ; these would be
murdered by their accomplices if put among them, and in more than one prison I have
seen them for that reason put in the women's ward. Where there are opposite windows
they should have shutters, but these should be open all day. In the men felons' ward the
windows should be six feet from the floor ; there should be no glass, nor should the
prisoners be allowed to stop them with straw, &c. The women felons' ward should be
quite distinct from that of the men, and the young criminals from old and hardened
offenders. Each of these three classes should also have their day room or kitchen with a
fireplace, and their court and offices all separate. Every court should be paved with
flags or flat stones for the more convenient washing it, and have a good pump or water laid
on, both if possible ; and the pump and pipes should be repaired as soon as they need it,
otherwise the gaols will soon be offensive and unwholesome, as I have always found them
to be in such cases. A small stream constantly running in the court is very desirable. In
a room or shed near the pump or pipe there should be a commodious bath, with steps, (as
there is in some country hospitals,) to wash prisoners that come in dirty, and to induce
them afterwards to the frequent use of it. It should be filled every morning, and let off
in the evening through the sewers into the drains. There should also be a copper in the
shed to heat a quantity of water sufficient to warm that in the bath for those that are
sickly. There should also be an oven : nothing so effectually destroys vermin in clothes
and bedding, nor purifies them so thoroughly when tainted with infection, as being a few
hours in an oven moderately heated. The infirmary or sick ward should be in the most
airy part of the court, quite detached from the rest of the gaol, and raised on arcades.
These rooms should never be without crib-beds and bedding. In the middle of the floor
of each room there should be a grate of twelve or fourteen inches square, covered with a
shutter or hatch at night. The sewers or vaults of all prisons should be in the courts, and
not in the passages, and (like those in colleges) close boarded between the seats up to
the ceiling, the boards projecting ten inches before each seat. The infirmary and sheds
will not render the court unsafe, provided the walls have parapets or small chevaux de frise.
Debtors and felons should have wards totally separate ; the peace, the cleanliness, the
health and morals of debtors cannot be secured otherwise. The ward for men debtors
should also be over arcades, and placed on one side of the gaoler's house. This house
should be in or near the middle of the gaol, with windows to the felons' and to the debtors'
courts. This would be a check on the prisoners to keep them in order, and would engage
the gaoler to be attentive to cleanliness and constant washing to prevent his own apart-
ments from being offensive. A chapel is necessary in a gaol. I have chosen for it what
seems to me a proper situation. It should have a gallery for debtors or women ; for the
latter should be out of sight of all the other prisoners, and the rest may be separated
below."
2980. The above general principles are excellent, and are followed in all gaols of modern
construction. The tread-mill is also introduced for punishment, as well as occasionally
workshops for trades, to avoid the idleness of the prisoners. Society owes a debt of
infinite magnitude to the benevolent man from whom the foregoing quotation has been
taken.
2!)81. One of the most celebrated prisons on a panoptical system in Europe is the cele-
brated house of correction at Ghent. It is situated on the north side of that city, on the
Coupure canal, which is bordered by a double row of large trees. A plate of the plan is
given, No. 28. Durand's ParaUele <f Edifices. It was begun in 1773, under the reign of
Maria Theresa, and is in the form of a slightly elongated octagon, in the centre whereof is
a spacious court, which communicates with the different quadrangles of the edifice. Each
quadrangle or ward (eight in number) has a yard, and in the centre of that, belonging to
the female ward, is a large basin of water, in which the female prisoners wash the linen of
the whole establishment. Each prisoner sleeps alone, in a small but well-aired room, and
is employed during the day in working at the trade or business to which he or she is com-
petent. Of the produce of such labour, government retains one half when the prisoners
are detained merely for correction, six tenths when condemned to a term of imprisonment
under martial law, and seven tenths when they have been sentenced to hard labour. The
remainder is divided into two portions, one given weekly to the prisoners for pocket
money, the other given to them on the expiry of their imprisonment, to assist their re-
establishment in society. Religious service and instruction are provided ; and if prisoners
are destitute of the first elements of knowledge, they are taught reading, writing, and
arithmetic, besides receiving other instruction. Solitary confinement is the punishment
for insubordination or refractory conduct. The shops for refreshments sold to the prisoners
are strictly regulated by the officers of the institution; and the profits resulting from the
810 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
sale of the different articles are reserved for rewarding the most industrious and best-
behaved prisoners. The new part of the building, which has recently been completed, has
cost 40,0007. sterling ; and the whole edifice, when finished, and there is much still to be
done, will contain 2600 prisoners. The defect in the institution lies in the reception of
unfortunate and criminal persons of all descriptions, from the simple mendicant to the
hardened murderer. It is true that those confined for heinous crimes are separated from
those who have been guilty of misdemeanours ; but the knowledge, on the part of all its
inmates, that they to a certain extent are considered in the same predicament, must neces-
sarily so operate on their minds as to throw down the barriers between misfortune and crime,
as well as between those who are only commencing a guilty course and those who have con-
summated their vicious career. The Penitentiary at Milbank, in London, has been erected
in some measure on the principles of the house of correction at Ghent, but its inmates
are such only as have received the sentence of a criminal court. Where, indeed, the popu-
lation is so great as in the metropolis of England, prisons for each class of offenders should
be provided, at whatever cost. It is a duty due from the government to humanity to see
that this is done.
SECT. XIX.
BARRACKS.
2982. Barracks, or buildings for the reception of the military, were common with the
Romans, amongst whom they were called castra or camps. There were many of these at
Rome and in the provinces ; but the most perfect remains of Roman barracks are at Pom-
peii, of which sufficient remains exist to give us a general idea of their distribution. The
distribution was in an oblong, and the quadrangle or parade was surrounded by a covered
gallery on columns. From this gallery was the entrance to the rooms of the soldiers, but
it also served as an ambulatory for exercise. Beyond the further end, opposite the entrance,
was a theatre. A more perfect knowledge, however, than we have of the barracks of the
ancients, would not assist us in providing better for the military in these days ; indeed, there
is little required to be said in this place on the subject, inasmuch as in respect of healthy
situation, perfect ventilation, and security against fire, the principles which chiefly regulate
the disposition and distribution of a hospital, are equally applicable in building barracks,
which are, in truth, hospitia for the reception of men in health instead of sick persons.
Private soldiers in barracks, however, usually sleep on inclined planes, raised from the floor,
and at the head abutting against the wall, instead of being provided with separate beds. In
Paris there are no less than thirty buildings used as barracks. The details necessary to be
provided are a canteen or public-house, for the use of the privates and non-commissioned
officers ; a spacious mess-room and separate apartments for the officers, and an infirmary. In
cavalry barracks, proper stabling and a riding-house of large dimensions must of course
be added. For cleanliness, all the yards should be paved, and the utmost precaution taken
for carrying off all filth and waste water by means of drainage into a sewer, having a
considerable fall from the place. This will, as much as anything, tend to the healthiness
of the building.
SECT. XX.
PRIVATE BUILDINGS GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
2983. Private buildings differ in their proper character from public buildings as much
as one public building differs in character from another not of the same kind. The
ends in both, however, in common, are suitableness and utility. The means are the same,
namely, the observance of convenience and economy. The same elements are used in
the formation of one as of the other ; hence they are subject to the same principles and
the same mechanical composition. Distribution, which is usually treated distinct from
decoration and construction, and very improperly so, as applied to private edifices, is con-
ducted as for public buildings, that is, as we have said, with a view to utility and economy.
2984. If the student thoroughly understand the true principles of architecture, — if he
possess the facility of combining the different elements of buildings, or, in other words,
fully comprehend the mechanism of composition, which it has in a previous part of this
Book (III.) been our object to explain, nothing will remain for him in the composition of
private buildings, but to study the special or particular conveniences required in each.
There are some quaint old aphorisms of Dr. Fuller, prebendary of Sarum, which are so
CHAP. III. PRIVATE BUILDINGS IN TOWNS. 811
applicable to all private buildings, that we shall not apologise for transferring them to our
pages.
2985. " First," he says, " let not the common rooms be several, nor the several rooms
common ; that the common rooms should not be private or retired, as the hall (which is a
pandocha^um), galleries, &c., which are to be open ; and the chambers, closets, &c. retired
and private, provided the whole house be not spent in paths. Light (God's eldest daugh-
ter) is a principal beauty in a building ; yet it shines not alike from all parts of the
heavens. An east window gives the infant beams of the sun, before they are of strength
to do harm, and is offensive to none but a sluggard. A south window in summer is a
chimney with a fire in it, and stands in need to be screened by a curtain. In a west win-
dow the sun grows low, and over familiar towards night in summer time, and with more
light than delight. A north window is best for butteries and cellars, where the beer will
be sour because the sun smiles upon it. Thorough lights are best for rooms of entertain-
ments, and windows on one side for dormitories."
2986. " Secondly, as to capaciousness, a house had better be too little for a day than too
big for a year ; therefore houses ought to be proportioned to ordinary occasions, and not to
extraordinary. It will be easier borrowing a brace of chambers of a neighbour for a night,
than a bag of money for a year ; therefore 'tis a vanity to proportion the receipt to an
extraordinary occasion, as those do who, by overbuilding their houses, dilapidate their
lands, so that their estates are pressed to death under the weight of their house."
2987. " Thirdly, as for strength, country houses must be substantives, able to stand of
themselves, not like city buildings, supported and flanked by those of their neighbour on
each side. By strength is meant such as may resist weather and time, but not attacks ;
castles being out of date in England, except on the sea-coasts, &c. As for moats round
houses, 'tis questionable whether the fogs that arise from the water are not more un-
healthful than the defence that the water gives countervails, or the fish brings profit."
2988. " Fourthly, as for beauty, let not the front look asquint upon a stranger, but
accost him right at his entrance. Uniformity and proportions are very pleasing to the eye ;
and 'tis observable that freestone, like a fair complexion, grows old, whilst bricks keep their
beauty longest."
2989. " Fifthly, let the offices keep their due distance from the mansion-house ; those
are too familiar which presume to be of the same pile with it. The same may be said of
stables and barns ; without which a house is like a city without works, it can never hold
out long. It is not only very inconvenient, but rather a blemish than a beauty to a building,
to see the barns and stables too near the house ; because cattle, poultry, and suchlike must
be kept near them, which will be an annoyance to a house. Gardens ought also to be
disposed in their proper places. When God planted a garden eastward, he made to grow
out of the ground every tree pleasant to the sight and good for food. Sure he knew better
what was proper for a garden than those who now-a-days only feed their eyes and starve
their taste and smell." The same honest old dignitary (would we had some such in these
days !) says, " He who alters an old house is ty'd as a translator to the original, and is con-
fined to the fancy of the first builder. Such a man would be unwise to pull down a good
old building, perhaps to erect a worse new one. But those who erect a new house from
the ground are worthy of blame if they make it not handsome and useful, when method
and confusion are both of a price to them. "
SECT. XXI.
PRIVATE BUILDINGS IN TOWNS.
2990. The common houses of the town are not those which will engage our attention.
In London, and indeed throughout the towns of England, the habits of the people lead
them to prefer separate houses for each family, to one large one in which several families
may be well lodged, or, in other words, they prefer rows of mean-looking buildings, with
holes in the walls for windows, to the palatial appearance which results, in Paris and most
of the other cities in Europe, from large magnificent buildings with courts, and capable of
accommodating a number of different establishments. The section will be confined chiefly
to the arrangement of a house of the first class ; and from what will be said, sufficient hints
may be drawn for the composition of those in a lower class.
2991. The private buildings in a town are often in their composition beset with diffi-
culties which do not occur in those of the country, where the extent of site is freer and
ampler. These, therefore, may be isolated, and receive light from every side. Their
offices may be separated from the main house, and the parts may be disposed in the simplest
possible manner ; but in cities the site is generally more or less restricted, often very
812 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOCK 111.
irregular in form, and generally bounded by party walls. Yet, with all these obstacles, it
is necessary to provide almost as many conveniences as are required in a country house ;
whence the disposition cannot be so simple in its application as where there is no restraint.
All that can be done is to make it as much so as the nature of the spot will permit, and to
produce the maximum of comfort which the site affords.
2992. Nothing must be considered below the attention of an accomplished architect,
nor anything above his powers ; he ought as cheerfully to undertake for the proprietor the
conduct of the meanest cottage as of the most magnificent palace. Little will be requisite
to be said on the common houses of London, or other cities and towns in which there are
seldom more than two rooms and a closet on a floor, with an opening behind. These may
be varied ; but the general mode is to construct them with a kitchen in a floor sunk below
the ground, and a room behind, serving for a variety of purposes ; an area in front, with
vaults under the street, and the same often in the rear of the house. The space opposite
the descending stairs will form a dark closet ; and the privies, and wine and beer cellars,
with other small offices, are provided in the vaults. On the ground floor there is rarely
more than a passage on one side, which conducts to a staircase ; and this requiring more
width than the passage itself, the best room on this floor is placed in front, and the back
is a smaller room, often opening on a. small light closet still further in the rear. A yard is
supposed behind, by which light is obtained for the back room. On the one-pair and
other floors the passage becomes unnecessary as an access ; the drawing or front room
therefore runs over it, and becomes larger, capable, in the upper floors, of subdivision for
bedrooms, or other purposes, as may be required ; and the back rooms, with their closets,
if carried up, follow the form of those on the ground floor. Though little variety may be
the result of the restricted space to which this species of house is usually confined, the
addition of four or five feet either way will enable an intelligent architect to throw in
closets and other conveniences which are invaluable, as relieving a small house from the
pressure which otherwise will exist in the different apartments. But this will be obvious
to the practical man, unless he walks about blindfold. The houses we have just described
may stand upon a site of about twenty feet by thirty feet, independent of the vaults in front
and rear, and the back light closet, which is an invaluable appendage to a house of this de-
scription ; which is the scale of a second-rate house.
2993. Of the next higher rate of house the varieties are too great to be described,
because the extent of the largest arrives at what would be called a palace on the continent.
But, taking a mean between that just described and that last named, we may take one
similar to a moderate one in Portland Place for example. In such a one we must provide,
on the basement or sunk story, vaults under the street for beer, coals, wood, privies, and the
like, the refuse or dust of the house. The body or corps de logis on this floor must contain
housekeeper's room, servants' hall, rooms for butler and head footman, wine cellar, closets
for linen, strong room for plate, with closets and other conveniences for the household.
The ascending staircase must also have a space set apart for it. In the rear, under the open
area behind, will be placed a kitchen, scullery, and the larder, with the other appendages of
this part of the household ; an area, covered, where the communication with the rest of the
floor is made between the body of the house and the offices in question. Beyond the
kitchen are often vaults (though the disposition is sometimes otherwise), over which the
stables and coachhouses are placed, opening on the ground floor on to a mews parallel to
the street in which the house is situate. The ground floor of this disposition has usually
a dining-room in front, with a good-sized hall at its side, leading to a staircase which
ascends in direction of the long side of the house ; and this is necessary when the rooms
above are to communicate by folding doors. In some old houses, however, the staircase
ascends between the front and back rooms, and a back staircase is provided by the side of
it. But more commonly this is placed beyond the principal stairs, to allow of throwing
the drawing-rooms into one. In rear of the dining-room is often placed a library for the
gentleman of the house ; and beyond this, and further than the back stairs, when the lateral
staircase is used, a waiting-room, at the rear of which a water-closet may be placed, with a
door from it to the area over the kitchen ; or there may be a communication of this sort from
the waiting-room, which may serve the purpose of access to the stables. On the one-pair
floor the disposition will be two drawing-rooms, a boudoir over the waiting-room, and be-
yond this a water-closet. On the two-pair floor two bed-rooms, each with a dressing-room,
or three bed-rooms and one dressing-room, and a bath-room and water-closet. Above this
four bed- rooms and closets may be obtained ; and, if necessary, rooms in the roof in addi-
tion. For a good house of this class, with the offices, the plot of ground should viot be
much less than 100 feet by 30.
2994. Of the first class of houses, as a model may be taken the town-house, in
Piccadilly, of His Grace the Duke of Devonshire, which, with the offices and court-yard
in front, covers an area extending about 231 feet towards the street, and 188 feet in
depth, whereof the house itself occupies a frontage of 1 63 feet and a depth of 1 88 feet,
and opens on to a large garden in the rear. On the east side of the court-yard are dis-
CHAP. III. PRIVATE BUILDINGS IN THE COUNTRY. 813
posed the kitchen and other domestic offices, opposite whereto, on the west side, stand
the coach-houses and atabling. The basement of the house contains apartments for the
various persons attached to such an establishment. The principal floor to which the
ascent is by an external staircase, contains an entrance-hall, 35 feet by 30 feet, and com-
municates to an apartment on the west side, 33 feet by 22 feet, leading to the south-
western corner room, which is 20 feet square. On the north of the last is a room, making
the north-west angle of the building, and this is 40 feet by 20 feet. On the east side
of this last, and facing the north, is a room 33 feet by 23 feet, and in the centre of the
north front, corresponding with the width of the hall, is an apartment 30 feet by 23 feet
6 inches. To the east of the last is a room 33 feet by 24 feet, and east of that, forming
the north-east angle, is a small room 20 feet square. Thus far these rooms, seven in
number, are all en suite, but this is in some measure interrupted by the remainder of the east
flank, which is filled with three smaller rooms. To that of them, however, at the south,
which is 20 feet square, a passage is preserved, and from that you enter another room,
23 feet by 22 feet, which once more brings you back to the hall. The staircases are
between the north and south rooms on each side of the hall. Above this floor are the
lodging rooms, &c. The superficial area of all the reception rooms on the principal floor,
added together, amounts to 5708 feet.
2995. Burlington-house, in some respects, — for instance, in its beautiful front court, —
may be considered superior to that we have just described. It can be hardly necessary to add
that, in such edifices, rooms must be provided for steward, butler, housekeeper, stillroom-
maid, servants' hall of good dimensions, valets, ladies' maids, &c. ; for a muniment room and
plate, both of which must be fire-proof. Baths also should be placed on the chamber floor,
with other conveniences which will occur to the architect. The rooms for pictures, if
possible, should be on the north side of the building. To Lord Burlington the English
aristocracy is much indebted for the introduction of the Italian style into their dwellings ;
for the taste of Jones had almost passed away when the talented nobleman in question
gave a new impetus to proper distribution and decoration. Plans and elevations of
Devonshire-house are given in the Vitruvius Britannicus, which contains other town houses
of importance well worth the student's attention*
SECT. XXII.
PRIVATE BUILDINGS IN THE COUNTRY.
2996. Of first-class private buildings in the country, we apprehend we cannot furnish
better hints than by describing that of Kedlestone, in Derbyshire, erected for Lord Scars-
dale by Robert Adam. There are others which are larger, but we do not think any
superior in distribution and effect. The plans and elevations of it are to be seen in the
Vitruvius Britannicus above mentioned. The main body
of the house M (fig. 1038.), is about 136 feet by 105
feet ; and at each angle are quadrants of communication
to the four wings A, B, C, and D, which are each about
70 feet by 54 feet. On the basement story of the main
building are a large and small sub-hall in the centre, the
former 67 feet 3 inches by 42 feet, and the latter 42 feet by
40 feet 7 inches. On the right of these are disposed a
butler's room, 22 feet 6 inches by 17 feet 9 inches; a
housekeeper's room, and a steward's room, 30 feet by 21
feet 6 inches. On the left, a bath, a gun-room, 23 feet Fig- 1038-
9 inches by 23 feet 7 inches ; a smoking parlour, 28 feet by 17 feet 9 inches ; a boot-room,
22 feet 6 inches by 1 7 feet 9 inches, besides closets and staircases, &c. on either side. The
wing B contains the stables, a chapel, and other apartments. C, sleeping and other rooms,
eight in number, with a staircase which conducts to the corridor in the corresponding
quadrant. D contains the kitchen and its requisite accessories, and a servants' hall. This
wing has also a staircase to its corresponding corridor in the quadrant, which attaches it
to the main body. On the principal story, the main body M has at the entrance, which
is in the centre, and approached by a noble flight of steps, a magnificent hall, 69 feet
3 inches by 42 feet, at the end whereof is a saloon 42 feet diameter. To the right, enter-
ing from the hall, is the principal staircase, beyond which, laterally, is a bed-chamber 33 feet
by 22 feet, with its accessories ; and on its end, towards the back front, are ante-rooms, and
towards the front the dining-room, whence by the corridor is access to the kitchen in the
wing D, and from the ante-rooms above mentioned the corresponding corridor on that side
leads to a conservatory in the back front of the wing, and the upper part of the chapel.
On the left-hand side of the hall, with windows in the left flank of the main body, is the
814 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
drawing-room, 44 feet by 28 feet ; at the end towards the rear is a library, which is con-
tinued in the corridor leading to the wing A, wherein is a music gallery, 66 feet by 18 feet,
with other rooms and a staircase. On the end of the drawing-room, towards the front, is
a music room, 36 feet by 24 feet, whence the corridor leads to Lord Scarsdale's bedroom,
18 feet square, with dressing-rooms, and the lady's library, which, on this floor, are in the
wing C. The wing D is occupied by the upper part of the kitchen, a laundry, 35 feet by
18 feet, and some bedrooms, to which access is by a gallery over part of the kitchen.
The main body and wings contain a story over what has been last described, chiefly for
chambers. We have before (in the First Book,^s. 221, 222.) noticed the splendid hall and
salon, which occupy the height of the whole building, and are, though somewhat faulty in
detail, very finely-conceived arid well-proportioned apartments. The former is 40 feet high
to the top of the cove, and the latter 55 feet to the level of the eye of the dome. Though
the elevations exhibit defects, we are not inclined to quarrel with them in a dwelling which
deserves rather the name of a palace than of a country house.
2997. England abounds with country seats of this class : among them is Holkham,
which has already been mentioned in the First Book (51 1.) ; but we know none for dispo-
sition that can claim superiority over that which we have above described at length, from
which the student may derive much information on the requirenda in a mansion of the
first class. It is to be understood that we here intend modern buildings. The houses of
the times of Elizabeth and James are many of them magnificent structures, but the com-
fort introduced into houses of later date leaves them, independent of their picturesque
beauty, far behind the buildings of Kent, Carr, James, and many others. Blenheim is
monumental in its design, and properly so, and hence does not fall within the category of
the section.
2998. There are, of course, many intervening degrees between the mansion we have just
described and the villa of the retired banker or merchant : it would be impossible to state
them in detail. We have given the maximum in the above case, and we shall now give the
minimum for the class last mentioned.
2999. The smallest site of ground on which a villa can be well designed is, supposing
it an oblong, about 80 feet by 56 to 60 feet. This on the principal floor will admit of a
hall, a salon or ante-roorn, which may lead to the principal apartments, a drawing-room,
two secondary drawing-rooms, one whereof may be appropriated to the reception of a
billiard table, a good dining-room, not less than 30 feet by 20 feet, a library of equal size,
with other rooms, suitable to the particular taste of the proprietor, and the conveniences
and accessories which such a building requires. The ground, supposing the domestic
offices to be under the principal floor, should be raised, so that they need not be much
sunk below the general level of the land. If the building be seated on rising ground, a
little more sinking may be allowed than under other circumstances, provided the lower
story be protected by dry drains all round the building, to prevent the earth lying against
the walls, because drainage, the most important of all things in a building, may then be
obtained easily by the natural fall of the ground. The plot we have mentioned will admit
of all the offices below, which are necessary for the service of a good-sized family, and
above, with only one story above the principal one, will afford a pretty fair allowance of
dormitories ; but if a concealed story for servants be practised in the roof, there are few
establishments on a common scale for which, on the plot, accommodation may not be pro-
vided by a skilful artist. The stables and coach-houses and the greenhouses should stand
apart. Some persons like to have these communicating with the villa itself; but the prac-
tice is destructive of symmetry, and very injurious (except in the villa on an irregular plan,
which then rather approaches to the cottage orne) to the general effect of the architecture.
3000. The villas at Foot's Cray and Mereworth, imitations of Palladio's Villa Capra,
so often mentioned in this volume, and represented \nfig. 1018., are the maxirna of villas:
beyond this the villa becomes a mansion, and must be treated as one on a scale more or
less grand, as the means of the proprietor allow the architect to provide for his wants. All
precepts, however, on this head are valueless, because the architect is regulated so much by
the convenience required. He must possess himself fully of that, and, attending to the
general rules given throughout the work, but especially in this Third Book, he will find
little difficulty in fulfilling the commission with which he is intrusted. Among other
matters let him well inform himself of what has been done, and make himself master of the
points involved in domestic economy, from the lowest to the highest grade, and he cannot,
using that information, fail of giving his employer that satisfaction which is the first care that
should animate him.
3001. It is not our intention to touch upon the cottage orne, as it is called. This is a
nondescript sort of building, subject only to rules which the architect chooses to impose
upon himself. The only point to be attended to, after internal comfort has been provided
for, is to present picturesque effect in the exterior. It is a branch of practice requiring a
minimum of mind on the part of the architect, and for the successful execution of which
the landscapes of Gaspar Poussin will give him enough hints to stud a province with them.
CHAP. III. FARM-HOUSES. 815
SECT. XXIII.
FARM-HOUSES.
3002. The mere building denominated a farm-house is simple enough in its distribution,
and scarcely justifies a section here, because the persons engaged in agriculture have
generally the best notion of the mode of suiting it to their own particular business and the
nature of the farm they occupy. It is first to be considered whether it is expedient to
place it close to the other buildings of the farm, such as the barns, stables, and stalls for
cattle, &c. If so, it should be designed in character with them, and a large space of ground
is enclosed for the formation of a farm-yard ; which, notwithstanding the seemingly re-
pulsive nature of the subject, may be made a very picturesque composition as a whole.
The farm-house itself, though it must be sufficiently large to accommodate the family of
the farmer, should be restricted in the size of its rooms and the extent of its plan by the
magnitude of the farm, it being altogether an absurdity to plant a large house on a small
farm, not only because of the original cost, which the rent of the land will not justify, but
because of the cost of the annual repairs which a large building entails beyond those of a
smaller one. The same observation applies to the farm buildings themselves, which in
extent must be regulated by the size of the farm cultivated. It is moreover to be con-
sidered, in respect of the latter, whether the farm be grazing or arable. In the first case
more provision of cattle sheds must be afforded ; in the latter case more barns must be
allotted to the cultivator. These, however, are matters upon which the architect receives
his instructions from the proprietor, and whereon, generally speaking, he is himself incom-
petent to form a correct judgment.
3003. In the commonest farm-houses the external door may open to a plain passage, at
the end whereof the staircase may be placed. On one side of the passage may be a com-
mon kitchen, and on the other side the better or larger kitchen, serving also as a parlour
for the farmer and his family. Beyond these, on one side, may be placed the pantry, and
on the other side the dairy-room, the last being much larger than the former, and being on
the side of the parlour or best kitchen, not so liable to the heat. To these, as needful, may
be added more rooms on the ground floor; the upper story being divided into bed-
chambers for the family, with garrets over them for the servants. The kitchens should be
placed upon arched cellars on several accounts, not the least of which is that the farmer
should have the means of preserving in good condition the malt liquor or cyder which is
the principal beverage of his establishment. It is a sad mistake on the part of landed
proprietors, though common enough, to think that such buildings are not only below the
care of an architect, but that he is too ignorant of the wants of the farmer to be competent
to the task ; if, however, he will reflect for a moment, he must admit tLa. the artist who
can make the most of a large plot of ground, with numberless requirements in the accom-
modation, is not less able to turn to the greatest advantage for the comfort of the occupier
even a small farm-house.
3004. In the erection of a larger farm-house the choice of the site, as before, must de-
pend on the nature of the ground and the situation of the farm. Health and convenience
are the primary governing matters. It must never be placed where it cannot be well
drained. It should be central to the land, and as near the road as the conditions will
admit. For such a building the principal door may open into a moderately wide passage,
having therein a staircase to the upper rooms. On the right of the passage a common
kitchen may be provided for the family, and on the left a room somewhat larger, which in
very small farm-houses used to be called the best kitchen, but which in this may be really
the parlour, where the family may sit retired from the servants. Under these, cellars, as
above mentioned, may be provided. On the ground floor we may now add a bakehouse
and scullery to the pantry and dairy provided in the first scheme, as also closets and such
conveniences for the housewife. The floor above may be extended ever the additional
rooms just mentioned, thus giving lodging room to a larger number of persons than to
those contemplated in the first scheme. " In this manner," says Ware, in his Complete
Body of Architecture, folio, London, 1756, "the young architect will very easily see how to
enlarge or contract his plan for the building of farm-houses, according to the intended
bigness." ..." They all consist of the same number of rooms, and in general of the same
number of offices ; this is where the bare article of convenience for farming is concerned.
Where the inhabitant is grown rich, and intends to live in another manner, he may add
what he pleases, which the architect may adopt." ..." It is then no longer to be con-
sidered a farm-house, but as the house of some person of fortune, who intends to live as
those independent of business do, but withal to have some farming in his eye." When the
farm-house comes to this extent it trenches hard upon the condition of the villa, though not
quite reaching it, because the latter includes many provisions for a refined mode of living
which the yeoman, the pride of England, does not require ; a class which, we fear, the ma-
nufacturing and commercial classes are fast annihilating.
816 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE BOOK III.
SECT. XXIV.
3005. " Estates," observes Kent, (Hints to Gentlemen of Landed Property, 8vo. London,
1776,) "being of no value without hands to cultivate them, the labourer is one of the most
valuable members of society: without him the richest soil is not worth owning." It
follows, then, that his condition should be most especially considered, and it is a duty on
every country gentleman to take care that the labourers on his estate are so considered as
to be made at least comfortable. " The shattered hovels," says the same author, " which
half the poor of this kingdom are obliged to put up with, is truly affecting to a heart
fraught with humanity." ..." The weather penetrates all parts of them, which must
occasion illness of various kinds, particularly agues ; which more frequently visit the
children of cottagers than any others, and early shake their constitutions." . . . "We are
careful of our horses, nay, of our dogs, which are less valuable animals ; we bestow con-
siderable attention upon our stables and kennels, but we are apt to look upon cottages as
incumbrances and clogs to our property, when, in fact, those who occupy them are the
very nerves and sinews of agriculture." We fear the neglect of the comfort of the cottager
has given a greater impulse to poaching and other crimes than his natural propensities
have induced. This, however, is not a matter for discussion here. It is not to be supposed
that we mean the labourer is to be placed in an expensive dwelling ; a difference of rank
must exist ; and if the whole revenue of the country were divided among the population
per head, it would be seen (as M. Dupin has recently shown in a most eloquent and
sound address delivered in Paris as respects France) that the division of it per day,
after allowing for the expenses of the most economical government that could be de-
vised, would be such as would not satisfy the lowest class of labourer, much less the in-
genious mechanic. This is a matter so susceptible of proof, and so proper to be generally
promulgated, that we have here gone a little out of our way lest we should be considered
too urgent with respect to the cottager.
3006. No cottage ought to be erected which does not contain a warm, comfortable,
plain room, with an oven to bake the bread of its occupier ; a small closet for the beer and
provisions, two wholesome lodging rooms, one whereof should be for the man and his wife,
and the other for his children. It would be well always, if possible, that the boys and
girls in a cottage should be separated ; but this unfortunately entails an expense, and per-
haps is not so materially necessary, because the boys find employment at an early age. A
shed for fuel should be attached.
Cottages should always be placed in sheltered spots, and as near as possible to the
farm where the labourer is employed. The wear and tear of a man is not very dissi-
milar to that of an engine, and it tends as much to the interest of the farmer as it does to
the comfort of the labourer that all unnecessary fatigue be avoided.
3007. In the erection of cottages it is not only more economical, but more comfortable
to the occupiers, that they should be built double, or in twos at least. In those provinces
where brick or stone can be obtained they should never be constructed with timber, and
tiles, if they can conveniently be had, should always supersede thatch. Further observa-
tion on this subject will be unnecessary, for we have ill delivered the principles of our art
if the student be not now prepared to carry out the few hints on the subject of cottages,
— buildings, in point of fact, of importance paramount to the palace which the sovereign
inhabits.
The following remarks are from a very talented and practical person, J. C. Loudon,
Esquire.
" The essential requisites of a comfortable labourer's cottage may be thus summed up : —
" 1 . The cottage should be placed alongside a public road, as being more cheerful than a
solitary situation, and in order that the cottager may enjoy the applause of the public when
he has his garden in good order and keeping.
" 2. The cottage should be so placed that the sun may shine on every side of it during
the day throughout the year, when he is visible. For this reason, the front of the cottage
can only be parallel to the public road in the case of roads in the direction of north-east,
south-west, north-west, and south-east ; in all other cases the front must be placed obliquely
to the road, which, as we have previously shown, is greatly preferable to having the front
parallel to the road.
" 3. Every cottage ought to have the floor elevated, that it may be dry ; the walls double
or hollow, or battened, or not less than eighteen inches thick, that they may retain heat ;
with a course of slate or flagstone, or tiles bedded in cement, six inches above the surface, to
prevent the rising of damp ; the roof thick or double, for the sake of warmth ; and project-
ing eighteen inches or two feet at the eaves, in order to keep the walls dry, and to check the
radiation of heat from their exterior surface.
CHAP. III. COTTAGES. 817
" 4. In general, every cottage ought to be two stories high, so that the sleeping rooms may
not be on the ground floor ; and the ground floor ought to be from six inches to one foot
above the outer surface.
" 5. The minimum of accommodation ought to be the kitchen or living room, a back
kitchen or wash-house, and a pantry, on the ground-floor, with three bedrooms over ; or
two rooms and a wash-house on the ground-floor, and two bedrooms over.
" 6. Every cottage, including its garden, yard, &c., ought to occupy not less than one
sixth of an acre ; and the garden ought to surround the cottage, or at all events to extend
both before and behind. In general, there ought to be a front garden and a back yard, the
latter being entered from the back kitchen, and containing a privy, liquid manure tank,
place for dust and ashes, and place for fuel.
" 7. If practicable, every cottage ought to stand singly, and surrounded by its garden ;
or at all events not more than two cottages ought to be joined together. Among other
important arguments in favour of this arrangement, it may be mentioned that it is the only
one by which the sun can shine every day on every side of the cottage. When cottages are
joined together in a row, unless that row is in a diagonal direction with reference to a south
and north line, the sun will shine chiefly on one side. By having cottages singly or in
pairs, they may always be placed along any road in such a manner that the sun may shine
on every side of them, provided the point be given up of having the front parallel to the
road, a point which in our opinion ought not for a moment to be put in competition with
the advantages of an equal diffusion of sunshine.
" 8. Every cottage ought to have an entrance porch for containing the labourer's tools,
and into which, if possible, the stairs ought to open, in order that the bedrooms may be
communicated with, without passing through the front or back kitchen. This, in the case
of sickness, is very desirable, and also in the case of deaths, as the remains may be carried
down stairs while the family are in the front room.
" 9. The door to the front kitchen or best room should open from the porch, and not
from the back kitchen, which, as it contains the cooking utensils and washing apparatus,
can never be fit for being passed through by a stranger, or even the master of a family,
where proper regard is had by the mistress to cleanliness and delicacy.
" 10. When there is a supply of clear water from a spring adjoining the cottage, or from
some other efficient source, then there ought to be a well or tank, partly under the floor of
the back kitchen for drawing it up for use, as hereafter described in detail. The advan-
tages of having the tank or well under the back kitchen are, that it will be secure from
frost, and that the labour of carrying water will be avoided.
"11. The privy should always be separated from the dwelling, unless it is a proper water-
closet, with a soil-pipe communicating with a distant liquid manure tank or cesspool.
When detached, the privy should be over or adjoining a liquid manure tank, in which a
straight tube from the bottom of the basin ought to terminate ; by which means the soil
basin may always be kept clean by pouring down the common slops of the house. No
surface being left from which smell can arise, except that of the area of the pipe, the double
flap, to be hereafter described, will prevent the escape of the evaporation from this small
surface, and also ensure a dry and clean seat.
" 1 2. The situation of the liquid manure tank should be as far as possible from that of
the filtered water tank or clear water well. It should be covered by an air-tight cover of
flagstone, and have a narrow well adjoining, into which the liquid should filter through a
grating, so as to be pumped up or taken away without grosser impurities, and in this state
applied to the soil about growing crops.
" 1 3. In general, proprietors ought not to intrust the erection of labourers' cottages on
their estate to the farmers, as it is chiefly owing to this practice that so many wretched
hovels exist in the best-cultivated districts of Scotland and in Northumberland.
" 14. No landed proprietor, as we think, ought to charge more for the land on which
cottages are built than he would receive for it from a farmer if let as part of a farm ; and
no more rent ought to be charged for the cost of building the cottage and enclosing the
garden than the same sum would yield if invested in land, or, at all events, not more than
can be obtained by government securities.
" 15. Most of these conditions are laid down on the supposition that the intended builder
of the cottage is actuated more by feelings of human sympathy than by a desire to make
money ; and hence they are addressed to the wealthy, and especially to the proprietors of
land and extensive manufactories or mines."
3008. The preceding observations of Mr. Loudon are extracted from a " Report to Her
Majesty's principal Secretary of State, from the Poor Law Commissioners, on an Enquiry
into the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain." 8vo. London,
1842. We regret that this Report was not published in time for us to notice one
portion of it under its proper head, namely, that of sewers, a subject on which a very
lengthened experience has enabled us to acquire some knowledge. The writer of the Re-
3 G
818 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. BOOK III.
port, who himself cannot be supposed at all qualified for such a task, has recommended
forms for sewers which practice has proved to be exceedingly inconvenient ; and has more-
over given to a gentleman having, as he says, " the experience and qualifications of an
engineer," the credit of having invented a method of flushing the sewers, and of carrying
off all the refuse by water : a scheme so far from novel that we ourselves have used it on a
very extensive scale for the last thirty-five years at least. We have thought it right here
to notice this Report, which in many other particulars is ill and carelessly drawn up. It
is much to be regretted that it was not committed to more competent hands ; we mean
such parts as relate to the sifting and arrangement of the evidence whereon it is founded.
But this is the course of things in this country : a briefless barrister, without the least pre-
paratory education for the task, delivers opinions ex cathedra, on which a scientific person
would pause. " Thus fools rush in where angels, &c." — but the quotation is trite.
APPENDIX.
»
I. — GOTHIC OR POINTED ARCHITECTURE.
SECT. I.
GENERAL REMARKS ON POINTED ARCHITECTURE, IN RELATION TO ITS SYMMETRY AKD
STABILITY.
E pontificate, towards the end of the tenth century, of n Benedictine monk, named
rbert, afterwards known under the name of Sylvester II., and whose life, if Platina
(Lives of the Popes') may be relied on, was not of the most virtuous character, seems to
have induced an extraordinary change in the arts. Gerbert was a native of Auvergne, and,
under Arabian masters at Cordova and Grenada, applied himself to, and became a great
proficient in, mathematical learning. He afterwards appears to have settled at Rheims,
and to have there planted a school which threw out many ramifications. The scholars of
the period were confined to the clergy, and the sciences, having no tendency to injure the
Church, were zealously cultivated by its members.
In the twelfth century, the Elements of Euclid became a text book, and though this country
was then behind the Continent, as respected the art of architecture, there is good reason
for believing it was by no means so in regard to proficiency in mathematics, inasmuch as
the Benedictine monk, Adelard of Bath, is known to have been highly distinguished for
his acquirements in them.
In the eleventh century, architecture, considered as an art, was little more than a bar-
barous imitation of that of ancient Rome, and in it, all that appears tasteful was, perhaps,
more attributable to the symmetry flowing from an acquaintance with geometry, than the
result of fine feeling in those that exercised it. It was adapted to religious monuments,
with great modifications ; but the materials and resources at hand, no less than the taste
of those engaged in it, had considerable influence on the developments it was doomed to
undergo. The sculptures of the period were borrowed largely from the ancients, and
among them are often to be found centaurs and other fabulous animals of antiquity.
The first crusade had made the people of Europe acquainted with the East, and in the
twelfth century the result of the knowledge thus acquired was manifest in France, England,
and Germany ; it could however scarcely be expected that the art would emerge other-
wise than slowly under the hands of the churchmen, who were the principal practi-
tioners. It is difficult to assign the date at which the renowned association of Freemasons
had its origin : on all hands it seems agreed that we are indebted to it for the noble
structures of the middle ages. The antiquity claimed by the Freemasons of this age is
too absurd for serious discussion. It appears reasonable to assume, that as the power of
the Church was sinking, that of the Freemasons rose into life, and at the same time the
laity increased in their rank and standing with society. The germs of the body were,
however, previously in existence; for it is well authenticated (De Beka, De Episcopis
'"traject. ) that, in the eleventh century, a certain Bishop of Utrecht was killed by the father
a young Freemason, from whom the prelate had extracted the mystery (arcanum ma-
terium) of laying the foundations of a church. The period at which arose the celebrated
ifraternite des Fonts, founded by St. Benezet, is known to have been towards'the latter
of the twelfth or the beginning of the thirteenth century, and it is not unlikely that it
a branch of the great masonic association. It is also worthy of notice, that the period
ii question coincides with the introduction of the pointed arch simultaneously in the
Afferent countries of Europe, as though they were all actuated by one general feeling, and
rected and guided by one powerful and governing body with whom it setms to have
iginated. The association of Freemasons had, however, its types at a period extremely
ote. Among the Romans, and still earlier, among even the Greeks, existed corporations
they may be so called) of artificers and others; such were Numa's Collegia Fabrorum
Collegia Artijicum, who made regulations for their own governance. These collegia
re much in favour with the later Roman emperors, for in the third and fourth centuries we
nd that architects, painters, and sculptors, and many of the useful artificers, were free from
xation. The downfal, however, of the eastern and western empires, involved them in one
3 G 2
<*20 REMARKS ON POINTED ARCHITECTURE. APPENDIX.
common ruin, though it did not actually extinguish them. There is said still to exist in
England a document, alleged to be the constitution confirmed in 926 to the corporations of
architects by King Athelstan, through his brother Edwin, but where it is deposited nobody
seems to know, the story is doubtless a fable. Up, however, to 1425, it is clear they
existed in this country, inasmuch as the statute of 3 Henry VI., which is to be seen on the
Rolls of Parliament, prohibits their meeting in chapters. A perusal of the statute, which is
very short, shows that up to 'that time they had continued to enjoy privileges, amounting
almost to a building monopoly in this country. In an indenture of this reign, between the
churchwardens of a parish in Suffolk and a lodge or company of Freemasons, it was sti-
pulated by the latter that each mason should be provided with a pair of white leather
gloves and a white apron, and, moreover, that the parish should erect a lodge, properly tiled,
for the prosecution of the works. Some have imagined that the concealment of their modes
of arrangement of arch stones was the chief object of their association, but there can be no
doubt that the whole science of construction was studied and taught in the lodges. Others
have-thought that they inclined to Manicheism, of which the sects were numberless: but
ire think they had enough to engage their attention, without discussing whether all things
were effected by the combination or repulsion of the good and the bad ; or that men had a
double soul, good and evil ; or that their bodies were formed, the upper half by God, and the
lower half by the devil.
How the laity managed to insinuate themselves into these corporations, which, until the
thirteenth century, consisted of the clergy only, does not appear ; but it is pretty certain
that about this time the lay got the better of the sacerdotal architects, were received into
favour, and protected by the public. Though the Freemasons, as a body, were not hostile
to the Church, by which they were viewed with a jealous eye, they were inveterate enemies
of the clergy, and more particularly of the monks. This is abundantly seen in the ri-
dicule and grotesque lampoons bestowed on them in the sculptures of the thirteenth century.
As the laity became contributors towards the monuments of the time, it was induced to
obtain some control by the employment of lay architects, and the weakness of the Pope,
whose authority had been considerably diminished during the twelfth century, tended
likewise to a similar end. As an instance of the extreme length to which the ridicule of
the priests was then carried, we have at Strasburgh the representation of an ass saying
mass and served by other animals as acolytes.
It appears that while the art was in its practice confined to the clergy, their taste was
bounded by the semicircular arch, and that the introduction of the pointed one, and the
period of the acquisition of power by the Freemasons, were coeval. Whence it came, or
whether it was the invention of that society, has not as yet been satisfactorily answered. In
glancing over the many writers on this subject, it is amusing to see the difference of opinion
that exists among them. For instance, twenty are of opinion that it originated in Germany ;
fourteen, that it was of Eastern or Saracenic origin ; six, that it arose from the hint sug-
gested by the intersection of the Norman arches ; four, that it was the invention of the Goths
and Lombards ; and three, that its origin was in Italy. Sprung, however, from whatever
place, it appears to have given in every sense an independence to the art not before be-
longing to it, and to have introduced principles of far greater freedom, in respect of the ratio
of points of support to the whole mass, than were previously exhibited or probably known.
M. Michelet ( Histoire de France) observes, " Or, lors de 1'apparition de 1'ogive en
Occident vers 1200, Innocent III. est le dernier rayon de cette puissance universelle, le
pouvoir de 1'Eglise Catholique s'affaiblit. La tentative des ordres des mendiants, des peres
precheurs est infructueuse. Le pouvoir des pretres tombe dans la main des la'iques. La
puissance du droit canonique, de ce robuste auxiliare de 1'Eglise, s'efface en France devant
ces lois sages faites par le pieux Roi St. Louis, et ses etablissements immortels serventde code
nouveau a ses sujets. En Angleterre le Roi Jean-sans-terre donne, en 1215, la grande
Charte. En Allemagne, au commencement du treizieme siecle parait le Sachsenspiegel.
Au milieu du quatorzieme, oule regne de 1'ogive est a son apogee, 1'Empereur Charles IV.
donne la Bulle d'or. Au treizieme siecle se terminent les Croisades qui mirent le Pape
au dessus des pouvoirs temporels. Ces guerres saintes avaient fait prevaloir Pautorite de
1'Eveque de Rome. Mais au treizieme siecle 1'activite des peuples Chretiens avait prit une
autre direction, et ils finirent par secouer toute espece de domination." It is impossible,
in passing the pontificate of Innocent III., to refrain from noticing that it was an epoch, in
which such men appeared on the scene as St. Thomas Aquinas, St. Dominic, St. Francis of
Assisi, John Gerson, author of the " Imitation of Jesus Christ," a composition that has
been oftener printed than any other work ; and in literature and the arts, about this period,
are to be found the names of Dante, Robert de Lusarches, Arnolfo di Lapo, Erwin de
Steinbach, besides a host of others.
Invested with all the character of chivalry and romance, and sacerdotal having yielded
to secular art, the age seemed to express in matter its spiritual impressions. The aspiring
vertical lines of its monuments have by some been considered types of aspiration after tlie
Divinity. This may or may not have been the case, and there cannot but be an indisposition
APPENDIX. REMARKS ON POINTED ARCHITECTURE. 821
to believe in symbolism, when there are so many forms in nature whose imitation, or the
study whereof, would lead to the same results.
Architecture in the eleventh century was not even ranked among the liberal arts, which
were but seven in number, as expressed in the subjoined hexameter line, those arts which
were called servile being enumerated in the pentameter which follows it.
" Lingua, Tropus, Ratio, Numerus, Tonus, Angulus, Astra.
Rus, Nemus, Arma, Faber, Vulnera, Lana, Rates."
While the schools were limited in their instruction, and the Aristotelian philosophy was
in its palmy state, the heavy Norman style, with its zig-zags, broken sticks, and dog's teeth,
was the highest point the art could reach. Though the philosophy in question in some
sort maintained its ground till the fourteenth century, it had been damaged previous to
that period. Innocent III. issued a prohibition of the use of the physics and metaphysics
of Aristotle, which, albeit not effectual, was nevertheless injurious to their growth. The
universities, however, at a later period, did for the benefit of science and learning, what the
association of Freemasons accomplished for pointed architecture at an earlier period. To
these latter we are indebted, not only for the gigantic masses of exquisitely decorated com-
position, to be seen in the structures themselves which they erected, but for the amalga-
mation of them with the arts of painting and sculpture in the interiors.
From an early time the triangle seems to have been associated with as much mystery
and veneration as the number 3. Without here touching on symbolism, in its use,
whether equilateral or isosceles, — for the most important of the mysteries of the Christian
religion will immediately occur to the reader, as respects the equilateral triangle, — we can-
not but perceive, both in one and the other, a tendency to the production of the pointed
arch. The geometrical law for describing it is, as every one
knows, founded on the intersection of two circles of the same
radius. The Pythagoreans called the equilateral triangle, Trito-
geneia. It was, according to Plutarch, the symbol of justice.
The subdivision of the arcs bounding an equilateral triangle by other
arcs of equal radius, gives other modifications of the pointed arch,
and by their intersections are obtained the skeleton lines of orna-
mented windows of an early period, which, at a later date,
branched out into the most luxuriant forms. If we may depend
on Caesar Cesarianus, the commentator on Vitruvius (1521), the equilateral triangle, which
he applies on the cathedral of Milan, seems to have been as useful in its application to the
general proportions of cathedrals as in the formation of the pointed arch. In applying
it to Salisbury cathedral, the triangles on the section seem accurately to bound the dimen-
sions used. There can, indeed, be no doubt that the heights, widths, and lengths of churches
were greatly dependent on its repetition for their proportions ; inasmuch as in most of the
principal churches, when tested by it, the coincidence is too remarkable to be the result of
accident. There were, however, other ingredients, and those of high importance, necessary
to produce these noble edifices, to which we shall hereafter have occasion to allude. The
same figure, the equilateral triangle was also of essential importance in governing the details
of curves, wherein the subdivision 3 and its multiples were concerned.
Among other matters connected with the development of the art, Stieglitz, in 1834,
brought to the notice of the public, the marks on courses of stone in many buildings in Ger-
many, and elsewhere, called " masons' marks," which by some have been supposed to be the
personal marks of the masters of the works, but which are, in fact, nothing more than di-
rections to the setters, and, indeed, are used by masons up to the present hour. Some of
these, however, are curious in form and figure, and were most probably determined by the
lodges. Their forms are principally rectangular, of forty-five degrees, of the equilateral
triangle, of the intersection of horizontal and perpendicular lines, and circular. Some of
them have so great a resemblance to Runic characters, that therefrom it has been argued the
Anglo-Saxons taught the Germans architecture, and that they cultivated the art, and had
masonic lodges among themselv-es, at a very early period ; but this seems rather unreason-
able ; neither is it likely that the natives of this island were the chief artists employed on
foreign cathedrals, though some may have been. That these marks, however, were used
from some traditional knowledge can scarcely be doubted. Thus the mark fy , the cruciform
hammer of Thor, is found in the minster at Bale, and repeated in the sixteenth century in
the church at Oschatz. This mark abounds in a great variety of phases, — on medals, or
annulets, in the museum of the Royal Academy of Copenhagen, and on many Runic monu-
ments, as mentioned by Hobhouse, in his illustrations of Childe Harold. It is also found
on the sacred jar of the Vaishnavas (Asiatic Researches, vol. viii.). At the Chateau de
Coucy (13th century) is found ^ the Runic letter S. One mark of frequent recurrence
is fy, an inverted Runic T. It may be seen at Fribourg, at the beautiful church of St.
Catherine, Oppenheim, and at Strasburg, connected with the letter N. Without found-
ing any hypothesis upon the singular agreement of these marks with the sixteen letters
3 G 3
822
REMARKS ON POINTED ARCHITECTURE.
APPENDIX.
Fig. 2.
oFthe Runic alphabet, it is at least a curious matter for further examination. These marks,
it may be observed, are mostly found on the vertical faces of the masonry ; but, as in present
practice, they are also often found on the beds, or horizontal faces, where stones have been
displaced. That they emanated from some central authority, and were universally under-
stood by those who were subject to it, no doubt can exist, and their resemblance to the
Runic characters seems to point to some Anglo-Saxon connection. This however is but
conjecture.
Hobhouse, in the work above mentioned, states, that a character resembling the hammer
of Thor is found in some Spanish inscriptions, and he seems to think it
bears some affinity to fig. 2, which is often drawn by boys in Italys though
no meaning is ascribed to it ; just as English shepherds, who never saw
a coin of Antiochus, are in the habit of cutting the pentalpha on the turf.
The earliest lodge of which we have any authentic knowledge, was
that of Strasburg. Of it, Erwin of Steinback seems to have been
the head ; he appears also to have been the first secular architect
of importance that arose, and to have had privileges of great im-
portance conceded to him by the emperor, llodolph of Hapsburg.
This lodge was regularly constituted, with power, round a certain extent of territory, to
maintain order and obedience among the workmen under its jurisdiction. In 1278, Pope
Nicholas III. granted to the body a bull of absolution, which was renewed by his successors
up to the time, in the fourteenth century, when Benedict XII. occupied the papal chair.
To lodoque Dotzinger, master of the works at Strasburg in 1452, the merit seems attri-
butable of so forming an alliance between the different lodges of Germany, as to induce
a greater uniformity of practice. Whether from the central lodge of Strasburg, whence
certainly branched lodges at Cologne, Vienna, and Zurich, branched also the lodges of
France, England, and Italy, in which last named country, one existed at Orvieto, it is now
perhaps too difficult a task to discover ; but it is quite certain, from the majority of monu-
ments in those countries, that in them all the constructive principles and the same propor-
tions modified, were practised by the builders. While the architect was clerical, we observe
the uniformity of the massive pillars, surmounted by the semicircular arch. In the thir-
teenth century, the lay architect appears, and the pointed arch becomes universal ; the monu-
ments of the latter period bearing so great a resemblance to each other, that no other probable
cause can be assigned for their similarity, than the superintendence of some powerful asso-
ciation of operators. Allowance, however, must in many cases be made for the materials
at hand in different localities, which, it is hardly necessary to observe, influence style in
architecture.
In respect of what may be called the general form and character of the cathedrals and
churches formed on the Byzantine models, which are derived from the ancient Basilica, it is
well known the resemblance is close. In the principal features of the plan, the Byzantine and
pointed cathedrals are the same. The choir is mostly found in the east, and is separated
from the nave by transepts. Two towers with spires, at the west end, and a porch between,
compose the principal fa9ade. The nave rises above the side aisles. In the thir-
teenth century the choir, instead of being terminated circularly on the plan, became poly-
gonal. It will be presently seen in what manner the number of sides of the polygon was
regulated.
Among the more rational pieces of symbolism is that of the plan on which the earlier
Christian churches were constructed, namely, the cross. At the beginning of the ninth
century, in an inauguration (of a church) sermon, the preacher observes, " In dextro cornu
altaris quae in modum crucis constructa est ;" and again, " In medio ecclesiae quae est instar
cruets constructa." (Acta S. S. Benedict.) After the tenth
century it would perhaps be difficult to find a cathedral
deviating from a cruciform plan. Round churches, as at Aix
la Chapelle, Rieux, Merinville, and some few other places,
are not enough in number to affect the rule. The Bap-
tistery, which was a distinct and isolated building, and either
circular or polygonal, does not here fall within our consi-
deration.
It was in the thirteenth century that the termination of
the choir of the Byzantine plan was changed, as we have
just noticed, from a circular to a polygonal form. The
general ordonnance of the plan was, however, not changed,
and seems almost to have sprung from the laws and propor-
tions upon which surfaces and solid bodies are dependent.
The square and its diagonal, the cube and its sides, appear,
at least the latter or the side of the former (sec Jig. 3.), to fur-
nish the unit on which the system is based. Hence the num-
bers 3, 5, and 7, become the governing numbers of the different parts of the building. The
fig.
APPENDIX. REMARKS ON POINTED ARCHITECTURE. 823
unit in the Latin cross, placed at the intersection of the nave, gives the development of a
perfect cube, according to the rules of descriptive geometry. Here are found the number
3, in the arms of the cross and the centre square ; the number 5, in the whole number of
squares, omitting the central one ; and the number 7, counting them in each direction.
The foot, however, of the cross was, in time, lengthened to repetitions of five and six, and even
more times. In monumental churches, formed on such a system, there necessarily arises
an unity of a geometrical nature ; and the geometrical principles emanating therefrom
guided, not only their principal, but their secondary detail, as will after be seen. Even
before the thirteenth century there seems to have been some relation between the number
of bays into which the nave was longitudinally divided, and the exterior and interior divi-
sions whereof the apsis consisted; but, after the introduction of the pointed style, this rela-
tion became so intimate, that from the number of sides of the apsis the number of bays in
the nave may be always predicated, where the work has been carried out as it was originally
designed. From the examination of many, indeed most, of the churches in Flanders, this
circumstance had been long known to us ; but for first publicly making it known, the anti-
quary is indebted, we believe, to M. Ramee (in 1843), whose work, as respects the German
examples, has been of much service to us, and, moreover, extensively used : there are, how-
ever, many points on which M. Ramee does not enter into opinions similar to those we enter-
tain. To resume, however : the connection of the bays of the nave with the terminating polygon
of the choir was such, that the polygon is inscribed in a circle, whose diameter is the measur-
ing unit of the nave, and generally of the transepts, and forms always the side of the square
intercepted by them. It is most frequently octagonal (fig. 4.), and generally formed by
three sides of the octagon. When this is used, the governing
number will be found to be 8, or some multiple of it. Thus, in
the Abbaye aux Hommes, at Caen (this, however, is previous to
the thirteenth century), the termination of the choir is by a double
octagon, and the number of bays in the nave is eight. The same
occurs at St. Stephen's, Vienna, in the church of St. Catherine, at
Oppenheim, at Lichfield cathedral, Tewkesbury abbey, and in
almost every example that is known. It may be well here * Flg>
to observe, that the English cathedrals, from their great de-
ficiency in symmetry, on account of their not having been finished on their original plans,
do not afford that elucidation of the theory that is found in those on the Continent. In
twenty-four instances of them we have sixteen in which the terminations are square instead
of polygonal : when polygonal the rule seems to have been always followed.
An eastern termination of the choir in three bays may be produced from the octagon, by
omitting the sides in the direction of the length of the building, as in fig. 5. In fig. 6.
Fig- 5. Fig. 6.
the three sides will be found to be those of a hexagon ; and in this case the number 6
governs the other parts. Examples of this arrangement are, the minster at Fribourg, in
Brisgau; the cathedral at Cologne, where the apsis is dodecagonal, and there are six bays
in the nave ; and our own abbey at Westminster, where the eastern end is hexagonal, and
there are found twelve bays in the nave.
In respect of nonagonal termination, the most extraordinary instance of a coincidence
with the rules laid down by the governing lodges, occurs in the duomo of Milan, commenced
at the end of the fourteenth century, and completed (the western front excepted) towards
the end of the fifteenth century. However impure its details may appear to the rigid,
it is nevertheless a monument of stupendous effect, and was doubtless the result of high
refinement in the lodge which superintended its execution. Its apsis is formed by three
sides of a nonagon, and the bays in the nave are nine in number. One third of the
arc contained under the side of an equilateral triangle seems to be the governing dimen-
sion. The number 3, submultiple of 9, pervades the structure. There are three bays
in the choir, and the like number in the transepts. The vault of the nave is subtended
by an equilateral triangle. The lower principal windows are each designed in three
bays. The plan of the columns in the nave in each quarter contains three principal sub-
divisions, and, in a transverse section of the nave, the voids are just one third of the solids.
These are curious points, and, if Gothic architecture could ever again become the prevalent
style of this country, much more worthy of investigation than the unimportant detail which
now-a-days so much occupies the attention of archaeologists. If the stem of the plant is
right, the leaves and fruit will be sure to grow into their proper forms.
3 G 4
824 REMARKS ON POINTED ARCHITECTURE. APPENDIX.
Figs. 7. and 8. show the decagonal terminations of an apsis. In the first, a side of the
polygon faces the east; in the second, the angle of the polygon is on the axis of the church.
Fig. 7. Fig. 8.
The last case is of rare occurrence. Examples of it are, however, found in the church of
Morienval, and in the choir of the dom-kirche of Naumburg, The first case is illustrated
by a variety of examples, — such are Notre Dame de Rheims, de Rouen, de Paris, dom of
Magdeburg, Ulm, church of Ste. Elizabeth at Marpourg, the church of St. Quentin, &c.,
and, in this country, the cathedral of Peterborough ; all of which have either five or ten
bays in the nave.
The dodecagon, as a termination, is subject to the same observations as the hexagon :
indeed they were anticipated by the mention of the cathedral at Cologne. The heptagon,
however, and its double, have not been alluded to. Under this figure must be classed the
magnificent cathedral of Amiens, wherein seven chapels radiate round the choir end, and
as many bays in the nave. The choir at Beauvais is terminated by a double heptagon ; and,
had the church been completed, it would doubtless have had seven or fourteen bays in the
nave. At Chartres, whose celebrated docker forms, as the French saying goes, one of the
requirements of a perfect cathedral, the choir is terminated by a double heptagon, and the
nave contains seven bays. In the duomo at Florence, the eastern termination is octagonal,
and there are four bays in the nave : this is an example of the expiring Gothic in Italy.
It is much to be regretted that the piecemeal cathedrals of this country, though generally
consisting of exquisite detail, do not, as has before been hinted, present examples upon
which the great system of the Freemasons can be tested ; neither do they afford means to
investigate the dependence of the details, in respect of the multiple or submultiple of the
polygon used in the apsis.
On an examination of the principal churches on the Continent, in and after the thirteenth
century, it would appear that the practice of regulating the details was dependent on the
number of sides in the apsis, or of bays in the nave. Thus, if the choir is terminated by
three bays, formed on an octagonal plan, we find 3, or a multiple of it, is carried into the sub-
division of the windows. So, if the number 5 is the dominant of the apsis, that number
will be found transferred to the divisions of the windows ; and in like manner the remainder
is produced. In the finest examples on the Continent such will be found the prevalent
arrangement. If it be attributable to any other cause than that suggested, let those who
doubt point it out. The least that can be said of it is, that, if the facts be as stated, they
point to a reliance on symmetry which, it is much to be regretted, has been entirely praeter-
niitted in modern architecture, as now practised under the name of Gothic.
It may be proper to mention two or three other matters affecting the extraordinary
monuments of art erected in and after the thirteenth century. The aisles are usually half
the width of the nave, though instances do occur where the width is equal. In some
churches, previous to the twelfth century, the choir is found at the west end of the church.
These were called Eotholce, in contradistinction to the Eopylce, wherein the choir was in the
east. Many churches also have two apsides, — such are the cathedrals at Nevers and at St.
Cyr, and in Germany St. Sebald, Nuremberg ; the dom-kirche at Mayence, the abbey
church at Laach, the cathedrals of Bamberg, Worms, and others.
It will not be difficult to anticipate, by what has already dropped from us, that we hold
symbolism in churches an idle conceit, and that not much will be said by us on that
subject; but a few specimens of the nonsense it induces may as well be set down. The
venerable Bede, for instance, says that the walls of a church are a symbol of the Christian
worshippers that frequent the edifice. " Omnes parietes templi per circuitum omnes sanctae
ecclesiae populi sunt, quibus super fundamentum Christi locatis, ambitum orbis replevit."
The venerable scribe, be it observed, is speaking of Solomon's temple. Again, in respect
of doors, we have " Ostium autem templi Dominus est, quia nemo venitad Patrem nisi per
ilium," &c. As to the windows, they are symbols of the saints and spiritual worshippers;
«* Fenestras templi sunt sancti et spirituales." To come, however, to recent symbolism, we
find that the moderns have discovered that the principal entrance of a church is a symbol
of our entrance into physical and moral life; that the tympan, or gable-like form, over the
great western porch (whose origin is the Greek pediment, but raised to conform with the
character of the style), is a symbol of the Holy Trinity ; the great rose window at the
wi stern end of a church is, from its circular form, accounted a symbol of Divine Pro-
vie ence ! At Amiens, the four rose windows have been considered symbolical of the four
elements ! In respect of tte towers, too, they are not without their meaning : that on the
Jeft is a symbol, at least so it is said, of the ecclesiastical and spiritual hierarchy, and that
APPENDIX. REMARKS ON POINTED ARCHITECTURE. 825
to the right represents order, that is, the civil or temporal power ! and generally, where
four horizontal divisions occur, the lower one is symbolical of the cure, the next upwards
of the dean or archdeacon, the third of the bishop, and the fourth of the archbishop.
Should a fifth horizontal division occur, the primate is the type. So in the right hand
tower, the lowest compartment represents the mayor, and in succession upwards appear a
count, a duke, a king ; and if the tower be covered with a spire, no less than an emperor
appears. One is almost surprised that there is no symbol to represent the suisse of the
continental, nor the beadle of our churches in this country.
The interior of a church, according to the symbolists, affords some further curious features
of mysticism. The principal entrance is at the /oof of the Cross, because, by the use of the
FEET (i. e. travelling) the Gospel was preached ! What is called canting heraldry surely
does not equal this. The nave is said to represent the body of the faithful ! The ceiling
over the altar is accounted a symbol of heaven, and the chapels round the altar are said to
represent the aureola round the head of Christ ! But it is scarcely worth while to waste
more time on the consideration of such absurdity, where the things have been ingeniously
fitted to the types, instead of the converse. There is, however, one other point connected
with the subject, which has been recently revived, and a few words must be expended in
notice of it.
If on the diameter of a circle (fig. 9.), with an axis perpendicular
to it, an equilateral triangle be described, whose vertical height shall
be equal to the semi-diameter of such circle, and from the angles of
the triangle on the diameter, with a radius equal to one side of the
triangle, arcs of circles be described cutting each other superiorly and
inferiorly, the figure described is that which is called the Vesica Piscis,
or Fish's Bladder. This figure has been very cleverly adapted, first by
Mr. Kerrich, and since by others, to the plans of Gothic edifices, so as
to make the one fit the other. Now, there is scarcely a regular geo-
metrical figure which might not be coaxed into such an arrangement, hence it is worth
while to examine the subject ; but a slight investigation of this part of a fish's body will be
sufficient, we trust, to set the matter at rest.
To the bladders of a large number of different sorts of fish examined by us, the figure
in question has little or no resemblance. Its use to this class of animals is yet, among
naturalists, unsettled. It is the vesica natatoria of Willoughby, and the vesica aerea of
Artedi. In this country it is called the sound, or swim. Situate in the anterior part of
the abdominal cavity, it adheres to the spine. In some fishes it is altogether wanting, and
its shape varies in different fishes. In the herring and some others it is oblong, and pointed
at both ends, and would tolerably suit the theory of the writers who proportion churches
by it ; but in the salmon it is obtuse at both ends. In the burbot it is obtuse at the
lower end, and bifid at its superior extremity. In the carp it is divided transversely. Utrum
horum? or have the symbolists procured a conventional fish for their purpose. If the
general shape of a fish, a carp or bream for instance, were selected for their theory, we should
be much nearer the form sought, and better able to connect it with the subject, for there is
no doubt that the figure was held in great veneration by religionists, and, for aught we
know, with justice.
The Greek word Ix&vs, signifying a fish, seems to have been in early ages a mystical
word, under which Christ was denominated, " E6 quod in hujus mortalitatis abysso, velut in
aquarum profunditate, sine peccato esse potuerit, quemadmodum nihil salsedinis a marinis
aquis pisci affricatur; " that is, Because in the unfathomed deep of this mortal life he could
exist without sin, even as a fish in the depths of the sea is not affected by its saltness. The
term, too, at a very early period furnished an anagram, whose parts were expanded into the
expression 'I7j<ro0s Xpiarbs ©eou i/tbs Swr^p. The initials of these words were, in their turn,
expanded into a long acrostic (to which reference may be had, sub voce Acrostichia, and also
under the term Ichthys, in Hoffmann's incomparable Lexicon) on the Day of Judgment, said
to have been delivered, divino afflatu, by the Erythrean sybil, but much more resembling the
hard-spun verses of a learned and laborious man than the extemporaneous effusions of a
mad woman. This acrostic is recognised by Eusebius, and by St. Augustine ( Civ. Dei.),
&c. Notwithstanding the sanctity with which the monogram is invested, as well as all
that has been written on the subject, there is nothing connected with it to afford proof of
its connection with the form and plan of the churches erected under the lodges of Free-
masons at any period of the art. Indeed there are so many more scientific and reasonable
grounds for the system on which they wrought than that just alluded to, that it is only
necessary to dismiss it from further consideration by stating, that, if tested by the finest and
most perfect of the cathedrals on the Continent, the impossibility of making it fit will soon
be apparent. Apology perhaps, therefore, would be due for so long a digression upon it,
had it not been for an adverse opinion recently published by a gentleman (C. R. Cockerell),
whose talents and learning deservedly rank high in the eyes of the public, and for whom
every one must entertain the highest respect and esteem. — (See Pamphlet on the Archi-
826
REMARKS ON POINTED ARCHITECTURE.
APPENDIX.
tectural works of William of Wykeham, read, 1845, before the Archaeological Institute of
Great Britain and Ireland, at their annual meeting.)
As the perpendicularity of style changed, at the beginning of the thirteenth century,
from that which might be termed horizontal, so did the comparatively rude and clumsy
form of its ornament assume a lightness founded on a close observation of nature. Its
sculpture is endowed with life, and its aspiring forms are closely connected with the general
outlines bounding the masses. The models used for decoration are selected from the forest
and the meadow. These, however, though closely and beautifully imitated (says Ramee),
are submitted to reduction within such boundaries as brought them to a regular and geo-
metrical form. Thus is found every conceivable description of ornament brought within
the limits of circles, squares, and triangles, as well as within the more varied forms of the
many-sided polygons ; the latter, as in the marigold and rose windows, being again subject
to the circumscribing circle : these polygonal subdivisions having always reference to the
regulating subdivisions of the apsis hereinbefore mentioned.
The circle obviously presents a boundary for a very extended range of objects in nature.
In the vegetable world, a flower is scarcely to be found which, within it, cannot be sym-
metrically arranged. Its relations afford measures for its subdivisions into two, three,
four, and six parts, and their multiples, by the diameter and radius alone ; the last being an
unit, upon which the equilateral triangle and hexagon are based : moreover, as the interior
angles of every right-lined figure (Euc. prop. 32. b. 1.), together with four right angles,
are equal to twice as many right angles as the figure has sides, it will be immediately seen
that the interior angles in the equilateral triangle, the pentagon, the hexagon, the nonagon,
and the dodecagon, are divisible by the sides so as to clear the result of fractions. Thus,
in the equilateral triangle, the number of degrees subtended by the sides is 60°. In the
pentagon the number is 108° ; in the hexagon, 120°; in the nonagon, 140°; and in the
dodecagon, 150°. Independent, therefore, of the service of the circle in construction, we are
not to be surprised at its being so favourite a figure in architecture, from the period at
which the art was to become truly serviceable to mankind.
In respect of the pentagon (fig. 12.), if lines be drawn from each angle so as to connect
every two of its sides, the pentalpha results ; a figure in much esteem in the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries, and used among the Pythagoreans, as a symbol of health, centuries
and centuries before.
The heptagon and undecagon, whose interior angles are not divisible without a fraction
or remainder, were rarely used by the Freemasons, an instance of either does not occur to us.
An inspection of figs. 10. to 16. will show the mode of generating from the several
polygons the lobes of circular windows, as also the way of obtaining the centres for the
lobes in a simple and symmetrical manner. In fig. 10. the basis of formation is the equila-
: Fig. 11.
FIR. 12.
APPENDIX.
REMARKS ON POINTED ARCHITECTURE.
827
teral triangle, and three lobes are the result. Those of four lobes, or quatrefoils (fig. 11.),
originate from the square ; and the Cruciferas, or cruciform plants, Tetradynamia of Lin-
nseus's system, seem to be their types in nature.
For those of five lobes, resulting from the pentagon (fig- 12. ), types are found in the Pen-
tandria, Decandria, and Icosandria classes of Linnasus. They comprise the rose, the apple,
cherry, and medlar blossoms ; those of the strawberry, the myrtle, and many others.
For circular windows consisting of six lobes, and based on the hexagonal formation
(fid- 13 )> t*16 Hexandria class seems to furnish the type, under which are found almost
all the bulbous-rooted flowers, pinks, &c. These observations might be extended to a
great length ; but the writer does not feel inclined to pursue the system to the extent to
which it has been carried by a German author (Metzger), who bases the principles of all
pointed architecture on the formations of the mineral and vegetable kingdoms, \nfig. 14.
Fig 14.
Fig. 15.
Beyond
Fig. 16.
the octagon is the base ; in fig. 15. the nonagon ; and in fig. 16. the dodecagon.
the last, the subdivision is rarely carried. It was not
that all these types were selected from a mere desire of
assimilating to nature the decorations of the thirteenth
century, but it sprung from that deep impression of the
utility of geometrical arrangement, which sought in the
vegetable kingdom, and elsewhere, such forms as fell in
with the outlines adopted.
Among the flowers used for the angular decorations
of pinnacles and spires, on crockets, and in similar situ-
ations, an ornament very much resembling the Ct/pri-
pedium calceolus, or lady's slipper, and the iris, are of
constant occurrence. The length, however, to which we
might pursue the subject, warns us to refrain from further
remarks on these matters, and to proceed to a short con-
sideration of one much more important, and much less
attended to in the present day, if indeed at all thought of.
On the horizontal section or plan of a building, the solid parts cut through at their bases
are, it is well known, called its points of support, because on them rests the whole mass of
materials of the edifice (see sect. 2848.). It is manifest, that as these points are diminished
in area, in respect of the mass, so is a greater degree of skill exhibited in the work. From
the table in the following page it will be seen that, in seventeen celebrated edifices, the ratio
of their points of support to their whole areas varies from -116 to '238, nearly double. It
is curious to observe the high rank borne in this table by Henry VII. 's chapel : generally,
skill seems to have increased with greater experience.
Led by Le Brun (Theorie de f Architecture, &c. fol. Paris, 1807.), we were many years
ago, as previously stated in this work, induced to inquire into the doctrine of voids and
solids in the Greek and Roman temples, and though we soon discovered that that author
had committed manifest errors in his mode of applying his theory, there could be no doubt
that if its principles were properly carried out, they would coincide with the best examples
both ancient and modern. In a small work by the writer (London, 8vo. 1837), entitled
Elements of Architectural Criticism, the subject was first brought before the English
public ; it was again considered in a paper read before the Institute of British Architects at
an early period of its establishment ; and subsequently, in the Encyclopedia of Archi-
tecture (1842), the investigation was extended to some length, but no application nor
examination of it was entered into as connected with the Byzantine and pointed styles.
The study we have subsequently bestowed upon it has not, we regret, from various pressing
occupations, received from us all the attention necessary to reduce the examples within such
828
REMARKS ON POINTED ARCHITECTURE.
APPENDIX.
bounds as to make 'the matter subject to certain laws, though we think an approximation
has been effected towards it.
TABLE OF POINTS OF SUPPORT.
Building.
Century.
Part of Century.
Points of Support.
Henry VII.'s Chapel
16
First
0-116
Freiburg Dona
13
Second
0-133
Notre Dame, Paris
13
Second
O-140
King's College Chapel, Cambridge
15
Second
0-152
Milan Duomo
14
Second
0-169
York Cathedral -
13
Second
0-174
Westminster Abbey
13
Second
0-178
Temple Church -
13
Second
0 185
Ely Cathedral -
12
Second
0-188
Gloucester Cathedral
14
Second
0-188
Salisbury Cathedral
13
First
0-190
Florence Duomo
15
First
0-201
Lincoln Cathedral
12
Second
0-202
Worcester Cathedral
13
First
0-208
Marpurg Dom
14
Second
0-218
Canterbury Cathedral
12
Second
0-225
Norwich Cathedral
12
First
0-238
It is greatly to be lamented that, among the many and able writers on Gothic archi-
tecture, details more than principles seem to have occupied their minds. The origin of the
pointed arch seems to have entirely absorbed the attention of a large proportion of them,
whilst others have been mainly content with discussions on the peculiarities of style at the
different periods, and watching with anxiety the periods of transition from one to another.
Foliage, mouldings, and the like, have
had charms for others; all, however,
have neglected to bestow a thought
upon the grand system of equilibrium
by which such stupendous edifices were
poised, and out of which system a key
is to be extracted to the detail that
enters into them. It is, however, to
be hoped that abler hands than ours
will henceforth be stimulated to the
work, such being abundant in the pro-
fession whereof we place ourselves as
the humblest of its members.
As on the horizontal projection or
plan of a building, the ratio of the
points of support have been above con-
sidered, so in the vertical projection or
section of a building may the ratio of
the solids to the voids be compared, as
well as the ratio of the solids to the
whole area. In Jig. 17. the shaded
parts represent the solids, which there-
fore give boundaries of the voids.
Worcester Cathedral is the example
shown. In this mode of viewing a
structure, as also in that of the points
of support, there is a minimum to
which art is confined, and in both cases
for obvious reasons there are some de-
pendent on the nature of the mate-
rials, and others on the laws of statics.
Though there may be found some
exceptions to the enunciation as a
general rule, it may be safely as- Fig>17.
sumed, that in those buildings, as in
the case of the points of support, wherein the ratios of the solids to the voids in section
are the least, the art not only as respects construction, but also in point of magnificence in
effect, is most advantageously displayed. In every edifice like a cathedral, the greater the
APPENDIX.
THE FLAMBOYANT STYLE.
829
space over which the eye can range, whether horizontally or vertically, the more imposing
is its effect on the spectator, provided the solids be not so lessened as to induce a sensation
of danger.
In the subjoined table, which, with the exception of Notre Dame de Paris, contains the
same buildings as those already cited, it will be seen that the ratios of the solids to the
voids varies from -472 to 1-118, a little less than half to a little more than a whole. But
if in their sections we compare the ratios of the solids to the whole area, there results a set
of numbers varying from 321 to -528, and that nearly following the order of the ratios of
the points of support.
TABLE OF VERTICAL SOLIDS AND VOIDS.
Building.
Century.
Part of
Century.
Ratio of
Solids to Area.
Ratio of
Solids to Voids.
Salisbury Cathedral
13
First
0'321
0-472
Marpurg Dom
14
Second
0-335
0-503
Norwich Cathedral
12
First
0-376
0-603
Worcester Cathedral
13
First
0-388
0-633
Milan Duomo
14
Second
0-393
0-648
Temple Church -
13
Second
0-395
0-648
Gloucester Cathedral
14
Second
0-403
0-674
King's College Chapel
15
Second
0-419
0-722
York Cathedral -
13
Second
0-421
0-729
Westminster Abbey
13
Second
0-440
0-980
Henry VII.'s Chapel
16
First
0-457
0-648
Freiburg Dom
13
Second
0-478
0-916
Canterbury Cathedral
12
Second
0-496
0-904
Ely Cathedral
12
Second
0-498
1-000
Lincoln Cathedral
12
Second
0-499
1-000
Florence Duomo -
15
First
0-528
1-118
Though the coincidence between the ratios of increase, in the points of support, does not
run quite concurrently with the ratios of the solids and the areas in comparing the cathe-
drals of the different centuries, yet sufficient appears to show an intimate connection be-
tween them. Where the discrepancy occurs, the points of support, seem inversely set out.
Such, for instance, will be seen in Ely Cathedral, wherein, though the ratio of the solids to
the voids in section is as high as 1 (or ratio of equality), that of the points of support is as
low as 0'182, so that the space, or airiness, which is lost in the former, is compensated by
the latter. Generally speaking, however, the points of support diminish as the orna-
ment of the style increases. Thus, in Norwich Cathedral (the nave), of the early part of
the twelfth century, the ratio of the points of support is 0*238, that of the solids to the
voids being 0 603 ; while at Salisbury (latter part of the thirteenth century) the ratio of
the points of support is only 0*190, and that of the solids to the voids, 0-472.
From the foregoing examination, there can scarcely exist a doubt that the first and lead-
ing lines of these fabrics were based upon a geometrical calculation of extremely simple
nature, but most rigidly adhered to. Thus, taking a single bay in the nave, say, from
centre to centre, and ascertaining the area, that has only to be multiplied by the ratio, to
give the superficies necessary for the points of support, which, as the tables indicate, were
diminished as experience taught they might be. These matters then being adjusted, and
falling as they might, the system of ornamentation was applied altogether subsidiary to the
great and paramount consideration of stability.
A very ingenious writer and skilful architect (Mr. Geo. Ware), some years ago, took
great trouble to deduce the stability of the buildings in question, from the general mass of
the walls and vaulting containing within them some hidden catenarian curve. If such
were the case, which can hardly be admitted, in as much as a chain for such purpose might
be made to hang in all of them, it is quite certain this property was unknown to those who
erected them. Dr. Hook was the first who gave the hint that the figure of a flexible cord,
or chain, suspended from two points, was a proper form for an arch.
SECT. II.
DIFFERENT PERIODS OF THE ART, AND FLAMBOYANT STYLE.
The division we have used in a former part of the work (pages 169. to 195.) of the
different styles of Gothic, may be usefully compared with those in France at the same re-
spective periods ; and using the small work of M. Caumont for that purpose, the following
table results, in which the styles are set down as designated by that writer.
830
THE FLAMBOYANT STYLE.
APPENDIX.
The Romanesque 996 to 1150
Primary Gothic 1150 to 1250
Secondary ( Rayonnant) 1 250 to 1400
Tertiary ( Flamboyant) 1 400 to 1 500
A. D.
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
| Anglo-Saxon 970 to J 066
| Norman 1066 to 1190
Early English (Lancet) 1 1 90 to 1 300
Ornamented English 1300 to 1460
| Florid English or Tudor 1460 to 1537
The Comite des Arts adopted a classification some-
what different to the above, viz.
Latin Style. From the fifth to the eleventh century.
Roman Style. Eleventh and twelfth centuries.
{Primary, or lancet, thirteenth century.
Secondary, or radiatmg, fourteenth cen-
tury.
Tertiary, or flamboyant, fifteenth and
early part of sixteenth century.
For the chateau, M. de Caumont has proposed the
classification subjoined.
1 st class. Fifth to tenth century : Primitive Roman.
2nd „ Tenth and eleventh centuries : First secondary.
3rd „ End of eleventh and twelfth century : First
tertiary.
4th „ Thirteenth century : Primitive pointed.
5th „ Fourteenth and first half of fifteenth century :
Secondary and tertiary pointed.
6th „ Second half of fifteenth and sixteenth century :
Quaternary pointed.
These variations of nomenclature are an evil much
to be regretted, and are not likely to be cured until some
able man appear to re-christen the whole detail satisfac-
torily— He has not yet appeared.
Of the Tertiary French style, or the Flamboyant,
some points demand attention. Full as it is of rich de-
tail, and in that respect concurrent with the florid En-
glish, or Tudor style, yet there is vast difference between
the two. The best example of it in this country — and
there are but few — is in Dorchester church, Oxon. In
France examples of it abound. It received its name
from M. Auguste Le Prevost, and the appellation has
been adopted by the English antiquaries. One of its
chief features is the divergence of the mullions into
flowing wavy lines resembling flame. Perhaps the
finest specimen of this style is in the Cathedral at
Evreux, whose north transept and spire are extraordi-
nary works. In the fig. 18. we place before the reader
one of the compartments of the sacristy of the church at
Caudebec, which conveys a fair notion of the peculiarity
of the style. It must be admitted that it is charac-
terised by an excess and overcharge of ornament almost
amounting to the capricious. The foliage of the forest
and the vineyard is changed for colewort and the thistle.
The sculpture becomes inflated, and, compared with the
previous age, almost borders on vulgarity. The profiles
are complex, and refined disorder seems to overpower the detail. As to repose, it is no
where to be found, and the imagination of the artists who practised it seems to have
exhausted itself in the tortuous, twisted, and laboured parts where of it is composed.
Further it seems impossible to have advanced. It was to the Gothic, wnat the Borromin-
esque was to Italian architecture; and the introduction of the style known by the name of
the Renaissance closed its career. Notwithstanding its faults, one cannot refrain from admi-
ration of it. Besides the cathedral at Evreux, we may mention the examples of Notre-
Dame de St. Lo, St. Vincent at Rouen, some parts of St. Jacques at Dieppe, St Jean at
Caen, St. Pierre at Senlis, St. Catherine at Honflcurs, the north porch at Beauvais, St.
Fig. 18.
APPENDIX.
THE FLAMBOYANT STYLE.
831
Severin, St. Mery, St. Germain 1'Auxerrois, and St. Gervais at Paris, the choir and
transepts of St. Remi at Rheims, the upper part of the north tower and spire of the
cathedral at Chartres, &c. Of it, however, much more will hereafter be said.
Among the characteristics of the Flamboyant style, is that which Mr. Willis of Cam-
bridge calls, in a most ingenious and valuable paper, read before the Institute of British Ar-
chitects, penetration or interpenetration of the different mouldings and parts. The French anti-
quaries have called the system in question moulures prismatiques. Neither of these terms
seem satisfactory, but of the two we are inclined to prefer the first as most significant.
We will here illustrate the subject by some examples. Mr. Willis, in the paper above
mentioned, observes that the practice is very rarely to be seen in English buildings ; he,
however, produces an instance of it in the turrets of King's College chapel, at Cambridge
(see/y. 19.), where the cornice A of the pedestal seems to pierce the plinths of the angle
Fig. 19. Fig. 20.
buttresses, and appears at B. This appears, however,
to be by no means a capricious, but rather an indis-
pensable arrangement, by which the solidity of the
octangular base was obtained without the necessity
of the multitude of re-entering angular mouldings,
which would have otherwise been carried round the
buttresses.
The instances, however, of interpenetration are
abundant in France. Amongst those selected by
Mr. W. is one from a screen in the cathedral at
Chartres; it is given here geometrically, instead of in
perspective, as by that gentleman (see Jig. 20.). The
last example we shall produce is from the stone cross
at Rouen (see^/?^. 21.), in which the interpenetration
principle is displayed in many of the vertical as well as horizontal members of the structure.
(Seethe parts marked A A where the fillet of the mullion pierces the chamfered and
moulded parts of the sill.) "In many Flamboyant examples," says
Mr. Willis. '•' small knobs and projections may be observed, and on a
superficial view might pass for mere unmeaning ornaments, but will be
found explicable upon this system of interpenetration." Fig. 22. "is a
window (from a house near Roanne), at the base of whose mullions
knobs may be observed, which really represent the Gothic base of a
square mullion on the same plinth with the hollow chamfered mullion
and interpenetrating with it."
Mr. Willis observes, " it may perhaps be found that this character
belongs to one period, or one district, of the Flamboyant style ;" but
from our own observation, we are inclined to believe it to have been
Fig. 21.
832
PENDENTS.
APPENDIX.
universal from the middle of the fifteenth century, to the period when the style of the
Renaissance superseded it. The principles on which it is conducted certainly prevailed in
Germany and in the Low Countries, as Mr. W. afterwards states. A notion to what extent
Fig 23.
it proceeded may be perceived by Jig. 23., above, which is from Holler's Denkmaehler
dcr Deutschen Baukunst, and exhibits on the plan a series of interferences contrived with
great ingenuity and a consummate acquaintance with practical geometry. The subject
is the plan of a tabernacle, or canopy, such as is not unfrequent in churches on the Con-
tinent. It shows, says Moller, how the simple and severe architecture of the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries had been debased.
SECT. III.
PENDENTS.
A striking feature of the Flamboyant style is the frequent use of pendents in the vaulted
roofs of the period. These, however, are not confined to France or the Continent generally:
the Tudor period in this country exhibits many splendid instances of their employment,
none, perhaps, more gorgeous, or more interesting as regards its construction, than the
APPENDIX.
PENDENTvS.
833
Chapel of Henry the Seventh. It is not our intention here to enter into the details of the
various examples that exist. Some of them have been beautifully and scientifically inves-
tigated by Mr. Willis, the gentleman above quoted, in his paper to the Institute of Archi-
tects, on the construction of the vaults of the Middle Ages. That paper we earnestly
recommend for perusal to every one who wishes to be intimately acquainted with the subject,
and we therefore now proceed merely to indicate the principles upon which the fairy-like
system of not only suspending vast bosses from the ceiling was conducted, but that by which
these bosses or pendents became in their turn the springers for supporting other vaults,
as in the beautiful little Lady Chapel at Caudebec in Normandy, and many other examples.
The chapel in question is hexagonal on the plan, about 23 feet in span, or from side to
side; and Jig. 24. shows the mode by which, from the key-stone of an arch approaching
Fig. 24.
a semicircular form, and suspended or elongated beyond its ordinary depth, support is given
for the springing of the vaults of the different bays. On this practice Philibert Delorme
observes, " Les ouvriers ne font seulement une clef au droict de la croisee d'ogives, mais
aussi plusicurs quand ils veulent rendre plus riches leurs voutes, comme aux clefs ou s'assem-
blent les tiercerons et liernes, et lieux ou ils ont mis quelquefois des rempants, qui vont
d'une branche a 1'autre, et tombent sur les clefs suspendues, les unes etant circulaire, les
autres en fa9on desoufflet, avec des guymberges, mouchettes, claire-voyes, feuillages, crestes
de choux et plusieurs bestions et anhnaux : qui etoient trouves fort beaux du temps qu'on
faisoit telles sortes des voutes, pour lors appellees des ouvriers (ainsi que nous avons diet)
voutes a la mode fran9oise."
We have just above shown the mode of suspending the pendent in a polygonal building.
The fig. 25., on the following page, by a little consideration, will explain the mode of suspend-
ing pendents not centrically situate, as in the case of the ceiling of Henry the Seventh's Chapel,
whose date runs coincident with the Flamboyant period. The figure is a transverse section
and plans of the vaulting of the building, in which one of the main arches, on which the whole
construction depends, springs just below A, and reaches its summit at B. The voussoirs or
arch stones whereof it consists are marked in their order. The dotted interval from a to &
is not to be considered as an interruption of the formation of the arch by the pendant, but
may be supposed an imaginary line passing through it, or rather through the arch stone or
voussoir C, whose general form is marked by the bounding letters c d e fb a; so that, in
fact, the pendent is nothing more, as in the case of the Caudebec Lady Chapel, than a vous-
soir, a large part whereof hangs down below the face of the vaulting. The voussoirs are
out of blocks about 3 feet 6 inches deep ; but a considerable portion of the solid below the
sofite of the arch is cut away to form the lobes of the cinquefoils. The arch D serves, by its
connection with the walls, to stiffen and give weight to the arch where it would be most
required, that is, towards the springing. The pendent; or voussoir E, on the same block
with C, being thus established in its place, serves at, or towards its foot, as a springer for
the ribs of a fanwork tracery shown on the plan, whose ribs are, in fact, ribs of a dome, and
in construction do not differ from it. Their section is shadowed somewhat lighter than the
pendent voussoir. The fanwork round each affords the means of introducing another
pendent at its meeting at F in the plan. The fan vault is very properly distinguished by
Mr. Willis from what he calls the stellar vault, which is formed of ribs that may be, and
indeed frequently are, of different curvature, and the rays of the star of different lengths ;
whereas the fan vault consists of ribs of the same curvature and height, and the summit of
the fan is bounded (see the fig.) by a horizontal circular rib, instead of the ends of
lozenges forming the points of the star. " The effect of the fan is that of a solid of revolu-
3 H
834
PENDENTS,
APPENDIX.
Fig. 25.
tion, upon whose surface panels are sunk : the effect of the star is that of a group of
branching ribs." It is manifest that the constructive details of these two sorts of vaulting
are vastly different. In the one, the dependence is upon ribs which support, by rebates on
them, the filling-in panels ; while, in the other, the principle is similar to that of dome-
vaulting. This will be immediately perceived by reference to the plan G, in which the
courses are marked, as also in the part of the section marked H. The plan I. shows the
tracery of the soffite of the vault. The author above quoted observes, " The construction
of these fan vaults is in all examples so nearly the same, that they seem to have proceeded
from the same workshop ; and it is remarkable that, at least as far as I know, there are no
Continental examples of them ; whereas, of the previous vaults, there are quite as many
on the Continent as in England. In France, indeed, the lierne" (ribbed) " vaults are not
very numerous; they are confined to small chapels, and their patterns are in general simple.
But in Germany and in the Netherlands there is an abundance of them, distinguished, cer-
tainly, from ours by local peculiarities, but nevertheless of similar mechanical construction,
and requiring the same geometrical methods."
The introduction of fan vaulting seems to have occurred in the beginning of the fifteenth
century. The first instance wherein the span was considerable is the Dean's Chapel
attached to the north-west transept of Canterbury cathedral. In St. George's Chapel at
Windsor, the aisles and central compartment only have fan vaults, the principal vault
not being fanwork. The chief works of this kind, of known date (about 1500), are
APPENDIX.
VAULTING.
835
Henry the Seventh's Chapel at Westminster, King's College Chapel at Cambridge, the
central tower of Canterbury, and Bath Abbey Church.
We must to the above add mention of the church of St. Etienne du Mont at Paris,
in which we find a remarkable example of the style of the Renaissance contending with
the expiring Flamboyant style. In short, the whole of the interior is amass of interesting
incongruities. The church is cruciform, and at the intersection of the cross is a pendent
keystone, most elaborately wrought, and more than 13 feet deep. It is obvious, in
respect of these pendents, that there is no mechanical difference between their pendency
and their being insistent, as lanterns are, on domes.
SECT. IV.
VAULTING.
The method of covering a space by vaulting with cylindrical arches, in its various modes,
has been already described in the body of this work. (See 1443. et seq.) We here, there-
fore, have thought it proper to enter into a view of the general forms of groining in
pointed architecture, observing, by the way, that the groins at the arrises, up to the twelfth
century, were seldom moulded with more than a simple torus or some fillets. In the twelfth
century, however, the torus is doubled, and the
doubling parted by a fillet. Towards the end of
the twelfth century, three tori often occur; and
at the beginning of the thirteenth, the moulded
arrises become similar to the moulded archivolts
of the arches both in their form and arrangement.
In France, until the middle of the fifteenth cen-
tury, the arrises of the groins only were moulded ;
but in this country the practice took place much
earlier, for, instead of simple groining, the intro-
duction of a number of subdivisions in the soffites
of arches had become common. In fig. 26, is
given a plan of the sofite of a vault of this kind,
in which A is an arc doubleau (by which is un-
derstood an arc supposited below another at cer-
tain intervals, and concentric with the latter) ; B
is an upper arch, called by the French antiqua-
ries formeret ; C, the wall arch, or formeret du
mur ; D is a diagonal rib, or croisee dfogive ; E,
intermediate rib or tierceron ; FF, summit ribs
or liernes ; G, the key or boss, clef de voute. Mr.
Willis has used the French terms here given,
and as we have no simple terms to express them
in English, it may be convenient to adopt the
practice.
In Gothic edifices the ribs formed by the inter-
sections of the groins perform the office of sup-
porting the vaulting which lies upon them, they
in their turn being borne by the pillars. Thus, in
the simple groin (fig. 27.), the arches or ribs A A,
and diagonal rib C, carry the vaulting BB, a
rebate being formed at the lower part of the ribs
on which the vaulting lies. This figure exhibits
the simplest form of groining in any species of
vaulting, the intersecting arches being of equal
height. The contrivance in its earliest state
ras ingenious, and the study attractive, and we
mot be surprised at Dr. Robison observing,
respect of the artists of the thirteenth and
70 following centuries, that " an art so multi-
ious, and so much out of the road of ordi- Fjg> 27
thought, could not but become an object
fond study to the architects most eminent for ingenuity and invention : becoming thus
dupes of their own ingenuity, they were fond of displaying it where not necessary."
3 H 2
836 VAULTING. APPENDIX.
This observation would be fully verified had we room for showing the reader the infinite
number of devices that ingenuity has created : he will, however, from the few elementary
ones that we do give, be enabled to see the germs of countless others.
Ware, in his Tracts on Vaults and Bridges (London, 1822), — a work which, notwith-
standing the quaint method in which the subject is treated, contains extremely valuable
matter, — has made some remarks which we must introduce at length, or justice would not
be done to them. " In the vaulting," he says, "of the aisles of Durham and Canterbury
cathedrals are to be observed the arcs doubleaux and groined ribs in round-headed vaults.
In the naves of the same buildings is the same character of vaulting, except that the arch
of the vault is pointed. Some vaults of this kind are to be distinguished from others by the
positing of the stones of the vault between the ribs, which, instead of being parallel to each
side of the plan, as in Roman groined vaults, take a mean direction between the groined
rib and the ribs of the arches over the sides ; whence they meet at the vertex at an acute
angle, and are received by stones running along the vertex, cut in the form of a ratchet.
The advantage of this method consists in requiring less centering, and originates in the
position of the ribs at the springing." " From these beginnings vaulting began to assume
those practical advantages which the joint adaptation of the pointed arch and ribs was cal-
culated to produce." " The second step differed from the first, inasmuch as at the vertex
of the vault a continued keystone or ridge projects below the surface of the vault, and forms
a feature similar to the ribs. But here it was necessary that the ridge should be a stone of
great length, or having artificially that property, because its suspension by a thinner vault
than itself would be unsafe, unless assisted by the rib arches over the diagonals and side, a
distance equal to half the width of the vault. To obviate this objection, other ribs were
introduced at intervals, which may be conceived to be groined ribs over various oblongs,
one side continually decreasing. This practice had a further advantage, as the panels or
vaults between the ribs might become proportionally thinner as the principal supports in-
creased. It is now that the apparent magic hardiness of pointed vaulting and the high
embowered roof began to display itself; from slender columns to stretch shades as broad as
those of the oak's thick branches, and, in the levity of the panel to the rib, to imitate that
of the leaf to the branch." " On comparing rib-pointed vaulting with Roman vaulting, it
will be invariably found, that the rib itself is thinner than the uniform thickness of the
Roman vault under similar circumstances ; and that the panel, which is the principal part
of the vault in superficial quantity, sometimes does not exceed one ninth part of the rib in
thickness. The Gothic architects, it has been expressively said, have given to stone an
apparent flexibility equal to the most ductile metals, and have made it forget its nature,
weaning it from its fondness to descend to the centre."
In the second example (fig. 28.), another rib, a &, is introduced, which on the plan pro-
Fig. 29.
duces the form of a star of four points. The forms of these thus inserted ribs result from
curves of the lines on the plan in the space to be vaulted. As many radii are drawn from
the angles of the plan as there are ribs intended, until they mutually intersect each other.
The curvatures of the ribs will be elongated as they recede from the primitive arch, till
they reach the centre on the place where the groins cross, and where of course the elon-
gated curve is a maximum. The ribs thus form, when they are of the same curvature,
portions of an inverted conoid.
In the next example (fig. 29.) the primitive arches are unequal in height, the arch A
being higher than the arch B. The plan remains the same as in that immediately preceding;
but from the inequality of height, a d, c 6, must be joined by curved lines, determined on
one side by the point a, where e a intersects the longer arch. A curved summit rib, as
APPENDIX.
VAULTING.
837
well longitudinally as transversely, may occur with equal or unequal heights of primitive
arches, as in Jig. 30. ; but the stellar form on the plan still remains, though differently
Fig. 30. Fig. 31.
modified, with the same, or a less or greater, number of ribs on the plan (Jig. 31.). By
truncating, as it were, the summit ribs level or otherwise with the tops of the primitive
arches, and introducing on the plan a polygon or a circle touching quadrants inscribed in
the square, we obtain, by means of the rising conoidal
quadrants, figures which perform the office of a key-
stone. In this, as we have above observed, the con-
struction of the work is totally different from rib
vaulting, inasmuch as each course, in rising, supports
the next, after the manner of a dome, and is not de-
pendent on ribs for carrying the filling-in pieces.
Hence the distinction between fanwork and radiating
rib work so judiciously made by Mr. Willis.
The sixth example {Jig. 32.) is with primitive arches
of different heights. It is an irregular star on its plan,
that is to say, the points are of different angles. From
the figure it will scarcely need explanation, after what
has been already said in relation to the subject. "••••-...
A polygonal space may be vaulted in three different
ways. First, by a column in its centre, which serves
for the reception of the ribs of the vault, the column or
pillar performing in such case the office of a wall, as
in the chapter-houses of Worcester, Salisbury, Wells, and Lincoln. This mode evidently
admits of the largest space being covered on account of the subdivision of the whole area
by means of the central pillar. The second mode is by a pendent impost for the reception
of the arches, as in the case of the Lady Chapel at Caudebec above given. This mode is
necessarily restricted in practice to small spans, on account of the limits attached to the power
of materials ; albeit in theory its range is as extensive as the last. The last method is by at
once vaulting the space from wall to wall, as in Jig. 33., which is like the vaulting to the
Fig. 32.
Fig. 33.
FiR. 34.
kitchen of the monastery of Durham Cathedral, or i\\ejig. 34., similar to the chapter-house
at York, of which, the upper part being of wood, Ware quaintly observes, '* The people of
3 H 3
838
VAULTING.
APPENDIX.
Yorkshire fondly admire and justly boast of their cathedral and chapter-house. The principle
of vaulting at the chapter-house may be admired and imagined in stone ; not so the vault of
the nave ; it is manifestly one of those sham productions which cheat where there is no merit
in deceiving." The principle, as Ware justly observes, is perfectly masonic, and might be
easily carried out with stone ribs and panel stones, it being nothing more than an exten-
sion of that exhibited in the third example of simple groining (fig. 27. ) above given ; and
the same remark applies to the Durham kitchen.
Some observations must be offered to explain the nature of the vaulting at King's College
Chapel at Cambridge, and the silly story related by Walpole of Sir Christopher Wren, saying,
" that if any man would show him where to
place the first stone he would engage to build
another " (chapel like it). The vault of the
chapel in question is divided into oblong seve-
ries, whose shorter sides are placed longitudi-
nally (fig. 35. ). It is, therefore, evident that
the curves of the inverted quadrants must
intersect each other previous to the whole
quadrant of the circle being completed.
Hence these intersections form a curved
summit line lowest against the windows or
smaller sides of the oblong. This summit
line of the vaulting of the building in the
direction of its length forms a series of ~~
curves, though from the angle under which
it is seen it is scarcely perceptible. Mr. Ware says,
Fig. 35.
Tt is observable, in the con-
struction of this vault, that the principle of using freestone for the ribs, and toph for
the panels, has not been followed ; but the whole vault has been got out of the same
description of stone, and with an uniform face, and the panels worked afterwards, and re-
duced to a tenuity hardly credible except from measurement. The artists of this building
might be trusted in the decoration of a vault with what is now called tracery ; they knew
how to render it the chief support, and what was the superfluous stone to be taken away :
every part has a place, not only proper, but necessary ; and in the ribs which adorn the
vault we may in vain look for false positions. This is the ocular music which affords
universal pleasure."
We now return to the consideration of two more modes of simple vaulting. In England,
summit ribs of the vault are almost always found running longitudinally and transversely in
the various examples. In Germany the summit ribs are more frequently omitted than
introduced. Thus in the example fig. 32., the scheme is merely a square diagonally
placed within the severy, subdivided into four parts and connected with the base-points of
the groins by ribs not parallel to the alternate sides of the inserted square. This, however,
sometimes occurs in English buildings, as in the monument of Archbishop Stratford, at
Canterbury Cathedral ; though in that the central portion is not domical. It is to be
remarked that the intersecting arches are not of equal height, otherwise the arrangement
could not occur.
In the example fig. 36., the arrangement completely
assumes what Mr. Willis calls the stellar form. Here in
the sofite a star of six points is the figure on which the pro-
jection depends, the points radiating from the angles of
an hexagon, and thus forming a cluster of lozenges whose
middle longitudinal sides produce another longitudinal
lozenge to connect the centres of the pattern. The
longitudinal arches are, as in the preceding figure,
lower than the transverse arches. Mr. Willis says,
" the principal distinction between these and our own
fan-vaulting is the substitution of lozenge-headed com-
partments in the fans, for the English horizontal tran-
som rib. We have also lozenge-headed compartments in
our early vaulting, but they are never so symmetrically .
arranged in stars throughout. "
From the simple lines or principles above given it is
easy to perceive through what numberless ramifications of form they may be carried.
Fig. 36.
APPENDIX.
SHAFTS.
839
SECT. V.
SHAFTS.
It is not our intention to discuss, at any length, the forms of the piers or shafts whereon
the vaults just mentioned were received. Their various configurations would exhaust
much more space than we can bestow on them, or than is necessary to give for the advan-
tage of the reader. From extremely simple cylindrical shafts at the beginning, they
gradually advanced to shafts of a complicated, or apparently complicated, description.
The shafts of the vaults of the earliest period for carrying the walls of the nave were
square, as at the cathedral at Worms. The first step to their relief seems to have been the
application of engaged columns to them, as in fig. 37. The cylindrical shaft is usual in
Fig. 37.
Fig. 38.
England and elsewhere. In the twelfth century the shaft begins to take the form on its
plan of a Greek cross (fig. 38.), with engaged columns in its angles as well as on its prin-
cipal faces. After this came the shaft clustered with columns in various ways, not indeed
correspondent always with the vaulting ribs, but so arranged that the groups of the latter
are generally received on colonette or small columns, which are also provided for the
moulded sofites of the arches of the nave and choir. In the latter part of the fifteenth
century the colonette gradually disappeared, and the shafts became surrounded by mould-
ings, or rather wrought on the plan into series of mouldings.
In the second period just named, engaged colonette for receiving the vault ribs rise from
corbels, and sometimes the ribs themselves spring from them, as in Lincoln, Salisbury, and
other cathedrals. For the details of these and other matters of the like nature, the reader
may refer to the works published by Mr. Britton and others, in which every minor
arrangement will be found for the use of the practical man, the student, and the amateur.
For the use of the latter in making surveys of buildings, we think it useful to subjoin the
following recommendation from the " Remarks " of Mr. Willis : — " In making architec-
tural notes, the plan of a pier should always be
accompanied with indications of the distribution
of its parts to the vaulting ribs and arches which
it carries. The mere plan of the pier by itself
conveys but small information ; for it often hap-
pens that the identical pier may be distributed
in many different ways, and that these differences
constitute the only characters that distinguish
the practice of one age or country from another.
Fig. 39. shows one way in which the plan alone
may be made to convey these particulars. The
dotted lines, drawn from the respective members
of the pier, mark the direction of the ribs and
arches ; and upon each of these at a small dis-
tance from the pier are placed vertical sections
of these ribs, as at ABC D."
The bases of the shafts in the eleventh and
twelfth centuries are often chamfered and fre-
quently moulded in the Attic form, more
or less modified and debased. In the latter Fig. 39.
period the Attic base is sometimes found almost pure. In all the ages the torus plays a
considerable part in their composition, and their variety is infinite. In the fifteenth century
3 H 4
840
WINDOWS.
APPENDIX.
the type is pretty uniform. The ogee is prevalent, the concave part whereof, much
flattened above, is very long compared with the convex part of it : this is generally sur-
mounted with a torus, and then a bead, or sometimes with another small ogee. The group
is then borne by a prismatic plinth ; but for all these, as in the case of shafts just mentioned,
reference must be made to the works of Britton, Pugin, and others.
In the body of the work we have, under each period of Gothic Architecture, given a descrip-
tion in general terms of the windows prevailing at the several times. It has been thought
it might be advantageous to bring a few examples before the eye. They are, however, in-
serted merely for the purpose of showing the gradual change in their forms and com-
binations, which are almost infinite in number, and yet the latter are far from exhausted.
The most ancient windows are extremely small, always semicircular headed, and without
moulded archivolts. They are usually with a single light, except in belfry towers where
we often find them divided into two by a shaft with a capital, as in the tower at St Albans,
which is here given (Jig. 40.). The simple plain head, however, in the latter part of the first
Fig. 40. ST. ALBAN'S.
Fig. 41.
BEAUDESERT.
Fig. 42. TRINITY CHAF«T»
period was more or less ornamented with the chevron or zigzag, and other ornaments of the
time, as in jig. 41 . One of the greatest and most striking changes brought in by the pointed
style was that of introducing, from the suddenly elongated dimensions of its windows, a blaze
of light into its edifices, which, from the low and narrow dimensions of their predecessors, were
masses of gloom. From the beginning of the twelfth century we see them lengthened in a sur-
prising manner, and terminating with a lancet-head and sometimes with a trefoil. An in-
stance of the simple lancet-head is given \nfig. 42., from the Trinity Chapel at Canterbury.
Sometimes an elegant combination is obtained by grouping three of these lancet-headed win-
dows together, the centre rising considerably in height above the side ones, as at Salisbury
Cathedral. ( See^.43. ) In an example at Lincoln (fig. 44. ), the height of the group is equal ,
Fig. 43.
SALISBURY.
Fig. 44.
but the light of the centre being wider than the two side lights, the curvature of the arches
of the latter is necessarily much less than that to the former, and the effect is neither
graceful nor satisfactory. There were, however, many other arrangements in designing
these lancet-headed windows than the single and triple ones just mentioned. Two four,
APPENDIX.
WINDOWS.
841
and five lights occasionally form the group. Of the last-named, are windows at Irthlino1-
borough, in Warwickshire, and at Oundle, in Northamptonshire, in which the lights on
the sides gradually rise up to the centre one. In the latter part of the period, heads finish
with trefoils ; the mullions are moulded and
finished, both inside and outside, with shafts or
colonette, from the capitals whereof spring the
mouldings of the subdivisions.
By perforating the space between the heads
of two adjoining lancet-headed windows, as
in the painted chamber (jig. 45.), the elements
of the ornamented window are obtained. To
cover it, however, ornamentally, the enclosing
arch must be depressed and modified ; and at Ely
(jig. 46. ), we find an example for illustrating
the remark. The lozenge-shaped form between
the heads of the arches is converted into a circle,
which, as well as the heads of the lights, is foliated.
Instead of a single circle inserted in the head of
the window, we then have them with three foliated circles, as at Lincoln, one above and two
below ; the same cathedral furnishing an example in the east window of its upper part having
one large circle inclosing seven smaller foliated ones, besides its containing similar ones in the
heads of the two leading divisions below. The windows just described belong to a transi-
tion style between the early English Gothic and the ornamented ; but the ornamented
windows of the fourteenth century exhibit in their general form and details a vast variance
from them in the easy unbroken flow of the tracery with which they abound.
Of the next stage come the examples shown by Jig. 47., Merton College Chapel, and Jig.
Fig. 45.
PAINTED CHAMBER.
Fig. 46. ELY.
FiK. 47
Fig. 48
48., Cathedral, Oxford ; the latter whereof has a tendency toward the Flamboyant style,
which has been before mentioned, and which, in the fourteenth century, had thoroughly
established itself in France, as we may observe in the windows of the church of St. Ouen,
at Rouen, exhibited in^. 49. It may be observed that the principal lights are seldom
divided by transoms ; when they, however, occur they are mostly plain, and rarely em-
battled. Though the ogee head is often found, the usual form is that
of the simple-pointed arch. In the clerestory, square-headed windows
are often seen, but more often in other parts of the edifice. In the
preceding as well as in this period, the window bounded by three
equilaterally segmental curves foliated more or less as the date in-
creases. The arrangement of the tracery of windows has, by the
French antiquaries, been divided into two classes — Rayonnant
and Flamboyant. Their Rayonnant, so called on account of the
great part the circle plays in it, and on whose radii its leading
forms are dependent, was flourishing throughout the fourteenth cen-
tury in France. The Flamboyant or tertiary pointed style followed it.
We have, we think, had occasion before, in this work, to observe that
the Continent preceded us in each style as much as half a century.
After this comes the Florid style in which the edifices seem to con-
sist almost entirely of windows, and those of the most highly orna-
mented description. It is scarcely necessary to do more than exhibit
the figures for a comprehension of the nature of the change which
took place ; in short, the introduction of the Tudor arch alone was
sufficient hint for a totally new system. In the example (Jig. 50.),
of a window at Cawston Church, we may observe the commence- Fig> 50>
ment of the use of transoms, which at length were repeated twice and even more by the
842 CIRCULAR WINDOWS. APPENDIX.
height of the window, and indeed became necessary for affording stays to the lengthy
mullions that came into use. Fig. 51. is an example of the square-headed window of the
Fig. 51
period, and fig. 52. of a Tudor-headed window at Aylsham. Another example may be
referred to in fig. 200. of this work.
CIRCULAR WINDOWS.
The large circular windows so frequently seen in the transepts of churches, and some-
times at the west ends of them, and going by the general name of rose windows, seem to
have originated from the oculi with which the tympana of the ancient basilica? were pierced,
and which are still observable in monuments of the eleventh century. For the study of
this species of window the edifices of France furnish the most abundant means, many of
them being of exquisite composition, and in our opinion far surpassing any elsewhere to be
seen.
It is scarcely previous to the twelfth century that they can be fairly called rose windows;
before that period they are more properly denominated wheel windows, the radiating
mullions resembling the spokes of a wheel and being
formed of small columns regularly furnished with bases
and capitals, and connected at top by semicircular
arches or by trefoils. By many the more decorated
circular window has been called the marigold window,
but we scarcely know why that should have been done.
The rose windows are used in gables, but their di-
mensions are then generally smaller and they are often
enclosed in segmental curves whose versed sines form
an equilateral triangle or a segmental square.
An early specimen of the wheel window is in Bar-
freston Church, (see fig. 180.), wherein it is manifestly
later than the other parts of the front. The example
from Patrixborne (fig. 53. ) is a curious and early ex-
ample of the wheel window ; herein, and indeed in all **R- 53.
the minor examples, a single order of columns is disposed round the centre ; but in the
south transept at York Cathedral (fig. 54.) we have a noble instance of this species, — a
double order of columns being employed connected by foliation above the capitals of the
Fig. 51. YORK. Fig. 55. ST. DAVID'S.
columns. This is of the thirteenth century. As the early style came in, the columns
would of course give place to the mullion, as in the elegant example from St. David's,
APPENDIX.
DOORWAYS.
843
shown in fig. 55. The two following examples (figs. 56. and 57.) from Westminster, and
Winchester Palace, Southwark, are both of the fourteenth century. The first is not the
Fig. 56.
Fig. 57. WINCHESTER r ALACK, SOUTHWARK.
original window, but we have reason to believe it was accurately remade from the original
one. The latter is a most elegant arrangement flowing from the continued sides of
the central hexagon, and consequently form-
ing a series of equilateral triangles decorated
with foliation. It was placed in the gable of
the great hall of the palace, which hall was
spanned by a timber roof of very beautiful
and ingenious construction, a few years
since destroyed by fire, after which the wall
containing the window was taken down.
During the period of the three last exam-
ples in this country, the French were making
rapid strides towards that era in which their
Flamboyant was to be stifled and extin-
guished by the introduction of the Renais-
sance, on which we shall hereafter have to
make some remarks, and perhaps produce
some examples. In the church of St. Ouen,
the circular window appended in fig. 58. (mid-
dle of the fourteenth century) exhibits the
extraordinary difference between French and
English examples of the same date. Beauti- Fif? 58>
ful as many of the English examples undoubtedly are, we know of none that is equal
to this for the easy and elegant flow of the
the tracery whereof it is composed. The
leading points it will be seen are dependent
on the hexagon, but, those determined, it
appears to branch off from the centre with
unchecked luxuriance, preserving, never-
theless, a purity in its forms quite in cha-
racter with the exquisite edifice it assists to
light. The detail of this window may be
advantageously studied in Pugin's Anti-
quities of Normandy.
DOORWAYS.
It is almost needless to observe that
through the several changes of style the
doorways followed their several forms ; our
duty will, therefore, be to do little more
than present the representations of four or
five examples to the notice of the reader.
The Prior's entrance at Ely (fig. 187.
p. 1 73. ) is a fine specimen of the Norman
doorway highly decorated. The earlier Fie-59- WYKBN «"»«*.
Norman doorways were designed with but little carving. They are, as in fig. 59., generally
placed within a semicircular arch, borne by columns recessed from the wall, and the whole
844
DOORWAYS.
APPENDIX.
surmounted with a dripstone. In the cut above referred to (187.), it will be seen that the
semicircular head of the door is filled in level with the springing, and sculptured with a
figure of our Saviour in a sitting attitude ; his right arm is raised, and in his left is a book.
What is termed the vesica piscis, of which we have already treated in this Appendix, sur-
rounds the composition, which is supported by an angel on each side. These representa-
tions are frequently met with in Norman doorways. Many examples are composed of a
series of recesses, each spanned by semicircular arches springing from square jambs, and
occupied by insulated columns; though sometimes the columns are wanting and the recesses
run down to the plinth. The arches are very often decorated with the chevron, zigzag,
and other Norman ornaments. There are but few Norman porches ; of them Malmesbury
Abbey Church is perhaps the finest example.
The early English doorways have the same character as the windows of the period ;
the smaller ones are often recessed with columns, from which a pointed arch is twined with
a cut moulding on it, and a dripstone over it. The more important doors, however, are
mostly in two divisions separated by a pier column, and with foliated heads. These are
generally grouped under one arch, springing from clustered columns on each side, and the
space over the openings is filled in, and decorated with a quatrefoil, as in the doorway to
the chapter-house, Litchfield (fiy. 60.). Sculpture often occurs in the arrangement.
1ICHFIELD.
Fig. 61
Porches appear in this period to have been extensively used, as at Salisbury, Wells, and
even in small parish churches. The door fig. 61. is a curious example of the latter part of
the period: it is from the chapel of St. Nicholas, at Lynn. This belongs to the decorated
English period.
Fig. 62., from Tattershall Castle, belongs to the Florid English style, whose simplest
Fig- 62. TATTEKgHAIJ. CASTLE.
Fig. 63< ST. or.oROfc'a CHAPIU..
APPENDIX.
SYMBOLS.
845
doorways were with the de-
pressed or Tudor arch, and with-
out the square head which ap-
pears in the example. The
more ornamental ones were
crocketed, and terminated with
finials, as appears in jig. 64.,
from King's College Chapel,
Cambridge. Fig. 63., from St.
George's Chapel, at Windsor,
though later in date, is more
simple than the last, notwith-
standing the exuberance of or-
nament and tracery had then
nearly attained to its meridian.
The porches of this period ex-
ceed in profuseness of decoration
those of the preceding style :
they were almost universally
adopted. The south porch of
Gloucester and the south-west
porch of Canterbury are beau-
tiful examples. In the former,
canopied niches occupy the front
over the doorway, the front being
crowned with an embattled para-
pet of pierced panelling, and at the
quoins are turrets embattled and
finished with crocketed pinnacles.
Fig. 61
The constant occurrence of symbols in the edifices of the middle ages induces us to
think it may be useful to insert a list of them, as attached to the Apostles and Saints,
most commonly found.
HOLY APOSTLES.
St. Peter. — Bears a key, or two keys with
different wards.
St. Andrew. — Leans on a cross, so called from
him; called by heralds the "saltire."
St. John Evangelist With a chalice, in
which is a winged serpent. When this
symbol is used, the eagle, another symbol
of him, is never given.
St. Bartholomew. — With a flaying knife.
St. James the Less. — A fuller's staff, bearing
a small square banner.
St. James the Greater. — A pilgrim's staff, hat,
and escalop shell.
St. Thomas. — An arrow or with a long
staff'.
St. Simon. — A long saw.
St. Jude. — A club.
St. Matthias. — A hatchet.
St. Philip — Leans on a spear ; or has a long
cross in the shape of a T.
St. Matthew — A knife or dagger.
St. Mark. — A winged lion.
St. Luke.—K bull.
St. John. — An eagle.
St. Paul. — An elevated sword, or two swords
in saltire.
6V. John Baptist. — An Agnus Dei.
St. Stephen.— With stones in his lap.
SAINTS.
St. Agatha Her breast torn by pincers.
St. Agnes. — A lamb at her feet.
St. Aidan. — A stag crouching at his feet.
St. Alphege — His chasuble full of stones.
St. Anagradesma. — Covered with leprosy.
St. Anne. — Teaching the Blessed Virgin to
read. Her finger usually pointing to the
words Radix Jesse floruit.
St. Antony, Eremite. — Devil appears to him
in the shape of a goat.
St. Antony of Padua. — Accompanied by a
Pig-
St. Apollonia With a tooth.
St. Barbara. — With a tower in her hands.
St. Blaise. — With a wool comb.
St. Boniface. — Hewing down an oak.
St. Britivs. — With a child in his arms.
St. Canute.— 'Lying at the foot of the altar.
St. Catherine. — With a wheel and sword.
St. Cecilia. — With an organ.
St. Christopher. — A giant carrying the infant
Saviour on his shoulder across a stream. A
monk, or female figure, with a lantern on
the further side.
St. Clement. — With an anchor.
St. David. — Preaching on a hill.
St. Denis. — With his head in his hands.
St. Dorothy. — Bears a nosegay in one hand
and a sword in the other.
St. Dunstan. — Bears a harp.
St. Edith. — Washing a beggar's feet.
St. Edmund. — Fastened to a tree and pierced
with arrows.
846
SYMBOLS.
APPENDIX.
St. Edward. — Bearing in his hand the Gospel
of St. John.
St. Eunuchus. — A dove lighting on his
head.
St. Etheldreda, Abbess. — Asleep, a young
tree blossoming over her head.
St. Eustachius, or St. Hubert. — A stag appear-
ing to him, with a cross between its horns.
St. Fabian. — Kneeling at the block with a
triple crown at his side.
St. Faith.— With a bundle of rods.
St. George. — With the Dragon.
St. Gertrude, Abbess. — With a loaf.
St. Giles, Abbot. — A hind with an arrow
piercing her neck, standing on her hind
legs, and resting her feet in his lap.
St. Gudula. — With a lantern.
St. Hilary.— With three books.
St. Hippolytus. — Torn by wild horses.
St. Hugh.— With a lantern.
St. Januarius. — Lighting a fire.
St. Joachim. — With a staff, and two doves
in a basket.
St Lawrence With a gridiron.
St. Magnus. — Restoring sight to a blind
man.
St. Margaret. — Trampling on a dragon, a
crosier in her hands.
St. Martin — Giving half his cloak to a
beggar.
St. Nicholas. — With three naked children
in a tub, in the end whereof rests his pas-
toral staff.
St. Odilo, Abbot. — With two goblets.
St. Pancras. — Trampling on a Saracen, a
palm branch in his right hand.
St. Richard.— A chalice at his feet.
St. Rosaly With a rock in her arms.
St. Sebastian. — As St. Edmund, but with-
out a crown.
St. Ursula. — Surrounded with virgins much
less in size than herself.
St. Vincent.— On the rack.
St. Walburga. — Oil distilling from her hand.
St. Waltheof.— Kneeling at the block, the
sun rising.
St. Winifred, Abbess. — With her head in
her arms.
St. Wulfstan. — Striking his pastoral staff on
a tomb.
THE BLESSED VIRGIN is usually repre-
sented —
1. At the Annunciation, with an almond-
tree flourishing in a flower-pot.
2. At her Purification, with a pair of
turtle doves.
3. In her Agony, with a sword piercing
her heart.
4. In her " Repose " (death).
5. In her Assumption.
6. With the blessed Saviour in her lap.
7. In her Ecstasy, kneeling at a faldstool,
which faces the Temple, the Koly
Dove descending on her.
Martyrs hold palms ; Virgins, lamps, or, if
also Martyrs, lilies and roses ; Confessors,
lilies ; Patriarchs, wheels.
Glories round heads are circular, except when
living prelates eminent for holiness are re-
presented, when they are square.
The cross, a symbol of Christianity has very naturally been extensively used in the monu-
ments of the middle ages. It is unnecessary to give the ornamental and profusely deco-
rated examples, which the student everywhere finds, and we shall therefore confine ourselves
to the simple forms by which each cross is distinguished. When the two branches of the
cross are equal in length, as \nfig. 65., the cross is called a Greek cross, and when the stem
Jig. 65.
Fig. 66
Fig. 67.
Fig-
Fig. 69.
Fig. 70.
Fig. 71.
Fig. 72.
Fig. 73.
is longer than the arms, as in fig. 66., it is a Roman or Latin cross. When the figure has
two arms, one longer than the other (the upper one meant as a representation of the inscrip-
tion which was placed over the head of Christ), it is known by the name of the Lorraine
cross, and has received that name from its being a bearing in the arms of the Dukes of
Lorraine. It is represented in fig. 67. By our own heralds this is called a patriarchal
cross. The next (fig. 68.), whose arms are triple, is the papal cross, and is one of the em-
APPENDIX. SECULAR ARCHITECTURE OF FRANCE. 847
blems of the papacy, signifying, perhaps, like the triple crown, or tiara, the triple sove-
reignty over the universal church, the suffering church, and the triumphant church.
The great majority of the western churches, with transepts, are constructed in the form
of a Latin cross, those in the form of the Greek cross being very rare. Those in the form
of the Lorraine cross are still rarer, and yet rarer are those constructed with triple
transepts.
There is another form (fig. 69. ), called the truncated or tau cross, having the form of that
letter, on which, as a plan, a few churches have been built.
Considered as respects their contours, the cross in blason has been variously shaped and
named. Thus, fig. 70., in which the extremities widen as they recede from the centre, is
called a cross patee. This is met with more frequently than any of the others. It is seen
in the nimbus, on tombs, on shields, upon coins, &c. Fig. 71. is by the French called
ancree, the extremities forming hooks, but by our own heralds it is called the cross moline.
Crosses flory are those in which the ends are formed into trefoils, as is seen on the papal
cross above mentioned (fig. 68.). Fig. 72. is a cross potent, and fig. 73. is the cross clechee,
as respects the outer lines of its form ; when it is voided, as shown by the inner lines, the
ground or field is seen on which it lies.
SECULAR ARCHITECTURE OF FRANCE.
The civil and domestic architecture of this country has been considered already in this
work, to as great a length as the materials allowed, and the space which could be allotted
to it. The history of it on an extensive scale is a great desideratum, and would form a
most interesting work. The time rapidly passes in which it will be possible to accomplish
such an end : year after year, some destructive fire consumes a mansion, which would serve
to illustrate such a history, while decay is eating away those that remain. Pictorially
something has been done, but the whole on so limited an extent that it might almost be said
nothing has been done in the matter.
The timber houses of England have received some attention, but generally speaking
those that remain are much inferior to the examples on the Continent. Our old Cheapside,
from the prints of it that exist, seems to have exhibited a picturesque assemblage of them.
In Caen are to be seen several specimens, and their appearance there, where in the neigh-
bourhood there is abundance of stone, has been by some accounted for, by Henry V. appro-
priating the quarries for his own use, allowing the stone they supplied to be employed only
in churches, castles, and fortresses. The houses in question are, by the Abbe de la Rue,
supposed to have been built after the English came into possession of the town, in 1417 ;
and are principally of chesnut. In the town of Troyes in Champagne, and many other places
as at Rouen, are to be seen numberless instances of the ingenuity and contrivance employed
on their construction. For those of this country reference may be had to Pugin's work.
In the first quarter of the fifteenth century, the buildings of France, not less in
secular than in ecclesiastical architecture, began to assume a highly florid character, and
before the end of the century it passed through several gradations. In the best part of
the period, the plans are contrived with much attention to the unity and design of the
edifice. They were on a scale of great magnitude. The effects of light and shade which
appeared upon them were the result of deeply studied arrangement, and a sensitive feeling
of the beauty flowing from proportion. In the openings especially, it is observable how
much more graceful they become from their lessening in width and increasing in height.
The composition throughout assumes a more pyramidical shape. The spires are covered
with filigree work and often pierced, and the ridges of the roofs are terminated with open
lacework of fleurs-de-lis and other ornaments showing out against the sky. Nothing is
abrupt, everything is well considered. Though the style of the early part of the century
gathered, as it rolled on, fresh accession of ornament from year to year, it did not become
thoroughly affected by the Italian style until the more intimate communication between
France and Italy, which followed the rash enterprise of Charles VIII. to become master of
Naples after having overrun Italy, and the exertions of Louis XII., his successor, to recover
the duchy of Milan in right of his grandmother Valentina. Among the artists who were
induced by the last-named sovereign to visit the country, was Fra Giocondo, who, after the
death of Bramante, was, in conjunction with Raffaelle and San Gallo, architect of St. Peter's.
He is believed to have been employed on Pont Notre Dame at Paris, and there is great
reason to suppose he was also employed in the celebrated Palais de Justice, at Rouen, which
we shall presently notice at some length, as one of the examples of secular architecture most
illustrative of the style of its period. To the same master has been attributed the Chateau
de Gaillon, well known to the visitors of Paris, by the portion of one of its fa£ades now-
standing in the entrance court of the Ecole des Beaux Arts. This edifice, constructed for
Cardinal George d'Amboise, called the French Mtdicis, and one of the nine sons of Pierre
d' Amboise, every one of whom rose to great distinction, seems, from the comparative purity
of its detail, to have anticipated, in fact, the Renaissance of a later date. M. Emeric David,
848 SECULAR ARCHITECTURE OF FRANCE. APPENDIX.
in his biographical notice of Fra Giocondo, thinks that artist was not engaged on the
chateau, because «« les formes gothiques du Chateau de Gaillon, sont bien eloignces du style
que les bons architectes Italiens avaient deja mis en vogue vers le meme temps ; " and again,
because " il n'est pas vraisemblable que Joconde, reparti pour 1'Italie en 1506, ait pu con-
struire ce chateau en 1505." To which it has been answered, that the forms of Gaillon
are not more Gothic than those of the ancient palace of the Chambre des Comptes, destroyed
by fire in 1737, but of which partial representations have been preserved, as the corbel
towers, the open staircase resembling that at the Sainte Chapelle, the lofty roofs and dormers,
&c., all of the same style as those of the Hotel de Cluny and the Palais de Justice at
Rouen. Then, in respect of the date 1505 ; it was discovered on one of the pilasters, not set
in its place, in the middle of some arabesques winding round a mitre with the episcopal keys;
and this date may quite as well apply to the finishing as the commencement of the building.
George d'Amboise, who died at Lyons in 1510, it has been said, never inhabited the chateau
at all, for the ancient one was destroyed in 1 423 ; but there seems abundant evidence that he
did reside there, and was much esteemed for his noble actions, among which has been
recorded that of presenting to a young lady, by way of dower, the price of some lands
contiguous to his estate which he had proposed to buy of her father, who had no other
means of providing for her than by the sale of them. " J'aime mieux acquerir un ami qu'un
domaine," were his words on the occasion.
But to return to the subject, from which we have a little digressed. The style after
the first quarter of the fifteenth century has been by many — first we believe by a Quarterly
Reviewer, in 1821 — called Burgundian Architecture, because, says the reviewer, it originated
in the dominions of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy. No example can, he says, be
dated anterior to his reign, and buildings having its characteristics are found in all the
states which were united under his authority. We, however, do not think the name apposite,
and certainly prefer calling it the early Flamboyant. Philip the Good succeeded to the
duchy in 1419, having been born at Dijon in 1396; he died at Bruges in 1496; but all the
germs of the style are traceable in the Church of St. Ouen of a considerably earlier date,
and the carrying them out and adding to their efflorescence in secular buildings do not justify
the name, especially as they appear at as early period in other parts of France as in Bur-
gundy. There is no doubt that Philip was a great patron of the arts ; and in respect of the
palace at Dijon, and its great presence chamber, it was in unison with the spirit of the people,
and seemed to declare the " lusty character of the prince who held his court there ; " but that
does not justify the designation whereof we are speaking. It is not improbable, however,
that through his influence the style soon prevailed in Flanders, where from the duke's pos-
sessions in right of his mother, Margaret of Flanders, he was in considerable authority.
The Hotels de Ville, both at Louvain and Brussels, were erected during the period of his
power. His riches at his death were enormous. •' Malgre un gout pour le faste, les
plaisirs, et les luxes, on trouve dans ses coffres a sa mort 400,000 ecus d'or et 7,200 marcs
d' argent, sans parler de 2,000,000 d'autres effets. Ce tresor, dit un moderne, semble
n'avoir etc rassembl£ que pour etre 1' instrument des extravagances et de la ruine de son fils."
(L'Art de verifier les Dates.)
We now propose to submit to the student, in order as nearly chronological as possible,
the mention of a few out of the infinite number of works in France that exemplify the
style from 1420 up to 1531, when it may be said to have been lost in the pure Renaissance,
confining ourselves (except in one instance) to secular architecture ; and we regret our space
restricts us to so few illustrations. A more interesting work or a more valuable one could
not be undertaken, than a complete history of the architecture of France and the Nether-
lands between the years 1400 and 1525. Its phases, till the Flamboyant ceased, are so
melted into each other, that to use the common phrase of transition, an absurd one, is
utterly inappropriate.
Among the earliest examples is that of the Hotel des Ambassadeurs at Dijon, which
resembled in some degree several subsequent edifices at Bourges, Meilan, &c. It has,
moreover, some historical interest beyond that of the architecture which remains of it, for
here it is believed the sister of Philip the Good, above mentioned, contracted marriage
with the Duke of Bedford, then governor of France. At a later period (1477), it was still
appropriated to the residence of English ambassadors at the court of Burgundy. The date
of this hotel is pretty well ascertained to have been about 1420.
The next example would seem to show the impropriety of giving the name of Bur-
gundian to the style of which we are speaking. It is that of La Fontaine de la Croix,
at Rouen, given in Britton's Antiquities of Normandy, in admirable plates from draw-
ings by the late Augustus Pugin, on reference to which it will be seen there is scarcely
an arrangement unanticipated of the more advanced period of the style, always reserv-
ing the freedom from a mixture of Italian architecture, which as yet was not interwoven
with it. Here, in the tracery over the canopy work, is seen the same system of Flamboyant
lines which pervades all the tracery of the beginning of the sixteenth century. The
example also exhibits the interpenetration of members which afterwards became so coinpli-
APPENDIX.
SECULAR ARCHITECTURE OF FRANCE.
849
cated, and on which we have already made some remarks. The date of this fountain is
between 1422 and 1461 ; and it was erected by the Cardinal George d' Amboise, already
noticed.
The palace at Dijon, which has been already mentioned, was in date subsequent to the
Hotel des Ambassadeurs just alluded to, and though altogether changed in its fa9ade, still
possesses within it many matters for the student of the style of this period of the art. It is
now used for the accommodation of
the authorities of the place in the shape
of public offices, and a portion of it as a
museum of the antiquities of the city.
The date of its erection is about 1467.
Although this part of our Appendix is
dedicated to the consideration of se-
cular architecture, we cannot refrain
from reminding the reader that in this
place are to be seen two monuments
of the period, which are perfect keys
to the style that prevailed at the
time, in the monuments of the Dukes
of Burgundy, Philippe-le-Hardi and
Jean-sans-Peur, which were in the
church of the Chartreuse. That of
the last-named was executed by Juan
de Huerta, assisted by other artists,
about 1475.
At Nancy, the capital of Lorraine,
still remains a portion of the ancient
palace of its powerful dukes. Of its
portail we present a representation in
jig. 74. What remains within serves
as barracks for the garrison. The date
of it is about 1476. The shell-
sculptured gable, with the candelabra-
shaped ornaments bounding it, exhibit
in an interesting way the contention
between the past and coming styles.
In the balcons the Flamboyant takes its
place, and the foliations of the princi-
pal feature under the reigning pointed
arch are inverted though set upon a
ground in which the trefoils are in their
proper position. The finials are in-
ordinately large, and the elliptical form
of the arch over the gateway is a step Fie- "4- NANCY.
beyond what we call the Tudor arch. In every respect the example is one of great interest,
and those persons who do not approve of an admixture of styles must at least admit that it
is highly picturesque.
At Amboise was a palace of Charles VIII. , which dates of 1483, but it fell into the
hands of a possessor who has so modernised it that he has not left us the opportunity of
yen an observation upon it, and a succeeding proprietor consummated the Vandalism of
ic first named.
At Bourdeaux, whose beautiful cathedral, with its elegant spire, must be the admiration
' all who have seen it, is an example of the period in the Gate du Caillau, built (in memory
the battle of For nova) in 1494.
St. Quentin furnishes us with an Hotel de Ville, whose date, 1495 — 1509, is as well
rifled by the style of the ornaments as by the rebus of the facetious canon Charles de
>velles, given by M. du Somm£rard as follows : —
D'un mouton et de cinq chevaux
Toutes les tetes prendrey .... M.CCCCC
Et a icelles, sans nuls travaux,
La queue d'un veau joindrez v
Et au bout adjouterez
Tous les quatre pieds d'une chatte .... mi
Rassemblez, et vous apprendrez
L'an de ma fayon et ma date
MCCCCCVIIII — 1509.
3 I
S50
SECULAR ARCHITECTURE OF FRANCE.
APPENDIX.
The town of St. Quentin possesses also a very fine church which was collegiate, and of which
the King of France was premier chanoine.
At Caen is a curious instance of a castle in miniature, built by Girard de Nollent, about
the end of the fifteenth century. Dawson Turner thus describes it : *< It has four fronts;
the windows are square-headed, and surrounded by elegant mouldings, but the mullions
have been destroyed. One medallion yet remains over the entrance ; and it is probable
that the walls were originally covered with ornaments of this kind. Such at least is the
case with the towers and walls, which, surrounding the dwelling, have given it a castellated
appearance. The circular tower nearest the gate is dotted on all sides with busts in
basso relievo, enclosed in medallions, and in great variety of character. One is a frowning
warrior, arrayed in the helmet of an emperor of the lower empire ; another is a damsel
attired in a ruff; a third is a turbaned Turk. The borders of the medallions are equally
diversified ; the cordeliere, well known in French heraldry, the vine leaf, the oak leaf, all
appear as ornaments. The battlements are surmounted by two statues, apparently Neptune,
or a sea god, and Hercules. These heathen deities not being very familiar to the good
people of Caen, they have converted them, in imagination, into two gens d'armes mounting
guard on the castle; and hence it is frequently called the Chateau de la Gendarmerie." Of
the style displayed in this castle, Mr. Turner justly observes, we have no parallel in
England.
At Orleans the ancient Hotel de Ville, now used as a museum, exhibits another specimen
of the style. It was commenced under Charles VIII., and finished in 1498, under Louis
XII. At Blois the beautiful chateau whose four fafades are of different styles, the
eastern being of the period of Louis XII. This magnificent structure, now used as a
barrack, " servit," says Du Sommerard, " de residence a plus de cent tetes couronnees, princes
et princesses." Valentin of Milan died here. It was the birth-place of Louis XII., who,
as well as his successors, Francis I., Henri II., Charles IX., and Henri III., held hiscourt
here ; and in 1588 it was the scene of the assassination of the Guises. The southern
fa9ade is of the eleventh century ; that on the north side is very imposing and equally
elegant, the interior of it as well as the exterior, belonging to the reign of Francis I.
The corps de logis on the west, opposite the court of entrance, but which has never been
finished, is as late as the time of Mansard, who was employed upon it by Gaston d'Orleans
and the Grande Mademoiselle. From what has been said, it may be easily conceived, that
it will furnish to the student a most valuable example for examining the different periods
of French secular architecture. It is observed by the gentleman we have just quoted, " On
ne peut nulle part trouver un moyen aussi facile et aussi curieux de juger comparativement
ces divers styles, et surtout la vanite des efforts du plus grand architecte du XVIIe siecle,
dans sa lutte avec les ma9ons libres scs devanciers." Anne of Brittany and Gaston
d'Orleans died in this chateau.
At Amboise there existed another splendid palace of Charles VIII. and Louis XII., but
it has been entirely ruined by the alterations it underwent under the hands of a member of
the conservative senate, who changed the old decorated dormers or lucarnes into modern
"•«" 1 L
m CASSISES?
I f-
Fig. 75.
APPENDIX. SECULAR ARCHITECTURE OF FRANCE. 851
windows, placed gutters for carrying off the rain instead of the ancient gargouilles, and the
like. The chapel to it, however, a most elegant morceau, still remains.
We now come to the time of one or two of the finest examples of the art of this period,
the Palais de Justice and the Hotel Bourgtheroude, at Rouen. The first, begun in 1499 in
the first year of the ministry of George d'Amboise, and finished in 1508. The plot on
which this beautiful work stands, including the court-yard, is about three fifths of an
English acre, and the arrangement of its plan is given, that is, of the ancient part of the
building, in fig. 75. It is thus described by Dawson Turner : — " The three estates of the
duchy of Normandy — the parliament, composed of the deputies of the church, the nobility,
and the good towns — usually held their meeting in the Palace of Justice. Until the liberties
of France were wholly extirpated by Richelieu, this body opposed a formidable resistance to
the crown ; and the Charte Normande was considered as great a safeguard to the liberties
of the subject asMagna Charta used to be on this side of the channel. Here also the Court
of Exchequer held its session." " This court, like our Aula Regia, long continued ambu-
latory, and attendant upon the person of the sovereign, and its sessions were held occasion-
ally, and at his pleasure. The progress of society, however, required that the supreme tri-
bunal should become stationary and permanent, that the suitors might know when and
where they might prefer their claims. Philip the Fair, therefore, about the year 1300, began
by exacting that the pleas should be held only at Rouen. Louis XII. remodelled the court,
and gave it permanence, yielding in these measures to the prayer of the States of Normandy,
and to the advice of his minister, the Cardinal d'Amboise." " When the Jews were ex-
pelled from Normandy, in 1181, the close or Jewry, in which they dwelled, escheated to
the king." " In this close the palace was afterwards built." " The palace forms three sides
of a quadrangle " (two of them only are ancient). "The fourth is occupied by an
embattled wall and an elaborate gateway. The building was erected about the beginning
of the sixteenth century; and with all its faults" (we are not aware what they are) "it is
a fine adaptation of Gothic architecture to civil purposes." "The windows in the body of
the building take flattened elliptic heads, and they are divided by one mullion and one
transom. The mouldings are highly wrought, and enriched with foliage. The lucarne"
(dormer) " windows are of a different design, and form the most characteristic feature of
the front ; they are pointed, and enriched with mullions and tracery, and are placed within
triple canopies of nearly the same form, flanked by square pillars, terminating in tall
crocketed pinnacles, some of them fronted with open arches, crowned with statues. The
roof, as is usual in French and Flemish buildings of this date, is of a very high pitch,
and harmonises well with the proportions of the building. An oriel, or rather tower, of
enriched workmanship projects into the court, and varies the elevations" (an object the de-
signer never once thought about, inasmuch, as in all mediaeval buildings, the first considera-
tion was convenience, and then the skill to make convenience agreeable to the eye — an
invaluable rule to the architect). " On the left-hand side of the court, a wide flight of
steps leads to the Salle des Procureurs" (marked A on the plan), "a place originally de-
signed as an exchange for the merchants of the city" (sed quaere), " who had previously
been in the habit of assembling for that purpose in the Cathedral. It is 160 feet in
length by 50 feet in breadth." The description is generally good, or we should not have
adopted it ; but Mr. Turner has made a strange mistake in the length he has given, which
is 25 feet more than the salle really is, an error which we are surprised the Quarterly Re-
view did not find out, for reviewers are supposed to know everything. The true dimensions
are 135 feet by 57 feet 3 inches. They are so given in Britton's Normandy, and we will vouch
from our own measurement for their accuracy. The room B, now the Cour d* Assises, has
remained in its original state ; the ceiling is of oak, black through age, and is arranged in
compartments with a profusion of carving and gilt ornaments. The bosses of the ceiling
are gone, as are also the doors which were enriched with sculpture, and the original chimney-
piece. Of this room, Heylin says " it is so gallantly perfect, and richly built, that I must
needs confess it surpasseth all the rooms that ever I saw in my life. The palace of the
Louvre hath nothing in it comparable ; the ceiling is all inlaid with gold, yet doth the
workmanship exceed the matter. Round the room are gnomic sentences, admonishing
the judges, jurors, witnesses, and suiters of their duties." The basement story of the salle
is, or used to be, occupied as a prison.
Fig. 76. exhibits a portion of the south front of the building. The ellipse seems almost
to have superseded the pointed arch in the leading forms, over which the crocketed labels or
drips, in curves of contrary flexure, flow with surprising elegance. It is only in the
lucarnes we find the pointed arch ; and there it is almost subdued by the surrounding acces-
saries. The connection of the lucarnes with the turrets of the facade by means of flying
buttresses is most beautiful, and no less ingenious in the contrivance : their height, from
the ground to the top of the finials, is 78 ft. 6 in. The octangular turrets at the end of the
salle, next the Rue St. Lo, contain a very pretty example of penetration over the heads of
the pointed arch. In the story above the basement, as also in the lucarnes, the sofites of the
windows are rounded at the angles, or, as the French call it, have coussinets arrondis, as
3 I 2
852
SECULAR ARCHITECTURE OF FRANCE.
APPKNDIX,
Fig. 76.
ROUEN PALAIS Di
usual in the style, those in the principal story being, besides, slightly segmental. In the
tracery of the parapet it is singular to find the quatrefoils centered throughout with what
is called the Tudor rose. The arches rising above the parapet, which are crocketed and
of contrary flexure, have statues substituted for finials. The richness of the ornamentation of
the whole is such that we know no
other example, except that of the
Hotel de Bourgtheroude in the same
city, that can vie with it.
Fig. 77. is a section of the salle.
The roof presents little for remark.
It is bold and simple, and seems
scarcely in harmony with the rest of
the place. It is impossible to form
an adequate notion of this splendid
monument from the figures here
given, owing to the necessary small-
ness of the scale. Those who are
desirous of thoroughly understanding
its details will be gratified by refer-
ring to the plates of it in Britton's
Normandy.
There is no city wherein the style
of the period whereof we are treating
can be better studied than Rouen.
It possesses, both in secular as well
as ecclesiastical architecture, all that
the student can desire. The Hotel
de Bourgtheroude, in the Place de
la Pucelle, is about the same age as
the Palais de Justice we have just
described, or perhaps three or four
years later in the finishing. In
some respects it is more elaborate
in the ornaments and the abundance
of sculpture. The entire front is divided into bays by slender buttresses or pilasters, the
spaces between them being filled with bassi-rilievi; every inch of space, indeed, in the
building has been ornamented. This building, or rather a portion of it, is given in
Fig. 77.
ROUEN PALAIS DE
SECULAR ARCHITECTURE OF FRANCE.
853
Britton's Normandy. S.irne of the bassi-rilievi are engraved and described by Langlois,
in his Description Historique des Maisons de Rouen.
The well-known Hotel de Cluny at Paris, of which a portion is given \nfiy. 78., belongs
to the period, though commenced somewhat earlier. This hotel, as well as the Chateau de
Gaillon, was a dependence of the archbishopric of Rouen. After some interruption of the
Fig. 78.
HfiTKI, DB CLUNY.
works, they were resumed in 1490, by Jacques d'Amboise, Abbe of Cluny, and afterwards
Bishop of Clermont. He was brother to the celebrated George d'Amboise, of whom we
have had so much to speak.
To the north-west of Caen (about ten miles) is the Chateau Fontaine le Henri, a con-
siderable portion whereof is of the period under view. A part of the west front is given
in fig. 79. Dawson Turner says, " This chateau is a noble building, and a characteristic
specimen of the residences of the French noblesse during the latter part of the fifteenth
century ; at which period there is no doubt of its having been erected, although no
records whatever are left upon the subject. Fontaine le Henri was then still in the
possession of the family of Harcourt, whose fortune and consequence might naturally be
expected to give rise to a similar building." Most of the exterior surface of this
building is covered with medallions, scrolls, friezes, canopies, statues, and arabesques, in bas
relief, worked with extraordinary care, and of great beauty.
At Gaillon there now remain very few vestiges of the celebrated chateau of the Arch-
bishops of Rouen. We have above mentioned that a portion of it is set up in the court of
the Ecole des Beaux Arts at Paris.
Near St. Amand is the Chateau de Meilan, bearing a considerable resemblance in charac-
ter to the Hotel de Cluny, but much richer in the ornamentation. The walls abound with
the arms of Chaumont, which was from the thirteenth century in the family of Amboise;
and Jacques d'Amboise became, on the death of his father, lord of Chaumont and Meilan.
3 I 3
854
HOTELS DE VILLE.
APPENDIX.
Pi*. 80.
APPENDIX. HOTELS DE VILLE. 855
At Clermont (Auvergue) was a beautiful fountain erected by Jacques d'Amboise, about
1512, opposite the cathedral. But it was much injured by its removal in 1799 to another
spot; and for the octagonal tazza covered with arabesques was substituted a circular one,
besides being denuded of much of its sculpture.
We have now enumerated a few of the chateaux of France, to which reference may be
had for an insight into the domestic architecture of the country, previous to the complete
triumph of the Renaissance. Fig. 80., though belonging to the ecclesiastical branch of the
subject, is a very curious example of the dying struggles of the style called the Flamboyant.
It is from the church of St. Jacques at Dieppe.
HOTELS DE VILLE.
At a very early period the cities on the Continent that rose into importance were, for
the better regulation of the inhabitants, governed by a municipal body composed of their
principal inhabitants, whose business it was to make laws and ordinances for the good order
of the place generally, and the proper governance of the different guilds or trades. For
the convenience of these bodies were erected those magnificent edifices, some three or four
whereof we are about to notice, as examples of public secular architecture in the middle of
the fifteenth century. We have chosen the Belgian examples, as most splendid, to remark
upon ; but it is not to be understood that fine specimens are only to be found in that
country. France and Germany abound with edifices whose destination is that we have
just described, and a very voluminous work might be produced on the subject. Dallaway
well observes, that " the Maisons de Ville, or town-houses, in many of the cities of Flan-
ders engrossed, in a peculiar degree and extent, a style of grand and most richly ornamented
architecture, superior even to that conspicuous in their churches of the highest order."
These " are all of the fifteenth century," "The external surface of the whole building is
literally encrusted with minute filligrain in stone." Mr. D. says they are of the manner
first introduced and patronised under Philip, duke of Burgundy, — a subject we have in
this Appendix already discussed, and to which we consider it unnecessary to return, merely
observing, by the way, that in the detail they are entirely wanting in the interpenetrating
system of the mouldings which is so marked a characteristic of what has been called the
Burgundian style.
Of the four principal hotels de ville, that of Bruges it the earliest. Its date is 1 377, and
it was erected under the order of Louis de Maele, Count of Flanders; but as it presents
nothing to dwell upon, and is before the period under our consideration, it is unnecessary
to enter into further description of it.
The Hotel de Ville of Brussels is the first of the class, an edifice, whether considered by
itself, or as the dominant feature of a place surrounded by buildings of the most unique
and varied appearance, the most interesting that we recollect anywhere to have contem-
plated. It appears to have been completed in 1445. Fig 81. is a view of the facade,
which is towards the east. There can be little doubt that a much more ancient building
occupied this site, which has not been entirely removed ; for in the northern side from the
tower, the piers of the loggia, which on the basement extends along the front, consist, at
least three of them, of columns whose date is evidently a century earlier, and which it is
probable were left when the main front of the building was carried up. Indeed, it seems
highly probable that at the time of the architect Van Ruysbroeck undertaking his part of
the work, the hotel was in existence as high as the one-pair floor. The whole of the tower
seems rather later than the date above given, which accords well enough with the northern
wing. The authorities we have looked into scarcely, however, admit us to doubt its cor-
rectness. One of the puzzles attending this example is, why the tower and spire do not
stand in the centre of the front. We are of opinion, on this head, that the northern wing is
of the length originally intended for each side of the centre, and that it was, in execution,
lengthened out on the southern side for the acquisition of more room. Certainly the
southern wing is rather later, and there is a carelessness about the detail which would
seem to indicate that the burgomaster of the day found there was not enough space for the
offices, and that, coute qui coute, he was determined to supply them. The proportions of
the front would clearly have been more congenial to the style had the southern wing been
restricted to the same number of bays as the northern. As the building stands executed,
taking one of the bays on the northern side as a measuring unit, we have three measuring
the central space for the tower, ten for the north wing, and eleven for the south wing ; the
height, to the top of the parapet, nine ; to the ridge of the roof, thirteen ; to the top of the
spire, thirty-three. The tracery on the spire is very elegant, and is pierced throughout.
It is 406 feet high, and crowned with a copper gilt colossal statue of St. Michael, the
patron of the city, 18 feet high, which is so well balanced upon the pivot on which it stands
that it is susceptible of motion with a very gentle wind. The interior of the edifice has a
quadrangular court, with two modern fountains, statues of river gods with reeds and vases,
as usual in such cases. The Grande Salle is that in which Charles V., in the height of
his power, abdicated, in 1556, in favour of his son Philip. Besides this, there are many
3 I 4
856
HOTELS DE VILLE.
APPENDIX
Fig. 81.
HOTEL BE VILLE.
interesting apartments, some whereof possess ceilings of great beauty. This beautiful
monument is perhaps the most admirable example of the adaptation of the style to secular
architecture that can be quoted.
Smaller in extent than the hotel de ville we have just described, but more beautiful and
symmetrical, is that of Louvain. It is the most perfect, in every respect, of this class of
buildings in Europe. Nothing can surpass the richness and delicacy of the tracery upon it.
Like that at Brussels, it consists of three stories, but has not, like it, any lofty tower. Com-
menced in 1448, it was not completed till 1493. It stands on a site of about 85 feet by 42
feet ; so that it derives little advantage from its absolute magnitude, and perhaps appears
less than it really is, from the great height of the roof, which is pierced by four tiers of
dormers or lucarnes. The angles are flanked by turrets, of which some notion may be
formed by reference to fig. 82., and the ridge of the roof is received at each end by another
turret corbelled over from the gables. The fa9ade towards the Place extends rather more
than the height, and is pierced with twenty-eight windows and two doorways, being ten
openings in each story, the spaces between the windows being decorated with canopies, and
groups of small figures from the Old Testament, some whereof are rather licentious. This
APPENDIX.
HOTELS DE VILLE.
8,57
Fig. 82.
HOTEL DK VILI.K, LOt'VAIN.
charming edifice which, in its delicate rich tracery, had suffered much from time and the
elements, when we last saw it, four or five years since, had at the joint expense of the town
and government undergone a complete renovation. This had, stone by stone, been effected
with great care and artistic skill, by a M. Goyers, and religiously accurate it appears to be.
The new work has been saturated with oil : it is executed in very soft stone, which hardens
with exposure to the air.
In form, though not in features, totally different from the hotels de ville we have just
left, is that at Client, never completed, but exhibiting, in what was executed of the design,
a choice example of the last days of the Flamboyant. It was begun in 1481, and we per-
ceive in it all those indications of change in the sofites and curves, as well as in the lines
of the foliage and tracery, that were never more to be repeated ; for, were the style repeated
and revived, it would be but mockery and a lie, as unsuitable and out of character with the
habits of the age, from which alone a real style of architecture can ever spring. The sub-
division of the building as to height is into two stories as to effect, though in reality there
W58 DILAPIDATIONS. APJ-ENDIX.
are more ; and the transoms, which abound in the apertures, seem to reign in accordance
with the horizontal arrangement of lines which was so soon to supersede the flaming curves
that had prevailed for nearly half a century.
II. — DILAPIDATIONS.
The architect, in the course of his practice, is frequently called upon, and he must un-
dertake the task, however uncongenial to his feelings, to ascertain the extent of neglect
of a tenant in keeping his premises in proper order according to the covenants of the
lease or agreement under which he holds the property. The owner of a tenement let to
any person has a right to expect that it shall be delivered up to him, at the expiration of
the term, in as good condition as the wear and tear of the time will permit ; and the tenant
is bound to make good what by his neglect or accident may have injured the premises. If the
tenant fails in this, not only upon what was originally demised, but upon what may have
been erected after he begins his occupation, he is bound to pay to the landlord a sum equal
to what will restore the premises.
The general rule for determining what injuries are considered dilapidations, is to ascer-
tain what is fair wear without accident, for such is not dilapidation. Injury by accident is
that which happens suddenly, and perceptibly differing from wear, which occurs only by
lengthened use. Thus the nosing of a step worn away is not dilapidation ; but if such
be broken away, instead of worn, it is a dilapidation. It may be said that accident is
defined here with too much latitude, inasmuch as it takes account of that which occurs with-
out apparent reason at any particular time ; but we use the term in common language, and
may cite as an example, that if the timbers of a floor decay, the floor will yield, even with-
out a load upon it. When accident occurs, such alone does not limit the extent of the dila-
pidation, but also such injuries to the building as follow in its train. Thus, if the weather-
boarding of a building decay from age, so long as the covering be complete and entire, it is no
dilapidation ; but if broken in any part, that is a dilapidation ; and if from want of reparation
any of the internal parts of the building be injured, such injury is a dilapidation : so if tim-
ber or timbers belonging to any part of a house merely decay, if it or they be still sufficient
for the support of the house, no dilapidation can be chargeable ; but if such timber or tim-
bers give way, they must be replaced, and all parts made good which suffered by their failure.
According to Woodfall (Landlord and Tenant), " waste may be done in houses by pulling
them down or suffering them to be uncovered, whereby the rafters and other timbers of the
house become rotten; but the bare suffering them to be uncovered, without rotting the timber,
is not waste : so if a house be uncovered when the tenant cometh in, it is no waste in the
tenant to suffer the same to fall down." In external covering, however, it seems that decay
arising from inattention to it is dilapidation, even though no accident be the cause. It is
always considered that though painting neglected is not itself a dilapidation, yet where
decay arises from it, it is one.
Broken glass is not considered a dilapidation, unless there be more than one crack in
the pane. Some, however, contend that while the glass is sufficiently entire to exclude
the wind and weather, no waste is assignable. Generally it seems then to be the rule, that
where accident occurs, it is a dilapidation.
Whatever the tenant has power to remove during the term cannot be chargeable with
dilapidations. Upon this point the old rule is, that whatever is fixed to the freehold can-
not be removed by the tenant : thus a lessee may erect barns or sheds or any building upon
wooden or stone or other blocks laid on the surface of the ground, and take them down
if he please without substituting anything in their place ; but if the barns are fixed into the
ground, they immediately become the property of the lessor. There seems, however, to be an
exception in respect of buildings erected for the purposes of trade : hence not only coppers and
ovens may be taken away, but workshops and the like erected by the tenant for his parti-
cular trade. This exception seems at first to have applied only to wooden buildings ; but
Lord Kenyon held that a brick chimney would prevent a tenant from removing a building,
and decided that its being on a brick foundation would not do it. Though this opinion
was not held by Lord Ellenborough, yet it was not because the buildings were of brick,
but because they were erected for the purposes of agriculture, and not of trade. These
matters, however, are not in the province of the architect. It is to be remembered, in all
cases, that a lessee is bound to leave the premises in as good condition, after the removal
of fixtures or improvements, as though they had never existed : thus, if a marble be sub-
stituted for a wooden chimney-piece, when the former is removed, the latter, or one of equal
value, must be replaced. If a partition be put up and taken away, all damages to the
adjacent work must be repaired.
APPENDIX. COMPOUND INTEREST, ETC. [857]
III. — COMPOUND INTEREST AND ANNUITY TABLES.
In a previous part of this work (797, et seq.} we have touched on the nature of com-
pound interest and annuities ; and as the architect is often called on to value property, we
have thought it right to add some practical observations on the subject, and a set of Tables
for the ready calculation of such matters, which we shall here explain.
TABLE FIRST contains the amount of iZ put out to accumulate at compound interest for
any number of years up to 100, at the several rates of 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 per cent. The
amount of any other sum is found by multiplying the amount of 11. found in the table at
the given rate per cent., and for the given time, by the proposed sum.
Example.
Required the amount of 7557. in 51 years, at 5 per cent.
Amount of 17 for 51 years at 5 per cent, is .... 12-040769
Given sum .......... 755
£9080-780595
or 90907. 15*.
TABLE SECOND contains the present value of 17. payable at the end of any number of years
to 100. The present value of any given sum payable at the expiration of any number
years is found by multiplying the present value of 1 7. for the given number of years, at
proposed rate per cent., by the given sum or principal.
Example.
Required the present value of 90907. payable 51 years hence, compound interest being
allowed at 5 per cent.
By the table, the present value of 17. payable at the expiration of
51 years at 5 per cent, is--.---- -083051
Given principal ..--..... 9090
£754-933590
or 7547. 18s.
TABLE THIRD contains the amount of an annuity of I/, for any number of years, and is
thus used. Take out the amount of 17. answering to the given time and rate of interest :
iis multiplied by the given annuity will be the required amount.
Example.
Required the amount of an annuity of 277. in 21 years, at 5 per cent, compound interest.
Annuity of 17. in 21 years at 5 per cent. ----- 35-719251
Annuity given ___...,.. 27
£964-419777
or 9647.
TABLE FOURTH shows the present value of an annuity of 17. for any number of years, at
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 per cent., and is used as follows: —
First, when the annuity commences immediately. Multiply the tabular number answer-
ing to the given years and rate of interest by the given annuity, and the product will be the
value required.
Example.
Required the present value of an annuity of 457., which is to continue 48 years, at the
rate of 5 per cent.
Under 5 and opposite to 48 years is (years' purchase) - - 18-077157
Annuity given _._.---.. 45
£813-472065
or 8137. 9*.
Second, when the annuity does not commence till after a certain number of years. Mul-
tiply the difference between the tabular numbers answering to the time of commencement
and end, at the proposed rate of interest, by the given annuity, the product will be the
present value required.
[858] COMPOUND INTEREST, ETC.
Example.
An annuity of 40/. is to commence 20 years hence, and is to continue 30 years ; required
its present value, the rate of interest being 4 per cent.
Under 4 per cent, and opposite to 20 is - .... 13590326
Under 4 per cent, and opposite to 50 (20 + SO) is ... 21-482184
Difference .......... 7'891858
Annuity given .-.---_.. 40
£315-674320
or 3 151 13s.
TABLE FIFTH contains the annuity which ll. will purchase, compound interest being
allowed. The manner of using this table is obvious, from what has been said relative to
the preceding tables.
Example.
What annuity for 10 years will 5OOZ. purchase, the rate of interest being 5 per cent. ?
Under 5 and opposite to 10 is ------. -J 29504
Principal given - - - - - - - -- 500
£64-752000
or 641. 15s.
TABLES SIXTH, SEVENTH, and EIGHTH are for finding the value of annuities on single and
joint lives, and were constructed by Simpson, on the London bills of mortality.
To find the value of an annuity for a single life, at a proposed rate of interest, within the
limits of the table, take from Table VI. the number answering to the given age and proposed
rate of interest, which multiplied by the given annuity, the product will be the value re-
quired.
Example.
What is the value of an annuity of 50l. upon a single life aged 40 years, according to the
London bills of mortality, the rate of interest being 4 per cent. ?
The value of an annuity of ll. for 40 years at 4 per cent, is - - - 11-5
Annuity ___________ 5O
Value - - - ..... - - - £575
To find the value of an annuity of two joint lives, multiply the number in Table VII.
answering to the given ages, and at the proposed rate of interest, by the given annuity, and
the product will be the required value.
Example.
What is the value of an annuity of 601. for two joint lives, the one being 30 and the other
40 years, interest at 4 per cent. ?
The number answering to 30 and 40 years at 4 per cent, is - - - 8-8
Annuity ...-_._-..- 60
Value .......... £528-O
roceed as directed in
uct will be the value.
To find the value of an annuity for the longest of two given lives, p
the case immediately preceding, but using Table VIII., and the prodi
Example.
What is the value of an annuity of 60/. for the longest of two lives, the one being 30 and
the other 40 years, interest at 4 per cent.
The tabular number answering at 4 per cent, is - . - - 15 -9
Annuity -.- -.__ - _ _ _ _ 60
Present value £954-0
The first five tables which follow are printed from those of Smart ; the remainder are
from Simpson.
The calculations involving the valuation of annuities on lives are not very frequently im-
posed on the architect, but it is absolutely necessary he should be capable of performing them,
as in the case of valuations of leases upon lives, which sometimes occur to him.
APPENDIX. COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES.
THE FIRST TABLE OF COMPOUND INTEREST.
The Amount of One Pound in any Number of Years, &c.
859
Years.
3 per Cent.
4 per Cent.
5 per Cent.
6 per Cent.
7 oer Cent.
8 per Cent.
1
li
2
^
1-014889
1 -030000
1 -045335
1 -060900
1 -076695
1 -01 9803
1 -040000
1 -060596
1-081600
1-103019
1 -024695
1 -050000
1 -075929
1-102500
1-129726
1 -029563
1 -060000
1 -091 336
1-123600
1-156817
1-034408
1 -070000
1-106816
1-144900
1-184293
1 -039230
1 -080000
1 -1 22368
1-166400
1-212158
3
3|
4
<i
1 -092727
1-108996
1-125508
1-142266
1-159274
•124864
•147140
1-169858
1-193026
•216652
1-157625
1-186212
1-215506
1 -245523
1.276281
1-191016
1 -226226
1 -262476
1 -299799
1 -338225
1 -225043
1-267194
1-310796
1 -355897
1 -402551
1-259712
1-309131
1 -360488
1-413861
1 -469328
*i
6
?
n
1-176534
1-194052
1-211830
1-229873
1-248185
•240747
•265319
•290377
1-315931
1-341992
1 -307799
1 -340095
1-373189
1-407100
1-441848
1-377787
1 -41 851 9
1 -460454
1 -503630
1 -548082
1-450810
1 -500730
1 -552367
1 -605781
1-661033
1 -526970
1 -586874
r-649128
1-713824
1-781058
8
^
9
9|
10
1 -266770
1-285631
1 -304773
1-324200
1-343916
1 -368569
1-395672
1-423311
1-451498
1 -480244
1-477455
1-513941
1-551328
1 -589638
1-628894
1 -593848
1-640967
1 -689478
1 -739425
1 -790847
1-718186
1 -777305
1 -838459
1-901717
1-967151
1 -850930
1 -923543
1-999004
2-077426
2.158925
lO^
11
ii|
12
12J
1.363926
1.384233
1 -404843
1 -425760
1 -446989
1 -509558
1 -539454
1 -569941
1-601032
1 -632738
1-669120
1 -710339
1 -752576
1 '795856
1 -840205
1 -843790
1 -898298
1-954417
2-012196
2-071683
2-034837
2-104851
2-177275
2-252191
2-329685
2-243620
2-331639
2-423110
2-518170
2-616959
13
134
14
14£
15
1 -468533
1 -490398
•512589
•535110
•557967
1 -665073
1 -698048
1-731676
1-765970
1 -800943
1 -885649
1-932215
1-979931
2-028826
2-078928
2-132928
2-195984
2-260903
2-327743
2-396558
2-409845
2-492763
2-578534
2-667256
2-759031
2-719623
2-826315
2-937193
3-052421
3-172169
15i
16
161
17
"J
•581164
•604706
•628599
•652847
•677457
1 -836609
1-872981
1-910073
1-947900
1 -986476
2-130267
2-182874
2-236780
2-292018
2-348619
2-467407
2-540351
2-615452
2.692772
2-772379
2-853964
2-952163
3-053741
3-158815
3-267503
3-296614
3-425942
3-560344
3-700018
3-845171
18
18'
19
19i
20
•702433
•727780
•753506
1-779614
1-806111
2-025816
2-065935
2-106849
2-148573
2-191123
2-406619
2-466050
2-526950
2-589353
2-653297
2-854339
2-938722
3 -025599
3-115045
3-207135
3-379932
3-496229
3-616527
3-740965
3-869684
3-996019
4-152785
4-315701
4-485008
4-660957
201
21
211
22
22^
1 -833002
1 -860294
1-887992
1-916103
1 -944632
2-234515
2-278768
2-323896
2-369918
2-416852
2-718821
2-785962
2-854762
2-925260
2-997500
3-301948
3-399563
3-50O064
3-603537
3-710068
4-002832
4-140562
4-283031
4-430401
4-582843
4-843808
5-033833
5-231313
5-436540
5-649818
23
231
24
24i
25
1-973586
2-002971
2-032794
2-063060
2-093777
2-464715
2-513526
2-563304
2-614067
2-665836
3-071523
3-147375
3-225099
3-304744
3-386354
3-819749
3-932672
4-048934
4-168633
4-291870
4-740529
4 -903642
5-072366
5-246897
5-427432
5-871463
6-101804
6-341180
6-589948
6-848475
860
COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES.
THE FIRST TABLE OF COMPOUND INTEREST — continued.
The Amount of One Pound in any Number of Years, &c.
APPENDIX.
Years.
3 per Cent.
4 per Cent.
5 per Cent.
6 per Cent.
7 per Cent.
8 per Cent.
25J
26
261
27
271
2-124952
2-156591
2-188701
2-221289
2-254362
2-718630
2-772469
2-827375
2-883368
2-940470
3-469981
3-555672
3-643480
3-733456
3-825654
4-418751
4-549382
4-683876
4-822345
4-964909
5-614179
5-807352
6-007172
6-213867
6-427674
7-117144
7-396353
7-686515
7-988061
8-301437
28
28^
29
29^
30
2-287927
2-321992
2-356565
2-391652
2-427262
2-998703
3-058089
3-118651
3-180412
3-243397
3-920129
4-016937
4-116135
4-217783
4-321942
5-111686
5-262803
5-418387
5-578571
5-743491
6-648838
6-877611
7-114257
7-359044
7-612255
8-627106
8-965551
9-317274
9-682796
10-062656
30^
31
31^
32
32>
2-463402
2-500080
2-537304
2-575082
2-613423
3-307629
3-373133
3-439934
3-508058
3-577532
4-428673
4-538039
4-650106
4-764941
4-882612
5-913286
6-088100
6-268083
6-453386
6-644168
7-874177
8-145112
8-425370
8-715270
9-015146
10-457419
10-867669
11.294013
11-737083
12-197534
33
33£
34
34t
35
2-652335
2-691826
2-731905
2-772581
2-813862
3-648381
3-720633
3-794316
3-869458
3-946088
5-003188
5-126742
5-253347
5-383079
5-516015
6-840589
7-042818
7-251025
7-465387
7-686086
9-325339
9-646206
9-978113
10-321440
10-676581
12-676049
13-173337
13-690133
14-227204
14-785344
35£
36
361
37
37£
38
38^
39
391
40
2-855758
2-898278
2-941431
2-985226
3-029674
4-024236
4-103932
4-185206
4-268089
4-352614
5-652233
5-791816
5-934845
6-081406
6-231587
7-913310
8-147252
8-388109
8-636087
8-891395
11-043941
11-423942
11-817017
12-223618
12-644208
15-365380
15-968171
16-594610
17-245625
17-922179
3-074783
3-120564
3-167026
3-214181
3-262037
4-438813
4-526719
4-616365
4-707788
4-801020
6-385477
6-543167
6-704751
6-870325
7 -039988
9-154252
9-424879
9-70.-3507
9-990372
10-285717
13-079271
13-529303
13-994820
14-476354
14-974457
18-625275
19-355954
20-115297
20-904430
21-724521
*Q*
41
411
42
42i
3-310606
3-359898
3-409924
3-460695
3-512222
4-896099
4-993061
5-091943
5-192783
5-295621
7-213841
7-391988
7-574533
7-761587
7-953260
10-589794
10-902861
11-225182
1 1 -557032
11-898693
15-489699
16-022669
16-573978
17-144256
17-734157
22-576785
23-462483
24-382927
25-339481
26-333562
43
431
44
441
45
3-564516
3-617589
3-671452
3-726117
3-781595
5-400495
5-507446
5-616515
5-727744
5-841175
8-149666
8-350923
8-557150
8-768469
8-985007
12-250454
12-612615
12-985481
13-369371
13-764610
18-344354
18-975548
19-628459
20-303836
21-002451
27-366640
28 -440247
29-555971
30-715466
31-920449
45£
46
46^
47
47*
3-837900
3-895043
3-953037
4-011895
4-071628
5-956853
6-074822
6-195127
6-317815
6-442933
9-206893
9-434258
9-667237
9-905971
10-150599
14-171534
14-590487
15-021826
15-465916
15-923135
21 -725105
22-472623
23-245862
24-045707
24-873072
33-172704
34-474085
35-826520
37-232012
38-692642
48
48£
49
49£
50
4-132251
4-193777
4-256219
4-31959O
4-383906
6-570528
6-700650
6-833349
6-968676
7-106683
10-401269
10-658129
10-921333
11-191036
1 1 -467399
16-393871
16-878524
17-377504
17-891235
18-420154
25-728906
26-614187
27-529929
28-477180
29-457025
40-210573
41-788053
43-427418
45-131097
46-901612
COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES.
THE FIRST TABLE OF COMPOUND INTEREST — continued.
The Amount of One Pound in any Number of Years, &c.
861
Years.
3 per Cent.
4 per Cent.
5 per Cent.
6 per Cent.
7 per Cent.
8 per Cent.
501
51
51.1
52
521
4-449178
4-515423
4-582654
4-650885
4-720133
7 '247423
7-390950
7-537320
7-686588
7-838813
11-750588
12-040769
12-338117
12-642808
12-955023
18-964709
19-525363
20-102592
20-696885
21-308747
30-470583
31-519016
32-603524
33-725347
34-885771
48-741585
50-653741
52-640912
54-706040
56-852185
53
53^
54
541
55
551
56
561
57
57^
4-790412
4-861737
4-934124
5-007589
5-082148
7-994052
8-152365
8-313814
8 -478460
8-646366
13-274948
13-602774
13-938696
14-282913
14-635630
21 -938698
22-587272
23-255020
23-942508
24-650321
36-086122
37-327775
38-612150
39-940719
41-315001
59-082524
61 -400360
63-809126
66-312389
68-913856
5-157817
5-234613
5-312552
5-391651
5-471928
8-817598
8-992221
9-170302
9-351910
9-537114
14-997058
15-367412
15-746911
16-135783
16-534257
25-379059
26-129340
26-901802
27-697101
28-515911
42-736569
44-207051
45-728129
47-301545
48-929098
71-617380
74-426964
77-346770
80-381121
83-534512
58
581
59
59£
60
5-553400
5-636086
5-720003
5-805169
5-891603
9-725986
9-918599
10-115026
10-315343
10-519627
16-942572
17-360970
17-789700
18-229018
18-679185
29-358927
30-226865
31-120463
32-040477
32-987690
50-612653
52-354135
54-155539
56-018925
57-946426
86-811611
90-217273
93-756540
97-434655
101-257063
60'
61
611
62
621
5-979324
6-068351
6-158703
6-250401
6-343464
10-727957
10 '9404 12
11-157075
11-378029
11-603358
19-140469
19-613145
20-097493
20-593802
21-102367
33-962906
34-966952
36-000680
37 -064969
38-160721
59-940249
62-002676
64-136067
66-342864
68 -625592
105-229427
109-357628
113-647781
118-106239
122-739604
63
63>
64
641
65
6-437913
6-533768
6-631051
6-729781
6-829982
11-833150
12-067492
12-306476
12-550192
12-798735
21 -623492
22-157486
22-704667
23-265360
23-839900
39-288867
40-450364
41-646199
42-877386
44-144971
70-986864
73-429383
75-955945
78-569440
81-272861
127-554738
132-558772
137-759117
143-163474
148-779846
651
66
661
67"
671
6-931675
7-034882
7-139625
7 -245928
7-353814
13-052200
13-310684
13-574288
13-843112
14-117259
24-428628
25031895
25-650060
26-283490
26-932563
45-450030
46-793669
48-177031
49-601290
51-067653
84-069301
86-961961
89-954152
93-049298
96-250943
154-616552
160-682234
166-985876
173-536813
180-344746
68
681
69
69J
70
7-463306
7-574428
7-687205
7-801661
7-917821
14-396836
14-681950
14-972709
15-269228
15-571618
27-597664
28-279191
28-977548
29-693150
30-426425
52-577367
54-131713
55-732009
57-379615
59-075930
99-562749
102-988509
106-532142
110-197704
113-989392
187-419758
194-772326
202-41S338
210-354112
218-606405
70'
71
71|
72
72£
8-035711
8-155356
8-276782
8-400017
8-525086
15-879997
16-194483
16-515197
16-842262
17-175804
31-177808
31 -947746
32-736698
33-545134
34-373533
60-822392
62-620485
64-471736
66-377715
68-340040
117-911544
121-968649
126-165352
130-506455
134-996926
227-182441
236-094918
245-357036
254-982511
264-985599
73
73£
74
741
75
8 -65201 7
8-780839
8-911578
9-044264
9-178925
17-515952
17-862837
18-216591
18-577350
18-945254
35-222390
36-092210
36-983510
37-896821
38-832685
70-360378
72-440442
74-582000
76-786869
79-056920
139-641906
144-446711
149-416840
154-557981
159-876019
275-381112
286-184447
297-411601
309-079203
321-204529
862
COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES.
THE FIRST TABLE OF COMPOUND INTEREST — continued.
The Amount of One Pound in any Number of Years, &c.
APPENDIX.
Years.
3 per Cent.
4 per Cent.
5 per Cent.
6 per Cent.
7 per Cent.
8 per Cent.
75£
76
761
77
77£
9-315592
9-454293
9-595059
9'737922
9-882911
19-320444
19-703064
20-093262
20-491187
20-896992
39-791662
40-774320
41-781245
42-813036
43-870307
81-394081
83-800336
86-277726
88-828356
91 -454390
165-377040
171-067340
176-953433
183-042054
189-340173
333-805539
346-900892
360-509982
374-652963
389-350781
78
78^
79
79£
80
10-030059
10-179399
10-330961
10-484781
10-640890
21-310834
21-732872
22-163268
22-602187
23-049799
44-953688
46-063822
47 -201 372
48-367013
49-561441
94-158057
96-941653
99-807541
102-758152
105-795993
195-854998
202-593985
209-564848
216-775564
224-234387
404-625200
420-498844
436-995216
454-138751
471 -954834
80£
81
811
82
82'
10-799324
10-960117
11-123304
1 1 -288920
1 1 -457003
23-506275
23-971791
24-446526
24-930662
25-424387
50-785364
52-039513
53-324632
54-641488
55-990864
108-923642
112-143753
115-459060
118-872378
122-386604
231 -949854
239-930794
248-186343
256-725950
265-559387
490-469851
509-711221
529-707439
550-488118
572-084035
83
83£
84
84>
85
11-627588
11 '80071 3
11-976416
12-154734
12-335708
25-927889
26-441362
26-965004
27-499017
28-043604
57-373563
58-790407
60-242241
61 -729928
63-254353
126-004720
129-729800
133-565004
137-513588
141-578904
274-696766
284-148545
293-925540
304-038943
314-500328
594-527168
617-850757
642-089341
667-278818
693-456488
85^
86
86'
' 87
87^
12-519376
12-705779
12-894958
13-086953
13-281806
28-598977
29-165349
29-742936
30-331963
30-932654
64-816424
66-417071
68 -057245
69-737924
71-460108
145-764403
150-073638
154-510267
159-078057
163-780884
325-321669
336-515351
348-094186
360-071425
372-460779
720-661124
748-933008
778-314013
808-847648
840-579135
88
88»
89
89^
90
13-479561
13.680261
13-883948
14-090668
14-300467
31 -545241
32-169960
32-807051
33 -456758
34-119333
73-224820
75-033113
76-886061
78-784769
80-730365
168-622740
173-607737
178-740104
184-024201
189-464511
385-276425
398-533033
412-245775
426-430345
441-102979
873-555460
907-825465
943.439897
980-451503
1018-9150891
90£
91
M|
92
921
14-513389
14-729481
14-948790
15-171365
15-397254
34-795029
35-484106
36-186830
36-903470
37-634303
82-724007
84-766883
86-860208
89-005227
91-203218
195-065653
200-832381
206-769592
212-882324
219-175768
456-280470
471-980188
488-220103
505-018801
522-395510
1058-887623
1100-428296
1143-598633
1188-462560
1235-086523
93
93£
94
94J
95
15-626506
15-859172
16.095301
16-334947
16-578160
38 -379609
39-139675
39-914794
40-705262
41-511385
93-455488
95-763379
98-128263
100-551548
103-034676
225-655264
232-326314
239-194580
246-265893
253-546254
540-370117
558-963196
578-196026
598-090619
618-669747
1283-539564
1333-893445
1386-222730
1440-604921
1497-120548
95^
96
96^
97
97£
16-824995
17-075505
17-329745
17-587770
17-849637
42-333473
43-171841
44-026812
44-898715
45-787884
105-579125
108-186410
110-858082
113-595730
116-400986
261 -041 846
268-759030
276-704357
284-884572
293-306618
639-956963
661 -976630
684-753950
708-314994
732-686727
1555-853315
1616-890192
1680-321580
1746-241407
1814-747306
98
98£
99
99£
100
18-115403
18-385126
18-658866
18-936680
19-218631
46-694663
47-619400
48 -562450
49-524176
50-504948
119-275517
122-221035
125-239293
128-332087
131-501257
301 -977646
310-905016
320-096305
329-559317
339-302083
757-897043
783-974797
810-949836
838-853033
867-716325
1885-940720
1959-927091
2036-815978
2116-721258
2199-761256
APPENDIX. COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES. 863
THE SECOND TABLE OF COMPOUND INTEREST.
The present Value of One Pound payable at the End of any Number of Years, £c.
Years.
3 per Cent
4 per Cent.
5 por Cent.
6 per Cent.
7 per Cent.
8 per Cent.
*
4
2
2£
•985329
•970873
•956630
•942595
•928767
980580
•961538
•942866
•924556
•906601
•975900
•952380
•929428
•907029
•885170
•971285
•943396
•916307
•889996
•864440
•966736
•934579
•903492
•873438
•844385
•962250
•925925
•890972
•857338
•824974
3
^
4
**
5
•915141
•901715
'888487
•875452
•862608
•888996
•871732
•854804
•838204
•821927
'863837
'843019
'822702
•802875
•783526
•839619
•81551O
•792093
•769349
•747258
•816297
•789144
•762895
•737518
•712986
•793832
•763865
•735029
•707282
•680583
*k
6
9
k
•849953
•837484
•825197
•813091
•801162
•805965
•790314
•774967
•759917
•745160
•764643
.746215
•728231
•710681
•693553
•725801
•704960
•684718
•665057
•645960
•689269
•666342
•644177
•622749
•602034
•654891
•630169
•606381
•583490
•561 463
8
**
9
9*
10
•789409
•777828
•766416
•755172
•744093
•730690
•716500
•702586
•688942
•675564
•676839
•660527
•644608
•629073
•613913
•627412
•609396
•591898
•574902
•558394
•582009
•562649
•543933
•525840
•508349
•540268
•519873
•500248
•481364
•463193
">$
11
Hi
12
1*1
•733177
•722421
•711822
•701379
•691090
•662445
•649580
•636966
•624597
•612467
•599117
•584679
•570588
•556837
•543417
•542360
•5i6787
•511661
•496969
•482699
•491439
•475092
•459289
•44401 1
•429242
•445708
•428882
•412692
•397113
•382122
13
131
14
i«i
15
•680951
•670961
•661117
•651418
•641861
•600574
•588911
•577475
•566260
•555264
•530321
•517540
•505067
•492895
•481017
•468839
•455376
•442300
•429600
•417265
•414964
•401161
•387817
•374917
•362446
•367697
•353817
•340461
•327608
•315241
IS*
16
16*
17
iH
•632445
•623166
•614024
•605016
•596140
•544481
•533908
•523540
•513373
•503403
•469424
•458111
•447071
•436296
•425781
•405283
•393646
•382343
•371364
•360701
•350389
•338734
•327467
•316574
•306044
•303341
•291890
•280871
•27O268
•260066
18
I*
19
191
20
•587394
•578777
•570286
•561919
•553675
•493628
•484042
•474642
•465425
•456386
•415520
•405506
•395733
•386196
376889
•350343
•S40283
•330513
•321022
•311804
•295863
•286022
•276508
•267310
•258419
•250249
•240802
•231712
•222965
•214548
201
21
21*
22
221
•545552
•537549
' -529663
•521892
•514235
•447524
•438833
•430311
•421955
•413761
•367806
•358942
•350291
•341849
•333611
•302851
•294155
•285708
•277505
•269536
•249823
•241513
•233479
•225713
•218205
•206449
•198655
•191156
•183940
•176996
23
23£
24
241
25
•506691
•499258
•491933
•484716
•477605
•405726
•397847
•390121
•382545
•375116
•325571
•317725
•310067
•302595
•295302
•261797
•254279
•246978
•239886
•232998
•210946
•203930
•197146
•190588
•184249
•170315
•16S885
•157699
•151746
•146017
[3 I]
864 COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES. APPENDIX.
THE SECOND TABLE OF COMPOUND INTEREST — continued.
The present Value of One Pound payable at the End of any Number of Years, &c.
Years.
3 per Cent.
4 per Cent.
5 per Cent.
6 per Cent.
7 per Cent.
8 per Cent.
25*
26
261
27
27*
•470598
•463694
•456891
•450189
•443584
•367832
•360689
•353684
•346816
•340081
•288186
•28124O
•274462
•267848
•261393
•226308
•219810
•213498
•207367
•201413
•178120
•172195
•166467
•160930
•155577
•140505
•135201
•130097
•125186
•120461
28
28|
29
29*
30
•437076
•430664
•424346
•418120
411986
•333477
•327O01
.320651
•314424
•308318
•255093
•248945
•242946
•237091
•231377
•195630
•190012
•184556
•179257
•174110
•150402
•145399
•140562
•135887
•131367
•115913
•111538
•107327
•103275
•099377
301
31
si*
32
32*
•405942
•399987
•394119
•388337
•382639
•302331
•296460
•290703
•285057
•279522
•225801
•220359
•215048
•209866
•204808
•169110
•164254
•159538
•154957
•150507
•126997
•122773
•118689
•114741
•110924
•095625
•092016
•088542
•085200
•081983
33
33*
34
34*
35
•377026
•371495
•366044
•360674
•355383
•274094
•268771
•263552
•258434
•253415
•199872
•195055
•1 90354
•185767
•181290
•146186
•141988
•137911
•133951
•130105
•107234
•103667
•1O0219
•096885
•093662
•078888
•075910
•073045
•070287
•067634
3SJ
36
36*
37
S7i
•350169
•345032
•339970
•334982
•330068
•248494
•243668
•238936
•234296
•229746
•176921
•172657
•1 68496
•164435
•160472
•126369
•122740
•119216
•115793
•112468
•090547
•087535
•084623
•08 1 808
•079087
•065081
•062624
•060260
•057985
•055796
38
38*
39
39*
40
•325226
•320454
•315753
•311121
•306556
•225285
•220910
•216620
•212413
•208289
•156605
•152831
•149147
•145553
•142045
•109238
•106102
•103055
•100096
•097222
•076456
•07391 3
•071455
•069078
•066780
•053690
•051663
•049713
•047836
•046030
40*
41
41*
42
42*
•302059
•297628
•293261
•288959
•284719
•204244
•200277
•196388
•192574
•188835
•138622
•135281
•132021
•128839
•125734
•094430
•091719
•089085
•086527
•084042
•064559
•062411
•060335
•058328
•056388
•044293
•042621
•041012
•039464
•037974
43
43*
44
44*
45
•280542
•276427
•272371
•268375
•264438
•185168
•181572
•178046
•174588
•171198
•122704
•119747
•116861
•114044
•111296
•081629
•079285
•077009
•074797
•072650
•054512
•052699
•050946
•049251
•047613
•036540
•0351 61
•033834
•032556
•031327
45*
46
46*
47
47*
•260559
•256736
•252970
•249258
•245601
•167873
•164613
•J61417
•158282
•155208
•108614
•105996
•103442
•100949
•098516
•070563
•068537
•066569
•064658
•062801
•046029
•044498
•043018
•041587
•040204
•030145
•029007
•027912
•026858
•025844
48
48*
49
49*
50
•241998
•238448
•234950
•231503
•228107
•152194
•149239
•146341
•143499
•140712
•096142
•093825
•091563
•089357
•087203
•060998
•059246
•057545
•055893
•054288
•038866
•037573
•036324
•035115
•033947
•024869
•023930
•023026
•022157
•021321
APPENDIX. COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES. 865
THE SECOND TABLE OF COMPOUND INTEREST — continued.
The present Value of One Pound payable at the End of any Number of Years, &c.
"tfears.
3 per Cent.
4 per Cent.
5 per Cent.
6 per Cent.
7 per Cent.
8 per Cent.
50A
51
511
52
«*
•224760
•221463
•218214
•215012
•211858
•1 37980
•135300
•132673
•130096
•127570
•O85102
•083051
•081049
•079096
•077190
•052729
•051215
•049744
•048316
•046929
•032818
•031726
•030671
•029651
•028664
•020516
•019741
•018996
•018279
•017589
53
531
54
54i
55
•208750
•205687
•202670
•199696
•196767
•125093
•122663
•120281
•117945
•115655
•075329
•073514
071742
•070013
•068326
•045581
•044272
•043001
•041766
•040567
•02771 1
•026789
•025898
•025037
•024204
•016925
•016286
•015671
•015080
•014510
55£
56
561
57
57>
•193880
•191036
•188233
•185471
•182750
•1 1 3409
•111207
•109047
•106930
•104853
•066679
•065072
•063504
•061974
•060480
•039402
•038271
•037172
•036104
•035068
•023399
•022620
•021868
•021 140
•020437
•01 3963
•013435
•012928
•Ol 2440
•011971
58
58J
59
59^
60
•180069
•177428
•174825
•172260
•169733
•102817
•100820
•098862
•096942
•095060
•059022
•057600
•056212
•054857
•053535
•034061
•033083
•032133
•031210
•030314
•019757
•019100
•018465
•017851
•017257
•011519
•011084
•010665
•O 10263
•009875
60i
61
6I|
62
624
•167242
•164789
•162371
•159989
•157642
•093214
•091404
•089629
•087888
•086181
•052245
•050986
•049757
•048558
•047388
•029443
•028598
•027777
•026979
•026204
•016683
•016128
•015591
•015073
•014571
•009503
•009144
•008799
•008466
•008147
63
63J
64
641
65
•155329
•153051
•150805
•148593
•146413
•084508
•082867
•081258
•079680
•078132
•046246
•045131
•044043
•042982
•041946
•025452
•024721
•02401 1
•023322
•022652
•014087
•013618
•013165
•012727
•012304
•007839
•007543
•007259
•006985
•006721
65J
66
661
67
67£
•144265
•142148
•140063
•138008
•135983
•076615
•075127
•073668
•072238
•070835
•040935
•039949
•038986
•038046
•037129
•022002
•021370
•020756
•0201 60
•019581
•011894
•011499
•011116
•O10746
•010389
•006467
•006223
•O05988
•005762
•005544
68
68|
69
69£
70
•133988
•132023
•130086
•128177
•126297
•069459
•0681 10
•066788
•065491
•064219
•036234
•035361
•034509
•033677
•032866
•019019
•018473
•017943
•O17427
•016927
•010043
•009709
•009386
•009074
•008772
•005335
•O05134
•004940
•004753
•O04574
70|
71
714
72
72£
•124444
•122618
•120819
•119047
•117300
•062972
•061749
•060550
•059374
•058221
•032074
•031301
•030546
•029810
•029092
•016441
•015969
•015510
•015065
•014632
•008480
•008198
•O07926
•007662
•007407
•004401
•004235
•004075
•003921
•003773
73
734
74
Wi
75
•115579
•113884
•112213
•110567
•108945
•057090
•055982
•054895
•053828
•052783
•028391
•027706
•027039
•026387
•025751
•014212
•013804
•013408
•013023
•012649
•O07161
•006922
•006692
•006470
•006254
•003631
•003494
•003362
•003235
•003113
3 K
866
COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES.
APPENDIX.
THE SECOND TABLE OP COMPOUND INTEREST — continued.
The present Value of One Pound payable at the End of any Number of Years, &c.
Years.
3 per Cent.
4 per Cent.
5 per Cent.
6 per Cent.
7 per Cent.
8 per Cent.
75*
76
7«i
77
77£
•107346
•105772
•104220
•102691
•101184
•051758
•050753
•049767
•O48801
•047853
•025130
•024525
•023934
•023357
•022794
•012285
•011933
•01159O
•011257
•010934
•006046
•005845
•005651
•005463
•005281
•002995
•002882
•002773
•002669
•002568
78
78£
79
79^
80
•099700
•098237
•096796
•095376
•093977
•046924
•046013
•045119
•044243
•043384
•022245
•021709
•021185
•020675
•020176
•01062O
•010315
•010019
•009731
•009452
•005105
•O04935
•004771
•OO4613
•004459
•002471
•O02378
•002288
•002201
•002118
80£
81
«i
82
821
•092598
•091239
•089901
•088582
•087282
•042541
•041715
•040905
•04O111
•039332
•01 9690
•019216
•018753
•018301
•017860
•009180
•008917
•008661
•O08412
•008170
•004311
•004167
•004029
•003895
•003765
•002038
•001 961
•001887
•001816
•001747
83
83£
84
84£
85
•086002
•08474O
•083497
•082272
•081065
•038568
•037819
•037085
•036364
•035658
•017429
•017009
•016599
•016199
•015809
•007936
•007708
•007486
•007272
•O07063
•O03640
•003519
•003402
•003289
•003179
•001682
•001618
•001557
•001498
•001442
85£
86
86J
87
87*
•079876
•078704
•077549
•076411
•075290
•034966
•034287
•033621
•032968
•032328
•015428
•015056
•014693
•014339
•013993
•006860
•006663
•O06472
•006286
•006105
•003073
•002971
•002872
•002777
•002684
•001387
•O01 335
•001284
•O01236
•001189
88
88i
89
89£
90
•074186
•073098
•072025
•070968
•069927
•031 7OO
•031084
•030481
•029889
-O29308
•013656
•013327
•013006
•012692
•012386
•005930
•005760
•005594
•005434
•005278
•002595
•002509
•002425
•002345
•002267
•001144
•001 101
•O01059
•001019
•000981
90£
91
9IJ
92
92£
•068901
•067891
•066895
•065913
•064946
•028739
•028181
•027634
•027097
•026571
•012088
•011797
•011512
•01 1235
•010964
•O05126
•004979
•004836
•004697
•004562
•002191
•002118
•002048
•O01980
•001914
•000944
•000908
•000874
•OO0841
•000809
93
93£
94
94£
95
•063993
•063054
•062129
•061218
•060320
•026055
•025549
•025053
•024566
•024089
•O107OO
•010442
•010190
•009945
•009705
•004431
•O04304
•004180
•004060
•003944
•001850
•001789
•001729
•001671
•001616
•000779
•000749
•000721
.O00694
•000667
95J
96
96£
97
97J
•059435
•058563
•057704
•056857
•056023
•023621
•023163
•022713
•022272
•021839
•009471
•O09243
•009020
•O08803
•O08590
•003830
•00372O
•003613
•003510
•003409
•O01562
•001510
•001460
•001411
•001364
•000642
•000618
•O00595
•000572
•000551
98
98£
99
99£
100
•055201
•054391
•053593
•052807
•052032
•021415
•020999
•020592
•O20192
•019800
•008383
•008181
•007984
•O07792
•007604
•003311
•003216
•O03124
•003034
'002947
•001319
•001275
•001233
•001192
•001152
•000590
•O00510
•000490
•000472
•000454
APPENDIX. COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES.
THE THIRD TABLE OF COMPOUND INTEREST.
The Amount of One Pound per Annum in any Number of Years, &c.
867
Years
3 per Cent.
4 per Cent.
5 per Cent.
6 per Cent.
7 per Cent.
8 per Cent.
1
M
2
2^
•496305
1-000000
1-511194
2-030000
2 -556530
•495097
l-OOOOOO
1-514901
2-040OOO
2-575497
•493901
1-000000
1-518596
2-050000
2-594526
•492716
1-000000
1 -522279
2-060000
2-613616
•491 543
l-OOOOOO
1 -525951
2-070000
2-632768
•490381
l-OOOOOO
1-529611
2 -080000
2-651980
3
SJ
4
?
3-090900
3 -633226
4-183627
4-742222
5-309135
3-121600
3-678517
4-246464
4-825658
5-416322
3-152500
3-724252
4-310125
4-910465
5-525631
3-183600
3-770433
4-374616
4-996659
5-637092
3-2149OO
3-817061
4-439943
5-084256
5-750739
3-246400
3-864138
4-506112
5-173270
5-866600
54
6
?
7i
5-884489
6-468409
7*061024
7-662462
8-272855
6-018684
6-632975
7-259431
7-898294
8 -549809
6-155988
6-801912
7-463788
8-142O08
8-836977
6-296459
6-975318
7-674246
8-393837
9-134701
6-440154
7-153290
7 -890964
8-654021
9-443332
6-587131
7-335929
8-114102
8-922803
9-763230
8
*i
9
9|
10
8-892336
9-521040
10-159106
10-806671
11-463879
9-214226
9-891801
10-582795
11-287473
12-006107
9-549108
10-278826
11-026564
11-792767
12-577892
9-897467
10-682783
11-491315
12-323750
13-180794
10-259802
11-104365
11-977988
12-881671
13-816447
10-636627
11-544288
12-487557
13-467831
14-486562
10i
11
Hi
12
12»
12-130872
12-807795
13-494798
14-192029
14-899642
12-738972
13-486351
14-248531
15-025805
15-818472
13-382406
14-206787
15-051526
15-917126
16-804102
14-063175
14-971642
15-906966
16-869941
17-861384
14-783388
15-783599
16-818225
17-888451
18-995501
15-545258
16-645487
17-788879
18-977126
20-211989
13
13£
14
141
15
15-617790
16-346631
17-086324
17-837030
18-598913
16-626837
17-451211
18-291911
19-149260
20-023587
17-712982
18-644307
19-598631
20-576523
21 -578563
18-882137
19-933067
21-015065
22-129051
23-275969
20-140642
21-325186
22-550487
23-817949
25-129022
21 -495296
22-828948
24-214920
25-655264
27-152113
151
16
161
17
17^
19-372141
20-156881
20-953305
21-761587
22 -58 1 904
20-915230
21 -824531
22-751839
23-697512
24-661913
22-605349
23-657491
24-735616
25-840366
26-972397
24-456794
25-672528
26-924202
28-212879
29-539654
26-485205
27-888053
29-339170
30-84021 7
32-392912
28-707685
30-324283
32 -004300
33-750225
35-564644
18
181
19
191
20
23-414435
24-259361
25-116868
25-987142
26-870374
25-645412
26-648389
27-671229
28-714325
29-778078
28-132384
29-321017
20-539003
31-787068
33-065954
30-905652
32-312033
33-759991
35-250755
36-785591
33-999032
35-660416
37-378964
39-156645
40-995492
37-450243
39-409816
41 -446263
43-562601
45-761964
201
21
211
22
221
27-766756
28-676485
29-599759
30-536780
31 -487752
30-862898
31-969201
33-097414
34-247969
35-421310
34-376421
35-719251
37-095243
38-505214
39-950005
38 -365801
39-992726
41 -667749
43-392290
45-167814
42-897610
44-865176
46-900443
49-005739
51-183474
48-047609
50-422921
52-891418
55-456755
58-122731
23
23|
24
24^
25
32-452883
33-432385
34 -4264 7O
35-435356
36*459264
36-617888
37-838163
39-082604
40-351689
41-645908
41 -430475
42-947505
44-501998
46-094880
47-727098
46-995827
48-877882
50-815577
52-810555
54-864512
53-436140
55-766317
58-176670
60-669959
63-249037
60-893295
63-772550
66-764759
69-874354
73-105939
3K2
868 COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES. APPENDIX.
THE THIRD TABLE OF COMPOUND INTEREST — continued,
The Amount of One Pound per Annum in any Number of Years, &c.
Years.
3 per Cent.
4 per Cent.
5 per Cent.
6 per Cent.
7 per Cent.
8 per Cent. .
251
26
261
27
27J
37-498417
38-553042
39-623369
40-709633
41-812070
42-965757
44-311744
45-684387
47-084214
48-511763
49-399624
51-113453
52-869605
54-669126
56-513086
56-979189
59-156382
61-397940
63-705765
66-081817
65-916856
68-676470
71 -531036
74-483823
77-538209
76-464302
79-954415
83-581446
87-350768
91 -267962
28
281
29
29^
30
42-930922
44-066433
45-218850
46-388425
47-575415
49-967582
51-452233
52-966286
54-510323
56-084937
58-402582
60-338740
62-322711
64-355677
66-438847
68-528111
71'046726
73-639798
76-309529
79-058186
80-697690
83-965884
87-346529
90-843495
94-460786
95-338829
99-569399
103-965936
108-534951
113-283211
30£
31
311
32
321
48-780078
50-002678
51 -243481
52-502758
53-780785
57-690735
59-328335
60-998365
62-701468
64-438300
68-573461
70-760789
73-002134
75-298829
77-652241
81-888101
84-801677
87-801387
90-889778
94-069470
98-202540
102-073041
106-076718
110-218154
114-502088
118-217747
123-345868
128-675167
134-213537
139-969180
33
33^
34
34£
35
55-077841
56-394209
57-730176
59-086035
60-462081
66-209527
68-015832
69-857908
71-736465
73-652224
80-063770
82-534853
85-066959
87-661596
90-320307
97-343164
100-713639
104-183754
107-756457
111-434779
118-933425
123-517234
128-258764
133-163441
138-236878
145-950620
152-166715
158-626670
165-340052
172-316803
35£
36
36J
37
J37j_
38
38£
39
39£
40
61-858616
63-275944
64-714374
66-174222
67-655806
75-605923
77-598313
79-630160
81 -702246
83-815367
93-044675
95-836322
98-696909
101-628138
104-631755
115-221844
119-120866
123-135155
127-268118
131-523264
143-484882
148-913459
154-528824
160-337402
166-345841
179-567256
187-102147
194-932637
203-070319
211-527248
69-159449
70-685480
72-234232
73-806O44
75-401259
85-970336
88-167982
90-409149
92-694701
95-025515
107-709545
110-863342
114-095023
117-406510
120-799774
135-904205
140-414660
145-058458
149-839540
154-761965
172-561020
178-990050
185-640291
192-519354
199-635111
220-315945
229-449428
238-941221
248-805382
259-056518
?
41J
42
42>
77-020226
78-663297
80-330832
82-023196
83-740757
97-402489
99-826536
102-298588
104-819597
107-390532
124-276835
127-839762 .
131-490677
135-231751
139-065211
159-829912
1 65-047683
170-419707
175-950544
181-644890
206-995708
214-609569
222-485408
230-632239
239-059387
269-709812
280-781040
292-286597
304-243523
316-669525
43
4$i
44
44^
45
85-483892
87-252980
89-048409
90-870570
92-719861
110-012381
112-686153
115-412876
118-193599
121-029392
142-993338
147-018471
151-143005
155-369395
159-700155
187-507577
193-543583
199-758031
206-156198
212-743513
247-776496
256-793544
266-120851
275-769092
285-749310
329-583005
343-O03087
356-949645
371 -443334
386-505617
45J
46
46^
47
47'
94-596687
96-501457
98-434587
100-396500
102-387625
123-921343
126-870567
129-878197
132-945390
136-073325
164-137865
168-685163
173-344758
178-119421
183-011996
219-525570
226-508124
233-697104
241-098612
248-718930
296-072928
306-751762
317-798033
329-224385
341 -043896
402-158801
41 8-426066
435-331505
452-9O0152
471-158026
48
48£
49
49£
50
104-408395
106-459254
108-540647
110-653031
112-796867
139-263206
142-516258
145-833734
149-216908
152-667083
188-025392
193-162596
198-426662
203-820725
209-347995
256-564528
264-642066
272-9584OO
281-520590
290-335904
353-270093
365-916969
378-998999
392-531156
406-528929
490-132164
509-850668
530-342737
551 -638721
573-770156
APPENDIX. COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES.
THE THIRD TABLE OF COMPOUND INTEREST — continued.
The Amount of One Pound per Annum in any Number of Years, &c.
869
Years.
3 per Cent.
4 per Cent.
5 per Cent.
6 per Cent.
7 per Cent.
8 per Cent.
501
51
51j
52
52J
114-972622
117-180773
119-421801
121-696196
124-004455
156-185585
159-773767
163-433008
167-164717
170-970329
215-011762
220-815395
226-762350
232-856165
239-100467
299-411826
308-756058
318-376535
328-281422
338-479127
421 -008337
435-985954
451-478921
467-504971
484-082445
596-769819
620-671768
645*511405
671-325510
698-152317
53
531
54
54i
55
126-347082
128-724589
131-137494
133-586326
136-071619
174-851306
178-809142
182-845358
186-961507
191-159173
245-498973
252-055491
258-773922
265-658265
272-712618
348-978307
359-787875
370-917006
382-375148
394-172026
501-230319
518-968217
537-316441
556-295992
575-928592
726-031551
755-004502
785-114075
816-404863
848-923201
551
56
56.1
57
571
138-593916
141-153768
143-751734
146-388381
149-064286
195-439968
199-805539
204-257567
208-797761
213-427869
279-941178
287-348249
294-938237
302-715661
310-685149
406-317657
418-822348
431-696716
444-951689
458-598519
596-236711
617-243594
638-973281
661-450645
684-701411
882-717252
917-837057
954-334632
992-264022
1031-681403
58
581
59
59^
60
151-780032
154-536214
157-333433
160-172301
163-053436
218-149672
222-964984
227-875658
232-883583
237-990685
318-851444
327-219407
335-794017
344-580377
353-583717
472-648790
487-114430
502-007717
517-341296
533-128180
708-752190
733-630510
759-364844
785-984645
813-520383
1072-645143
1115-215915
1159-456755
1205-433188
1253-213295
»
61J
62
621
63
631
64
64.^
65
165-977470
168-945039
171 -956794
175-013391
178-115498
243-198927
248-510312
253-926884
259-450725
265-083959
362-809396
372-262903
381-949866
391 -876048
402-047359
549-381774
566-115871
583-344680
601 -082824
619-345361
842-003571
871-466810
901-943821
933-469486
966-079888
1302-867843
1354-470359
1408-097271
1463-827988
1521-745052
181-263792
184-458963
187-701706
190-992732
194-332757
270-828754
276-687318
282-661904
288-754810
294-968380
412-469851
423-149727
434 -093343
445-307214
456-798011
638-147793
657-506083
677-436661
697-956448
719-082860
999-812350
1034-705480
1070-799215
1108-134864
1146-755160
1581-934227
1644-484656
1709-488965
1777-043429
1847-248082
65\
66
66.1
67
672
197-722513
201-162740
204-654189
208-197622
211-793815
301 -305003
307-767115
314-357203
321 -077800
327-931491
468-572574
480-637911
493-001203
505-669807
518-651263
740-833835
763-227832
786-283865
810-021502
834-460897
1186-704304
1228-028021
1270-773606
1314-989983
1360-727758
1920-206903
1996-027925
2074-823456
2156-710163
2241-809332
68
681
69
69.1
L!L
1?
711
72
72>
215-443551
219-147629
222-906858
226-722058
230-594063
334-920912
342-048751
349-317748
356-730701
364-290458
531-953297
545-583826
559-550962
573-863018
588-528510
859-622792
885-528550
912-200160
939-660263
967-932169
1408-039282
1456-978701
1507-602032
1559-967211
1614-134174
2330-246976
2422-154079
2517-666734
2616-926405
2720-080073
234-523720
238-511885
242-559431
246-667242
250-836214
371-999929
379-862077
387-879926
396-056560
404-395123
603-556169
618-954936
634-733977
650-902683
667-470676
997-039879
1027-008099
1057-862272
1089-628585
1122-334008
1670-164915
1728-123566
1788-076459
1850-092216
1914-241812
2827-280518
2938-686479
3054-462959
3174-781398
3299-819996
73
731
74
74^
75
255-067259
259-361301
263-719277
268-142140
272-630855
412-898822
421-570928
430-414775
439-433765
448-631366
684-447817
701-844210
719-670208
737-936420
756-653718
1156-006300
1190-674049
1226-366679
1263-114492
1300-948679
1980-598671
2049-238738
2120-240578
2193-685450
2269-657418
3429-763909
3564-805596
3705-145022
3850-990043
4002-556624
3 K3
870 COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES. APPENDIX.
THE THIRD TABLE OF COMPOUND INTEREST — continued.
The Amount of One Pound per Annum in any Number of Years, &c.
Years.
3 per Cent.
4 per Cent.
5 per Cent.
6 per Cent.
7 per Cent,
8 per Cent.
m
76
76i
77
77|
277-186404
281-809781
286-501996
291 -264074
296-097056
458-011116
467-576621
477-33156O
487-279686
497-424823
775-833241
795-486404
815-624903
836-260724
857-406149
1339-901361
1380-O05600
1421-295443
1463-805936
1507-573170
2348-243432
2429-533437
2513-620472
2600-600778
2690-573905
4160-069247
4323-761154
4493-874786
4670-662046
4854-384769
78
78|
79
791
80
301-001996
305-979968
311-032056
316-159367
321-363018
507-770873
518-321816
529-081708
540-054688
551 -244976
879-073760
901 -276456
924-027448
947 -340279
971 -228821
1552-634292
1599-027560
1646-792350
1695-969214
1746-599891
2783-642833
2879-914078
2979-497831
3082-508064
3189-062679
5045-315010
5243-735551
5449-940211
5664-234395
5886-935428
SO}
81
811
82
821
326-644148
332-003909
337-443472
342-964026
348-566776
562-656876
574-294775
586-163151
598-266566
610-609677
995-707293
1020-790262
1046-492658
1072-829775
1099-817290
1798-727367
1852-395884
1907-651009
1964-539637
2023-110069
3299-283628
3413-297067
3531 -233482
3653-227861
3779-419826
6118-373147
6358-890262
6608-842999
6868-601483
7138-550438
83
83£
84
84|
85
354-252947
360-023780
365-880535
371-824493
377-856951
623-197229
636-034064
649-125118
662-475427
676-090123
1127-471264
1155-808155
1184-844827
1214-598563
1245-087068
2083-412016
2145-496673
2209-416737
2275-226474
2342-981741
3909-953812
4044-979214
4184-650579
4329-127759
4478-576119
7419-089602
7710-634474
8013-616770
8328-485232
8655-706112
851
86
861
87
87£
383-979228
390-192660
396-498605
402-898440
409-393563
689-974444
704-133728
718-573422
733-299077
748-316358
1276-328491
1308-341422
1341-144916
1374-758493
1409-202161
2412-740062
2484-560645
2558-504466
2634-634284
2713-014734
4633-166702
4793-076448
49.58-488372
5129-591799
5306-582558
8995-764050
9349-162600
9716-425174
10098-095609
10494-739188
88
88^
89
89-^
90
415-985393
422-675370
429-464955
436-355631
443-348903
763-631040
779-249013
795-176282
811-418973
827-983333
1444-496418
1480-662269
1517-721238
1555-695383
1594-607300
2793-712341
2876-795618
2962-335082
3050-403355
3141-075187
5489-663225
5679-043337
5874-939651
6077-576370
6287-185426
10906-943257
11335-318323
11780-498718
12243-143789
12723-938615
90}
91
WJ
92
921
450-446300
457-649370
464-959689
472-378851
479-908480
844-875732
862-102667
879-670762
897-586773
915-857592
1634-480152
1675-337665
1717-204160
1760-104549
1804-064368
3234-427556
3330-539698
3429-493210
3531 -372080
3636-262802
6504-006716
6728-288406
6960-287186
7200-268595
7448-507289
13223-595292
13742-853705
14282-482916
14843-282001
15426-081549
93
93$
94
94£
95
487-550217
495-305734
503-176723
511-164906
519-272025
934-490244
953-491896
972-869854
992-631572
1012-784648
1849-109776
1895-267586
1942-565265
1991-030965
2040-693528
3744-254405
3855-438571
3969-909669
4087-764885
4209-104249
7705-287396
7970-902800
8245-657514
8529-865996
8823-853540
16031-744561
16661-168073
17315-284126
17995-061519
18701-506856
95^
96
96^
97
97£
527-499853
535-850186
544-324849
552-925692
561 -654594
1033-336834
1054-296034
1075-670308
1097-467875
1119-697120
2091 -582514
2143-728205
2197-161639
2251-914615
2308-019721
4334-030778
4462-650504
4595-072625
4731 -409534
4871 -776982
9127-956615
9442-523288
9767-913579
10104-499918
10452-667529
19435*666440
20198-627405
20991-519756
21815-517597
22671-841336
98
981
99
99£
100
570-513462
579-504232
588-628866
597-889359
607-287732
1142-366590
1165-485005
1189-061254
1213-104405
1237-623704
2365-510346
2424-420708
2484-785863
2546-641743
2610-025156
5016-294106
5165-083601
5318-271753
5475-988617
5638-368058
10812-814912
11185-354256
11570-711956
11969-329054
12381-661793
23561-759005
24486-588643
25447-699726
26446-515734
27484-515704
APPENDIX. COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES. 871
THE FOURTH TABLE OF COMPOUND INTEREST.
The present Value of One Pound per Annum for any Number of Years to come, &c.
Years.
3 per Cent.
4 per Cent.
5 per Cent.
6 per Cent.
7 per Cent.
8 per Cent.
J
1?
2
«i
•489024
•970873
1 -445654
1-913469
2-374421
•485483
•961538
1 -428349
1 -886094
2-334951
•481998
•952380
1-411427
1-859410
2-296597
•478568
•943396
1-394876
1 -833392
2-259317
•475193
•934579
1 -378685
1-808018
2-223070
•471869
•925925
1-362842
1 -783264
2-187816
3
4
\
2-82S611
3-276137
3-717098
4-151589
4-579707
2-775091
3-206683
3-629895
4-044888
4-451822
2-723248
3-139616
3-545950
3-942491
4-329476
2-673011
3-074827
3-465105
3-844177
4-212363
2-624316
3-012215
3-387211
3-749733
4-100197
2-577096
2-951682
3-312126
3-658964
3-992710
5\
6
7*
7|
5-001543
5-417191
5-826741
6-230282
6-627904
4-850854
5-242136
5-625821
6-O02054
6-370981
4-707135
5-075692
5-435366
5-786373
6-128920
4-569978
4-917324
5-254696
5-582381
5 -900657
4-439003
4-766539
5-083180
5-389289
5-685215
4-313856
4-622879
4-920237
5-206370
5-481701
8
<H
9
9£
10
7-019692
7-405732
7-786108
8-160905
8 -530202
6-732744
7-087482
7-435331
7-776425
8-110895
6-463212
6-789448
7-107821
7-418522
7-721734
6-209793
6-510053
6-801692
7-084956
7-360087
5-971298
6-247865
6-515232
6-773705
7 -023581
5-746638
6-001575
6-246887
6-482940
6-710081
101
11
111
12
12£
8-894082
9-252624
9-605905
9-954003
10-296995
8-438870
8-760476
9075837
9-385073
9-688305
8-017640
8-306414
8-588228
8-863251
9-131646
7-627317
7-886874
8-138978
8-383843
8-621678
7-265145
7-498674
7-724435
7-942686
8-153677
6-928648
7-138964
7-341340
7-536078
7-723463
13
13.1
14
14'
15
10-634955
10-967956
11-296073
11-619375
11-937935
9-985647
10-277216
10-563122
10-843477
11-118387
9-393572
9-649187
9-898640
10-142082
10-379658
8-852682
9-077054
9-294983
9-506655
9-712248
8-35765O
8-554838
8-745467
8-929756
9-107914
7-903775
8-077281
8-244236
8-404890
8-559478
151
16
16£
17
in
12-251821
12-561102
12-865845
13-166118
13-461986
1 1 -387958
11-652295
11-911499
12-165668
12-414902
10-611507
10-837769
11-058578
1 1 -274066
11-484360
9-911939
10-105895
10-294282
10-477259
10-654983
9-280145
9-446648
9-607612
9'763222
9-913656
8-703231
8-851369
8-989103
9-121638
9-249169
18
181
19
19£
20
13-753513
14-040763
14-323799
14-602682
14-877474
12-659296
12-898945
13-133939
13-364370
13-590326
1 1 -689586
11-889867
12-085320
12-276064
12-462210
10-827603
10-995267
11-158116
11-316289
1 1 '469921
10.059086
10-199679
10-335595
10-466990
10-594014
9-371887
9-489971
9-603599
9-712937
9-818147
20£
21
21'
22
221
15-148235
15-415024
15-677898
15-936916
16-192134
13-811894
14-029159
14-242206
14-451115
14-655967
12-643870
12-821152
12-994162
13-163002
13-327773
11-619141
11-764076
1 1 -904850
12-041581
12-174387
10-716813
10-835527
10-950292
11-061240
11-168497
9-919386
10-016803
10-110542
10-2O0743
10-287539
! 23
23.1
24
241
I"
16-443608
16-691392
16-935542
17-176109
17-413147
14-856841
15-053814
'15-246963
15-436360
15-622079
13-488573
13-645498
13-798641
13-948094
14-093944
12-303378
12-428667
12-550357
12-668553
12-783356
11-272187
11-372427
1 1 -469334
11-563016
11-653583
10-371058
10-451425
10-528758
10-603171
10-674776
3K4
APPENDIX.
872 COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES.
THE FOURTH TABLE OF COMPOUND INTEREST — continued.
The present Value of One Pound per Annum for any Number of Years to come, &c.
Years
3 per Cent.
4 per Cent.
5 per Cent.
6 per Cent.
7 per Cent.
8 per Cent.
25£
26
26J
27
27|
28
281
29
29£
30
17-646708
17-876842
18-1036OO
18-327031
18-547184
15-804192
15-982769
16-157877
16-329585
16-497959
14-236280
14-375185
14-510742
14-643033
14-772136
12-894862
13-O03166
13-108360
13-210534
13-309774
11-741137
11-825778
1 1 -907604
11-986709
12-063182
10-743677
10-809977
10-873775
10-935164
10-994236
18-764108
18-977849
19-188454
19-395970
19-600441
16-663063
16-824960
16-983714
17-139385
17-292033
14-898127
15-021082
15-141073
15-258173
15-372451
13-406164
13-499786
13-590721
13-679044
13-764831
12-137111
12-208581
12-277674
12-344468
12-409041
11-051078
11-105774
11-158406
1 1 -209050
1 1 -257783
30|
31
311
32
32|
19-801912
20-000428
20-196031
20-388765
20-578671
17-441716
17-588493
17-732419
17-873551
18-011942
15-483974
15-592810
15-699023
15-802676
15-903831
13-848154
13-929085
14-007693
14-084043
14-158201
12-471465
12-531814
12-590155
12-646555
12-701079
11-304676
11-349799
11-393218
1 1 -434999
1 1 -475202
33
33i
34
341
35
35£
36
36£
37
37|
20-765791
20-950166
21-131836
21-310841
21 -487220
18-147645
18-280713
18-411197
18-539147
18-664613
16-002549
16-098887
16-192904
16-284654
16-374194
14-230229
14-300189
14-368141
14-434141
14-498246
12-753790
12-804747
12-854O09
12-901632
12-947672
11-513888
11-551113
11-586933
11-621401
11-654568
21-661011
21-832252
22-000981
22-167235
22-331050
18-787642
18-908281
19-026578
19-142578
19-256325
16-461575
16-546851
16-630072
16-711287
16-790545
14-560510
14-620987
14-679727
14-736780
14-792195
12-992180
13-035207
13-076804
13-117016
13-155891
1 1 -686482
11-717192
11-746743
11-775178
1 1 -802540
38
381
39
39£
40
22-492461
22-651505
22-808215
22-962626
23-114771
19-367864
19-477236
19-584484
19-689650
19-792773
16-867892
16-943376
17-017040
17-088929
17-159086
14-846019
14-898297
14-949074
14-998393
15-046296
13-193473
13-229805
13-264928
13-298883
13-331708
11-828868
1 1 -854203
11-878582
1 1 -902040
11-924613
401
41
4*i
42
42i
23-264685
23-412399
23-557947
23-701359
23-842667
19-893894
19-993051
20-090283
20-185626
20-279118
17-227552
17-294367
17-359573
17-423207
17-485308
15-092824
15-138015
15-181909
15-224543
15-265952
13-363442
13-394120
13-423777
13-452448
13-480166
1 1 -946333
11-967234
11-987346
12-006698
12-025320
43
43|
44
44£
45
23-981902
24-119094
24-254273
24-387470
24-518712
20-370794
20-460690
20-548841
20-635279
20-720039
17-545911
17-605055
17-662773
17-719100
17-774069
15-306172
15-345238
15-383182
15-420036
15-455832
13-506961
13-532865
13-557908
13-582117
13-605521
12-043239
12-060482
12-077073
12-093038
12-108401
45£
46
9
47*
24-648029
24-775449
24-900999
25-024707
25-146601
20-803153
20-884653
20-964570
21 -042936
21-119779
17-827714
17-880066
17-931156
17-981015
18-029673
15-490600
15-524369
15-557169
15-589028
15-619971
13-628147
13-650020
13-671165
13-691607
13-711369
12-123184
12-137408
12-151096
12-164267
12-176941
48
48*
49
49^
50
25-266706
25-385049
25-501656
25-616553
25-729763
21-195130
21-269018
21-341472
21-412518
21-482184
18-077157
18-123498
18-168721
18-212855
18-255925
15-650026
15-679218
15-707572
15-735111
15-761860
13-730474
13-748943
13-766798
13-784059
13-800746
12-189136
12-200871
12-212163
12-223029
12-233484
APPENDIX.
COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES.
873
THE FOURTH TABLE OF COMPOUND INTEREST — continued.
The present Value of One Pound per Annum for any Number of Years to come, &c.
Years.
3 per Cent.
4 per Cent.
5 per Cent.
6 per Cent.
7 per Cent.
8 per Cent.
1
50£
51
511
52
521
25-841313
25-951227
26-059528
26-166239
26-271386
21 -550498
21-617485
21-683171
21-747581
21-810741
18-297957
18-338976
18-379007
18-418072
18-456197
15-787841
15-813076
15-837586
15-861392
15-884515
13-816878
13-832473
13-847549
13-862124
13-876214
12-243545
12-253226
12-262542
12-271506
12-280131
53
S3J
54
541
55
26-374990
26-477074
26-577660
26-676771
26-774427
21 -872674
21 -933405
21-992956
22-051351
22-108612
18-493402
18-529711
18-565145
18-599725
18-633471
15-906974
15-928788
15-949975
15-970554
15-990542
13-889835
13-903004
13-915734
13-928041
13-939938
12-288431
12-296418
12-304103
12-311498
12-318614
55£
56
56}
57
57£
26-870651
26-965463
27-058884
27-150935
27-241635
22-164760
22-219819
22-273808
22-326749
22-378662
18-666405
18-698544
18-729909
18-760518
18-790390
16-009957
16-028814
16-047129
16-064918
16-082197
13-951440
13-962559
13-973308
13-983700
13-993746
12-325461
12-332050
12-338390
12-344490
12-350361
58
581
59
59}
60
27-331005
27-419063
27 '505830
27-591324
27-675563
22-429566
22-479482
22-528429
22-576425
22-623489
18-819541
18-847990
18-875754
18-902848
18-929289
16-098980
16-115280
16-131113
16-146491
16-161427
14-003458
14-012847
14-021923
14-030*698
14-039181
12-356010
12-361445
12-366675
12-371708
12-376551
60}
61
61}
62
621
27-758567
27-840353
27-920939
28-000342
28-078581
22-669640
22-714894
22-759269
22-802782
22-845451
18-955093
18-980275
19-004851
19-028834
19-052239
16-175935
16-190026
16-203712
16-217O05
16-229917
14-047381
14-055309
14-062973
14-070382
14-077545
12-381211
12-385696
12-390011
12-394163
12-398158
63
63}
64
64}
65
28-155672
28-231632
28-306478
28-380225
28-452891
22-887291
22-928318
22-968549
23-007998
23-046681
19-075080
19-097370
19-119123
19-140352
19-161070
16-242458
16-254639
16-266470
16-277961
16-289122
14-084469
14-091163
14-097635
14-103891
14-109939
12-402002
12-405702
12-409261
12-412687
12-415983
65-}
66
661
67
67^
28-524491
28 -595040
28-664554
28-733048
28-800538
23-084614
23-121809
23-158282
23 -1 94O47
23-229118
19-181288
19-201019
19-220274
19-239066
19-257404
16-299963
16-310493
16-320720
16-330653
16-340302
14-115786
14-121438
14-126903
14-132185
14-137292
12-419154
12.422206
12-425143
12-427969
12-430688
68
681
69
69.1
70
28-867037
28-932561
28-997123
29-060739
29-123421
23-263507
23-297228
23-330295
23-362720
23-394514
19-275301
19-292766
19-309810
19-326444
19-342676
16-349673
16-358775
16-3676f6
16-376203
16-384543
14-142229
14-147002
14-151616
14-156077
14-160389
12-433304
12-435822
12-438245
12-440576
12-442819
70}
71
71}
72
72i
29-185183
29-246040
29 '306 003
29-365087
29-423304
23-425692
23-456264
23-486242
23-515638
23-544464
19-358518
19-373977
19-389064
19-403788
19-418157
16-392644
16-400513
16-408155
16 -41 5578 /
16-422788
14-164558
14-168588
14-172484
14-176250
14-179891
12-444978
12-447055
12-449053
12-450977
12-452827
73
77?
74}
75
29-480667
29-537188
29-592881
29-647756
29-701826
23-572729
23-600446
23-627624
23-654275
23-680408
19-432179
19-445863
19-459218
19-472251
19-484969
16-429790
16-436592
16-443198
16-449615
16-455848
14-183411
14-186814
14-190104
14-193284
14-196359
12-454608
12-456321
12457970
12-459557
12-461083
871
COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES.
APPENDIX.
THE FOURTH TABLE OF COMPOUND INTEREST — continued.
The present Value of One Pound per Annum for any Number of Years to come, &c.
Years
3 per Cent.
4 per Cent.
5 per Cent.
6 per Cent.
7 per Cent.
8 per Cent.
15\
76
76£
77
ttj
29-755103
29-807598
29-859323
29-910289
29-960508
23-706033
23-731161
23-755801
23-779963
23-803655
19-497382
19-509495
19-521316
19-532852
19-544110
16-461901
16-467781
16-473492
16-479038
16-484426
14-199331
14-202204
14-204982
14-207668
14-210264
12-462553
12-463966
12-465326
12-466635
12-467895
78
781
79
79^
80
30-009989
30-058745
30-106786
30-154122
30-200763
23-826887
23-849668
23-872007
23-893912
23-915391
19-555097
19-565819
19-576283
19-586495
19-596460
16-489659
16-494741
16-499678
16-504473
16-509130
14-212774
14-215200
14-217545
14-219813
14-222005
12-469107
12-470273
12-471395
12-472475
12-473514
80^
81
811
82
82|
30-246720
30-292003
30-336621
30-380585
30-423904
23-936454
23-957107
23-977359
23-997218
24-016692
19-606185
19-615676
19-624938
19-633977
19-642798
16-513654
16-518047
16-522315
16-526460
16-530486
14-224124
14-226173
14-228153
14-230068
14-231919
12-474514
12-475476
12-476402
12-477292
12-478150
83
83^
84
841
85
30-466588
30-508645
30-550085
30-590917
30-631151
24-035787
24-054511
24-072872
24-090876
24-108531
19-651407
19-659808
19-668007
19-676008
19-683816
16-534396
16-538194
16-541883
16-545466
16-548946
14-233708
14-235438
14-237111
14-238727
14-240290
12-478974
12-479768
12-480532
12-481267
12-481974
85£
86
86£
87
87£
30-670794
30-709855
30-748343
30-786267
30-823634
24-125842
24-142818
24-159464
24-175786
24-191792
19-691436
19-698872
19-706129
19-713212
19-720123
16-552326
16-555610
16-558798
16-561896
16-564904
14-241801
14-243262
14-244674
14-246039
14-247359
12-482654
12-483309
12-483939
12-484545
12-485129
88
881
89
89^
90
30-860453
30-896732
30-932479
30-967701
31 -002407
24-207487
24-222877
24-237968
24-252766
24-267277
19-726868
19-733451
19-739874
19-746143
19-752261
16-567826
16-570664
16-573421
16-576098
16-578699
14-248635
14-249868
14-251060
14-252213
14-253327
12-485690
12-486230
12-486750
12-487250
12-487732
901
91
91*
92
92i
31 '036603
31 -070298
31-103498
31*136211
31-168445
24-281506
24-295459
24-309140
24-322556
24-335712
19-758232
19-764058
19-769744
19-775294
19-780709
16-581225
16-583678
16-586061
16-588376
16-590624
14-254405
14-255446
14-256453
14-257426
14-258367
12-488195
12-488640
12-489069
12-489482
12-489879
93
93^
94
941
95
31 -200205
31-231500
31 -262335
31-292718
31-322655
24-348612
24-361261
24-373665
24-385828
24-397755
19-785994
19-791151
19-796185
19-801097
19-805890
16-592807
16-594928
16-596988
16-598989
16-600932
14-259277
14-260156
14-261006
14-261828
14-262623
12-490261
12-490628
12-490982
12-491323
12-491650
95}
96
961
97
97*
31-352154
31-381219
31 -409858
31 -438077
31 -465881
24-409450
24-420918
24-432164
24-443191
24-454004
19-810568
19-815133
19-819589
19-823937
19-828180
16-602819
16-604653
16-606433
16-608163
16-609843
14-263391
14-264133
14-264851
14-265545
14-266216
12-491965
12-492269
12-492560
12-492841
12-493111
98
981
99
994
100
31-493278
31-520273
31 -546872
31-573081
31 -598905
24-464606
24-475003
24-485198
24-495196
24-504998
19-832321
19-836362
19-840305
19-844154
19-847910
16-611474
16-613059
16-614599
16-616094
16-617546
1 4-266865
14-267492
14-268098
14-268684
14-269250
12-493372
12-493622
12-493862
12-494094
12-494317
S. F.
33-333333
25-OOOOOO
20-000000
16-666666
14-285714
12-500OOO
APPENDIX. COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES. 875
THE FIFTH TABLE OF COMPOUND INTEREST.
The Annuity which One Pound will purchase for any Number of Years to come, &c.
Years.
3 per Cent.
4 per Cent.
5 per Cent.
6 per Cent
7 per Cent.
8 per Cent.
1
n
2
2-1
1-030000
•691728
•522610
•421155
1 -040000
•700108
•530196
•428274
1-050000
•708502
•537804
•435426
1 -060000
•716909
•545436
•442611
1-070000
•725328
•553091
•449828
1-080000
•733760
•560769
•457076
3
4*
?
•353530
•305237
•269027
•240871
•218354
•360348
•31 1848
•275490
•247225
•224627
•367208
•318510
•282011
•253646
•230974
•374109
•325221
•288.591
•260133
•237396
•381051
•331981
•295228
•266685
•243890
•388033
•328789
•301920
•273301
•250456
5k
6
«i
n
•199938
•184597
•171622
•160506
•150877
•206149
•190761
•177751
•166609
•156961
•212443
-197O17
•183980
•172819
•163160
•218819
•203362
•190305
•179135
•169472
•225275
•209795
•196727
•1 85553
175894
•231811
•216315
•203242
•192072
•1 82425
8
^
9
»J
10
•142456
•135030
•128433
•122535
•117230
•148527
•141093
•134492
•128593
•123290
•154721
•147287
•140690
•134797
•129504
•161035
•153608
•147022
•141144
•135867
•167467
•160054
•153486
•147629
•142377
•174014
•166622
•160079
•154251
•149029
10)
11
111
12
124
•112434
•108077
•104102
•100462
•097115
•118499
•114149
•110182
•106552
•103217
•124724
•120388
•1 1 6438
•112825
•109509
•131107
•126792
•122865
•119277
•115986
•137643
•133356
•129459
•125901
•122644
•144328
•14O076
•136214
•132695
•129475
13
131
14
141
15
•094029
•091174
•088526
•086063
•083766
•100143
•097302
•094668
•092221
•089941
•106455
•103635
•101023
•098599
•096342
•112960
•110167
•107584
•105189
•102962
•119650
•116892
•114344
•1 1 1 985
•109794
•126521
•123804
•121296
•118978
•116829
15$
16
13
17
iti
•081620
•079610
•077725
•075952
•074283
•087812
•085820
•083952
•082198
•080548
•094237
•092269
•09O427
•088699
•087074
•1O0888
•098952
•097141
•095444
•093852
•107756
•105857
•104084
•102425
•100870
•114833
•112976
•1 1 1 245
•109629
•108117
18
181
19
191
20
•072708
•071221
•069813
•068480
•067215
•078993
•077525
•076138
•074825
•073581
•085546
•084105
•082745
•081459
•080242
•092356
•090948
•089620
•088368
•087184
•099412
•098042
•096753
•095538
•094392
•106702
•105374
•104127
•102955
•101852
20£
21
2U
22
22>
•066014
•06487 1
•063784
•062747
•061758
•072401
•071280
•070213
•0691 98
•068231
•079089
•077996
•076957
•075970
•075031
•086064
•085004
•083999
•083045
•082139
•093311
•092289
•091321
•090405
•089537
•100812
•099832
•098906
•098032
•097204
23
231
24
241
25
•060813
•05991 1
•059047
•058220
•057427
•067309
•066428
•065586
•064782
•064011
•074136
•073284
•072470
•071694
•070952
•081278
•08O459
•079679
•O78935
•078226
•088713
•087931
•087189
•086482
•085810
•096422
•09568O
•094977
•09431 1
•093678
876 COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES. APPENDIX.
THE FIFTH TABLE OF COMPOUND INTEREST — continued.
The Annuity which One Pound will purchase for any Number of Years to come, &c.
Years.
3 per Cent.
4 per Cent.
5 per Cent.
6 per Cent.
7 per Cent
8 per Cent
251
26
261
27
271
•056667
•055938
•055237
•054564
•053916
•063274
•062567
•061889
•061238
•060613
•070243
•069564
•068914
•068291
•067695
•077550
•076904
•076287
•075697
•075132
•085170
•084561
•083979
•083425
•082896
•093078
•092507
•091 964
•091448
090956
28
281
29
291
30
•053293
•052693
•052114
•051557
•051019
•060012
•059435
•058879
•058345
•057830
•067122
;.066573
•066045
•065538
•065051
•074592
•074075
•073579
•073104
•072648
•082391
•081909
•081448
•081007
•080586
•090488
•090043
•08961 8
•089213
•088827
301
31
311
32
321
•050500
•049998
•049514
•049046
•048594
•057333
•056855
•056393
•055948
•055518
•064582
•064132
•063698
•063280
•062877
•07221 1
•071792
•071389
•071002
•070630
•080183
•079796
•079427
•079072
•078733
•088458
•088107
•087771
•087450
•087144
33
331
34
34^
35
•048156
•047732
•047321
•046924
•046539
•055103
•054702
•054314
•053939
•053577
•062490
•062116
•061 755
•061407
•061071
•070272
•069929
•069598
•069280
•068973
•O78408
•078096
•077796
•077509
•077233
•086851
•086571
•086304
•086048
•085803
351
36
361
37
371
•046165
•045803
•045452
•045111
•044780
•053226
•052886
•052558
•052239
•051930
•060747
•060434
•060132
•059839
•059557
•068678
•068394
•068121
•067857
•067603
•076969
•O76715
•076471
•076236
•07601 1
•085568
•085344
•085129
•084924
•084727
38
38»
39
39|
40
•044459
•044147
•043843
•043549
•043262
•051631
•051341
•051060
•050788
•050523
•059284
•059020
•058764
•058517
•058278
•067358
•067121
•066893
•066673
•066461
•075795
•075586
•075386
•075194
•075009
•084538
•084358
•084185
•08401 9
•083860
401
41
«J
42
42£
43
431
44
44|
45
•042983
•042712
•042448
•042191
•041941
•050266
•050017
•049775
•049540
•049311
•058046
•057822
•057605
•057394
•057190
•066256
•066058
•065867
•065683
•065505
•074831
•074659
•074494
•074335
•0741 83
•083707
•083561
•083421
•083286
•083157
•041698
•041460
•041229
•041004
•040785
•049089
•048874
•048664
•04846O
•048262
•056993
•056801
•056616
•056436
•056261
•065333
•065166
•065006
•064850
•064700
•074035
•073894
•073757
•073626
•073499
•083034
•082915
•082801
•082692
•082587
45^
46
461
47
47£
•040571
•040362
•04O159
•039960
•039766
•048069
•047882
•047699
•047521
•047348
•056092
•055928
•055768
•055614
•055464
•064555
•064414
•064279
•064147
•064020
•073377
•073259
•073146
•073037
•072932
•082486
•082389
•082297
•082207
•082122
48
48^
49
49£
50
•039577
•039393
•O39213
•039037
•038865
•O47180
•047016
•046857
•046701
•046550
•055318
•055176
•055039
•054 9O6
•054776
•063897
•063778
•063663
•063552
•063444
•072830
•072732
•072638
•072547
•072459
•082040
•081961
•081885
•081812
•081742
APPENDIX. COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES. 877
THE FIFTH TABLE OP COMPOUND INTEREST — continued.
The Annuity which One Pound will purchase for any Number of Years to come, &c.
Years.
3 per Cent.
4 per Cent.
5 per Cent.
6 per Cent.
7 per Cent.
8 per Cent.
501
51
«i
52
521
•038697
•038533
•038373
•038217
•038064
•046402
•046258
•046118
•045982
•045848
•054650
•054528
•054409
•054294
•054182
•063339
•063238
•O63140
•063046
•062954
•072375
•072293
•O72214
•072139
•072065
•081675
•081611
•081549
•081489
•081432
55
53|
54
541
55
•037914
•037768
•037625
•037485
•037349
•045719
•045592
•O45469
•045348
•045231
•054073
•053967
•053864
•053764
•053666
•O62865
•062779
•062696
•O62615
•062536
•071995
•071926
•071861
•071797
•071736
•081377
•081324
•081273
•081224
•081177
55^
56
56£
57
571
•037215
•037084
•036956
•036831
•036708
•045116
•045004
•044895
•044789
•044685
•053572
•053480
•053390
•053303
•053218
•062461
•062387
•06231 6
•062247
•062180
•071677
•071620
•071565
•071511
•071460
•081132
•081089
•081047
•081007
•080969
58
58£
59
591
60
•036588
•036470
•036355
•036243
•0361 32
•044584
•044485
•044388
•044293
•044201
•053136
•053056
•052978
•052902
•052828
•062115
•062052
•061 992
•061932
•061875
•071410
•071363
•071316
•071272
•071229
•080932
•080896
•080862
•080829
•080797
60£
61
<fl|
62
621
•036024
•03591 9
•035815
•035713
•035614
•0441 1 1
•044023
•043938
•043854
•0437-72
•052756
•052686
•052618
•052551
•052487
•061820
•061766
•061714
•061663
•06} 6 14
•071187
•071147
•071108
•071071
•071035
•080767
•080738
•080710
•080683
•080657
63
63£
64
64£
65
•035516
•035421
•035327
•035235
•035145
•O43692
•043614
•043537
•043463
•043390
•052424
•052363
•052303
•052245
•052189
•061567
•061520
•061476
•061432
•061390
•O71000
•070966
•070933
•070902
•070872
•080632
•080608
•080584
•080562
•080541
651
66
66^
67
67|
•035057
•034971
•034886
•034803
•034721
•043318
•043249
•043181
•043114
•043049
•O52134
•052080
•052028
•051977
•051928
•061349
•061310
•O61271
•061234
•061 1 98
•070842
•070814
•070786
•070760
•070734
•080520
•080501
•080481
•080463
•080446
68
68£
69
691
70
•034641
•034563
•034486
•034410
•034336
•042985
•042923
•042862
•042803
•042745
•051879
•051 832
•051787
•051742
•051699
•061163
•061129
•061096
•061064
•061033
•070710
•070686
•070663
•070641
•07061 9
•080429
•080412
•080397
•080382
•080367
£
71i
72
72£
•034263
•0341 92
•034122
•034054
•033986
•042688
•042632
•042578
•042524
•042472
•051 656
•051615
•051575
•051536
•051498
•061002
•060973
•060945
•060917
•060891
•O70598
•070578
070559
•070540
•070522
•080353
•080340
•080327
•080314
•080303
73
73^
74
741
75
•033920
•033855
•033791
•033729
•033667
•042421
•042372
•042323
•042275
•042229
•051461
•051424
•051 389
•051355
•051321
•060865
•060839
•060815
•060791
•060768
•070504
•070487
•070471
•070455
•070440
•080291
•080280
•080269
•080259
•080249
878
COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES.
APPENDIX.
THE FIFTH TABLE OF COMPOUND INTEREST — continued.
The Annuity which One Pound will purchase for any Number of Years to come, &c.
Years.
3 per Cent.
4 per Cent.
5 per Cent.
6 per Cent.
7 per Cent
8 per Cent.
75£
76
7??
77£
•033607
•033548
•033490
•033433
•033377
•042183
•042138
•042094
•042052
•042010
•051288
•051257
•051226
•051195
•051166
•O60746
•060724
•060703
•060683
•060663
•070425
•07041 1
•070397
•070384
•070371
•08024O
•080231
•080222
•080214
•080206
78
78£
79
791
80
•033322
•033268
•033215
•033162
•033 1 1 1
•041 969
•041 929
•041 890
•041851
•O41814
•051137
•051109
•051082
•051055
•051029
•060644
•060625
•060607
•060589
•060572
•070359
•070347
•070335
•070324
•070313
•080198
•080190
•080183
•080176
•080169
80£
81
811
82
82£
•033061
•033012
•032963
•032915
•032868
•041777
•041741
•041706
•041671
•041637
•051004
•050979
•050955
•050932
•050909
•060555
•060539
•060524
•060509
•060494
•070303
•070292
•070283
•070273
•070264
•080163
•080157
•080151
•080145
•080140
83
83£
84
84£
85
•032822
•032777
•032733
•032689
•032646
•041604
041572
•041540
•041509
•041479
•050886
•050865
•050843
•050823
•050803
•060479
•060466
•060452
•060439
•060426
•070255
•070247
•070238
•070230
•070223
•080134
•0801 29
•0801 24
•080120
•080115
85^
86
86£
87
87£
•O32604
•032562
•032522
•032482
•032442
•041449
•041420
•041 391
•041363
•041336
•050783
•050764
•050745
•050727
•050709
•060414
•060402
•060390
•060379
•060368
•070215
•070208
•070201
•070194
•070188
•0801 1 1
•080106
•0801 02
•080099
•080095
88
88>
89
891
90
•032403
•032365
.032328
•032291
•032255
•041 309
•041283
•041257
•041232
•041207
•050692
•050675
•050658
•050642
•050627
•060357
•060347
•060337
•060327
•06031 8
•0701 82
•070176
•070170
•070164
•070159
•080091
•080088
•08O084
•080081
•080078
90£
91
91J
92
92J
•032220
•032185
•032150
•032116
•032083
•041183
•041159
•041136
•041114
•041091
•05061 1
•O50596
•050582
•050568
•050554
•060309
•060300
•060291
•060283
•060275
•070153
•070148
•070143
•070138
•070134
•080075
•080072
•080070
•080067
•080064
93
93£
94
94^
95
•O32051
•032018
•031987
•031956
•031925
•041070
•041048
•041027
•041O07
•040987
•050540
•050527
•050514
•050502
•050490
•060267
•060259
•060251
•060244
•060237
•070129
•070125
•070121
•070117
•070113
•080062
•080060
•080057
•080055
•080053
95*
96
96*
97
WJ
•031895
•031866
•031837
•031808
•031780
•040967
•040948
•040929
•04091 1
•040893
•050478
•O50466
•050455
•050444
•050433
•060230
•060224
•060217
•060211
•060205
•070109
•070105
•070102
•070098
•070095
•080051
•080049
•080047
•08O045
•080044
98
98'
99
99£
100
•031752
•031725
•031698
•031 672
•031646
•040875
•040858
•040841
•040824
•040808
•050422
•050412
•050402
•050392
•050383
•060199
•0601 93
•060188
•060182
•060177
•070092
•070089
•070086
•070083
•070080
•08O042
•080040
•080039
•080037
•080036
F.S.
•030000
•040000
•050000
•060000
•070000
•080000
i
APPENDIX.
ANNUITY TABLES.
879
TABLE VI. Showing the Value of an Annuity on one Life according to the Probabilities
of Life in London.
Age.
Year's value at
Age.
Year's value at
3 per Cent.
4 per Cent.
5 per Cent.
3 per Cent.
4 per Cent.
5 per Cent.
6
18-8
16-2
14-1
41
13-0
11-4
10-2
7
18-9
16-3
14-2
42
12-8
11-2
10-1
8
19-0
16-4
14-3
43
12-6
11-1
10 -O
9 I
and Y
10 J
19-0
16-4
14-3
44
45
46
12-5
12-3
12-1
11-0
10-8
10-7
9'9
9-8
9-7
11
19'0
16-4
14-3
47
11-9
10-5
9-5
12
18-9
16-3
14-2
48
11-8
10-4
9-4
13
18-7
16-2
14-1
49
11-6
10-2
9-3
14
18-5
16-0
14-0
50
11-4
10-1
9'2
15
18-3
15-8
13-9
51
11-2
9-9
9-0
16
18-1
15-6
13-7
52
HO
9-8
8-9
17
17-9
15-4
13-5
53
10-7
9-6
8-8
18
17-6
15-2
13-4
54
10-5
9-4
8-6
19
17-4
15-0
13-2
55
10-3
9-3
8-5
20
17-2
14-8
130
56
10-1
9-1
8-4
21
17-0
14-7
12-9
57
9-9
8-9
8-2
22
16 '8
14-5
12-7
58
9-6
8-7
8-1
23
16-5
14-8
12-6
59
9'4
8-6
8-0
24
16-3
14-1
12-4
60
9'2
8-4
7-9
25
16-1
14-0
12-3
61
8-9
8-2
7-7
26
15-9
13\S
12-1
62
8-7
8-1
7-6
27
15-6
13-6
12-0
63
8-5
7-9
7-4
28
15-4
13-4
11-8
64
8-3
7-7
7-3
29
15-2
13-2
11-7
65
8-0
7-5
7-1
30
15-0
13-1
11-6
66
7-8
7-3
6-9
31
14-8
12-9
11-4
67
7-6
7-1
6-7
32
14-6
12-7
11-3
68
7-4
6-9
6-6
33
14-4
12-6
11-2
69
7-1
6-7
6-4
34
14-2
12-4
11-0
70
6-9
6-5
6-2
35
14-1
12-3
10-9
71
6-7
6-3
6-0
36
13-9
12-1
10-8
72
6-5
6-1
5-8
37
13-7
11-9
10-6
73
6-2
5-9
5-6
38
13-5
11-8
10-5
74
5-9
5-6
5-4
39
13-3
11-6
10-4
75
5-6
5-4
5-2
40
13-2
11-5
10-3
880
ANNUITY TABLES.
APPENDIX.
TABLE VII., showing the Value of an Annuity on the joint Continuance of two Lives,
according to the Probabilities of Life in London.
Age of the
Value at
Age of the
Value at
Younger.
Elder.
3 per Cent.
4 per Cent.
5 per Cent.
Younger.
Elder.
3 per Cent.
4 per Cent.
5 per Cent.
10
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
14-7
14-3
13-8
13-1
12-3
11-5
10-7
10-0
9-3
8-6
7-8
6-9
6-1
5-3
13-0
12-7
12-2
11-6
10-9
10-2
9-6
9-0
8-4
7-8
7-2
6-5
5-8
5-1
11-6
11-3
10-8
10-2
9-7
9-1
8'6
8-1
7'6
7'1
6-6
6-1
5-5
4-9
30
55
60
65
70
75
7'9
7-2
6-5
5-8
5-1
7-3
6-7
6-1
5-5
4-9
6-7
6-2
5-7
5-2
4-7
35
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
9-9
9-4
8-9
8-3
7-7
7-1
6-4
5-7
5'0
8-8
8-5
8-1
7-6
71
6-5
6-0
5-4
4-8
8-0
7-7
7.4
7-0
6-6
6-1
5-6
5-1
4-6
15
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
13-9
13-3
12-6
11-9
11-2
10-4
9'6
8-9
8-2
7-5
6-8
6-0
5-2
12-3
11-8
11-2
10-6
10-0
9'4
8-8
8-2
7'6
7-0
6-4
5-7
5-0
11-0
10-5
10-1
9-5
9-0
8-5
8-0
7-5
7-0
6-5
6-0
5-4
4-8.
40
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
9-1
8-7
8-2
7-6
7-0
6-4
5-7
5-0
8-1
7-8
7-4
6-9
6'4
5-9
5-4
4-8
7-3
7-1
6-8
6-4
6-0
5-5
5-1
4-6
45
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
8-3
7-9
7-4
6'8
6-3
5'6
4-9
7-4
7-1
6-7
6'3
5-8
5-3
4-7
6-8
6-5
6-1
5-7
5-2
4-6
6-7
6-5
6-2
5-8
5-4
5-0
4-5
20
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
12-8
12-2
11 -6
10-9
10-2
9-5
8-8
8-1
7.4
6-7
6-0
5-2
11-3
10-8
10-3
9'8
9-2
8-6
8O
7-5
6-9
6-3
5-7
5-0
10-1
9-7
9-2
8-8
8-4
7-9
7-4
6-9
6-4
5-9
5-4
4-8
50
50*
55'
60
65
70
75
7'6
7-2
6-7
6-2
5-5
4-8
6-2
6-0
5-7
5-3
4-9
4.4
55
55
60
65
70
75
6-9
6-5
6-0
5-4
4-7
6-2
5-9
5-6
5-1
4-5
5-7
5-5
5-2
4-8
4-3
25
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
11-8
11-3
10-7
10-0
9-4
8-7
8-0
7-3
6-6
5-9
5'1
10-5
10-1
9-6
9-1
8-5
7-9
7-4
6-8
6-2
5-6
4-9
9'4
9-0
8-6
8-2
7-8
7-3
6-8
6-3
5-8
5-3
4-7
60
60
65
70
75
6-1
5-7
5-2
4-6
5-6
5-3
4-9
4-4
5-2
4-9
4-6
4-2
65
65
70
75
5'4
4-9
4-4
5-0
4-6
4-2
4.7
4.4
4-0
30
30
35
40
45
50
10-8
10-3
9-7
9-1
8-5
9'6
9-2
8-8
8-3
7-8
8-6
8-3
8-0
7'6
7-2
70
70
75
4-6
4-2
4-4
4-0
4-2
3-9
75
75
3-8
3-7
3-6
APPENDIX. ANNUITY TABLES. 881
TABLE VIII., showing the Value of an Annuity on the longest of two Lives.
Age of the
Value at
Age of the
Value at
Younger.
Elder.
3 per Cent.
4 per Cent.
5 per Cent.
Younger.
Elder.
3 per Cent.
4 per Cent.
5 per Cent
10
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
23-4
22-9
22-5
22-2
21-9
21-6
21-4
21-2
20-9
20-7
20-4
20-1
19-8
19-5
19-9
19-5
19-1
18-8
18-6
18-4
18-3
18-2
18-0
17-8
17-6
17-4
17-2
16-9
17-1
16-8
16-6
16-4
16-2
16-1
16-0
15-9
15-8
15-7
15-5
15-3
15-1
14-8
30
55
60
65
70
75
17-4
17-0
16'6
16-1
15-6
15-1
14-8
14-5
14-1
13-7
13-4
13-2
12-9
12-6
12-2
35
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
18-3
17-8
17-4
17-1
16-7
16-3
15-8
15-3
14-8
15-8
15-4
15-1
14-8
14-5
14-2
13-8
13-4
13'0
13-8
13-5
13-3
13-1
12-9
12-7
12-4
12-0
11-6
15
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
22-8
22-3
21-9
21-6
21-3
21-1
20-9
20-7
20-4
20-1
19-8
19'4
18-9
19'3
18-9
18-6
18-3
18-1
17-9
17-8
17-6
17-4
17-2
16-9
16-6
16-3
16-7
16-4
16-2
16-0
15-9
15-7
15-6
15-4
15-3
15-2
15-0
14-7
14-4
40
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
17-3
16-8
16-3
15-9
15-4
14-9
14-5
14-0
15-0
14-6
14-0
13-9
13-5
13-1
12-7
12-3
13-3
13-0
12-7
12-4
12-1
11-8
11-4
11-0
45
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
16-2
15-7
15-2
14-7
14-1
13-6
13-1
14-2
13-8
13-4
12-9
12-5
12-0
11-6
12-8
12-5
12-1 ,
11-7
11-4
11-0
10-6
20
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
2T6
21-1
20-7
20-4
20-1
19-9
19-6
19-4
19-1
18-7
18-2
17-7
18-3
17-9
17-6
17-4
17-2
17-0
16-8
16-6
16-3
16-0
15-7
15-3
15-8
15-5
15-3
15-1
15-0
14-9
14-7
14-5
14-3
14-1
13-8
13-5
50
50
55
60
65
70
75
15-0
14-5
13-9
13-3
12-8
12-3
13-3
12-9
12-4
12-0
11-5
11-0
12-1
11-7
11-3
10-9
10-5
10-1
55
55
60
65
70
75
13-6
13-0
12-4
11-8
11-3
12-4
11-9
11-3
10-8
10-3
11-3
10-9
10-5
10-0
9-5
25
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
20-3
19-8
19*4
19-2
18-9
18-7
18-4
18-0
17-6
17-2
16-7
17-4
17-0
16-7
16-5
16-3
16-1
15-9
15-6
15-3
15-0
14-6
15-1
14-9
14-7
14-5
14-3
14-2
14-0
13-8
13-6
13-3
12-9
60
60
65
70
75
12-2
11-5
10-9
10-3
11-2
10-6
10-1
9-5
10-5
100
9-5
9-0
65
65
70
75
10-7
10-0
9-3
100
9-4
8-7
9'4
8-9
8-3
30
30
35
40
45
50
19-3
18-8
18-4
18-1
17-8
16-6
16-2
15-9
15-6
15-4
14-5
14-2
14-0
13-8
13-6
70
70
75
9'2
8-4
8-6
7-9
8-2
7'6
75
75
7'6
7-2
6-9
3L
VALUATION OF PROPERTY. APPENDIX.
IV. —VALUATION OF PROPERTY.
The valuations in which the architect is consulted are properly only those wherein build-
ings have been or may be erected ; from which if he wander, the probability is that he will
create difficulty for himself, tending to exhibit him as a pretender to knowledge not within
the regular course of his occupation. The general principles, therefore, on which we pro-
pose to touch, are confined to the species of property above named, as distinguished from
that in which the resident valuator near the spot in the different provinces is the best
adviser, from the local knowledge he possesses. The auctioneers who with unblushing
effrontery pretend to a knowledge of the value of property in the metropolis, are utterly
incompetent to the duties they undertake, from an ignorance of the durability and cost of
buildings, which can be attained by the practice and experience of the architect only.
Buildings may be so disadvantageously placed on their sites as to realise nothing
like a proper interest on the money expended in their erection ; and, indeed, so as alto-
gether to destroy even the great value of the ground on which they are built. Thus, to
place before the reader extreme cases, which generally best illustrate a subject, let him
suppose a row of hovels built in Piccadilly, and a house like Apsley House placed in
Wapping High Street. In both cases the productive value of the ground is destroyed,
there being no inhabitants for such dwellings in the respective quarters of the town.
From this it must be evident that the value of town or city property, which consists
principally of buildings, is divisible into two parts ; namely, —
That arising from the value of the soil or site ; and
That which arises from the value of the buildings placed upon it.
We will suppose for a house which is fairly let at a rent of 1001. per annum, no
matter what the situation of it be, that it could be built for 1000Z., and that the proprietor
or builder would be content with 7 per cent, for the outlay of his money, a rate by no
means larger than he would be entitled to claim, seeing that the letting, after it is built, is
a matter of speculation, and that loss of tenants and other casualties may temporarily
deprive him of the interest of his capital. In this case, then, the rent of the mere building
would be 70L ; and as the full rent assumed is 100/.,
100—70=30, which is manifestly the value of the ground or ground rent.
Thus in the cases of valuation of freeholds, wherein the gross rent can be accu-
rately ascertained, there can be no difficulty in coming at the real value of the ground rent,
because the building rent, or that arising from the expenditure of money on the soil, can
be immediately ascertained by the architect, with the rate of interest on it which it is fit
the builder should have. The remainder of the rent is that inseparably attached to the value
of the soil, and belongs to the ground landlord.
The reason for thus separating the two rents is this : the ground rent, attached as
it is to the soil, is imperishable. It is true that the value of ground is constantly fluc-
tuating from the power of fashion over certain localities ; but with this the valuator cannot
deal. The. changes are slow ; and the Lord Shaftesbury in the time of Charles II. would
have little thought it possible, when he placed his residence in Aldersgate Street, that his
successors would have dwelt in a house in Grosvenor Square ; neither, even five and twenty
years ago, did it cross the mind of the then possessor of the Grosvenor property that the
Five Fields at Chelsea contained a mine of wealth in the ground rents of Belgrave and
Eaton Squares. Such are the mutations of property, with which the present question is
not involved, unless the gift of foresight, in a degree not to be expected, be given to the
valuator. The other portion of the value of house property is strictly the result of the
perishable part of it, namely, the building itself; and this is limited by the durability of
the building, which has great relation to the time it has already existed, and to the sub-
stantiality with which it has been constructed. The durability, then, or the number of
years a building will continue to realise the rent, is the second ingredient in a valuation,
and is a point upon which none but an experienced person can properly decide.
The rate of interest which the buyer is content to obtain in the investment of his
money in buildings, or, in other words, in the purchase of the perishable annuity arising
from the building, will necessarily vary with the value of money in the market. In the
compensation cases under public improvements, wherein it is obligatory on the owner to
part with his property, the 5 per cent, rate of the table is generally used, by which the
buyer makes too little interest on the perishable part of the property. Few would be in-
clined to invest money in such property at so low a rate, for a rent which every year, from
wear and tear, becomes less valuable. Individuals understanding the subject would
scarcely be found to purchase, unless they could make at least 7 per cent, for this part of
the capital. In the cases above mentioned, twenty-five years' purchase, that is, 4 per cent.,
is the usual price at which the ground rent is taken.
APPENDIX. VALUATION OF PROPERTY. 883
We will, having thus prepared the student, present an example of a valuation con-
ducted on the principles named. Thus, suppose a building and the ground on which it
stands to be together worth 1 507. per annum, and that its durability is such that a pur-
chaser may count on receiving that rent during a term of fifty years. We will suppose
the house to stand upon a plot of ground 24 feet in frontage, and 60 feet in depth ; that
the size of the house is 24 feet by 40 feet, and that to build a similar one would cost 14407.,
which, at a rate of 7 per cent, upon the expenditure, would produce a building rent of
1OOI. 16s. per annum.
£ s. d. £ s. d.
Now the total rent being - - - -1500O
The rent arising from the building itself - - 100 16 0
The value of the mere ground must be - - - 49 4 O
We therefore here have the imperishable part, viz. the ground, of the
value of 491. 4s. per annum, which, giving the purchaser 4 per cent,
interest for his money, is twenty-five years' purchase for the fee-simple
by the Fourth Table, that is - _ 1230 0 0
An annuity (from the building) of 1007. 16s., to continue for fifty years,
is, by the Fourth Table at 5 per cent., worth 18 '256 years' purchase,
that is - - 1840 O 11
The value of the old materials at the end of the term, if taken to be
pulled down and sold for 1507., will be that sum at the end of fifty
years to be received at the present time, discounting at 5 per cent,
from the Second Table -1107 x 150 - = 16 12 1
Total value of the freehold - - . 3086 13 O
In the above valuation the ground estimated by its frontage would be 24Tt=41s- Per f°ot>
and ground is usually let by the foot when demised for building.
The next case of valuation is that of a beneficial lease, in which the rent paid by
the lessee is less than the actual value of the premises. The difference between them,
therefore, is an annuity for the term of the lease, which is so much benefit to the lessee,
and is estimated by the Fourth Table ; thus, —
Suppose the actual value of given premises be - - £100
Rent reserved by the lessor ------ 50
Beneficial annuity belonging to the lessee - - - - - £50
If the term of the lease be twenty-one years, such is the length of the annuity, and the
question stands as under : —
An annuity for twenty-one years, discounting at 5 per cent., is by the Fourth
Table worth 12*821 1 years' purchase, which multiplied by 507. = - £641 Is.
It is to be observed that the annuities must be clear after the deduction of all outgoings
which may be necessary to keep it unencumbered.
Let us take another case.
A. takes a lease of ground at 10Z. per annum, and lays out 10007. on a sixty-one years*
lease, interest being 3 per cent. How much must he receive as rent to replace the princi-
pal at the end of the term ?
10007. at 3 per cent. =307. + 107. ground rent=40Z. improved rent.
17. per annum for sixty-one years at 3 per cent, will amount to 1697. (See Third Table.)
——=57. 9s. =the sum to be laid out yearly.
And 307. + 57. 9s. —357. 9s., or 3'59, is the rate of interest to secure or replace the princi-
pal at the end of the term without consideration of repairs, loss of tenants, insurance, &c.
In the valuation of warehouses, the only safe method of coming at the value of a
rental is by the quantity of goods or tonnage they will contain, after leaving proper gang-
ways, and not overloading the floors. In corn warehouses, however, the grain being dis-
tributed over the surface of the floor, the squares of floor are taken to come at the contents.
Goods warehoused are paid for to the warehouseman usually at a weekly or monthly rent;
and it is commonly considered that the profit he should make ought to be one half of the
rent he pays to the landlord, so that in fact two thirds of the actual rent realised goes to
the proprietor, and the other third to the warehouseman or lessee. The following is a table
of the space occupied by different goods : —
3 L2
864
VALUATION OF PROPERTY.
APPENDIX.
Of cork there are
Of fir
Of indigo
Of tallow
Of gum
Of brimstone -
Of whale oil -
149-333 cube feet in a ton.
65-163 —
46-606 —
38 -046 —
24-683 —
19-801 —
38-818 —
The mean of the above is 38'853 cube feet to a ton ; and, indeed, 40 feet is the usual
allowance taken by warehousemen, 35 feet being that calculated in shipping.
Sugar in hogsheads will be found to be about 69 cube feet to the ton. Thus, a
hogshead 3 ft. 6 in. high, 3 ft. 4 in. diameter at the ends, and 3 ft. 11 in. in the middle,
weighs about 1 5£ cwt.
The following are the usual dimensions and weights of tea in the chests, which, how-
ever, are not always uniform : —
Dimen-
sions.
Cube.
Weight.
Lbs. per
Foot Cube.
Cube Feet
in a Ton.
Congo -
1 10|
1 8|
LJ?
4-403
1 1 1 Ibs.
25-21
88 '87
Souchong
1 ?£
i H
1 7
4-180
108 Ibs.
25-84
86-70
Bohea -
2 9
10
f*
8-609
224 Ibs.
26-02
86-09
Twankay
11*
6
8
5-140
104 Ibs.
20-23
110-70
Hyson -
1 6^
1 6
1 9
,
4-048
80 Ibs.
19-76
113-34
The means will be 5-276
•
23-41
97-14
Wheat, taking the average weight of a Winchester bushel at 60 Ibs., will give 48-13
cube feet to a ton.
A ton of coals is about 45*3 cubic feet.
In the valuation of leases held on lives, the operation, after bringing the rent to a
clear annuity, is conducted by means of the sixth, seventh, and eighth tables, as the case
may require.
A
GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED BY ARCHITECTS;
ALSO
A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL ARCHITECTS
OF ALL TIMES AND COUNTRIES, ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED,
AND
A CATALOGUE OF THE MOST USEFUL WORKS ON ARCHITECTURE.
A.
ABACISCUS. A word sometimes used as synonymous with abacus, but more correctly
applied to a square compartment enclosing a part or the entire pattern or design of
a Mosaic pavement.
ABACUS. (Gr. Aga|, a slab.) The upper member of the capital of a column, and serving
as a crowning both to the capital and to the whole column. It is otherwise defined
by some as a square table, list, or plinth in the upper part of the capitals of columns,
especially of those of the Corinthian order, serving instead of a drip or corona to the
capital, and supporting the nether face of the architrave, and the whole trabeation. In
the Tuscan, Doric, and ancient Ionic orders, it is a flat square member, well enough re-
sembling the original title ; whence it is called by the French tailloir, that is, a trencher,
and by the Italians credenza. In the richer orders it parts with its original form, the
four sides or faces of it being arched or cut inwards, and ornamented in the middle of
each face with a rose or other flower, a fish's tail, &c. ; and in the Corinthian and
Composite orders it is composed of an ovolo, a fillet, and a cavetto. The word is used
by Scamozzi to signify a concave moulding in the capital of the Tuscan pedestal.
ABATE, NICHOLAS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 24O.
ABATON. (Gr. A€arov, an inaccessible place.) A building at Rhodes, mentioned by
Vitruvius, lib. ii., entrance whereof was forbidden to all persons, because it contained a
trophy and two bronze statues erected by Artemisia in memory of her triumph in sur-
prising the city.
ABATTOIR. (Fr. Abattre, to knock down.) A building appropriated to the slaughtering of
cattle. See p. 798.
ABBEY. (Fr. Abba'ie.) Properly the building adjoining to or near a convent or monastery,
for the residence of the head of the house (abbot or abbess). It is often used for the
church attached to the establishment, as also for the buildings composing the whole
establishment. In such establishments the church was usually grand, and splendidly
decorated. They had a refectory, which was a large hall in which the monks or nuns
had their meals ; a guest hall, for the reception and entertainment of visitors ; a parlour or
locutory, where the brothers or sisters met for conversation ; a dormitory, an almonry,
wherefrom the alms of the abbey were distributed ; a library and museum ; a prison for
the refractory, and cells for penance. The sanctuary was rather a precinct than a build-
ing, in which offenders were, under conditions, safe from the operation of the law.
Granges, or farm buildings, and abbatial residences. Schools were usually attached for
the education of youth, with separate accommodations for the scholars. A singing school,
a common room, with a fire in it, for the brothers or sisters to warm themselves, no other
fire being allowed, except in the apartments of the higher officers. A mint, for coining,
and a room called an exchequer. The abbey was always provided with a churchyard, a
garden, and a bakehouse. The sacristy contained the garments of the prie&ts, and the
vessels, &c. ; vestiaria or wardrobes being assigned for the monks. Many of the ordinary
duties of these persons were performed in the cloisters where they delivered their
lectures.
ABELE TREE. A species of white poplar, enumerated among woods by Vitruvius (book ii.
3 L 3
886 GLOSSARY, ETC.
chap, ix.) as being, in many situations, serviceable from its " toughness," and also from
its colour and lightness fitting it for carvings.
ABREUVOIR. (Fr.) A watering-place for horses. In masonry it is the joint between two
stones, or the interstice to be filled up with mortar or cement, when either are to be
used.
ABSCISS, or ABSCISSA. (Lat. Ab and Scindo.) A geometrical term, denoting a segment cut
off from a straight line by an ordinate to a curve.
ABSIS. See APSIS.
ABSTRACT. A term in general use among artificers, surveyors, &c. to signify the collect-
ing together and arranging under a few distinct heads the various small quantities of
different articles which have been employed in any work, and the affixing of a price
to determinate portions of each, as per square, per foot, per pound, &c., for the purpose
of more expeditiously and conveniently ascertaining the amount. See p. 620, et seq.
ABUSE. A term applied to those practices in architecture which, arising from a desire of
innovation, and often authorised by custom, tend to unfix the most established principles,
and to corrupt the best forms, by the vicious way in which they are used. Palladio has
given a chapter on them in his work. He reduces them to four principal ones : the
first whereof is the introduction of brackets or modillions for supporting a weight ; the
second, the practice of breaking pediments so as to leave the centre part open ; third,
the great projection of cornices ; and, fourth, the practice of rusticating columns. Had
Palladio lived to a later day, he might have greatly increased his list of abuses, as Per-
rault has done in the following list : the first whereof is that of allowing columns and
pilasters to penetrate one another, or be conjoined at the angles of a building. The
second, that of coupling columns, which Perrault himself in the Louvre has made almost
excusable ; the third, that of enlarging the metopse in the Doric order, for the purpose
of accommodating them to the intercolumniations ; the fourth, that of leaving out the
inferior part of the tailloir in the modern Ionic capital ; the fifth, that of running up
an order through two or three stories, instead of decorating each story with its own
order ; the sixth, that of joining, contrary to the practice of the ancients, the plinth
of the column to the cornice of the pedestal, by means of an inverted cavetto ; the
seventh, the use of architrave cornices ; the eighth, that of breaking the entablature of
an order over a column, &c. &c.
ABUTMENT. (According to some, from the French dboutir, to abut, among whom the
learned Spelman; but according to others, from the Saxon abutan, about.) The solid
part of a pier from which the arch immediately springs. Abutments are artificial or
natural : the former are usually formed of masonry or brickwork, and the latter are
the rock or other solid materials on the banks of the river, in the case of a bridge, which
receive the foot of the arch. It is obvious that they should be of sufficient solidity and
strength to resist the thrust of the arch. See p. 401, et seq., and ARCH in this glossary.
ABUTTALS. The buttings or boundings of land.
ACANTHUS. (A/ccw0os, a spine.) A spiny herbaceous plant found in various parts of the
Levant. Its leaf is said by Vitruvius to have been the model on which the Grecian
architects formed the leaves of the Corinthian capital. See p. 61.
ACER. (Celt. Ac, a point; Lat. Acer, sharp.) A genus of trees comprehending the maple
and sycamore, the wood whereof is not of much value. That of the acer campestre
furnishes the cabinet-makers with what they call bird's-eye maple.
ACCESSES. See PASSAGE.
ACCIDENTAL POINT. In perspective, the point in which a straight line drawn from the eye
parallel to another straight line cuts the perspective plane. It is the point wherein the
representations of all straight lines parallel to the original straight line concur when
produced. Its name is adopted to distinguish it from the principal point or point of view.
See PERSPECTIVE, p. 649, et seq.
ACOUSTICS. (Gr. AKOVW, to hear.) The doctrine or theory of sounds, as applicable to
buildings. See p. 801, et seq., THEATRE.
ACROPOLIS. (Gr. A/cpos and TloXis, city.) The upper town or citadel of a Grecian city,
usually the site of the original settlement, and chosen by the colonists for its natural
strength. The most celebrated were those of Athens, Corinth, and Ithome, whereof the
two latter were called the horns of the Peloponnesus, as though their possession could
secure the submission of the whole peninsula.
ACROTERIA. (Gr. Aicparrripiov, the extremity cf anything.) The pedestals, often without
base or cornice, placed on the centre and sides of pediments for the reception of figures.
Vitruvius says that the lateral acroteria ought to be half the height of the tympanum,
and the apex acroterium should be an eighth part more. No regular proportion, how-
ever, is observable in Grecian buildings.
The word acroterium is applied to the ridge of a building ; it has also been used to
signify the statues on the pedestals ; but it is only to these latter that it is strictly
applicable. The word has moreover been given to the small pieces of wall in balus-
GLOSSARY, ETC. 887
trades, between the pedestal and the balusters, and again to the pinnacles or other orna-
ments which stand in ranges on the horizontal copings or parapets of buildings.
ACUTE-ANGLED TUIANGLE. A triangle having all its angles acute. Every triangle has at
least two acute angles.
ACUTE ANGLE. A term used in geometry to denote an angle less than 90°, that is, less
than a right angle.
ADAM, ROBERT. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 301.
ADAMS, ROBERT. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 244.
ADHESION (Lat. Adhajreo.) A term in physics denoting the force with which different
bodies remain attached to each other when brought into contact. It must not be con-
founded with cohesion, which is the force that unites the particles of a homogeneous
body with each other. The following is an account of some experiments recorded in the
Technical Repository for 1 824. " The insertion of a nail is accomplished by destroying
the cohesion of the wood, its extraction by overcoming the force of adhesion and friction.
We will consider it here solely as a case of adhesion. Fine sprigs, of which 4560 weighed
one pound, T45t of an inch long, forced four tenths of an inch into dry Christiana deals at
right angles to the fibre, required a force of 22 Ibs. to extract them. The same descrip-
tion of nail having 3200 in the pound, -^ of an inch long, and forced ^ of an inch into
the same kind of wood, required 37 Ibs. to extract it. Threepenny brads, 6 1 8 to the
pound weight, one and a quarter inch long, forced half an inch into the wood, required a
force of 72 Ibs. to draw them out. Fivepenny nails, 139 to the pound weight, two inches
long, and forced one inch and a half into the wood, required a force of 170 Ibs. to extract
them. The same kind of nail forced one inch and a half into the wood required 327 Ibs. to
draw it out. In this last experiment the nail was forced into the wood by a hammer of cast
iron weighing 627 Ibs. falling from a height of twelve inches, four blows of which were
necessary to force the nail an inch and a half into the wood. It required a pressure of
400 Ibs. to force the nail to the same depth. A sixpenny nail driven one inch into dry
elm across the grain or fibres required 327 Ibs. to draw it out by direct force ; driven
endwise into dry elm, or parallel with the grain, it required only 257 Ibs. to extract it.
The same sort of nail driven into dry Christiana deal was extracted by a force equal
to 257 Ibs., and by one of 87 Ibs. from a depth of an inch. The adhesion, therefore, c.4" a
nail driven into elm across the grain, or at right angles to the fibres of the wooi, is
greater than when it is driven with the grain, or parallel with the fibres, in the proper
tion of 100 to 78, or 4 to 3. And under the same circumstances, in dry Christiana deJ,
as 100 to 33-8, or nearly 3 to 1. The comparative adhesion of nails in elm and deal is
between 2 and 3 to 1. To extract a sixpenny nail driven one inch into green sycamore
required 312 Ibs. ; from dry oak, 507 Ibs.; and from dry beech, 667 Ibs. A common
screw of one fifth of an inch had an adhesion about three times as great as that of a
sixpenny nail. A common sixpenny nail driven two inches in dry oak would require
more than half a ton to extract it l-y pressure."
ADIT (Lat. Adeo), or ADITUS. The approach or entrance to a building, &c. Among the
ancients the aditus theatri, or adits of a theatre, were doorways opening on to the stairs, by
which persons entered the theatre from the outer portico, and thence descended into the
seats. Upon the same principle were the adits of a circus.
ADJACENT ANGLE, in geometry, is an angle immediately contiguous to another, so that one
side is common to both angles. This expression is more particularly applied to denote
that the two angles have not only one side in common, but likewise that the other two
sides form one straight line.
ADYTUM. (Gr. ASvrov, a recess.) The secret dark chamber in a temple to which none but
the priests had access, and from which the oracles were delivered. Seneca, in his tra-
gedy of Thyestes says, —
" Hinc orantibus
Responsa dantur certa, dum ingenti sono
Laxantur adyto fata."
Among the Egyptians the secos was the same thing, and is described by Strabo. The
only well-preserved ancient adytum that has come to our knowledge is in the little
temple at Pompeii ; it is raised some steps above the level of the temple itself, and is
without light.
ADZE, or ADDICE. An edged tool used to chip surfaces in an horizontal direction, the axe
being employed to chop materials in vertical positions. The blade, which is of iron, forms
a small portion of a cylindric surface in both its sides, and has a wooden handle fixed into
a socket at one of its extremities, in a radial direction, while the other extremity, parallel
to the axis of the cylinder, and therefore at right angles to the handle, is edged with
steel, and ground sharp from the concave side. The adze is chiefly employed for taking
off thin chips from timber or boards, and for paring away irregularities at which the axe
cannot come. It is also used in most joinings of carpentry, particularly when notched
upon one another, scarfings, thicknesses of flooring boards opposite to the joints, &c.
3 L 4
888 GLOSSARY, ETC.
See ARCHITECTS, list of, 76.
AERIAL PERSPECTIVE. The relative apparent recession of objects from the foreground,
owing to the quantity of air interposed between them and the spectator. It accompanies
the recession of the perspective lines.
JESTHETICS. (Gr. AurQyTiKos, having the power of perception by means of the senses.) It
is in the fine arts that science which derives the first principles from the effect which
certain combinations have on the mind as connected with nature and right reason. See
p. 673.
jETHERius. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 60.
^ETIAIOI. (Gr. Afros, an eagle.) The name given by the Greek architects to the slabs
forming the face of the tympanum of a pediment. This word occurs in the Athenian
inscription now in the British Museum, brought to England by Dr. Chandler, and re-
lating to the survey of some temple at Athens.
JEroMA, or JEvos. (Gr. Aeros. ) A name given by the Greek architects to the tympanum
of a pediment. It seems derived from the custom of decorating the apex or ridge of the
roof with figures of eagles, and that the name thence first given to the ridge was after-
wards transferred to the pediment itself.
AGAMEDES. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 3.
AGAPTOS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 10.
AGNOLO »', BACCIO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 206.
AGNOLO GABRIELLO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 171.
AGOSTINO and ANGELO, of Siena. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 131.
AGRICOLA. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 59.
AIR DRAINS, or DRY AREAS. Cavities between the external walls of a building protected
by a wall towards the earth, which is thus prevented from lying against the said walls
and creating damp. They may be made with the walls battering against the ground,
and covered over with paving stones, or with their walls nearly perpendicular, and
arched on the top ; the bottoms should be paved, and they should be well ventilated.
AIR HOLES. Holes made for admitting air to ventilate apartments, also for introducing it
among the timbers of floors and roofs for the prevention or destruction of the dry rot.
AIR TRAP. A trap immersed various ways in water to prevent foul air rising from sewers
or drains.
AJUTAGE. (Fr.). Part of the apparatus of an artificial fountain, being a sort of jet d'eau,
or kind of tube fitted to the mouth or aperture of a vessel, through which the water is
to be played, and by it determined into the form to be given to it.
AISLE, or ALA. (Lat. Ala.) A term chiefly used by the English architect to signify
the side subdivisions in a church, usually separated from the nave or centre division by
pillars or columns ; but among different nations, as applied to architecture, it bears dif-
ferent significations. We are told by Strabo that among the Egyptians the alae of the
temple were the two walls that enclosed the two sides of the pronaos, and of the same
height as the temple itself. The walls, he observes, from above ground, were a little
farther apart than the foundations of the temple, but as they rose, were built with an
inclination to each other. We do not, however, clearly understand the passage, which
puzzled Pocock as much as it has ourselves. The Greek alae, called ptera, were the
colonnades which surrounded the cell of the temple, the monopteros temple being the
only species which had columns without a wall behind them. The peripteral had one
tier of columns round the cell, the dipteral two, and the pseudo or false dipteral, in-
vented by Hermogenes, was that in which the ala was single, but occupied the same
space on the sides of the cell as the dipteral, though one of the tiers of columns was left
out. Thus, by metaphor, the columns were called the alae or wings of the temple. The
term is also applied to the sides of a building which are subordinate to the principal and
central division, and are vulgarly called wings. In Gothic as well as many modern
churches the breadth is divided into three or five parts, by two or by four rows of pillars
running parallel to the sides ; and as one or other is the case, the church is said to be a
three-aisled or five-aisled fabric. The middle aisle is called the nave or chief aisle, and
the penthouse, which joins to each side of the main structure containing the aisles, is
called a wing. In Great Britain no instance occurs of a five-aisled church, except a
building at the west end of the cathedral at Durham. On the Continent there are
many such buildings, among which is the cathedral at Milan. It is somewhat remark-
able that in Westminster Abbey and in Redcliffe Church at Bristol the aisles are con-
tinued on each side of the transept, and in Salisbury Cathedral on one side only, a
circumstance not met with in any other churches in this country.
ALABASTER. A white semi-transparent variety of gypsum or sulphate of lime, a mineral of
common occurrence, and used for various ornamental purposes. It was much used for-
merly for monuments in churches and the like.
ALBARIUM OPUS. (Lat.) In ancient Roman architecture a term imagined by some to
have been nothing more than a species of whitewash applied to walls, but, as we think,
GLOSSARY, ETC. 881
incorrectly. In the passage of the tenth chapter of the fifth book of Vitruvius, where
he recommends the use of the albarium opus for the ceilings of baths, he allows
tectorium opus as a substitute ; so that we think it was a species of stucco. Its employ-
ment at the baths of Agrippa, knowing as we do the extent to which luxury was
carried in the baths of the ancients, seems to prove it a superior sort of stucco, and it is
by no means improbable that it was susceptible of a high polish.
ALBERT. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 69.
ALBERTI, ARISTOTILE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 180.
, LEO BAFT. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 162.
ALCOCK. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 169.
ALCOVE. (Alcoba, Sp. ; Elcant, Arab., a sleeping chamber.) That part of a sleeping
chamber wherein the bed is placed. The use of alcoves, though not by that name, is
ancient. They were frequently designed in the form of a niche ; such, for instance, as
those that Winkelman notices at Hadrian's villa at Tivoli, of which sort are some at
Pompeii. They were often formed by enclosures or balustrades, of various heights, and
by means of draperies the part was separated from the large chamber whereof it was a
part. Some idea may be formed of it from many of the ancient bassi relievi, especially
from the celebrated one known by the name of the Nozze Aldobrandini. In modern
works this part of a room differs according to the rank and taste of the proprietor. In
England it is rarely introduced, but in France and Italy it often forms a beautiful feature
in the apartments of palaces.
ALDER. (Ang. Sax. Ellarn.) A tree belonging to the order Betulaceae. See page 486.
ALDRICH. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 268.
ALDUN. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 79.
ALEOTTI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 253.
ALESSI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 215.
ALEATORIUM. In ancient Roman architecture, a room in which games at dice were played.
ALEXANDER. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 90.
AI.GARDI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 256.
ALIPTERION. In ancient Roman architecture, a room used by the bathers for anointing
themselves.
ALKORANES. In Eastern architecture, high slender towers attached to mosques, and
surrounded with balconies, in which the priests recite aloud at stated times prayers
from the Koran, and announce the hours of devotion to worshippers. They irnch
embellish the mosques, and are often very fantastical in form.
ALLEY. (Fr. Allee.) An aisle, or any part of a church left open for access to another
part. In towns, a passage narrower than a lane. A walk in a garden.
ALMEHRAB. A niche in the mosques of the Mahometans which points towards the
Kebla, or temple of Mecca, to which their religion directs them to bow their face in
praying.
ALMONRY. Properly a closet or repository for the reception of broken victuals set apart
as alms for the poor, but more generally used to denote a house near the church in
abbeys or their gates, provided with various offices for distributing the alms of the
convent and for the dwelling of the almoner.
ALMSHOUSE. A house devoted to the reception and support of the poor, generally en-
dowed for a particular description of persons.
ALOISIUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 56.
ALONSO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 196.
ALTAR. (Lat. Altare.) A sort of pedestal whereon sacrifice was offered. According to
Servius there was among the ancients a difference between the ara and altare, the latter
being raised upon a substruction, and used only in the service of the celestial and
superior divinities, whereas the former was merely on the ground, and appropriated to
the service of the terrestrial gods. Altars to the infernal gods were made by excavation,
and termed scrobiculi. Some authors have maintained that the ara was the altar before
which prayers were uttered, and that the altare was used for sacrifices only. There is
however from ancient authors no appearance of such distinctions, but that the words
were used indiscriminately. The earliest altars were square polished stones, on which
were placed the offerings to the gods. Whilst the sacrifice consisted only of libations,
perfumes, and offerings of that nature, the altar was small, and even portable ; when
man, however, began to consider he was honouring the divinity by an offering of blood,
the altar necessarily expanded in dimensions. Different forms of it were adopted,
according to the nature of the sacrifice, and on it the throat of the victim was cut and
the flesh burnt. Of this sort is the circular altar of the Villa Pamphili at Rome, one of
the largest and most elegant of the class. On it appears the cavity for holding the fire,
and the grooves for carrying off the blood. The varieties of altars were suitable in
form, ornament, and situation to the service to which they were appropriated : some,
as we have already observed, being for sacrifices of blood, others for receiving offerings
890 GLOSSARY, ETC.
and the sacred vessels ; some for burning incense, others for receiving libations. Many
were set up as mere monuments of the piety of a devotee, whilst others were raised to
perpetuate some great event. They served for adjuration as well as for an asylum to
the unfortunate and evil doer. In form they varied from square to oblong, and from
triangular to circular. Those of metal were commonly tripodial. When of brick or
stone their plan is generally square. According to Pausanius they were occasionally
made of wood. They do not appear to have been of any regular standard height, for
they are sometimes found on bassi relievi reaching but little above a man's knee, whereas
in others they appear to reach his middle ; but it seems that in proportion to its diameter
the circular altar was generally the highest. Vitruvius says that they should not be so
high as to intercept the statues of the gods, and he gives the relative heights of those
used for different divinities. Thus, he says, those of Jupiter and the celestial gods are
to be the highest ; next, those of Vesta and the terrestrial gods ; those of the sea gods
are to be a little lower, and so on. On festivals they were decorated with such flowers
and leaves as were sacred to the particular divinity. But besides this casual decoration,
the ancient altars furnish us with some of the most elegant bassi rilievi and foliage
ornaments that are known. According to Vitruvius, their fronts were directed towards
the east, though very frequently but little regard was paid to their position, as they were
occasionally placed under the peristyle of a temple, and not unfrequently in the open
air. In the larger temples were often three different altars. The first was in the most
sacred part, in front of the statue of the god ; the second before the door of the temple ;
and the third (called ancalabris) was portable, and on it the offerings and sacred vessels
were placed.
The altars of the Catholic church are either attached or isolated. The former generally
stand against a wall, and are so decorated as to appear quite independent of it. The
decorations are either of painting or sculpture, or both. The isolated altar has no
sort of connection with any part either of the building or of its decorations. The
high altar is always isolated, whether placed at the end of the church or in its centre.
Whatever the situation of the high altar, it should be grand and simple: it should be
raised on a platform, with steps on every side. The table itself is usually in the form
of an antique sarcophagus. The altar of the Protestant churches of England is
generally only an oak table, covered with a white cloth, and but little ornamented
either above or on the sides. In country churches we sometimes find superadded as
an ornament, to show, we suppose, that painting may be tolerated in Protestant worship,
the figures
" Of Moses and Aaron stuck close by the wall,
To hold the commandments for fear they should fall."
The fact is, the Church of England is so overawed by sectaries, that she is afraid of
doing anything congenial to the feelings of a polished mind as respects the decoration
of her churches, which are in the new examples built by the commissioners more than
ever stript of all elegant accompaniments; a practice which turns our churches into barns
rather than temples of the Most High.
The altars of the Greek church, though in other respects the religion vies in splendour
with the Romish church, are destitute of painted or sculptured ornament ; and in
Calvinistic churches the name as well as the uses of an altar are unknown either as an
appendage or a decoration.
v ALTAR-PIECE. The entire decorations of an altar.
ALTAR SCREEN. The back of an altar, or the partition by which the choir is separated
from the presbytery and Lady chapel. The date of its introduction into English churches
we believe to have been about the close of the thirteenth century. It is generally of
stone, and composed of the richest tabernacle work, of niches, finials, and pedestals, sup-
porting statues of the tutelary saints. Those to the high altars of Winchester Cathe-
dral, of St. Alban's Abbey, and of New College, are fine examples. Many were
destroyed at the Reformation, or filled up with plaster and covered with wainscot. In
all altar screens a door is placed on each side for the officiating priests, whose vestments
were deposited in an apartment behind the altar screen.
ALTO RILIEVO. See RILIEVO.
ALYPIUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 53.
AMBITUS. A space which surrounded a tomb, and was held sacred. In descriptions of
subterranean tombs, it denoted a small niche made in the wall for the reception of an
urn or body. When the corpse was placed in it, to the mouth of the niche a slab was
fixed, so fitted and cemented as to prevent noisome effluvia. The slabs were sometimes
inscribed with the name and quality of the party. If they received an urn, either upon
that or over the niche the inscription was placed. Much decoration was occasionally
used in the recesses themselves.
AMBO. (Gr. a/j.§uv.) The elevated place or pulpit in the early Christian churches, which,
according to Ciampini, fell into disuse about the beginning of the fourteenth century.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 891
The last erected ambo in Rome is supposed to have been that of S. Pancrazio, on which
appears the date of 1249. It was an oblong enclosure, with steps usually at the two
ends. Two ambones are described by Eustace in the cathedral at Salerno. They are
placed on each side of the nave before the steps of the chancel. They are both of
marble, and the largest is covered with mosaic and supported by twelve Corinthian
granite columns.
AMBULATORY. (Lat.) A sheltered place for exercise in walking ; a cloister; a gallery.
AMBULATIO. (Lat.) See PTEROMA.
AMMAKATI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 239.
AMPHIPROSTYLE. (Gr. a/j.^1, both or double, irpo, before, CTTV\OS, a column.) A term ap-
plied to a temple having a portico or porch in the rear as well as in the front, but with-
out columns at the sides. This species of temple never exceeded the use of four columns
in the front and four in the rear. It differed from the temple in antis, in having
columns instead of anta? at the angles of the portico. See TEMPLE.
AMPHITHEATRE. ( Gr. a/jupi, about, and dearpov, a theatre. ) An edifice formed by the junc-
tion of two theatres at the proscenium, so as to have seats all round the periphery, a
contrivance by which all the spectators, being ranged about on seats rising the one above
the other, saw equally well what passed on the arena or space enclosed by the lowest
range of seats, whose wall towards the arena was called the podium. The origin of the
amphitheatre seems to have been among the Etruscans, to whom also are attributed the
first exhibitions of gladiatorial fights. It was from this people that the Homans
acquired a taste for such shows, which they communicated to every nation which became
subject to their dominion. Athenaeus says, " Romani ubi primum ludos facere coepe-
runt, huic asciti artifices ab Etruscis civitatibus fuerunt, sero autem ludi omnes qui nunc
a Romanis celebrari solent sunt instituti." Lib. iv. c. 17. The most extraordinary
edifice remaining in Rome, we may indeed say in the world, is the amphitheatre gene-
rally called the Coliseum. It was commenced by Vespatian, and completed by Titus his
son. Words are inadequate to convey a satisfactory idea of its stupendous and gigantic
dimensions. Ammianus says that it was painful to the eye to scan its summit : " ad cujus
summitatem aegre visio humana conscendit." Martial, in one of his epigrams, says,
" Omnis Caesareo cedat labor amphitheatre,
Unum pro cunctis fama loquatur opus."
The greater axis of the ellipsis on which it is planned is about 627 feet, and the lesser
520 feet, the height of the outer wall about 166 feet, such wall being decorated by the
Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian Orders, and pierced with arcades between the columns.
Covering five English acres and a quarter, it had seats for 87,000 spectators with stand-
ing room for 22,000 others. It has suffered much from having been used actually as a
quarry for many of the modern edifices of the city ; but in the present day its pre-
servation is strictly attended to by the papal government. A description of this
building has been given in p. 94, et seq. Besides the Coliseum, there were three other
amphitheatres in Rome : the Amphitheatrum Castrense, on the Esquiline, built probably
by Tiberius ; that of Statilius Taurus, and that built by Trajan in the Campus Martius.
The other principal amphitheatres were those of Otricoli on the Garigliano, of brick ;
Puzzuoli, Capua, Verona, at the foot of Monte Casino, Paestum, Syracuse, Agrigentum,
Catanea, Argos, Corinth, Pola in Istria (see fig. 127.), Hipella in Spain, Nismes, Aries,
Frejus, Saintes, and Autun. This last has four stories, in that respect like the Coliseum.
That which remains in the most perfect condition is at Verona ; its age has not been
accurately determined, some placing it in the age of Augustus, and others in that of
Maximian ; of these, Maffei thinks the first date too early, and the latter too late. The
silence of Pliny upon it seems to place it after the time of his writing. In the reign
of Gallienus, it was not only built5 but began to suffer from dilapidation, for many of the
stones belonging to it are found in the walls of Verona, which walls were erected in the
time of that emperor. Many of these were keystones, and the numbers cut upon them
still remain. From the silence of authors that it was the work of any of the emperors,
it seems probable that, like that at Capua, it was erected at the expense of the citizens.
The length is about 514 feet, and the breadth about 410; the long diameter of the
arena 242 feet, the short diameter 147 feet. The audience part or visorium contained
forty-seven tiers of seats, and the building was capable of containing about 22,000 seated
spectators. In the profile of the walls of this amphitheatre the diminution in thickness
upwards is made on the inside, which is also the case in that at Pola. In the Coliseum,
the diminution is on the outside. The amphitheatre at Nismes contained about 17,OOO
persons, and was about 400 feet in length and 320 feet in breadth.
The first amphitheatres, as we learn from Pliny, were constructed of wood, and usually
placed in the Campus Martius, or in some place out of the city. Accidents occurring
from their insecurity, they were abandoned for the more substantial species of fabric
whereof we have been speaking. The first person who is said to have erected an amphi-
892 GLOSSARY, ETC.
theatre in Rome was Caius Scribonius Curio, on the occasion of the games he gave to
the people at the funeral obsequies of his father. Determined to surpass all that had
hitherto been seen, he constructed two theatres of wood, back to back, which, after the
theatrical representations had been finished, were turned round with the spectators in
them, leaving the stages and scenery behind. By their opposite junction, they formed a
perfect amphitheatre, in which the people were gratified with a show of gladiators.
The part in which the gladiators fought was called the arena, from being usually
covered with sand to absorb the blood spilt in the conflicts, for which it was used. It
was encompassed by a wall called the podium, fifteen or sixteen feet high, immediately
round which sat the senators and ambassadors. As in the theatres, the seats rose at the
back of each other ; fourteen rows back from the podium all round being allotted to
the equites, and the remainder to the public generally, who sat on the bare stone,
cushions being provided for the senators and equites. Though at most times open to
the sky, there were contrivances for covering the whole space with an awning. The
avenues by which the people entered and retired were many in number, and were called
vomitoria. The reader who wishes for further information on this subject may consult
with advantage Maffei, Dealt Amfiteatri, and the section on amphitheatres in his excellent
and learned work, Verona illustrata.
ANAMORPHOSIS. (Gr. cwa, backward, and jttop^r/, form.) A term employed in perspective
to denote a drawing executed in such a manner that when viewed in the common way
it presents a confused and distorted image of the thing represented, or an image of some-
thing entirely different ; but when viewed from a particular point, or as reflected by a
curved mirror, or through a polyhedron, it recovers its proportions and presents a distinct
representation of the object.
ANCHOR. In decoration, an ornament shaped similarly to an anchor or arrow head. It is
used with the egg ornament (see page 684. fig. 86.) to decorate or enrich mouldings.
By some it is called a tongue, from its supposed resemblance to the forked tongue of a
serpent. It is used in all the orders, but only applied to the moulding called the echinus
or quarter round.
ANCONES. ( Gr. ajKcav, the joint of the elbow.) The trusses or consoles sometimes em-
ployed in the dressings or antepagmenta of apertures, serving as an apparent support to
the cornice of them at the flanks. In ancient doors the ancones were sometimes broader
at the top than at the bottom, and were not in contact with the flanks of the architrave,
but situated a small distance from them. The term is also used to signify the corners or
quoins of walls, cross beams, or rafters.
ANDREA DI PISA. See ARCHITECTS, list of, ISO.
ANDRON. (Gr. oj/rjp.) In ancient architecture, the apartment appropriated to the reception
of the male branches of the establishment, and always in the lower part of the house, the
gynoccia, or women's apartments, being in the upper part.
ANDRONICUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 23.
ANDROID! DU CERCEAU. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 246.
ANGLE. (Lat. Angulus. ) The mutual inclination of two lines meeting in a point, called
indifferently the angular point, vertex, or point of concourse : the two lines are called
legs. See GEOMETRY, page 306.
ANGLE BAR. In joinery, the upright bar at the angle of a polygonal window.
ANGLE BEAD, or STAFF BEAD. A vertical bead, commonly of wood, fixed to an exterior
angle and flush with the intended surface of the plaster on both sides, for the purpose
of securing the angle against accident, serving also as a guide for floating the plaster.
The section of these beads is about three quarters of a circle, with a projecting part from
the other quarter, by means whereof they are made fast to the wood bricks, plugging, or
bond timbers. Angle beads of wood round the intradosses of circular arches are diffi-
cult to bend without cutting or steaming them. The former has a very unsightly appear-
ance, and the latter method is at once inconvenient and troublesome. The plaster itself
is the best material in this case, and at the height generally placed will be out of the
reach of accident. In good finishings corner beads which are unsightly should not be
used, but the plaster should be well guaged and brought to an arris.
ANGLE BRACE. In carpentry, a piece of timber fixed to the two extremities of a piece of
quadrangular framing, making it partake of the form of an octagon. This piece is also
called an angle tie and a diagonal tie. By the use of this piece wall plates are frequently
braced. In constructing a well hole of a circular section through a roof or floor for a
skylight, &c. the framing is first made in a quadrangular form ; braces are then fixed
opposite to each angle, and the aperture becomes an octagon ; finally, pieces are fixed at
each angle of the octagon, meeting each other in the middle of its sides, so as to transform
the section of the aperture into a circle.
ANGLE BRACKET. A bracket placed in the vertex of an angle, and not at right angles with
the sides. See BRACKETING.
ANGLE CAPITAL. In ancient Greek architecture, the Ionic capitals used to the flank
GLOSSARY, ETC. 893
columns which have one of their volutes placed at an angle of ] 35° with the planes of
the front and returning frieze. As an example may be given the angle capitals of the
temple of Minerva Polias at Athens. This term is also applied to the modern Ionic
capital, in which the whole of the four volutes have an angular direction.
ANGLE CHIMNEY. A chimney placed in the angle of a room.
ANGLE MODILLION. A modillion placed in a direction parallel to a diagonal drawn through
a cornice at its mitring. It is an abuse seen only in the buildings erected during the
decline of Roman architecture, as in the ruins of Balbec and Palmyra, and in the palace
of the Emperor Dioclesian at Spalatro.
ANGLE OF VISION. (See PERSPECTIVE, p. 649, et seq.) The angle under which an object
or objects are seen, and upon which their apparent magnitudes depend. In practical
perspective it should not exceed sixty degrees.
ANGLE OF A WHVLL. The angle contained by the vertical planes of two walls which form
the angle of the building. The term is sometimes used to denote the line in which the
two sides of the angle meet, which by workmen is commonly called the arris : the arris
however is not the angle, but the line of concourse formed by the two sides or planes
which contain the angle.
ANGLE RAFTER. The piece of timber in a hipped roof placed in the line of concourse
of the two inclined planes forming the hip. It is more often called a hip rafter. See
HIP and CARPENTRY, page 548.
ANGLE RIB. A piece of timber of a curved form placed between those two parts of a
coved or arched ceiling or vault which form an angle with each other so as to range with
the common ribs on each side or return part.
ANGLE STAFF. See ANGLE BEAD.
ANGLE STONES. A term used by some authors to denote quoins.
ANGLE TIE. See ANGLE BRACE.
ANGULAR CAPITAL. See CAPITAL.
ANNUITIES. See p. 856, et seq.
ANNULAR MOULDINGS. Generally those having vertical sides and horizontal circular
sections.
ANNULAR VAULT. A vault springing from two walls each circular on the plan; such as
that in the temple of Bacchus at Rome.
ANNULET. (Lat. Annulus.) A small fillet whose horizontal section is circular. The neck
or under side of the Doric capital is decorated with these thin fillets, listels, or bands,
whose number varies in different examples. Thus in the Doric of the theatre of Mar-
cellus there are three, whilst in the great temple at Paestum they are four in number,
and in other cases as many as five are used.
ANTA, JE, plur. (Lat. Anta.) The joints or square posts supporting the lintels of doors.
The term antae we think only applicable to pilasters or pillars attached to a wall, though
some authors, as Perault, have thought otherwise. Vitruvius calls square pilasters
when insulated parastatce. There are three kinds of anta? : those of porches or jamb
ornaments ; angular antae, being such as show two faces on the walls of a temple ; and
those on the longitudinal walls of its cell. Antae are only found in temples as wings to
the ends of the walls of the pronaos to give a finish to the terminations the ends of the
walls would otherwise present. It might have been this view which led the Greeks
to treat them rather as distinct objects than to assimilate their finishings to those of
columns. Considered as pilasters, the reader is referred to p. 735, et seq,, where the
diminutions and capitals are fully considered. The latter were never made by the Greeks
like those of the accompanying columns. The pilasters in Roman architecture differ
only from the column in being square instead of round. A rule in the use of anta?
was, that their projection should always be equal to that at least of the mouldings
used on them. Some beautiful examples of antaj capitals exist in the temple of Minerva
Polias and the temple of Apollo Didymaeus in Ionia.
ANTE-CHAMBER or ANTE-ROOM. An apartment through which access is obtained to an-
other chamber or room. One in which servants wait and strangers are detained till the
person to be spoken with is at leisure. In the distribution of many houses the pecu-
liarity of the plan forces upon the architect the introduction of ante-rooms : in most cases,
indeed, they add both elegance and dignity to a design.
ANTEPAGMENTA. (Lat.) In ancient architecture, the jambs or moulded architraves of a
door. The lintel returning at the ends with similar mouldings down upon the ante-
pagmenta was called supercilium.
ANTERIDE.S. In ancient architecture, buttresses or counterforts for the support of a wall.
The Italians call them speroni (spurs).
ANTHEMIUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 61.
ANTE-COUR. A French term, sometimes however used by English authors. It is the
approach to the principal court of a house, and very frequently serves for communication
with the kitchen, cellar, stables, &c.
894 GLOSSARY, ETC.
ANTICUM. (Lat.) A porch to a front door, as distinguished from posticum, which is the
porch to a door in the rear of a building. It was the space also between the front columns
of the portico and the wall of the cellar. The word has been sometimes improperly
used for anta.
ANTIFIX^E. (Lat. anti and figo.) The ornaments of lions' and other heads below the
eaves of a temple, through perforations in which, usually at the mouth, the water is cast
away from the eaves. By some this term is used to denote the upright ornaments above
the eaves in ancient architecture, which concealed the ends of the harmi or joint tiles.
ANTIQUE. A term applied to pieces of ancient art by the Greeks and Romans of the
classical age.
ANTIQUARIUM. Among the ancients an apartment or cabinet in which they kept their
ancient books and vases.
ANTISTATES. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 15. •
ANTONINUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 50.
ANTONIO, FIORENTINO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 228.
ANTOINE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 306.
APARTMENT. (Lat. partimentum.) A space enclosed by walls and a ceiling, which latter
distinguishes it from a court or area. The distribution of apartments of a building has
already been treated of in this work. See p. 771, et seq.
APERTURE. (Lat. aperio.) An opening through any body. In a wall it has usually three
straight sides, two whereof are perpendicular to the horizon, and the third parallel to it,
connecting the lower ends of the vertical sides. The materials forming the vertical sides
are called jambs, and the lower level side is called the sill, and the upper part the head.
This last is either a curved or flat arch. Apertures are made for entrance, light, or
ornament. In Greek and Egyptian architecture, but especially in the latter, the jambs
incline towards each other. Sometimes apertures are made circular, elliptical, or por-
tions of those figures. " Apertures," says Sir Henry Wotton, " are inlets for air and light ;
they should be as few in number, and as moderate in dimensions, as may possibly con-
sist with other due respects ; for, in a word, all opening are weakenings. They should
not approach too near the angles of the walls ; for it were indeed a most essential so-
lecism to weaken that part which must strengthen all the rest."
APIARY. (Lat. apis.) A place for keeping beehives. Sometimes this is a small house
with openings for the bees in front, and a door behind, which is kept locked for security.
Sometimes it is an area wherein each particular beehive is chained down to a post and
padlocked.
APODYTERIUM. (airoSvaQai, Gr., to strip oneself.) The apartment at the entrance of the
ancient baths, or in the Palaestra, where a person took off his dress, whether for bathing
or gymnastic exercises. In the baths of Nero, these apartments were small, but in those
of Caracalla the apodyterium was a magnificent room with columns and other decora-
tions.
APOPHYGE. (Gr., signifying flight.) That part of a column between the upper fillet or
amulet on the base and the cylindrical part of the shaft of a column, usually moulded
into a hollow or cavetto, out of which the column seems as it were to fly or escape up-
wards. The French call it conge, as it were, leave to go.
APOLLODORUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 47.
APOTHECA. (Gr.) A storehouse or cellar in which the ancient Greeks deposited their
oil, wine, and the like.
APRON, or PITCHING PIECE. An horizontal piece of timber, in wooden double-flighted
stairs, for supporting the carriage pieces or rough strings and joistings in the half spaces
or landings. The apron pieces should be firmly wedged into the wall. See STAIRCASES,
p. 575, et seq.
APSIS, or ABSIS. (Gr., signifying an arch.) A term in ecclesiastical architecture, denoting
that part of the church wherein the clergy was seated or the altar placed. It was so
called from being usually domed or vaulted, and not, as Isidorus imagines, from being
the lightest part (apta). The apsis was either circular or polygonal, and domed over ;
it consisted of two parts, the altar and the presbytery or sanctuary. At the middle of
the semicircle was the throne of the bishop, and at the centre of the diameter was placed
the altar, towards the nave, from which it was separated by an open balustrade or rail-
ing. On the altar was placed the ciborium and cup. The throne of the bishop having
been anciently called by this name, some have thought that thence this part of the edifice
derived its name ; but the converse is the fact. The apsis gradata implied more parti'
cularly the bishop's throne being raised by steps above the ordinary stalls. This was
sometimes called exedra, and in later times tribune.
AQUEDUCT. (Lat. aquae ductus.) A conduit or channel for conveying water from one place
to another, more particularly applied to structures for the purpose of conveying the water
of distant springs across valleys, for the supply of large cities. The largest and most mag-
nificent aqueducts with the existence of which we are acquainted were constructed by
GLOSSARY, ETC.
895
the Romans, and many of their ruins in Italy and other countries of Europe still attest
the power and industry of that extraordinary nation. The most ancient was that of
Appius Claudius, which was erected in the 442d year of the city, and conveyed the
Aqua Appia to Rome, from a distance of 11,190 Roman paces (a pace being 58-219
English inches), and was carried along the ground, or by subterranean lines, about 1 1 ,000
paces, about 1 90 of which were erected on arches. The next, in order of time, was the
Anio Vetus, begun by M. Curius Dentatus, about the year of Rome 481. The water was
collected from the springs about Tivoli ; it was about 43,000 paces in length. In the 608th
year of the city, the works of the Anio Vetus and Aqua Appia had fallen into decay, and
much of the water had been fraudulently abstracted by individuals, the praetor Martius
was therefore empowered to take measures for increasing the supply. The result of this
was the Aqua Martia, the most wholesome water with which Rome was supplied. It
was brought from the neighbourhood of Subiaco, twenty miles above Tivoli, and was
61,710 Roman paces (about 61 miles), whereof 7463 paces were above ground, and the
remainder under ground. A length of 463 paces, where it crossed brook and valleys, was
supported on arches. To supply this in dry seasons, was conducted into it another stream
of equal goodness by an aqueduct 800 paces long. About nineteen years after this was
completed, the Aqua Tepula was brought in, supplied also from the Anio ; but not more
than 2000 paces in length. In the reign of Augustus, Agrippa collected some more
springs into the Aqua Tepula, but the latter water flowing in a separate channel, it pre-
served its name. This was 1 5,426 paces long, 7000 above ground, and the remainder of
the length on arcades. To this was given by Agrippa the name of Aqua Julia. In the
year 719 of the city, Agrippa restored the dilapidated aqueducts of Appius, of Martius,
and of the Anio Vetus, at his own expense, besides erecting fountains in the city. The
Aqua Virgo, which received its name from a girl having pointed out to some soldiers the
sources of the stream from which it was collected, was brought to Rome by an aqueduct
14,105 paces in length, 12,865 whereof were under ground, and700on arches, the remainder
being above ground. The Aqua Alsietina, called also Augusta, was 22,172 paces from
its source to the city, and 358 paces of it were on arcades. The seven aqueducts above
mentioned being found, in the time of Caligula, unequal to the supply of the city, this
emperor, in the second year of his reign, began two others, which were finished by
Claudius, and opened in the year of the city 803. The first was called Aqua Claudia,
and the second Anio Novus, to distinguish it from one heretofore mentioned. The first
was 46,406 Roman paces, of which 10,176 were on arcades, and the rest subterranean.
The Anio Novus was 58,700 paces in length, 94OO whereof were above ground, 6491 on
arches, and the rest subterranean. Some of the arches of these are 1OO Roman feet high.
All the aqueducts we have mentioned were on different levels, and distributed accordingly
to those parts of the city which suited their respective elevations. The following is the
order of their heights, the highest being the Anio Novus, 1 59 feet above level of Tiber :
Aqua Claudia, 149 feet; Aqua Julia, 129 feet; Aqua Tepula, Aqua Martia, 125 feet;
Anio Vetus, Aqua Virgo, 34 feet ; Aqua Appia, 27 feet ; and the Aqua Alsietina on the
lowest level. The Tiber at Rome being 91 '5 feet above the level of the Mediterranean,
the mean fall of these aqueducts has been ascertained to be about 0'132 English inches
for each Roman pace (58'219 English inches), or 1 in 441. Vitruvius directs a fall of
1 in 200, but Scamozzi says the practice of the Romans was 1 in 500. The quantity of
water furnished by six of the aqueducts, as given by Frontinus from a measurement at
the head of each aqueduct, is as follows : —
Anio Vetus
Aqua Martia
Aqua Virgo
Aqua Julia
Aqua Claudia
Anio Novus
- 4398 quinarias.
- 4690
- 2524
- 1368
- 4607
- 4738
The whole supply is given as 1 4,01 8 quinariae, after much fraudulent diversion of the
water by individuals ; but the diminished quantity is supposed to have been 27,743,100
English cubic feet, or, estimating the population of Rome at one million of inhabitants,
27 '74 cubic feet per diem for each inhabitant.
The aqueducts required constant repairs, from the nature of their construction,
especially those on arches. The spaces between the piers varied much in width, and
necessarily in height. Some of the arcades are as much as 27 feet in diameter.
There are remains of Roman aqueducts in other parts of Europe, even more mag-
nificent than those we have mentioned. One, or the ruins of one, still exists at Metz,
and another at Segovia in Spain, with two rows of arcades, one above the other. This last
is about 100 feet high, and passes over the greater part of the houses of the city. The
most remarkable aqueduct of modern times was that constructed by the order of Louis
XIV. for conveying the waters of the Eure to Versailles. It is 4400 feet in length, and
896 GLOSSARY, ETC.
contains 242 arcades, each of 50 feet span. The introduction of water pipes has now
superseded the erection of these expensive structures.
ARABESQUE. A building after the Arabian style. See Moresque and Saracenic Architecture,
pp. 50, et se.q. The term is more commonly used to denote that sort of ornament in
Moresque architecture consisting of intricate rectilinear and curvilinear compartments
and mosaics which adorn the walls, pavements, and ceilings of Arabian and Saracenic
buildings. It is capricious, fantastic, and imaginative, consisting of fruits, flowers, and
other objects, to the exclusion in pure arabesques of the figures of animals, which the
religion forbade. This sort of ornament, however, did not originate with the Arabians ;
it was understood and practised by the ancients at a very early period. Foliage and
griffins, with ornaments not very dissimilar to those of the Arabians, were frequently
employed on the friezes of temples, and on many of the ancient Greek vases, on the walls
of the baths of Titus at Pompeii, and at many other places. To Raffaele, in more
modern times, we are indebted for the most elaborate and beautiful examples of the
style, which he even dignified, and left nothing to be desired in it. Since the time of
that master it has been practised with varying and inferior degrees of merit, especially
by the French in the time of Louis XVI. Arabesques lose their character when
applied to large objects, neither should they be employed where gravity in the style is
to be preserved.
ARABO-TEDESCO. (It. Arabo ; and Tedesco, German.) A style consisting of a mixture of
Moorish or Low Grecian with German Gothic. It is a term used chiefly by the
Italians. An example of this style may be quoted in the baptistery at Pisa (fig. 152.),
erected by Dioti Salvi in 1 152. It is a circular edifice, with an arcade in the second order
composed of columns with Corinthian capitals and plain round arches. Between each
arch rises a Gothic pinnacle, and above it is finished by sharp pediments enriched with
foliage, terminating in a trefoil. See Byzantine and Romanesque Architecture, p. 107,
et seq.
AR^OSTYLE. (Gr. opotos, wide, and arvXos, column.) One of the five proportions used
by the ancients for regulating the intercolumniations or intervals between the columns
in porticoes and colonnades. Vitruvius does not determine precisely its measure in
terms of the diameter of the column. His commentators have tried to supply the de-
ficiency ; and, following the progression observable in the intercolumniations he does
describe, each of which increases by a semidiameter, the araeostyle would be three
diameters and a half. Perrault, in his translation of Vitruvius, proposes that the interval
be made equal to four diameters, which is the interval now usually assigned to it. It is
only, or rather ought only, to be used with the Tuscan order.
AR^EOSYSTYLE. (Gr. apaios, wide, <rvv, with, ffrvXos, a column.) A term used by the
French architects to denote the method of proportioning the intervals between columns
coup'ed or ranged in pairs, as invented by Perrault, and introduced in the principal
fa9ade of the Louvre. It was also adopted by Sir Christopher Wren in the west front
of St. Paul's.
ARC. In geometry, a portion of a circle or other curve line. The arc of. a circle is the
measure of the angle formed by two straight lines drawn from its extremities to the
centre of the circle.
ARC-BOUTANT. (Fr.) An arch-formed buttress, much employed in sacred edifices built in
the pointed style, as also in other edifices, and commonly called a flying buttress, whose
object is to counteract the thrust of the main vault of the edifice : it is also called
arched buttress and arched hutment. It is no invention of the moderns, as the use of it is
found in the baths of Dioclesian.
ARC DOIJBLEAU. (Fr.) An arch forming a projection before the sofite of a main arch or
vault, in the same manner as a pilaster breaks before the face of a wall.
ARCADE. (Fr.) A series of apertures or recesses with arched ceilings or sofites. But the
word is often vaguely and indefinitely used. Some so designate a single-arched aper-
ture or enclosure, which is more properly a vault ; others for the space covered by a
continued vault or arch supported on piers or columns ; and, besides these, other false
meanings are given to it instead of that which we have assigned. Behind the arcade is
generally a walk or ambulatory, as in Covent Garden, where the term piazza is ignorantly
applied to the walks under the arcade instead of to the whole place (piazza} or square.
The piers of arcades may be decorated with columns, pilasters, niches, and apertures
of different forms. The arches themselves are sometimes turned with rock-worked, and
at other times with plain rustic arch stones or voussoirs, or with a moulded archivolt,
springing from an impost or platband ; and sometimes, though a practice not to be
recommended, from columns. The keystones are generally curved in the form of a
console, or sculptured with some device. Scamozzi made the size of his piers less, and
varied his imposts or archivolts in proportion to the delicacy of the orders he employed;
but Vignola made his piers always of the same proportion. See Book III, Chap. I.
Sect. 10., and Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 12.
GLOSSARY, ETC.
897
In ancient Roman architecture, the gutters of the cavedium ; area signifying a
beam of wood with a groove or channel in it.
ARCELLA. (Lat.) In mediaeval architecture, a cheese room.
ARCH. A mechanical arrangement of blocks of any hard material disposed in the line of
some curve, and supporting one another by their mutual pressure. The arch itself is
formed of voussoirs or arch stones cut in the shape of a truncated wedge, the uppermost
whereof is called the keystone. The seams or planes, in which two adjacent voussoirs
are united, are called the joints. The solid extremities on or against which the arch
rests are called the abutments. The lower or under line of each arch stone is called the
intrados, and the superior or upper line the extrados. The distance between the piers
or abutments is the span of the arch, and that from the level line of the springing to the
intrados its height. The subject of arches forms Sect. 9. Book II. Chap. I. of this
work, to which the reader is referred for the theory and construction of the arch.
The forms of arches employed in the different styles of English architecture will be
found described under the several heads. See p. 172, et seq.
ARCHIAS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 17.
ARCHITECT. (Gr. apxos and re/crew, chief of the works.) A person competent to design
and superintend the execution of any building. The knowledge he ought to possess
forms the subject of this work ; whatever more he may acquire will be for the advantage
of his employers ; and when we say that the whole of the elements which this work
contains should be well known and understood by him, we mean it as a minimum of his
qualifications. To this we may add, that with the possessions indicated, devotedness,
faithfulness, and integrity towards his employer, with kindness and urbanity to those
whose lot it is to execute his projects, not however without resolution to check the
dishonesty of a builder, should he meet with such, will insure a brilliant and happy
career in his profession. We here insert a
Brief Synoptical List of the principal Architects known in History, and their chief Works,
from Milizia and other Authorities.
BEFORE CHRIST.
No. in
Gloss.
Name of Architect.
Cen-
tury.
Principal Works.
,
Theodorus of Samos.
7th.
Labyrinth at Lemnos ; some buildings at Sparta
and the temple of Jupiter at Samos.
2
Hermogenes of Ala-
—
Temple of Bacchus at Teos and that of Diana
banda.
at Magnesia.
3
Agamedes and Tro-
Temple of Apollo at Delphi ; a temple dedicated
phonius of Delphi.
to Neptune near Mantinzea.
4
Demetrius of Ephe-
6th.
Continuation of the temple of Diana, which had
sus.
been begun by Chersiphron.
5
Eupalinus of Me-
—
Aqueduct, with many other edifices, at Samos.
gara.
6
Mandroeles of Sa-
—
Wooden bridge over the Thracian Bosphorus,
mos.
erected by the command of Darius.
7
Chirosophus of
Temple of Ceres and Proserpine, another of the
Crete.
Paphian Venus, and one of Apollo ; all at
Tegea.
8
Pytheus of Priene.
5th.
Mausoleum of Artemisia in Caria ; design for
the temple of Pallas at Priene. In the former
he was assisted by Statirus.
9
Spentharus of Co-
Rebuilt the temple of Apollo at Delphi, which
rinth.
had been destroyed by fire.
10
Agaptos of Elis.
Portico at Elis.
11
Libon of Elis.
Temple of Jupiter Olympius at Olympia.
12
Ictinus of Athens.
_
Parthenon at Athens ; temple of Ceres and
Proserpine at Eleusis ; temple of Apollo Epi-
curius in Arcadia.
13
Calibrates of
—
Assisted Ictinus in the erection of the Parthenon, j
Athens.
1
14
Mnesicles of Athens.
,
Propylea of the Parthenon.
15
Antistates of Athens.
_
A temple of Jupiter at Athens.
16
Scopas of Greece.
One side of the tomb of Mausolus ; a column of
the temple at Ephesus.
3 M
898
LIST OF ARCHITECTS.
GLOSSARY, ETC
BEFORE CHRIST.
No. in
tiloss.
Name of Architect.
Cen-
tury.
Principal Works.
17
Archias of Corinth.
5th.
Many temples and other edifices, at Syracuse.
18
Callias of Aradus.
Temples, &c., at Rhodes.
19
Ayclius of Aradus.
—
Temple of the Ionian ^Esculapius.
20
Mnesthes.
—
Temple of Apollo at Magnesia.
21
Cleomenes of
4th.
Plan of the city of Alexandria in Egypt.
Athens.
22
Dinocrates of Mace-
—
Rebuilt the temple of Diana at Ephesus; engaged
donia.
on works at Alexandria ; was the author of the
proposition to transform Mount Athos into a
colossal figure.
23
Andronicus of
Tower of the Winds at Athens.
Athens.
24
Callimachus of Co-
—
Reputed inventor of the Corinthian order.
rinth.
25
Sostratus of Gnidus.
The Pharos of Alexandria.
26
Philo of Athens.
Enlarged the arsenal and the Piraeus at Athens ;
erected the great theatre, rebuilt by order of
Adrian.
27
Eupolemus of Ar-
—
Several temples and a theatre at Argos.
28
gos.
Phaeax of Agrigen-
3d.
Various buildings at Agrigentum.
tum.
29
Cossutius of Rome.
2d.
Design for the temple of Jupiter Olympius at
Athens.
30
Hermodorus of Sa-
Temple of Jupiter Stator in the Forum at Rome ;
lamis.
temple of Mars in the Circus Flaminius.
31
Caius Mutius of
Temple of Honour and Virtue near the trophies
Rome.
of Marius at Rome.
32
Valerius of Ostia.
' —
Several amphitheatres with roofs.
33
Batrachus of La-
1st.
These two architects built several temples at
conia.
Rome. The name of the first (ySarpaxos),
34
Saurus of Laconia.
—
signifies a frog ; and that of the latter ((ravpos)
a lizard ; and they perpetuated their names on
some of the works by the allegorical repre-
sentation of these two animals sculptured upon
them. The churches of St. Eusebius and of
St. Lorenzo fuori le Mura, at Rome, still con-
tain some columns whose pedestals are sculp-
tured with a lizard and a frog.
35
Dexiphanes of Cy-
—
Rebuilt the Pharos at Alexandria, at the com-
prus.
mand of Cleopatra, the other having fallen
down.
36
Cyrus of Rome.
Architect to Cicero.
37
Postumiusof Rome.
—
Many works at Rome and Naples.
38
Cocceius Auctus of
Grotto of Puzzuoli ; grotto of Cumae, near the
Rome.
lake now called Lago d'Averno.
39
Fussitius of Rome.
—
Several buildings at Rome ; the first Roman who
wrote on architecture.
AFTER CHRIST.
No. in
Gloss.
Name of Architect.
Cen-
tury.
Principal Works.
40
Vitruvius Pollio of
1st.
Basilica Justitia? at Fano. A great writer on
Fano.
architecture.
41
Vitruvius Cerdo of
—
Triumphal arch at Verona.
Verona.
42
Celer and
—
Golden house of Nero.
43
Severus of Rome.
LIST OP ARCHITECTS.
GLOSSARY, ETC.
899
AFTER CHRIST.
No. in
Gloss.
Name of Architect.
Cen-
tury.
Principal Works.
44
Rabirius of Rome.
1st.
Palace of Domitian on Mount Palatine.
45
Mustius of Rome.
—
Temple of Ceres at Rome.
46
Frontinus of Rome.
2d.
He has left a work on aqueducts.
47
Apollodorus of Da-
—
Forum Trajani at Rome ; a bridge over the Da-
mascus.
nube in Lower Hungary.
48
Lacer of Rome.
—
A bridge over the Tagus in Spain : a temple now
dedicated to San Giuliano.
49
Detrianus of Rome.
Moles Hadriani and the Pons Aelius ; now called
the Castello and Ponte Sant' Angelo.
50
Antoninus, the Se-
—
Pantheon at Epidaurus ; baths of 2Esculapius.
nator, of Rome.
51
Nicon of Pergamus.
—
Several fine works at Pergamus.
52
Metrodorus of Per-
4th.
Many buildings in India, and some at Constanti-
sia.
nople. The first known Christian architect.
53
Alypius of Antioch.
—
Employed by Julian to lay the foundation of a
new temple at Jerusalem.
54
Cyriades of Rome.
5th.
A church and bridge.
55
Sennamarof Arabia.
—
Sedir and Khaovarnack, two celebrated palaces
in Arabia.
56
Aloisius of Padua.
Assisted in the erection of the celebrated rotunda
at Ravenna, the cupola of which is said to
have been of one stone, 38 feet in diameter,
and 15 feet thick.
57
St. Germain, bishop
6th.
Plan of the church of St. Germain at Paris,
of Paris, of
previously dedicated to" St. Vincent ; convent
France.
at St. Mans.
58
St. Avitus, bishop
—
Church of Madonne du Port.
of Clermont, of
France.
59
St. Agricola, bishop
—
Cathedral of Chalons, with many other churches
of Chalons, of
in his diocese.
France.
60
JEtherius of Con-
__
Part of the imperial palace, called Chalcis, at
stantinople.
Constantinople.
61
Anthemius of Tral-
—
St. Sophia at Constantinople.
les, of Lydia.
62
Isidorus of Miletus.
—
Assisted Anthemius in the erection of the church
of St. Sophia.
63
Chryses of Dara, of
—
Constructed the celebrated dykes along the
Persia.
Euripus, near Dara, to keep the river in its
channel, and to keep out the sea. He was par-
ticularly excellent in hydraulic architecture.
64
Isidorus of Byzan-
7th,
The city of Zenobia in Syria was the work of
tium.
these two architects.
65
Johannes of Miletus.
—
66
Saxulphus, abbot of
—
Built the monastery of Medeshampstede, after-
Peterborough, af-
wards called Peterborough.
terwards made
bishop of Lich-
field, of England.
67
Biscopius, Benedict,
8th.
Conventual church of Wearmouth.
of England.
68
Egbert, archbishop
—
Rebuilt York Cathedral.
of York, of Eng-
land.
69
Albert, archbishop
—
Completed the building of York Cathedral under
of York, of Eng-
Egbert.
land.
70
Eaubald, archbishop
Superintended the erection of York Cathedral,
of York, of Eng-
under his predecessor, Archbishop Albert.
land.
3 M 9,
900
LIST OP ARCHITECTS.
GLOSSARY, ETC.
AFTER CHRIST.
No. in
Gloss.
Name of Architect.
Cen-
tury.
Principal Works.
71
Romualdus of
9th.
The cathedral of Rheims, the earliest example of
France.
Gothic architecture.
72
Tietland of Switzer-
10th.
Convent of Einsidlen in Switzerland.
land.
73
Tioda of Spain.
— ,
The palace of King Alphonso the Chaste, at
Oviedo, now the episcopal palace ; churches of
St. Salvador, St. Michael, and St. Mary.
74
Ednoth, a monk of
—
Superintended the erection of the church and
Worcester, of
conventual offices of Rumsey Abbey.
England.
75
Dunstan, archbishop
—
Built for himself a cell at Glastonbury Abbey,
of Canterbury, of
and was skilful in mechanics.
England.
76
JElfric, bishop of Cre-
—
Built part of Malmsbury Abbey Church, in the
diton, of England.
reign of Edgar.
77
Elphage, bishop of
—
Crypts of Winchester Cathedral.
Winchester, of
England.
78
Buschetto of Duli-
The cathedral or duomo of Pisa, the earliest ex-
chium.
ample of the Lombard ecclesiastical style of
architecture. It was built in 1016.
79
Aldhun, bishop of
First cathedral church at Durham.
Durham, of Eng-
land.
80
Pietro di Ustamber
—
Cathedral of Chartres.
of Spain.
81
Lanfranc, archbishop
—
Choir of Canterbury Cathedral, burnt in 1 1 74.
of Canterbury, of
England.
82
Remigius, bishop of
llth.
Part of Lincoln Cathedral.
Lincoln, of Eng-
land.
83
Carilepho, bishop of
Began the cathedral church of Durham, on a
Durham, of Eng-
plan which he had brought with him from
land.
France, when he was abbot of St. Vincent's
in Normandy.
84
Walkelyri, bishop of
Said to have erected the oldest part of Winches-
Winchester, of
ter Cathedral.
England.
•
85
Harlewin, abbot of
—
Rebuilt the abbey church of Glastonbury.
Glastonbury, of
England.
86
Mauritius, bishop of
12th.
Built old St. Paul's, in 1033.
London, of Eng-
land.
87
Gundulf, bishop of
__
Rochester Castle ; White Tower of the Tower of
Rochester, of
London; rebuilt Rochester Cathedral.
England.
88
Odo, prior of Croy-
land, of England.
—
Monastic church of Croyland. Arnold, a lay
brother of the abbey, was employed under Odo
as mason.
89
Ernulf, bishop of
—
Completed Gundulf s works at Rochester.
Rochester, of
England.
90
Alexander, bishop of
—
Rebuilt Lincoln Cathedral.
Lincoln, of Eng-
land.
91
Ranulf, or Ralf
—
Part of Durham Cathedral ; Norham Castle.
Flambard, bishop
of Durham, of
England.
GLOSSARY, ETC.
901
LIST OF ARCHITECTS.
AFTER CHRIST.
No. in
Gloss.
Name of Architect.
Cen-
tury.
Principal Works.
92
Henry of Blois,
12th.
A most celebrated architect; built the con-
bishop of Win-
ventual churches of St. Cross and Rumsey in
chester, of Eng-
Hampshire.
land.
93
Raimond of Mont-
—
Cathedral of Lugo.
fort, of France.
94
Dioti Salvi of Italy.
—
Baptistery of Pisa, near the Campo Santo. His
works were in the Lombard style, and were
overloaded with minute ornaments.
95
Buono of Venice.
—^
The tower of St. Mark at Venice, which is 330
feet high, and 40 feet square, built in 1154 ; a
design for enlarging the church of Santa Maria
Maggiore at Florence, of which the master
walls still exist ; the Vicaria and the Castello
del' Uovo at Naples ; church of St. Andrew
at Pistola; la Casa della Citta; campanile at
Arezzo.
96
Sugger of St. Denis,
—
Rebuilt the church and abbey of St. Denis, near
of France.
Paris. He was distinguished by his perfection
in the Gothic style.
97
Roger, archbishop
—
None of his works at this cathedral are now re-
of York, of Eng-
maining.
land.
98
Pietro di Cozzo da
—
The celebrated great hall at Padua, which is 256
Limena of Italy.
feet long, 86 wide, and 72 high, built in 1172,
burnt in 1420, and restored by two Venetian
architects, Rizzo and Piccino ; it was dis-
mantled by a whirlwind in 1756, and again
restored by Ferracina.
99
Wilhelm, or Gug-
—
The hanging tower at Pisa, built in 1 1 74. Bon-
lielmo, of Ger-
nano and Tomaso, two sculptors of Pisa, were
many.
also engaged upon it.
100
William of Sens, of
—
Canterbury Cathedral.
England.
101
Sisseverne, monk of
•+~
St. Alban's Abbey Church.
St. Alban's, of
102
England.
Goldclif, Hugo de,
_
St. Alban's Abbey.
of England.
103
Eversolt, Gilbert de,
—
St. Alban's Abbey.
of England.
104
Baldwin, archbishop
_
Church at Hackinton, near Canterbury ; and
of Canterbury, of
another at Lambeth.
England.
105
Isembert of Xaintes,
13th.
Bridges of Xaintes and Rochelle. Recom-
of France.
mended by King John to the citizens of Lon-
don as a proper person to finish London
Bridge, begun by Peter of Colechurch.
106
Peter of Colechurch,
—
Began London Bridge.
of England.
107
Bertram, canon of
Overseer of the works of Salisbury Cathedral,
Salisbury, of Eng-
under John and Henry III. Lord Orford
land.
supposes he was the same person who is called
Elyas the Engineer, in a record of the reign of
King John, relating to the repair of the king's
houses at Westminster in 1 209.
108
Fitz-Odo, Edward,
—
Master of the works at Westminster und^r
of England.
Henry III.
109
Eustachius, bishop
Gallery of Ely Cathedral.
of Ely, of Eng-
.
land.
\
3 M 3
902
LIST OF ARCHITECTS.
GLOSSARY, ETC.
AFTER CHRIST.
No. in
Gloss.
Name of Architect.
Cen-
tury.
Principal Works.
110
Robert of Lusarches,
13th.
Cathedral of Amiens, which was continued by
of France.
Thomas de Cormont, and finished by his son
Renauld.
111
Etienne de Bonne-
—
Church of the Trinity at Upsal, in Sweden, built
veil of France.
after the model of that of Notre Dame at
Paris.
112
Poore, bishop of
—
Began Salisbury Cathedral.
Salisbury, of Eng-
land.
113
Melsonby, bishop
__
Part of the cathedral of Durham.
of Salisbury, of
England.
114
Hoo, W. de, prior
—
Choir of Rochester Cathedral.
of Rochester, of
England.
115
Jean d'Echelles of
—
The portico of the cathedral of Notre Dame at
France.
Paris.
116
Pierre de Montereau
—
The holy chapel at Vincennes; the refectory,
of France.
dormitory, chapter-house, and chapel of Notre
Dame, in the convent of St. Germain des Prez,
near Paris.
117
Eudo de Montreuil
__
Church of the Hotel Dieu at Paris ; churches of
of France.
St. Catherine du Val des Ecoliers, of St. Croix
de la Bretonnerie, of Blancs Manteaux, of the
Mathurins, of the Cordeliers, and of the Car-
thusians, at Paris. His style was unpleasing
and heavy.
118
San Gonsalvo of
—
Stone bridge at Tui.
Portugal.
119
San Pietro of Por-
—
Stone bridge called 11 Ponte de Carez.
tugal.
120
Lapo, or Jacopo, of
Convent and church of St. Francisco at Assisi ;
Germany.
Palazzo del Barjello ; and the facade of the
archbishop's palace at Florence.
121
Nicola da Pisa, of
Convent and church of the Dominicans at Bo-
Pisa.
logna ; church of San Micheli ; some palaces ;
and the octagonal campanile of the Augustins
at Pisa ; the great church del Santo at Padua ;
church of Santa Maria at Orvietto; church
de'i Fratri Minori at Venice ; abbey and church
in the plains of Taliacozzo, in the kingdom of
. Naples, built as a memorial of the victory ob-
tained there by Charles I. over Conrad ; plans
of the church of San Giovanni at Sienna ; of
i
the church and convent della Santissima Tri-
nita at Florence, and of those of the Domi-
nicans at Arezzo, which were built by Mag-
lione, his scholar ; the repairs and alterations
to the duomo at Volterra; the church and
convent of the Dominicans at Viterbo. He
intermixed the Gothic with the Lombard
style.
122
Fuccio of Italy.
_
Church of Santa Maria sul Arno at Florence ; the
gates against the river Volturno at Capua; he
finished the Vicaria and Castello dell' Uovo at
Naples, which were commenced by Buono ; he
was distinguished for his skill in fortification.
123
Fenante Maglione,
—
Cathedral and church of San Lorenzo at Naples ;
disciple of Nicola
the Palazzo Vecchio at Naples, in conjunction
of Pisa.
with Giovanni Benin Casa ; the church and
convent of the Dominicans at Arezzo.
i
GLOSSARY, ETC.
90S
LIST OF ARCHITECTS,
AFTER CHRIST.
No. in
Gloss.
Name of Architect.
Cen-
tury.
Principal Works.
124
Masuccio of Naples.
13th.
Church of Santa Maria della Nuova at Naples ;
churches of S. Domenico Maggiore and S.
Giovanni Maggiore ; the archiepiscopal palace
and Palazzo Colombrano at Naples.
125
Arnolfo Fiorentino
1 4th.
The abbey and church of Santa Croce at Flo-
of Florence.
rence ; the walls of the city, with the towers ;
Palazzo della Signoria, now called 11 Palazzo
Vecchio ; model and plan of the cathedral of
S. Maria del Fiore, to which the cupola was
added by Brunelleschi ; the church and Piazza
San Micheli ; Piazza dei Priori. His works
were greatly admired.
126
Pietro Perez of
—
The cathedral of Toledo.
Spain.
127
Robert de Courcy
—
Rebuilt the cathedral at Rheims.
of France.
128
Erwin von Stein-
Celebrated minster at Strasburg was superin-
bach of Germany.
tended by him for twenty-eight years.
129
Giovanni da Pisa of
—
Campo Santo, or public cemetery, at Pisa ; the
Pisa.
tribune of the Duomo in the same city ; Castel
Nuovo and the church of Santa Maria della
Nuova at Naples; fa9ade of the cathedral at
Sienna : many churches and palaces at Arezzo
and other towns in Italy. He was the first
architect in the modern style of fortification,
and his churches and other buildings possess
great merit. He was the son and scholar of
Nicola da Pisa.
130
Andrea da Pisa of
—
Plan of the fortress della Scarperia at Mugello,
Pisa.
at the foot of the Apennines ; plan and model
of the church of San Giovanni at Pistoja ; the
ducal Palazzo Gualtieri at Florence. He was
distinguished as a military architect.
131
Agostino da Sienna,
—
The north and west fa9ades of the cathedral of
or da Pisa, of
Sienna, as also the two gates ; the church and
Italy.
convent of St. Francis ; Palazzo de' Nove Ma-
Angelo, his brother,
gistrati ; grand fountain in the piazza opposite
of Italy.
the Palazzo della Signoria ; hall of the council
chamber, and Palazzo Publico ; the church della
Santa Maria in Piazza Manetti were built by
him in conjunction with Angelo da Pisa, who
was his brother.
132
Boyden, William, of
—
Chief architect to the chapel of the Virgin at
England.
St. Alban's Abbey Church, erected during the
abbacy of Hugo de Eversden.
133
Bek, A. de, bishop
Built and enlarged Barnard Castle, and other
of Durham, of
fortresses.
England.
134
Henry Latomus, or
—
Chapter-house, dormitory, refectory, abbot's hall,
the stonecutter,
and kitchen of the monastery at Evesham.
abbot of Eves-
ham, of England.
135
Helpstone, J., of
—
New-tower or water-tower, in the walls of
England.
Chester.
136
Eversden, Hugh de,
—
Lady chapel in St. Alban's Abbey Church.
abbot of St. Al-
ban's, of England.
137
Walter Weston of
—
St. Stephen's Chapel, Westminster.
England.
138
Thomas of Canter-
—
St. Stephen's Chapel, Westminster.
bury, of England.
3 M 4
904
LIST OF ARCHITECTS.
GLOSSARY, ETC.
AFTER CHRIST.
No. in
Gloss.
Name of Architect.
Cen-
tury.
Principal Works.
139
Giacomo Lanfrani
14th.
Church of St. Francis at Imola ; church of St.
of Italy.
Antonio at Venice.
140
Juan Rari of
Finished the building of the church of Notre
France.
Dame at Paris.
141
William of Wyke-
New College, Oxford ; part of Winchester Cathe-
ham, bishop of
dral ; plan of Windsor Castle.
Winchester, of
England.
142
Walsingham, prior
—
Lantern tower and tower of Ely Cathedral.
of Ely, of Eng-
land.
143
Rede, bishop of Chi-
An eminent mathematician ; built first library at
chester, of Eng-
Merton College, Oxford; Amberly Castle, Sus-
land.
sex.
144
Andrea di Cione
.
Additions to the ducal palace at Florence; his
Orgagna, of Flo-
brother built the tower and gate of San Pietro
rence.
Gattolini.
145
Gainsborough, or
Gaynisburg, of
—
An architect employed at Lincoln Cathedral. On
his monument, still existing in the cathedral, he
England.
is said to have died in June, M.C.CC — , the
last portion of the date being obliterated.
146
Chichele, archbishop
15th.
Founded All Souls College ; built a monument
of Canterbury, of
for himself in Canterbury Cathedral ; mkde ad-
England.
ditions to Canterbury Cathedral, Lambeth Pa-
lace, Croydon Church, and Rochester Bridge.
147
Filippo Brunel-
—
Cupola of the cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore
leschi of Flo-
at Florence. A council of artists was held at
rence.
Florence in 1420, to consider and advise on
this scheme, at which even English artists are
said to have assisted ; after a diversity of opi-
nions, Brunelleschi's project was approved of
and adopted. His other principal works were,
the Palazzo Pitti, which was begun and half
finished by him, the remainder being the work
of Luca Fancelli ; a great part of the church
of San Spirito; the church degP Angeli, de-
signed and begun, but not completed, from
want of money ; the monastery de' Camaldosi ;
the fortress of Milan, and several works about
that city ; a model for the fortress of Pesaro ;
the old and new citadel at Pisa; some other
works there, as well as at Trento, and in other
parts of Italy. He drained the country round
Mantua, and set the first example of a purer
style in the architecture of Italy.
148
Michelozzo Miche-
^_
Palazzo di Medici, now dei Marchesi Ricardi ;
lozzi of Florence.
Palazzo Caflfajiulo ; convent of the Domi-
nicans ; Noviziato della Santa Croce ; chapel in
the church dei Servi ; Palazzo della Villa Ca-
reggi ; Palazzo Tornabuoni, now dei Marchesi
Corsi; and several other palaces, churches,
and convents at Florence ; monastery of the
Black Benedictines at Venice, and the Palazzo
della Villa Careggi at Mujello ; some build-
ings at Trento ; a beautiful fountain at Assisi ,
la Citadella Vecchia at Perugia ; the altera-
tions to the palace presented by Francisco
Sforza to Cosmo di Medici, whom he followed
in his exile, and other great works in various.
parts of Italy.
LIST OF ARCHITECTS.
GLOSSARY, ETC.
905
AFTER CHRIST.
No. in
Gloss.
Name of Architect.
Cen-
tury.
Principal Works.
149
Giuliano of Majano,
15th*.
Palazzo del Poggio Reale at Naples ; a Corinthian
near Florence.
triumphal gate at the Castel Nuovo ; many
fountains in the same city ; the Cortile S. Da-
maso, in the Vatican at Rome, whither he was
invited by Paul II. ; palace and church of San
Marco at Rome ; he also enlarged the church
at Loreto.
150
Frowcester, Walter,
Built the great cloisters of his monastery in
abbot of Glou-
1400.
cester, of Eng-
land.
151
Keyes, Roger, of
—
Architect of All Souls' College, Oxford.
England.
152
Horwood, W. , a
—
Collegiate chapel of Fotheringhay.
freemason,of Eng-
land.
153
Close, or Cloos,
bishop of Lich-
—
Supposed to have designed King's College chapel,
Cambridge ; though, according to Hearne, his
field, of England.
father was the architect.
154
Christobolo of Italy.
A mosque at Constantinople, with eight schools
and eight hospitals, on the site of the church
of the Apostles, by order of Mahomet II.
155
Baccio Pintelli of
Church and convent of Santa Maria del Popolo
Florence.
at Rome ; the celebrated Capella Sistina in
the Vatican ; the hospital of S. Spirito in
Sassia ; Ponte Sisto ; designs for the church
of San Pietro in Montorio ; the church of
S. Sisto ; the church of St. Agostino and
the church of San Pietro in Vincola at
Rome; repaired the church and convent of
St. Francis at Assisi; and built the palace for
the Cardinal del Rovere at Borgo Vecchio ;
some attribute to him the palace built for the
Duke Federigo Feltre at Urbino. He is said
to have been the first to set the example of
grandeur in the architecture of chapels.
156
Bartolomeo Bra-
Church of San Satiro at Milan, and other works
mantino of Italy.
in various parts of Italy.
157
Giovanni del Pozzo
Dominican convent, and a great bridge over the
of Spain.
Huexar, near Cuen^a.
158
Andrea Ciccione of
__
Convent and church of Monte Oliveto ; palace
Naples.
of Bartolomeo da Capua ; and several other
convents and palaces in the city of Naples.
159
Ridolfo Fioravanti
_
Restored the hanging tower of the church of
of Bologna.
S. Biagio, at Cento, to its perpendicular posi-
tion, and built many churches at Moscow.
160
Orcheyarde, W., of
England.
—
Architect of Magdalen College, Oxford, under
Bishop Wayneflete.
161
Francesco di Gior-
—
The ducal palace at Urbino.
gio of Sienna.
162
Leon Battista Al-
Church of St. Francis at Rimini; church of
berti of Florence.
St. Andrew at Mantua ; the principal fa9ade
of Santa Maria Novella, at Florence, has been
attributed by some to Alberti ; but from the
circumstance of its being Gothic, it may
with much more probability be assigned to
Bettini; the gate and Corinthian loggie are,
however, from the designs of Alberti, as also
the Doric fa£ade of the Palazzo Rucellai, and
the choir and tribune of the church della
Nunziata, all at Florence. He also repaired
906
LIST OP ARCHITECTS.
GLOSSARY, ETC.
AFTER CHRIST.
No. in
Gloss.
Name of Architect.
Cen-
tury.
Principal Works.
the Aqua Vergine and the fountain of Trevi,
at Rome, under Nicholas V. ; the palace for
the Duke Federigo Feltre at Urbino ; and
many other buildings in Italy.
163
Farleigh, or Ferley,
15th.
Built the lady chapel of Gloucester, about
W., abbot of
1490.
Gloucester, of
England.
164
Beauchamp, bishop
Appointed surveyor of the works at Windsor
of Sarum, of
Castle by Edward IV. ; supposed to have
England.
made designs for rebuilding St George's Chapel ;
built a chantry chapel in Salisbury Cathedral.
165
Wayneflete, bishop
—
Founder of Magdalen College, Oxford ; overseer
of Winchester, of
of the building at Windsor. Leland was in-
England.
formed that the greatest part of the buildings
of Eton College were raised under his direc-
tion, and at his expense.
166
Kendale, John, of
—
Supervisor of all the king's works.
England.
166*
Druell, J., arch-
One of the architects employed on All Souls'
deacon of Exeter,
College, Oxford.
of England.
167
Bramante Lazzari,
—
First designed and commenced the building of
or Bramante d'Ur-
St. Peter's at Rome ; a small model was
bino, of Castel
executed after the same design for an in-
Durante, near Ur-
sulated church without the walls of Todi ;
bino.
many works in the Vatican, particularly the
library and the Belvedere court, with a mag-
nificent design for alterations to be made in it,
under Julius II. ; the rotondo in the convent
of San Pietro Montorio ; the palaces of S. Gia-
como Scosciacavalli ora de' Conti Giraud,
del Duca de Sora, della Cancellaria, dell Nuovo
dell' Imperiale ; the churches of SS. Euloy
de' Orfani, Lorenzo and Damaso ; the clois-
ters of the monastery della Pace,&c. at Rome;
the Strada Julia in that city ; the ducal palace
at Urbino ; Palazzo Publico at Brescia ; de-
sign for the church dell' Umilta at Pistoja.
168
Ventura Vitoni of
—
Church delF Umilta at Pistoja, after the design
Pistoja.
of Bramante, whose pupil he was.
169
Alcock, J., bishop
16th.
Sepulchral chapel in Ely Cathedral ; episcopal
of Ely, of Eng-
palace at Downham ; supposed to have designed
land.
St. Mary's, or the University Church, Cambridge.
170
Moston, J., of Cam-
Part of palace of Lambeth ; another at Canter-
bridge, of Eng-
bury ; " made a great building at Charing in
land.
Kent ; " almost the whole house of Forde.
He built at Alington Park.
171
Gabriello d'Agnolo
—
Church of S. Giuseppe ; church of Santa Maria
of Naples.
Egiziaca ; palace of Ferdinando Orsini, duke
of Gravina, at Naples.
172
Gian Francesco Nor-
___
Church of S. Severino ; Palazzo Filomarini ; Pa-
mando of Flo-
lazzo Cantalupo at Naples ; several buildings
rence.
in Spain.
173
Pietro Lombardo of
_
Tomb of Dante, the poet, near the church of St.
Venice.
Francis at Ravenna ; church of SS. Paolo,
and Giovanni, and monastery adjoining the
church of Santa Maria Mater Domini; clock-
tower in the square of St. Mark ; German
warehouse on the Rialto ; school della Mise-
ricordia ; cloister of Santa Giustina at Padua.
GLOSSARY, ETC,
907
LIST OF ARCHITECTS.
AFTER CHRIST.
No. in
Gloss.
Name of Architect.
Cen-
tury.
Principal Works.
174
Martino Lombardo
16th.
School or confraternita of San Marco, and, per-
of Venice.
haps, the church of S. Zaccaria at Venice.
175
John Cole of Eng-
—
Builder of Louth Spire, Lincolnshire.
land.
176
Sir Reginald Bray
-
Design of Henry VI I. 's Chapel, Westminster,
of England.
and of other works at St. George's Chapel,
Windsor.
177
John Hylmer of
St. George's Chapel, Windsor.
England.
178
Giuliano di San
__
Cloister of the Carmelites di Santa Maddelena de'
Gallo of Florence.
Pazzi at Florence; cloister for the Fratri
Eremitani di S. Agostino ; la Gran Fabbrica
del Poggio Imperiale, fortress near the Porto
a Prato, and other works, at Florence ; a
magnificent palace at Poggio a Cajano for Lo-
renzo di Medici ; repaired the cupola of the
church della Madonna at Loreto ; restored
the roof and decorations of the ceiling of the
church of Santa Maria Maggiore ; restored
the church dell' Anima ; Palazzo Rovere, near
San Pietro in Vincola at Rome ; Palazzo
Rovere at Savona ; an unfinished palace at
Milan ; fortress and gate of San Marco, of the
Doric order ; many palaces at Pisa ; fortifi-
cations at Ostia.
179
Simone Cronaca, or
Facade of the Palazzo Strozzi at Florence ;
Poliajolo, of Flo-
church of S. Francis at S. Miniato, near Flo-
rence.
rence ; convent of the Padri Serviti ; sacristy
of Santo Spirito, and the council chamber at
Florence.
180
Aristotile Albert! of
A bridge in Hungary ; several churches in
Bologna.
Russia.
181
Leonardo da Vinci,
Aqueduct of the Adda at Milan ; various ma-
near Florence.
chines, plans, and works on architecture.
182
Fra Giocondo of
Many bridges, especially that of Notre Dame at
Verona.
Paris ; the public hall and Ponte della Pietra
at Verona ; fortifications at Treviso ; cleans-
ing of the Lagunes, and a design for the Ponte
Rialto at Venice: after the death of Bra-
mante, he was engaged with Rafaelle and San
Gallo in erecting St. Peter's at Rome.
183
Novello da San Lu-
Palace of Prince Robert Sanseverino, duke of
cano of Naples.
Salerno, at Naples ; and the restoration of the
church of San Domenico Maggiore, which
was built by Lucano.
184
Percy, John, abbot
—
Brick buildings at Leicester Abbey.
of Leicester, of
England.
185
Rafaelle d'Urbino
___
Continued the erection of St. Peter's at Rome,
of Urbino.
after the death of Bramante, his master in
architecture ; engaged on the buildings of
the Farnese Palace ; church of Santa Maria
in Navicella, repaired and altered ; stables of
Agostino, near the Palazzo Farnese ; Palazzo
Caffarelli, now Stoppani ; the gardens of the
Vatican; the fa9ade of the church of San
Lorenzo, and of the Palazzo Uggoccioni, now
Pandolfini, at Florence.
186
Bolton, W., prior of
—
Supposed to have designed Henry VI I. 's
St. Bartholomew's
Chapel, where he was master of the works.
of England.
908
LIST OP ARCHITECTS.
GLOSSARY, ETC.
AFTER CHRIST.
No. in
Gloss.
Name of Architect.
Cen-
tury.
Principal Works.
187
John of Padua of
16th
" Deviser of buildings" to Henry VIII. of
Italy.
England.
188
Gibbes, W., last
Continued the building of Bath Abbey church
pridr of Bath, of
till the dissolution of monasteries.
England.
189
Hector Asheley of
—
Surveyor of buildings, employed in the erection
England.
of Hunsdon House.
190
Andrea Contucci di
___
The beautiful chapel del Sagramento in the
Monte Sansovino
church di Santo Spirito ; palace della Cano-
of Italy.
nica at Loreto ; a cloister for the monks of
St. Agostino, and a little chapel without the
walls of Sanseverino ; some buildings at
Venice, and many in Portugal.
191
Bartolomeo Buono
_
Church of S. Rocco ; some parts of the Campanile
of Bergamo, of
di San Marco, and the Procurazie Vecchie at
Italy.
Venice.
192
Guglielmo Berga-
.
Capella Emiliana of the Camaldulenses at Mu-
masco of Berga-
rano, an island of the Lagunes ; Palazzo di
mo, of Italy.
Calmerlinghi, near the Ponte Rialto at Ve-
nice ; palace at Portagruaro, at Friuli ; gate
di Santo Tommaso at Treviso; gate called
11 Portello at Padua.
193
Maestro Filippo of
—
Restoration of the cathedral of Seville.
Spain.
194
Giovanni di Olol-
__
Cathedral of Huesca in Arragon : he blended
zago of Biscay, of
the modern Greek style with the Gothic, in
Spain.
the manner called Arabo-tedescho.
195
Pietro di Gamiel of
Convent of S. Eugra9ia at Saragossa ; college of
. Spain.
Alcala, in the Graeco- Gothic style of archi-
tecture.
196
Giovanni Alonzo of
—
Sanctuary of Guadaloupe.
Spain.
197
Fra Giovanni d'Es-
__
Grand aqueduct of Segovia, by order of Queen
cobedo of Spain.
Isabella.
198
Giovanni Campero
Church and convent of S. Francis at Fordela-
of Spain.
guna.
199
Antonio San Gallo
.
Churches of the Madonna di Loreto near
of Mugello, near
Trajan's column, of Santa Maria di Monser-
Florence.
rato, of S. Giovanni dei Fiorentini ; Palazzetto
di Conte Palma ; Palazzi di Santo Buono for
himself, now that of the Marchesi Sacchetti ;
Farnese, begun by Paul 1 1 1., when a cardinal;
fortifications of Civita Vecchia, of Civita Cas-
tellana, of Parma, Ancona, and many other
strong places in Italy ; he altered the Mole of
Adrian to its present form of the castle of
S. Angelo ; triumphal arch in the square of
S. Mark at Venice ; a temple to our Lady at
Monte Pulciano ; built the Capella Paolina
del Vaticano, and assisted in the works of
St. Peter's.
2OO
Baldassare Peruzzi
___
Plan and model of the cathedral or duomo at
of Volterra.
Carpi ; two designs for the facade of San
Petronio, and the gate of San Michele in
Bosco at Bologna; fortifications at Sienna;
the little palace built for Agostino Chigi, now
called the Farnesina, in the Lungara ; Palazzo
Massimi, near the church of San Pantaleo ;
Villa di Papa Giulio III.; the cortile of the
palace de' Duchi Altemps ; casino at the Pa-
lazzo Chigi; tomb of Pope Hadrian IV. in I
GLOSSARY, ETC.
909
LIST OP ARCHITECTS.
AFTER CHRIST.
No. iu
Gloss.
Name of Architect.
Cen-
tury.
Principal Works.
the church dell' Aninia ; Palazzo Spinosa, now
the hospital degli Eretici convertiti at Rome ;
assisted in the erection of St. Peter's, and was
buried by the side of Rafaelle, in the Pan-
theon. His style was good.
201
Marco di Pino of
16th
Modernised the church della Trinita di Palazzo,
Sienna.
and built the church and convent of Giesvi
Vecchio at Naples.
202
Andrea Briosco of
Padua.
—
The Loggia and council house in the Piazza degli
Signori at Padua, finished in 1526.
203
Ferdinando Manlio
Church and hospital della Nunziata ; the Strada
of Naples.
di Porta Nolano, and di Monte Oliveto, with
other streets and palaces at Naples ; a bridge
at Capua.
204
Giovanni Merliano
__
Strada di Toledo at Naples ; church of S. Giorgio
of Nola of Italy.
de' Genovesi ; church of S. Giacomo degli
Spagnuoli; plan of the palace del Principe di
San Severo, and the palace of the Duca della
Torre ; the Castel Capuano, altered to a court
of law ; a fountain at the extremity of the
Mole, and some triumphal arches for the
entrance of Charles V., on his return from
Tunis, at Naples.
205
Giovanni Gil de
Plan of the cathedral of Salamanca.
Hontanon of
Spain.
206
Baccio d'Agnolo of
-
The beautiful bell tower or campanile of Santo
Florence.
Spirito ; lantern above the cupola of Santa
Maria del Fiore, great altar and choir of which
was built by his son Giuliano ; palace for
Giovanni Bartolini in the Piazza della San-
tissima Trinita ; Palazzo Salvieto at Rome.
207
Giovanni Maria Fal-
___
Church della Madonna delle Grazie, for the
conetto of Verona.
Dominicans at Padua; palace in the Castel
d'Usopo in the Friuli ; palace for Luigi Cor-
naro, near the Santo ; Doric gate to the
Palazzo Capitano ; a music hall, which was
much admired by Serlio, who denominated it-
" La Rotonda di Padoua ; " gates of SS. Gio-
vanni and Savonarola.
208
Rodrigo Gil de Hon-
Superintended the erection of the cathedral of
209
tanon of Spain.
Pietro de Uria of
_
Salamanca ; built the cathedral of Segovia.
Bridge of Almaraz, over the Tagus.
Spain.
21O
Alonzo de Cobarru-
___
Fa$ade of the Alcazar at Toledo ; convent and
bias of Spain.
church of S. Michael at Valentia; repaired
the church of Toledo, which was erected in
587, during the reign of King Riccaredo.
211
Diego Siloe of To-
__
Cathedral and Alcazar at Granada ; church and
ledo.
convent of S. Jerome in the same city.
212
Girolamo Genga of
__
Palace of the Duke of Urbino, sul Monte dell'
Urbino.
Imperiale ; the court of the palace restored ;
church of San Giovanni Battista at Pesaro;
facade of the cathedral and the bishop's palace
at Mantua; convent de' Zoccolanti at Monte
Baroccio. His son, Bartolomeo, was also an
artist of considerable repute, and there are
several of his works at Mondavio, Pesaro, and
other parts of Italy.
213
Michele San Micheli
__
Cathedral of Monte Fiascone ; church of S. Do-
menico at Orvieto; numerous fortresses in
910
LIST OP ARCHITECTS.
GLOSSARY, ETC.
AFTER CHRIST.
No. in
Gloss.
Name of Architect.
Cen-
tury.
Principal Works.
the Venetian territory, in Corfu, Lombardy,
and the ecclesiastical states, as at Legnani, Orzi
Nuovo, and Castello; palaces di Canossa, dell'
Gran Guardia on the Bra ; Pellegrini de' Verzi ;
the prefecturate and fa£ade of the Palazzo
Bevilaqua at Verona; chapel Guareschi in
the church of S. Bernardino ; design for the
campanile of the Duomo ; churches of Santa
Maria in Organo de' Monaci, di Monte Oli-
veto, di San Giorgio, and della Madonna della
Campagna, in the same city ; gates Nuova, del
Pallio, di S. Zenone, del Palazzo Pretorio,
and del Palazzo Prefettizio, at Verona ; forti-
fications of the same city, the first instance of
the introduction of triangular bastions ; the
first bastion, that of della Madellina, was
erected in 1527.
214
Philibert de Lor me
16th.
Commenced the Tuilleries ; built the chateaux of
of France.
St. Maur, Anet, Meudon, and many others.
215
Galeazzo Alessi of
—
The Escurial in Spain ; he was much employed
Italy.
at Genoa.
216
Sante Lombardo of
,
Palazzo Vendramini ; staircase and facade of the
Venice.
school of S. Rocca ; palaces Trevisani and Gra-
denigo, at Venice.
217
Giacomo Barozzi da
—
The magnificent palace at Caprarola for Cardinal
Vignola of Rome.
Farnese.
218
Giulio Pippi, or
Giulio Romano,
,
Villa Madama ; Palazzo Lante at San Pietro ;
of Rome.
church della Madonna del Orto ; Palazzo Ciccia
porcialla Strada di Banchi ; Palazzo Cenci sulla
Piazza S. Eustachio, near the Palazzo Lante,
and other buildings in Rome ; Palazzo del T.
at Mantua ; palace at Marmiruolo, five miles
from Mantua ; modernising and enlarging the
ducal palaces, the Duomo, and many other
buildings in the same city ; fa9ade of S. Pe-
tronio at Bologna; and some works at Vi-
cenza. His style was agreeable.
219
Michel Angelo di
Library of the Medici., generally called the
Buonaroti of
Laurentian Library, at Florence ; model for the
Florence.
fa9ade of the church of San Lorenzo ; second
sacristy of Lorenzo, commonly called the Ca-
pella dei Depositi ; church San Giovanni,
which he did not finish ; fortifications at Flo-
rence, and at Monte San Miniato ; monument
of Julius II. in the church of San Pietro in
Vincola at Rome ; plan of the Campidoglio ;
palace of the Conservator] ; building in the
centre, and the flight of steps in the Campi-
doglio, or Capitol, at Rome ; continuation of
the Palace Farnese, and several gates at Rome,
particularly the Porta ISomentana or Pia ;
steeple of S. Michaele at Ostia ; the gate to
the vineyard del Patriarca Grimani ; tower of
S. Lorenzo at Ardea ; church of Santa Maria,
in the Certosa, at Rome ; many plans of
palaces, churches, and chapels. He was em-
ployed on St. Peter's, after the death of San
Gallo.
GLOSSARY, ETC.
911
LIST OF ARCHITECTS.
AFTER CHRIST.
No. in
Gloss.
Name of Architect.
Cen-
tury.
Principal Works.
| 220
Mascall or Marshall,
16th.
Clerk of the works to Cardinal Wolsey, at the
1
Eustace, of Eng-
building of Christchurch College, Oxford ; and
land.
chief clerk of accounts for all the buildings of 1
Henry VIII. within twenty miles of London.
221
Damiano Forment,
—
Fa9ade of the church of S. Eugra£ia, at Sara-
of Valentia of
gossa.
Spain.
222
Martino de Gainza
—
The chapel royal at Seville.
of Spain.
223
Alonzo Berruguette,
—
Plan of the former royal palace at Madrid ; gate
of Parades, de
of S. Martino at Toledo ; palace of Alcala in
Naba, of Spain.
that city ; he also assisted at the erection of
the cathedral of Cuen9a.
224
Pietro di Valdevira
—
The beautiful chapel of S. Salvador, at Ubeda ;
of Spain.
palace in the same place ; hospital and chapel
of S. Jago at Baeza.
225
Pietro Ezguerra of
Cathedral of Plasentia ; church of S. Matteo de
Ojebar, of Spain.
Caceres ; church of Malpartida.
226
Ferdinando Riuz of
—
Heightened the great steeple of the cathedral of
Cordova, of Spain.
Seville, called the Torre della Giralda.
227
Machuca of Spain.
—
Royal palace of Grenada.
228
Antonio Fiorentino
—
Church of Santa Catarina a Formello at Naples ;
of Florence,
the cupola of this church is said to have been
the first that was raised of any considerable
magnitude in that city.
229
Jacopo Tatti, sur-
—
Church of S. Marcello begun, and that of S.
named Sansovino,
Giovanni de Fiorentini built ; Loggia, on the
of Florence.
Via Flaminia, just out of the Porto del Popolo,
for Marco Coscia ; Palazzo Gaddi, now del
Nicolini, at Rome; church of St. Francesco
della Vigna, which was finished by Palladio ;
Palazzo Cornari, sul Canal Grande, at San
Maurizio ; mint and other public buildings at
Venice ; church of San Fantino; church of San
Geminiano, &c. His style was of the Ve-
netian school.
230
Theodore Havens of
—
Caius College, Cambridge, a good specimen of
England.
the architecture of the day.
231
Domenico Teocopoli
—
College of the Donna Maria d'Arragona at Ma-
of Greece.
drid ; church and convent of the Dominican
nuns ; also of the Ayuntamiento at Toledo ;
'
church and convent of the Bernardine nuns
at Silos.
232
Garzia d'Emere of
—
Parochial church of Valeria, near Cuen9a,
Spain.
233
Bartolomeo di Bus-
—
Hospital of St. John the Baptist, near Toledo.
tamente of Spain.
234
Giovan Battista di
—
Designs for the Escurial ; he assisted in planning
Toledo of Spain.
the street of Toledo at Naples, the church of
S. Jago, belonging to the Spaniards ; palace at
235
John Thynne of
Posilippoin the same city.
Built Somerset House in 1567.
England.
236
Giovanni d'Herrera,
Continued the Escurial after the death of his
of Movellar, of
master, Giovan Battista ; plan of the church of
Austria.
S. Jago, near Cuen9a ; bridge of Segovia at
Madrid; palace of Aranjuez.
237
Pierre de Lescot
—
Fontaine des Innocens, in the Rue Saint Denys,
of France.
at Paris.
238
Sebastiano Serlio of
—
Palace of Grimani at Venice; employed by
Bologna.
Francis I. of France at Fontainebleau.
912
LIST OF ARCHITECTS.
GLOSSARY, ETC.
AFTER CHRIST.
No. in
Gloss.
Name of Architect.
Cen-
tury.
Principal Works.
239
Bartolomeo Amma-
16th.
Palazzo Pitti ; bridge Santissima Trinita ;
nati of Italy.
Rucellai Palace at Florence ; Jesuit's college
at Rome, and many other works.
240
Nicholas Abate of
—
The old chateau of Meudon, tomb of Francis I.
Modena.
at St. Denys ; decorated the apartments of the
palace of Fontainebleau.
241
Andrea Palladio of
—
Olympic Theatre at Vicenza ; 11 Redentore at
Vicenza, of Italy.
Venice ; and, perhaps, more public and private
buildings than have been erected before or since
by any architect.
241*
Bernardo Buonta-
—
Villa of Marignolle, now Casa Capponi ; the
lenti of Florence.
casino behind San Marco at Florence ; a
palace for the Acciajuoli, now the Corvini ;
the fa9ade of the Strozzi Palace in the Via
Maggiore; the fc^ade of the church della
Santissima Trinita ; and works in many other
parts of Italy.
242
Domenico Fontana
__
Chapel of the Manger in the church of S. Maria
of Milan.
Maggiore ; library of the Vatican, and many
other works.
243
John Shute of Eng-
land.
—
A painter and architect, who flourished during the
reign of Queen Elizabeth, from 1558 to 1608.
244
Robert Adams of
—
Superintendent of royal buildings to Queen Eli-
England.
zabeth.
245
Louis de Foix of
Monastery of the Escurial in Spain ; the new
France.
canal of the Adour ; " Tour de Cordouan," at
the mouth of the Garonne.
246
Jaques Androuet du
Pont Neuf at Paris; hotels de Sully, de Ma-
Cerceau of France.
yenne, and that of the Fermes General ; de-
signed the fine gallery built by Henri IV. at
the Tuilleries.
247
Vincenzo Scamozzi
—
Supposed inventor of the angular Ionic capital ;
of Vicenza.
made some additions to the library of S. Mark,
finished the Olympic Theatre at Vicenza, and
built a theatre at Sabionetta.
248
Jacques de Brosse
Luxembourg at Paris, and other works.
of Paris.
249
Carlo Maderno of
—
Altered Michel Angelo's design for St. Peter's
Lombardy.
at Rome, from a Greek to a Latin cross ; be-
gan the palace of Urban VIII.
250
John Warren of
17th
Architect of St. Mary's Church tower, Cambridge.
England.
251
Sir H. Wotton of
—
Author of " The Elements of Architecture,"
England.
published in London, 1624.
252
Inigo Jones of Eng-
—
Banqueting House ; chapel, Lincoln's Inn ; Sur-
land.
geons' Hall ; arcade, Covent Garden, London ;
and a vast number of other important works.
253
Giovanni Battista
Fortress at Ferrara ; many palaces, theatres, and
Aleotti of Fer-
other public buildings at Mantua, Parma,
rara.
Modena, and Venice.
254
Pierre le Muet of
—
Plan for the grand hotel of Luynes ; hotel Laigle
France.
and Beauvilliers.
255
Francesco Borro-
_
Author of " numerous absurdities " at Rome and
mini of Italy.
Florence, nevertheless much employed.
256
Alessandro Algardi
—
Chiefly employed at Rome.
of Bologna.
257
Giovanni Lorenzo
__
The celebrated piazza, colonnade, and staircase at
Bernini of Na-
St Peter's ; grand fountain of the Piazza Na-
ples.
vona.
258
Fran9ois Mansard
of France.
—
Abbey of Val de Grace ; Chateau des Mai^ons ;
portal of the Minims in the Place Royale.
GLOSSARY, ETC.
913
LIST OP ARCHITECTS.
AFTER CHRIST.
No. in
Gloss.
Name of Architect.
Cen-
tury.
Principal Works.
259
Claude Perrault of
17th.
Facade of the Louvre ; chapel of Sceaux ; chapel
France.
of Notre Dame in the church of the Petits
Peres.
260
Fran9ois Blondel
Bridge over the Charente at Saintes ; gate of
of France.
S. Denis at Paris ; repair and decorations of
the gates of S. Antoine and S. Bernard.
261
Antoine le Pautre
__
Wings of St. Cloud ; church of the nunnery of
of France.
Port Royal ; hotels of Gevres and Beauvais.
262
Jaques le Mercier
Sorbonne, Palais Royal, S. Roch, Val de Grace,
of France.
were erected by him after the designs of
Mansard.
263
Gerard Christinas of
MM
Designed Aldersgate, London ; was an architect
England.
and sculptor.
264
Sir Christopher
St. Paul's ; city of London after the Fire ;
Wren of Eng-
Hampton Court ; Greenwich Hospital, &c.
land.
265
Robert Hooke of
The Old Bethlem Hospital in Moorfields; Ashe's
England.
Alms-houses; fa9ade abutting on the street
of the British Museum. He was associated
with Wren. He gave a plan for rebuilding
London after the Fire.
267
Jules Hardouin
Dome des Invalides ; Gallerie du Palais Royal ;
Mansard of
the Place de Louis le Grand ; that des Vic-
France.
toires, &c. He was the nephew of Francis
Mansard.
268
Rev. H. Aldrich of
Three sides of the quadrangle of Christ's
England.
Church, called Peckwater Square, chapel of
Trinity College, and church of All Saint's, at
Oxford.
269
Fischer von Erlach,
18th
Many churches and palaces.
baron, of Ger-
many.
270
Sir John Vanbrugh
—
Blenheim House; Castle Howard, Yorkshire;
of England.
Eastberry, Dorset ; King's Weston, near Bris-
tol ; St. John's Church, Westminster ; the
Opera House of the time.
270*
Filippo Ivara of
—
Buildings near Turin on the Superga ; church
Sicily.
del Carmine ; an interior staircase to the palace
at Turin ; employed on works in Portugal ;
finished cupola of Sant' Andrea, Mantua ; fa-
9ade of Duomo at Milan ; palace of the Count
Birago di Borghe at Turin, and numberless
other works.
271
Colin Campbell of
Wanstead House, Mereworth. Compiler of the
Scotland.
" Vitruvius Britannicus."
272
Robert de la Cotte
He continued the Dome des Invalides ; finished
of France.
the chapel of Versailles ; and raised the new
buildings at St. Denys.
273
Nicholas Hawks-
—
Designed the church of St. George, Bloomsbury,
moor, pupil to
and St. Anne, Limehouse.
Wren, of Eng-
land.
274
Alexander Jean
—
L'Hotel de Vendome, in the Rue d'Enfer at Paris.
Baptistele Blond
He was employed much in Russia by Peter
of France.
the Great.
275
Galilei, Alessandro,
—
Corsini Chapel, &c., Rome,
of Italy.
276
Galli da Bibiena of
Theatre Verona; theatre at Vienna. Author of
i
Italy.
two books on Architecture
3 N
914
LIST OF ARCHITECTS.
GLOSSARY, ETC.
AFTER CHRIST.
No. in
Gloss.
Name of Architect.
Cen-
tury.
Principal Works.
277
Gabriel, Jaques, of
18th.
Buildings at Bordeaux, Rennes, Paris, &c.
France.
278
James, John, of
—
St. George's, Hanover Square.
England.
279
Leoni Giacomo of
—
Lyme Hall.
Italy.
280
Germain de Boffrand
___
Much employed in Paris and Germany.
of Nantes, of
France.
281
James Gibbs of
—
Radcliffe's Library, Oxford ; the new church in
Scotland.
the Strand; St. Martin's-in-the- Fields ; King's
College, Royal Library, and Senate House,
Cambridge.
282
William Kent of
Temple of Venus at Stowe ; Earl of Leicester's
England.
house at Holkham ; staircase at Lady Isabella
Finch's in Berkeley Square ; and other works.
283
Ripley, Thomas, of
—
Houghton Hall ; Admiralty
England.
284
Edmund Bouchar-
—
Many buildings at Paris.
don of France.
285
Labelye, Charles, of
Switzerland.
—
Westminster Bridge.
286
Sacchetti, Giambat-
—
Royal Palace, Madrid.
tista, of Turin.
287
Burroughs, Sir
—
Senate House, Cambridge.
James, of Eng-
land.
288
Jean Nicholas Ser-
Part of the church of S. Sulpice at Paris;
vandoni of France.
many theatres and decorations for theatres at
different places.
289
Ware, Isaac, of Eng-
—
Foot's Cray, &c. Edited a version of Palladio.
land.
290
Dance, George, of
—
Mansion House, London ; and other works.
England.
291
Vanvitelli, Luigi, of
—
Palace at Caserta, &c.
Italy.
292
Jacques, Fran$ois
—
Royal abbey of St. Louis ; a street and square
Blondel, of
opposite to the cathedral at Rouen ; many
Rouen, of France.
other works both there and at Strasburg.
293
Earl of Burlington
—
Chiswick House ; Burlington House, Picca-
of England.
dilly ; and other works.
294
John Brettingham
—
Holkham Hall in Norfolk, finished by, in 1 764.
of England.
295
Fuga, Ferdinando,
—
Palazzo Corsini, &c., Rome, Naples, &c.
of Italy.
296
Simonetti, M. Aug.,
—
The Museo Pio Clementine in the Vatican.
of Italy.
297
Gabriel, J. A., of
—
Ecole Militaire and Garde Meuble, Paris.
France.
298
John Rodolphe
—
Director of the bridges and roads of France,
Perronet of France.
bridge of Neuilly, and many others.
299
Jacques Germain
—
Hospital at Lyons ; exchange, concert-room,
Soufflot of France.
and theatre in the same city ; portal, nave,
and towers of the church of St. Genevieve.
300
Sir William Cham-
—
Somerset House, and many other works.
bers of England.
301
Robert Adam of
—
Architect to Geo. III. ; author of a work on the
England.
ruins of Spalatro ; his principal works are the
Register Office at Edinburgh ; infirmary at
Glasgow ; the Edinburgh University ; Luton
House ; Adelphi Terrace.
GLOSSARY, ETC.
915
LIST OF ARCHITECTS.
AFTER CHRIST.
No. in
Gloss.
Name of Architect.
Cen-
tury.
Principal Works.
302
Sir Robert Taylor
18th.
Parts of Bank of England now taken down, and
303
of England.
Paine, James, of
a great number of buildings in this country.
Mansion House, Doncaster ; Wardour Castle ;
England.
Worksop. Designs published.
304
Louis of France.
Theatre at Bordeaux, &c.
305
Antoine, Jacques
—
The Mint, Paris ; ditto at Berne, &c.
Denis, of France.
306
Ledoux, Claude Ni-
__
Barrieres at Paris ; Hotel Thelusson, &c. ; and
cholas, of France.
author of a splendid work on architecture.
307
Holland, Henry, of
—
Carlton House ; old Drury Lane, &c.
England.
308
Bonomi, Joseph, of
—
Roseneath ; alterations at Riddlestone, &c.
Italy.
309
Legrand, Jacq.
Theatre Feydeau, Paris ; many architectural
Guill., of France.
works, &c.
310
Langhans, C. G., of
—
Brandenburg Gate, &c, Berlin.
Germany.
311
Mylne, Robert, of
—
Blackfriars Bridge ; Inverary Castle, &c.
Scotland.
312
Gondouin, Jaques,
—
Ecole de Medecine, Paris.
of France.
313
Fischer, Karl, of
—
Theatre, &c., Munich.
Germany.
314
Dance, George, of
—
Newgate ; St. Luke's Hospital.
England.
315
Gandon, James, of
Custom House, Exchange, Four Courts, &c.,
Ireland.
Dublin.
316
Soane, Sir John, of
—
Bank of England ; Board of Trade ; State Paper
England.
Office.
317
Percier, Charles, of
Architect of the Tuilleries ; restorations, &c. at
France.
Louvre and Tuilleries ; Chapelle Expiatoire.
Author of Recueil de Decorations.
ARCHITECTURE. The art of building according to certain proportions and rules deter-
mined and regulated by nature and taste. As the art, in its various parts, is the subject
of this work, we do not here consider further definition necessary. For origin and
progress, see Book I. Chap. I. Sect. 2. ; different species at early period, Book I. Chap. I.
Sect. 3.
ARCHITECTURE, ARABIAN or SARACENIC, Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 10.
BABYLONIAN, Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 3.
> BRITISH, EARLY PERIOD, Book I. Chap, III. Sect. 1.
BYZANTINE and ROMANESQUE, Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 14.
CELTIC and DRUIDICAL. See DRUIDICAL.
CYCLOPEAN. See PELASGIC.
CHINESE, Book f. Chap. II. Sect. 8.
DRUIDICAL and CELTIC, Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 1.
EGYPTIAN, Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 7.
EARLY ENGLISH, Book I. Chap. III. Sect. 3.
ELIZABETHAN, Book I. Chap. III. Sect. 6.
ETRUSCAN, Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 12.
FRENCH, Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 17.
FLORID ENGLISH or TUDOR, Book I. Chap. III. Sect. 5.
OF GEORGE I., Book I. Chap. III. Sect. 8.
OF GEORGE II., Book I. Chap. III. Sect. 9.
OF GEORGE III., Book I. Chap. III. Sect. 10.
GERMAN, Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 18.
GRECIAN, Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 11.
INDIAN, Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 6.
ITALIAN, Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 16.
JAMES I. to ANNE, Book I. Chap. III.. Sect. 7.
3 N 2
916 GLOSSARY, ETC.
ARCHITECTURE, JEWISH, Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 5.
MEXICAN, Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 9.
NORMAN, Book I. Chap III. Sect. 2.
. ORNAMENTED ENGLISH, Book I. Chap. III. Sect. 4.
PELASGIC and CYCLOPEAN, Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 2.
PERSEPOLITAN, PERSIAN, and ASSYRIAN, Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 4.
POINTED, Book I. Chap. II. Sec. 15.
ROMAN, Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 13.
RUSSIAN, Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 20.
SPAIN and PORTUGAL, Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 19.
ARCHITECTURE, WORKS ON. It would too far extend this work to print a list of these,
but we here insert
A Catalogue of the principal and most useful Works to the Student of Architecture,
arranged under the several Classes of
1. GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE.
2. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
3. MISCELLANEOUS, ON ANCIENT ARCHITEC-
TURE.
4. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.
5. MODERN FOREIGN ARCHITECTURE.
6. MODERN ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE.
7. RURAL ARCHITECTURE.
8. THEATRES.
9. BRIDGES.
10. ELEMENTARY AND PRACTICAL WORKS.
11. ORNAMENTS.
I. GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE.
Aberdeen's, Earl of, Inquiry into the Principles of Beauty in Grecian Architecture.
8vo. London, 1 822.
Aikin's, E., Essay on the Doric Order. Imperial folio. London, 1810.
Antiquities (the unedited) of Attica, comprising the Architectural Remains of Eleusis,
Rhamnus, Sunium, and Thoricus. By the Society of Dilettanti, and edited by
Wilkins, Gandy Deering, and Bedford. Imperial folio, 79 plates. London, 1817.
Antiquities of Ionia, by Chandler, Revett, and Pars. Imperial folio, plates, 2vols.,
London, 1817-23.
Chambers's Civil Architecture. Gwilt's Edition. Introductory Essay on Grecian Archi-
tecture. Imp. 8vo. London, 1825.
Chandler's, R., Travels in Asia Minor and Greece. 2 vols. 4to. London, 1817.
Choiseul, Gouffier. Voyage Pittoresque de la Grece. 2 vols. folio. Paris, 1782 — 1809.
Cockerell's, C. R., Temple of Jupiter Olympius at Agrigentum. London, 1825.
Delagardette. Les Ruines de Paestum, ou Posidonia. Royal folio. Paris, 1799.
Donaldson. Collection of the most approved Examples of Doorways from ancient Build-
ings in Greece and Italy. 2 vols. 4to. London, 1833.
Gartner, F. Monuments of Greece and Sicily. Folio. Munich, 1 81 9.
Harris and Angell. Temple of Selinus. Large 4to. plates. London, 1826.
Hittorff. Architecture Antique de la Sicile. Paris, 1825-30-37.
Le Roy. Les Ruines, les plus beaux Monuments de la Grece, considerees du Cote de
PHistoire, et du Cote de 1' Architecture. Imp. folio, plates by Le Bas. Paris, 1758.
Not a correct work.
Major, T. Ruines de Passtum. 24 plates, large folio. 1768.
Quincy's, M. Quatremere de, Jupiter Olympien. Large folio, plates, some coloured.
Paris, 1815.
Restitution des Deux Frontons du Temple de Minerve a Athenes. 4to. 3 plates,
Paris, 1825.
Stanhope, J. S. Olympia ; or Topography of the ancient State of the Plain of Olympia,
and of the Ruins of the City of Elis. Imp. folio. London, 1 824.
Stuart's, James, Antiquities of Athens. 4 vols. large folio. 1762, &c.
Stuart, James, F.R. S. F. S. A., and Nicholas Revett's Antiquities of Athens, a second
edition, with a very considerable augmentation of notes of subjects further elucidated
and brought to light by Travellers since the times of Stuart and Revett, edited by
W. Kinnaird, architect, with an additional and entirely new volume (as supplement)
of Architecture and Antiquities in Greece, Sicily, &c., the result of recent Travels
and Investigations, by C. R. Cockerell, W. Kinnaird, T. L. Donaldson, W. Jenkins,
and others, architects. 4 vols. royal folio, about 200 plates. 1825 — 1830.
The plates in the three first volumes of this edition are from the coppers of the
French edition.
Visconti, Chevalier. Ouvrages de Sculpture du Parthenon. 8vo. Paris, 1818.
Wilkins, W. Antiquities of Magna Graecia. Imp. folio. Cambridge, 1807. An ill-
drawn work.
-• Topography and Buildings of Athens. Royal 8vo., plates. 1816.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 917
II. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
Adams, Robert. Ruins of the Palace of the Emperor Diocletian at Spalatro in Dalma-
tia. Folio, 61 plates. London, 1764.
Allason, T. Picturesque Views of the Antiquities of Pola. Folio, 14 plates. London,
1817.
Bartoli, P. S. Gli Antichi Sepolchri ovvero Mausolei Romani ed Etruschi. Folio,
1 1 0 plates, Roma, 1 727.
Coionna Trajana, a P. Bellori. 128 plates.
Bellonii, J. P. Veteres Arcus Augustorum Triumphis insignes ex Reliquiis quse Romaj
adhuc supersunt per J. J. de Rubeis. Folio. Roma, 1 690.
Bianchi di Lugano, P. Osservazioni sulF Arena, e sul Podio dell' Anfiteatro Flavio.
Folio. Roma, 1812.
Bianconi, G. L. Descrizione dei Circhi. Folio, 20 plates. Roma, 1789.
Cameron's Baths of the Romans explained and illustrated. Folio, 75 plates. London,
1772.
Caristie. Plan et Coupe d'une partie du Forum Remain et des Monumens sur la Voie
Sacree. Atlas folio. Paris, 1821.
Castell's Villas of the Ancients illustrated. Large folio. 1728.
Ciampini, J. Rom. Vetera Monumenta. Romae, 1747.
Cipriani, G. B. Monument! di Fabbriche Antiche. 4to. Roma, 1796.
Desgodetz, A. Edifices de Rome, dessinees et mesures tres exactement. Folio, up-
wards of 300 plates. Paris, 1682.
Gell, Sir W., and J. P. Gandy. Pompeiana ; the Topography, Edifices, and Ornaments
of Pompeii. 2 vols. imperial 8vo. London, 1824.
Grangent, M. M., C. Durand, et S. Durant. Description des Monumens Antiques du
Midi de la France. Folio, plates. Paris, 1819.
Haudebourt, L. P. Le Laurentin ; Maison de Campagne de Pline le Jeune. Large
8vo. plates. Paris, 1838.
Labacco, Ant. Appartenente all' Architettura nel qual si figurano alcune notabili Anti-
quita di Roma. Plates, folio. Roma.
Maffei, Scipio. History of Ancient Amphitheatres. Translated by Gordon. 8 vo. London,
1730.
Mazois. Ruines de Pompeii. Paris, 1830.
Nibby, Ant. . Del Foro Romano, della Via Sacra, dell' Anfiteatro Flavio, e di Luoghi
adjacenti. 8vo. Roma, 1819.
Palladio, A. I Quattro Libri d' Architettura ; whereof the last book is of ancient Roman
Architecture. Several editions published at Venice. Figures on wood blocks.
II Tempio di Minerva in Assisi confrontato colle Tavole di Giov. Antolini.
Folio. Milano, 1 803.
Les Terines des Remains dessinees. Par O. B. Scamozzi, d'apres 1' Exemplaire
du Lord Burlington. Folio. Vicenza, 1785.
Piranesi, Giov. Bapt. The works of (the son) subsequent to the death of John
Baptist Piranesi. 29 vols. imperial folio, and double elephant folio. An abbreviated
list of them is subjoined : —
Vol. 1. Ruins of ancient Edifices of Rome, with the Explanation, Aqueducts,
Baths, the Forum, &c. &c.
Vol. 2. Funeral Monuments, Cippi, Vases, &c. &c.
Vol. 3. Ancient Bas-reliefs, Stuccoes, Mosaics, Inscriptions, &c. &c.
Vol. 4. The Bridges of Rome, the Ruins of the Theatres, Porticoes, &c. &c.
Vol. 5. The Monuments of the Scipios.
Vol. 6. Ancient Temples, the Temples of Vesta, of Honour and Virtue, Statue of
the Goddess Vesta, Altar to Bacchus, the Pantheon of Rome, &c. &c.
Vol. 7. The Magnificence of the ancient Roman Architecture, Pedestals of the
Arches of Titus and Septimius Severus, Portico of the Capitol, &c. &c.
Vol. 8. Grecian, Etruscan, and Roman Architecture, Arches of Triumph, Bridges,
Temples, Amphitheatres, Prisons, &c.
Vol. 9. Fetes and Triumphs, from the Foundation of Rome to Tiberius, Temple of
Castor and Hercules, and other antique Monuments of the ancient City of Cora,
&c. &c.
Vol. 10. The ancient Campo Marzio, Ruins of the Theatre of Pompeii, Portico of
Octavius, Reservoir of the Virgin Water, Mausoleum of Augustus, Palace of
Aurelius, the Pantheon, the Cave of the Archives of the Romans, Baths and
Tombs of Adrian, Apotheosis of Antonine the Pious, Arch of Marcus Aurelius,
Baths of Sallust, Plan of the Roman Senate House, &c. &c.
Vol. 11. Antiquities of Albano, Temple of Jupiter, sepulchral Attributes to the
Horatii, Amphitheatre of Domitian, ancient Baths, &c.
3 N 3
918 GLOSSARY, ETC.
Vol. 12. Ancient Candelabras and Vases, Urns, Lamps, &c. &c.
Vol. 13. Ancient Candelabras and Vases, Urns, Lamps, &c. &c.
Vol. 14. The Trajan and Antonine Columns.
Vol. 15. Ruins of Paestum, Temple of Neptune, Temple of Juno, &c. &c.
Vol. 1 6. The principal modern Edifices of Rome, Monuments, Palaces, Fountains,
Aqueducts, Bridges, Temples, Porticoes, Amphitheatres, Baths, &c. &c.
Vol. 17. The Principal Modern Edifices of Rome, Monuments, Palaces, Fountains,
Aqueducts, Bridges, Temples, Porticoes, Amphitheatres, Baths, &c. &c.
Vol. 18. The principal ancient Statues and Busts of the Royal Museum of France,
the Vatican, of the Capitol, Villa Borghese, Villa Ludovici, Farnesian Palace,
the Gallery of Florence, &c. &c.
Vol. 1 9. Theatre of Herculaneum.
Vol. 20. Egyptian, Grecian, Etruscan, and Roman Chimney Pieces, Ornaments,
&c. &c.
Vol. 21. Forty-four Plates after Guercino, by Piranesi, Bartolozzi, &c.
Vol. 22. Italian School of Painting.
Vol. 23. Twenty-four grand Subjects from Rafaelle, Volterra, Pompeii, Hercula-
neum, &c. &c.
Vol. 24. Twelve Paintings of Rafaelle, in the Vatican, &c. &c.
Vol. 25. Fourteen Paintings of Rafaelle, in the Vatican, &c. &c.
Vol. 26. Thirteen Paintings of Vasari, after the Designs of Michael Angelo, &c. &c.
Vol. 27. The Destruction of Pompeii, its Tombs, Utensils, Ornaments, &c. &c.
Vol. 28. Antiquities of Pompeii, its Houses, Tombs, Vases, &c.
Vol. 29. Antiquities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, &c. &c.
Ponce. Description des Bains de Titus. Folio, plates. Paris, 1786.
Taylor, G. L., and Edward Cresy. Architectural Antiquities of Rome. 2 vols. folio.
London, 1820—1822.
Valadier, Gius. Raccolta delle piu insigni Fabbriche di Roma Antica e sui Adjacenze,
illustrata con Osservazioni Antiq. da F. A. Visconti, ed incise da V. Feoli. Plates.
Rome, 1810—26.
Vandoyer, A. L. T. Description du Theatre de Marcellus a Rome. 4to. Paris, 1812.
Vasi, Giuseppe. Magnificenze di Roma Antica e Moderna. 3 vols. Roma, 1 747.
Wood's Ruins of Balbec and Palmyra. 2 vols. folio. London, 1753 — 1757.
III. MISCELLANEOUS.
Agincourt, D', Seroux. Histoire de 1'Art par les Monumens. 6 vols. folio. Paris, 1823.
Arundale's Illustrations of the Buildings and Antiquities of Jerusalem, &c., with a Tour
in Syria and Egypt. Plates, 4to. London, 1838.
Belgrado. Architettura Egiziana ; Dissertazione d' un Correspondente dell' Academia
delle Scienze de Parigi. 4to. Parma, 1786.
Cassas. Voyage Pittoresque de la Syrie, de la Phenicie, de la Palestine, et de la Basse
Egypte. 2 vols. folio.
Coote. Architecture Arabe ; ou Monument de Caire. Paris, 1824, &c.
Coussin. Genie de 1' Architecture. 4to. 60 plates. Paris.
Daniel's Oriental Scenery. 9 vols. folio. London, 1813.
David. Antiquites Etrusques, Grecques, et Romaines. 5 vols. avec explications par
d'Hancarville. Paris, 1787.
Denon's Egypt. Reprinted in London.
Durand, J. N. L. Recueil et Parallele des Edifices de tout Genres, anciens et
modernes. Elephant folio, 90 plates, and 8vo. : text by Legrand. Paris, 1801 — 1809.
Gau, F. C. Antiquites de la Nubie ; ou Monumens inedits des Bords du Nil, situes
entre la Premiere et la Seconde Cataracte. Folio. Paris, 1 824-5.
Girault de Prangey. Monumens Arabes et Moresques de Cordoue, Seville, et Grenada.
Large folio. Paris, 1840.
Jones, Owen, and J. Goury's Plans, Elevations, and Sections of the Alhambra. Folio.
London, 1838—1840.
Langles, L. Monumens, anciens and modernes, de 1'Hindostan. 2 vols. folio.
Paris, 1818.
Montfau9on, Bernard de. L'Antiquite" expliquee et represented en Figures. 5 vols.
folio; Supplement, 5 vols. folio, 964 plates. Paris, 1729 — 1733
Murphy's, J., Plans, Elevations, Sections, and Views of the Batalha. Large folio,
plates. London, 1836.
Arabian Antiquities of Spain. Atlas folio, 97 plates. London, 1828.
Quincey, Quatremere de. L'Architecture Egyptienne considered. 18 plates, 4to.
Paris, 1803.
Rich's Ruins of Babylon. 8vo. London.
Tournefort's Voyage into the Levant. 2 vols. 4to. 1718,
GLOSSARY, ETC. 919
Winckelman. Remarques sur 1' Architecture des Anciens. 8vo. Paris, 1783.
Histoire de 1'Art chez les Anciens. 3 vols. 4to. Paris, 1790.
Monument! Antichi inediti. 2 vols. folio, 184 plates. Napoli, 1820.
IV. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.
Archaeologia. A work consisting of many vols. published by the Society of Antiquaries.
It contains several essays on Gothic and English architecture, and subjects connected
with it, as well as on ancient and modern architecture ; but, as the society are not
responsible for the lucubrations which appear in it, and the papers published are
therefore merely to be considered as the opinions of their writers, there are extremely
few on which a student could rely with safety ; and we have therefore mentioned it as
a work in which it is possible some points may be found valuable for his perusal ; but
this opinion is confined exclusively to the art in which we have presumed that we
ourselves possess some small information ; many of the historical and other articles
in it being of great value.
Bardwell, W. Temples, ancient and modern ; or, Notes on Church Architecture.
Large 8vo. London, 1837.
Bentham, J. History and Antiquities of the Church at Ely. 4to. 1771.
Essay on Gothic Architecture. 8vo.
Blore. Monumental Remains of noble and eminent Persons. Imp. 8vo. London, 1826.
Britton. Cathedrals, comprising Canterbury, York, Salisbury, Norwich, Oxford, Win-
chester, Litchfield, Hereford, Wells, Exeter, Worcester, Peterborough, Gloucester,
and Bristol. 4to. 1835.
As respects the graphic part of this work, it is one of great value to the student.
Britton, J. Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain. 4 vcls. 4to. London, various
dates.
Chronological and Historical Illustrations of the ancient Ecclesiastical Archi-
tecture of Great Britain. 4to. London, 1835.
History and Antiquities of Bath Abbey. Royal 8vo.
History and Antiquities of Radclyffe Church. 4to.
Britton and Brayley. History of the ancient Palace and late Houses of Parliament at
Westminster. 8vo. London, 1836.
Boisseree, Sulpice. Vues, Plans, Coupes, et Details de la Cathedrale de Cologne, &c.
Very large folio. Stutgard, 1827.
Carter, J. Ancient Architecture of England. 2 vols. folio, 1837.
Caveler, W. Select Specimens of Gothic Architecture. 4to. 80 plates. London, 1 839.
Cotman, J. S. Architectural Antiquities of Norfolk. Folio, 60 plates.
Architectural Antiquities of Normandy. 2 vols. folio, 1820-1.
Cresy, Edw., and G. L. Taylor. The Architecture of the Middle Ages at Pisa, from
Drawings and Measurements in 1817, accompanied by descriptive Accounts of their
History and Construction. Imp. 4to. London, 1828-9.
Dallaway, Rev. James. Observations on English Architecture. Roy. 8vo. Lond. 1806.
Notices of ancient Church Architecture in the Fifteenth Century. 4to. 1824.
Discourses on Architecture. 8vo. London, 1833.
Ducarel. Anglo-Norman Antiquities. Plates, folio.
Dugdale, W. History of St. Paul's Cathedral in London. Folio, 1688.
Gage, J. History and Antiquities of Hengreave in Suffolk. Royal 4to. plates, 1822.
Gough. Sepulchral Monuments in Great Britain. Folio, 5 vols. London, 1796.
Grose, Captain. Essay on Gothic Architecture. 8vo.
Habershon, M. Ancient half-timbered Houses of England. 4to. London, 1836.
Halfpenny, J. Gothic Ornaments in the Cathedral of York. 4to. 1 05 plates, 1 795.
Fragmenta Vetusta ; or, Remains of ancient Buildings in York. Royal 4to.
34 plates, 1807.
Hall, Sir J. Essay on the Origin, History, and Principles of Gothic Architecture.
4to. 59 plates, 1813.
Hawkins, J. S. Origin and Establishment of Gothic Architecture. Plates, large 8vo.
1813.
King's Monumenta Antiqua. 4 vols. folio, plates. London, 1799.
Langlois, E. H. Description Historique des Maisons de Rouen. 8vo. with plates.
Paris, 1821.
Lusson, A. L. Specimen d' Architecture Gothique ; ou Plans, Coupes, Elevations de la
Chapelle du Chateau de Neuville. Folio, 17 plates. Paris, 1839.
Mackenzie and Pugin. Specimens of Gothic Architecture, consisting of Doors, Win-
dows, Buttresses, Pinnacles, &c. 4to. 62 plates.
Milan. Nuovo Descrizione del Duomo di Milano, &c. 8vo. plates. Milano, 1820.
Miller, G. Description of the Cathedral Church of Ely, with some Account of the
Conventual Buildings. 1808.
3 N 4
920 GLOSSARY, ETC.
Milner, J. Treatise on the Ecclesiastical Architecture of England. Royal 8vo. plates
London, 1835.
Moller, G. Monumens de 1' Architecture Allemande. Folio, Darmstadt, 1836.
Pugin, A. Specimens of Gothic Architecture, selected from various ancient Edifices
in England. 4to. plates, 2 vols. London, 1823.
• Examples of Gothic Architecture. 3 vols. 4to. 224 plates. London, 1836.
Examples of Gothic Ornaments. 4to. 90 plates, 1839.
• Examples of Gothic Gables. 4to. 30 plates, 1839.
. Specimens of Anglo-Norman Architecture. 4to. 80 plates, 1826.
Shaw, H. Series of Details of Gothic Architecture, selected from various Cathedrals,
Churches, &c. • Folio. London, 1823.
Smith, J. Specimens of ancient Carpentry. 4to. 36 plates.
Vetusta Monumenta: published by the Society of Antiquaries of London. 6 vols.
large folio.
Warton, Rev. T. Essay on Gothic Architecture. 8vo.
"Whittington, G. D. Ecclesiastical Antiquities of France. Large 8vo. London, 1811.
Wild. Cathedral Church of Lincoln. 4to. London, 1 838.
Willement, T. Regal Heraldry. London, 1821.
Winkles, B. English Cathedrals. 2 vols. London, 1837.
Woolnoth. Ancient Castles. 2 vols. large 8vo. London, 1825.
V. MODERN FOREIGN ARCHITECTURE.
Blondel, J. B. Plan, Coupe, Elevation, et Details, du nouveau Marche St. Germain.
Folio. Paris, 1816.
Bonanni, P. P. Templi Vatican! Historia. Folio. Romas, 1696.
Brogniart, A. T. Plans du Palais de la Bourse de Paris et du Cimetiere Mont Louis,
Folio. Paris, 1814.
Callet et Lesueur Architecture Italienne; ou Palais, Maisons, et autres Edifices d' Italic.
Cicognara, L. Le Fabbriche piii cospicue di Venezia, misurate, illustrate, ed intagliate.
2 vols. large folio. Venez. 1815.
Clochar, P. Palais, Maisons, et Vues d' Italic. Folio, 102 plates. Paris, 1809.
Costa, G. Delizie del Fiume Brenta, espresse ne' Palazzi e Casini situate sopra le sue
Sponde. Folio. Venezia, 1750.
Dumont. OZuvres d' Architecture j contenant les Details de St. Pierre de Rome. Folio.
Paris.
Duval. Fontaines de Paris. Folio. Paris.
Fontana, C. Templum Vaticanum, et ipsius Origo. Folio. Romae, 1694.
Gauthier, M. P. Les plus beaux Edifices de la Ville de Genes et de ses Environs.
Folio. Paris, 1824 — 1830.
Grandjean de Montigny et A. Farnin. Architecture Toscane. Folio, 73 plates. Paris,
1837.
Gwilt, Joseph. Notices of the Buildings of Architects of Italy. 8vo. London, 1818.
Hittorff, J., et L. Zanth. Architecture Moderne de la Sicile. Imperial folio. Paris,
1825—1839.
Klenze, L. Von Sammlung Architectonischer Entwurfe. Folio. Munchen.
Krafft, J. C. Recueil d' Architecture civile, contenant les Plans, Coupes, et Ele*-
vations des Chateaux, Maisons de Campagne, et Habitations rurales. Folio. Paris,
1809.
Legrand, J. G., et C. F. Landon. Description de Paris et de ses Edifices. 2 vols.
Paris, 1806.
.^Letarouilly, P. Edifices de Rome Moderne. Folio. Paris, 1829.
Moisy, M. Fontaines de Paris, anciennes et nouvelles, par Duval. Folio, 59 plates.
Paris, 1812.
Palladio, A. Les Batimens et Desseins recueilles et illustres, par Ottavio Bertotti Sca-
mozzi. In French and Italian. 4 vols. folio. Vicenza, 1787.
— — — L'Architectura di. Venezia, 1642.
Patte, P. Etudes d' Architecture. 4to. plates. Paris, 1755.
Pieraccini, F. La Piazza del Granduca di Firenze co' suoi Monumenti. Folio, plates.
Firenze, 1830.
Percier et Fontaine. Choix des plus celebres Maisons de Plaisance de Rome et de ses
Environs. Folio. Paris, 1824.
Rossi, G. J. Raccolta di Fontane nel alma Citta di Roma, Tivoli, e Frascati. 4to.
Rome.
Sanmichele, M. Porte di Citta e Fortezze, Depositi sepolchrali, ed altre principal! Fab-
briche pubbliche ed private, da F. Albertolli. Imperial folio. Milan, 1815.
Schinkel. Sammlung Architectonischer Entwurfe. Large oblong folio. Berlin,
1819—1838.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 921
Suys, F. T., et L. P. Handebourt. Palais Massimi a Rome; Plans, Coupes, Elevations,
Profiles, Voutes, Plafonds, &e. 43 plates. Paris.
VI. MODERN ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE.
Adam, W. Vitruvius Scoticus ; a Collection of public and private Buildings in
Scotland. Folio. 160 plates. Edinburgh.
Brettingham, M. Plans, Elevations, and Sections of Holkham, in Norfolk. Folio,
1763.
Campbell's, C., Vitruvius Britannicus. 5 vois. folio; the two last being a Continuation
by Woolfe and Gandon. 1 73 1—1 771 .
Chambers's, Sir W., Plans, Elevations, Sections, &c. of the Gardens and Buildings at
Kew. London, 1757.
Gibbs's, J., Book of Architecture, containing St. Martin's Church. Large folio. Lon-
don, 1728.
Designs for the Radclyffe Library. Folio. London, 1 747.
Goldicutt, J. Heriot's Hospital, Edinburgh, the Design of Inigo Jones. Folio, 8
plates. London, 1 828.
Jones, Inigo. Designs for public and private Buildings, by Kent. Folio. London,
1770.
Lewis, James. Original Designs in Architecture, consisting of Plans, Elevations, and
Sections of various public and private Buildings in England and Ireland. 2 vols.
folio, 61 plates, 1780—1797.
Mitchell, R. Plans and Views in Perspective, with Descriptions of Buildings erected in
England and Scotland. Folio, 18 plates, 1801.
Paine, J. Plans, Elevations, &c. of Noblemen's and Gentlemen's Houses in various
Counties. Folio, 175 plates. London, 1783.
Richardson, G. New Vitruvius Britannicus. 2 vols. folio. London, 1802.
VII. RURAL ARCHITECTURE.
Architecture Rurale, Theorique et Pratique, a 1' Usage des Proprietaires et des Ouvriers
de la Campagne. 8vo. 1 1 plates. Toulouse, 1 820.
Aikin, E. Designs for Villas and other Rural Buildings. 4to. London, 1 835.
Gandy, J. Rural Architect, consisting of various Designs for Country Buildings. 4 to.
42 plates. London, 1 805.
... Designs for Cottages, Cottage Farms, and other Buildings ; including Entrance
Gates and Lodges. 4to. 43 plates. London, 1805.
Goodwin, F. Rural Architecture. 2 vols. 4to. London, 1835.
Designs of Peasants' Cottages, Gate Lodges, small Dairy Farm Houses, &c. 4to.
London, 1833.
• Supplement to Cottage Architecture. London, 1 835.
Krafft, J. C. Plans des plus beaux Jardins Pittoresques de France, d'Angleterre, et
d'Allemagne, et des Edifices, Monumens, Fabriques, &c., qui concourent a leur Em-
bellissement, dans tous les Genres d' Architecture. 2 vols. oblong 4to. Paris, 1 809.
Loudon, J. C. Encyclopaedia of Cottage, Farm, and Villa Architecture. 8vo. London,
1839.
Malton, J. Essay on British Cottage Architecture. Large 4to. London, 1804.
Morel- Vinde, le Vicomte de. Essai sur les Constructions Rurales Economiques ; con-
tenant leurs Plans, Coupes, Elevations, Details, et Devis. Folio. Paris, 1824.
Normand, C. Recueil varie de Plans et de Fa£ades Motifs pour des Maisons de Ville
et de Campagne. Folio, 53 plates. Paris, 1815.
Papworth, J. B. Rural Residences ; a Series of Designs for Cottages, decorated Cot-
tages, small Villas, &c. London, 1832.
Robinson, P. F. Rural Architecture ; or a Series of Designs for Ornamental Cottages.
4to. 96 plates. London, 1823.
. Designs for Ornamental Villas. 4to. London, 1 837.
Designs for Village Architecture. 4to. London, 1837.
• Designs for Farm Buildings. 4to. London, 1837.
Soane, J. Sketches in Architecture; containing Plans and Elevations of Cottages,
Villas, and other useful Buildings. Folio, 43 plates. London, 1798.
VIII. THEATRES.
Arnaldi, Conte Enea. Idea di un Teatro nelle principali sue Parti simile a' Teatri
Antichi all' Uso moderno accomodato. 4to. Vicenza, 1 762.
Beccega, T. C. Sull' Architettura Greco- Romana applicata alia Costruzione del Teatro
moderno Italiano e sulle Macchine Teatrali. Folio. Vepezia, 1817.
Bonnet, A., et J. A. Kaufmann. Architectonographie des Theatres de Paris, ou Parallele
922 GLOSSARY, ETC.
Historique et Critique de ces Edifices, considered sous le Rapport de PArchitecture et
de la Decoration. 2 vols. 8vo. 4 atlas of plates. Paris, 1837.
Borgnis, J. A. Des Machines Imitatives et des Machines Teatrales. 4to. 27 plates.
Paris, 1820.
Boullet. Essai sur 1'Art de construire les Theatres, leurs Machines, et leurs Mouve-
mens. 4to. plates. Paris, 1801.
Descrizione del Nuovo Sipario dell' Imperiale Regio Teatro della Scala in Milano. Small
folio. Milano, 1821.
Dumont. Parallele de Plans des Salles de Spectacle d'ltahe et de France, avec des
Details de Machines Teatrales. Imperial folio, 61 plates. Paris, 1774.
Fontanesi, C. F. Decorations for Theatres ; or Designs for Scene Painters. Oblong
folio, 24 plates, 1813.
Galliari. Decorations de Theatre. Folio, 24 plates. Milan.
Giorgi Felice. Descrizione Istorica del Teatro di Tor di Nino. 4to. 9 plates. Rome,
1795.
Landriani, P. Osservazioni sui Defetti prodotti nei Teatri dalla cattiva Costruzione
del Palio Scenico, e su alcune Inavvertenze nel dipingere le Decorazioni. 4to.
9 plates. Milano, 1815.
Louis, M. Salle de Spectacle de Bourdeaux. Atlas folio, 22 plates, containing plans
of several other theatres. Paris, 1782.
Morelli, Cos. Pianta e Spaccato del nuovo Teatro d'Imola. Folio, 19 plates. Roma,
1780.
Patte, P. Essai sur 1' Architecture Theatrale. 8vo. Paris, 1782.
Saunders, G. Treatise on Theatres. 4to. 13 plates. London, 1790. Of little value.
SchinkeL Theatre at Hamburg. 6 plates, Berlin. 1828.
Ware, S. Remarks on Theatres, and on the Propriety of vaulting them with Brick and
Stone. 8vo plates. London, 1809.
Wyatt, B. On the rebuilding of Drury Lane Theatre. 4to. plates. London, 1812.
IX. BRIDGES.
Anselin, N. J. B. Experiences sur la Main d'CEuvres de differens Travaux dependans du
Service des Ingenieurs des Fonts et Chaussees, &c. 4to. Boulogne, 1810.
Atwood, G. Dissertation on the Construction and Properties of Arches. 4to. 1801 —
1804.
Aubry. Memoire sur la Construction d'un Pont de Bois de 450 Pieds d' Ouverture
d' un seul Jet, &c. 4to. Paris, 1790.
Blackfriars' Bridge. 7 plates of the machines used in its construction, and the centring
of the middle arch. Oblong folio.
Boistard, L. C. Recueil sur les Ponts de Nemours, &c. 4to. 19 plates. Paris, 1822.
Emmery, H. C. Pont d'lvry en Bois, sur Piles en Pierre, traversant la Seine pres du
confluent de la Marne. 2 vols. 4to. plates. Paris, 1 832.
Exchaquet. Dictionnaire des Ponts et Chausse'es. 8vo. 12 plates. Paris, 1787.
Gauthey. Traite de la Construction des Ponts ; Memoires sur les Canaux de Na-
vigation, &c. public par M. Navier. 3 vols. 4to. plates. Paris, 1816
autier, H. Traite de la Construction des Ponts et Chaussees. 8vo. Paris, 1 721 — 1765.
oury, G. Recueil d' Observations, Me"moires, et Projets, concernant la Navigation
Interieure. 2 tomes 4to. avec un atlas de planches. Paris, 1827.
Gwilt, Joseph. On the Rebuilding of London Bridge. 8vo. with 1 plate. London, 1823.
Treatise on the Equilibrium of Arches. 8vo. plates. London, 1826.
The editions of a later date are spurious, being without additions or corrections by
the author.
Hutton, C. Principles of Bridges. 8vo. 1772.
Le Sage, P. C. Recueil de divers Memoires des Ponts et Chaussees. 2 torn. 4to. Paris,
1810.
Milne, J. Theory and Principles of Bridges and Piers. 8vo. 36 plates. London, 1806.
Navier. Memoire sur les Ponts Suspendus. 4to. Paris, 1 830.
Perronet, OEuvres de. 4to. plates. Atlas folio. Paris, 1793.
Polonceau, A. R. Notice sur la nouveau Systeme de Ponts en Fonte, suivi dans la
Construction du Pont du Carousel. 4to. Atlas folio, plates. Paris, 1839.
Pont en Pierre a construire sur la Seine a Rouen. 4to. plates. Paris, 1815.
Prony, M. de. Nouvelle Architecture Hydraulique. 2 vols. 4to. plates. Paris, 1790.
Regemortes, M. de. Description du nouveau Pont de Pierre construit sur la Riviere
d'Allier a Moulins. Folio. Paris, 1771.
Rondelet, A. Essai Historique sur le Pont de Rialto. 4to. plates. Paris, 1837.
Seaward, J. Observations on the Rebuilding of London Bridge. 8vo. plates. London,
1824.
Seguin, Aiiie. Dos Ponts en Fil de Fer. Svo. plates. Paris, 1824.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 923
Telford, T. Reports on the Holyhead Roads, Harbour, Bridges, &c. Folio, with
plates. London, 1822.
Vicat. Description du Pont Suspendu construit sur la Dordogne a Argental. 4to.
plates. Paris, 1830.
Ware, S. Treatise on the Properties of Arches, and their Abutment Piers. London
1809.
Wiebeking, Le Chevalier. Architecture Hydraulique fondee sur la Theorie et la
Pratique. 4 vols. 4to. Atlas vol. of plates. Munich, 1814 — 1824.
X. ELEMENTARY AND PRACTICAL WORKS.
Alberti, Leo Bapt. Libri de Re JEdificatoria. Decem folio, 1st edit. Florence. 1485
Reprinted in 4to. Paris, 1512.
Translated into Italian by Pietro Lauro. Small 4to. Venice, 1546.
Translated into Italian by Cosimo Bartoli. Folio. Florence, 1556.
• Translated into English by Leoni. Folio. London, 1726 — 1755 ; and Bologna,
1782.
Androuet du Cerceau. Livre d' Architecture. Folio, 50 plates. Paris, 1 662.
Antoine, J. Traite d' Architecture. 4to. plates. Treves, 1768.
Aviler, d', C. A. Cours d' Architecture. 4to. Paris, 1760.
Barlow, P. Treatise on the Strength of Timber, Cast Iron, Malleable Iron, and other
Materials, &c. 8vo. London, 1837.
Barozzi, Vignola di. CEuvres completes. Folio. Paris, 1823.
Ordini d'Architettura Civile. 4to. 44 plates. Milano, 1814.
Bartholomew, Alfred. Specifications for Practical Architecture, preceded by an Essay
on the Decline of Excellence in the Structure, and in the Science of Modern English
Buildings. Large 8vo. 160 illustrations. London, 1840.
This is one of the most valuable works to the English practical architect that has
ever appeared.
Blondel, J. F. Cours d' Architecture. 9 torn. 8vo. 300 plates. Paris, 1771—1777.
Borgnis, J. A. Traite Elementaire de Construction appliquee a PArchitecture Civile.
2 torn. 4to. 30 plates. Paris, 1 823.
Bruyere, L. Etudes relatives a PArt des Constructions. Folio. Paris, 1823.
Bullet. Architecture Pratique. 8vo. plates. Paris, 1774.
By Mazois. Paris, 1824.
Calderari, C. Opere di Architettura. 2 torn, folio, 90 plates. Vicenza, 1 800.
Chambers. Treatise on the Decorative Part of Civil Architecture, with Essay on
Grecian Architecture, and other Additions by Joseph Gwilt. 2 vols. imp. 8vo. 66
plates. London, 1823.
Clerc, S. Le. Treatise on Architecture, translated by Chambers. 2 vols. 8vo. and vol.
of plates. London, 1732.
Detournelle. Recueil d' Architecture. Folio, 60 plates. Paris, 1805.
Douliot, J. P. Traite special de Coupe des Pierres. 2 torn. 4to. Paris, 1825.
Durand, J. N. L. Le9ons d' Architecture. 2 torn. 4to. plates. Paris, 1819.
. Partie Graphique des Cours d' Architecture. 4to. 34 plates. Paris, 1821.
Elmes, J. On Dilapidations. 8vo. London, 1829.
Evelyn's, J., Ancient and Modern Architecture. Folio. London, 1680.
• Parallel of Ancient and Modern Architecture : translated from R. Freart. Folio,
plates. London, 1723.
Farraday, Prof. On the practical Prevention of Dry Rot in Timber. 8vo. London,
1836.
Felibien, M. Principes de PArchitecture, de la Sculpture, et de la Peinture. 4to. plates.
Paris, 1697.
Frezier. Theorie et la Pratique de la Coupe des Pierres et des Bois. 3 vols. 4to. plates.
Paris, 1757.
Fourneau, H. Art du Trait de Charpenterie. 4 vols. folio, 87 plates. Paris, 1 820.
Gauthey, E. M. Dissertation sur les Degradations survenues aux Piliers du Dome
du Pantheon, et sur les Moyens d'y remedier. 4to. plates. Paris, 1798.
Goldman, Architecture of, by L. C. Sturms; the text in the German language. 1714.
Gwilt, Joseph. Sciography ; or Examples of Shadows, with Rules for their Projection,
for the Use of Architectural Draughtsmen, and other Artists. 8vo. 24 plates. London,
1824.
• Rudiments of Architecture, Practical and Theoretical. Royal 8vo. plates.
London, 1826.
Halfpenny, W. Architecture delineated. 4to. 45 plates. London, 1749.
Art of Sound Building. Folio. London, 1725.
Higgins, R. Art of composing and applying Calcareous Cements, and of preparing
Quicklime. 8vo. London, 1780.
924 GLOSSARY, ETC.
Inman, W. On Ventilation, Warming, and the Transmission of Sound ; with notes.
London, 1836.
Kraflft, J. C. Recueil d' Architecture Civile, contenant les Plans, Coupes, et Elevations
des Chateaux, Maisons de Campagne, et Habitations Rurales, &c. Folio, 121 plates.
Paris, 1812.
Traite sur 1'Art de la Charpenterie ; Plans, Coupes, et Elevations, de diverses
Productions. Folio. Paris, 1820.
Laugier, P. Essai sur 1' Architecture. 8vo. Paris, 1755.
Ledoux, E. N. L' Architecture consideree sous le Rapport de 1'Art, des Moeurs, et
de la Legislation. Imperial folio, plates. Paris, 1789.
L'Eveille, C. J. Considerations sur les Frontons. 4to. Paris, 1824.
Le Grand Essai sur 1'Histoire Generale de 1' Architecture. 8vo. Paris, 1819.
This is the text to Durand's Parallele.
Lorme, Philibert de. OZuvres d' Architecture. Folio, 2 vols. in 1. Paris, 1626 ;
Rouen, 1648.
The first edition, the Treatise on Architecture, in 9 books, was published in Paris, 1 567.
The tenth book on Carpentry, entitled, " Nouvelles Inventions pour bien Batir et a
petit Frais," was published in folio. Paris, 1561 — 1568 and 1576.
Loudon, J. C. Architectural Magazine. 5 vols. 8vo. London, 1838.
Malton, T. Complete Treatise on Perspective. Folio, 2 vols. London, 1778.
, J. Young Painter's Maulstick. 4to. plates. London, 1806.
Mandar. Etude d' Architecture Civile ; ou Plans, Elevations, Coupes, et Details neces-
saires pour clever, distribuer, et decorer une Maison et ses Dependances. Imperial
folio, 122 plates. Paris, 1830.
Manetti, G. A. Studio degli Ordini d'Architettura. Folio, 25 plates. Firenze, 1808.
Mesauge, M. Traite de Charpenterie et des Bois de toutes Especes. 2 torn. Paris,
1753.
Mitford, N. Principles of Design in Architecture traced in Observations on Buildings
(published anonymously). 8vo. London, 1819.
Nicholson, P. Principles of Architecture. 8 vo. 3 vols. plates. London, 1836.
Architectural Dictionary. 2 vols. 4to. London, 1819.
Carpenter and Joiner's Assistant. 4to. London, 1815.
• Carpenter's new Guide. 4to. London, 1819.
Practical Treatise on the Art of Masonry and Stone-cutting. 8vo. London,
1832,
Noble, J. Professional Practice of Architects, and that of Measuring Surveyors, and
Reference to Builders. 8vo. London, 1836.
Normand, C. Nouveau Parallele des Ordres d' Architecture des Grecs, des Romains, et
des Auteurs modernes. Folio, 63 plates. Paris, 1819.
Nosban. Manuel du Menuisier. 2 torn. 12mo. plates. Paris, 1827.
Pasley, Col. C. W. On Limes, Calcareous Cements, Mortars, Stuccoes, Concrete, and
Puzzolanas, &c. 8vo. London, 1838.
Patte, P. Memoire d' Architecture. 4to. Paris, 1 769.
Perrault, C. Ordonnance des Cinq Especes de Colonnes. Folio. Paris, 1688.
Pozzo, Andrea. Prospettiva di Pittori, &c. 2 vols. fol. 218 plates. Roma, 1717 — 1737.
Price, F. British Carpenter. 4to. plates. London, 1753.
, R. On Reversionary Payments ; by Morgan. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1803.
Rondelet, J. Traite Theorique et Pratique de 1'Art de Batir. 5 torn. 4to. and fol.
vol. of 207 plates. Paris, 1835.
Memoire Historique sur le Dome du Pantheon Francois. 4to. plates.
Paris, 1814.
Memoire sur la Reconstruction de la Coupole de la Halle au Ble de Paris.
4to. plates. Paris.
Scamozzi, V. L'Idea dell' Architettura Universale. 2 vols. fol. Venet. 1615.
Serlio, Seb., Architettura di. 4to. Venet, 1567.
Simonin. Traite Elementaire de la Coupe des Pierres. 4to. Paris, 1792.
Sturm, L. C. Prodromus Architecture Goldmanniae. Oblong folio. Nuremberg, 1714.
Tredgold, T. Elementary Principles of Carpentry, by Peter Barlow. 4to. 50 plates.
London, 1840.
Toussaint, C. J. Traite de G6ometrie et d' Architecture Theorique et Pratique sim-
plifie. 4 vols. 4to. Paris, 1811-12.
Turnbull, W. Essay on Construction of Cast Iron Beams. 8vo. London, 1833.
Vitruve, traduit par C. Perrault. Folio, plates. Paris, 1 684.
Vitruvii de Architectura notis Variorum a J. de Laet. Folio. Amst. 1649.
Vitruvio, 1'Architettura di, tradotta ed comentata da B. Galiani. Folio. Siena, 1790.
Vitruvio, trad, et coment. da Barbaro. P'olio, wood-cuts. Venezia, 1556.
Vitruvius, Architecture of, translated by J. Gwilt. Imperial 8vo. London, 1826.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 925
"Wiebeking, le Chevalier de. Architecture Civile, Th^orique, et Pratique, enrichi de
1'Histoire descriptive des Edifices anciennes et modernes les plus remarquables.
7 vols. 4to., 260 plates, large folio. Munich, 1823.
XL ORNAMENTS.
Albertolli. Corso Elementare di Ornamenti Architettonici. Folio, 28 plates. Milan,
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Beauvallet, P. N. Fragmens d' Architecture, Sculpture, et Peinture dans le Style
Antique. Paris, 1804.
Choix des Monumens les plus remarquables des Anciens Egyptiens, des Persans, des
Grecs, des Volsques, des Etrusques, et des Romains, consistans en Statues, Bas- Beliefs,
et Vases. 2 torn. fol. 244 plates. Rome, 1788.
Colette, J. Livre de divers Ornemens pour Plafonds, Cintres, Surbaissees, Galeries.
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Columbani, P. Capitals, Friezes, and Cornices, &c. 4to.
Fowler, W. Collection of Mosaic, Roman and Norman tesselated Pavements and
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Gli Ornati delle Pareti ed i Pavimenti delle Stanze dell' Antica Pompeia. Atlas folio,
21 plates. Napoli, 1796.
Jalembier, C. A. Principes d'Ornemens pour PArchitecture. 40 plates. Paris.
Jombert, C. A. Repertoire des Artistes ; ou Recueil de Compositions d' Architecture et
d'Ornemens, antiques et modernes, de tout Espece, par divers Auteurs. 2 vols. folio.
Paris, 1765.
Le Noir, A. Nouvelle Collection d' Arabesques propres a la Decoration des Ap-
partemens dessinees a Rome par L. Poussin. 4to. Paris.
Le Pautre. OZuvres d' Architecture ; contenant les Frises, Feuillages, Montans ou
Pilastres, Grotesques, Moresques, Parmeaux, Placarts, Trumeaux, Lansbris, Amor-
tissemens, Plafonds, et generalement tout ce qui concerne 1'Ornement. 3 torn, folio.
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Moreau, C. Fragmens, et Ornemens d'Architecture dessines a Rome d'apres L'An-
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36 plates. Paris.
Normand, C. Nouveau Recueil en divers Genres d'Ornemens, et autres Objets propres
a la Decoration. Folio, 46 plates, Paris, 1803.
Percier, C. et P. F. L. Fontaine. Recueil de Decorations Interieures, comprenant tout
ce qui a rapport a PAmeublement. Folio, 72 plates. Paris, 1812.
Pergolesi. Ornaments. Large folio, 30 plates. 1777.
Piroli, T. Monumens Antiques du Musee Napoleon. 4 torn. 4to., 40 plates. Paris,
1804.
Recueil d' Arabesques ; eontenant les Loges du Vatican, gravees d'apres Raphael et
grand Nombre d' autres Compositions du meme Gout dans le Style Antique. Large
folio, Paris, 1802.
Tatham, C. H. Grecian and Roman Ornaments. Folio, 101 plates. London, 1825.
Volpato. Engravings of the Ornaments of the Vatican.
Vulliamy, L. Examples of Ornamental Sculpture in Architecture, containing 40
plates, imp. folio. London, 1828.
ARCHITRAVE. ( Gr. Apx^iv, to govern, and Lat. Trabs, a beam. ) The lower of the three
principal members of the entablature of an order, being, as its name imports, the chief
beam employed in it, and resting immediately on the columns. It is sometimes called
Epistylium, from rjri, upon, and <TTV\O$, a column. The height of the architrave varied
in the different orders, as also in different examples of the same order. See GRECIAN
ARCHITECTURE, page .58. in the work ; and, for its usual proportion, the orders from
Sect. 5. to Sect. 7. Chap. I. Book III.
ARCHITRAVE CORNICE. An entablature consisting of an architrave and cornice only,
without the interposition of a frieze. It is never used with columns or pilasters, unless
through want of height. It is, however, allowable. See p. 748.
ARCHITRAVE OF A DOOR or WINDOW. A collection of members and mouldings round
either, used for the decoration of the aperture. The upper part, or lintel, is called the
traverse, and the sides the jambs. See ANTEPAGMENTA.
ARCHIVOLT. (Lat. Arcus volutus. ) The ornamental band of mouldings round the voussoirs,
or arch-stones of an arch, which terminates horizontally upon the impost. It is deco-
rated, as to the members, analogously with the architrave, which, in arcades, it may be
said to represent. It differs in the different orders. See p. 721.
926 GLOSSARY, ETC.
ARCHIVOLTUM. In mediaeval architecture, an arched receptacle for filth. A cesspool or
common sewer.
ARCHWAY. An aperture in a building covered with a vault. Usually an arched passage
or gate wide enough for carriages to pass.
ARCUS ECCLESI^E. In mediaeval architecture, the arch dividing the nave of the church
from the choir or chancel.
ARCUS PRESBYTERII. In mediaeval architecture, the arch over the tribune marking the
boundaries of its recess.
ARCUS TORALIS. In mediaeval architecture, the lattice separating the choir from the
nave in a basilica.
AREA. In Architecture, a small court or place, often sunk below the general surface of the
ground, before windows in the basement story. It is also used to denote a small court
even level with the ground.
AREA. In Geometry, the superficial content of any figure. See Section on MENSURA-
TION, p. 372.
ARENA. The central space in a Roman amphitheatre, wherein the gladiators fought. See
AMPHITHEATRE.
ARGELIUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 19. .
ARITHMETIC and ALGEBRA. See Book II. Chap. I. Sect. 1.
ARMOURY. An apartment destined to the reception of instruments of war.
ARNOLFO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 1 25.
ARONADE. Embattled ; a junction of several lines forming indentations like the upward
boundary of an embattled wall, except that the middle of every raised part is terminated
by the convex arch of a circle, which arch does not extend to the length of that part.
ARRIS (probably abbreviated from the Ital. a risega, at the projection, or from the Sax.
apir-an, to arise). The intersection or line on which two surfaces of a body forming an
exterior angle meet each other. It is a term much used by all workmen concerned in
building, as the arris of a stone, of a piece of wood, or any other body. Though, in
common language, the edge of a body implies the same as arris, yet, in building, the
word edge is restrained to those two surfaces of a rectangular parallelopipedal body on
which the length and thickness may be measured, as in boards, planks, doors, shutters,
and other framed joinery.
ARRIS FILLET. A slight piece of timber of a triangular section, used in raising the slates
against chimney shafts, or against a wall that cuts obliquely across the roof, and in
forming gutters at the upper ends and sides of those kinds of skylights of which the
planes coincide with those of the roof. When the arris fillet is used to raise the slates
at the eaves of a building, it is then called the eaves' board, eaves' lath, or eaves' catch.
ARRIS GUTTER. A wooden gutter of this V form fixed to the eaves of a building.
ARSENAL. A public establishment for the deposition of arms and warlike stores.
ARTIFICER. (Lat. Ars and Facio.) A person who works with his hands in the manufacture
of anything. He is a person of intellectual acquirements, independent of mere opera-
tion by hand, which place him above the artisan, whose knowledge is limited to the general
rules of his trade.
ASAROTUM. In ancient architecture, a species of painted pavement used by the Romans
before the invention of Mosaic work.
ASH. The Fraxinus of botanists. See TIMBER, Sect, on, p. 486.
ASHELF.Y. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 189.
ASHLAR or ASHLER. (Ital. Asciare, to chip.) Common or free-stones as brought from
the quarry of different lengths and thicknesses.
Also the facing given to square stones on the front of a building. "When the work is
smoothed or rubbed so as to take out the marks of the tools by which the stones were
cut, it is called plain ashlar. Tooled ashlar is understood to be that whereof the surface
is wrought in a regular manner, like parallel flutes, and placed perpendicularly in the
building. But when the surfaces of the stones are cut with a broad tool without care
or regularity, the work is said to be random-tooled. When wrought with a narrow tool,
it is said to be chiselled or boasted, and when the surface is .cut with a very narrow tool,
the ashlar is said to be pointed. When the stones project from the joints, the ashlar is
said to be rusticated, in which the faces may have a smooth or broken surface. In
superior work, neither pointed, chiselled, nor random-tooled work are employed. In
some parts of the country herring-bone ashlar and herring-bone random-tooled ashlar
are used. See MASONRY, p. 518, et seq.
ASHLERING. In carpentry, the short upright quartering fixed in garrets about two feet
six inches or three feet high from the floor, being between the rafters and the floor in
order to make the room more convenient by cutting off the acute angle formed by the
rafters.
ASPECT. (Lat. Aspicio.) The quarter of the heavens to which the front of a building
faces. Thus a front to the north is said to have a north aspect.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 927
ASPHALTUM. A bituminous substance found in various places and used as a building
material. See Book II. Chap. II. Sect. 12.
ASSEMBLAGE. The joining or uniting several pieces together, or the union of them when
so joined. Carpenters and joiners have many modes of accomplishing this, as by
framing, mortise and tenon, dovetailing, &c. See PRACTICAL CARPENTRY AND JOINERY,
p. 538, et seq.
ASSEMBLAGE OF THE ORDERS. The placing of columns upon one another in the several
ranges. See ORDERS UPON ORDERS, Book III. Chap. I. Sect. II.
ASTRAGAL. (Gr. A<rrpaya\os, a die, or buckle bone.) A small moulding of a semicircular
profile. Some have said that the French call it talon, and the Italians tondino ; but this
is a mistake, for the term is properly applied only to the ring separating the capital
from the column. The astragal is occasionally cut into representations of beads and
berries. A similar sort of moulding, though not developed in its profile as is the
astragal, is used to separate the faces of the architrave.
ATLANTIDES. See CARYATIDES.
ATRIUM. In ancient Roman architecture, a court surrounded by porticoes in the interior
part of Roman houses. According to Scaliger it is derived from the Greek aWpios, exposed
to the air. By some it has been considered the same apartment as the vestibule, and
Aulus Gellius intimates that in his time the two words were confounded. See, how-
ever, more on this head in the section on Roman Architecture in the body of the work,
p. 100.
ATTIC, or ATTIC ORDER. (Gr. A-m/coy, Athenian; facetiously, we supposed, derived, in the
seventh edit, of Encyc. Brit. art. ARCHITECTURE, from &TGIXOV, without a wall, which, if
true, would transform all objects into attic things if detached from a wall. ) A low order
of architecture, commonly used over a principal order, never with columns, but usually
with antas or small pilasters. It is employed to decorate the fa9ade of a story of small
height, terminating the upper part of a building ; and it doubtless derives its name from
its resemblance in proportional height and concealed roof to some of the buildings of
Greece. Pliny thus describes it after speaking of the other orders : " Praeter has sunt
qua? vocantur Atticse columna? quaternis angulis pari laterum intervallo." We, how-
ever, find no examples of square pillars in the remains of ancient art, though almost all
the triumphal arches exhibit specimens of pilastral attics, having no capitals save the
cornice breaking round them. In modern architecture the proportions of the attic
order have never been subject to fixed rules, and their good effect is entirely dependent
on the taste and feeling of the architect.
ATTIC BASE. The base of a column consisting of an upper and lower torus, a scotia and
fillets between them. It is thus described by Vitruvius, " it must be so subdivided that
the upper part be one third of the thickness of the column, and that the remainder be
assigned for the height of the plinth. Excluding the plinth, divide the height into four
parts, one whereof is to be given to the upper torus ; then divide the remaining three
parts into two equal parts, one will be the height of the lower torus, and the other the
height of the scotia with its fillets.
ATTIC STORY. A term frequently applied to the upper story of a house when the
ceiling is square with the sides to distinguish it from garrets. See Book III. Chap. I.
Sect. 13.
ATTRIBUTES. In decorative architecture, are certain symbols given to figures, or disposed
as ornaments on a building, to indicate a distinguishing character: as a lyre, bow, or
arrow to Apollo ; a club to Hercules ; a trident to Neptune ; a spear to Pallas, &c.
AUGER. A carpenter's and joiner's tool for boring large holes. It consists of a wooden
handle terminated at the bottom with steel. The more modern augers are pointed and
sharpened like a centre bit, the extremity of one of the edges being made to cut the
wood clean at the circumference, and the other to cut and take away the core, the whole
length of the radius.
AVIARY. (Lat. Avis.) A house or apartment, set apart for keeping and breeding birds.
AVITUS, St. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 58.
AULA. (Lat.) In ancient Roman architecture, a court or hall.
AWNING. (Fr. Aulne.) Any covering intended as a screen from the sun or protection
from the rain.
AXE. (Sax. eax.) A tool with a long wooden handle and a cutting edge situate in a plane
passing longitudinally through the handle. It is used for hewing timber by cutting it
vertically, the edge being employed in forming horizontal surfaces. The axe differs
from the joiner's hatchet by being much larger, and by its being used with only one
hand. Axes of various sizes, depending upon the quality of the material, are used by
stone-cutters and bricklayers.
Axis. The spindle or centre of any rotative motion. In a sphere a line passing through
the centre is the axis.
928 GLOSSARY, ETC.
B.
BABYLONIAN ARCHITECTURE. See Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 3.
BACK. The side opposite to the face or breast of any piece of architecture. In a recess
upon a quadrangular plane, the face is that surface which has the two adjacent planes,
called the sides, elbows, or gables. When a piece of timber is fixed in an horizontal or
in an inclined position, the upper side is called the back, and the lower the breast. Thus
the upper side of the handrail of a staircase is properly called the back. The same is to
be understood with regard to the curved ribs of ceilings and the rafters of a roof, whose
upper edges are always called the backs,
BACK OF A CHIMNEY. The recessed face of it towards the apartment, &c. See CHIMNEY.
BACK OF A HAND-RAIL. The upper side of it.
BACK OF A HIP or other RAFTER. The upper side or sides of it in the sloping plane of the
side of the roof.
BACK LINING OF A SASH FRAME. That parallel to the pulley piece and next to the jamb
on either side. See JOINERY, p. 563, et seq.
BACK SHUTTERS. Those folds of a shutter which do not appear on the face being folded
within the boxing. See JOINERY, p. 570, et seq.
BACK OF A STONE. The side opposite to the face. It is generally rough.
BACK OF A WALL. The inner face of it.
BACK OF A WINDOW. The piece of wooden framing in the space between the lower part
of the sash frame and the floor of the apartments, and bounded at its extremities right
and left by the elbows of the window. The number of panels into which it is framed is
dependent on what may be necessary for carrying out the design ; it rarely, however, con-
sists of more than one.
BACKING OF A RAFTER or RIB. The formation of the upper or, outer surface of either in
such a manner as to range with the edges of the rafters or ribs on either side of it. The
formation of the inner edges of the ribs for a lath and plaister ceiling is sometimes called
Lacking, but improperly, since contrary to the true meaning of the word.
BACKING OF A WALL. The filling in and building which forms the inner face of the work.
In this sense it is opposed to facing, which is the outside of the wall. In stone walls
the backing is unfortunately too often mere rubble, while the face is ashlar.
BADIGEON. A mixture of plaster and freestone sifted and ground together, used by sta-
tuaries to repair defects in their work. The joiner applies this term to a mixture of saw-
dust and strong glue, with which he fills up the defects of the wood after it has been
wrought. A mixture for the same purpose is made of whiting and glue, and sometimes
with putty and chalk. When the first of these is used, it is allowed to remain until
quite hard, after which it may be submitted to the operation of planing and smoothing.
Without this precaution, it may shrink below the surface of the work.
BAGNIO. (It.) An Italian term for a bath, usually applied by the English to an establish-
ment having conveniences for bathing, sweating, and otherwise cleansing the body. It
is applied by the Turks to the prisons where their slaves are confined, in which it is cus-
tomary to have baths.
BAGUETTE. (Fr.) A small moulding of the astragal species. It is occasionally cut with
pearls, ribands, laurels, &c. According to 31. Le Clerc, the baguette is called a chaplet
when ornaments are cut on it.
BAILEY. See CASTLE.
BAKEHOUSE. An apartment provided with an oven and kneading troughs for baking.
BALANEIA. A Greek term for a bath.
BALCONY. (It. Balcone.) A projection from the external wall of a house, borne by
columns or consoles, and usually placed before windows or openings, and protected on
the extremity of the projection by a railing of balusters or ironwork. In the French
theatre, the balcon is a circular row of seats projecting beyond the tier of boxes imme-
diately above the pit.
BALDACHINO. (It.) An open building, supported by columns, and covered with a canopy,
generally placed over an altar. Sometimes the baldachino is suspended from the roof, as
in the church of St. Sulpice at Paris. It succeeded to the ancient ciborium, which
was a cupola supported on four columns, still to be seen in many of the churches of
Rome. The merit of its invention seems to belong to Bernini. That erected by him
in St. Peter's is 128 feet high, and being of bronze weighs near 90 tons. It was built by
order of the Pope Barberini, from the robbery of the Pantheon, and occasioned the
bitter observation, " Quod non fecerint Barbari fecerunt Barberini."
BALDWIN. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 104.
BALECTION or BOLECTION MOULDINGS. Mouldings which project beyond the surface of a
piece of framing. See p. 569.
BALKS or BAULKS. (Dutch.) Sometimes called dram timber. They are pieces of whole
GLOSSARY, ETC. 929
fir, being the trunks of small trees of that species, rough-squared for building purposes.
In the metropolis the term is applied to short lengths, from eighteen to twenty-five feet,
mostly under ten inches square, tapering considerably, and with the angles so left that
the piece is not exactly square.
BALLIUM. In the architecture of the middle ages, the open space or court of a fortified
castle. This has acquired in English the appellation Bailey ; thus St. Peter's in the
Bailey at Oxford, and the Old Bailey in London, are so named from their ancient con-
nection with the sites of castles.
BALLOON. A round ball or globe placed on a column or pier, by way of crowning it. The
same name is given to the balls on the tops of cathedrals, as at St. Peter's, which is
8 feet diameter, and at St. Paul's in London.
BALNEUM. (Lat.) A bath.
BALTEUS. (Lat. a girdle.) The wide step in theatres and amphitheatres, which afforded a
passage round them without disturbance to the sitters. No one sat on it ; it served merely
as a landing-place. In the Greek and Roman theatres, every eighth step was a balteus.
Vitruvius gives the rules for properly setting it out, in the third chapter of his fifth book.
The term balteus is also used by Vitruvius to denote the strap which seems to bind up
the coussinet or cushion of the Ionic capital.
BALUSTER. A species of small column belonging to a balustrade. See Book III. Chap.
I. Sect. 16. This term is also used to denote the lateral part of the volute of the Ionic
capital. Vitruvius calls it pulvinata, on account of its resemblance to a pillow.
BALUSTRADE. A parapet or protecting fence formed of balusters, sometimes employed for
real use, and sometimes merely for ornament. For the method of designing balus-
trades, and other particulars relating to them, see Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 16.
BAND. (Fr. Bande.) A flat member or moulding, smaller than a fascia. The face of a
band is in a vertical plane, as is also that of the fascia ; the word, however, is applied to
narrow members somewhat wider than fillets ; and the word fascia to broader members.
The cinctures sometimes used round the shafts of rusticated columns are called bands.
In this case the column is called a banded column.
BANDAGES. A term applied to the rings or chains of iron inserted in the corners of a
stone wall, or round the circumference of a tower, at the springing of a dome, &c., which
act as a tie on the walls to keep them together.
BANDELET, or BANDLET. A small band encompassing a column like a ring.
BANISTER. A vulgar term for baluster, which see.
BANKER. A bench, on which masons prepare, cut, and square their work.
BANQUET. (Fr.) The footway of a bridge when raised above the carriage-way.
BAPTISMAL FONT. A vessel raised above the ground for containing the holy water used in
the administration of baptism. Many of the fonts in Saxon churches are still in being.
The plans and horizontal sections are commonly circles, octagons, or squares, and at a
little later dates were elaborately decorated with mouldings and sculptures.
BAPTISTERY. (Gr. BaTrr^w.) A building in the architecture of the middle ages, destined
for administration of the rite of baptism. It has been contended by some that the baptis-
tery was at first placed in the interior vestibules of the early churches, as are in many
churches the baptismal fonts. This, however, was not the case. The baptistery was
quite separate from the basilica, and even placed at some distance from it. Until the end
of the sixth century, it was, beyond doubt, a distinct building ; but after that period the
font gradually found its way into the vestibule of the church, and the practice became
general, except in a few churches, as at Florence, and in those of all the episcopal cities of
Tuscany, Ravenna, of S. Giovanni Laterano at Rome, and some few other places. The
last mentioned is perhaps the most ancient remaining. There was a baptistery at Con-
stantinople, of such dimensions that, on one occasion, it held a very numerous council.
That at Florence is nearly ninety feet in diameter, octagonal, and covered with a dome.
It is enclosed by the celebrated bronze gates by Lorenzo Ghiberti, which Michel Angelo
said were fit to be the gates of Paradise. The baptistery of Pisa, designed by Dioti
Salvi, was finished about 1160. The plan is octagonal, about 129 feet in diameter and
179 feet high. See p. 118.
BAR. In a court of justice, an enclosure, three or four feet high, in which the counsel
have their places to plead causes. The same name is given to the enclosure, or rather
bar before it, at which prisoners are placed to take their trials for criminal offences.
BAR. A piece of wood or iron used for fastening doors, window shutters, &c.
BAR OF A SASH. The light pieces of wood or metal which divide a window sash into
compartments for the glass. The angle bars of a sash are those standing at the intersec-
tion of two vertical planes.
BAR IRON is that made of the metal of sows and pigs, as it comes from the furnace. The
sows and pigs, as they are technically termed, pass through the forges and chaufery,
where, having undergone five successive heats, they are formed into bars. See Sect. 5.
3 O
930 GLOSSARY, ETC.
Book II. Chap. II. For the weight of a foot of bar iron of different thicknesses, see
p. 590.
BAR-POSTS. Posts driven into the ground for forming the sides of a field gate. They are
mortised, to admit of horizontal bars being put in or taken out at pleasure.
BARBACAN. A watch-tower for descrying an enemy : also the outer work or defence of a
castle, or the fort at the entrance of a bridge. Apertures in the walls of a fortress, for
firing through upon the enemy, are sometimes called by this name. The etymology of
the word has been variously assigned to French, Italian, Spanish, Saxon, and Arabian
origin. See CASTLE.
BARGE BOARDS. The inclined projecting boards placed at the gable of a building, and
hiding the horizontal timbers of a roof. They are frequently carved with trefoils,
quatrefoils, flowers, and other ornaments and foliage.
BARGE COUPLES. (Sax. Bynsan, to bar.) Two beams mortised and tenoned together for
the purpose of increasing the strength of a building.
BARGE COURSE. The part of the tiling which projects over the gable of a building, and
which is made good below with mortar.
BARK. (Sax. Bepn.) A covered farm-building for laying up grain, hay, straw, &c. The
situation of a barn should be dry and elevated. It is usually placed on the north or
north east side of a farm-yard. The barns, outhouses, and stables should not be far
distant from each other. They are most frequently constructed with wooden framing of
quarters, &c. , and covered with weather boarding ; sometimes, in superior farms, they are
built of stone and brick. The roofs are usually thatched or tiled, as the materials for
the purpose are at hand ; but as the grain should of all things be kept dry, to prevent it
from moulding, the gable ends should be constructed of brick, and apertures left in the
walls for the free admission of air. The bays, as they are called, are formed by two
pairs of folding doors, exactly opposite to each other, and, as well as for thrashing, afford
the convenience of carrying in and out a cart or waggon load of corn in sheaves, or any
sort of bulky produce. The doors in question must be of the same breadth as the
threshing-floor, to afford light to the threshers, and air for winnowing the grain. It is
a good practice to make an extensive penthouse over the great doors sufficiently large
to cover a load of corn or hay, in case of the weather not permitting it to be immediately
housed.
BAROZZI DA VIGNOLA. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 217.
BARRACKS. See Book III. Chap. III. Sect. 19.
BARREL DRAIN. One in the form of a hollow cylinder.
BARYCJE or BARYCEPHAL^E. (Gr. Papvs, low or flat, and Ke^oATj, head.) The Greek name
for an araostyle temple.
BASE. (Gr. jScuns.) In geometry, the lower part of a figure or body. The base of a solid
is the surface on which it rests.
BASE OF A COLUMN. The part between the shaft and the pavement or pedestal, if there be
any to the order. Each column has its particular base, for which see Sections 3 to 7.
on the orders. For the Attic base see under that word.
BASE OF A ROOM. The lower projecting part. It consists of two parts, the lower whereof
is a plain board adjoining the floor, called the plinth, and the upper of one or more
mouldings, which, taken collectively, are called the base-mouldings. In better sort of
work the plinth is tongued into a groove in the floor, by which means the diminution of
breadth created by the shrinking never causes any aperture or chasm between its under
edge and the floor, and the upper edge of the plinth is rebated upon the base. Bed-
rooms, lobbies, passages, and staircases are often finished without a dado and surbase.
and indeed the fashion has extended the practice to rooms of the higher class, as drawing-
rooms, &c.
BASEMENT. The lower story of a building, whether above or below the ground. See
Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 13.
BASIL. Among carpenters and joiners the angle to which the edge of an iron tool is
ground so as to bring it to a cutting edge. If the angle be very thin the tool will cut
more freely, but the more obtuse it is the stronger and fitter it is for service.
BASILICA. (Gr. jSatnAcvs, a king.) Properly the palace of a king; but it afterwards came
to signify an apartment usually provided in the houses of persons of importance, where
assemblies were held for dispensing justice. Thus in the magnificent villa of the
Gordian family on the Via Prenestina there were three basilicas, each more than one
hundred feet long. A basilica was generally attached to every forum, for the summary
adjustment of the disputes that arose. It was surrounded in most cases with shops and
other crnveniences for traders. The difference between the Grecian and Roman basilica
is given by Vitruvius in the fifth chapter of his first book. The rise and progress of the
modern basilica is given, p. 109, et seq. The term basilica is also applied by Palladio
to those buildings in the cities of Italy similar in use to our town halls.
BASIS. See BASE.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 931
BASKET. A term often applied to the vase of the Corinthian capital, with its foliage, &c.
BASSE COUR. (Fr.) A court destined in a house of importance for the stables, coach-
houses, and servants attached to that part of the establishment. In country houses it is
often used to denote the yard appropriated to the cattle, fowls, &c.
BASSO-RELIEVO. See RELIEVO.
BASTARD STUCCO. See Sect. 9. Chap. III. Book II.
BAT. In bricklayer's work, a piece of a brick less than one half of its length.
BATH. (From the Saxon, Bab.) An apartment or series of apartments for bathing. Among
the ancients the public baths were of amazing extent and magnificence, and contained a
vast number of apartments. These extraordinary monuments of Roman magnificence
seem to have had their origin in many respects from the gymnasia of the Greeks, both
being instituted for the exercise and health of the public. The word thermae (hot baths)
was by the Romans used to denominate the establishment, although it contained in the
same building both hot and cold baths. In later times a house was incomplete unless
provided with hot and cold baths ; and, indeed, it was not till the time of Augustus that
public baths assumed the grandeur which their remains indicate. Different authors
reckon nearly eight hundred baths in Rome, whereof the most celebrated were those of
Agrippa, Antoninus, Caracalla, Diocletian, Domitian, Nero, and Titus. It appears
from good authority, that the baths of Diocletian could accommodate no less than eight
hundred bathers. These stupendous edifices are indicative of the magnificence, no less
than the luxury of the age in which they were erected. The pavements were mosaic,
the ceilings vaulted and richly decorated, and the walls encrusted with the rarest marbles.
From these edifices many of the most valuable examples of Greek sculpture have been
restored to the world ; and it was from their recesses that the restorers of the art drew
their knowledge, and that Rafaelle learnt to decorate the walls of the Vatican. See
p. 96.
BATERDEAU. (Fr.) The same as coffer dam, which see.
BATRACHUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 33.
BATTEN. (Probably from the Fr. Baton, from its small width.) A scantling or piece of
stuff from two to six inches broad, and from five eighths of an inch to two inches thick.
Battens are used in the boarding of floors and also upon walls, in order to receive the
laths upon which the plaister is laid. See BOARDED FLOOR.
BATTENING. The fixing of battens to walls for the reception of the laths on which the
plaster is to be laid. It also signifies the battens in the state of being fixed for that
purpose. The battens employed are usually about two inches broad and three fourths
of an inch thick ; the thicknesses, however, may be varied according to the distances that
the several fixed points are from each other. Their distance in the clear is from eleven
inches to one foot. Before battens are fixed, equidistant bond timbers should be built in
the wall, or the wall should be plugged at equal distances, and cut off flush with its
surface. In and about London plugs are generally placed at the distance of twelve
or fourteen inches from centre to centre in the length of the batten. Battens upon
external walls, the ceiling and bridging joists of a naked floor, also the common joists
for supporting the boarding of a floor, are fixed at the same distance, viz. from eleven to
twelve inches in the clear. When battens are fixed against flues, iron holdfasts are of
course employed instead of bond-timbers or plugs. When they are attached to a wall
they are generally fixed in vertical lines, and when fixed to the surface of a stone or
brick vault, whose intrados is generated by a plane revolving about an axis, they ought
to be placed in planes tending to the axis ; as in this position they have only to be fixed
in straight lines, in case the intrados is straight towards the axis, which will be the case
when it is a portion of a cone or cylinder ; and when the intrados is curved towards the
axis they will bend the easiest possible. Great care should be taken to regulate the
fans of the battens, so as to be as nearly as possible equidistant from the intended surface
of the plaster. Though battens are employed in floors, neither the act of laying them
nor the floor afterwards formed of them is called battening ; they are more commonly
called boarding. Every piece of masonry or brickwork, if not thoroughly dry, should be
battened for lath 'and plaster, particularly if executed in a wet season. When windows
are boarded, and the walls of the room not sufficiently thick to contain the shutters, the
surface of the plastering is brought out so as to give the architrave a proper projec-
tion, and quarterings are used for supporting the lath and plaster in lieu of battens.
This is also practised when the breast of a chimney projects into the room, in order to
cover the recesses and make the whole side flush, or all in the same surface with the
breast.
BATTER (probably from the Fr. Battre). A term used by artificers to signify that a body
does not stand upright, but inclines from a person standing before it ; when, on the con-
trary, it leans towards a person, its inclination is described by saying it overhangs.
BATTLEMENTS. Indentations on the top of a wall, parapet, or other building. They were
first used in ancient fortifications, and subsequently applied to chambers and other build-
3 O 2
932 GLOSSARY, ETC.
ings as mere ornaments. Their outline is generally a conjunction of straight lines at right
angles to each other, each indentation having two interior right angles, and each raised
part two exterior right angles.
BATTLE-EMBATTLED. A term applied to the top of a wall which has a double row of
battlements formed by a conjunction of straight lines at right angles to each other, both
embrasures and rising parts being double, the lower part of every embrasure less than
the upper, and therefore the lower part of each riser broader than the upper.
BAULK ROOFING. Roofing in which the framing is constructed of baulk timber.
BAULKS. See BALKS.
BAY. (Dutch, Baye. ) The division of a barn or other building, generally from fifteen to
twenty feet in length or breadth.
BAY. In plasterer's work, the space between the screeds prepared for regulating and
working the floating rule. See SCREEDS.
BAY OF JOISTS. The joisting between two binding joists, or between two girders when
binding joists are not used.
BAY OF ROOFING. The small rafters and their supporting purlins between two principal
rafters.
BAY WINDOW. A window placed in the bay or bow of a window : called also an oriel
window.
BAYS. See DAYS.
BAZAR. A species of mart or exchange for the sale of divers articles of merchandize.
The word is Arabic, signifying the sale or exchange of goods or merchandize. Some of
the Eastern bazars are open, like the market places of Europe, and serve for the same
uses, more particularly for the sale of more bulky and less valuable commodities.
Others are covered with lofty ceilings and even domes, which are pierced for the ad-
mission of light. It is in these that the jewellers, goldsmiths, and other dealers in rich
wares have their shops. The bazar or meidan of Ispahan, one of the finest in Persia, is
given in Jig. 32.
BEAD AND BUTT WORK. Framing in which the pannels are flush, having beads stuck or run
upon the two edges ; the grain of the wood being in the direction of them. See p. 568.
BEAD, BUTT, AND SQUARE WORK. Framing with bead and butt on one side, and square
on the other, is chiefly used in doors. This sort of framing is put together square, and
the bead is stuck on the edges of the rising side of the pannel.
BEAD AND FLUSH WORK. A piece of framed work with beads run on each edge of the
included pannel. See p. 568.
BEAD, FLUSH, AND SQUARE WORK. Framing with bead and flush on one side, and square
on the other, used chiefly in doors.
BEAD AND QUIRK. A bead stuck on the edge of a piece of stuff, flush with its surface,
with only one quirk or without being returned on the other surface. Bead and double
quirk occurs when the bead appears on the face and edge of a piece of stuff in the same
manner, thus forming a double quirk.
BEADE. (Sax. Beabe.) A moulding whose section is circular. It is frequently used on the
edge of each fascia of an architrave, as also in the mouldings of doors, shutters, skirtings,
imposts, and cornices. When the bead is flush with the surface it is called a quirk-bead,
and when raised it is called a cock-bead.
BEAK. A little pendent fillet left on the edge of the larmier, forming a canal behind to
prevent the water from running down the lower bed of the cornice. The beak is some-
times formed by a groove or channel recessed on the soffite of the larmier upwards.
BEAM (Sax. Beam, a tie.) A piece of timber, or sometimes of metal, for supporting a weight,
or counteracting two opposite and equal forces, either drawing it or compressing it in
the direction of its length. A beam employed as a lintel supports a weight ; if em-
ployed as a tie beam, it is drawn or extended ; if as collar beam, it is compressed. The
word is usually employed with some other word used adjectively or in opposition, which
word implies the use, situation, or form of the beam ; as tie beam, hammer beam, dragon
beam, straining beam, camber beam, binding beam, girding beam, truss beam, summer beam,
&c. Some of these are however used simply, as collar for collar beam, lintel for lintel
beam, &c. That which is now called the collar beam was by old writers called wina
learn, and strut or strutting beam. A beam is lengthened either by building it in
thicknesses, or by lapping or splicing the ends upon each other and bolting them through,
which is called scarfing. See CARPENTRY generally, and p. 542.
BEAM COMPASSES. An instrument for describing large circles, and made eitner of wood
or metal with sliding sockets, carrying steel or pencil points. It is used only when the
circle to be described is beyond the reach of common compasses.
BEAM FILLING. The brickwork or masonry brought up from the level of the under to
the upper sides of the beams. It is also used to denote the filling up of the space from
the top of the wall plate between the rafters to the under side of the slating, board, or
other covering.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 933
B BARER. That which supports any body in its place, as a wall, a post, a strut, &c. In
gutters they are the short pieces of timber which support the boarding.
BEARING. The distance or length which the ends of a piece of timber lie upon or are
inserted into the walls or piers ; thus joists are usually carried into the walls at least nine
inches, or are said to have a nine-inch bearing. Lintels of an aperture should in like
manner have a similar bearing, the object being to prevent any sagging of the piece acting
on the inner horizontal quoins of the wall.
BEARING OF A TIMBER. The unsupported distance between its points of support without
any intervening assistance. A piece of timber having any number of supports, one
being placed at each extremity, will have as many bearings, wanting one, as there are
supports. Thus a piece of timber extended lengthwise, as a joist over two rooms, will
have three supports and two bearings, the bearers being the two outside walls and the
partition in the midst between them.
BEARING WALL OR PARTITION. A wall or partition built from the solid for the purpose
of supporting another wall or partition, either in the same or in a transverse direction.
When the latter is built in the same direction as the supporting wall it is said to have
a solid bearing ,- but when built in a transverse direction, or unsupported throughout,
its whole length is said to have a false bearing, or as many false bearings as there are
intervals below the wall or partition.
BEATER. An implement used by plasterers and bricklayers for beating, and thereby tem-
pering or incorporating together the lime, sand, and other ingredients of a cement or
plaster.
BEAUCHAMP. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 164.
BEAUFET. See BUFFET.
BEAUTY. In architectural composition, see Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 1.
BED. (Sax. Beb.) The horizontal surface on which the stones, bricks, or other matters
in building lie. The under surface of a stone or brick is called its under bed, and the
upper surface its upper bed. In general language the beds of a stone are the surfaces
where the stones or bricks meet. It is almost needless to inculcate the necessity of
every stone being worked quite straight, and not dished or hollowed out, which masons
are very apt to do for the purpose of making a fine joint. Stones thus worked are very
liable to flush and break off at the angles, of which there are too many examples in
important buildings to make it necessary that we should more particularly allude to
them. See MASONRY, p. 518, et seq.
BED CHAMBER. The apartment destined to the reception of a bed. Its finishings of course
depend on the rank of the party who is to occupy it.
BED OF A SLATE. The under side of a slate, or that part in contiguity with the boarding
or rafters.
BEDS OF A STONE. In cylindrical vaulting are the two surfaces intersecting the intrados of
the vault in lines parallel to the axis of the cylinder. In conic vaulting, where the axis
is horizontal, they are those two surfaces which, if produced, would intersect the axis of
the cone. In arching the beds are called summerings by the workmen.
BEDDING OF TIMBERS. The placing them properly in mortar on the walls.
BEECH. One of the forest trees, but not often used in building. See p. 484.
BEETLE. (Sax. Bytel.) A large wooden hammer or mallet with one, two, or three
handles for as many persons. With it piles, stakes, wedges, &c., are driven.
BEK, DE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 133.
SELECTION MOULDINGS. See BALECTION MOULDINGS.
BELFRY. The upper part of the steeple of a church for the reception of the bells. It is the
campanile of the Italians, though amongst, them a building often altogether unconnected
with the body of the church. It is sometimes used more especially in respect of the
timber framing by which the bells are supported.
BELL OF THE CORINTHIAN AND COMPOSITE CAPITALS. The naked vase or corbeille round
which the foliage and volutes are arranged. Its horizontal section is every where a
circle. See/y. 93.
BELL ROOF. One whereof the vertical section, perpendicular to the wall or to its springing
line, is a curve of contrary flexure, being concave at the bottom and convex at the top.
It is often called an ogee roof from its form.
BELT. In masonry, a course of stones projecting from the naked, either jaoulded, plain,
fluted, or enriched with pateras at regular intervals.
BELVEDERE. (It.) A raised turret or lantern raised for the enjoyment of a prospect ; also a
small edifice in gardens, not uncommon in France and Italy.
BENCH. A horizontal surface or table about two feet eight inches high, on which joiners
prepare their work.
BENCH HOOK. A pin affixed to a bench for preventing the stuff in working from sliding
out of its place.
BERGAMASCO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 192.
3 O 3
934 GLOSSARY, ETC.
BERNINI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 251.
BERRUGUETTE. See ARCHITECTS, list of 223.
BERHAM. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 107.
BETON. (Fr.) A species of concrete.
BEVEL. (Lat. Bivium.) An instrument used by artificers, one leg whereof is frequently
curved according to the sweep of an arch or vault. It is moveable upon a pivot or
centre, so as to render it capable of being set to any angle. The make and use of it are
much the same as those of the common square and mitre, except that those are fixed,
the first at an angle of ninety degrees and the second at forty-five ; whereas the bevel
being moveable, it may in some measure supply the office of both, and yet supply the
deficiency of both, which is, indeed, its principal use, inasmuch as it serves to set off or
transfer angles either greater or less than ninety or forty-five.
Any angle that is not square is called a bevel angle, whether it be more obtuse or more
acute than a right angle ; but if it be one half as much as a right angle, viz. forty-five
degrees, the workman calls it a miter. They have also a tenn half miter, which is an
angle one quarter of a quadrant or square, lhat is, an angle of twenty-two degrees and
a half,
BILLET MOULDING. (Fr. Billet.) A Norman moulding used in string courses and the
archivolts of openings. It consists of short, small, cylindrical pieces, two or three inches
long, placed in hollow mouldings at intervals equal to about the length of the billet.
See p. 1 74.
BINDING JOISTS. Those beams in a floor which, in a transverse direction, support the
bridging joists above, and the ceiling joists below. (See CARPENTRY, p. 541.) When
they are placed parallel to that side of a room on which the chimney stands, the extreme
one on that side ought never to be placed close to the breast, but at a distance equal to
the breadth of the slab, in order to allow for the throwing over the brick trimmer to
support the hearth.
BINDING RAFTERS. The same as purlins, which see.
BINNS FOR WINE. The open subdivisions in a cellar for the reception of wine in bottles.
The average diameter allowed for green bottles is 3'56 inches. Thus a binn 6 ft. 2j in.
long will take twenty-one bottles. If they are laid in double tiers the depth should be
32 inches.
BIRCH. A forest tree (Betulcf) sometimes used in building, see p. 487.
BIRD'S MOUTH. An interior angle cut on the end of a piece of timber, for the purpose of
obtaining a firm rest upon the exterior angle of another piece.
BISCOPIUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 67.
BIT. An instrument for boring holes in wood or any other substance, so constructed as to
admit of being inserted or taken out of a spring. The handle is divided into five parts,
all in the same plane ; the middle and the two extreme parts being parallel. The two
extreme parts are in the same straight line, one of them having a brass end with a socket
for containing the bit, which, when fixed, falls into the same straight line with the other
end of the stock ; the further end has a knob attached, so as to remain stationary, while
all the other parts of the apparatus may be turned round by means of the projecting part
of the handle.
There are various kinds of bits ; as shell bits, used for boring wood, and having an in-
terior cylindric concavity for containing the core ; centre bits used to form a large cylindric
hole or excavation ; countersink bits, for widening the upper part of a hole in wood or iron,
to take in the head of a screw or pin, so that it may not appear above the surface of the
wood ; primer bits, for widening holes ; and taper shell bits, used also for the last named
purpose.
BITUMEN. A mineral pitch used in former ages instead of mortar. The walls of Babylon
are said to have been cemented with it.
BLADES. (Sax. Blaeb.) A name sometimes given to the principal rafters of a roof.
BLADE OF A CHISEL. The iron or steel part of it as distinguised from the wooden
handle.
BLADE OF A SAW. The thin steel part on the edge of which the teeth are cut. The
chief properties of a good saw are, that it should be stiff and yet bend equally into a
regular curve, well tempered, equally thick on the cutting edge, and thinner towards
the back edge.
BLANK DOOR. A door either shut to prevent a passage, or one placed in the back of a
recess, where there is no entrance, having, nevertheless, the appearance of a real door.
BLANK WINDOW. One which has the appearance of a real window but is merely formed
in the recess of the wall. When it is necessary to introduce blank windows for the
sake of uniformity, it is much better to build the apertures like the other and real win-
dows, provided no flues or funnels interfere ; and instead of representing the sashes
by painting, real sashes should be introduced with the panes of glass painted on the
back.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 935
BLINDS. Quadrangular frames of wood or metal, covered with an opaque substance,
stretched between the framing, so as to cover either the whole or part of the sashes of a
window. They are used for the purpose of diminishing the intense effects of the sun's
rays, or of preventing passengers from seeing into the interior of an apartment.
BLOCK (Teutonic) OF WOOD. A piece of wood cut into some prescribed form for a par-
ticular purpose.
BLOCK OF STONE or MARBLE. A piece rough from the quarry before it has received any
form from the hand of the workman.
BLOCKING or BLOCKING COURSE. In masonry, a course of stones placed on the top of a
cornice forming the crown of a wall.
BLOCKINGS. Small pieces of wood fitted in and glued to the interior angle ot two boards,
or other pieces, for the purpose of giving additional strength to the joint. In gluing up
columns the staves are glued up successively and strengthened by blockings ; as also
the risers and treads of stairs and all other joints that demand more strength than their
own joints afford. They are always concealed from the eye.
BLOND, J. B. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 274.
BLONDEL, FR. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 260.
BLONDEL, JAC. FR. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 293.
BOARD. (Sax. Bopb. ) A piece of timber of undefined length, more than four inches in
breadth, and not more than two inches and a half in thickness. When boards are of a
trapezoidal section, that is, thinner on one edge than the other, they are called feather-
edged boards. Boards when wider than nine inches are called planks. The fir boards
called deal (because they are dealt or divided out in thicknesses) are generally imported
into England ready sawn, being thus prepared cheaper by saw mills abroad than they
can be here. Fir boards of this sort, one inch and a quarter thick, are called whole deal,
and those a full half inch thick, slit deal.
BOARD LEAR or LEAR, BOARD. That upon which the lead work of a gutter is laid to
prevent it sinking between the rafters.
BOARDS, LISTED. Such as are reduced in their width by taking off the sap from the
sides.
BOARDS FOR VALLEYS or VALLEY BOARDS, Those fixed on the valley rafters, or pieces for
the leaden gutters of the valley to rest on.
BOARDED FLOORS. Those covered with floor-boards. The laying of floors usually com-
mences when the windows are in and the plaster dry. The boards should be planed on
their best face and set up to season, till the natural sap is expelled. They are then to be
planed smooth, shot, and squared on the edge. The opposite edges are brought to a
breadth by drawing, with a flooring guage, a line on the face parallel to the other edge.
After this they are guaged to a thickness, and rebated down on the back to the lines
drawn by the guage. The next thing is to try whether the joists be level, and if not,
either the boards must be cu t on the under side to meet the inequality, or the joists
must be furred up by pieces to bring the boards, when laid, to a level. The boards em-
ployed in flooring are either battens or deals of greater breadth. The quality of battens
is divided into three sorts. The best is that free from knots, shakes, sap wood, or cross-
grained stuff, well matched and selected with the greatest care. The second best is that
in which only small but sound knots are permitted, but it is to be free from sapwood and
shakes. The most inferior kind is that left from the selection of the other two. See
p. 574.
BOARDING JOISTS. Those in naked floorings to which the boards are to be fixed.
BOARDING FOR LEAD FLATS AND GUTTERS. That which immediately receives the lead,
rarely less than one inch and an eighth, or one inch and a quarter thick. It is usually
laid merely with rough joints.
BOARDING LUFFER or LEVER BOARDING. Inclined boarding, with intervals between the
boards, nailed in an inclined direction on the sides of buildings or lanterns, so as to admit
a free current of air, and at the same time to exclude the rain.
BOARDING FOR PUGGING or DEAFENING, also called SOUND BOARDING. Short boards dis-
posed transversely between the joists of floors to hold some substance intended to prevent
sound being transmitted from one story to another. These boards are supported by
fillets fixed to the sides of the joists about three quarters of an inch thick and an inch wide.
The substance, often plaster, placed between them to prevent the transmission of the
sound, is called the pugging.
BOARDING FOR SLATING. That nailed to the rafters for the reception of the slates, usually
three quarters to seven eighths of an inch in thickness ; the sides commonly rough, the
edges either rough, shot, plowed and tongued, or rebated and sometimes sprung, so as
to prevent the rain from passing through the joints. The boarding for slating may be
so arranged as to diminish the lateral pressure or thrust against the walls by disposing
the boards diagonally on the rafters. On the lower edge of the boarding is fixed the
3 O 4
936 GLOSSARY, ETC.
eaves board, as also against all walls either at right angles to or forming an acute angle
with the ridge, or a right or obtuse angle with the wall plate. The eaves board is for
raising the lower ends of the lower row of slates that form the eaves. Those placed
against walls are for raising the slates to make the water run off from the wall. The
boarding for slates should be of yellow deal without sap.
BOARDING FOR LINING WALLS. The boards used for this purpose are usually from five
eighths to three quarters of an inch thick, and are plowed and tongued together.
BOARDING FOR OUTSIDE WORK, or WEATHER-BOARDING. Boards nailed with a lap on each
other, to prevent the penetration of the rain and snow. The boards for this purpose are
generally made thinner on one side than on the other, especially in good permanent work.
The feather-edged board is, therefore, in such cases, used, the thick edge of the upper
board being laid on the thin edge of that below, lapping about an inch or an inch and a
half, and the nails being driven through the lap.
BOASTER. A tool used by masons to make the surface of the work nearly smooth. It is
two inches wide in the cutting part.
BOASTING IN MASONRY. The act of paring the stone with a broad chisel and mallet, but
not in uniform lines.
In CARVING, it is the rough cutting round the ornaments, to reduce them to their
contours and profiles, before the incisions are made for forming the raffels or minuter
parts. See ASHLAR.
BODY OF A NICHE. That part of it whose superficies is vertical. If the lower part be
cylindrical and the upper part spherical, the lower part is the body of the niche, and the
upper part is termed the head.
BODY RANGE OF A GROIN. The wider of two vaults which intersect and form a groin.
BODY OF A ROOM. That which forms the main part of the apartment, independent of any
recesses on the ends or sides.
BOFFRAND. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 280.
BOLECTION MOULDING. See BALECTION MOULDING.
BOLSTER. The baluster part of the Ionic capital on the return side. See BALUSTER.
BOLT. (Gr. #oAis, a dart). In joinery, a metal fastening for a door, and moved by the
hand, catching in a staple or notch which receives it. Bolts are of various sorts, whereof
plate spring and flush bolts are for fastening doors and windows.
This name is also given to large cylindrical iron or other metal pins, having a round head
at one end and a slit at the other. Through the slit a pin or forelock is passed, whereby
the bar of a door, window shutter, or the like is made fast. These are usually called
round or window bolts.
The bolt of a lock is the iron part that enters into a staple or jamb when the key is
turned to fasten the door. Of these the two sorts are, one which shuts of itself when the
door is shut to, called a spring bolt; the other, which is only acted upon by applying the
key, is called the dormant bolt.
In carpentry, a bolt is usually a square or cylindrical piece of iron, with a knob at one
end and a screw at the other, passing through holes for its reception in two or more pieces
of timber, for the purpose of fastening them together, by means of a nut screwed on the
end opposite to the knob. The bolt of carpentry should be proportioned to the size and
stress of the timbers it connects.
BOLTEL. See BOULTINE.
BOLTON. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 186.
BOND. (Sax.) Generally the method of connecting two or more bodies. Used in the
plural number, it signifies the timbers disposed in the walls of a house, such as bond tim-
bers, lintels, and wall plates. The term chain bond is sometimes applied to the bond tim-
bers placed in one or more tiers in the walls of each story of a building, and serving not
only to tie the walls together during their settlement, but afterwards for nailing the
finishings to.
BOND. In masonry or brickwork is that disposition of stones or bricks, which prevents the
vertical joints falling over one another. See p. 519.
BOND (HEART). That bond which occurs when two stones being placed in a longitudinal
position extending the exact thickness of the wall, another stone is put over the joints in
the centre of the wall.
BOND MASONRY. See BOUND MASONRY.
BOND STONES. Those whose longest horizontal direction is placed in the thickness of the
work. See p. 520.
BONEING, or BONING. (Etym. doubtful.) The act of judging of or making a plane surface
or line by the eye. It is also performed by joiners with two straight edges, by which it
is seen whether the work is out of winding, that is, whether the surface be plane or
twisted.
BONOMI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 308.
BOOTH. (British, Bwth.) A stall or standing in a fair or market. The term is also applied
GLOSSARY, ETC. 937
to any temporary structure for shade and shelter, as also for wooden buildings for itinerant
players and pedlars.
BORDERS. (Fr. Bord.) Pieces of wood put round the upper edges of any thing, either for
use or ornament. Such are the three pieces of wood, to which the term in architecture
is more usually applied, which are mitred together round the slab of a chimney-piece.
BORING. The art of perforating any solid. For wood the various sorts of bits are described
under BIT.
BORROMINI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 255.
Boss. (Fr.) In sculpture, a projecting mass or prominency of material, to be afterwards
cut or carved.
Boss. Among bricklayers, a wooden vessel used by the labourers for the mortar used in
tiling. It has an iron hook, by which it hangs on the laths or on the rounds of a
ladder.
BOSSAGE. (Fr.) Projecting stones laid rough in building to be afterward cut into mould-
ings or carved into ornaments. The term is also used to signify rustic work, which seems
to advance before the naked of a building, by reason of indentures or channels left at the
joints. The cavities or indentures at the joints are sometimes bevelled or chamfered,
and sometimes circular.
BOUCHARDON. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 284.
BOULDER WALLS. Such as are built of round flints or pebbles laid in strong mortar. This
construction is used where there is a beach cast up by the sea, or where there is an abun-
dance of flints in the neighbourhood.
BOULTINE or BOLTEL. A name sometimes given by workmen to a convex moulding, such
as an ovolo.
BOUND or BOND MASONRY. That wherein the stones of each succeeding course are laid so
that the joint which mounts and separates two stones always falls directly over the middle
of the stone below.
BOUTANT. See ARC-BOUTANT.
Bow. (Sax. Busen). The part of any building which projects from a straight wall. It
is sometimes circular and sometimes polygonal on the plan, or rather formed by two ex-
terior obtuse angles. Bows on polygonal plans are called canted bows.
Bow. Among draughtsmen, denotes a beam of wood or brass, with three long screws that
direct a lath of wood or steel to an arch. It is used in drawing flat arches of large
radius.
Bow COMPASSES are instruments for describing small circles.
Bow ROOM. A room having a bow on one or more sides of it. See BAY WINDOW.
Bow SAW. One for cutting the thin edges of wood into curves.
BOWLERS or BOLDERS. See PAVEMENT.
Box. (Sax.) Generally, a case for holding any thing.
Box FOR MITERING. A trough for cutting miters. It has three sides, and is open at the
ends, with cuts on the vertical sides at angles of forty-five degrees with them.
Box OF A RIB-SAW. Two thin iron plates fixed to a handle, in one of which plates an
opening is made for the reception of a wedge, by which it is fixed to the saw.
Box OF A THEATRE. One of the subdivisions in the tiers round the circle.
BOXED SHUTTERS. See BOXINGS OF A WINDOW.
BOXINGS OF A WINDOW. The cases opposite each other on each side of a window, into which
the shutters are folded or fall back. The shutters of principal rooms are usually in two
divisions or halves, each subdivided into others, so that they may be received within the
boxings. The subdivisions are seldom more in number than three, and are so contrived
that the subdivision whose face is visible, which is called the front shutter, is of the exact
breadth of the boxing, and also flush with it ; the next, hidden in the boxing, is some-
what less in breadth than that last mentioned, and the third still less. Suppose, for in-
stance, a window four feet wide, standing in a two-brick or eighteen-inch wall ; we may
thus find the number of leaves each of the halves must have, as follows : — To the thick-
ness of the wall add that of the plastering, say 2 inches, and we have 20 inches. Now
the sash frame =6 inches in thickness, being added to the reveal or distance = 4^ inches
of the sash frame from the face of the wall =10| inches, which, subtracted from 20, the
thickness of the wall and plaster, leaves 9^ inches. This will give three leaves, or sub-
divisions, and as it is usual to make the back flaps, or those folded within the boxings, less
than the front shutter, whose face is visible and flush with and of the exact breadth of
the boxings, the arrangement may be as follows : — Front shutter 9\ inches, the next 8
inches, and the third 6± inches ; in all, 24 inches, the half of the opening of the window.
It will be perceived .that no allowance has been made for the shutters being rebated into
each other, as is usually the case ; and for this half an inch more must be allowed for the
two rebates of the three leaves, and one eighth of an inch for the rebate at the meeting of
the two principal divisions in the middle of the window, making, with the breadth of the
three subdivisions, 24 + f : the flaps, therefore, may be thus disposed : — Front leaf 9^
938 GLOSSARY, ETC.
inches, second leaf 8| inches, and the third leaf 6| inches ; in all 24| inches, being fully
the width of each principal division. To find the depth to be given to the boxings, to
the thickness of each of the leaves add one sixteenth of an inch, and if there be a back
lining add also the thickness of that. The second and third flaps are almost always
thinner than the front leaf ; thus, say front leaf 11 inch, second leaf 1^ inch, and third
leaf l\ inch ; to which add fg for the three leaves, and the amount will stand thus : — >
li -J- 1^ + 1^ + TC = 4T5 mches for the depth of the boxings. If the walls are only a brick
ana a half thick, or the window very wide, the architrave is made to project before the
face of the plaster, for the purpose of obtaining width for the boxings, or the plaster is
brought out from the internal face of the wall by means of battening.
BOYDEN. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 132.
BRACE. (Fr. Embrasser.) An inclined piece of timber used in trussed partitions and in
framed roofs, in order to form a triangle, by which the assemblage of pieces composing
the framing are stiffened. When a brace is used to support a rafter, it is called a strut.
When braces are used in roofs and in partitions, they should be disposed in pairs, and
introduced in opposite directions. See ANGLE BRACE.
BRACKET. (Lat. Brachium.) A supporting piece for a shelf. When the shelf is broad
the brackets are small trusses, which consist of a vertical piece, an horizontal piece, and
a strut ; but when narrow the brackets are generally solid pieces of board, usually finished
with an ogee figure on their outer side.
BRACKETS FOR STAIRS are sometimes used under the ends of wooden steps next to the well-
hole, for the sake of ornament only, for they have only the appearance of supports.
BRACKETING FOR CORNICES. The wooden ribs nailed to the ceiling, joists, and battening
for supporting the cornices of rooms when too large for security, by the mere dependence
on the adhesive power of plaster to the ceiling. It consists of vertical ribs whose rough
outline is that of the cornice, and to which the laths are nailed for sustaining the plaster
in which the mouldings are run. The bracketing for coves is only an enlargement of the
scale which occurs in ordinary cornices, the operation being that of obtaining a set of ribs
to which the laths may be nailed for the reception of the plastering. The ribs in ques-
tion are usually out of deals, whose thickness must necessarily vary with the weight of
plaster they have to support. See p. 558, et seq.
BRAD. (Etym. uncertain.) A thin nail used in joinery without the spreading head which
other nails have, the projection of the head being only on one side. There are various
sorts of brads, such as joiners' brads for hardwoods ; others, called batten brads, for softer
woods ; and bill, or quarter brads, used for a hastily laid floor. When brads are used
they are generally driven below the surface of the wood through the medium of a punch}
and the hole is filled up with putty to prevent an appearance of the nailing.
BRAMANTE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 167.
BRAMANTINO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 156.
BRANCHES. The ribs of a Gothic vault, rising upwards from the tops of the pillars to the
apex. They appear to support the ceiling or vault.
BRANDRITH. A fence or rail round the opening of a well.
BRASS. A metal much vised in building. It is an alloy of copper and zinc, whose pro-
portions vary according to the required colour. Four parts of copper and one of zinc
form a good brass. The common process for making it is by heating copper plates in
a mixture of native oxide of zinc, or calamine and charcoal.
BRASSES. Sepulchral plates, generally sunk into a flat grave-stone ; sometimes with a mere
inscription, but very frequently with effigies, armorial bearings, and other devices en-
graved upon it.
BRATTISHING. Interpreted, we know not how truly, as the carved open work over a shrine.
BRAY. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 176.
BREADTH. The greatest extension of a body at right angles to its length.
BREAK. The recess or projection of any part within or beyond the general face of the
work. In either case it is to be considered a break.
BREAK IN. In carpentry, is the cutting or breaking a hole in brickwork with the ripping-
chisel for the purpose of inserting timber, or to receive plugs, the end of a beam, or
the like, &c.
BREAKING JOINT. In masonry or brickwork, is the placing a stone or brick over the
course below, in such a manner that the joint above shall not fall vertically immediately
above those below it.
BREAST OF A CHIMNEY. The projecting or facing portion of a chimney front towards a
room which projects into it, or which, from other construction, may not have a break.
It is, in fact, the wall carried up over the front of a fireplace, whether projecting or not.
See CHIMNEY.
BREAST OF A WINDOW. The masonry or brickwork forming the back of the recer>s or
parapet under the window sill.
BREEZE. Small ashes and cinders used instead of coal for the burning of bricks.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 939
BRESSUMMER or BREAST SUMMER. That is, a summer or beam placed breastwise for the
support of a superincumbent wall, performing in fact the office of a lintel. It is prin-
cipally used over shop windows to carry the upper part of the front, and supported by
iron or timber posts, though sometimes by stone. In the interior of a building the
pieces into which the girders are framed are often called summers.
BllETTINGHAM. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 294.
BREWHOUSE. An establishment for the manufactory of malt liquors. A brewhouse is
generally provided as an appendage to dwelling-houses in the country, for brewing the
beer used by the family.
BRICK. (Dutch, Bricke. ) A sort of fictitious stone, composed of an argillaceous earth,
tempered and formed in moulds, dried in the sun, and finally burnt to a proper degree of
hardness in a clamp or kiln. (See Book II. Chap. II. Sect. 9.) The method pursued
by the ancients in making unburnt bricks is described by Vitruvius, book ii. chap. iii.
After mentioning the process, that author thus describes the different sorts in use : —
" There are three sorts of bricks ; the first is that which the Greeks call Didoron (SiSupov*),
being the sort we use, that is, one foot long and half a foot wide. The other two sorts
are used in Grecian buildings ; one is called Pentadoron, the other Tetradoron. By the
word Doron, the Greeks mean a palm, because the word Sapor signifies a gift which can
be borne in the palm of the hand. That sort, therefore, which is five palms each way is
called Pentadoron ; that of four palms Tetradoron. The former of these two sorts is
used in public buildings ; the latter in private. Each sort has half bricks made to suit
it ; so that when a wall is executed, the course on one of the faces of the wall shows
sides of whole bricks, the other face of half bricks ; and being worked to the line on each
face, the bricks on each bed bind alternately over the course below. Besides the pleasant
varied appearance which this method gives, it affords additional strength by the middle
of a brick on a rising course falling over the vertical joints of the course thereunder."
Towards the decline of the Republic, the Romans made great use of bricks as a building
material. According to Pliny, those most in use were a foot and a half long, and
a foot broad. This agrees nearly with the Roman bricks used in England, which are
generally found to be about seventeen inches in length by eleven inches in breadth.
Ancient bricks are generally very thin, being often no more than one inch and a half
thick. From the article by Quatremere de Quincy in the Encyc. Methodique, it appears
from his researches among the antique buildings of Rome, he found bricks of the following
sizes. The least were 1\ inches (French) square and \\ inch thick; the medium one 1G.|
inches square, and from 18 to 20 lines in thickness. The larger ones were 22 inches square
by 21 or 20 lines thick. The smaller ones were used to face walls of rubble work ; and,
for making better bond with the wall, they were cut diagonally into two triangles, the
longer side being placed on the outside, and the point towards the interior of the work.
To make the tie more effectual between the rubble and the facing, they placed at in-
tervals of 4 feet in height, one or two courses of large square bricks. The larger bricks
were also used for the arches of openings to discharge the superincumbent weight.
BRICKLAYERS' WORK or BRICKLAYING. See Book II. Chap. III. Sect. 2.
BRICKWORK. Any work performed with bricks as the solid material.
BRIDGE. (Sax. Bpisse.) A structure for the purpose of connecting the opposite banks
of a river, gorge, valley, &c., by means of certain materials, forming a road- way from one
side to the other. It may be made of stone, brick, iron, timber, suspended chains or
ropes, or the road-way may be obtained by means of boats moored in the stream. On
the general principles for the situation and construction, the reader is referred to
Book III. Chap. III. Sect. 2. ; and for the principles and mode of constructing arches,
to Book II. Chap. I. Sect. 9.
BRIDGE BOARD, otherwise called NOTCH BOARD, is a board on which the ends of the steps
of wooden stairs are fastened.
BRIDGE-OVER. A term used when several parallel timbers occur, and another piece is fixed
transversely over them, such piece is then said to bridge-over the parallel pieces. Thus
in framed roofing, the common rafters bridge-over the purlins ; so, in framed flooring,
the upper joists, to which the flooring is fixed, bridge-over the beams or binding-joists,
and for this reason they are called bridging-joists.
BRIDGE STOKE. A stone laid from the pavement to the entrance door of a house, over a
sunk area, and supported by an arch.
BRIDGED GUTTERS are those made with boards supported by bearers, and covered above
with lead.
BRIDGING FLOORS are those in which bridging-joists are employed. See p. 541.
BRIDGING JOISTS. Those which are sustained by transverse beams below, called binding
joists ; also those joists which are nailed or fixed to the flooring-boards.
BRIDGINGS or BRIDGING PIECES, also called STRUTTING or STRAINING PIECES, are pieces
placed between two opposite beams to prevent their nearer approach, as rafters, braces,
struts, &c. When a strutting-piece also serves as a sill, it is called a straining sill.
940 GLOSSARY, ETC.
BRINGING-UP or CARRYING-UP. A term used by workmen to denote building up. Thus,
bringing-up a wall four feet means building it up.
BRIOSCO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 202.
BROACHED WORK. See DROVED and BROACHED.
BROAD STONE. The same as free-stone.
BRONTEUM. (Gr.) In ancient Greek Architecture, that part of the theatre under the floor
in which brazen vessels with stones in them were placed to imitate the sound of thunder.
BRONZE. A compound metal applied to various useful and ornamental purposes. The
composition consists of 6 to 12 parts of tin and 100 parts of copper. This alloy is
heavier and more tenacious than copper ; it is also much more fusible, and less liable to
be altered by exposure to the air.
BROSSE, JACQUES DE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 248.
BRUNELLESCHI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 147.
BUDGET. A small pocket used by tilers for holding the nails in lathing for tiling.
BUFFET. (Fr.) A cabinet or cupboard for plate, glass, or china. Some years back it was
the practice to make these small recesses very ornamental, in tlie form of niches, and left
open in the front to display the contents. At present, when used, they are generally
closed with a door.
BUILDER. A person who contracts for performing the whole of the different artificers'
works in a building.
BUILDING. Used as a substantive is the mass of materials shaped into an edifice. As a
participle, it is the constructing and raising an edifice suited to the purposes for which it
is erected ; the knowledge requisite for the design and construction of buildings being
the subject of this work, in which it is treated under its various heads.
BUILDING ACT. An act passed 14 Geo. 3. cap. 78. for regulating buildings within the
bills of mortality of London. Now superseded by the Act 7 & 8 Viet. cap. 84.
BUILDING OF BEAMS. The same as Scarfing. See p. 542.
BULKER. A term used in Lincolnshire to signify a beam or rafter.
BULL'S EYE. Any small circular aperture for the admission of light or air.
BULL'S NOSE. The external or other angle of a polygon, or of any two lines meeting at an
obtuse angle.
BULLEN NAILS. Such as have round heads with short shanks turned and lacquered. They
are principally used in the hangings of rooms.
BULLOCK SHEDS. Houses or sheds for feeding bullocks, in which the main points to be
observed are good ventilation, facility in feeding and cleaning the animals, perfect drain-
age, and a good aspect. They ought not to be less than nineteen feet wide.
BUNDLE PILLAR. In Gothic architecture, a column consisting of a number of small pillars
round its circumference.
BUONARROTTI, M. A. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 219.
BUONO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 95.
BUONO, BARTOLOMEO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 191.
BUONTALENTI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 241.*
BURLINGTON, EARL OF. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 293.
BURROUGHS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 287.
BUSCHETTO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 18.
BUSTAMENTE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 233.
BUT-HINGES. Those employed in the hanging of doors, shutters, casements, &c. They are
placed on the edges with the knuckle projecting on the side in which the closure is to
open, and the other edges stopping against a small piece of wood left in the thickness
of the closure so as to keep the arris entire. Workmen generally sink the thickness of
the hinges flush with the surface of the edge of the closure, and the tail part one half
into the jamb. Of but-hinges there are several kinds ; such as stop but-hinges, which
permit the closure to open only to a right angle, or perhaps a little more, without
breaking the hinges; rising but-hinges, which are those that turn upon a screw; these are
most employed in doors, and cause the door to rise as it opens, so as to clear the carpet
in the apartment ; slip-off but-hinges, which are those employed where a door or window
blind is required to be taken off occasionally.
BUTMENT. The same as ABUTMENT, which see.
BUTMENT CHEEKS. The two solid sides of a mortise. The thickness of each cheek is
usually equal to the thickness of the mortise, but it happens that circumstances arise to
vary this thickness.
BUTT-END OF A PIECE OF TIMBER. That which was nearest the root of a tree.
BUTTERY. A store-room for provisions, which, if possible, should be on the north side of
a building.
BUTTING JOINT. That formed by the surfaces of two pieces of wood, whereof one is per-
pendicular to the fibres, and the other in their direction, or making an oblique angle
with them, as for example, the joints made by the struts and braces with the truss posts.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 941
BUTTON. A small piece of wood or metal, made to turn about a centre for fastening a
door, draw, or any other kind of closure. The centre is generally a nail, which should
be smooth, rounded, and the head filed even.
BUTTRESS. (Fr. Aboutir, to lie out.) A mass of brickwork or masonry to support the
side of a wall of great height, or pressed on the opposite side by a bank of earth or body
of water. Buttresses are employed against the piers of Gothic buildings to resist the
thrust of the vaulting. See ARC BOUTANT, or flying buttress. The buttress called the
pillared buttress is formed by vertical planes attached to the walls themselves. These
sometimes form the upright terminations of flying buttresses.
C.
CABIN. (Brit. Chabin.) A term applied to the huts and cottages of poor people and to
those of persons in a savage state of life.
CABINET. (Fr.) A retired room in an edifice set apart for writing, study, or the preserv-
ation of any thing curious or valuable. The term is also applied to an apartment at the
end of a gallery in which pictures are hung, or small pieces of sculpture, medals, bronzes,
• and other curiosities are arranged.
CABLE. A moulding of a convex circular section, rising from the back or concave surface
of a flute, so that its most prominent part may be in the same continued circular surface
as the fillet on each side of the flute. Thus the surface of a flute is that of a concave
cylinder, and that of the cable is the surface of a convex cylinder, with the axes of the
cylinders parallel to each other. The cable seems to represent a rope or staff laid in the
flute, at the lower part of which it is placed about one third of the way up.
CABLED COLUMN. One in which cables, as described in the last article, are used.
CABLED FLUTES. Such as are filled with cables.
CABLING. The filling of the flutes with cables, or the cables themselves so disposed.
Cabling of flutes was not frequently used in the works of antiquity. The flutes of the
columns of the arch of Constantine are filled with cables to about one third of the height
of the shaft. Most of the columns in the ruins of Baalbec, Palmyra, and the palace of
Diocletian at Spalatro, have neither flutes nor cables. In modern times an occasional
abuse has been practised of cabling without fluting, as in the church della Sapienza at
Rome.
CAER. A term in British antiquity, which, like the Saxon term Chester, denotes a castle,
and is generally prefixed to the names of places fortified by the Romans.
CAGE, in carpentry, is an outer work of timber inclosing another within it. Thus the ca^e
of a stair is the' wooden inclosure that encircles it.
CAISSON. (Fr.) A large and strong chest of timber, water-tight, used in large and rapid
rivers for building the pier of a bridge. The bottom consists of a grating of timber,
contrived in such a manner that the sides, when necessary, may be detached from it.
The ground under the intended pier is first levelled, and the caisson being launched and
floated into its proper position, it is sunk, and the pier built therein as high as the level
of the water, or nearly so. The sides are then detached, and the pier, built as described,
sinks down on the foundation prepared for it. The tonnage of each of the caissons used
at Westminster Bridge was equal to that of a forty-gun ship.
CAISSONS IN VAULTING. The sunken pannels on ceilings, vaults, and cupolas. See Book
III. Chap. II. Sect. 3.
CALCAREOUS CEMENTS. See CEMENT in the body of the work, p. 505, et seq.
CALCAREOUS EARTH. A species of earth which becomes friable by burning, and is after-
wards reduced to an impalpable powder by mixing it with water. It also effervesces
with acids. It is frequently met with in a friable or compact state in the form ot
chalk.
CALUARIUM. (Lat.) In ancient architecture a close vaulted room, in which persons were
brought into a state of profuse perspiration. It was one of the apartments attached to
ancient baths, and was also denominated Vaporarium, Sudatorium, and Laconicum.
CALFPEN. A place for nourishing calves. It is generally a small apartment within the
cowhouse ; but the practice is not to be recommended, as it keeps the cow in a restless
and agitated state, and prevents her from feeding well, and giving that quantity of milk
she would otherwise furnish.
CALIBER. ( Spanish. ) The greatest extent or diameter of a round body.
CALIBER COMPASSES. Those made with bent legs for taking the diameter of a convex or
concave body in any part. See MOULD.
CALIDUCTS. (Lat.) Pipes or channels disposed along the walls of houses and apartments.
They were used by the ancients to convey heat to the remote parts of the house from
one common furnace.
CALIPER. See CALIBER.
CALLIAS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 18,
942 GLOSSARY, ETC.
CALLICRATES. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 13.
CALLIMACHUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 24.
CALOTTE. (Fr.) A concavity in the form of a cup or niche, lathed and plastered, serving
to diminish the height of a chapel, alcove, or cabinet, which otherwise would appear too
high for the breadth.
CAMARORIS. (Gr.) An elevation terminated with an arched or vaulted head.
CAMBER. (Gr.) An arch on the top of an aperture or on the top of a beam. Hence
camber windows.
CAMBER BEAMS. Those which form a curved line on each side from the middle of their
length. All beams should, to some degree, if possible, be cambered ; but the cambered
beam is used in flats and church platforms, wherein, after being covered with boards,
these are covered with lead, for the purpose of discharging the rain-water.
CAME RATED. (Gr.) The same as arched.
CAMES. Small slender rods of cast lead in glazing, twelve or fourteen inches long, of
which, by drawing them separately through a species of vice, the glaziers make their
turned lead for receiving the glass of casements.
CAMP CEILING. A ceiling whose form is convex inwardly.
CAMPANILE. (It. a bell tower.) A tower for the reception of bells, usually, in Italy,
separated from the church. Many of the campaniles of Italy are lofty and magnificent
structures. That at Cremona is much celebrated, being 395 feet high. It consists of a
square tower, rising 262 feet, surmounted by two octagonal open stories, ornamented
with columns ; a conical shaft and cross terminate the elevation. The campanile of
Florence, from the designs of Giotto, though in bad taste, has claims on our admiration
for its richness and the superiority of the workmanship. It is 267 feet high, and 45 feet
square. The most remarkable of the campaniles in the country mentioned is that at
Pisa, commonly called the " Leaning Tower." It is cylindrical in general form, and
surrounded by eight stories of columns, placed over one another, each having its enta-
blature. Each column carries the springing of two arches, and there is an open gallery
between the columns and the circular wall of the tower. The height of the last story of
columns, in which are the bells, is set back from the general line of the elevation. The
height is about 150 feet to the platform, whence a plumb line lowered falls on the
leaning side nearly 1 3 feet beyond the base of the building.
CAMPBELL. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 271.
CAMPERO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 1 98.
CAMP-SHEETING or CAMPSHOT. The sill or cap of a wharf wall.
CANAL. (It. Canale.) A duct for the conveyance of a fluid ; thus the canal of an aqueduct
is the part through which the water flows. In ancient aqueducts it was lined with a coat
of mastic.
CANAL. A term sometimes used for the flutings of a column or pilaster. The canal of
the volute is the spiral channel, or sinking on its face, commencing at the eve, and
following in the revolutions of the volute. The canal of the larmier is the channel or
groove sunk on its soffite to throw off the rain, and prevent it from running down the
bed mould of the cornice.
CANCELLI. (Lat.) Latticed windows, or those made with cross bars of wood or iron.
The balusters or rails which close in the bar of a court of justice, and those round the
altar of a church, are also so called ; hence the word chancel.
CANDELABRUM. (Lat. Candela.) A stand or support on which the ancients placed a
lamp. Candelabra varied in form, and were highly decorated with the stems and leaves
of plants, parts of animals, flowers, and the like. The etymology of the word would
seem to assimilate the candelabrum to our candlestick ; it is, however, certain that the
word candela was but a lamp, whereof the candelabrum was the support. In the works
of Piranesi some of the finest specimens are to be found. The most curious, however,
as respects form, use, and workmanship, are those excavated at Herculaneum and
Pompeii. They are all of bronze, slender in their proportions, and perfectly portable, as
they rarely in height exceed five feet. On none of the candelabra hitherto found is there
any appearance of a socket or pipe at top, from which aa inference as to the use of
candles could be made.
CANEPHORJE. (Gr. KcwTj^opos, bearing a basket.) Figures of young persons, of either sex,
bearing on their heads baskets containing materials for sacrifice. They are frequently
confounded with caryatides, from their resemblance in point of attitude and the modern
abuse of their application.
CANOPY. (Gr. Kcwi/wTmoy.) An ornamented covering over a seat of state; and in its
extended signification any covering which affords protection from above. It is also the
label or projecting roof that surrounds the arches and heads of gothic niches.
CANT. An external angle or quoin of a building. Among carpenters it is used as a verb,
to signify the turning of a piece of timber which has been brought in the wrong way for
their work.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 943
CANT MOULDING. One with one or more bevelled, instead of curved, surfaces. The cant
moulding was used at an early period of the art.
CANTALEVER or CANTILEVER. (Probably from Canterii labrum, the lip of the rafter.'") Blocks
inserted into the wall of a building for supporting a balcony, the upper members of a
cornice, or the eaves of a house, and the like. They answer the same purpose as mo-
dillions, mutules, blocks, brackets, &c., although not so regularly applied. They are, in
modern use, not unfrequently made of timber or cast iron, and project considerably, as in
the church of St. Paul, Covent Garden, which projects one quarter of the height of the
column.
CANTED COLUMN. One whose horizontal sections are polygons. In the works of the
ancients it is rarely met with. The examples immediately occurring to us are the
columns of the portico of Philip of Macedon and of the temple of Cora.
CANTHARUS. A fountain or basin of water in the centre of the atrium before the ancient
churches, wherein persons washed their faces and hands before they entered. Among the
Romans the cantharus of a fountain was the part out of which the water issued.
CANTHERS or CANTERII. In ancient carpentry the common rafters of a roof, whose ends,
say some, the mutules of the Doric order represent.
CANTING. The cutting away of a part of an angular body at one of its angles, so that its
horizontal section becomes thereby the portion of a polygon of a greater number of sides
whose edges are parallel from the intersection of the adjoining planes.
CANTONED BUILDING. One whose angles are decorated with columns, pilasters, rustic
quoins, or any thing projecting beyond the naked of the wall.
CAP. A term used in joinery, signifying the uppermost of an assemblage of parts. It is
also applied to the capital of a column, the cornice of a door, the capping or uppermost
member of the surbase of a room, the handrail of a staircase, &c.
CAPITAL. (Lat. Caput.) The head or uppermost member of any part of a building ; but
generally applied in a restricted sense to that of a column or pilaster of the several orders,
to which (Sections 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. Chap. I. Book III.) the reader is referred for the dif-
ferences of their capitals. The chief of the capitals of Eastern and Egyptian architecture
are shown in figs. 58, 59, &c.
CAPITAL, ANGULAR. The modern Ionic capital, whose four sides are alike, showing the
volute placed at an angle of 1 35° on all the faces.
CAPITAL OF A BALUSTER. The crowning or head mouldings of it.
CAPITAL OF A LANTERN. The covering by which it is terminated ; it may be of a bell
form, that of a dome, spire, or other regular figure.
CAPITAL OF A TRIGLYPH. The square band which projects over it. In the Roman Doric
it has a greater projection than in the Grecian.
CAPREOLI. (Lat.) In ancient carpentry the joints or braces of a trussed roof. See jigs. 91,90.
CARACOL. A term sometimes applied to a staircase in the form of a helix or spiral.
CARAVANSERA. Among the Eastern nations a large public building or inn appropriated to
the reception and lodgment of travellers by caravans in the desert. Though the cara-
vansera serves the purpose of an inn, there is this essential difference between the two,
that in the former the traveller finds nothing either for the use of himself or his cattle,
but must carry all his provisions and necessaries with him. Caravanseras are also
numerous in cities (see an example, jffy. 33.), where they serve, not only as inns, but as
shops, warehouses, and even exchanges.
CARCASS. The naked building of a house before it is lathed and plaistered, or the floors
laid, &c.
CARCASS FLOORING. That which supports the boarding, or floor boards, above, and the
ceiling below, being a grated frame of timber, varying in many particulars which are
described, Book II. Chap. III. Sect. 4., in the body of the work.
CARCASS ROOFING. The grated frame of timber work which spans the building, and
carries the boarding and other covering. The method of framing the carcass roofing of
a building in its varieties is given, p. 544, et seq.
CARDINAL SCAPI. In ancient Roman joinery, the stiles of doors.
CARILEPHO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 83.
CAROLITIC COLUMN. One with a foliated shaft.
CARPENTER. (Fr. Charpentier.) An artificer who cuts, forms, and shapes timbers for the
purposes of giving strength and support to the various parts which are of timber, in the
construction of buildings.
CARPENTER'S RULE. The rule by which carpenters take their dimensions, and also through
the aid of a brass slide, which makes it a sliding rule, are enabled to make calculations
in multiplication and division, besides other operations.
CARPENTER'S SQUARE. An instrument whose stock and blade consists of an iron plate of one
piece. One leg is eighteen inches long, and numbered on the outer edge from the exterior
angle with the lower part of the figures adjacent to the interior edge. The other le<r is
twelve inches long, and numbered from the extremity towards the angle ; the figures being
944 GLOSSARY, ETC.
read from the internal angle, as on the other side. Each of the legs is about an inch
broad. This instrument is not only used as a square, but also as a level and measuring
rule.
CARPENTRY. (Lat. Carpentum, carved wood.) An assemblage of pieces of timber con-
nected by framing, or letting them into each other, as are the pieces of a roof, floor,
centre, &c. It is distinguished from joinery by being put together, without the use of
any other edge tools than the axe, adze, saw, and chisel, whereas joinery requires the use
of the plane. The leading points that require attention in sound carpentry are, —
1. the quality of the timber used; 2. the disposition of the pieces of timber, so that
each may be in such direction, with reference to the fibres of the wood, as to be most
capable of performing its office properly ; 3. the forms and dimensions of the pieces ;
4th. the manner of framing the pieces into each other, or otherwise uniting them by
means of iron, or other metal. The subject of carpentry in the body of the work is
treated under the head of MECHANICAL CARPENTRY, Book II. Chap. I. Sect. 11., and
of PRACTICAL CARPENTRY, in the same Book, Chap. III. Sect. 4.
CARRARA MARBLE. The name of a species of white marble obtained at the quarries near
the town bearing that name, in the Tuscan States. It was called marmor lunense and
ligustrum by the ancients, and differs from the Parian marble by being harder in texture,
and less bright in colour.
CARRIAGE. The timber framework on which the styes of a wooden staircase are supported.
See p. 443.
CARRY UP. See BRING UP.
CARTOUCH. (Fr.) A name given to the modillion of a cornice used internally. It is also
used to denote a scroll of paper, usually in the form of a tablet, for the reception of an
inscription. In Egyptian architecture, applied to those parts of an hieroglyphic inscrip-
tion enclosed by lines.
CARVER. (Ceoppan. ) An artificer who cuts wood into various forms and devices. Carving,
generally, is the art of cutting a body by recession, in order to produce the representation
of an object, either in relief, or recessed within the general surface. In this sense it
equally applies to the making of intaglios as to that of making cameos.
CARYATIDES. Figures used instead of columns for the support of an entablature. See
Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 11., and Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 15.
CASE. The outside covering of any thing, or that in which it may be enclosed. It is also
a term used to denote the carcass of a house.
CASE BAYS. The joists framed between a pair of girders in naked flooring. When the
flooring joists are framed with one of their ends let into a girder, and the opposite ends
let into a wall, they are called tail-bays- The extent of the case-bays should not exceed
ten feet.
CASE OF A DOOR. The wooden frame in which a door is hung.
CASE OF A STAIR. The wall surrounding a staircase.
CASED. A term signifying that the outside of a building is faced or covered with materials
of a better quality. Thus, a brick wall is said to be cased with stone, or with a brick
superior in quality to that used in the inner part of the wall.
CASED SASH FRAMES. Those which have their interior vertical sides hollow, to admit the
weights which balance the sashes hung between them.
CASEMATE. A hollow moulding, such as the cavetto, which see.
CASEMENT. A glazed frame or sash, opening on hinges affixed to the vertical sides of the
frame into which it is fitted.
CAJSING. See LINING.
CASINO. (It. a small house.) A term applied now to a small country house ; but formerly
to one capable of affording defence on a small scale against an attacking force.
CASTELLA. In ancient Roman architecture, reservoirs in which the waters of an aque-
duct were collected, and whence the water was conducted through leaden pipes to the
several parts of a city.
CASTELLATED HOUSES. Those with battlements and turrets, in imitation of ancient
castles.
CASTING. In carpentry and joinery a term synonymous with warping. It means the
bending of the surfaces of a piece of wood from their original state, caused either by the
gravity of the material, by its being subject to unequal temperature, moisture, or the
ununiform texture of the material.
CASTLE. (Lat. Castellum, or Sax. Captel.) A building fortified for military defence ; also a
house with towers, usually encompassed with walls and moats, and having a donjon or
keep in the centre. The principal castles of England at present are those of the Tower
of London, of Dover, Windsor, Norwich, &c. At one time those of Harwood, Spoffbrth,
Kenilworth, Warwick, Arundel, and others, might have vied with these in importance.
The characteristics of a castle are its valla (embankments) and fossa (ditches) ; from the
former whereof the walls rise usually crowned with battlements, and flanked by circular
GLOSSARY, ETC.
945
or polygonal bastions at the angles formed by the walls. These were pierced for gates,
with fixed or drawbridges, and towers on each side. The gates of considerable strength
were further guarded by descending gratings, called portcullises. All the apertures were
made as small as they could be, consistent with internal lighting.
The component parts of the castle were — the fosse or moat, with its bridge ; the bar-
bacan, which was in advance of the castle, being a raised mound or tower, whose outer
walls had terraces towards the castle, with their bastions, as above-mentioned ; the gate-
house, flanked by towers, and crowned with projections called machicolations, through
which heavy materials, or molten lead, were dropped on the assailants entering the gate-
way ; the outer ballium, or bailey, or area within the castle, which was separated from
the inner ballium by an embattled wall with a gatehouse, and in which the stables and
other offices were usually seated ; and the inner ballium, for the residence of the owner or
governor, and his retinue ; this, at one corner, or in the centre, had a donjon, or keep tower,
which was the stronghold of the place, and contained a state apartment, a well, and a
chapel ; the former usually, and the latter frequently, are found in ancient castles. The
reader who desires detailed information on this matter is referred to King's Mun. Antiq.
4 vols. folio ; the Archa^ologia, in many places; Leland's Collect, vol. ii. &c. &c.
CATABASION. (Gr. Karafkuvw.) A place in the Greek church, under the altar, in which
relics are deposited.
CATACOMBS. (Gr. Kara, against, and Kofjt.€os, a hollow place.) Subterraneous places for
burying the dead. The hypogaaa, crypta, and cimeteria of the ancients were used for
the same purpose. In some cities the excavations for catacombs were of vast extent, and
were used for other purposes than those of sepulture ; at Syracuse, for instance, the same
cavern served for a prison as well as a public cemetery. It has been said, that in the early
ages of Christianity they served as places of public worship or devotion. The most
celebrated for their extent are those of Rome, Naples, Syracuse, &c. ; and the more mo-
dern ones of Paris, which have been formed by quarrying for the stone, whereof a great
part of the city has been built.
CATAFALCO. (It. a scaffold.) A temporary structure of carpentry, decorated with paint-
ing and sculpture, representing a tomb or cenotaph, and used in funeral ceremonies.
That used at the final interment of Michel Angelo, at Florence, was of a very magnifi-
cent description ; and, for the art employed on it, perhaps unequalled by any other before
or since its employment.
CATCH DRAIN. A drain used on the side of a larger open one, or of a canal, to receive the
surplus water of the principal conduit.
CATENARY CURVE. The mechanical curve formed by a heavy flexible cord or chain of
uniform density, hanging freely from the two extremities. Galileo first noticed it, and
proposed it as the proper figure for an arch of equilibrium. He, however, imagined that it
was the same as the parabola. It was James Bernouilli who first investigated its nature,
and its properties were thereafter pointed out by John Bernouilli, Huygens, and Leib-
nitz. From the first of these mathematicians, the following geometrical method of de-
termining the relations between the parts of a catenary is translated. The catenarean
curve is of two kinds, the common, which is formed by a chain equally thick or equally
heavy in all its points ; or uncommon, which is formed by a thread unequally thick, that
is, which in all its points is unequally heavy, and in some ratio of the ordinates of a
given curve. To draw the common catenary mechanically, suspend on a vertical plane
a chain of similar and equal links of homogeneous matters, as flexible as possible, from
any two points not in a perpendicular line, nor so distant from each other as the length
of the chain. Prick the plane through the links as nearly as possible in the middle of
the chain, and through the points draw the catenary (Jig. 1043.). Let the chord FBD or
Fbd be given, and the abscissa BA or 6 A intersecting it (Jig. 1043.) in Bor 6 at a given angle.
Draw the vertical line B A and FBD or Fbd at AF B
the given angle on the plane. Fix one end of
the chain at F, and from the point D or d, with
another part of the chain, raise or lower the
chain until the lower part coincide with A, and
through points, made as before, draw the curve.
To draw a tangent to the catenary : let DBF
be a horizontal line, and at right angles to BA
from A draw AR equal to the curve DA,
obtained as before, and draw BR, which bisect
in o. At right angles to BR draw oC inter-
secting BA continued in C. Draw CR, and
make the angle BDT equal to the angle ACR. Fig 1013
DT is the tangent required, and BC equals
CR; CA is the tension at the point A, or the horizontal draft, which, in a catenary, is
in every point the same, and is therefore a constant quantity ; as DB • BT" • CA ' Aft :
3 P
946 GLOSSARY, ETC.
or as DB : BT :: the constant quantity CA : AR, equal to the length of the chain
AD.
If CH be drawn through C at right angles to BC it is called the directrix, and DH
drawn parallel to BC, intersecting the directrix at H, is the tension at the point D, being
always equal to the sum of the abscissa and constant quantity. With the centre C and
radius = the tension DH at D= CB, cut the tangent at the vertex A in R, then AR is
the length of the chain AD.
AC is the semi-axis of an equilateral hyperbola, and also the radius of curvature of a
circle equicurved with it and the catenary.
In the triangle CAR, when CA is the radius, then the tension equals CR, the secant
of the angle ACR( = BDC). The chain AD equals AR, the tangent of the same
angle and the absciss AB equals CR— CA = SR. Hence, ACR being a right-angled
triangle, it is manifest that when two of the five quantities, viz. the angle, the absciss,
the length of the chain between the vertex and point of suspension, the constant quantity or ten-
sion at the vertex, and the tension at the points of suspension, are known, the other three
may be obtained geometrically, or from a table of tangents and secants.
CATHARINE WHEEL. In Gothic buildings an ornamented window or compartment of a
window of a circular form, with rosettes or radiating divisions or spokes. In the cathedral
at Rheims, the church of St. Ouen at Rouen, in Winchester Cathedral, and the transepts
of Westminster Abbey, are specimens, among many others, of this species of ornamental
window.
CATHEDRAL. ( Gr. KofleSpa, a seat or throne. ) The principal church of a province or diocese,
wherein the throne of archbishop or bishop is placed. It was originally applied to the
seats in which the bishop and presbyters sat in their assemblies. In after times, the
bishop's throne was, however, placed in the centre of the apsis, on each side whereof were
inferior seats for the presbyters. In the present day the bishop's throne is placed on one
side of the choir, usually on that towards the south.
CATHETUS. (Gr. Kaderos, let down.) A perpendicular line passing through the centre of a
cylindrical body as a baluster or a column. It is also a line falling perpendicularly, and
passing through the centre or eye of the volute of the Ionic capital.
CATTLE SHED, or CATTLE HOUSE. In agricultural buildings an erection for containing
cattle while feeding, or otherwise. The cattle shed is, of course, most economically con-
structed when built against walls or other buildings. If cattle sheds are built in isolated
situations, the expense of a double shed will be much less than that of a single one, to
contain the same number of cattle. Buildings of this description should be well ven-
tilated, and be so constructed as to require the least possible labour in supplying the
food, and clearing away the dung. The stalls should be placed so as to keep the cattle
dry and clean, with sufficient drains to receive the ordure. There should be good
provision of air holes in the roof; and, if the building have gables, a window should be
placed in each as high as possible with moveable luffer-boards, as in granary windows,
which may be easily opened and shut by means of a rope attached to a lever connected
with them. These precautions will much tend to the health of the cattle, and even
preserve the timbers, which in such buildings are peculiarly apt to rot at an early period
after their erection, from the constant alternations of dryness and moisture.
CATTUS. A moveable shed usually fixed on wheels.
CAULICOL^E or CAULICOLI. (Lat. Caulis, a stalk.) The eight lesser branches or stalks in
the Corinthian capital springing out from the four greater or principal caules or stalks.
The eight volutes of the capital of the order in question are sustained by four caules or
leaves, from which these caulicolae or lesser foliage arise. They have been sometimes
confounded with the helices in the middle, and by others with the principal stalks whence
they arise. Other definitions have been also incorrectly given, but not worth notice
here.
CAULKING or COCKING. The mode of fixing the tie-beams of a roof or the binding joists
of a floor down to the wall-plates. Formerly this was performed by dovetailing in the
following manner : — A small part of the depth of the beam at the end of the under side
was cut in the form of a dovetail, and to receive it a corresponding notch was formed in
the upper side of the wall-plate, across its breadth, making, of course, the wide part of
the dovetail towards the exterior part of the wall, so that the beams, when laid in their
notches, and the roof finished, would greatly tend to prevent the walls separating, though
strained by inward pressure, or even if they should have a tendency to spread, through
accidents or bad workmanship. But beams so fixed have been found liable to be drawn
to a certain degree out of the notches in the wall-plates from the shrinking of the timber ;
a more secure mode has therefore been introduced, which obviates all hazard of one being
drawn out of the other by any deficiency of seasoning in the timbers, or by any changes
of weather.
CAUSTIC CURVE. (Gr. Kcuo>, to burn.) The name given to a curve, to which the rays of
light, reflected or refracted by another curve, are tangents. The curve is of two kinds
:
GLOSSARY, ETC. 947
the catacaustic and the diacaustic ; the former being caused by reflection, and the latter by
refraction.
CAVJEDIUM. (Lat.) In ancient architecture an open quadrangle or court within a house.
The cavffidia described by Vitruvius are of five species : — Tuscanicum, Corinthium,
Tetrastylon (with four columns), Displuviatum (uncovered), and Testudinatum (vaulted).
Some authors have made the cavasdium the same as the atrium and vestibulum, but they
were essentially different.
CAVE. (Lat. Cavum.) A hollow place. Perhaps the oldest species of architecture on
record.
CAVE^E. (Lat.) In ancient architecture the subterranean cells in an amphitheatre, wherein
the wild beasts were confined in readiness for the fights of the arena. In the end the
amphitheatre itself (by synecdoche) was called cavea, in which sense it is employed by
Ammianus Marcellinus, lib. xxix. cap. i.
CAVETTO. (Lat. Cavus. ) A hollowed moulding, whose profile is the quadrant of a circle.
It is principally used in cornices. „
CEDAR. (Gr. KeSpos.) The pinus cedrus of Linnaeus, a forest tree little used in this
country, except for cabinet work. See p. 484.
CEILING. (Lat. Coelum. ) The upper horizontal or curved surface of an apartment opposite
the floor, usually finished with plastered work. The subject of ceilings is treated of at
length in Sect. 24. Chap. I. Book III.
CEILING FLOOR. The joisting and ceiling supported by the beams of the roof.
CEILING JOISTS. Small beams, which are either mortised into the sides of the binding
joists, or notched upon and nailed up to the under sides of those joists. The last mode
diminishes the height of the room, but is more easily executed, and is by some thought
not so liable to break the plaster as when the ends of the ceiling-joists are inserted into
pulley mortises.
CELER. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 42.
CELL. (Lat. Cella.) In ancient architecture the part of a temple within the walls. It was
also called the naos, whence our nave in a church. The part of a temple in front of the
cell was called the pronaos, and that in the rear the posticum.
CELLAR. (Fr. Cellier.) The lower story of a building, when wholly or partly under the
level of the ground.
CEMENT. (Lat. Cementum.) The medium through which stones, bricks, or any other
materials are made to adhere to each other. The different cements for stones and bricks,
the most important in building, are treated of in Book II. Chap. II. Sect. 11.
CELTIC ARCHITECTURE. See Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 1.
CEMETERY. ( Gr. Keifjuu, I lie dead. ) An edifice or area where the dead are interred. The
most celebrated public cemeteries of Europe are those of Naples, of that in the vicinity
of Bologna, of Pisa, and of the more modern ones of Paris, whereof that of Pere la Chaise
is the principal. That of Pisa is particularly distinguished by the beauty of its form and
architecture, which is of early Italian Gothic. It is 49O feet long, 170 feet wide, and
60 feet high, cloistered round the four sides.
CENOTAPH. (Gr. Ktvos, empty, and To<f>os, a sepulchre.) A monument erected to the
memory of a person buried in another place.
CENTERING. The temporary woodwork or framing whereon any vaulted work is con-
structed, sometimes called a centre. The principle upon which centering is constructed
will be found under the heads of MECHANICAL CARPENTRY, Book II. Chap. I. Sect. 11.
and of PRACTICAL CARPENTRY, Book II. Chap. III. Sect. 4.
CENTRE. (Lat. Centrum.) In a general sense denotes a point equally remote from the ex-
tremes of a line, superficies, or body, or it is the middle of a line or plane by which a
figure or body is divided into two equal parts ; or the middle point so dividing a line,
plane, or solid, that some certain effects are equal on all its sides. For example, in a
circle the centre is every where at equal distance from the circumference ; in a sphere
the centre is a point at the same distance from every point in the surface.
CENTRES OF A DOOR. The two pivots on which the door revolves.
CENTROLINEAD. An instrument for drawing lines converging to a point at any required
distance, whether accessible or inaccessible.
CEROMA. (Gr.) An apartment in the Gymnasia and baths of the ancients, where the
bathers and wrestlers were anointed with oil thickened by wax, as the name imports.
CESSPOOL, or SESSPOOL. A well sunk under the mouth of a drain to receive the sediment
which might choke up its passage.
CHAIN TIMBERS. See BOND.
CHALCIDICUM. (Lat.) In ancient architecture a term used by Vitruvius to denote a large
building appropriated to the purpose of administering justice, but applied sometimes to
the tribunal itself. According to Festus, the name is derived from Chalcis, a city in
Euboea.
CHALK. (Germ. Kalk.) Earthy carbonate of lime, found in abundance in Great Britain.
<J P 2
948 GLOSSARY, ETC.
and, indeed, in most parts of the world. It is insoluble in water, but decomposed by heat,
and sometimes used in masonry for the same purposes as limestone.
CHAMBER. (Fr. Chambre.) Properly a room vaulted or arched, but the word is now
generally used in a more restricted sense to signify an apartment appropriated to
lodging. With the French the word has a much more extensive meaning ; but with us
the almost only use of it, beyond what is above stated, is as applied in a palace to the
room in which the sovereign receives the subject, which room is called the Presence
Chamber.
CHAMBER OF A LOCK. In canals the space between the gates in which the vessels rise and
sink from one level to another, in order to pass the lock.
CHAMBER STORY. That story of a house appropriated for bed-rooms. In good houses
it should never be less than ten feet high, in better houses from twelve feet to fifteen
feet.
CHAMBERS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 300.
CHAMBRANLE. (Fr.) An ornamental bordering on the sides and tops of doors, windows,
and fireplaces. This ornament is generally taken from the architrave of the order of
the building. In window frames the sill is also ornamental, forming a fourth side. The
top of a three-sided chambranle is called the transverse, and the sides ascendants.
CHAMFER. (Fr. Chamfrein.) The arris of anything originally right-angled cut a slope or
bevel, so that the plane it then forms is inclined less than a right angle to the other
planes with which it intersects.
CHAMPAIN LINE. In ornamental carved work formed of excavations is the line parallel to
the continuous line, either ascending or descending.
CHANCEL. That part of the eastern end of a church in which the altar is placed. See
CANCELLI. This is the strict meaning ; but in many cases the chancel extends much
further into the church, the original divisions having been removed for accommodating a
larger congregation. The word is also used to denote a separate division of the ancient
basilica, latticed off to separate the judges and council from the audience part of the
place.
CHANDRY. An apartment in a palace or royal dwelling for depositing candles and other
lights.
CHANNEL. (Fr. Canal.) A long gutter or canal sunk below the surface of a body.
CHANNEL OF THE LARMIER. See CANAL OF THE LARMIER.
CHANNEL OF THE VOLUTE. See CANAL OF THE VOLUTE.
CHANNEL STONES. In paving are those prepared for gutters or channels, serving to collect
and run off the rain water with a current.
CHANTRY. (Lat. Cantaria.) A little chapel in ancient churches with an endowment for
one or more priests to say mass for the release of souls out of purgatory. In the four-
teenth year of Edward VI. all the chantries in England were dissolved : at this period
there were no less than forty-seven attached to St. Paul's Cathedral.
CHAPEL. (Lat. Capella.) A building for religious worship, erected separately from a
church, and served by a chaplain. In Catholic churches, and in cathedrals and abbey
churches, chapels are usually annexed in the recesses on the sides of the aisles. These
are also called chantries.
CHAPITER. The same as CAPITAL, which see.
CHAPLET. (Fr. Chapelet.) A moulding carved into beads, olives, and the like. See
BAGUETTE.
CHAPTER HOUSE. In ecclesiastical architecture the apartment (usually attached) of a
cathedral or collegiate church in which the heads of the church or the chapter meet to
transact business.
CHAPTREL. (Fr.) The same as IMPOST, which see.
CHARGED. A term used to denote that one member of a piece of architecture is sustained
by another. A frieze is said to be charged with the ornament cut on it.
CHARNEL HOUSE. A place where the bones of the dead are deposited.
CHARTOPHYLACIUM. A recess or apartment for the preservation of records or valuable
writings.
CHASE. An upright indent cut in a wall for the joining another to it, so as to hide light
and exclude air.
CHASE MORTISE, or PULLEY MORTISE. A long mortise cut lengthwise in one of a pair of
parallel timbers, for the insertion of one end of a transverse timber, by making the latter
revolve round a centre at the other end, which is fixed in the other parallel timber.
This may be exemplified in ceiling joists where the binding joists are the parallel timbers
first fixed, and the ceiling are the transverse joists. See PRACTICAL CARPENTRY, in the
body of the work.
CHEEKS. Two upright, equal, and similar parts of any piece of timber-work. Such, for
instance, as the sides of a dormer window.
CHEEKS OF A. MORTISE are the two solid parts upon the sides of the mortise. The thick-
GLOSSARY, ETC. 949
ness of each cheek should not be less than the thickness of the mortise, except mouldings
on the stiles absolutely require it to be otherwise.
CHEESE ROOM. A room set apart for the reception of cheeses after they are made. The
walls should be lined, and fitted up with shelves with one or more stages, according to
the size of the room, and proper gangways for commodious passage. In places
where much cheese is manufactured, the dairy-room may be placed below, the shelf-room
directly above, and lofts may be built over the shelf-room, with trap doors through each
floor. This will save much carriage, and will be found advantageous for drying the
cheeses.
CHEQUERS. In masonry, are stones in the facings of walls, which have all their thin joints
continued in straight lines, without interruption or breaking joints. Walls built in this
manner are of the very worst description ; particularly when the joints are made hori-
zontal and vertical. Those which consist of diagonal joints, or joints inclined to the
horizon, were used by the Romans.
CHESNUT or CHESTNUT. Thefagus castanea. A forest tree used in building. See p. 483.
CHEST. The same as caisson, which see.
CHEVRON WORK. A zigzag ornament used in the archivolts of Saxon and Norman arches
(see Jig. 188.). The outline of chevron work is a conjunction of right lines of equal
lengths alternately disposed so as to form exterior and interior angles, and at the same
time having all the angular points in the same straight line, or in the same curve line
when the chevron work is used for ornamenting arches.
CHICHELE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 146.
CHIMNEY. (Fr. Cheminee.) The place in a room where a fire is burnt, and from which the
smoke is carried away by means of a conduit, called a flue. Chimneys are usually made
by a projection from a wall, and recess in the same from the floor ascending within the
limits of the projection and the recess. That part of the opening which faces the room
is properly called the fireplace, the stone or marble under which is called the hearth.
That on a level with and in front of it is called the slab. The vertical sides of the opening
are called jambs. The head of the fore-plate resting on the jambs is called the mantel,
and the cavity or hollow from the fireplace to the top of the room is called the funnel.
The part of the funnel which contracts as it ascends is termed the gathering, by some the
gathering of the wings. The tube or cavity, of a parallelogrammatic form, on the place
from where the gathering ceases, up to the top of the chimney, is called the flue. The
part between the gathering and the flue is called the throat. The part of the wall facing
the room, and forming one side of the funnel parallel thereto, or the part of the wall
forming the sides of the runnels where there are more than one, is the breast. In external
walls, that side of the funnel opposite the breast is called the back. When there is more
than one chimney in the same wall, the solid parts that divide them are called withs :
and when several chimneys are collected into one mass, it is called a stack of chimneys.
The part which rises above the roof, for discharging the smoke into the air, is called a
chimney shaft, whose horizontal upper surface is termed the chimney-top.
The covings were formerly placed at right angles to the face of the wall, and the
chimney was finished in that manner ; but Count Rumford showed that more heat is
obtained from the fire by reflection when the covings are placed in an oblique position.
He likewise directed that the fire itself should be kept as near to the hearth as possible,
and that the throat of the chimney should be constructed much narrower than had been
practised, with the view of preventing the escape of so much heated air as happened
with wide throats. If the throat be too near the fire, the draught will be too strong,
and the fuel will be wasted ; if it be too high up, the draught will be too languid, and
there will be a danger of the smoke being occasionally beat back into the room.
CHIMNEY PIECE. See Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 22.
CHINESE ARCHITECTURE. See Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 8.
CHIP. A piece of any material cut by an acute-angled instrument.
CHIROSOPHUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 7.
CHISEL. An instrument used in masonry, carpentry, and joinery, and also by carvers and
statuaries, for cutting either by pressure or by impulse from the blows of a mallet or
hammer. There are various kinds of chisels ; the principal ones used in carpentry and
joinery are the former, the paring chisel, the gouge, the mortise chisel, the socket chisel, and
the ripping chisel.
CHISELED WORK. In masonry, the state of stones whose surface is formed by the chisel.
CHIT. An instrument used for cleaving laths.
CHOIR. (Gr. Xopos.) The part of a church in which the choristers sing divine service. la
former times it was raised separate from the altar, with a pulpit on each side, in which
the epistles and gospels were recited, as is still the case in several churches on the Con-
tinent. It was separated from the nave in the time of Constantine. In nunneries, the
choir is a large apartment, separated by a grate from the body of the church, where the
nuns chaunt the service.
3 P 3
950 GLOSSARY, ETC.
CHORAGIC MONUMENT. (Gr. Xopos.) In Grecian architecture, a monument erected in
honour of the choragus who gained the prize by the exhibition of the best musical or
theatrical entertainment at the festivals of Bacchus. The choragi were the heads of the
ten tribes at Athens, who overlooked and arranged the games at their own expense. The
prize was usually a tripod, which the victor was bound publicly to exhibit, for which
purpose a building or column was usually erected. The remains of two very fine
monuments of this sort, viz. of Lysicrates and Thrasyllus, are still to be seen at
Athens. See p. 69.
CHORD. In geometry, the straight line which joins the two extremities of the arc of a
curve ; so called from the resemblance which the arc and chord together have to a bow
and its string, the chord representing the string.
CHRISTMAS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 263.
CHRISTOBOLO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 154.
CHRYSES. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 63.
CHURCH. (Gr. KvpiaKov, from Kvpios, Lord.) A building dedicated to the performance of
Christian worship. For the general principles on which churches are to be designed see
Book III. Chap. III. Sect. 3., also in Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 14. From these latter
it will be seen that the basilica? were the first buildings used for the assembly of the
early Christians. Among the first of the churches was that of St. Peter at Rome,
about the year 326, nearly on the site of the present church ; and it is supposed that the
first church of St. Sophia at Constantinople was built somewhat on its model. That which
was afterwards erected by Justinian seems, in its turn, to have afforded the model of
St. Mark's at Venice, which was the first in Italy constructed with pendentives and
a dome, the former affording the means of covering a square plan with an hemispherical
vault. The four most celebrated churches in Europe erected since the revival of the
arts are, St. Peter's at Rome, which stands on an area of 227,069 feet superficial; Sta.
Maria del Fiore at Florence, standing on 84,802 feet ; St. Paul's, London, which stands
on 84,025 feet, and St. Genevieve at Paris, 60,287 feet. The churches on the Continent
are usually ranged under seven classes : pontifical, as St. Peter's, where the pope occasion-
ally officiates ; patriarchal, where the government is in a patriarch ; metropolitan, where an
archbishop is the head ; cathedral, where a bishop presides ; collegiate, when attached to a
college ; parochial, attached to a parish ; and conventual when belonging to a convent.
In this country the churches are cathedral, abbey, and parochial.
CIBORIUM. ( KiSupiov. ) An insulated erection open on each side with arches, and having a
dome of ogee form carried or supported by four columns. It is also the coffer or case iu
which the host is deposited.
CICCIONE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 158.
CILERY. The drapery or foliage carved on the heads of columns.
CILL. (Sax. Cill.) The timber or stone at the foot of a door, &c. Ground tills are the
timbers on the ground which support the posts and superstructure of a timber building.
The name of cill is also given to the bottom pieces which support quarter and truss
partitions.
CIMBIA. A fillet string, list, or cornice.
CIMELIARCH. A name given to the apartment where the plate and vestments are deposited
in churches.
CINCTURE. The ring, list, or fillet at the top and bottom of a column, which divides the
shaft of the column from its capital and base.
CINQUEFOIL. An ornament used in the pointed style of architecture ; it consists of five
cuspidated divisions or curved pendents inscribed in a pointed arch, or in a circular
ring applied to windows and panels. The cinquefoil, when inscribed in a circle, forms
a rosette of five equal leaves having an open space in the middle, the leaves being
formed by the open spaces, and not by the solids or cusps.
CIONE m ORGAGNA. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 144.
CIPPUS. A small low column, sometimes without a base or capital, and most frequently
bearing an inscription. Among the ancients the cippus was used for various purposes ;
when placed on a road it indicated the distance of places ; on other occasions cippi were
employed as memorials of remarkable events, as landmarks, and for bearing sepulchral
epitaphs.
CIRCLE. (Lat. Circulus.) A figure contained under one line called the circumference, to
which all lines drawn from a certain point within it, called the centre, are equal. It is
the most capacious of all plain figures.
CIRCULAR BUILDINGS. Such as are built upon a circular plan. When the interior also is
circular, the building is called a rotunda.
CIRCULAR WORK. A term applied to any work with cylindric faces.
CIRCULAR CIRCULAR, or CYLINDRO-CYLINDRIC WORK. A term applied to any work which
is formed by the intersection of two cylinders whose axes are not in the same direction.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 951
The line formed by the intersection of the surfaces is termed, by mathematicians, a line of
double curvature.
CIRCULAR ROOFS. Those whose horizontal sections are circular.
CIRCULAR WINDING STAIRS. Such as have a cylindric case or walled enclosure, with the
planes of the risers of the steps tending towards the axis of the cylinder.
CIRCUMFERENCE. The boundary lines of a circular body.
CIRCUMSCRIBE. (Verb.) To draw a line around a figure, or enclose it so that the enclosed
shall be touched on all its angles or on its whole circumference by the line or body that
encloses it.
CIRCUMVOLUTIONS. The turns in the spiral of the Ionic capital, which are usually three,
but there are four in the capitals of the temple of Minerva Polias.
CIRCUS. (Lat.) In ancient architecture, a straight, long, narrow building, whose length to
its breadth was generally as 5 to 1 . It was divided down the centre by an ornamented
barrier called the spina, and was used by the Romans for the exhibition of public spec-
tacles and chariot races. Several existed at Rome, whereof the most celebrated was the
Circus Maximus. Julius Ca?sar improved and altered the Circus Maximus, and that it
might serve for the purpose of a jiaumachia, supplied it with water. Augustus added
to it the celebrated obelisk now standing in the Piazza del Popolo. Of this circus no
vestiges remain. Besides these at Rome were the circi of Flaminius, near the Pantheon ;
Agonalis, occupying the site of what is now called the Piazza Navona ; of Nero, on a
portion whereof St. Peter's stands. Those of Antoninus and Aurelian, no longer even
in ruins ; but that of Caracalla, which was 738 feet in length, is at the present time
sufficiently perfect to exhibit its plan and distribution in the most satisfactory manner.
The spectacles of the circus were called the Circensian Games, and consisted of chariot
and horse races, of both whereof the Romans were passionately fond, but particularly of
the former, which in the times of the emperors excited so great an interest, as to divide
the whole population of the city into factions, distinguished by the colours worn by
the different charioteers. The disputes of these factions often led to serious distur-
bances. See page 99.
CISSOID. In geometry a curved line invented by Diocles. Its name is derived from KKTCTOS,
ivy, from the curve appearing to mount along its assymptote, as ivy climbs on the trunk
of a tree. The curve consists of two infinite branches above and below the diameter of
a circle, at one of whose ends a tangent being drawn, the curve approaches the tangent
without ever meeting it. The curve was invented by its author with a view to the
solution of the famous problem of the duplication of the cube, or the insertion of two
mean proportionals between two given straight lines. Its mechanical construction may
be found in Newton's Arithmetica Universalis.
CIST. (Gr. KiffTi), a chest.) A term used to denominate the mystic baskets used in pro-
cessions connected with the Eleusinian mysteries. It was originally formed of wicker
work, and when afterwards made of metal, the form and texture were preserved in
imitation of the original material. When sculptured on ancient monuments, it indicates
some connection with the mysteries of Ceres and Bacchus.
CISTERN. (Gr. KJOTTTJ.) A reservoir for water, whether sunk below or formed of planks
of wood above ground. In the construction of an earthen cistern, a well-tempered
stratum of clay must be laid as a foundation for a brick flooring, and the bricks laid in
terras mortar or Parker's cement. The sides must be built with the same materials ;
and if in a cellar or other place near a wall a space must be filled with clay, from the
foundation to the top of the cistern contiguous to the wall, by which means it will be
preserved from injury. Cisterns above ground are usually formed of wooden planks
and carried by bearers ; but the cistern formed of slates, now much used, is the best for
adoption.
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. The art of erecting every species of edifice destined for the use of
man, the several matters necessary to the knowledge whereof forms the subject of this
work.
Civic CROWN. A garland of oak leaves and acorns, often used as an architectural or-
nament.
CLAMP. In brick-making a large mass of bricks generally quadrangular on the plan, and
six, seven, or eight feet high, arranged in the brick field for burning, which is effected
by flues prepared in stocking the clamp, and breeze or cinders laid between each course
of bricks. See Book II. Chap. II. sect 9.
CLAMP. In carpentry and joinery is a piece of wood fixed to another with a mortise and
tenon, or a groove and tongue, so that the fibres of the piece thus fixed cross those of the
other, and thereby prevent it from casting or warping.
CLAMP NAILS. See NAILS.
CLASP NAILS. See NAILS.
CLATHRI. In ancient Roman architecture, were bars of iron or wood which were used to
secure doors or windows.
3 P 4
352 GLOSSARY ETC.
CLAY. In ordinary language, any earth which possesses sufficient ductility to admit of
being kneaded with water. Common clays may be divided into three classes, viz. unc-
tuous, meagre, and calcareous. Of these the first is chiefly used in pottery, and the second
and third are employed in the manufacture of bricks and tiles.
CLAYING. The operation of spreading two or three coats of clay for the purpose of keeping
water in a vessel. This operation is also called puddling.
CLEAM. A term used in some places with the same signification as to stick or to glue.
CLEAR. The nett distance between two bodies, where no other intervenes, or between
their nearest surfaces.
CLEAR STORY or CLERE STORY. The upper vertical divisions of the nave, choir, and
transepts of a church. It is clear above the roof of the aisles, whence it may have taken
its name, but some have derived the name from the clair or light admitted through its
tier of windows. Nearly all the cathedrals and large churches have clear stories, or tiers
of arcades, and also of windows over the aisles and triforia. There is no triforium in
the priory church of Bath, but a series of large and lofty windows constitute the clear
story. The choir at Bristol Cathedral has neither triforium nor clear story.
CIEATS. Small wooden projections in tackle to fasten the ropes to.
CLEAVING. The act of forcibly separating one part of a piece of wood or other matter from
another in the direction of the fibres, either by pressure or by percussion with some
wedge-formed instrument.
CLEFTS. The open cracks or fissures which appear in wood which has been wrought too
green. The carpenter usually fills up these cracks with a mixture of gum and sawdust,
but the neatest way is to soak both sides well with the fat of beef broth, and then dip
pieces of sponge into the broth and fill up the cracks with them ; they swell out so as to
fill the whole crack, and so neatly as to be scarcely distinguishable.
CLEOMENES. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 21,
CLEOPATRA'S NEEDLES. A name given to two obelisks on the east of the palace at Alex-
andria. They are of Thebaic stone and covered with hieroglyphics. One has been
thrown down, broken, and lies buried in the sand. The other stands on a pedestal.
They were each of a single stone, about sixty feet high and seven feet square.
CLEPSYDRA. (Gr. from KACTTTW, to conceal, and 'T5a>p, water). A water clock, or vessel for
measuring time by the running out of a certain quantity of water, or sometimes of sand,
through an orifice of a determinate magnitude. Clepsydras were first used in Egypt
under the Ptolemies ; they seem to have been common in Rome, though they were chiefly
employed in winter. In the summer season sundials were used.
CLINCHING. The act of binding and driving backward with a hammer the pointed end of
a nail after its penetration through a piece of wood.
CLINKERS. Bricks impregnated with nitre and more thoroughly burnt by being nearer the
fire in the kiln. See p. 504.
CLOACAE. The name given to the common sewers of ancient Rome for carrying off into
the Tiber the filth of the city. The chief of these, called the Cloaca Maxima, was built
by the first Tarquin of huge blocks of stone joined together without cement. It consisted
of three rows of arches one above another, which at length conjoin and unite together.
It began in the Forum Romanum, was 300 paces long, and entered the Tiber between
the temple of Vesta and the Pons Senatorius. There were as many principal sewers as
there were hills in the city.
CLOAK-PINS AND RAIL. A piece of wood attached to a wall, furnished with projecting
pegs on which to hang hats, great-coats, &c. The pegs are called cloakpins, and the
board into which they are fixed, and which is fastened to the wall, is called the rail.
CLOISTER. (Lat. Claustrum. ) The square space attached to a regular monastery or large
church with a peristyle or ambulatory round, usually with a covered range of building
over. The cloister is perhaps, ex vi termini, the central square shut in or closed by the
surrounding buildings. Cloisters are usually square on the plan, having a plain wall on
one side, a series of windows between the piers or columns on the opposite side, and
arched over with a vaulted or ribbed ceiling. It mostly forms part of the passage of
communication from the church to the chapter house, refectory, and other parts of the
establishment. In England all the cathedrals, and most of the collegiate churches and
abbeys, were provided with cloisters. On the Continent they are commonly appended
to large monasteries, and are often decorated with tombs and paintings in fresco.
A common appendage to a cloister was a lavatory, or stone trough for water, at which
the monks washed their hands previous to entering the refectory.
CLOSER. The last stone in the horizontal length of a wall, which is of less dimensions than
the rest to close the row. Closers in brickwork, or pieces of bricks (or bats), less or
greater than half a brick, that are used to close in the end of a course of brickwork. In
English as well as Flemish bond, the length of a brick being but nine inches, and its
width four inches and a half, in order that the vertical joints may be broken at the end
of the first stretcher, a quarter brick (or bat) must be interposed to preserve the con-
GLOSSARY, ETC. 953
tinuity of the bond, this is called a queen-closer. A similar preservation of the bond may
be obtained by inserting a three-quarter bat at the angle in the stretching course ; this
is called a king-closer. In both cases an horizontal lap of two inches and a quarter is left
for the next header. See Book II. Chap. III. Sect. 2.
CLOSE STRING. In dog-legged stairs, a staircase without an open newel.
CLOSE or CLOOS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 153.
CLOSET. A small apartment frequently made to communicate with a bed-chamber, and
used as a dressing room. Sometimes a closet is made for the reception of stores, and is
then called a store closet.
CLOUGH or CLOYSE. The same as paddle, shuttle, sluice, or penstock. A contrivance for
retaining or letting out the water of a canal, pond, &c.
CLOUGH ARCHES or PADDLE-HOLES. Crooked arches by which the water is conveyed
from the upper pond into the chamber of the lock of a canal on drawing up the dough.
CLOUT NAILS. See NAILS.
CLUSTERED. The combination of several members of an order penetrating each other.
CLUSTERED COLUMNS. Several slender pillars or columns attached to each other so as to
form one. In Roman architecture the term is used to denote two or four columns
which appear to intersect each other, at the angle of a building or apartment, to answer
to each return.
COARSE STUFF. In plastering, a mixture of lime and hair used in the first coat and float-
ing of plastering. In floating more hair is used than in the first coat.
COAT. A thickness or covering of plaster or other work done at one time.
COBARRUBIAS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 210.
COB-WALLS. Such as are formed of mud mixed with straw, not uncommon in some dis-
tricts of England, but the best are to be found in Somersetshire.
COCCEIUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 38.
COCKING or COGGING. See CAULKING.
COCKLE STAIRS. A term sometimes used to denote a winding staircase.
CCENACULUM. (Lat.) In ancient Roman architecture, an eating or supper room. In the
early period of their history, when the houses rarely consisted of more than two stories,
it denoted generally the upper story. The word also signified lodgings to let out for
hire, and also the upper stories of the circi, which were divided into small shops or
rooms.
CCENATIO. An apartment in the lower part of the Roman houses, or in a garden, to sup
or eat in. From Suetonius it would appear that it denoted a banqueting and sum-
mer house. In the Laurentine Villa a large ccenatio is described by the younger
Pliny, and it seems, from the description, that it was placed in the upper part of a lofty
tower.
COFFER. (Sax. Copne.) A sunk panel in vaults and domes, and also in the soffite or
under side of the Corinthian and Composite cornices, and usually decorated in the centre
with a flower. But the application of the term is general to any sunk panel in a ceiling
or soffite.
COFFER DAM. A case of piling, water-tight, fixed, in the bed of a river, for the purpose
of excluding the water while any work, such as a wharf, wall, or the pier of a bridge, is
carried up. A coffer dam is variously formed, either by a single enclosure or by a double
one, with clay, chalk, bricks, or other materials between, so as effectually to exclude the
water. The coffer dam is also made with piles only driven close together, and some-
times notched or dove-tailed into one another. If the water be not very deep, piles may
be driven at a distance of five or six feet from each other, and grooved in the sides with
boards let down between them hi the grooves. For building in coffer dams, a good
natural bottom of gravel or clay is requisite, for though the sides be made sufficiently
water-tight, if the bed of the river be loose, the water will ooze up through it in too
great quantities to permit the operations to be carried on. It is almost unnecessary to
inculcate the necessity of the sides being very strong and well-braced on the inside to
resist the pressure of the water.
COGGING. See CAULKING.
COIN. (Fr.) The same as quoin. The angle formed by two surfaces of a stone or brick
building, whether external or internal, as the corner formed by two walls, or of an arch
and wall, the corner made by the two adjacent sides of a room, &c.
COLE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 175.
COLISEUM. The name given to the amphitheatre built (A. D. 72) by Vespasian, See body
of the work, p. 94.
COLLAR or COLARINO. (It.) A ring or cincture ; it is another name for the astragal of
a column. It is sometimes called the neck, gorgerin, or hypotrachelium.
COLLAR BEAM. A beam used in the construction of a roof above the lower ends of the
rafters or base of the roof. The tie beam is always in a state of extension, but the collar
beam may be either in a state of compression or extension as the principal rafters are
954 GLOSSARY, ETC
with or without tie beams. In trussed roofs, collar beams are framed into queen posts ;
in common roofs, into the rafters themselves.
In general, trusses have no more than one collar beam ; yet, in very large roofs, they
may have two or three collar beams besides the tie beam. The collar beam supports or
trusses up the sides of the rafters, so as to keep them from sagging without any other
support, but then the tie beam would be supported only at its extremities. In com-
mon purlin roofing, the purlins are laid in the acute angles between the rafters and the
upper edges of the collar beams. See p. 546.
COLLEGE. An establishment properly so termed for the education of youth in the higher
branches of study. See Book III. Chap. III. Sect. 8.
COLONELLI. (It.) The Italian name for the posts employed in any truss framing.
COLONNADE. (It. Colonnata.) A range of columns. If the columns are four in number, it
is called tetrastyle ; if six in number, hexastyle ; when there are eight, octastyle ; when
ten, decastyle ; and so on, according to the Greek numerals. When a colonnade is in
front of a building it is called a portico, when surrounding a building a peristyle, and
when double or more polystyle. The colonnade is moreover designated according to the
nature of the intercolumniations introduced as follows : pycnostyle, when the space be-
tween the columns is one diameter and a half of the column ; systyle, when it is of two
diameters ; eustyle, when of two diameters and a quarter ; diastyle, when three, and
arceostyle when four.
COLUMBARIUM. (Lat.) A pigeon-house. The plural of the word (columbaria) was ap-
plied to designate the apertures formed in walls for the reception of cinerary urns in the
ancient Roman cemeteries.
COLUMELL^E. A name sometimes used for balusters.
COLUMN. (Lat. Columna.) Generally any body which supports another in a vertical
direction. For an account of the columns used in the five orders, see Book III.
Chap. I. Sects. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. There are various species of columns, as twisted,
spiral, and rusticated. Cabled or rudented columns are such as have their flutings filled
with cables or astragals to about one third of the height. Carolitic columns have their
shafts foliated. Columns were occasionally used as monuments, as the Trajan and
Antonine columns at Rome, and the Monument in London. By the side of the Halle
au Ble at Paris there is a gnomonic column for showing the time, erected by Catharine di
Medicis. The Columna Bellica at Rome was near the temple of Janus, and at it the consul
proclaimed war by throwing a javelin towards the enemies' country. The chronological
column was rather historical, bearing an inscription to record an event. The cruciferal
column is one bearing a cross ; the funereal one, an urn ; the zoophoric, an animal ; and
the itinerary one pointed out the various roads diverging from its site. There was
among the Romans what was called a lacteal column, which stood in the vegetable
market, and contained on its pedestal a receptacle for infants abandoned by their parents.
(Juvenal, Sat. vi. ) On the legal column were engraved the laws ; the boundary or
limitative column marked the boundary of a province ; the manubial column was for the
reception of trophies or spoils ; and the rostral column, decorated with prows of ships, was
for the purpose of recording a naval engagement. The triumphal column was erected
in commemoration of a triumph, and the sepulchral one was erected on a tomb. The
milliarium aureum, or milliary column of the Romans, was originally a column of white
marble, erected by Augustus in the Forum, near the temple of Saturn. From it the dis-
tances from the city were measured. It is a short column with a Tuscan capital, having
a ball of bronze (formerly gilt for its finish) at top, and is still preserved in the Capitol.
COMBINATION OF THE PARTS OF BUILDINGS. See Book III. Chap. III. Sect. 1., and
Book III. Chap. II. Sects. 4. and 6.
COMITIUM. (Lat. ) A building which stood in the Roman Forum, wherein assemblies of
the people were held. It occupied the whole space between the Palatine Hill, the
Capitol, and the Via Sacra.
COMMISSURE. (Lat.) The joint between two stones, or the application of the surface of
one stone to the surface of another.
COMMON CENTRING. Such as is constructed without trusses, but having a tie beam at
its ends. Also that employed in straight vaults.
COMMON JOISTS. Those in single naked flooring to which the boards are fixed. They are
also called boarding joists, and. should not exceed one foot apart.
COMMON RAFTERS. Those in a roof to which the boarding or lathing is attached.
COMMON ROOFING. That which consists of common rafters only, which bridge over the
purlins in a strongly framed roof.
COMMUNICATION DOORS. Those which, when open, throw two apartments into one.
COMPARTED. (Fr. Compartir, to divide.) That which is divided into several parts is said
to be comparted.
COMPARTITION. The distribution of the ground plot of an edifice into the various passages
and apartments.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 955
COMPARTMENT. A subdivisional part, for ornament, of a larger division. To this alone is
the term properly applicable.
COMPARTMEMT CEILING. One divided into panels, which are usually surrounded by
mouldings.
COMPARTMENT TILES. An arrangement of varnished red and white tiles on a roof.
COMPASS SAW. One for dividing boards into curved pieces; it is very narrow and with-
out a back.
COMPASSES. (Fr. Compas.) A mathematical instrument for drawing circles and measuring
distances between two points. Common compasses have two legs, moveable on a joint.
Triangular compasses have two legs similar to common compasses, and a third leg fixed
to the bulb by a projection, with a joint so as to be moveable in every direction. Beam
compasses, which see, are used for describing large circles. Proportional compasses
have two pair of points moveable on a shifting centre which slides in a groove, and
thereby regulates the proportion that the opening at one end bears to that of the other.
They are useful in enlarging or diminishing drawings.
COMPLEMENT. The number of degrees which any angle wants of a right angle. The
complement of a parallelogram is two lesser parallelograms, made by drawing two right
lines parallel to the sides of the greater through a given point in the diagonal.
COMPI.UVIUM. (Lat.) An area in the centre of the ancient Roman houses, so constructed
that it might receive the waters from the roofs. It is also used to denote the gutter or
eave of a roof.
COMPO. A name often given to Parker's cement.
COMPOSITE ARCH. The same as the pointed or lancet arch.
COMPOSITE NUMBERS. Such as can be divided by some other number greater than unity ;
whereas prime numbers admit of no such divisor.
COMPOSITE ORDER. See Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 7., and Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 13.
COMPOSITION, ARCHITECTURAL. For general principles, see Book III. Chap. II. Sect. 1.
COMPOSITION OF FORCES. The combination or union of several forces for determining the
result of the whole. See p. 381.
COMPOUND INTEREST. See p. 280. 856.
COMPRESSIBILITY. The quality of bodies which permits of their being reduced to smaller
dimensions. All bodies, in consequence of the porosity of matter, are compressible, but
liquids resist compression with immense force.
CONCAMERATA SuDATio. An apartment in the ancient gymnasium, between the laconicum
or stove, and the warm bath. To this room the racers and wrestlers retired to wipe off
the sweat from their bodies.
CONCAMERATE. (Lat.) To arch over.
CONCAVITY. (Lat. Concavus, hollow.) Of a curve line is the side between the two points
of the curve next its chord or diameter. The concavity of a solid is such a curved
surface, that if any two points in it be taken, the straight line between them is in a void
space, or will coincide in only one direction with the surface.
CONCENTRIC. (Lat.) Having a common centre, as are the radii of a circle.
CONCHOID OF NICOMEDES. A name given to a curve invented by that mathematician for
solving the two famous problems of antiquity — the duplication of the cube, and the
trisection of an angle. It continually approaches a straight line without meeting it,
though ever so far produced.
CONCRETE. (Lat. Concrescere. ) To coalesce in one mass. A mass composed of stone
chippings or ballast, cemented together through the medium of sand and lime, and
usually employed in making foundations where the soil is of itself too light or boggy,
or otherwise insufficient for the reception of the walls. See Book II. Chap. II.
Sect. 11.
CONDUIT. (Fr.) Along narrow walled passage underground, for secret communication
between different apartments. It is a term also used to denote a canal or pipe for the
conveyance of water, and is also applied to the structure to which it is conveyed for de-
livery to the public.
CONE. (Gr. Kwi/os.) A solid body, having a circle for its base, and terminating in a
point called its vertex ; so that a straight line drawn from any point in the circumference
of the base to the vertex will coincide with the convex surface. If the axis or straight
line drawn from the centre of the base to the vertex be perpendicular to the base, it is
termed a right cone ; if not, it is an oblique cone.
CONFESSIONAL. (Lat.) In Catholic churches the small cell wherein the priest sits to
hear the confession of, and give absolution to, the penitent. It is usually constructed of
wood and in three divisions, the central one whereof has a seat for the convenience of
the priest.
CONFIGURATION. The exterior form or superficies of any body.
CONGE'. (Fr.) The same as APOPHYGE, which see.
CONIC SECTIONS. The figures formed by the intersections of a plane with a cone. They
95G GLOSSARY, ETC.
are five in number : a triangle, a circle, an ellipse, a parabola, and an hyperbola ; the
three last, however, are those to which the term is usually applied. See Book II.
Chap. I. Sect. 5.
CONICAL ROOF. One whose exterior surface is shaped like a cone.
CONISTERIUM. (Gr. KoviffTypioj'.) In ancient architecture, a room in the gymnasium and
palaestra, wherein the wrestlers, having been anointed with oil, were sprinkled over with
dust, that they might lay firmer hold on one another.
CONJUGATE DIAMETERS. The diameters in an ellipsis or hyperbola parallel to tangents
at each other's extremities.
CONOID. (Gr. Koj/oetSrjs. ) Partaking of the figure of a cone. A figure generated by the
revolution of a conic section round one of its axes. There are three kinds of conoids,
the elliptical, the hyperbolical, and the parabolical, which are sometimes otherwise deno-
minated by the terms ellipsoid or spheroid, hyperboloid, and paraboloid.
CONSERVATORY. A building for preserving curious and rare exotic plants. It is made
with beds of the finest composts, into which the trees and plants on being removed from
the greenhouse, and taken from the tubs and pots, are regularly planted.
With respect to its construction, it is very similar to the greenhouse, but it must be
more spacious, loftier, and finished in a superior style. The sides, ends, and roofs should
be of glass, for the free admission of light, and for protection of the plants. It should
be, moreover, seated on a dry spot, so as to receive during the day as much of the
sun's heat as possible. It is to be provided with flues or boiling water pipes, to raise
the temperature when necessary ; there must also be contrivances for introducing fresh air
when required. In summer time the glass roofs are taken off and the plants exposed to
the open air ; but these are restored always, if taken off, on the slightest indication of
frost. The chief point in which conservatories differ from greenhouses is, that in the
latter, the plants and trees stand in pots placed upon stages, whereas, in the former, they
are planted in beds of earth surrounded with borders. See GREENHOUSE.
CONSOLE. The same as ANCONES, which see.
CONSTRUCTION. Literally, the building up from the architect's designs ; but amongst
architects it is more particularly used to denote the art of distributing the different
forces and strains of the parts and materials of a building in so scientific a manner as to
avoid failure and insure durability. The second book of this work is devoted to the
subjects involved in the science of construction.
CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY, or PRACTICAL CARPENTRY. See Book II. Chap. III. Sect. 4.
CONTACT. (Lat. Contactus.) In geometry the touching any figure by a line or plane
which may be produced either way without cutting it.
CONTENT. (Lat. Contentus.) The area or superficial quantity contained in any figure.
CONTEXTURE. (Lat. Contextus.) The inter-disposition, with respect to each other, of the
different parts of a body.
CONTIGNATIO. In Roman carpentry the same as that which we term naked flooring.
CONTINUED. A term used to express anything uninterrupted. Thus, an attic is said to be
continued when not broken by pilasters ; a pedestal is continued when, with its mould-
ings and dado or die, it is not broken under the columns ; so of a socle, &c.
CONTOUR. (It. Contorno. ) The external lines which bound and terminate a figure.
CONTRACT. An agreement attached to a specification for the performance of certain works.
CONTUCCIO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 190.
CONVENT. (Lat. Conventus.) A building for the reception of a society of religious
persons.
CONVENTUAL CHURCH, One attached or belonging to a convent.
CONVERGENT LINES. Such as, if produced, will meet.
CONVEX. (Lat. Convexus. ) A form which swells or rounds itself externally. A convex
rectilinear surface is a curved surface, in which a point being taken, a right line passing
through it can only be drawn in one direction.
COPING. (Dutch, Cop, the head.) The highest and covering course of masonry or brickwork
in a wall. Coping equally thick throughout is called parallel coping, and ought to be used
only on inclined surfaces, as on a gable, for example, or in situations sheltered from the
rain, as on the top of a level wall, which it is intended to cover by a roof. Coping
thinner on one edge than on the other serves to throw off the water on one side of the
wall, and is called feather-edged coping. Coping thicker in the middle than at the edges
is called saddle-backed coping. This, of course, delivers each way the water that falls
upon it. It is commonly used on the walls of a sunk area, on dwarf walls carrying an
iron railing, and in the best constructed fence walls. In Gothic architecture, coping is
either inclined upon the faces or plumb ; in the former case the sides of the vertical
section are those of an equilateral triangle with an horizontal base. It is sometimes in
one inclined plane, terminated at top by an astragal, and at others in two inclined planes
parallel to each other, whereof the upper is terminated at top by an astragal, and projects
GLOSSARY, ETC. 957
before the lower, which, like that on one inclined plane, changes its direction at the
bottom into a narrow vertical plane projecting before the level sofite before the parapet.
The inclined coping is occasionally used without the astragal. The sofite of a projection
is said to cope over when it slants downwards from the wall.
COPPER. (Cuprum, a corruption of Cyprium, having been originally brought from the
island of Cyprus.) One of the metals used in building, but not now to the extent to
which it was employed a few years back. See Book II. Chap. II. Sect. 7.
CORBEIL. (Lat. Corbis, a basket. ) A carved basket, with sculptured flowers and fruit,
used as the finishing of some ornament. The name is given to the basket placed on the
heads of caryatides, under the sofite of the architrave cornice. The term is also applied
to the bell of the Corinthian capital.
CORBELS, in castellated and Gothic architecture, are a range of stones projecting from a
wall for the purpose of supporting a parapet or the superior projecting part of the wall.
Two of their sides are vertical planes perpendicular to the face of the wall ; the fronts
are variously moulded. They perform the same office as the modillions of an order,
but the term is confined to the pointed style. 4
The word corbel is sometimes used to denote a niche or hollow in a wall for the re-
ception of a statue or bust. There is also another sense in which it is used, namely, to
signify a horizontal range of stones or timber fixed in a wall or in the side of a vault,
serving to sustain the timbers of a floor or of a vault. In old buildings many of the
timber floors or contignations were thus supported.
CORBEL STEPS are certain steps in the gables of old buildings.
CORBEL TABLE. A series of semicircular intersecting arches for carrying a battlement,
parapet, or cornice, and resting on corbels. Also any projection borne by corbels.
CORDON. The edge of a stone on the outside of a building.
CORE. The interior part of anything. In walls of masonry there should be thorough stones
at regular intervals, for strengthening the core, which is commonly composed of rubble
stones, or, when they are not procurable, two bond stones lapped upon each other may
be used, one from each face of the wall. Instead of each thorough stone we may lay two
stones level on the upper bed, and one large stone in the core lapped upon both, observing
that the tails of the two lower stones be right-angled; by this means the two sides of the
wall will be completely tied together.
The core of a column is a strong post of some material inserted in its central cavity
when of wood.
CORINTHIAN ORDER. See Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 7., and Book I. Chap. II. Sect. }.
CORNICE. (Fr. Corniche.) Any moulded projection which crowns or finishes the part to
which it is affixed. Thus, we speak of the cornice of an order, of a pedestal, of a pier,
door, window, house, &c. The cornice of an order is a secondary member of the order
itself, being the upper subdivision of the entablature.
CORONA. (Lat.) A member of the cornice, with a broad vertical face, and usually of con-
siderable projection. The solid, out of which it is formed, is commonly recessed up-
wards from its sofite, and this part by the English workmen is called the drip, because it
facilitates the fall of the rain from its edge, by which the parts below it are sheltered.
The situation of the corona is between the cymatium above, and the bed-moulding below.
See Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 18.
CORPS. A French term, which signifies the projecting part of a wall, and intended to form
the ground for some decoration.
CORRIDOR. (It. Corridore.) A gallery or passage round a quadrangle leading to the
various apartments. Also, any gallery of communication to them.
CORSA. (Lat.) In ancient architecture, the name given by Vitruvius to any platband or
square fascia whose height is greater than its projection.
CORTILE. (It.) A small court or area, quadrangular or curved, in a dwelling-house,
which is surrounded by the buildings of the house itself.
COSSUTIUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 29.
COTTAGE. (Sax. Cot.) A small house or dwelling for a poor person. See Book III.
Chap. III. Sect. 24.
COTTE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 272.
Coucv. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 127.
COUNTER DRAIN. A drain parallel to a canal or embanked water-course, for collecting the
soakage water by the side of the canal or embankment to a culvert or arched drain under
the canal, by which it is conveyed to a lower level.
COUNTERFORT. (Fr.) A buttress or pier built against and at right angles to a wall to
strengthen it.
COUNTER GAUGE. In carpentry, the measure of the joints by transferring, as, for instance,
the breadth of a mortise to the plan on the other timber, where the tenon is to be made
to adapt them to each other.
958 GLOSSARY, ETC.
COUNTER LATH. One placed between every couple of gaugedones.
COUNTERPARTS of a building are the similar and equal parts of the design on each side of
the middle of the edifice.
COUNTER SINK. The sinking a cavity in a piece of timber or other material to receive a
projection on the piece which is connected with it, as for the reception of a piate of iron
or the head of a screw or bolt.
COUPLED COLUMNS. Those arranged in pairs half a diameter apart. See 267.2605 — 2608.
COUPLES. A term used in the north to signify rafters framed together in pairs with a tie
fixed above their feet. The main couples answer to the trusses.
COURSE. (Lat. Cursus. ) A continued level range of stones or bricks of the same height
throughout the face or faces of a building. Coursed masonry is that therefore wherein
the stones are laid in courses. The course of the face of an arch is the face of the arch
stones, whose joints radiate to the centre. The course of a plinth is its continuity in the
face of the wall. A bond course is that whose stones are inserted into the wall farther than
either of the adjacent courses, for the purpose of binding the wall together. A coursing
joint is the joint between two courses.
COURSE, HEADING, in brickwork, is that in which the bricks are laid with their short sides
towards the face.
COURSE, STRETCHING, is that in which the bricks are all laid lengthwise.
COURT. ( Fr. Cour. ) An uncovered area before or behind the house or in the centre of it,
in which latter case it is often surrounded by buildings on its four sides.
COURTS OF LAW. See Book III. Chap. III. Sect. 6.
COUSSINET. (Fr. Cushion.) A stone placed upon the impost of a pier for receiving the
first stone of an arch. Its bed is level below, and its surface above is inclined for receiv-
ing the next voussoir of the arch.
The word is also used for the part of the Ionic capital between the abacus and quarter
round, which serves to form the volute, and it is in the capital thus called because its
appearance is that of a cushion or pillar seemingly collapsed by the weight over it, and
is bound with a strap or girdle called the baltheus.
COVE. Any kind of concave moulding or vault ; but the term, in its usual acceptation, is
the quadrantal profile between the ceiling of a room and its cornice.
COVE BRACKETING. The wooden skeleton for the lathing of any cove ; but the term is
usually applied to that of the quadrantal cove, which is placed between the flat ceiling
and the wall.
COVER. That part of a slate which is hidden or covered.
COVER WAY. In roofing, the recess or internal angle left in a piece of masonry or brick-
work to receive the roofing.
COVING, in old buildings, the projection of the upper stories of houses over the lower ones.
COVING OF A FIRE-PLACE. See CHIMNEY.
COW-HOUSE. A building for the protection of cows from the inclemencies of the season.
Cozzo, PIETRO DI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 98.
CRAB. A species of crane much used by masons for raising large stones ; it is a wheel
and axle mounted on a pair of sloping legs, three or four feet apart, the legs being inserted
into a frame at the base, whereon, opposite to the weight to be raised, a load may be placed
for gaining so great an amount of leverage as to overcome the weight to be raised. The
rope for the tackle works round the axle, which is turned by pinion wheels to gain
power.
CRADLE. A name sometimes given to a centering of ribs and lattice for turning culverts.
CRADLE VAULT. A term used, but improperly, to denote a cylindric vault.
CRADLING. The timber ribs and pieces for sustaining the lathing and plastering of vaulted
ceilings. The same term is applied to the wooden bracketing for carrying the entabla-
ture of a shop front.
CRAMP. An iron instrument about four feet long, having a screw at one end, and a move-
able shoulder at the other, employed by carpenters and joiners for forcing mortise and
tenon work together.
CRAMPERN or CRAMP IRON, usually called for shortness cramp, a piece of metal, bent at
both extremities towards the same side, for fastening stones together. When stones are
to be connected with a greater strength than that of mortar, a chain or bar of iron with
different connecting knobs is inserted in a cavity, cut on the upper side of a course of
stones across the joints, instead of single cramps across the joints of each two stones.
Cramps are commonly employed in works requiring great solidity ; but in common
works they are applied chiefly to the stones of copings and cornices, and generally in any
external work upon the upper surface or between the beds of the stone. All external
work, liable to the injuries which weather inflicts, should be cramped. The most secure
mode of fixing cramps is to let them into the stone their whole thickness, and to run
them with lead ; but in slight works it is sufficient to bed them in plaster, as is practised
in chimney-pieces. In modern buildings iron is chiefly used. The practice is bad,
GLOSSARY, ETC. 059
from the liability of iron to rust and exfoliate : hence cast-iron is better than wrought,
and should be of somewhat larger size than when wrought iron is employed. The
Romans wisely used cramps of bronze, a material far better than either cast or wrought
iron.
CRAMPOONS. Hooked pieces of iron, something like double calipers, for raising timber or
stones.
CBANE. (Sax. Cpan.) A machine for raising heavy weights, and depositing them at some
distance from their original place. The crane may be constructed of immense power,
and is generally worked by human strength.
CRANE-HOUSE. A building erected for the shelter of a crane. By the late Building Act
it was most absurdly required to be of brick.
CRAPAUDINE DOORS. Those which turn on pivots at top and bottom.
CREASING or TILE CREASING. Two rows of plain tiles placed horizontally under the
coping of a wall, and projecting about an inch and a half on each side to throw off the
rain water.
CRENELLE. In Gothic architecture, the opening in an embattled parapet.
CRESCENT. A building, or rather a series of buildings, which on the plan is disposed in
the arc of a circle.
CREST TILE. That on the ridge of a house. In Gothic architecture, crest tiles are those
which, decorated with leaves, run up the sides of a gable or ornamented canopy.
CRIB. The rack of a stable ; sometimes applied to the manger. It is used also to express
any small habitation ; and moreover the stall or cabin of an ox.
CROCKET. (Fr. Croc, a hook.) One of the small ornaments usually placed on the angles
of pinnacles, pediments, canopies, &c., in Gothic architecture, and most commonly dis-
posed at equal distances from each other. The crocket seems to have had for type the
buds and boughs of trees in the spring season, from the great resemblance it bears to
those periodical productions : examples, moreover, of the same ornament have great re-
semblance to the first stage of the leaves when the buds begin to open ; sometimes, how-
ever, animals are substituted in the place of leaves.
CROMLECHS. A mass of large flat stones laid across others in an upright position. Ex-
amples of cromlechs are found in Wales, Devonshire, Cornwall, and many exposed
districts of England. For a further account of the cromlech, the reader may turn to
Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 1.
CROSETTES. (Fr.) The same as ancones, which see. In architectural construction the
term is applied to the small projecting pieces aa FT^L? in arch stones, which hang
upon the adjacent stones. *-**-£/
CROSS. (Lat. Crux.) A figure consisting of four branches at right angles to each other,
or a geometrical one, consisting of five rectangles, each side of one rectangle being com-
mon with one side of each of the other four. It is a figure more particularly used for
the plans of churches than for those of other edifices. In ecclesiastical architecture,
there are two kinds of plans having the form of a cross. The first is that wherein all
the five rectangles are equal, or wherein each of the four wings is equal to the middle
part formed by the intersection : this form is called a Greek cross. The second has only
the two opposite wings equal, the other two are unequal, and the three rectangles in the
direction of the unequal parts are of greater length than the three parts in the direc-
tion of the equal parts ; this is the Latin cross. The middle part in each direction is
common. See Appendix, p. 846.
CROSS, in Gothic architecture, an erection of various kinds, which may be classed as fol-
lows : — those used for marking boundaries, those which were memorials of remarkable
events, monumental or sepulchral, as that at Waltham, and others of that nature ; for
preaching, as the ancient St. Paul's Cross ; and market crosses, as at Winchester, Leigh-
ton Buzzard, &c.
CROSS-BANDED. A term applied to handrailing, which is said to be cross-banded, when a
Teneer is laid upon its upper side, with the grain of the wood crossing that of the rail, and
the extension of the veneer in the direction of its fibres is less than the breadth of the
rail.
CROSS BEAM. A large beam going from wall to wall, or a girder that holds the sides of
the house together.
CROSS GARNETS. Hinges having a long strap fixed close to the aperture, and also a cross
part on the other side of the knuckle, which is fastened to the joint. See GARNETS.
CROSS-GRAINED STUFF. Wood which has its fibres in a contrary direction to the surface,
and which consequently cannot be perfectly smoothed by the operation of the plane,
without turning either the plain or the stuff. This defect arises from a twisted disposi-
tion of fibres while in the act of growing.
CROSS SPRINGERS. The ribs in the pointed style that spring from the diagonals of the
pillars or piers.
CROSS VAULTING. That formed by the intersection of two or more simple vaults. When
960 GLOSSARY, ETC.
each of the simple vaults rises from the same level to equal heights, the cross vaulting is
denominated a groin ; but when one of the simple vaults is below the other, the inter
section is called an arch of that particular species which expresses both the simple
arches. For example, if one cylinder pierce another of greater altitude, the arch so
formed is termed a cylindro-cylindric arch ; and if a portion of a cylinder pierce a sphere
of greater altitude than the cylinder, the arch is called a sphero-cylindric arch, and thus
for any species of arch whatever, the part of the qualifying word which ends in o denotes
the simple vault having the greater altitude, and the succeeding word the other of less
altitude.
CROW. A bar of iron used in bricklaying, masonry, and quarrying, and serving usually as
a lever in its employment.
CROWN. (Lat. Corona.) The uppermost member of any part. Thus, the upper member
of a cornice, including the corona and the members above it, is so called.
CROWN OF JIN ARCH. The most elevated line or point that can be assumed in its surface.
CROWN or JOGGLE POST, is the same as king post, being the truss post that sustains the tie
beam and rafters of a roof.
CROWN GLASS. The finest sort of window glass. See Book II. Chap. II. Sect. 11.
CROWNING. The part that terminates upwards any piece of architecture, as a cornice,
pediment, &c.
CRYPT. ( Gr. Kpu-rrru, I hide. ) The under or hidden part of a building. It is used also
to signify that part of the ancient churches and abbeys appropriated below to the monu-
ments of deceased persons.
CRYPTO- PORTICUS. In ancient architecture a concealed portico, also one that for coolness
is enclosed on every side. Some of them were sunk some way into the ground. It also
is a term applied to subterranean or dark passages and galleries in the Roman villas,
often used as cool sitting rooms.
CUBE. (Gr. Kv§os, a die.) A solid bounded by six square sides. It is also, from its six
sides, called hexahedron.
CUBICULUM. (Lat.) A chamber. A distinction is made by Pliny between the cubiculum
and the dormitorium. The name was also applied to the royal pavilion or tent which was
built in the circus or amphitheatre for the reception of the emperors.
CUBIT. A linear measure, in ancient architecture, equal to the length of the arm from the
elbow to the extremity of the middle finger, usually considered about eighteen English
inches. The geometrical cubit of Vitruvius was equal to six ordinary cubits.
CUL DE FOUR. (Fr ) A low vault spherically formed on a circular or oval plan. An
oven-shaped vault.
CULMEN. In ancient Roman architecture, the ridge-piece of the roof.
CULVERT. An arched channel of masonry or brickwork built beneath the bed of a canal
for the purpose of conducting water under it. If the water to be conveyed has nearly
the same level as the canal, the culvert is built in the form of an inverted siphon, and acts
on the principle of a water-pipe. The word also signifies any arched channel for water
under ground.
CULVER-TAIL. The same as DOVE-TAIL, which see.
CUNEUS. (Lat.) That part of the Roman theatre where the spectators sate.
CUPOLA. (It. from Cupo, hollow.) A term, properly speaking, which is confined to the
underside or ceiling part of a dome. See DOME.
CUPBOARD. A recess in a wall, fitted with shelves as a receptacle for articles of the tea
taole.
CURB ROOF. One formed of four contiguous planes externally inclined to each other,
the ridge being in the line of concourse of the two middle planes and the highest of the
three lines of concourse. A roof of this construction (see 2035.) is frequently termed
a Mansard roof, from the name of its inventor. Its principal- advantage over other roof-
ing arises from its giving more space in the garrets.
CUKB FOR BRICK STEPS. A timber nosing, generally of oak, used not only to prevent the
steps from wearing, but also from being dislocated or put out of their places. When the
steps are made to return, the curb also returns, but when they profile against a wall, the
ends of the curb or nosing pieces house at each end into the wall.
CURB PLATE. A circular continued plate, either scarfed together or made in two or more
thicknesses. The wall plate of a circularly or elliptically ribbed dome is called a curb-
plate, as likewise the horizontal rib at the top, on which the vertical ribs terminate. The
plate of a skylight, or a circular frame for a well, is also called a curb-plate. The name
is moreover given to a piece of timber supported in a curb roof by the upper ends of the
lower rafters for receiving the feet of the upper rafters, which are thence called curb-
rafters.
CURB-STONES. Those in the foot-paving of a street which divide it from the carriage-
paving, above which they are or ought to be raised.
CURIA. (Gr.) A Roman council-house. The city and empire contained many curiae.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 961
The curia municipalis, or domus curiatis, seems to have, in destination, resembled our
Guildhall. The curia dominicalis was a sort of manor house.
CURLING STUFF. That which is affected from the winding or coiling of the fibres round
the boughs of the tree where they begin to shoot out of the trunk. The double iron
plane is the best for working it.
CURRENT. The necessary slope of a piece of ground or pavement for carrying off the water
from its surface.
CURSOR. (Lat. ) The point of a beam compass that slides backwards and forwards. Also
the part of a proportional compass by which the points are set to any given ratio.
CURTAIL STEP. The first or bottom step by which stairs are ascended, ending at the furthest
point from the wall, in which it is placed in a scroll ; perhaps taking its name from the
step curling round like a cur's taiL
CURVATURE. See RADIUS OF CURVATURE.
CURVE. (Lat. Curvus.) A line that may be cut by a straight line in more points than
one.
CURVILINEAR, Bounded by curve lines ; thus a curvilinear roof is one erected on a curved
plan, circular, elliptical, or otherwise.
CUSHION RAFTER. See PRINCIPAL BRACE.
CUSP. (Lat. Cuspis.) One of the pendents of a pointed arch, or of the arched head of a
compartment of such an arch, or one of the several pendents forming what may be termed
a polyfoil. Two cusps form a trefoil, three a quatrefoil, and so on.
CUSTOM HOUSE. See Book III. Chap. III. Sect. 15. An edifice erected for the receipt
of the customs' duties payable on the importation and exportation of merchandise.
CUT. In inland navigation, the same as canal, arm, or branch.
CUT BRACKETS. Those moulded on the edge.
CUT ROOF. One that is truncated.
CUT STANDARDS. For shelves, the upright pieces supporting shelves above a dresser when
cut into mouldings.
CUT STONE. Hewn stone, or that which is brought into shape by the mallet and chisel.
CUTTING PLANE. A plane dividing or cutting a solid into two parts in any direction.
CYCLOGRAPH (Gr. KVK\OS and rpcupw.) In practical geometry, an instrument for describing
the arc of a circle to any chord and versed sine, but chiefly used in flat segments, or those
whose curvatures approach to straight lines.
CYCLOID. (Gr. KvK\oei8r)s. ) A figure described by rolling a circle upon a plane along a
straight edge, until the point on the circle which touches the straight edge return again
to it after a revolution. The point traces the curve called the cycloid or trochoid.
CYCLOPEAN BUILDINGS. See Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 2.
CYLINDER. (G. ~Kv\iv 5pov. ) A solid whose base is a circle, and whose curved surface is
every where at an equal distance from the axis or line supposed to pass through its mid-
dle. Its formation may be conceived to be generated by the revolution of a rectangular
parallelogram about one of its sides. The cone, sphere, and cylinder have a remark-
able relation to each other, first discovered by Archimedes, namely, that the cone is one
third the cylinder having the same base and altitude ; and the inscribed sphere two
thirds of the cylinder ; or the cone, sphere, and cylinder are to each other as the numbers
1, 2, 3. It is termed a right cylinder when the axis is at right angles to the base, but if
at an oblique angle the cylinder is said to be oblique.
CYLINDRICAL CEILING or VAULTING. Vulgarly called a waggon-headed ceiling. One in
the shape of the segment of a cylinder. The cylindrical ceiling appears to have been
first used by the Romans. It admits of being pierced by lunettes for the admission of
light, which form cylindro-cylindric arches, and is usually formed into panels or coffers.
See p. 774.
CYLINDRICAL WORK. Any kind of work which partakes of the shape of a cylinder, of
whatever material it be formed.
CYLINDROID. A solid which differs from a cylinder in having ellipses instead of circles for
its ends or bases.
CYMA. (Gr. Ku/to, a wave.) A moulding taking its name from its contour resembling
that of a wave, being hollow in its upper part and swelling below. Of this moulding
there are two sorts, the cyma recta ~*^ thus, just described, and the cyma reversa <^~
thus, wherein the upper part swells, whilst the lower is hollow. By the workmen these
are called ogees.
CYMATIUM. (Gr.) The upper moulding of a cornice.
CYMBIA. The same as FILLET, which see.
CYPRESS. (Lat. Cupressus.) The wood of the cypress was valued for its hardness and
durability by the ancient architects.
CYRIADES. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 54.
CYRUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 36.
CVZICENUS. In ancient architecture, a large hall decorated with sculpture.
3 Q
962 GLOSSARY, ETC.
D.
DADO. The die or part in the middle of the pedestal of a column between the base and
cornice. It is of a cubic form, whence the name of die. The term is also applied to
that part of an apartment between the plinth and impost moulding.
DAIRY. An apartment in a house, or a separate building, for the preservation of milk, and
the manufacture of it into butter, cheese, or other dairy produce. When on a small
scale, where the milk is only used for butter, the dairy may be a room on the north side
of the dwelling, or form one of the offices connected with the kitchen court. The tem-
perature of a dairy should be within the range of forty-eight to fifty-five degrees of Fahren-
heit, with sufficient ventilation to discharge all smells and impurities of the air. A
dairy on a large scale should be a detached building, in which case it should contain a
milk-room, a churning-room, and a dairy scullery, or place for scalding the utensils.
If cheese be to be made, a room is required for the cheese-press, and another for drying
the cheeses.
DAIS. (Fr.) The platform or raised floor at the upper end of a dining-hall, where the
high table stood ; also the seat with a canopy open for it, for those guests who sat at
the high table.
DAM Architecturally, a fence against water. See COFFER-DAM.
DAMPNESS. A moisture generally attendant on buildings finished hastily, on account of
the materials, not being dry, carrying up the moisture by capillary attraction. A layer
of powdered charcoal mixed with pitch or resin and powdered pitcoal laid over one of the
courses of the wall near the foundations will prevent the evil.
DANCE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 290.
DANCE, GEORGE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 314.
DAYS or BAYS. In Gothic architecture, the compartments in windows formed by the
transoms or horizontal pieces and mullions or vertical pieces.
DEAD SHORE. A piece of timber worked up in brickwork to support a superincumbent
mass until the brickwork which is to carry it has set or become hard.
DEAFENING SOUND-BOARDING. The pugging used to prevent the passage of sound through
wooden partitions.
DEAL. (Sax. Delan, to divide.) Properly the small thickness of timber into which a piece
of any sort is cut up ; but the term is now, though improperly, restricted in its significa-
tion to the wood of the fir tree cut up into thicknesses in the countries whence deals are
imported, viz. Christiana, Dantzic, &c. Their usual thickness is three inches, and their
width nine. They are purchased by the hundred, which contains 120 deals, be their
thickness what it may, reduced by calculation to a standard thickness of one inch and a
half and to a length of twelve feet. Whole deal is that which is one inch and a quarter
thick, and slit deal is half that thickness. See BOARD.
DECAGON. (Gr. AC/CO, ten, and Twvia, an angle.) A geometrical figure having ten sides
and ten angles.. If the sides and angles are all equal, the figure is a regular decagon,
and capable of being inscribed in a circle.
DECASTYLE. See COLONADE.
DECIMAL. (Lat.) A term applied to a system of arithmetic in which the scale of numbers
proceeds by tens.
DECORATION. The combination of ornamental objects which the desire for varying a form
or forms brings together in many ways for embellishing those subjects which are the
objects of art. See Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 1.
DELIQUL&:. (Lat.) A term used by Vitruvius to designate the rafters which formed the
ridge of the roof and threw the water on each side.
DEMETRIUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 4.
DENSITY. (Lat. Densus, thick.) A term used in physics to denote the quantity of matter
which a body contains under a given or determinate surface ; for example, a cubic foot.
The quantity of matter in a body is called its mass, and is measured by the weight of
the body, to which it is always proportional ; hence the density of a body is great in pro-
portion as its weight is great, and its volume small ; or the density of bodies is directly
as their masses, and inversely as their volumes.
DENTILS or DENTELS. (Lat. Dentes, teeth.) The small square blocks or projections in the
bed mouldings of cornices in the Ionic, Corinthian, Composite, and occasionally Doric
orders ; their breadth should be half their height ; and, as Vitruvius teaches, the intervals
between them two thirds of their breadth. In the Grecian orders they are not used
under modillions.
DESCRIPTION OF A BUILDING. The same as SPECIFICATION. See Book II. Chap. III.
Sect. 13.
DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY. That which consists in the application of geometrical rules to
the representation of the figures, and the various relations of the forms of bodies, accord-
ing to certain conventional forms. It differs from perspective, on account of the repre-
GLOSSARY, ETC. 963
sentation being made in such a manner that the exact distance between the different
points of the body represented can always be found, and consequently all the mathe-
matical relations resulting from the form and position of the body may be deduced from
the representation. See Book II. Chap. I. Sect. 6.
DESIGN.* (Lat. Designo.) The idea formed in the mind of an artist on any particular sub-
ject, which he transfers by some medium, for the purpose of making it known to others.
Every work of design is to be considered either in relation to the art that produced it,
to the nature of its adaptation to the end sought, or to the nature of the end it is des-
tined to serve ; hence its beauty is dependent on the wisdom or excellence displayed in
the design, on the fitness or propriety of the adaptation, and upon the utility for the
end. The considerations of design, fitness, and utility will be seen at large in Book III.
Chap. I. Sects. 1,2.
DESTEMPER. See DISTEMPER.
DETAILS. A term usually applied to the drawings on a larger scale for the use of builders,
and generally called working drawings. See Book II. Chap. IV. Sect. 4.
DETERMINING LINE. In the conic sections, a line parallel to the base of the cone ; in the
hyperbola this line is within the base ; in the parabolic sections it forms a tangent to the
base, in the elliptic it falls without it. In the intersecting line of a circle, the determin-
ing line will never meet the plan of the base to which it is parallel.
DETRIANUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 49.
DEXIPHANES. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 35.
DIACONICON. A place contiguous to the ancient churches, wherein were preserved the
sacred vestments, vessels, relics, and ornaments of the altar. In modern language, the
sacristy.
DIAGONAL. (Gr. Ata, through, and Ttavia, angle.) A straight line drawn through a figure
joining two opposite angles. The term, in geometry, is used in speaking of four-sided
figures, but it is nevertheless properly applied with reference to all polygons whereof the
number of sides is not less than four. The term diameter is used by Euclid in the same
sense ; but modern geometers use the term diameter only in speaking of curve lines, and
diagonal when speaking of angular figures.
DIAGONAL SCALE. A compound scale formed by vertical and horizontal subdivisions with
diagonals drawn across them, whereby we are enabled to measure off very small parts by
means of equidistant parallels crossing others of the same kind.
DIAGRAM. (Gr. Aiaypa^a^ from Aia, through, and rpaqca, I write.) The figure or scheme
for the illustration of a mathematical or other proposition.
DIAGRAPH. (Gr.) A recently invented French instrument for drawing objects from
nature.
DIAMETER. (Gr. Aia, through, and Merpoy, a measure.) A straight line passing through
the centre of a geometrical figure, as that of a circle, ellipse, or hyperbola. The term is
architecturally used to express the measure across the lower part of the shaft of a column,
and is usually divided into sixty parts, called minutes, which form the scale for the
measurement of all the parts of an order.
DIAMOND PAVEMENT. One disposed in squares arranged diagonally.
DIASTTLE. (Gr. Aid and 2-rvAos, a column.) That distance between columns which consists
of three diameters, or, according to some, of four diameters. The term is sometimes
used adjectively, to signify that the building is arranged with those intervals between
the columns.
DIATONI. (Gr. Aia and Tovos, an extension.) In ancient architecture the angle stones of a
wall, wrought on two faces, and which, from stretching beyond the stones above and
below them, made a good bond or tie to the work.
DIAZOMA. (Gr. Aia, through, and Zw/ua, a cincture.) In ancient architecture, the landings
or resting places which, at different heights, encircled the amphitheatre like so many bands
or cinctures, whence the name.
DICASTERIUM. (Gr. At/o;, justice.) In ancient architecture, the name of a tribunal or hall
of justice.
DICTYOTHETON. (Gr. AiKTvov, a net, and TiO-npi, I place.) In ancient architecture, masonry
worked in courses, like the meshes of a net. Also open lattice work, for admitting light
and air.
DIDORON. See BRICK.
DIE OF A PEDESTAL. That part included between the base and the cornice.
DIGGING. In soft ground, one man with a spade will throw up, per hour, a cubic yard of
twenty-seven feet. If a mattock must be used, the same quantity will require two men,
and in a strong gravel, three. It will require three men to wheel thirty cubic yards of
gravel in a day to the distance of twenty yards.
DIGLYPH. (Gr. Ats, twice, and rAv<f>o>, I carve.) A projecting face, with two panels or
channels sunk thereon.
3 Q 2
964 GLOSSARY, ETC.
DILAPIDATION. The state of decay and ruin into which a building has been permitted to
fall. See page 858.
DIMENSION. (Lat. Dimetior.) In geometry is either length, breadth, or thickness. Thus
a line has one dimension, as of length; a superficies has two, length and breadth; a solid
has three dimensions, length, breadth, and thickness.
DIMINISHED ARCHES. Those lower or less than a semicircle, called by the French routes
surbaissfes.
DIMINISHED BAR OF A SASH. One thinner on the edge towards the room than on that
towards the glass of the window.
DIMINISHED COLUMN. A column whereof the upper diameter is less than the lower.
DIMINISHING RULE. A board cut with a concave edge, so as to ascertain the swell of a
column, and to try its curvature.
DIMINISHING SCALE. A scale of gradation used In finding the different points for drawing
the spiral curve of the Ionic volute, by describing the arc of a circle through every three
preceding points, the extreme point of the last arc being one of the next three. Each
point through which the curve passes is regulated so as to be in a line drawn to the
centre of the volute, and the lines at equal angles with each other.
DIMINUTION OF A COLUMN. The continued contraction of the diameter of the column as
it rises. Most of the modern authors make the diminution to commence from one third
of the height of the column ; but in all the ancient examples the diminution commences
from the bottom of the shaft. See ENTASIS. In Gothic architecture neither swell nor
diminution is used, all the horizontal sections being similar and equal.
DINING or DINNER ROOM. Generally one of the largest rooms in a dwelling-house. In
large buildings it extends to forty or fifty feet in length, and the breadth is from half to
three fourths the length. In middle-sized houses, dining-rooms run from twenty-four
down to eighteen feet in length by eighteen to sixteen feet in width, and thirteen or four-
teen feet in height. In houses, the largest room on the ground-floor should be appro-
priated to the purpose.
DINOC RATES. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 22.
DIOTI SALVI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 94.
DIPTERAL. (Gr. AiTrrepos, double- winged. ) In ancient architecture, a temple having a
double range of columns on each of its flanks. See TEMPLE.
DIRECT RADIAL. In perspective, a right line from the eye perpendicular to the picture.
DIRECTING LINE. In perspective, the line in which an original plane would cut the
directing plane.
DIRECTING PLANE. In perspective, a plane passing through the point of sight, or the eye,
parallel to the picture.
DIRECTING POINT. In perspective, that in which any original line produced cuts the
directing plane.
DIRECTOR OF AN ORIGINAL LINE. In perspective, the straight line passing through the
directing point and the eye of a spectator.
DIRECTOR OF THE EYE. The intersection of the plane with the directing plane perpen-
dicular to the original plane and that of the picture, and hence also perpendicular to the
directing and vanishing planes, since each of the two latter is parallel to each of the two
former.
DIRECTRIX. In geometry the name given to a certain straight line perpendicular to the
axes of a conic section. One of the properties of these curves is that the distance of any
point of the curve from the directrix is to the distance of the same point from the focus
in a constant ratio. The name is sometimes applied generally to any straight or curved
line required for the description of any curve.
DISCHARGE. (Fr. Decharger.) The relief given to a beam, or any other piece of timber,
too much loaded by an incumbent weight of building. When the relief is given, the
weight is said to be discharged.
DISCHARGING ARCHES. Those built over wooden lintels, whereby the bearing upon them
is taken off. The chords of discharging arches are not much longer than the lintel, being
the segments of very large circles. A temporary arch is frequently introduced, and re-
moved on completing the building. Sometimes the arches are built without any lintel
under them.
DISHING OUT. The same as CRADLING, which see.
DISPLUVIATUM. (Lat.) In ancient architecture, a place from which the rain is conveyed
away in two channels. According to Vitruvius, a cav&dium displuviatum was an open
court exposed to the rain.
DISPOSITION. (Lat.) One of the essentials of architecture. It is the arrangement of the
whole design by means of ichnography (plan), orthography (section and elevation), and
scenography (perspective view). It differs from distribution, which signifies the par-
ticular arrangements of the internal parts of a building.
GLOSSARY, ETC.
965
DISTANCE OF THE EYE. In perspective, the distance of the eye from the picture in a line
perpendicular to the plan thereof.
DISTANCE, POINT OF. In perspective, the distance of the picture transferred upon the
vanishing line from the centre, or from the point where the principal ray meets it ; and
thus it is generally understood to be on the vanishing line of the horizon.
DISTANCE OF A VANISHING LINE. The length of a perpendicular falling from the eye
perpendicular to the vanishing plane.
DISTEMPER. (Fr. Detemper.) In painting, a preparation of opaque colour, ground up
with size and water.
DISTRIBUTION. (Lat.) The arrangement of the various apartments of a building.
DITRIGLYPH. (Gr. Ais, twice, Tpety, three, and r\v<j><a, I carve.) An arrangement of inter-
columniations in the Doric order, by which two triglyphs are obtained in the frieze
between the triglyphs that stand over the columns.
DODECAGON. (Gr. Aa>5e/ca and Tufia, an angle.) A regular polygon of twelve equal sides.
DODECAHEDRON. (Gr. Aco8e/ca and 'ESpa, a seat. ) One of the five platonic bodies, or regular
solids, its surface being composed of twelve equal and regular pentagons.
DOG-LEGGED STAIRS. Such as are solid between the upper flights, or such as have no
well-hole, and in which the rail and balusters of both progressive and retrogressive flight
fall in the same vertical plane. The steps are fixed to strings, newels, and carriages ; and
the ends of the steps in the inferior kind only terminate on the side of the string without
any housing.
DOME. (Lat. Domus.) The spherical, or other figure, convex roof over a circular or
polygonal building. A surbased or diminished dome is one that is segmental on its
vertical section, a surmounted dome is one that is higher than the radius of its base.
There is great variety in the forms of domes, both in plan and section. In the former,
they are circular and polygonal ; in the latter, we find them semicircular, semi-elliptical,
segmental, pointed, sometimes in curves of contrary flexure, bell-shaped, &c. The
oldest dome on record is that of the Pantheon at Rome, which was erected under
Augustus, and is still perfect. Below is a list of the principal domes in Europe, with
their dimensions ; the heights in the third column are from the ground : —
Place.
Feet Diam.
Feet High.
Pantheon at Rome -
142
143
Duomo, or Sta. Maria del Fiore, at Florence -
139
310
St. Peter's at Rome -
139
330
Sta. Sophia at Constantinople ...
115
201
Baths of Caracalla (ancient) -
112
116
St. Paul's, London .....
112
215
Mosque of Achmet .....
92
120
Chapel of the Medici
91
199
Baptistery at Florence -
86
110
Church of the Invalids at Paris ...
80
173
Minerva Medica at Rome ....
78
97
Madonna della Salute, Venice ...
70
133
St. Genevieve at Paris (Pantheon) ...
67
190
yv . Gloria
57
I 40
Duomo at Milan ------
o i
57
1 lo
254
KK
Q4
Val de Grace at Paris -----
OO
55
C7T:
133
San Marco, Venice - - ...
44
DONJON. (Fr.) The massive tower within ancient castles to which the garrison might
retreat in case of necessity. It was centrally placed, and frequently raised on an artificial
elevation.
DOOKS. The same as WOODEN BRICKS, which see. It is a Scotch term.
DOOR. (Sax. Don, Gr. &vpa.~) The gate or entrance of a house or other building, or of an
apartment in a house. It must be proportioned to the situation and use for which it is
intended. Thus, for an ordinary dwelling-house, a door should not be less than seven to
eight feet high, and three to four feet broad ; but to churches and public buildings the
entrance- doors should be much wider, to allow of a multitude to pass out. So in stately
mansions, the doors must be from six to twelve feet in width, and of proportionate
height. For the different sorts and profiles of doors, see Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 19. ;
for joinery of doors, Book II. Chap. III. Sect. 5.
DOOR FRAME or CASE. The wooden frame enclosing a door.
DORIC ORDER. See Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 4., and Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 4.
3 Q 3
966 GLOSSARY, ETC.
DORMANT TREE or SUMMER. The lintel of a door, window beam, &c. A beam tenoned
into a girder to support the ends of joists on both sides of it. Slimmer, in some parts, is
the common term for a girder.
DORMER. A window placed on the inclined plane of the roof of a house, the frame being
placed vertically on the rafters.
DORMITORY. (Lat. Dormio, I sleep.) A large sleeping- room, capable of containing many
beds.
DORON. See BRICK.
DOVE-HOUSE, or DOVE-COT. A building for keeping tame pigeons, the only essential
difference between which and a common poultry house is, that the entrance for the
birds must be placed at a considerable height from the ground, because of the flight of
pigeons being so much higher than other birds.
DOVE-TAIL (from its spreading like a pigeon's tail). A joint used by carpenters and joiners
in connecting two pieces of wood, by letting one into the other, in the form of the
expanded tail of a dove. It is the strongest method of joining masses, because the tenon
or piece of wood widens as it extends, so that it cannot be drawn out, because the tongue
is larger than the cavity through which it would have to be drawn. The French call
this method queue d'hironde, or swallow's tail.
DOUBLE CURVATURE. The curvature of a curve, whereof no part can be brought into a
plane, such as the cylindro-cylindric curve, &c.
DOUBLE FLOOR. One constructed of binding and bridging joists. See p. 541.
DOUBLE-HUNG SASHES. See p. 572, 573.
DOUBLE VAULTS. Two vaults of brick or stone carried up separately with a cavity between
them.
DOUBLING. A term used in Scotland to denote eaves' boards.
DOUCINE. The French term for the cyma recta.
DOWELS. Pins of wood or iron used at the edges of boards in laying floors, to avoid the
appearance of the nails on the surface. Floors thus laid are called dowelled floors.
DRAG. (Verb.) A term applied to anything bearing down or rubbing on another. Thus,
a door is said to drag when its hinges become so loosened that the lower edge rubs upon
the floor.
DRAGON BEAM or PIECE. In carpentry, a short beam or piece of timber, lying diagonally
with the wall-plates at the angles of a roof for receiving the heel or foot of the hip rafter.
It is fixed at right angles with another piece, called the angle tie, which is supported by
each returning wall-plate, on which it is cocked down.
DRAIN. A subterraneous or other channel for waste water. See Book II. Chap. III.
Sect. 1.
DRAUGHT. The representation of a building on paper, explanatory of the various parts of
the interior and exterior, by means of plans, elevations, and sections, drawn to a scale, by
which all the parts are exhibited in the same proportion as the parts of the edifice
intended to be represented.
DRAUGHT. In masonry, a part of the surface of the stone, hewn to the breadth of the
chisel on the margin of the stone according to the curved or straight line to which the
surface is to be brought. When the draughts are framed round the different sides of the
stone, the intermediate part is wrought to the surface by applying a straight edge or
templet. In very large stones, when the substance needs much reduction, it is usual to
make several intermediate parallel draughts, and thus the intermediate parts may be
hewn down nearly by the eye, without much application of the straight edge or
templet.
DRAUGHT COMPASSES. Those with moveable points.
DRAW BORE. (Verb.) The pinning a mortise and tenon, by piercing the hole through
the tenon nearer to the shoulder than the holes through the cheeks from the abutment
in which the shoulder is to come in contact.
DRAW BORE PINS. Pieces of steel in the shape of the frustrum of a cone, rather taper,
and inserted in handles with the greatest diameter next to the handle, for driving through
the draw bores of a mortise and tenon in order to bring the shoulder of the rail close
home to the abutment on the edge of the style. When this is effected, the draw bore
pins, when more than one are used, are taken out singly, and the holes immediately filled
up with wooden pegs.
DRAWBRIDGE. One made with long and heavy levers to raise or let it down at pleasure.
DRAWING. See Book II. Chap. IV. Sect. 1.
Drawing is the art of representing any object by means of lines circumscribing its
boundaries. For working drawings see Book II. Chap. IV. Sect. I.
DRAWINGS NECESSARY IN COMPOSITIONS. Book III. Chap. II. Sect. 2.
DRAWING ROOM, perhaps more properly WITHDRAWING ROOM. The apartment to which
the company withdraw after dinner.
DRESSED. A term in masonry which expresses the operation a stone has undergone before
GLOSSARY, ETC. 967
building it in the wall, whether by the hammer only or by the mallet and chisel, and
then rubbing the face smooth. In Scotland the term is used to signify hammer dress-
ing only.
DRESSER. A table placed against a wall in a kitchen, usually with drawers, and having shelves
over it.
DRESSING ROOM. A room generally adjoining to and communicating with the sleeping
room, used, as the name implies, for dressing in. It should have a separate door to
open on the lobby or passage of communication.
DRESSINGS. All kinds of mouldings beyond the naked walls or ceilings are called by the
general name of dressings. In joinery it is a term applied to the architraves or other
appendages of apertures.
DRIFT. (Sax. Dpiran.) The horizontal force which an arch exerts with a tendency to
overset the piers from which it springs.
DRIP. See CORONA.
DRIPPING EAVES. (Dan. Dripper, to drop.) The lower edges of a roof wherefrom the
rain drips or drops to the ground. By the Building Act dripping eaves are prohibited
within the bills of mortality, towards any street or public way.
DROPS. (Sax. Dnoppan.) The frusta of cones in the Doric order, used under the triglyphs
in the architrave below the taenia. They are also employed in the under part of the
mutuli or modillions of the order. In the Greek examples they are sometimes curved a
little inwards on the profile.
DROVED ASHLAR. A term used in Scotland for chiselled or random tooled ashlar. It is
the most inferior kind of hewn work in building. What is in that country called
broached work is sometimes done without being droved ; but in good broached work the
face of the stone should be previously droved, and then broached.
DROVED AND BROACHED. A term used in Scotland to signify work that has been roughed
and then tooled clean.
DROVED AND STRIPED. Work that is first droved and then striped. The stripes are
shallow grooves done with a half or three-quarter inch chisel, about an eighth of an inch
deep, having the droved interstices prominent. This and the two preceding sorts of
work are not much used in the southern part of England.
DRUELL. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 166. *
DRUIDICAL ARCHITECTURE. See Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 1.
DRUM. (Dan. Tromme.) The upright part under or above a cupola. The same term
is sometimes applied to the solid part or vase of the Corinthian and Composite
capitals.
DRY ROT. A disease of timber which destroys the cohesion of its parts ; it is usually
ascribed to the attacks of fungi, such as the Polyporus destructor and Merulius lacrymans,
whose spawn appears upon the surface overspreading it like a tough thick skin of white
leather ; and there is no doubt of its being often connected with the appearance of such
fungi. Dry rot is, however, in some cases to be identified with the presence of fungi of
a more simple kind than those just mentioned, such as those of the genus Sporotrichum.
See p. 490.
DUBBING OUT. A term used by plasterers to signify the bringing of an uneven surface to a
plane by pieces of tile, slate, plaster, or the like.
DUNSTAN. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 75.
DUODECIMAL. (Lat. Duodecim.) Proceeding by twelves. It is a term applied to an
operation in arithmetic, which is explained in p. 2 96, et seq.
DWANG. . A term used in Scotland to denote the short pieces of timber employed in strut-
ting a floor.
DWARF WAINSCOTING. Such as does not reach the whole height of a room, being usually
four, five, or six feet high.
DWARF WALLS. Low walls of less height than the story of a building ; sometimes the
joists of a ground floor rest upon dwarf walls. The enclosures of courts are frequently
formed by them with a railing of iron on the top ; and indeed any low wall used as a
fence is a dwarf wall.
DWELLING HOUSE. See p. 810, et seq.
DWELLINGS, DIFFERENT EARLY SORTS OF. See Book I. Chap. I. Sect. 3.
DYE. See DIE.
DYNAMICS. (Gr. Avva.fj.is, force or power.) As generally understood, the science which
treats on the motion of bodies, because it is only known to us by the motion it produces in
the body on which it acts. It is however usually restricted to those circumstances of
motion in which the moving bodies are at liberty to obey the impulses communicated to
them ; the opposite cases, or those in which the bodies, whether by external circum-
stances or by their connection with one another, are not at liberty to obey the impulses
given, being within the science of mechanics.
3 Q 4
968 GLOSSARY, ETC.
E.
EAGLE. (Gr. Ate-ros.) A term used by the Greeks for the frontispiece or pediment of
their temples.
EARS. The same as CROSETTES, which see.
EARNULPH. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 89.
EAUBALD. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 70.
EAVES. (Probably Fr. Eaux.) The lowest edges of the inclined sides of a roof which pro-
ject beyond the face of the walls, so as to throw the water off therefrom, that being their
office.
EAVES' BOARD, EAVES' LATH, EAVES' CATCH. See ARRIS FILLET.
EBONY. The wood of a natural order of shrubby or arborescent exogens, chiefly inhabiting
the tropics. Some species are remarkable for the hardness and blackness of their wood,
which is principally used for furniture.
ECCENTRICITY. The difference of centre from another circle. The distance between the
foci of an ellipse.
ECHEA. (Gr. HX«O, I sound.) In ancient architecture, sonorous vessels of metal or earth,
in the form of a bell, used in the construction of theatres for the purpose of reverberating
the sound of the performer's voice. They were distributed between the seats, and are
described in the fifth book of Vitruvius, who states that Mummius introduced them in
Rome, after the taking of Corinth, where he found this expedient used in the theatre.
ECHINUS. (Gr. EXWOS. ) The same as the ovolo or quarter round, though the moulding
is only properly so called when carved with eggs and anchors. (See ANCHOR.) It is
the shell or husk of the chestnut, though the ornament does not seem to bear much re-
semblance to it.
ECPHORA. (Gr. EK, out, *epw, I bear.) A word used by Vitruvius (lib. iii. cap. 3.,) to signify
the projecture of a member or moulding of a column, that is, the distance of its extre-
mity from the naked of the column, or, according to others, from the axis.
ECTYPE. (Gr. EKTUTIW.) An object in relievo, or embossed.
EDGE. (Sax. Gese.) The intersection of two planes or surfaces of a solid, which therefore
is either straight or curved according to the direction of the surfaces. See ARRIS. It
is also that side of a rectangular prismatic body which contains the length and thickness;
but in this sense of the term, the body to which it applies is generally understood to be
very thin ; thus we say " the edge of a door," " the edge of a board," meaning the nar-
row side. The edge of a tool is the meeting of the surfaces when ground to a very
acute angle.
EDGE TOOLS are those which clip or shave in the operation of working.
EDGING. In carpentry, the reducing of the edges of ribs or rafters, whether externally or
internally, so as to range in a plane or in any curved surface required. Backing is a
particular use of edging, and only applies to the outer edges of ribs or rafters ; but
edging or ranging is a general term, and applies either to the backing or internal sur-
face. See BACKING.
EDIFICE. (Lat. .^Edificium. ) A word synonymous with fabric, building, erection; the
word is, however, more usually employed to denote architectural erections distinguished
for grandeur, dignity, and importance.
EDNOTH. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 74.
EFFECT. (Lat. Efficio.) That quality in works of art whose nature is to give particular
efficacy to other qualities, so as to bring them out and attract the eye of the spectator.
EGBERT. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 68.
EGG AND TONGOE. Ornaments used in the echinus, supposed by Quatremere de Quincy
to have had their origin in the head of Isis, and, as he imagines, representing a mystical
collar or necklace of the mundane egg and the tongue of the serpent of immortality ;
but as we think, in the representation of much 'more simple objects, those of nature her-
self. See ECHINUS.
EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. See Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 7.
EGYPTIAN HALL. See OEcus.
EL^EOTHESIUM. (Gr. E\cuov, oil. ) In ancient architecture, an apartment in the baths wherein,
after leaving the bath, the bathers anointed themselves.
ELASTIC CURVE. In mechanics, the figure assumed by an elastic body, one end whereof
is fixed horizontally in a vertical plane, and the other loaded with a weight which, by its
gravity, tends to bend it.
ELASTICITY. (Gr. EAafrrr/, a spring, from E\avvcc, I draw.) In physics that property pos-
sessed by certain bodies of recovering their form and dimensions after the external force
which has dilated or compressed them is withdrawn. It is only perfect when the body
recovers exactly its primitive form after the force to which it has been subjected has
been removed, and that in the same time as was required for the force to produce the
alteration. This is however a quality not strictly found in nature.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 969
ELBOWS. (Sax. eibosa.) The upright sides which flank any pannelled work, as in win-
dows below the shutters, &c.
ELEVATION. (Lat. Elevatio.) A geometrical projection drawn on a plane perpendicular
to the horizon.
ELLIPSE or ELLIPSIS. (Gr. EAAenfas, defect.) One of the conic sections produced by
cutting a cone entirely through the curved surface, neither parallel to the base ; nor
making a subcontrary section, so that the ellipsis, like the circle, is a curve that returns
into itself and completely encloses a space.
ELLIPSOGRAPH. An instrument for describing an ellipsis by continued motion.
ELLIPSOID. See CONOID.
ELLIPTIC ARCH. A portion of the curve of an ellipsis employed as an arch.
ELLIPTIC COMPASSES. The same as ELLIPSOGRAPH.
ELLIPTIC WINDING STAIRS. Such as are cased in and wind round an elliptic newel.
ELM. (Lat. Ulmus.) A forest tree occasionally used in building. SeeBook II. Chap. II.
Sect. 4.
ELPHAGE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 77.
EMBANKMENT. A term signifying any large mound of earth on the sides of a passage for
water or other purposes ; also for protection against the action of the sea. It is usually
constructed of earth, and, when necessary to resist much force, cased with brick or stone.
EMBATTLED. A wall indented with notches in the form of embrasures on the top of a
wall, parapet, or other building. It is sometimes called crenelle.
EMBATTLED ARONADE. See ARONADE.
EMBATTLED-BATTLED LINE. A straight line bent into right angles, so that if there be
three sets of parts one set may be parallel to those of the other two.
EMBATTLED BUILDINGS. Those with embrasures in the parapets, resembling a castle or
fortified place.
EMBOSSING or EMBOSSED WORK. (Fr. Bosse, a protuberance. ) The raising or forming in
relievo any sort of figure, whether performed with the chisel or otherwise. It is a kind
of sculpture, in which the figures rise from the plane on which they are formed, and as
they are more or less prominent they are said to be in alto, mezzo, or basso relievo.
EMBRASURE. An opening made in the wall or parapet of a fortified place. The term is
also applied to an enlargement within of the sides of a window, in which sense it is the
same as SPLAY, which see.
EMERE, D'. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 232.
EMPLECTON. (Gr. E/iTrAe/cw, I entangle.) Among the ancients, a method of constructing
walls, in which, according to Vitruvius, the front stones were wrought fair and the
interior left rough and filled in with stones of various sizes.
ENCARPUS. (Gr. EV and icapiros. ) The festoons on a frieze, consisting of fruit, flowers,
leaves, &c.
END OF A STONE. The two parallel sides which form the vertical joints.
ENDECAGON. ( Gr. E^Se/co, eleven, and Yuvia, an angle. ) A plain geometrical figure bounded
by eleven sides.
ENGAGED COLUMNS. Those attached to walls, by which a portion of them is concealed.
They never stand less than half their diameter out of the wall to which they are
attached.
ENGLISH BOND. See p. 515.
ENSEMBLE. (Fr.) A term denoting the masses and details considered with relation to
each other.
ENTABLATURE. (Fr. Entablement.) The whole of the parts of an order above a column.
The assemblage is divided into three parts : the architrave, which rests immediately on
the column ; the frieze, next over the architrave, being the middle member ; and the
cornice, which is the uppermost part. The first and last are variously subdivided in the
different orders. See the different orders, Book III. Chap. I.
ENTASIS. (Gr. EJ/TOKHS.) A delicate and almost imperceptible swelling of the shaft of a
column, to be found in almost all the Grecian examples. It seems to have been adopted
to prevent the crude appearance which the frusta of cones would have presented. This
refinement is alluded to in the second chapter of the third book of Vitruvius, and was
first in modern times observed in execution in 1814 by Mr. Allason.
ENTER. (Verb.) In carpentry and joinery, the act of inserting the end of a tenon in the
mouth of a mortise previous to its being driven home to the shoulder.
ENTRESOL. (Fr.) A low story between two higher ones. See MEZZANINE.
ENVELOPE. (Verb.) The covering of a portion of the surface of a solid with a thin sub-
stance or wrapper, which in all points or parts comes in contact with the surface of such
surface. To develop the surface of a solid is to find the envelopes that will cover its
different parts.
EPHEBEIUM. (Gr.) A building, in ancient architecture, for the exercise and wrestling of
the youth.
970 GLOSSARY, ETC.
EPICRANITIS. (Gr.) A name given by the Greeks to the tiles forming the cyma or upper
member of the cornice of their temples.
EPICYCLOID. ( Gr. ETTUCVK Aos, and EtSos, form. ) In geometry, a curve line generated by the
revolution of a point in the circumference of a circle, which rolls on the circumference
of another circle, either externally or internally.
EPISCEKIUM. (Gr. Eirt, upon, SKTJI/^, a scene.) In ancient architecture, the upper order of
the scene in a theatre.
EPISTYLIUM. Gr. ETH, upon, 2rv\os, column.) The same as ARCHITRAVE, which see.
EPITITHEDES. (Gr. E?rt, upon, TiGrifJu, I place.) The crown or upper mouldings of an en-
tablature.
EQUIANGULAR. Having equal angles.
EQUIDISTANT. At equal distances.
EQUILATERAL. Having equal sides.
EQUILIBRIUM. In mechanics, an equality of forces in opposite directions, so as mutually
to balance each other. For the arch of equilibrium see Book II. Chap. I. Sect. 9.
ERGASTULUM. In ancient architecture, a name given by the Romans to a prison or house
of correction, where slaves, by the sole authority of their masters, were confined for their
offences and subjected to hard labour. By the Greeks these buildings were called
sophronisteria.
ERWYN. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 1 28.
ESCOBEDO, D'. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 197.
ESGUERRA. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 225.
ESTIMATE. (Substantive.) The computed cost of a building before the works are com-
menced. See Book II. Chap. III. Sect. 14.
ESTRADE. An even or level space ; a public road.
ETIENNE DK BONNEVEIL. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 111.
ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE. See Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 12.
ElJDE DE MONTREUIL. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 117.
EUPALINUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 5.
EUPOLEMUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 27.
EURITHMY. (Gr. EvpvOfua, justness of proportion.) The regular, just, and symmetrical
measures resulting from harmony in the proportions of a building or order. Vitruvius
makes it one of his six essentials. .
EUSTACHIUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 109.
EUSTYLE. (Gr. Eu, well, and SrvAos, column.) See COLONNADE.
EVAPORATION. (Lat.) The conversion of substances into vapour, during which process
a considerable quantity of sensible heat passes into the latent or insensible state.
The circumstances which principally influence the process of evaporation, are extent
of surface, and the state of the air in respect of temperature, dryness, stillness, and
density.
EVERSDEN, D'. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 136.
EVERSOLT. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 103.
E VOLUTE. (Lat. Evolvo.) In the theory of curve lines, is a curve from which any given curve
may be supposed to be formed by the evolution or unlapping of a thread from a surface
having the same curvature as the first curve. The curve thus generated is called the
involute curve.
EXCAVATION. (Lat.) As connected with architecture is the digging out or hollowing the
ground for the foundations of a building, or of a floor below the level of the ground.
EXCHANGE. See Book III. Chap. III. Sect. 14.
EXHEDRA. (Gr. E|, out of, and 'ESpa, a chair.) In ancient architecture, a small room in
the baths and other buildings appropriated for conversations.
EXOSTRA. (Gr.) In ancient architecture, a machine for representing the interior part of
a building as connected with the scene in a theatre.
EXPANSION. One of the ordinary effects of heat, which enlarges the bulk of all matter.
Though the expansion of solids is by increase of temperature comparatively small, it
may be rendered sensible by carefully measuring the dimensions of any substance when
cold and again when heated. Thus an iron bar fitted to a gauge, showing its length and
breadth, will, when heated, no longer pass through the apertures. The metals are most
expansible by heat and cold. The following exhibits the change which some of them
undergo when heated from the freezing to the boiling point of water : —
Temperature.
32° 212°
Platinum - ... 12000O 120104.
Steel - — 120147.
Iron .... — 120151.
Copper - — 120204.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 971
Temperature.
32° 212°
Brass - ... 12000O 12023O.
Tin — 120290.
Lead - — 120345.
Zinc ...._- 120360.
EXTENSION. (Lat.) One of the general properties of matter, being the quantity of space
which a body occupies, its extremities in every direction limiting or circumscribing the
matter of that body. It is the magnitude, size, or bulk of a body.
EXTERNAL or EXTERIOR. A term of relation applied to whatever is on the surface or out-
side of a body, as opposed to internal or interior.
EXTRADOS. The exterior curve of an arch. The term is generally used to denote the
upper curve of the voussoirs or stones which immediately form the arch.
EYE. A general term signifying the centre of any part : thus the eye of a pediment is a
circular window in its centre. The eye of a dome is the horizontal aperture on its
summit. The eye of a volute is the circle at the centre, from whose circumference the
spiral line commences.
EYE, BULL'S. See BULL'S EYE.
EYEBROW. A name sometimes given to the fillet.
F.
FABRIC. (Lat.) A general term applied to a large and important building.
FACADE. ( Fr. ) The face or front of any building towards a street, court, garden, or other
place ; a term, however, more commonly used to signify the principal front.
FACE MOULD. The name applied by workmen to the pattern for marking the plank or
board out of which ornamental hand-railings are to be cut for stairs or other works.
FACE OF A STONE. The surface intended for the front or outward side of the work. The
back is usually left rough. Stones should be faced in the opposite direction of their split-
ting grain.
FACETTES. (Fr.) Flat projections between the flutes of columns.
FACIA or FASCIA. (Lat. a Band.) A flat member of an order or of a building, like a flat
band or broad fillet. The architrave, when subdivided for instance, has three bands called
fasciae, whereof the lower is called the first fascia, the middle one the second, and the
upper one the third.
FACING. That part in the work of a building seen by a spectator ; but the term is usually
employed to signify a better sort of material, which masks the inferior one used in-
ternally.
FACTABLING. The same as COPING, which see.
FALCONETTO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 207.
FALLING MOULDS. The two moulds applied to the vertical sides of the Tailpiece, one to
the convex, the other to the concave side, in order to form the back and under surface of
the rail and finish the squaring.
FALSE ATTIC. An attic without pilasters, casements, or balustrades, used for crowning a
building, as at the gates St. Denis and St. Martin at Paris.
FALSE BEARING. See BEARING WALL.
FALSE ROOF. That part between the ceiling of the upper floor and the covering of the
roof.
FANAL. ( Fr. ) The French term for a lighthouse.
FANUM. (Lat.) A place consecrated to religion, including the building and ground
belonging to it. Those temples erected to the memory of distinguished persons were
called fana by the ancients.
FARLEGH. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 163.
FARM-HOUSES. See Book III. Chap. III. Sect. 23.
FARRARIA. See GRANARY.
FASTIGIUM. (Lat.) See PEDIMENT.
FATHOM. (Sax.) A measure of six feet, taken from the extent of both arms when
stretched out in a right line. It is chiefly used in measuring the depth of water,
quarries, wells, or pits.
FEATHER-EDGED. A term applied to any thin body whose section is trapezoidal ; that is,
thicker on one edge than on the other.
FEATHER-EDGED BOARDS. See BOARDS.
FEATHER-EDGED COPING. See COPING.
FEEDER. A cut or channel by which a stream or supply of water is brought into a canal.
Sometimes the supply itself of the water is so called.
FEEDING HOUSE or SHED. A farm-building for stalling and fattening neat cattle. It
972 GLOSSARY, ETC.
should be in a dry warm situation, capable of free ventilation, and supplied with proper
conveniences for food and water.
FELLING TIMBER. The cutting down a full grown tree. Much difference of opinion has
prevailed respecting the proper season for felling trees, some being in favour of mid-
winter and others of midsummer. It is however a question which principally turns
upon the quantity and value of the soft or outer wood in the trunk of the tree to be
felled, called sap by the forester and carpenter. This sap or outer wood being the only
portion of the trunk in which the sap or juices of the tree circulate, if no value be set
upon it, it seems of little consequence when the tree is cut down, because the mature
timber, which is the really valuable part of the wood, is impermeable to the sap in its
ascent through the soft wood, and is therefore in the same state at every season of the
year. On the other hand, where much value attaches to the soft or outer wood, or
where, as in the case of comparatively young trees, the greater part of the trunk consists
of sap wood, they should be felled when the sap least circulates. The season in that
case is doubtless midwinter, which, cceteris paribus, is certainly the best season for felling
timber. The next best season seems to be midsummer, because the sap is then chiefly
confined to the young shoots, to the circumference of the. soft wood, and to the bark.
The worst season would appear to be the spring, just before the development of the
buds, when the tree is fullest of sap, and receiving fresh supplies of it from the root ;
and in autumn, immediately before the fall of the leaf, when there is a superabundance
of sap, from its being as it were thrown out of employment by the falling of the leaf.
In general all soft wood, such as elm, lime, poplar, willow, &c., should be felled during
the winter. Hard woods, like the oak, beach, ash, &c., may be felled at any time, if
the trunks are of large size, and chiefly valued for their heart- wood.
FELT GRAIN. That position of splitting timber which is cloven towards the centre of the
tree, or transversely to the annular rings or plates. The transverse position, or rather
that which is in the direction of the annular plates, is called the quarter grain.
FELTING. The act of splitting timber by the felt grain.
FENCE. (Lat. Defensio.) Any sort of construction for the purpose of enclosing land, as a
bank of earth, a ditch, hedge, wall, railing, paling, &c.
FENDER PILES. Those driven to protect work, either on land or in water, from the con-
cussion of a moving body.
FESTOON. (Fr.) A sculptured representation of flowers, drapery, and foliage, looped or
suspended at intervals on walls. The festoon was much used on friezes, altars, tablets,
also over or under niches, as well as in many other situations.
FETCHING THE PUMP. The act of pouring water into the upper part of a pump to expel
the air contained between the lower box or piston and the bottom of the pump.
FIGURE. In a general sense the terminating extremes or surface of a body. No body can
exist without figure, or it would be infinite, and all space solid matter. Figure in
geometry, any plane surface comprehended within a certain line or lines.
FILIPPO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 1 93.
FILLET. (Fr. Filet.) A narrow flat band, listel, or annulet used for the separation of
one moulding from another, and to give breadth and firmness to the upper edge of a
crowning moulding, as in a cornice. The small bands between the flutes of a column
are called fillets. See ANNULET and BAND.
FILLET. In carpentry or joinery, is any small timber scantling equal to or less than
battens. Fillets are used for supporting the ends of boards by nailing them to joists or
quarters, &c., as in sounding boarding, and in supporting the ends of shelves.
FILLET GUTTER. A sloping gutter, with a learboard and fillet thereon, to divert the
water.
FILLING IN PIECES. In carpentry, short timbers, less than the full length, fitted against
the hips of roofs, groins, braces of partitions, which interrupt the whole length.
FINE STUFF. Plaster used in common ceilings and walls for the reception of paper or
colour. It is composed of lime slaked and sifted through a fine sieve, then mixed with
a due quantity of hair and fine sand.
FINIAL. In Gothic architecture, the top or finishing of a pinnacle or gable, as it is now
generally understood ; but in ancient documents the term was used to denote an entire
pinnacle.
FINISHING. A term frequently applied to the termination of a building ; but more espe-
cially to the interior in the plasterer's work for the last coat, and often to the joiner's
work, as in the architraves, bases, surbases, &c.
FIORAVANTI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 159.
FIR. A forest tree, extensively used in building. See p. 484.
FIR POLES. Small trunks of fir trees, from ten to sixteen feet long, used in rustic build-
ings and outhouses.
FIR IN BOND. A technical expression to denote lintels, bond timbers, wall plates, and all
timbers built in walls. See BOND.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 973
FIR WROUGHT. That planed on the edges and sides.
FIR WROUGHT AND FRAMED. That which is both planed and framed.
FIR WROUGHT, FRAMED, AND REBATED. That which is planed, framed, and rebated.
FIR WROUGHT, FRAMED, REBATED, AND BEADED. The same as the preceding article, with
the addition of beading.
FIR FRAMED. Rough timber framed, but which has not undergone the action of planing.
FIR NO LABOUR. Rough timber employed in walls, without planing or framing.
FIRE-PLACE. See CHIMNEY.
FIRE-STONE. That which resists the action of the fire. A species of it is used in joinery
for rubbing away the ridges made by the cutting-edge of the plane.
FIRMER TOOL. A tool used by joiners. See p. 565.
FIRST COAT. In plastering, the laying the plaster on the laths, or the rendering, as it is
called, on brickwork, when only two coats are used. When three are used, it is called
pricking-up when upon laths, and roughing-in when upon bricks.
FISCHER, VON ERLACH. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 269.
FISCHER, CARL. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 313.
FISH. (Verb.) To secure a piece of wood by fastening another piece above or below
it, and sometimes both, to strengthen it.
FISTUCA. (Lat. ) A pile-driving instrument with two handles raised by pulleys, and
guided in its descent to fall on the head of a pile so as to drive it into the ground, being
what is by the workmen called a monkey.
FiTz-Ooo. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 108.
FIXTURE. A term applied to all articles of a personal nature affixed to land. This annex-
ation must be by the article being let into or united with the land, or with some substance
previously connected therewith.
FLAGS. Thin stones used for paving, from one and a half to three inches thick, and of
various lengths and breadths, according to the nature of the quarry.
FLAKE WHITE. In painting, lead corroded by the pressing of grapes, or a ceruse prepared
by the acid of grapes. It is of Italian manufacture, and for the purity of its white far
surpasses the white lead of this country.
FLANK. ( Fr. Flanc. ) That part of a return body which joins the front. In town houses
the party- walls are the flank walls.
FLASHING. (Probably from Fr. Flaque, a splash.) Pieces of lead or other metal let into
the joints of a wall so as to lap over the gutters or other conduit pieces, and prevent the
splashing of rain injuring the interior works.
FLAT. That part of the covering of a house laid horizontal, and covered with lead or
other material.
FLATTING. In house painting, a mode of painting in oil, in which the surface is left, when
finished, without any gloss. The material or paint is prepared with a mixture of oil
of turpentine, which secures the colours, and when used in the finishing, leaves the paint
quite dead. The process is of use where it is desirable that the surface painted should
retain the colour. It is only used for inside work and in the best apartments. Nut oil
may be used for the purpose, so may be poppy oil, both whereof are good media for the
colour.
FLEMISH BOND. See p. 516.
FLEMISH BRICKS. A species of bricks used for paving, whereof seventy-two will pave a
square yard ; they were originally imported from Flanders, are of a yellowish colour,
and harder than common bricks.
FLEXIBILITY. (Lat. Flecto.) That property of bodies which admits of their bending. It
is opposed to stiffness on the one hand, and brittleness on the other ; stiff bodies being
such as resist bending, and brittle those which cannot be bent without a disruption of
their parts.
FLEXURE. The bending or curve of a line or surface. The point of contrary flexure is
that point of a curve where the curvature alters from convex to concave, or the reverse,
as respects the first direction of the curve.
FLIGHT OF STEPS. In a staircase is the series of steps from one landing place to another.
Thus, the same staircase between one floor and another may consist of more than one
flight of steps ; the flight being reckoned from landing to landing.
FLINT. A material often used in inferior building. Common flints are nearly pure silica.
They usually occur in irregular nodules in chalk. Their origin is still an unsolved
geological problem.
FLOAT. In plastering, a long rule with a straight edge, by which the work is reduced to
a plane surface.
FLOATED LATH AND PLASTER. Plastering of three coats, whereof the first is pricking-up,
see Book II. Chap. III. Sect. 9. ; the second, floating or floated work; and the last, of
fine stuff.
FLOATED WORK. Plastering rendered perfectly plane by means of a FLOAT, which see.
974 GLOSSARY, ETC.
FLOATING SCREENS. (The etymon, of screeds, being probably schierato, ranged.) Strips
of plaster previously set out on the work, at convenient intervals, for the range of the
floating- rule or float.
FLOOR. (Sax. Flone.) The pavement or boarded lower horizontal surface of an apartment.
It is constructed of earth, brick, stone, wood, or other materials. Carpenters include in
the term the framed timber work on which the boarding is laid, as well as the boards
themselves. In carpentry, it denotes the timbers which support the boarding, called also
naked flooring (see p. 540. ) and carcass flooring. The term floor is, moreover, applied
to the stories of a building on the same level ; thus, we have basement floor, ground floor,
&c. When there is no sunk story, the ground story becomes the basement floor ; the
expressions, one pair, two pair, &c., implying a story above the first flight of stairs from
the ground, and so on. The principal floor is that which contains the principal rooms ;
generally in country houses on the ground floor, but in those of the town mostly on the
one pair floor.
FLOOR, FOLDING or FOLDED. One in which the floor boards are so laid that their joints do
not appear continuous throughout the whole length of the floor, but in bays or folds of
three, four, five, or more boards each.
FLOOR JOISTS are those which support the boards of the floor ; but when the floor consists
of binding and bridging joists, the bridgings are never called floor joists. For the better
comprehension of the different sorts of floors in carpentry, see p. 54O, et seq.
FLOOR STRAIGHT JOINT. That in which the floor boards are so laid that their joints or
edges form a continued line throughout the direction of their length ; in opposition to
folding floor, wherein the joints end infolds.
FLOORS. See Book II. Chap. II. Sect. 4.
FLORID STYLE. In Gothic architecture. See Book I. Chap. III. Sect. 5.
FLUE. The long open tube of a chimney from the fire-place to the top of the shaft, for
voidance of the smoke. See CHIMNEY.
FLUING. The same as SPLAYED, which see.
FLUSH. (Lat. Fluxus.) A term used by workmen to signify a continuity of surface in two
bodies joined together. Thus, in joinery, the style, rails, and munnions are usually made
flush ; that is, the wood of one piece on one side of the joint does not project or recede
from that on the other.
FLUSH. In masonry or brick-work, the aptitude of two brittle bodies to splinter at the
joints where the stones or bricks come in contact when contiguous in a wall.
FLUSH. (Verb.) A term to denote the complete bedding of masonry or brick- work, in
the mortar or cement used for the connection of the stones or bricks, so as to leave no
vacant space where the stones or bricks do not nicely tit in their places.
FLUTES or FLUTINGS. Upright channels on the shafts of columns, usually ending hemi-
spherically at top and bottom. Their plan or horizontal section is sometimes circular
or segmental, and sometimes, as in the Grecian examples, elliptical. The Doric column
(see Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 4.) has twenty round its circumference; the Ionic, Co-
rinthian, and Composite (see Sections 5, 6, and 7. of the same Chapter) have twenty-
four. The Tuscan column is never fluted. Flutes are occasionally cabled. See CABLE.
FLYERS. Steps in a flight of stairs that are parallel to each other.
FLYING BUTTRESS. A buttress in the form of an arch, springing from a solid mass of
masonry, and abutting against the springing of another arch which rises from the upper
points of abutment of the first. It is employed in most of the cathedrals, and its office
is to act as a counterpoise against the vaulting of the nave. If flying buttresses were
built solid from the ground, it is obvious that they would interfere with the vista along
the aisles of the church ; hence the project of continuing a resistance by means of arches.
Their stability depends on the resistance afforded by the weight of the vertical buttress,
whence they spring. See ARC-BOUTANT and BUTTRESS.
Focus. In geometry and the conic sections, a point on the concave side of a curve, to
which the rays are reflected from all points of such curve.
FODDER or FOTHER. A weight among the plumbers of London of 1 9| cwt.
FOENILIA. (Lat.) See GRANARY.
Foix, DE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 245.
FOLD OF A FLOOR. See FLOOR.
FOLDED FLOOR. See FLOOR.
FOLDING DOORS. Such as are made to meet each other from the opposite jambs to which
they are hung ; and when they are rebated together, their edges meet folding over each
other, with a bead at the joint, to give the appearance of one entire door.
FOLDING JOINT. A.joint made like a rule-joint or the joint of a hinge.
FOLIAGE. A sculptured group of the leaves of plants and flowers, so arranged as to form
architectural ornaments, as in friezes, panels, &c., and in the capitals of the Corinthian
and Composite orders.
FONT. A vessel, generally of stone or water, for containing the water of baptism in the
GLOSSARY, ETC.
975
Christian church. Some of the early fonts are extremely beautiful, and wrought with
extraordinary richness of decoration. The singular inscription frequently found on the
walls of baptisteries occurs also occasionally on ancient fonts : NITON ANOMHMATA
MH MONAN O¥IN, which, reading equally well both ways, admonishes the reader to
cleanse himself from sin, not less than to use the outward ceremony of baptism.
FONTANA, CARLO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 266.
FONTANA, DOM. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 242.
FOOT. (Germ, fuss.) A measure of length, but used also in a sense which expresses sur-
face and solidity. Thus we say, a foot superficial and a foot cube. As this term is used
in almost all languages as a linear measure, it has doubtless been derived from the length
of the human foot. It seems in all other countries, as in England, to be divided into
twelve equal parts, or inches.
The English standard foot (31 Edw. 1.) is =12 lineal English inches = 36 barley-
corns =16 digits = 4 palms = 3 hands = 5^ nails=l£ spans = 1-5151 Gunter's links =
"938306 ft. of France = '3047 met. of France. The foot is divided by geometricians
into 10 digits, and each digit into 10 lines, &c. The French, as the English, divide the
foot into 1 2 inches, and the inch into 1 2 lines. The foot square or superficial is a foot
each way, and contains, therefore, 12x12 = 144 superficial inches = 2 '295684 square
links. The glazier's foot in Scotland = 64 square Scotch inches.
The length of the foot varies in different countries. The Paris royal foot exceeds
that of England by 9| lines. The ancient Roman foot of the Capitol consisted of 4
palms = 1 1 -^j English inches. The Rhinland or Ley den foot, used by the northern
nations of Europe, is to the Roman foot as 950 to 1000. The following table exhibits
the length of the foot in the principal places of the Continent, the English foot being
divided into 1000 parts, or 12 inches: —
Country.
Parts.
Ft. In.
Lines.
London ......
1000
0 12
O
Amsterdam ......
942
0 11
2
Antwerp ......
946
0 11
3
Bologna ......
1204
1 2
4
Bremen . . . . .
964
0 11
6
Cologne -.--._
954
0 11
4
Copenhagen
965
0 11
6
Dantzic ......
944
0 11
3
Dort - ... .
1184
1 2
2
Frankfort-on- the- Maine -
948
0 11
4
Lorrain -------
958
0 11
5
Mantua .......
1569
I 6
8
Mechlin ......
919
0 11
0
Middleburgh -_._-_
991
0 11
9
Paris royal foot, according to Greaves -
1068
1 0
9-7
1066
1 0
9-4
fif*mr(\\r\tr ft f'mVi'im frnm +Vi m
of half the toise of the Chatelet, the toise being six
Paris feet ......
1065-416
1 C\KX «Q£ 1
i rw?£ *A
1f\
Prague -----..
lUoo 4
1026
O
1 0
9*4
3
Rhinland or Leyden .....
1033
1 0
4
Riga - ...
1831
1 9
9
Rome .......
967
0 11
6
Strasburg ......
920
0 11
0
Spanish .......
1001
1 0
0
Toledo .......
899
0 10
7
Turin .......
1062
1 0
7
Venice .......
1162
1 1
9
Greek .......
1007
1 0
1
Old Roman, according to Greaves
967
0 11
6
fVflTn flip TYinn vi t f
Statilius -
972
0 11
7
Mr. Raper (PMos. Trans, vol. li.), from various authorities, determines the mean of
the Roman foot to be nearly 968 parts of the London foot ; and he considers that before
the reign of Titus the Roman foot exceeded $$> of the London foot, and afterwards, in
976 GLOSSARY, ETC.
the reigns of Severus and Diocletian, it fell short of 965. Cagnazzi, from examination
of the monuments of antiquity in Herculaneum and Pompeii, determines the Roman
foot at *29624 metre, which, the metre being 3-2808992 English feet, would make
the old Roman foot -fijfa of the English foot.
The Scotch is to the English foot as 1 -066 to 1 -000, being, in fact, the French foot.
See MEASURES.
FOOT OF THE EYE DIRECTOR. In perspective, that point in the directing line made by a
vertical plane passing through the eye and the centre of the picture.
FOOT OF A VERTICAL LINE. In perspective, that point in the intersecting line which is made
by a vertical plane passing through the eye and the centre of the picture.
FOOT PACE or HALF PACE. That part of a staircase whereon, after the flight of a few
steps, you arrive at a broad place on which you may take two or three paces before you
come to another step. If it occur at the angle turns of the stairs, it is called a quarter pace.
FOOTING BEAM. The name given, in some of the provinces, to the tie beam of a roof.
FOOTINGS OF A WALL. Projecting courses of stone at the base of a wall or building to
spread the base, and give it security.
FORCE. In mechanics, the course of motion in a body when it begins to move, or when it
changes its direction from the course in which it was previously moving. While a body
remains in the same state, whether of rest or of uniform and rectilinear motion, the cause
of its so remaining is in the nature of the body, which principle has received the name
of inertia. For the laws on the composition and resolution of forces, see p. 3 8 1 , et seq.
FORCE PUMP. See p. 584.
FORCER. In mechanics, a solid piston applied to pumps for the purpose of producing a
constant stream, or of raising water to a greater height than it can be raised by the
pressure of the atmosphere.
FORE FRONT. The principal or entrance front of a building.
FORE PLANE. In carpentry and joinery, the first plane used after the saw or axe.
FORESHORTEN. In perspective, the diminution which the representation of the side or part
of a body has, in one of its dimensions, compared with the other, occasioned by the
obliquity of the corresponding side or part of the original body to the plane of projection.
FORM. The external appearance or disposition of the surfaces of a body, in which sense it
is synonymous with FIGURE, which see.
FORMENT. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 221.
FORUM. (Lat.) In ancient architecture, a public market ; also a place where the common
courts were held, and law pleadings carried on. The fora of the Romans were large
open squares surrounded by porticoes, parts whereof answered for market-places, other
parts for public meetings of the inhabitants, and other parts for courts of justice ; the
forum was also occasionally used for shows of gladiators. There were in Rome seven-
teen ; of these fourteen were for the sale of goods, provisions, and merchandise, and called
Fora Venalia ; the other three were for civil and judicial proceedings, and called Fora
Civilia et Judicialia. Of the latter sort was the forum of Trajan, of which the Trajan
column formed the principal ornament.
FOUNDATION. (Fr. Fondation.) The lower part of a wall on which an insistent wall is
raised, than which, too, it is always much thicker. See Book II. Chap. III. Sect. 1.
FOUNDRY. A building in which various metals are cast into moulds or shapes. See
Book II. Chap. III. Sect. 11.
FOUNTAIN. (Lat. Fons. ) Any natural or artificial apparatus by means whereof water
springs up. In natural fountains the ascensional effect is produced by the hydrostatic
pressure of the water itself; in artificial fountains, by the same sort of pressure, or by
that of compressed air, and sometimes by machinery.
Fox TAIL WEDGING. A method of fixing a tenon in a mortise by splitting the end of the
tenon and inserting a projecting wedge, then entering the tenon into the mortise, and
driving it home. The bottom of the mortise resists the wedge, and forces it further intc
the tenon, which will expand in width, so as not only to fill the cavity at the bottom, but
be firmly compressed by the sides of the mortise.
FRAME and FRAMING. (Sax. Fpamman, to form.) The rough timber work of a house, in-
cluding floors, roofs, partitions, ceilings, and beams. Generally, any pieces of wood fitted
together with mortises and tenons are said to be framed, as doors, sash-frames, sashes. &c.
FRANKING. A term used by the makers of window-sashes, and applied to the mode of
forming the joint when the cross-pieces of the frame intersect each other, no more wood
being cut away than is sufficient to show a mitre.
FREE STONE. Any stone which works freely, such as Portland stone, Bath stone, the
limestones generally, &c.
FREEZE. See FRIEZE.
FRENCH ARCHITECTURE. See Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 17.
FRENCH CASEMENTS. Windows turning upon two vertical edges attached to the jambs,
which, when shut, lap together upon the other two parallel edges, and are fastened by
GLOSSARY, ETC.
977
means of long bolts extending their whole height. French casements are made in the
form of the old English window, the two meeting styles, which lap together, forming a
munnion about 4 inches in breadth. The lower part only is moveable, the upper being
fixed, and having a corresponding munnion : the lower rail of the fixed part and the
upper rail of the moveable part forming a transom.
FRESCO PAINTING. (It. Fresco, fresh.) A method of painting by incorporating the colours
with plaster before it is dry, by which it becomes as permanent as the wall itself.
FRETTE or FRET. A species of ornament consisting of one or more small fillets meeting
Fig. 1044.
(See Jiff. 1044.)
The sections of the channels be-
in vertical and horizontal directions,
tween the fillets is rectangular.
FRICTION. (Lat. Frico, I rub.) The resistance produced by the rubbing of the surfaces of
two solid bodies against each other.
FRIEZE, FREEZE, or FRIZE. (Ital Fregio, adorned.) That member in the entablature of an
order between the architrave and cornice. It is always plain in the Tuscan ; ornamented
with triglyphs and sculpture in the Doric ; in the modern or Italian Ionic it is often
swelled, in which case it is said to be pulvinated or cushioned ; and in the Corinthian and
Composite it is variously decorated, according to the taste of the architect.
FRIEZE OF THE CAPITAL. The same as the HYPOTRACHELIUM, which see.
FRIEZE PANEL. The upper panel of a six-panelled door.
FRIEZE RAIL. The upper rail but one of a six-panelled door.
FRIGIDARIUM. In ancient architecture, the apartment in which the cold bath was placed.
The word is sometimes used to denote the cold bath itself.
FRIZE or FRISE. See FRIEZE.
FRONT. (Lat. Frons.) Any side or face of a building, but more commonly used to denote
the entrance side.
FRONTINUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 46.
FRONTISPIECE. (Lat. Frons and Inspicio.) The face or fore-front of a house, but the term
is more usually applied to the decorated entrance of a building.
FRONTON. The French term for a pediment.
FROSTED. A species of rustic- work, imitative of ice, formed by irregular drops of water.
FROWCESTER. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 150.
FROWEY TIMBER. Such as works freely to the plane without tearing, whose grain there-
fore is in the same direction.
FRUSTUM. (Lat.) In geometry, the part of a solid next the base, formed by cutting off the
top, or it is the part of any solid, as a cone, a pyramid, &c., between two planes, which
may be either parallel or inclined to each other.
Fuccio. See ARCHITECTS, list of 122.
FUGA. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 295.
FULCRUM. (Lat.) In mechanics, the fixed point about which a lever moves.
FUNNEL. (Lat. Infundibulum.) That part of a chimney contained between the fire-place
and the summit of the shaft. See CHIMNEY.
FURNACE. (Lat Fornax.) An apparatus wherein is formed a cavity to contain combustible
matter, which in various ways is supplied with air, to facilitate its combustion. The two
classes into which furnaces are divided are air or wind furnaces and blast furnaces. In
the former, the air is conducted through the fire by the draught of a funnel or chimney
communicating with it ; in the latter, the action of bellows, or some other pneumatic
apparatus, supplies the air. The word furnace has generally, however, a more circum-
scribed application, being applied usually to an apparatus for the fusion of metals, or to
that used in a chemical laboratory.
FURNITURE. (Fr. Fournir, to furnish. ) The visible brass work of locks, knobs to doors,
window-shutters, and the like.
FURRING. (Fr. Fourrer, to thrust in.) The fixing of thin scantlings or laths upon the edges
of any number of timbers in a range, when such timbers are out of the surface they were
intended to form, either from their gravity, or in consequence of an original deficiency of
the timbers in their depth. Thus the timbers of a floor, though level at first, often-
times require to be furred ; the same operation is frequently necessary in the reparation
of old roofs, and the same work is required sometimes in new as well as old floors.
FURRINGS. The pieces of timber employed in bringing any piece of work in carpentry to
a regular surface when the work is uneven, either through the sagging of the timber or
other causes.
FUSAROLE. (It.) A member whose section is that of a semicircle carved into beads. It is
3 R
978 GLOSSARY, ETC.
generally placed under the echinus, or quarter round of columns in the Doric, Ionic,
and Corinthian orders.
Fussmus. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 39.
FUST. (Fr. Fut. ) The shaft of a column or trunk of a pilaster.
FUST. A term used in Devonshire, and, perhaps, in some other counties, to signify the
ridge of a house.
G.
GARLE. (Brit. Gavel.) The vertical triangular piece of wall at the end of a roof, from the
level of the eaves to the summit.
GABRIEL, J. A. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 297.
GABRIEL, JACQUES. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 277.
GAGE, or GAUGE. (Sax. Laessian, to bind or confine.) In carpentry or joinery, an instru-
ment for drawing one or more lines on any side of a piece of stuff parallel to one of the
arrisses of that side. Of this tool there are four sorts ; the common gage and the flooring
gage (which are both applied to the drawing of a line parallel to an arris), the internal
gage, and the mortise and tenon gage.
This term is also used to signify the length of a slate or tile below the lap ; also the
measure to which any substance is confined. It is, moreover, used by plasterers to sig-
nify a greater or less quantity of plaster of Paris used with common plaster to accelerate
its setting.
GAIN. In carpentry, the bevelled shoulder of a binding joist, for the purpose of giving ad-
ditional resistance to the tenon below.
GAINSBOROUGH. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 145.
GAINZA. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 222.
GALILEE. A porch usually built near the west end of abbey churches, where the monks
collected in returning from processions, where bodies were laid previous to interment,
and where females were allowed to see the monks to whom they were related, or to hear
divine service. The galilees of Durham and Ely are found in the situation here de-
scribed. The former is highly ornamented, and is eighty by fifty feet, and divided into
five aisles by clustered columns and semicircular arches. The date of its erection was
towards the end of the twelfth century. That of Ely Cathedral is much smaller. It is
still used as the principal entrance to the church, and is without columns or other in-
ternal support. The porch at the south end of the great transept at Lincoln Cathedral
is also sometimes called a galilee. The word has been frequently used, but improperly,
to designate the nave of a church. Many conjectures have been made on the origin of
this term, but the most commonly received opinion, founded on a passage in the writings
of St. Gervase of Canterbury, is, that when a female applied to see a monk, she was
directed to the porch of the church, and answered in the words of Scripture, " He goeth
before you into Galilee, there shall you see him."
GALILEI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 275.
GALLERY. (Fr. Galerie.) An apartment of a house, for different purposes. A common
passage to several rooms in any upper story is called a gallery. A long room for the re-
ception of pictures is called a picture gallery. The platform on piers, or projecting from
the wall of a church and open in front to the central space is also called a gallery. The
Whispering Gallery at St. Paul's is another example of the various uses of the word.
The whole or a portion of the uppermost story of a theatre is likewise called a gallery. The
term is, moreover, used to denote porticoes formed with long ranges of columns on one side.
GALLI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 276.
GANDON. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 315.
GAOL. A prison, or place of legal confinement. See Book III. Chap. III. Sect. 18.
GARDEN SHEDS. Erections for containing garden implements, flower-pots, hot-bed frames,
and glass sashes, &c. ; also for working in during bad weather. They are best placed on
the back wall <5f the tool-house, and thus hold the furnaces, fuel, and other articles.
GARLANDS. (Fr.) Ornaments of flowers, fruit, and leaves anciently used at the gates of
temples where feasts or solemn rejoicings were held.
GARNETS, CROSS. A species of hinge used in the most common works, formed in the
shape of the letter T turned thus EH , the vertical part being fastened to the style or jamb
of the doorcase, and the horizontal part to the door or shutter.
GARRET. The upper story of a house taken either partially or wholly from the space
within the roof.
GARZIA. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 232.
GATE. ( Sax. keat. ) A large door, generally framed of wood. The width of gates should be
from eight and a half to nine feet, and the height from five to eight feet. The materials
of gates should be well seasoned previous to use, otherwise they will be soon injured by
the sun and wind. The parts should be also very correctly put together. For durability,
GLOSSARY, ETC. 979
oak is the best ; but some of the lighter woods, as deal, willow, and alder, are, on
account of their lightness, occasionally used. These, however, are more for field-bar gates
than close gates.
GAUGE. See GAGE.
GAVEL. The same as GABLE, which see.
GATHERING OF THE WINGS. See CHIMNEY.
GENERATING CURVE. See EVOLUTE.
GENERATING LINE or PLANE. In geometry, a line or plane which moves according to a given
law, either round one of its extremities as a fixed point or axis, or parallel to itself, in order
to generate a plane figure, or solid, formed by the space it has gone over.
GENESIS. (Gr.) In geometry, the formation of a line, plane, or solid, by the motion of a
point, line, or plane. See GENERATING LINE.
GENGA. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 212.
GEOMETRICAL. That which has a relation to geometry.
GEOMETRICAL STAIRCASE. That in which the flight of stairs is supported by the wall at one
end of the steps.
GEOMETRY. (Gr. Tr;, the earth, and Merpw, I measure.) That science which treats of the
objects of figured space. Its etymology implies the object of measuring land, that, as it
is said, being its first application in Egypt, where it is pretended to have been invented,
for ascertaining the landmarks after the yearly recession of the inundations of the Nile,
in order to mark the proper allotment of each owner. Whatever the origin, however, of
the term, the occasions on which it is necessary to compare things with one another in
respect of their forms and magnitudes are so numerous in every stage of society, that a
geometry more or less perfect must have existed from the first periods of civilisation.
See Book II. Chap. I. Sect. 2.
GEOMETRY, DESCRIPTIVE. The art of representing a definite body upon two planes at right
angles with each other, by lines falling perpendicularly to the planes from all the points
of concourse of every two contiguous sides of the body, and from all points of its contour,
and, vice versa, from a given representation to ascertain the parts of the original objects.
See Book 1 1. Chap. I. Sect. 6.
GEOMETRY, PRACTICAL. See Book. II. Chap. I. Sect. 3.
GERMAIN, ST. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 57.
GIBBS, J. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 281.
GIBBS, W. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 188.
GIBLEA CHEQUE. A term used by Scotch masons to denote the cutting away of the right
angle formed by the front and returns of the aperture of a stone door-case, in the form of
a rebate or reveal, so as to make the outer side of the door or closure flush with the face
of the wall.
GILDING. The practice of laying gold leaf on any surface. See Book II. Chap. III.
Sect. 12.
GILL. A measure equal to one fourth of a pint.
GIMBALS, GIMBOLS, or GIMBLES. (Lat. Gemellus.) A piece of mechanism consisting of
two brass hoops or rings which move within one another, each perpendicularly to its
plane, about two axes at right angles to each other. A body suspended in this manner,
having a free motion in two directions at right angles, assumes a constantly vertical po-
sition.
GIMLET, or perhaps more properly GIMBLET. (Fr. Guimbelet.) A piece of steel of a semi-
cylindrical form, hollow on one side, having a cross handle at one end and a worm or
screw at the other. Its use is to bore a hole in a piece of wood. The screw draws the
instrument into the wood when turned by the handle, and the excavated part, forming a
sharp angle with the exterior, cuts the fibres across, and contains the core of the wood cut out.
GIOCONDO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 182.
GIORGIO, Di. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 161.
GIOVAN BAPTISTA DI TOLEDO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 234.
GIOVANNI DA PISA. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 129.
GIRDER. (Sax. Dypban, to enclose.) The principal beam in a floor, for supporting the
binding or other joists, whereby the bearing or length is lessened. Perhaps so called
because the ends of the joists are enclosed by it.
GIRDLE. A circular band or fillet surrounding a part of a column.
GIRT. The length of the circumference of an object, whether rectilinear or curvilinear, on
its horizontal section. In timber measuring, according to some, is taken at one fourth
of the circumference of the tree, and is so taken for the side of a square equal in area to
the section of the tree cut through, where the perimeter is taken in order to obtain the
girt.
GLASS. ( Germ. ) A transparent, impermeable, and brittle substance, whereof the different
sorts used in building are described, Book II. Chap. II. Sect. 11.
GLASS PAINTING. A decoration frequently used in buildings, is the method of staining
3 R 2
980
GLOSSARY, ETC.
glass in such a manner as to produce the effect of representing all the subjects whereof
the art is susceptible. A French painter of Marseilles is said to have been the first who
instructed the Italians in this art, during the pontificate of Julius II. It was, however,
practised to a considerable extent by Lucas of Leyden and Albert Durer. The different
colours are prepared as follows : — Black is produced by two thirds of iron scales or
flakes, and the other third of small glass beads, or a substance called roccaglia by the
Italians. White is prepared for by sand or small white pebbles calcined, pounded, and
then finely ground. One fourth part of saltpetre is added, and the mixture is then again
calcined and pulverised, to which a little gypsum or plaster of Paris is added. Fellow is
formed from leaf silver, ground and mixed in a crucible with saltpetre or sulphur ; then
ground on a porphyry stone, and lastly, again ground with nine times the quantity of red
ochre. Red, one of the most difficult of the colours to make, is prepared from litharge
of silver and iron scales, gum Arabic, ferretta, glass beads, and bloodstone, in nearly equal
quantities. Great experience is necessary to succeed in making this colour. Green is
produced from os ustum one ounce, the same quantity of black lead, and four ounces of
white lead, incorporated by the action of fire. When calcined, a fourth part of salt-
petre is added, and, after a second calcination, a sixth more ; after which a third coction
is made before using it. Azure, purple, and violet are prepared in a similar manner to
green, omitting the os ustum, and in its stead using sulphur for azure, perigueux for
purple, and both these drugs for violet. Carnations, which are compounded colours, are
calcined, and usually mixed with water. They must be finished part by part, and each
with great dispatch, before the plaster dries, for there is little opportunity for blending.
The lights cannot be heightened, but the shadows may, when they begin to dry, be a little
strengthened. Promptitude and facility in execution are the great requisites for this
method of painting.
GLASS PLATE. Glass cast in plates and polished. See p. 51O.
The following is the Tariff of the Thames Plate Glass Company, Savoy Wharf, Strand,
for Glass, since 1845, when the Duty was taken off: —
Feet Super.
2 -
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
£ ». d.
034
082
0 15 5
1 3 11
1 12 5
2 1 3
2 12 2
330
3 12 11
434
4 17 4
5 13 4
- 7
9 0
9 19
10 18
11 18
12 18
13 19
4 9
2 9
9
7
0
7
20 19 0
22 2 9
23 9 4
24 14 5
Feet Super.
31 -
32 -
33 -
34 -
35 -
36 .
37 -
£ t. d.
26 2 5
27 8 8
28 13 3
30 0
31 11
33
34 9
35 16
37 6 9
38 17 9
40 9
41 18
43 11
45 4
46 18
48 9
50 4
51 16
53 8
55 5
56 19
58 12 10
60 11 1
62 6
64 1
65 17
67 17
69 14
71 11
73 4
8
4
0 0
3
Feet Super.
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
je *. d.
- 75 6 11
- 77 5 4
- 79 4 4
- 81 3 8
- 82 18 8
. 85 3 9
- 87 4 5
- 89 0 7
- 91 2 1
- 93 4 0
- 95 4 2
- 97 7 7
- 99 7 6
- 101 10 11
- 103 14 4
- 135 0 0
- 137 15 0
- 140 10 0
- 143 5 0
- 146 0 0
- 148 15 0
- 151 10 0
154 5 0
157 0 0
. 159 15 0
- 162 10 0
- 165 5 0
- 168 0 0
- 170 15 0
- 173 10 0
The above are the prices for glazing glass. For glass to be silvered, the prices are
somewhat higher. The cost of silvering is 12£ per cent, under SOL value, and 20 per
cent, above that value.
GLAZIER. An artisan whose employment is that of fitting and fixing the glass employed
in a building. See Book II. Chap. III. Sect. 8.
GLUE (from the Lat. Gluten. ) A tenacious viscid matter made of the skins and hoofs
of animals, for cementing two bodies together. Glue is bought in cakes, and is better
the older the skin of the animal from which it is made. That which swells without dis-
solving when steeped in water is the best. To prepare glue it should be broken into
small fragments and then steeped in water about twelve hours. It should be then heated
in a leaden or copper vessel till the whole is dissolved, stirring it frequently with a stick.
After this it is put into a wooden vessel and remains for use. Good glue for external
work is made by grinding as much white lead with linseed oil as will just make the
liquid of a whitish colour, and strong but not thick.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 981
GLYPH. (Gr. r\v<f>(a, I carve.) A sunken channel, the term being usually employed in
reference to a vertical one. From their number, those in the Doric order are called
triglyphs.
GLYPTOTHECA. (Gr. TAv^eo, and ®i>)Ki], deposit.) A building or room for the preservation
of works of sculpture.
GNEISS. A species of granite which, from excess of mica, is generally of a lamellar or slaty
texture. It is a term used by the miners of Germany.
GNOMON. ( Gr. Yvcap.tav, ) An instrument for measuring shadows, and thereby determining
the sun's height. In dialling, it is the style of the dial, and its shadow marks the hour.
It is placed so that its straight edge is parallel to the axis of the earth's rotation. In
geometry, a gnomon is that part of a parallelogram which remains when one of the
parallelograms about its diagonal is removed ; or the portion of the parallelogram com-
posed of the two complements and one of the parallelograms about the diagonal. The
term is found in Euclid, but is now rarely used.
GOCCIOLATOIO. The same as CORONA, which see.
GOLA, or GULA. (It) The same as CVMA, which see.
GOLDCLIFF. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 102.
GONDOUIN. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 312.
GONIOMETER. (Gr. Ttavia, an angle, and Mexico, I measure.) An instrument for measuring
solid angles.
GONSALVO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 118.
GORGE. The same as CAVETTO, which see. The gorgerin is a diminutive of the term.
GORGONEIA. (Gr.) Key-stones carved with Gorgons' heads.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. Si-e Book I. Chap. 11. Sect. 15.; and same Book, Chap. III.
Sections 2, 3, 4, and 5. And Appendix, page 119, et seq.
GOUFING FOUNDATIONS. A Scotch term, signifying a mode of securing unsoundw alls by
driving wedges or pins under their foundations.
GOUGE. A chisel whose section is of a semicircular form.
GOVERNMENT OFFICES. See Book III. Chap. III. Sect. 5.
GRADETTI. The same as ANNULETS, which see.
GRJECOSTASIS. A hall or portico adjoining the Roman comitia, in which foreign ambassa-
dors waited before entering the senate, and also whilst waiting the answer that was to be
given to them.
GRAIN. In wood or stone, is the line of direction in which either may be split trans-
versely.
GRANARY. (Lat. Granum. ) A building for storing corn, especially that intended to be
kept for a considerable time. Vitruvius calls those buildings intended for the preserva-
tion of grain, granaria, those for hay fcenilia, and those for straw farraria. The term
horreum was used by the Romans for denoting buildings not only for the preservation of
corn, but for various other effects.
GRAND. A term used in the fine arts, generally to express that quality by which the
highest degree of majesty and dignity is imparted to a work of art. Its source is, in
form, freed from ordinary and common bounds, and to be properly appreciated requires
an investigation of the different qualities by which great and extraordinary objects pro-
duce impressions on the mind.
GRANGE. A farm-yard or farmery, consisting of a farm-house and a court of offices for
the different animals and implements used in farming, as also of barns, feeding houses,
poultry houses, £c.
GRANITE. See Book II. Chap. II. Sect. 2.
GRATICULATION. The division of a design or draught into squares, for the purpose of
reducing it to smaller dimensions.
GRAVEL. A term applied to a well-known material of small stones, varying in size from a
pea to a walnut, or something larger. It is often intermixed with other substances, as
sand, clay, loam, flints, pebbles, iron ore, &c.
GRAVITY. See SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE. See Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 11.
GREEK CROSS. See CROSS.
GREEK MASONRY. The manner of bonding walls among the Grecians. See MASONRY.
GREENHOUSE. A building for sheltering in pots plants which are too tender to endure the
open air the greater part of the year. It is constructed with a roof and one or more
sides of glass, and being one constructed for luxury should not be far away from the
dwelling-house, so that the greatest enjoyment may be had from it. At the same time
it should, if possible, be near the flower-garden, as being of similar character in use. The
length and breadth can only be determined by the wealth and objects of the proprietor.
The best aspects are south and south east, but any aspect may, in case of necessity, be
taken, if the roof be entirely of glass, and plenty of artificial heat be supplied. In those
greenhouses, however, which face the north, the tender plants do not in winter succeed
3 R 3
982 GLOSSARY, ETC.
so well, and a greater quantity of artificial heat must then be supplied, and the plants
should, in such case, be chiefly evergreens, and others that come into flower in the summer
season, and grow and flower but little during the winter. The plants in greenhouses
are kept in pots or boxes on stages or shelves, so as to be near and follow the slope of
the roof, and thus made more susceptible of the action of the sun's rays immediately on
passing through the glass.
An orangery, from being constructed with a ceiled roof, differs from a greenhouse ; it
is, moreover, chiefly devoted to plants producing their shoots and flowers in the summer
season, and in the open air ; the use of the orangery being merely to preserve them
during the winter. The structure is more properly called a conservatory, though this
term is now applied to buildings with glass roofs, wherein the plants are not kept in
pots, but planted in the free soil, and wherein some are so reared as to grow and flower
in the winter months.
GREY STOCKS. Bricks of the third quality of the best or malm bricks, See Book II.
Chap. II. Sect. 10.
GRINDING. The act of taking off the redundant parts of a body, and forming it to its
destined surface.
GRINDSTONE. A cylindrical stone, mounted on a spindle through its axis, with a winch-
handle for turning it, to grind edge-tools.
GRIT STONE. One of various degrees of hardness ; mostly of a grey, sometimes of a yel-
lowish, colour. It is composed of a siliceous and micaceous sand, closely compacted by
an argillaceous cement. It gives some sparks with steel, is indissoluble, or nearly so, in
acids, and vitrifiable in a strong fire. It is used for millstones more than for building.
GROIN. ( Sax. Erpopcn, to grow. ) The line formed by the intersection of two arches, which
cross each other at any angle. See CROSS VAULTING, and Book II. Chap. I. Sect. 9.
GROINED CEILING. One formed by three or more curved surfaces, so that every two may
form a groin, all the groins terminating at one extremity in a common point.
GROOVE. (Sax. Erpapan, to dig.) A sunken rectangular channel. It is usually employed
to connect two pieces of wood together, the piece not grooved having on its edge a
projection or tongue, whose section corresponds to and fits the groove.
GROTESQUE. ( Fr. ) A term applied to capricious ornaments which, as a whole, have no
type in nature, consisting of figures, animals, leaves, flowers, fruits, and the like, all
connected together.
GROUND JOISTS. Those which rest upon sleepers laid upon the ground, or on bricks, prop
stones, or dwarf walls ; they are only used in basement and ground floors.
GROUND LINE. In perspective, the intersection of the picture with the ground plane. See
GROUND PLANE.
GROUND NICHE. One whose base or seat is on a level with the ground floor.
GROUND PLAN. The plan of the story of a house level with the surface of the ground, or
a few steps above it. It is not always the lowest floor, the basement being frequently
beneath it.
GROUND PLANE. In perspective the situation of the original plane in the supposed level
of our horizon. It differs from the horizontal plane, which is said of any plane parallel
to the horizon ; whereas the ground plane is a tangent plane to the surface of the earth,
and is supposed to contain the objects to be represented. The term ground plane is used
in a more confined sense than that of original plane, which may be any plane, whether
horizontal or inclined.
GROUND PLATE or GROUND SILL. The lowest horizontal timber on which the exterior
walls of a building are erected. It chiefly occurs in timber buildings, or in buildings
whose outside walls are formed of brick panels with timber framings.
GROUND PLOT. The plan of the walls of a building where they first commence above the
foundation, though more properly it is the piece of ground selected to receive the
building. For dwellings, its chief requisites are a healthy situation, a convenient supply
of water, good drainage, a pleasant aspect, &c. If for trade or manufacture, it should be
conveniently placed for receiving the raw material, and for exporting the articles
manufactured.
GROUNDS. In joinery, certain pieces of wood attached to a wall, to which the finishings are
fastened. Their surface is flush with the plastering. Narrow grounds are those whereto
the bases and surbases of rooms are fastened. Grounds are used over apertures, as well
for securing the architraves as for strengthening the plaster. That the plaster may be
kept firm, should the wood, shrink, a groove is sometimes run on the edge of the ground
next to the plaster, or the edge of the ground is rebated on the side next to the wall, so
that in the act of plastering the stuff is received into the groove or rebate, which prevents
it from shifting when it becomes dry.
GROUPED COLUMNS or PILASTERS. A term used to denote three, four, or more columns
placed upon the same pedestals. When two only are placed together they are said to be
coupled.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 983
GROUT. (Sax. Irfiut.) A thin semi liquid mortar, composed of quicklime and fine sand,
prepared and poured into the joints of masonry and brickwork, which process is called
grouting.
GROWING SHORE. See DEAD SHORE.
GUDGEON. The axle of a wheel, on which it turns and is supported. To diminish friction
gudgeons are made as small as possible in diameter, consistent with their weight. They
are often made of cast iron, on account of its cheapness, but wrought iron of the same
dimensions is stronger, and will support a greater load.
GUEULE. A term synonymous with CYMATIUM.
GUILLOCHE. (Fr.) An ornament in the form of two or more bands or strings twisting
over each other, so as to repeat the same figure, in a continued series, by the spiral returning
of the bands. The term is applied but improperly to FRETS, which see.
GULA. Synonymous with CYMATIUM, which see.
GULIELMO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 99.
GUNDULPH. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 87.
GUNTER'S CHAIN. One used for measuring land, and taking its name from its reputed
inventor. It is 66 feet, or 4 poles, long, and divided into 100 links, each whereof is
joined to the adjacent one by three rings ; the length of each link, including the adjacent
rings, is therefore 7 '92 inches. The advantage of the measure is in the facility it affords
to numerical calculation. Thus the English acre, containing 4840 yards, and Gunter's
chain being 22 yards long, it follows that a square chain is exactly the tenth part of an
acre, consequently the contents of a field being cast up in square links, it is only necessary
to divide by 100,000, or to cut off the last five figures, to obtain the contents expressed
in acres.
GUTTLE. See DROPS.
GUTTERS and GUTTERING. Canals to the roofs of houses to receive and carry off rain-
water. They are made either of lead or of tiles, which are either plain or concave ; these
last are called gutter tiles, and so adapted to each other as to be laid with great
ease. The Romans had gutters of terra cotta along the roofs of their houses, and
the rain-water from them ran out through the heads of animals and other devices
placed in the angles and in convenient parts. Leaden gutters were known in the middle
ages.
GVMNASIUM. (Gr. Tv/jLvaa-ioy, from TV/J.VOS, naked.) Originally a space measured out and
covered with sand for the exercise of athletic games. The gymnasia in the end became
spacious buildings, or institutions, for the mental as well as corporeal instruction of
youth. They were first erected at Laced-emon, whence they spread, through the rest of
Greece, into Italy. They did not consist of single edifices, but comprised several buildings
and porticoes for study and discourse, for baths, anointing rooms, palaestras, in which the
exercises took place, and for other purposes.
GYN^ECEUM. (Gr. rWa/ceioj/.) In ancient architecture, that portion of the Grecian house
set apart for the occupation of the female part of the family.
GYPSUM. (Probably from Trj, earth, and EiJ/co, I concoct.) Crystals of native sulphate of
lime. Being subjected to a moderate heat, to expel the water of crystallisation, it
forms plaster of Paris, and, coming in contact with water, immediately assumes a solid
form, Of the numerous species, alabaster is, perhaps, the most abundant.
H.
HACKS. In brickmaking (see p. 503.) the rows in which bricks are laid to dry after
being moulded.
HACKING. In walling, denotes the interruption of a course of stones, by the introduction of
another on a different level, for want of stones to complete the thickness. Thus making
two courses at the end of a wall of the same height as one at the other. The last stone
laid is often notched to receive the first stone of the other where the two heights com-
mence. Hacking is never permitted in good work. The term is used more in Scotland
than in England.
HALF PACE. See FOOT PACE.
HALF ROUND. A semicircular moulding, which may be a bead or torus.
HALL. (Sax. Hal.) A name applied indifferently to the first large apartment on entering
a house, to the public room of a corporate body, a court of justice, or to a manor house.
Vitruvius mentions three sorts of halls : the Tetrastyle, which has four columns sup-
porting the ceiling ; the Corinthian, which has columns all round, and is vaulted ; and
the Egyptian, which has a peristyle of Corinthian columns, bearing a second order with
a ceiling. These were called ceci. In magnificent edifices, where the hall is larger and
loftier than ordinary, and is placed in the middle of the house, it is called a saloon ; and
a royal apartment consists of a hall or chamber of guards, a chamber, an anti-chamber, a
cabinet chamber, and a gallery.
3 R 4
984 GLOSSARY, ETC.
HALVING. A method of joining timbers by letting them into each other. It is preferable
to mortising, even where the timbers do not pass each other, as they are less liable to be
displaced by shrinking.
HAM. (Sax.) Properly a house or dwelling place ; also a street or village, whence it has
become the final syllable to many of our towns, as Nottingham, Buckingham, &c. ; hence,
too, hamlet, the diminutive of ham, is a small street or village.
HAMMER BEAM. A beam acting as a tie at the feet of a pair of principal rafters, but not
extending so as to connect the opposite sides. Hammer beams are used chiefly in roofs
constructed after the Gothic style, the end which hangs over, being frequently supported
by a concave rib springing from the wall, as a tangent from a curve, and in its turn
supporting another rib, forming an arch. The ends of hammer beams are often decorated
with beads and other devices.
HAND-RAIL OF A STAIR. A rail raised upon slender posts, called balusters, to prevent
persons falling down the well hole, as also to assist them in ascending and descending.
HANDSPIKE. A lever for raising a weight, usually of wood, and applied to the holes in a
capstan head.
HANG OVER. (Verb.) A term used to denote the condition of a wall when the top
projects beyond the bottom.
HANGINGS. Linings for rooms of arras, tapestry, paper, or the like. Paper hangings
were introduced early in the seventeenth century.
HANGING STILE OF A DOOR. That to which the hinges are attached.
HARLEWIN. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 85.
HARMONICAL PROPORTION. That which, in a series of quantities, any three adjoining terms
being taken, the difference between the first and second is to the difference between the
second and third, as the first is to the third.
HARMUS. (Gr. 'Ap/xos.) In ancient architecture, a tile used for covering the joint between
two common tiles.
HARNESS ROOM. A room wherein harness is deposited. It is absolutely requisite that it
be dry and kept clean. Its situation should be near the stable it is destined to serve.
HASSACK. The provincial name for Kentish rag stone.
HATCHET. (Fr. Hachette.) A small axe used by joiners for reducing the edges of boards.
HAUNCHES OF AN ARCH. The parts between the crown and the springing.
HAWK. A small quadrangular tool with a handle, used by a plasterer, on which the stuff
required by him is served, for his proceeding with the work in progress. He has always
a boy attendant on him, by whom he is supplied with the material. The boy in ques-
tion is called a Hawk-boy.
HAWKSMOOR. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 273.
HEAD. See APERTURE.
HEAD JERKIN. See JERKIN.
HEADERS. In masonry, stones extending over the thickness of a wall ; and in brick-
laying, the bricks which are laid lengthwise across the thickness of the wall are called
headers.
HEADING COURSE. In brickwork and masonry, that in which the length of the stone or
brick is across the thickness of the wall.
HEADING JOINT. In joinery, the joint of two or more boards at right angles to the fibres,
or in handrailing at right angles to the back ; this is so disposed with a view of con-
tinuing the length of the board when too short. In good work the heading joints are
ploughed and tongued, and in dadoes are, moreover, connected with glue
HEADWAY OF STAIRS. The clear distance, measured perpendicularly, from a given landing-
place or stair to the ceiling above, allowing for the thickness of the steps.
HEADWORK. A name by which the heads and other ornaments on the keystones of arches
is frequently designated.
HEART BOND. In masonry, that in which two stones of a wall forming its breadth, have
one stone of the same breadth placed over them. See BOND.
HEARTH. See CHIMNEY.
HEATHER ROOF. A covering used in Scotland, by some considered superior to straw.
HEBREW ARCHITECTURE. See Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 6.
HECATOMPEDON. (Gr.) A temple of a hundred feet in length. As applied to the
Parthenon, for discovering the true length of the Greek foot. Stuart took considerable
pains in the measurement of that temple. The results, as published by Revely, are as
follow : —
Eng. Inches.
Length of the upper step, in front of the temple, gives for one foot - 12-139
From outside to outside of the angular columns - - 12-095
From centre to centre of the front columns • 12 -0982
Length of the architrave - 12-0625
HEEK. The same as RACK.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 985
HEEL. A term used by workmen to denote a cyma reversa.
HEEL OF A RAFTER. The end or foot that rests on the wall plate.
HEIGHT. The perpendicular distance of the most remote part of a body from the plane
on which it rests.
HEIGHT OF AN ARCH. A line drawn from the middle of the chord or span to the
intrados.
HELICAL LINE OF A HANDRAIL. The spiral line twisting round the cylinder, repre-
senting the form of the handrail before it is moulded.
HELIOCAMINUS. (Gr. 'HAtoy, the sun, and ~K.afj.ivos, a furnace.) A chamber in the Roman
houses which depended on the rays of the sun for warming it.
HELIX. (Gr. "HAi£, a kind of ivy whose stalk curls.) A small volute or twist under the
abacus of the Corinthian capital, in which there are, in every perfect capital, sixteen,
called also urittce ; viz. two at each angle, and two meeting under the middle of the
abacus, branching out of the caulicoli or stalks, which rise from between the leaves.
HELPSTONE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 135.
HEM. The spiral projecting part of the Ionic capital.
HEMICYCLE. A semicircle ; the term is used architecturally to denote vaults of the cradle
form, and arches or sweeps of vaults, constituting a semicircle.
HEMISPHERE. In geometry, the half of a globe or sphere, when divided by a plane passing
through its centre.
HEMITRIGLYPH. A half triglyph.
HENRY OF BLOIS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 92.
HENRY LATOMUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 134.
HEPTAGON. (Gr.) A geometrical figure of seven sides and angles.
HERMITAGE. A small hut or dwelling in an unfrequented place, occupied by a hermit.
HERMODORUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 30.
HERMOGENES. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 2.
HERRERA. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 236.
HERRING BONE WORK. A disposition of bricks or stones laid diagonally
(see diagram in the margin), each length receiving the end of the adjoining
brick or stone. See ASHLAR.
HEWN STONE. That which is reduced to a given form by the use of the mallet and
chisel.
HEXAEDRON or CUBE. (Gr. 'E£, six, and 'ESpcc, seat.) One of the five regular solids, so
called from its having six faces or seats.
HEXAGON. ('E| and r&wa, angle.) In geometry, a plain figure bounded by six straight
lines, which, when equal, constitute the figure a regular hexagon.
HEXASTYLE. (Gr. *E| and EruAos, column.) That species of temple or building having six
columns in front. See COLONNADE.
HICK-JOINT POINTING. That species of pointing in which, after the joints are raked out,
a portion of superior mortar is inserted between the courses, and made perfectly smooth
with the surface. See POINTING.
HIEROGLYPHICS. ('lepos, sacred, and FAu^w, I engrave.) Sculpture or picture writing,
which has obtained the name from being most commonly found on sacred buildings.
They consist in the expression of a series of ideas by representations of visible objects.
The name is, however, more particularly applied to a species of writing used by the
ancient Egyptians, which, according to Champollion, was of three different varieties of
characters : — 1. The hieroglyphic, properly so called, wherein the representation of the
object conveys the idea of the object itself. 2. That in which the characters represent
ideas by images of visible objects used as symbols. 3. That consisting of phonetic
characters, in which the sign does not represent an object but a sound.
HINDOO ARCHITECTURE. See INDIAN ARCHITECTURE, Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 6.
HINGES (from Hang). The metal joints upon which any body turns, such as doors,
shutters, &c. There are many species of hinges, which are described in Book II.
Chap. III. Sect. 5.
HIP. A piece of timber placed between every two adjacent inclined side* of a hip roof,
for the purpose of receiving what are called the jack rafters.
HIP MOULD. A term used by some workmen to denote the back of the hip ; by others
it is used to signify the form or pattern by which the hip is set out.
HIP or HIPPED ROOF. A roof whose return at the end of a building rises immediately
from the wall plate with the same inclination as the adjacent sides. The back of a hip
is the angle made on its upper edge, to range with the two sides or planes of the roof,
between which it is placed. The jack rafters are those short rafters which are shorter
than the full-sized ones to fill in against the hips.
HIP or CORNER TILES are those used at the hips of roofs ; they are ten inches long, and of
appropriate breadth and thickness, and bent on a mould before burning.
HIPPODROME. (Gr. 'liriros, a horse, and Apo/j.os, a course.) In ancient architecture, a place
986 GLOSSARY, ETC.
appropriated by the Greeks to equestrian exercises, and one in which the prizes were
contended for. The most celebrated of these was at Olympia. It was four stadia (each
625 feet) long, and one stadium in breadth.
HOARD. (Sax. Honb, to keep.) A timber enclosure round a building, in the course of
erection or under repair.
HOD. An utensil employed by labourers for carrying mortar or bricks.
HOLDFAST. A long nail, with a flat short head for securing objects to a wall.
HOLLAND. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 307.
HOLLOW. A concave moulding, whose section is about the quadrant of a circle ; called,
sometimes, by the workmen a casement.
HOLLOW NEWEL. An opening in the middle of a staircase. The term is used in contra-
distinction to solid newel, into which the ends of the steps are built. In the hollow
newel, or well hole, the steps are only supported at one end by the surrounding wall of
the staircase, the ends next the hollow being unsupported.
HOLLOW QUOINS. Piers of brick or stone made behind the lock gates of canals.
HOLLOW WALL. One built in two thicknesses, leaving a cavity between them for the pur-
pose of saving materials, or for preserving an uniform temperature in an apartment.
HOMESTALL. A mansion house, or seat in the country.
HOMOLOGOUS. In geometry, the correspondent sides of similar figures. The areas and
solid contents of such figures are likewise homologous.
HONTANON, Giov. GIL. DE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 205.
HONTANON, RODERIGO, GlL DE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 208.
Hoo. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 114.
HOOK. (Sax. Hoce.) A bent piece of iron, used to fasten bodies together, or whereon to
hang any article. They are of various kinds.
HOOKE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 265.
HOOKPINS. The same as DRAW BOREPINS, which see.
HORIZONTAL CORNICE. The level part of the cornice of a pediment under the two inclined
cornices.
HORIZONTAL LINE. In perspective, the vanishing line of planes parallel to the horizon.
HORIZONTAL PLANE. A plane passing through the eye parallel to the horizon, and pro-
ducing the vanishing line of all level planes.
HORIZONTAL PROJECTION. The projection made on a plane parallel to the horizon. This
may be understood perspectively, or orthographically, according as the projecting rays
are directed to a given point, or perpendicular to a given point.
HORN. A name sometimes given to the Ionic volute.
HORREUM. See GRANARY.
HORSE BLOCK. A square frame of strong boards, used by excavators to elevate the ends of
their wheeling planks.
HORSE RUN. A contrivance for drawing up loaded wheelbarrows of soil from the deep
cuttings of foundations, canals, docks, &c., by the help of a horse, which goes backwards
and forwards instead of round, as in a horse-yin.
HORSESHOE ARCH. See p. 55.
HORWOOD. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 152.
HOSPITAL. See Book III. Chap. III. Sect 17.
HOSTEL or HOTEL. (Fr.) Among us this word is used to denote a large inn, or place of
public entertainment ; but on the Continent it is also used to signify a large house or
palace.
HOT HOUSE. A general term for the glass buildings used in gardening, and including
stoves, greenhouses, orangeries, and conservatories. Pits and frames are mere garden
structures, with glass roofs, the sides and ends being of brick, stone, or wood, but so
low as to prevent entrance into them; they cannot therefore be considered as hot-
houses.
HOUSE. (Germ. Hause.) A human habitation or place of abode of a family. Among the
nations of the east and of the south, houses are flat on the top, to which ascent is general
on the outsidje. As we proceed northward, a declivity of the roof becomes requisite to
throw off the rain and snow, which are of greater continuance in higher latitudes.
Amongst the ancient Greeks, Romans, and Jews, the houses usually enclosed a
quadrangular area or court, open to the sky. This part of the house was by the Romans
called the impluvium or cavcedium, and was provided with channels to carry off the waters
into the sewers. Both the Roman and Greek house is described by Vitruvius, to whose
work we must refer the reader for further information on these heads. The word house is
used in various ways ; as in the phrase, " a religious house," either the buildings of a
monastery, or the community of persons inhabiting them may be designated. In the
middle ages, when a family retired to the lodge connected with the mansion, or to their
country seat, it was called " keeping their secret house." Every gradation of building
for habitation, from the cottage to the palace, is embraced by the word house, so that to
GLOSSARY, ETC. 987
give a full account of the requisites of each would occupy more space than could be
devoted to the subject in this place ; the reader must therefore refer to Book III. Chap.
III. Sects. 20 to 24. inclusive.
HOUSING. The space taken out of one solid for the insertion of the extremity of another,
for the purpose of connecting them. Thus the string board of a stair is most frequently
notched out for the reception of the steps.
HOVEL. An open shed for sheltering cattle, for protecting produce or materials of different
kinds from the weather, or for performing various country operations during heavy
rains, falls of snow, or severe frosts.
HOVELLING. A mode of preventing chimneys from smoking, by carrying up two sides
higher than those less liable to receive strong currents of air ; or apertures are left on
all the sides, so that when the wind blows over the top, the smoke may escape below.
HUE. In painting, any degree of strength or vividness of colour, from its greatest or
deepest to its weakest tint.
HUNDRED OF LIME. A denomination of measure which, in some places, is equal to thirty-
five, in others to twenty-five, heaped bushels or bags, the latter being the quantity
about London, that is, one hundred pecks. The hundred is also used for numbering,
thus deals are sold by the long hundred, or six score. Pales and laths are sold at five
score to the hundred if five feet long, and six score if only three feet long. The
hundred weight is 1 12 Ibs. avoirdupois ; the long hundred weight is 120 Ibs. ; so that the
former is to the latter as '93333 to 1.
HUNG, DOUBLE AND SINGLE. A term applied to sashes; the first when both the upper
and lower sash are balanced by weights, for raising and depressing, and the last when
only one, usually the lower one, is balanced over the pulleys.
HUT. A small cottage or hovel, generally constructed of earthy materials, as strong loamy
clay, &c.
HYDRAULICS. (Gr. <ffSup and AuAos, a pipe.) That branch of natural philosophy which
treats of the motion of liquids, the laws by which they are regulated, and the effects
which they produce. By some authors the term hydrodynamics is used to express the
science of the motion of fluids generally, whilst the term hydraulics is more particularly
applied to the art of conducting, raising, and confining water, and to the construction
and performance of waterworks.
HYDROSTATICS. (Gr. "TSwp and STOW, I stand.) The science which explains the properties
of the equilibrium and pressure of liquids. It is the application of statics to the pe-
culiar constitution of water, or other bodies, existing in the perfectly liquid form. The
following is the fundamental law whereon the whole doctrine of the equilibrium and
pressure of liquids is founded : when a liquid mass is in equilibrium under the action
of forces of any kind, every molecule of the mass sustains an equal pressure in all
directions.
HYLMER. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 177.
HYP^THRAL. (Gr. 'Tiro, under, and AiOyp, the air.) A building or temple without a
roof. The temples of this class are arranged by Vitruvius under the seventh order,
which had ten columns on each front, and surrounded by a double portico as in dipteral
temples. The cell was without roof, whence the name, but it generally had round it a
portico of two ranges of columns, one above the other. See TEMPLE.
HYPERBOLA. (Gr. 'TTrep, over, and BaAAw, I throw.) One of the conic sections, being
that made by a plane cutting the opposite side of the cone produced above the vertex,
or by a plane which makes a greater angle with the base than the opposite side of
the cone makes.
HYPERBOLIC CONOID or HYPERBOLOID. A solid formed by the revolution of an
hyperbola about its axis. See CONOID.
HYPERBOLIC CYLINDROID. A solid formed by the revolution of an hyperbola about its
conjugate axis or line through the centre, perpendicular to the transverse axis.
HYPERTHYRUM. (Gr. 'TTrep and Qvpa, a door.) The lintel or cross-piece of the aperture
of a doorway.
HYPOCAUSTUM. (Gr. 'TTTO, under, and Katcu, I burn.) In ancient architecture, a vaulted
apartment, from which the heat of the fire was distributed to the rooms above by means
of earthen tubes. This contrivance, first used in baths, was afterwards adopted in private
houses, and is supposed to have diffused an agreeable and equal temperature through-
out the different rooms.
HYPOG^UM. (Gr.) A term applied among the ancients to those parts of a building
which were below the level of the ground.
HYPOPODIUM. A footstool used in the ancient baths.
HYPOSCENIUM. In ancient architecture, the front wall of the theatre, facing the orchestra
from the stage.
HYPOTRACHELIUM. (Gr. 'Tiro, under, and Tpa.^\os, the neck.) The slenderest part of
the shaft of a column, being that immediately below the neck of a capital.
988 GLOSSARY, ETC.
I.
ICE HOUSE. A subterranean depot for preserving ice during the winter. The most important
advice that can be given to the builder of an ice house is, that it be so thoroughly capable
of drainage, from the lowest point of its floor, as to permit no water ever to collect upon
it ; this accomplished, no difficulty will, with common precaution, prevent the preserva-
tion of the ice. The aspect of such a building should be towards the south-east, that the
morning sun may expel the damp air which is more prejudicial than warmth. If
possible, it should be placed on a declivity for the facility of drainage. At the end of
the drain which is to carry away the water arising from the melted ice, a perfect air trap
should be placed, to prevent all communication between the external and internal air,
from which trap the water should be carried off without the possibility of obstruction.
With respect to the dimensions and form of the ice house, the former must depend on
the size of the establishment, which, if very large, will require one of a medium diameter,
from fifteen to twenty feet ; if moderate, one from eight to fifteen feet will be large
enough. The best form is the frustum of an inverted cone, ten to twenty feet deep,
bricked round, and with double walls, a cavity of four inches being left between them.
The ice is sustained on a grated floor, through which the water is rapidly carried off
by the drainage first mentioned. The ice is best collected during the severest part of
the frost, and should be pounded as laid in the ice house, besides being well rammed down
as it is put in. Snow however, hard rammed, will answer when ice cannot be obtained.
ICHNOGRAPHY. (Gr. Ix^os, a, model, and Tpcujxa, I draw.) The representation of the
ground plot of a building. In perspective, it is its representation, intersected by an
horizontal plane at its base or groundfloor.
ICOSAEDRON. (Gr. EiKoo-t, twenty, and 'E5po, seat. ) One of the five regular or platonic
bodies, bounded by twenty equilateral and equal triangles. It may be regarded as con-
sisting of twenty equal and similar triangular pyramids, whose vertices all meet in the
same point ; and hence the content of one of these pyramids, multiplied by twenty, gives
the whole content of the icosaedron.
ICTINUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 12.
IMAGE. In perspective, the scenographic or perspective representation of an object. See
PERSPECTIVE in the body of the work, Book II. Chap. IV. Sect. 2.
IMBOW. (Verb.) To arch over or vault.
IMPAGES. A term used by Vitruvius (lib. iv. c. 6.), which has usually been considered as
meaning the rails of a door.
IMPERIAL. (Fr. ) A species of dome, whose profile is pointed towards the top, and widens
towards the base, thus forming a curve of contrary flexure.
IMPETUS. (Lat.) In mechanics, the same with momentum or force.
IMPLUVIUM. (Lat.) In ancient architecture, the outer part of the court of a house which
was exposed to the weather. In the summer time, it was the practice to stretch an
awning over it.
IMPOST. (Lat. Impono, I lay on.) The capital of a pier or pilaster which receives an arch.
It varies in the different orders ; sometimes the whole of the entablature serves as the
impost to an arch. The term is applicable to any supporting piece. An impost is said
to be mutilated when its projection is diminished, so that it does not exceed that of the
adjoining pilaster which it accompanies.
INBOND JAMBSTOKE. A bondstone laid in the joint of an aperture.
IXCERTUM. (Lat.) A term used by Vitruvius to designate a mode of building which con-
sisted of small rough stones and mortar, and whose face exhibited irregularly formed
masonry, not laid in horizontal courses. See MASONRY.
INCH. A measure of length, being the twelfth part of a foot.
INCLINATION. (Lat.) The approach of one line, which if continued will meet another or
the same of two planes.
INCLINED PLANE. One of the five simple mechanical powers, whose theory is deduced from
the decomposition of forces. See p. 389.
INCRUSTATION. (Lat.) Anything, such as mosaic, scagliola, &c., applied by some connect-
ing medium to another body.
INDEFINITE. ( Lat. ) Anything which has only one extreme, whence it may be produced
infinitely as it is produced from such extreme.
INDENTED. (Lat.) Toothed together, that is, with a projection fitted to a recess.
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE. See Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 6.
INDURATION. (Lat.) A term applied to the firmer consistence which a body acquires from
various causes.
INERTIA. (Lat. Iners. ) A term applied to that law of the material world which is known
to predicate that all bodies are absolutely passive or indifferent to a state of rest or mo-
tion, and would continue in those states unless disturbed by the action of some extrinsic
force. Inertia is one of the inherent properties of matter.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 989
INFINITE. (Lat. Infinitus, boundless. ) In geometry, that which is greater than any assign-
able magnitude ; and as no such quantities exist in nature, the idea of an infinite quan-
tity can only, and that most imperfectly, exist in the mind by excluding all notions of
boundary or space.
INFIRMARY. A public building for the reception of the sick ; but the term is more gene-
rally used to denote a sick-ward or building attached to some public establishment.
INLAYING. The art of laying on some under surface a totally different kind of work to that
which the original surface would present. Thus the materials are of no consequence : in
stone the inlaying may be of mosaic work or in small pieces, as in wood it may be
in patterns made out by different sorts of woods, which is called marquetry, or by some,
parquetry. Veneering is also a species of inlaying.
INNER PLATE. The wall plate, in a double-plated roof, which lies nearest the centre of the
roof; the side of the other wall plate, called the outer plate, being nearer the outer sur-
face of the wall.
INNER SQUARE. The edges forming the internal right angle of the instrument called a square.
INSERTED COLUMN. One that is engaged in a wall.
INSTRUMENTS, MATHEMATICAL. Those used for describing mathematical diagrams and draw-
ings of every description, when the figures or elementary parts of them are composed of
straight lines, circles, or portions of them. The indispensable instruments for such opera-
tions are, a drawing pen, a pair of plain compasses, commonly called dividers, a pair of
drawing compasses, a portcrayon and pencil foot, a pair of bow, of triangular, and of propor-
tional compasses, a protractor, in the form of a semicircle or rectangle, graduated on the
edges, a plain scale, and a parallel rule.
INSULAR or INSULATED BUILDING. Such as stands entirely detached from any other.
INSULATED COLUMN. One detached from a wall, so that the whole of its surface may be seen.
INTAGLIO. (It.) Sculpture in which the subject is hollowed out, so that the impression
from it would present the appearance of a bas-relief.
INTAVOLATA. The same as CYMATIUM, which see.
INTERCEPTED Axis. In conic sections, that part of the diameter of a curve comprehended
between the vertex and the ordinate. It is also called the abscissa, and forms an arch
of a peculiar kind.
INTERCOLUMNIATION. (Lat. Inter, between, and Columna, a column.) The distance between
two columns measured at the lower part of their shafts. It is one of the most important
elements in architecture, and on it depends the effect of the columns themselves, their
pleasing proportion, and the harmony of an edifice. Intercolumniations are of five spe-
cies, pycnostylos, sy stylos, diastylos, arasostylos, and eustylos, under which several terms each is
defined. The subject is also found more largely treated of in Book III. Chap I. Sect. 9.
INTERDENTELS. The space between two dentels. From a comparison of various examples,
it seems that the Greeks placed their dentels wider apart than the Romans. In the
temple of Bacchus at Teos, the interdentel is two-thirds the breadth of the dentel, and
in that of Minerva Polias at Priene, the interdentel is nearly three-fourths. In the
temple of Jupiter Stator at Rome, the interdentels are equal to half the breadth of the
dentel.
INTERIOR ANGLE. An angle formed within any figure by two straight lined parts of the
perimeter or boundary of the figure, the exterior angle being that which is formed in
producing a side of the perimeter of the figure. The term is also applied to the two
angles formed by two parallel lines, when cut on each side of the intersecting line.
INTERIOR AND OPPOSITE ANGLES. An expression applied to the two angles formed by a
line cutting two parallels.
INTERJOIST. The space or interval between two joists.
INTERMODILLION. The space between two modillions.
INTERNAL ANGLE. See INTERIOR ANGLE.
INTERPILASTER. The space between two pilasters.
TNTERQCARTER. The interval between two quarters.
INTERTIES. Short pieces of timber used in roofing to bind upright posts together, in roofs,
partitions, in lath and plaster work, and in walls with timber framework.
INTRADOS. The interior and lower line or curve of an arch. The exterior or upper curve
is called the extrados. See ARCH.
INVENTION. (Lat. Invenio, I find.) In the fine arts, the choice and production of such
objects as are proper to enter into the composition of a work of art. " Strictly speak-
ing," says Sir Joshua Reynolds, " invention is little more than a new combination of
those images which have been previously gathered and deposited in the memory : nothing
can come of nothing: he who has laid up no materials can produce no combinations."
Though there be nothing new under the sun, yet novelty in art will be attainable till all the
combinations of the same things are exhausted, a circumstance that can never come to pass.
INVERTED ARCH. One wherein the lowest stone or brick is the key-stone. It is used in
foundations, to distribute the weight of particular points over the whole extent of the
990 GLOSSARY, ETC.
foundation, and hence Its employment is frequently of the first importance in constructive
architecture.
INVOLUTE. See EVOLUTE.
INWARD ANGLE. The re-entrant angle of a solid. See INTERNAL ANGLE.
IONIC ORDER. See Book III. Chap, I. Sect 5.
IRON. See Book II. Chap. II. Sect. 5.
IRONMONGERY. See Book II. Chap. III. Sect. 10.
IRREGULAR FIGURE. One whose sides, and consequently angles, are unequal to each other.
ISAGON. (Gr. Icros, equal, and Tuvia, an angle.) A figure with equal angles.
ISEMBERT. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 105.
ISIDORUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 62.
ISIDORUS OF BYZANTIUM. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 64.
ISODOMUM. (Gr.) One of the methods of building walls practised by the Greeks. It
was executed in courses of equal thickness, and with stones of equal lengths. The other
method, called pseudisodomum, in which the heights, thicknesses, and lengths of the stone
were different. There was another mode called EMPLECTON, which see.
ISOSCELES TRIANGLE. One in which two of the sides are of equal length.
IVARA. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 220.
J.
JACK ARCH. One whose thickness is only of one brick.
JACK PLANE. A plane about eighteen inches long, used in taking off the rough surface
left by the saw or that of the axe, and of taking off large protuberant parts, to prepare
the stuff for the trying plane.
JACK RAFTER. See HIP ROOF.
JACK RIBS. Those in a groin, or in a poly gonally- domed ceiling, that are fixed upon the hips.
JACK TIMBER. Any one interrupted in its length, or cut short.
JAMB LININGS. The two vertical linings of a doorway which are usually of wood.
JAMB POSTS. Those introduced on the side of a door, to which the jamb linings are fixed.
They are particularly used when partitions are of wood.
JAMB STONES. In stone walls are those which are employed in building the sides of aper-
tures, in which every alternate stone should go entirely through the thickness of the wall.
JAMBS. (Fr.) The sides of ail aperture which connect the two sides of a wall. See
APERTURE and CHIMNEY.
JAMES, JOHN. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 228.
JEAN D'ECHELLES. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 115.
JERKIN HEAD. The end of a roof not hipped down to the level of the opposite adjoining
walls, the gable being carried higher than the level of those walls.
JIB DOOR. A door so constructed as to have the same continuity of surface with that of
the partition or wall in which it stands. Its use is to preserve an unbroken surface in
an apartment where one door only is wanted nearer to one end of a room than another,
and generally for the purpose of preserving uniformity.
JOGGLE. The joint of two bodies so constructed as to prevent them sliding past each other,
by the application of a force in a direction perpendicular to the two pressures by which
they are held together. Thus the struts of a roof are joggled into the truss posts and into
the rafters. When confined by mortise and tenon, the pressure which keeps them to-
gether is that of the rafter and the reaction of the truss post. The term is also used in
masonry to signify the indentation made in one stone to receive the projection in another,
so as to prevent all sliding on the joints. This may be also accomplished by means of
independent pieces of material let into the adjacent stones.
JOGGLE PIECE. The truss post in a roof when formed to receive a brace or strut with a
joggle.
JOHANNES OF MILETUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 65.
JOHN OF PADUA. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 187.
JOINER. The artisan who joins wood by glue, framing, or nails, for the finishings of a
building.
JOINERY. The practice of framing or joining wood for the internal and external finishings
of houses ; thus the covering and lining of rough walls, the covering of rough timbers,
the manufacture of doors, shutters, sashes, stairs, and the like, are classed under the head
of joinery. See Book II. Chap. III. Sect. 6.
JOINT. The surface of separation between two bodies brought into contact and held firmly
together, either by some cementing medium, or by the weight of one body lying on
another. A joint, however, is not merely the contact of two surfaces, though the nearer
they approach the more perfect the joint. In masonry, the distances of the planes in-
tended to form the joint is comparatively considerable, because of the coarseness of the
particles which enter into the composition of the cement.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 991
JOINTER. In joinery is the largest plane used by the joiner in straightening the face of the
edge of the stuff to be prepared. In bricklaying, it is a crooked piece of iron forming two
curves of contrary flexure by its edges on each side, and is used for drawing, by the aid
of the jointing rule, the coursing and vertical joints of the work.
JOINTING RULE. A straight edge used by bricklayers for the regulation of the direction
and course of the jointer in the horizontal and vertical joints of brickwork.
JOISTS. (Fr. Joindre.) The timbers whereto the boards of a floor or the laths for a ceiling
are nailed. They rest on the walls or on girders ; sometimes on both. When only
one tier of joists is used, the assemblage is called single-flooring ; when two, doubh-
flooring.
JONES, INIGO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 252.
JUFFERS. An obsolete term for pieces of timber four or five inches square.
JUMP. An abrupt rise in a level course of brickwork or masonry to accommodate the
work to the inequality of the ground. Also in quarrying, one among the various names
given to the dislocations of the strata in quarries.
JUMPER. A long iron chisel used by masons and miners.
K.
KEEP or KEEP TOWER. A term almost synonymous with donjon. See CASTLE.
KENDALL. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 166.
KENT. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 282.
KERF. The way made by a saw through a piece of timber, by displacing the wood with
the teeth of the saw.
KEY. (Sax. Caese.) An instrument for driving back the bolt of a lock. The key of a
floor is the board last laid down. In joinery generally a key is a piece of wood let into
the back of another in the contrary direction of the grain, to preserve the last from warping.
KEY STONE. The highest or central stone of an arch. See ARCH.
KEYED DADO. That which has bars of wood grooved into it across the grain at the back
to prevent it warping.
KEYES. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 151.
KEYS. In naked flooring are pieces of timber fixed in between the joists by mortise and
tenon. When these are fastened with their ends projecting against the sides of the joists,
they are called strutting-pieces.
KILDERKIN. A measure containing eighteen gallons of beer, and sixteen ale measure.
KILN. A building for the accumulation and retention of heat in order to dry or burn
certain materials deposited within them.
KING POST. The centre post in a trussed roof. See CROWN POST.
KIRB PLATE. See CURB PLATE.
KIRB ROOF. See CURB ROOF.
KITCHEN. (Fr. Cuisine.) The apartment or office of a house wherein the operations of
cookery are carried on.
KNEE. A part of the back of a handrailing, of a convex form, being the reverse of a ramp,
which is also the back of a handrail, but is concave. The term knee is also given to
any small piece of timber of a bent or angular form.
KNEE PIECE or KNEE RAFTER. An angular piece of timber, to which other pieces in the
roof are fastened.
KNOTTING. The preliminary process in painting, to prevent the knots appearing, by cover-
ing them with a coat composed of red lead, then white lead and oil, and lastly, a coat of
gold size. Sometimes leaf silver is also used.
KNUCKLE. The joint of a cylindrical form, with a pin as an axis, by which the straps of a
hinge are fastened together.
LABEL. In Gothic architecture, the drip or hood moulding over an aperture when it is
returned square.
LABELYE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 285.
LABOUR. (Lat.) A term in masonry employed to denote the value of a piece of work in
consideration of the time bestowed upon it.
LABYRINTH. (Gr. AaSvpivdos.) Literally a place, usually subterraneous, full of inextri-
cable windings. The four celebrated labyrinths of antiquity were the Cretan, Egyptian,
Lemnian, and Italian. The first has the reputation of being the work of Daedalus to
secure the Minotaur; the second is said to have been constructed under the command of
Psammeticus, king of Egypt ; the third was on the island of Lemnos, and was sup-
ported by columns of great beauty ; the fourth is reported to have been designed by
Porsenna, king of Etruria, as a tomb for himself and his successors.
LABYRINTH FRET. A fret, with many turnings, in the form of a labyrinth. See FRET,.
992 GLOSSARY, ETC.
LACER. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 48.
LACONICUM. (Lat.) One of the apartments in the ancient baths, so called from its having
been first used in Laconia.
LACQUER. A yellow varnish, consisting of a solution of shell-lac in alcohol, coloured by
gamboge, saffron, annotto, or other yellow, orange, or red colouring matters. The use
of lacquer is chiefly for varnishing brass, and some other metals, in order to give them a
golden colour and preserve their lustre.
LACTARIUM. (Lat.) Strictly a dairy-house. Tn ancient architecture, it was a place in the
Roman herb market, indicated by a column, called the Columna Lactaria, where found-
lings were fed and nourished.
LACUNAR. (Lat.) The ceiling or under surface of the member of an order. Also the
under side of the larmier or corona of a cornice. The under side also of that part of the
architrave between the capitals of columns. The ceiling of any part in architecture re-
ceives the name of lacunar only when it consists of compartments sunk or hollowed,
without spaces or bands, between the panels ; if it is with bands, it is called laquear.
LADY CHAPEL. The name given to a small chapel dedicated to the Virgin, generally, in
ancient cathedrals, placed behind the high altar.
LANCET ARCH. One whose head is shaped like the point of a lancet, and generally applied
to long narrow windows.
LANDING. The terminating floor of a flight of stairs, either above or below it.
LANFRANC. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 81.
LANFRANI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 139.
LANGHANS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 310.
LANTERN. (Fr. Lanterne.) A drum-shaped erection, either square, circular, elliptical, or
polygonal, on the top of a dome, or on that of an apartment, to give light.
LAP. The part of one body which lies on and covers another.
LAPO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 120.
LAQUEAR. See LACUNAR.
LARARIUM. (Lat.) In ancient architecture, the apartment in which the lares or house-
hold gods were deposited. It frequently contained also statues of the proprietor's
ancestors.
LARDER. The place in which undressed meat is kept for the use of a family.
LARMIER. (Fr.) The same as CORONA, which see.
LATCH. The catch by which a door is held fast.
LATENT HEAT. That which is insensible to the thermometer, upon which the liquid and
aeriform states of bodies depend, and which becomes sensible during the conversion of
vapours into liquids and of liquids into solids.
LATH. (Sax. Laetca.) A thin cleft piece of wood used in slating, tiling, and plastering.
There are two sorts, double and single, the latter being about three-eighths of an inch
thick, and the former barely a quarter of an inch. Pantile laths are long square pieces
of fir, on which the pantiles hang.
LATH BRICKS. A species made in some parts of England. They are twenty-two inches
long and six inches broad.
LATH FLOATED AND SET FAIR. Three-coat plasterers' work, in which the first is called
pricking up ; the second floating ; the third, or finishing, is done with fine stuff.
LATH LAID AND SET. Two-coat plasterers' work, except that the first is called laying, and
is executed without scratching, unless with a broom. When used on walls, this sort of
work is generally coloured ; when on ceilings, whited.
LATH PLASTERED, SET, AND COLOURED. The same as lath laid, set, and coloured.
LATH PRICKED UP, FLOATED, AND SET FOR PAPER. The same as lath floated and set fair.
LATERAL STRENGTH. The resistance which a body will afford at right angles to its grain.
LATTICE. ( Fr. Lattis. ) A reticulated window, made of laths or strips of iron, separated
by glass windows, and only used where air, rather than light, is to be admitted, as in
cellars and dairies.
LAUNDRY. An apartment occupied by the laundress of an establishment. It should be
spacious and well supplied with every convenience for mangling, drying, and ironing the
linen of a family. Horses, or slender frames of wood, should be provided for hanging
the linen upon, which should be suspended to the timbers of the ceiling by pulleys, by
which they may be raised and lowered.
LAVATORY. (Lat.) See CLOISTER.
LAYER. In brickwork and masonry, synonymous with COURSE, which see.
LAYING. In plastering, the first coat on lath of two-coat work, the surface whereof is
roughed by sweeping with a broom. The difference between laying and rendering being,
that the latter is the first coat upon brick.
LAZARHOUSE or LAZAKETTO. (Ital.) A hospital for the reception of the poor and those
afflicted with contagious diseases. There are many in the southern states of Europe for
the performance of quarantine, into which those only are admitted who arrive from
GLOSSARY, ETC. 993
countries infected by the plague, or suspected of being so. An account of the principal
lazarettos of Europe was published by the celebrated Howard.
LEAD. (Sax. Lteb.) The heaviest metal next to gold, platina, and mercury, being eleven
times heavier than its own bulk of water. See Book II. Chap. II. Sect. 6.
LEANTO. A building whose rafters pitch against or lean on to another building or against
a wall.
LEAVES. (Sax. Lasay.) Ornaments imitated from natural leaves, whereof the ancients used
two sorts, natural and imaginary. The former were those of the laurel, palm, acanthus,
and olive; but they took great liberties in the representations of all of them.
LEDGE. A surface serving to support a body either in motion or at rest. Ledges of doors
are the narrow surfaces wrought upon the jambs and sofites parallel to the wall to stop
the door, so that when it is shut the ledges coincide with the surface of the door. A
ledge, therefore, is one of the sides of a rebate, each rebate being formed of two sides. In
temporary work the ledges of doors are formed by fillets. Also the horizontal planks in
common doors, to which the vertical planks are nailed. See Book II. Chap. III. Sect. 5.
LEDGEMENT. The development of a surface, or the surface of a body stretched out. on a
plane, so that the dimensions of the different sides may be easily ascertained.
LEDGERS. In scaffolding for brick buildings are horizontal pieces of timber parallel to the
walls. They are fastened to the standards, or upright poles, by cords, to support the
put-logs, which lie at right angles to and on the walls as they are brought up, and receive
the boards for working on.
LEDOUX. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 306.
LEG RAND. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 309.
LEGS OF AN HYPERBOLA. The two parts on each side the vertex.
LEGS OF A TRIANGLE. The sides which inclose the base.
LENGTH. (Sax. Lens.) The greatest extension of a body. In a right prism the length is
the distance between the ends ; in a right pyramid or cone, the length is the distance
between the vertex and the base.
LENGTHENING OF TIMBER is the method of joining several beams, so as to form a long beam
of any given length.
LEONI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 279.
LESCOT. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 237.
LEVEL. (Sax. Loerel.) A line or surface which inclines to neither side. The term is used
substantively to denote an instrument which shows the direction of a straight line
parallel to the plane of the horizon. The plane of the sensible horizon is indicated in
two ways : by the direction of the plummet, or plumb line, to which it is perpendicular ;
and by the surface of a fluid at rest. Accordingly, levels are formed either by means of
the plumb line, or by the agency of a fluid applied in some particular manner. They all
depend, however, upon the same principle, namely, the action of terrestrial gravity.
The carpenter's level consists of a long rule, straight on its lower edge, about ten or
twelve feet in length, with an upright fixed to its upper edge, perpendicular to and in
the middle of the length, having its sides in the same plane with those of the rule, and a
straight line drawn on one of its sides perpendicular to the straight edge of the rule.
This standing piece is generally mortised into the other, and finally braced on each side,
to secure it from accident, and has its upper end kerfed in three places, viz. through the
perpendicular line, and on each side. The straight edge of the transverse piece has a
hole, or notch, cut out on the other side equal on each side the perpendicular line. A
plummet is suspended by a string from the middle kerf, at the top of the standing piece,
to vibrate freely in the hole or notch when hanging at full length. When the straight
edge of the level is applied to two distant points, with its two sides placed vertically, if
the plummet hangs freely, and the string coincides with the straight line on the standing
piece, the two points are level. If not, suppose one of the points to be at the given
height, the other must be lowered or raised, as the case may require, till the string is
brought to a coincidence with the perpendicular line. By two points is meant two
surfaces of contact, as two blocks of wood, or the upper edges of two distant beams.
The uses of the level in carpentry are various, and need not be here detailed. The
mason's level is formed of three pieces of wood, joined in the form of an isosceles triangle,
having a plummet suspended from the vertex over a mark in the centre of the base.
LEVELLING. The art or act of finding a line parallel to the horizon, at one or more
stations, in order to determine the height of one place with respect to another, for laying
grounds even, regulating descents, draining morasses, conducting waters for the irrigation
of land, &c. See ADDENDA.
LEVER. In mechanics an inflexible rod, moveable about a fulcrum, or prop, and having
forces applied to two or more points in it. The lever is one of the mechanical powers,
and being the simplest of them all, was the first attempted to be explained. For its
properties see Book II. Chap. I. Sect. 8.
LEVER BOARDS. A set of boards so fastened that they may be turned at any angle to
3 S
994 GLOSSARY, ETC.
admit more or less light, or to lap upon each other so as to exclude all air or light
through apertures.
LEWIS or LEWISSON. An instrument said to have been used in England by the builders
of the middle ages to raise stones of more than ordinary weight to the upper part of a
building. It was revived by a French artisan in the reign of Lewis XIV., and is now
generally employed. It operates by the pieces forming its dove-tail end being kept in
their correspondent places in the stone by a middle straight piece, kept in its situation
by a pin passing through it and the dovetail pieces at top, and the combination of the
whole, is with a large ring.
LIAS. A provincial name adopted by geologists for an argillaceous limestone, which,
together with its associated bed, is characterised by peculiar fossils.
LIBON. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 11.
LIBRARY. An edifice or apartment for the reception of a collection of books. For remarks
on the construction of public libraries see Book III. Chap. III. Sect. 9.
LIGHTS. A term sometimes used to denote the openings of doors, gates, and windows,
and other places through which air and light have passage.
LIGHTHOUSE. A lofty building, on the top whereof artificial lights are placed to guide
ships at sea. For general observations on lighthouses see Book III. Chap. III. Sect. 12.
LIKE ARCS. In the projection of the sphere, the parts of lesser circles containing an equal
number of degrees with the corresponding arcs of greater circles.
LIKE FIGURES. In geometry, such as have their angles equal, and the sides about the
equal angles proportional.
LIKE SOLIDS. Those which are contained under like planes.
LIME. (Germ. Leim, glue.) A most useful earth, obtained by exposing chalk, and other
kinds of limestones or carbonates of lime, to a red heat, an operation generally conducted
in kilns constructed for the purpose, by which the carbonic acid is expelled, and lime,
more or less pure, according to the original quality of the limestone, remains, in which
state it is called quicklime. See Book II. Chap. II. Sect. 10.
LIMEKILN. One for the purpose of burning lime. They are constructed in a variety of
ways, to save expense, or to answer to the particular nature of the fuel.
LIMESTONE. A generic term for those varieties of carbonate of lime which are neither
crystallised or earthy, the former being calcareous spar, the latter chalk. When burned
they yield quicklime.
LINE. (Lat. Linea.) In geometry, a magnitude having only one dimension, and defined
by Euclid to be that which has length without breadth. The term is also used to
denote a measure of length used formerly in France, namely, the twelfth part of an inch,
or T^ of a foot.
LINE OF DIRECTION. In mechanics, the line in which motion is communicated.
LINE, GEOMETRICAL. In perspective, any straight line in the geometrical or primary line.
LINE, HORIZONTAL. A line parallel to the horizon. In perspective, it is the vanishing line
of horizontal planes.
LINE OF STATION. The intersection of a plane passing through the eye, perpendicular to
the picture, and to the geometrical or primary plane with the plane itself.
LINE, VERTICAL. The intersection of a vertical plane with the picture passing along the
station line.
LINE, VISUAL. A ray of light reflected from the object to the eye.
LINES OF LIGHT AND SHADE. Those in which the light and shade of a body are separated.
Thus, on a curved surface, it is the line determined by a tangent to the surface in the
direction of the rays of light.
LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. See Book II. Chap. IV. Sect. 2.
LINING. The covering of the surface of any body with another thin substance. Thus the
lining of a wall is a wooden boarding, whose edges are either rebated or grooved and
tongued. Lining is distinguished from casing, the first being a covering in the interior
of a building, whilst the latter is the covering of the exterior part of a building.
LINING OUT STUFF. (Participle.) The drawing lines on a piece of board or plank so as to
cut it into thinner pieces.
LININGS OF BOXINGS for window shutters, are the pieces of framework into which the
window shutters are folded back.
LININGS OF A DOOR. Those of the sides of apertures of doors called the jambs or jamb-
linings, that which covers the top or head being the sofite.
LINTEL. (Span.) A horizontal piece of timber or stone over a door, window, or other
opening to discharge the superincumbent weight. If a wall be very thick, more than
one lintel piece will be required, unless scanting of sufficient width be found. In some
old books on carpentry lintels are classed under wall plates, but the word is now never
used in this sense, unless the joisting or tie-beams rest upon it, in which case it is both a
lintel and a wall plate.
LIST or LISTEL. The same as FILLET, which see.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 995
LISTED BOARDS. See BOARDS.
LISTING. (Participle.) Cutting the sap wood out from both edges of a hoard.
LOAM. A soil in which clay prevails. It is called heavy or light as the clay may he more
or less abundant.
LOBBY. (Germ. Laube. ) An inclosed space surrounding or communicating with one or
more apartments, such as the boxes of a theatre, for instance. By it also is understood a
small hall or waiting room, or the entrance into a principal apartment where there is a
considerable space between it and a portico or vestibule ; but the dimensions, especially
as regards the width, will not allow of its being called a vestibule or anti-room.
LOCK. (Sax. Loc.) A well-known instrument, consisting of springs and bolts, for fastening
doors, drawers, chests, &c. A good lock is a masterpiece in smithery, requiring much
art and delicacy to contrive and vary the wards, springs, bolts, and other parts whereof
it is composed, so as to adjust them to the places where they are serviceable, and to the
various purposes of their use. The structure of locks is so varied, and the number of
inventions of their different sorts so extended, that we cannot attempt to enumerate them.
Those placed on outer doors are called stock locks, those on chamber doors spring locks,
and such as are hidden in the thickness of the doors to which they are applied, mortise
locks. The padlock is too well known to need description here.
The conditions which seem indispensable in a perfect lock are, 1 . that certain parts
of the lock should be variable in position through a great number of combinations, one
only whereof shall allow the lock to be opened or shut ; 2. that this last-mentioned
combination should be variable at the pleasure of the possessor ; 3. that it should
not be possible, after the lock is closed and the combination disturbed, for any one, not
even the maker of the lock, to discover, by any examination, what may be the proper
situations of the parts required to open the lock ; 4. that trials of this kind shall not be
capable of injuring the works ; 5. that it shall require no key ; 6. and be as easily
opened in the dark as in the light ; 7. that the opening and shutting shall be done by
a process as simple as that of a common lock ; 8. that it should open without a key or
with one, at pleasure ; 9. that the keyhole be concealed, defended, or inaccessible ; 10.
that the key may be used by a stranger without his knowing or being able to discover
the adopted combination; 11. that the key be capable of adjustment to all the varia-
tions of the lock, and yet be simple ; 1 2. that the lock should not be liable to be taken
off and examined, whether the receptacle be open or shut, except by one who knows the
method of combination.
The above considerations involve a problem of great mechanical difficulty, which has
not yet been solved, though much has been done towards it. For the locks in common
use in buildings, see p. 592.
LODGE. A small house, situate in a park or domain, subordinate to the mansion. Also the
cottage placed at the gate of the road leading to the mansion.
LOGARITHMS. See p. 246, et seq.
LOGHOUSE. A hut constructed of the trunks of trees.
LOGISTIC SPIRAL. One whose radii are in continued proportion, and in which the radii are
at equal angles ; or, in other words, a spiral line whose radii every where make equal
angles with the tangents.
LOMBARDO, M. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 174.
LOMBARDO, P. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 173.
LOMBARDO, SANTE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 216.
LONGIMETRY. A term used to denote the operation of trigonometry for measuring lengths,
whether accessible or inaccessible.
LOOP. (Fr.) A small narrow window. A loophole is a term applied to the vertical series
of doors in a warehouse, from which the goods, in craning, are delivered into a warehouse.
LORME, PHILIP DE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 214.
LOTOS. A plant of the water-lily species much used in the architectural ornaments of
the early nations, and especially in the capitals of Egyptian columns.
Louis. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 304.
LOZENGE. A quadrilateral figure of four equal sides, with oblique angles.
LUFFER BOARDINGS. (Fr. Louvre.) See BOARDING LUFFER.
LUNE or LUNULA. The space between two equal arcs of a circle.
LUNETTE. (Fr.) A cylindric, cylindroidic, or spherical aperture in a ceiling. As an ex-
ample of the term, we may refer to the upper lights in the nave of St. Paul's Cathedral.
LUSARCHE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 110.
LUTHERN. The same as DORMER, which see.
LYING PANELS. Those wherein the fibres of the wood, or the grain of it, lie in an hori-
zontal direction.
LYSIS. ( Gr. ) A plinth or step above the cornice of the podium of ancient temples, which
surrounded or embraced the stylobate, whereof an example may be seen in the temple
of Fortuna Virilis at Rome.
3 S 2
996 GLOSSARY, ETC.
M.
M ROOF. A roof formed by the junction of two common roofs with a vallum between
them. The letter AV inverted represents this species of covering.
MACHICOLATIONS. ( Fr. Machicoulis. ) In castellated architecture are, according to Grose,
the projections, supported by brackets or corbels, through which melted lead and stones
were dropped on the heads of assailants. They were not probably, however, projecting
works, but sometimes were considered as the series of square holes in the vaultings of
the portals used for the same purpose.
MACHINE. (Gr. Ma^a^?.) In a general sense, any thing which serves to increase or regu-
late the effect of a given force. Machines are simple or compound. The former are the
simple mechanical powers, six in number ; viz. the lever, the wheel and axle, the pulley,
the wedge, the screw, and the funicular machine. The latter are formed by the com-
bination of two or more simple machines, and are classed according to the forces by
which they are put in motion, as hydraulic machines, pneumatic machines, electrical machines,
&c., or the purposes they are intended to serve, as military machines, architectural ma-
chines, &c.
MACHUCA. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 227.
MADERNO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 249.
MAGLIONE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 123.
MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE. An extensive series of beds lying in geological position imme-
diately above the coal measures ; so called because the limestone, which is the principal
member of the series, contains magnesia.
MAGNITUDE. (Lat.) A term by which size, extent, or quantity is designated. It was
originally applied to the space occupied by any figure ; or, in other words, it was applied
to objects strictly termed geometrical, and of three dimensions, length, breadth, and
thickness, but it has gradually become enlarged in its signification, so as to be given to
every kind of quantity that admits of mensuration, or of which greater or less can be pre-
dicated ; in which sense it was used by Euclid.
MAHOGANY. A wood often used for doors and window-sashes. See p. 487. The
Jamaica mahogany is the hardest and most beautiful, and is distinguished from that of
Honduras by the chalky appearance of its fibres. Those from Honduras appear quite
dark. After oiling, this distinction is not so clearly observable.
MAIN COUPLE. See COUPLE.
MAJANO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 149.
MALLEABILITY. (Lat. Malleus, a hammer. ) The property of being susceptible of extension
under the blows of a hammer. It is a characteristic of some of the metals, most particu-
larly in gold. Common gold-leaf is not more a two-hundred-thousandth part of an inch
in thickness. Five grains may be beaten out so as to cover a surface of more than two
hundred and seventy square inches.
MALLET. (Lat.) A large kind of wooden hammer much used by artificers who work with
a chisel, as masons, stonecutters, carpenters, joiners, &c.
MALTHA. (Gr.) A native bitumen used by the ancients for plastering the walls of their
dwellings, &c. An artificial kind was made of pitch, wax, plaster, and grease ; another sort
was composed of lime slaked with wine, and incorporated with melted pitch and fresh figs.
MANDREL. (Fr. Mandrin. ) In machinery, a revolving shank, to which turners affix their
work in the lathe.
MANDROCLES. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 6.
MANGER. The trough in the stall of a stable wherein is placed the corn or other short
food given to live stock, and more especially to horses.
MANLIO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 203.
MANSARD. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 258.
MANSARD, JULES HARDOUIN. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 267.
MANSARD ROOF. (So called from the name of its inventor, Fran£ois Mansard.) The same
as CURB ROOF, which see.
MANSION. A large house ; a term more usually applied to one in the country. The
origin of the word and its application is supposed to be derived from the mansiones, or
stationary camps of the Roman soldiers.
MANTLE TREE. See CHIMNEY.
MARBLE. (Fr. Marbre.) A term limited by mineralogists and geologists to the several
varieties of carbonate of lime, having more or less of a granular and crystalline texture.
Among sculptors, the word is used to denote several compact or granular kinds of stone
susceptible of a very fine polish ; the varieties of it are extremely numerous. The most
valuable sorts used by the ancients were the Pentelican, which was white, and was ob-
tained from Mount Penteles in Attica. It was used in the Parthenon and other Athe-
nian buildings, and was also in great repute among the sculptors. The Parian marble
was, as its name imports, from the island of Paros, in which Mount Marpessus yielded
the best, which was called Marpessian. The marble of Paros was also sometimes termed
GLOSSARY, ETC. 997
Lychneus, because of its use in making candelabra, and Lygdlnum, from the promontory
of Lygdos. Another of the white marbles of antiquity was that of Mount Hymettus
in Attica. The marbles of Thasus and Lesbos were white, and in great repute. The
latter island produced also a black marble. At Luna, in Etruria, there was found a
marble even whiter than that of Paros. Amongst the white marbles may, moreover, be
mentioned the marmor Phellense from Mount Phellens ; the marmor Coraliticum, found
near the river Coralios in Phrygia, and termed also Sangarium, from another name of the
same river. The marmor Cyzicum was taken from the quarries of Cyzicus in Asia
Minor ; the Synnadicum, or marmor Phrygium, was obtained from the environs of the
city of Synnas in Phrygia, and was of a black ground with small circles. Another sort
of marble, which resembled ivory in its colour, was called chernites. The marble of
Tcenarus was highly esteemed as a black marble. The marmor Lybicum, or Numidian
marble, called also marmor Luculleum, was what the French term noir antique. The cele-
brated marmor Chium was excavated from the Mount Pelineus in the island of Chio, and
was of a transparent chequered black colour. The marmor obsidianum was from Ethiopia,
and of the black species, as was the Proconnesian, or Cyzican marble, from the island of
Proconnesus. That from Mount Taygetes, called marmor Laconicum, was the well-
known verd antique of antiquaries. The marble of Carystus was a mingled green ; that
called the Atracium, from Mount Atrax in Thessaly, was a mixture of white, green, blue,
and black. The green Tiberian and Augustan marbles were obtained from Egypt. The
marmor Ophites, or Memphites, which took its first name from its resemblance to the skin
of a serpent, and its second from the city of Memphis, where it was found, is the Serpen-
tino antico of the Italians. The marble of Corinth was yellow, and the marmor Phengites
of Cappadocia was white, with yellow spots. The Rhodian marble was marked with
spots resembling gold ; that of Melos was yellow, and excavated in Mount Acynthus.
The varieties of marble used in modern times are exceedingly numerous, and a classifica-
tion of them would occupy a larger space than can be here given. Except the finest
specimens of white marble, they are mostly opaque. Some extremely fine specimens
of white marble are to be seen in the Borghese Palace at Rome, which, on being sus-
pended by the centre on a hard body, bend very considerably. It is found that statuary
marble exposed to the sun acquires, in time, this property, thus indicating a less degree
of adhesion of its parts than it naturally possessed.
Almost every mountainous district of the world produces this mineral, but the finest
and most valuable is from Italy. See Book II. Chap. II. Sect. 3.
MARBLE, POLISHING OF. The material is brought to an even face by rubbing with free-
stone, afterwards with pumice-stone, and lastly with emery of several colours ; but white
marble is finished with calcined tin. The Italians polish with lead and emery. The
sawing of marble, preparatory to polishing, is by a saw of soft iron, with a continued
supply of the sharpest sand and water.
MARGIN OF A COURSE. That part of the upper side of a course of slates which appears un-
covered by the next superior course.
MARIGOLD WINDOW. See ROSE WINDOW.
MARMORATUM. (Lat.) A cement used by the ancients, formed of pounded marble and
lime well beaten together.
MARQUETRY or PARQUETRY. (Fr. Marquetrie. ) Inlaid work, consisting of different pieces
of various coloured woods, of small thickness, glued on to a ground, usually of oak or fir
well dried and seasoned, which, to prevent casting and warping, is composed of several
thicknesses. It was used by the early Italian builders in cabinet work ; and John of Vienna,
and others of his period, represented by its means figures and landscapes ; but in the pre-
sent day it is chiefly confined to floors, in which the divers pieces of wood are usually
disposed in regular geometrical figures, and are rarely of more than three or four species.
MASCAL or MARSHALL. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 220.
MASONRY. (Fr. ) The science of combining and joining stones for the formation of walls
and other parts in constructing buildings. When applied in the construction of domes,
groins, and circular arches, it is difficult and complicated, and is dependent on a
thorough knowledge of descriptive geometry. The subject is treated in the body of this
work, Book II. Chap. III. Sect. 3.
Among the ancients, several sorts of masonry were in use, which are described by
Vitruvius as follows, in the eighth chapter of his second book : — " The different species
of walls," he observes, " are the reticulatum (net- like) (fig. 1045. A), a method now in
general use, and the incertum (B), which is the ancient mode. The reticulatum is very
beautiful, but liable to split, from the beds of the stones being unstable, and its deficiency
in respect of bond. The incertum, on the contrary, course over course, and the
whole bonded together, does not present so beautiful an appearance, though stronger
than the reticulatum. Both species should be built of the smallest sized stones,
that the walls, by sucking up and attaching themselves to the mortar, may last the
longer ; for as the stones are of a soft and porous nature, they absorb, in dry-
3 S 3
998
GLOSSARY, ETC.
ing, the moisture of the mortar ; and
this, if used plentifully, will conse-
quently exercise a greater cementing
power; because from their contain-
ing a larger portion of moisture,
the wall will not, of course, dry
so soon as otherwise ; and as soon
as the moisture is absorbed by the
pores of the stones from the mor-
tar, the lime, losing its power, leaves
the sand, so that the stones no longer
adhere to it, and in a short time &
the work becomes unsound. We may
see this in several monuments about
the city (Rome) which have been
built of marble, or of stones squared
externally, that is, on one face, but
filled up with rubble run with mortar.
Time in these has taken up the
moisture of the mortar, and destroyed
its efficacy by the porosity of the
surface on which it acted. All cohesion is thus ruined, and the walls fall to decay. He
who is desirous that this may not happen to his work should build his two-face walls
two feet thick, either of red stone, or of bricks, or of common flint, binding them together
with iron cramps run with lead, and duly preserving the middle space or cavity. The
materials in this case not being thrown in at random, but the work well brought up on
the beds, the upright joints properly arranged, and the face-walls, moreover, regularly
tied together, they are not liable to bulge, nor be otherwise disfigured. In these respects
one cannot refrain from admiring the walls of the Greeks. They make no use of soft
stone in their buildings ; when, however, they do not employ squared stones, they use
either flint or hard stone, and, as though building with brick, they cross or break the
upright joints, and thus produce the most durable work. There are two sorts of this
species of work, one called isodomum (CC), the other pseudisodomum (DD). The first
is so called, because in it all the courses are of an equal height ; the latter received its
name from the unequal heights of the courses. Both these methods make sound work ;
first, because the stones are hard and solid, and therefore unable to absorb the moisture
of the mortar, which is thus preserved to the longest period; secondly, because the beds
being smooth and level, the mortar does not escape ; and the wall, moreover, bonded
throughout its whole thickness, becomes eternal. There is still another method, which
is called f/j-irXenTov (emphctum) (E), in use even among our country workmen. In
this species the faces are wrought. The other stones are, without working, deposited
in the cavity between the two faces, and bedded in mortar as the wall is carried up.
But the workmen, for the sake of despatch, carry up these casing walls, and then tumble
in the rubble between them, so that there are thus three distinct thicknesses, namely, the
two sides or facings, and the filling in. The Greeks, however, pursue a different course,
laying the stones flat, and breaking the vertical joints ; neither do they fill in the middle
at random, but, by means of bond stones, make the wall solid, and of one thickness or
piece. They moreover cross the wall from one face to the other, with bond stones of a
single piece, which they call Siarovoi {diatoni} (F), tending greatly to strengthen the
work." We have preferred to give this account in the words of the author himself as
the best description, because that of a practical architect, and though capable of some
abbreviation, not sufficiently so to justify our own alteration.
MASS. (Germ. Masse.) The quantity of matter whereof any body is composed. The
mass of a body is directly as the product of its volume into its density. Multiplied into
the constant force of gravity, the mass constitutes the weight ; hence the mass of a body
is properly estimated by its weight.
MASTIC. (Gr. Matrn/oj, a species of gum.) A cement of recent introduction into England,
employed for plastering walls. It is used with a considerable portion of linseed oil, and
sets hard in a few days. From this latter circumstance, and from its being fit for the
reception of paint in a very short period, it is extremely useful in works where expedition
is necessary.
MASUCCIO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 124.
MATERIALS. (Lat. Materies.) Things composed of matter, or possessing its fundamental
properties. Those used in building form the subject of the second Chapter of the second
Book of this work, to which the reader is referred.
MATHEMATICS. (Gr. MaOr)cris, learning. ) The science which investigates the consequences
logically deducible from any given or admitted relations between magnitude or numbers.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 999
It has usually been divided into two parts, pure and mixed. The first is that in which
geometrical magnitude or numbers are the subjects of investigation ; the last, that in
which the deductions so made are from relations obtained by observation and experiment
from the phenomena of material nature. This is sometimes called physics, or physical
science. On the subject of mathematics, the reader is referred, as respects what is
necessary for the architect, to ARITHMETIC, and ALGEBRA, and GEOMETRY, in the body of
the work, Book II. Chap. I. Sects. 1 and 2.
MATTER. (Lat. Materies.) That which constitutes substance. Of its intimate nature,
the human faculty possesses no cognisance, nor either by observation or experiment can
data be furnished whereon to found an investigation of it. All that we seem likely to
know of it is its sensible properties, some whereof are the foundation of physical science,
others of the different subordinate sciences.
MAURITIUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 86.
MAUSOLEUM. A term used to denote a sepulchral building, and so called from a very
celebrated one erected to the memory of Mausolus, king of Caria, by his wife Artemisia,
about 353 B.C. From its extraordinary magnificence, the building just mentioned was
in ancient times esteemed the seventh wonder of the world. According to the account
of Pliny, it was 1 1 1 feet in circumference, and 1 40 feet high. It is said to have been
encompassed by thirty-six columns, and to have been much enriched with sculpture.
MEAN. In mathematics, that quantity which has an intermediate value between several
others, formed according to any assigned law of succession. Thus, an arithmetical mean
of several quantities is merely the average, found by dividing the sum of all the quantities
by their number. A geometrical mean between two quantities, or a mean proportional, is
the middle term of a duplicate r&tio, or continued proportion of three terms ; that is,
that the first given term is to the quantity sought as that quantity is to the other given
term. In arithmetic it is the square root of the product of the two given terms. The
harmonica! mean is a number such that the first and third terms being given, the first is
to the third as the difference of the first and second is to the difference of the second and
third.
MEASURE. (Lat. Mensura.) In geometry, strictly a magnitude or quantity taken as a
unit, by which other magnitudes or quantities are measured. It is defined by Euclid as
that which, by repetition, becomes equal to the quantity measured. Thus, in arithmetic,
the measure of a number is some other number which divides it without a remainder,
though, perhaps, such a definition rather intimates the notion of aliquot parts. But that
meaning on which this article is submitted is the unit or standard by which extension is
to be measured. We have measures of length, of superficies, and of volume or capacity.
But the two latter are always deducible from the former ; whence it is only necessary
to establish one unit, namely, a standard of length. The choice of such a standard,
definite and invariable, though beset with many and great difficulties, modern science
has accomplished. The rude measures of our ancestors, such as the foot, the cubit, the
span, the fathom, the barleycorn, the hair's breadth, are not now to be mentioned in matters
of science, much more precise standards having been found, and not susceptible of casual
variation. Nature affords two or three elements, which, with the aid of science, may be
made subservient to the acquisition of the knowledge required. The earth being a solid
of revolution, its form and magnitude may be assumed to remain the same in all ages.
If this, be so, the distance between the pole and the equator may be taken as an
invariable quantity ; and any part, say a degree, which is a ninetieth part of it, will be
constant, and furnish an unalterable standard of measure. So, again, the force of gravity
at the earth's surface being constant at any given place, and nearly the same at places
under the same parallel of latitude, and at the same height above the level of the sea, the
length of a pendulum making the same number of oscillations in a day is constant at the
same place, and may be determined on any assumed scale. Thus we have two elements,
the length of a degree ot the meridian, and the length of a pendulum beating seconds,
which nature furnishes for the basis of a system of measures. Others have been
suggested, such as the height through which a heavy body falls in a second of time,
determined, like the length of the pendulum, by the force of gravity, or the perpendicular
height through which a barometer must be raised till the mercurial column sinks a
determinate part ; for instance, one-thirtieth of its own length ; but these are not
so capable of accurately determining the standard as the terrestrial degree, or the length
of the pendulum.
By an act of Parliament passed in the year 1824, it was declared, in relation to a
standard which then was in the custody of the clerk of the House of Commons, whereon
were engraved the words and figures standard yard, 1 760, but which was soon after
burnt in the fire of the houses of Parliament, that it should be the unit or only standard
measure of extension, and that it should be called the imperial standard yard. The act
further declared, that if at any time thereafter the said imperial standard yard should be
lost, or in any manner destroyed, defaced, or otherwise injured, it should be restored by
3 S 4
1000
GLOSSARY, ETC.
making, under the directions of the lords of the treasury, a new standard yard, bearing
the proportion to a pendulum vibrating seconds of mean time in the latitude of London,
in a vacuum, and at the level of the sea, as 36 inches to 39 '13 93 inches. It was after-
wards found that this measure, when nicely examined, was incorrect, as respected the
relation of 36 to 39*1393. It seems, too, never to have been directly compared with the
pendulum; neither from the difficulty of determining the lengths of the seconds
pendulum, except within limits too wide for the purpose in question, could the
restoration of the standard be effected with any certainty. Perhaps the only standard
that can be safely referred to at the present day is that belonging to the Royal Astro-
nomical Society.
In the English system of linear measures, the unit, as we have above seen, is the yard,
which is subdivided into 3 feet, and each of those feet into 12 inches. Of the yard, the
multiples are, the pole or perch, the furlong, and the mile ; 5| yards being 1 pole, 40 poles
being 1 furlong, and 8 furlongs 1 mile. The pole and furlong, however, are now much
disused, distance being usually measured in miles and yards. The English pace is
If yards =5 feet. Thus, the following table exhibits the relations of the different
denominations mentioned : —
Inches.
Feet.
Yards.
Poles.
Furlongs.
Miles.
1
0-083
0-028
0-00505
0-00012626
0-0000157828
12
1.
0-333
0-06060
0-00151515
0-00018939
36
3.
!•
0-1818
0-004545
0-00056818
198
16-5
5-5
1-
0-025
0-003125
7920
660-
220-
40-
1-
0-125
63360
5280.
1760-
320-
8-
*'
The measures of superficies are the square yard, foot, inch, &c., as under: —
144 square inches are equal to - 1 square foot.
9 square feet - - 1 square yard.
2| square yards - - 1 square pace.
10-89 square paces - 1 square pole.
4O square poles - - 1 square rood.
4 square roods - - 1 square acre.
In which it will be seen that the multiples of the yard are the pole, rood, and acre.
Very large surfaces, as of countries, are expressed in square miles. The relations of
square measure are given in the following table : —
Square Feet.
Square Yards.
Square Poles.
Square Roods.
Square Acres.
1-
0-1 111
0-00367309
0-000091827
0-000022957
9-
I-
0-0330579
0-000826448
0-000206612
272-25
30-25
1-
0-025
0-00625
10890-
1210-
40-
I-
0-25
43560-
4840-
160-
4-
1-
The measures of solids are cubic yards, feet, and inches, 1728 cubic inches being equal
to a cubic foot, and 27 cubic feet to one cubic yard. By the act of 1824, the standard
measure for all sorts of liquids, corn, and other dry goods, is declared to be the Imperial
gallon. According to the act in question, the imperial standard gallon contains ten
pounds avoirdupois of distilled water, weighed in air at the temperature of 62° Fahren-
heit's thermometer, the barometer being at 30 inches. The pound avoirdupois contains
7000 troy grains, and it is declared that a cubic inch of distilled water (temperature 62°,
barometer 30 inches) weighs 252-458 grains. Hence the imperial gallon contains
277-274 cubic inches. The gallon is subdivided into quarts and pints, 2 pints being one
quart, and 4 quarts one gallon. Its multiples are the peck, which is 2 gallons, the
bushel, which is 4 pecks, and the quarter, which is 8 bushels. The relations of measures
of volume are given in the subjoined table : —
Pints.
Quarts.
Gallons.
Pecks.
Bushels.
Quarters.
1
0-5
0-125
0-0625
0-015625
0-001953125
2
1-
0-25
0-125
0-03125
0-O0390625
8
4-
1-
0-5
0-125
0-015625
16
8-
2-
1-
0-25
0-03125
64
32-
8-
4-
1-
0-125
512
256-
64-
32-
8-
1-
GLOSSARY, ETC.
1001
The old wine gallon contained 251 cubic inches, the old corn gallon 268-8 cubic inches,
and the old ale gallon 282 cubic inches. Before noticing the new French, or metre,
system of measures, we subjoin a few of the principal ancient ones, English inches : —
1 toise, French = 6 French feet = 6-394665 English feet.
1 foot, do. =12 French inches =12-78936 English inches.
1 inch, do. =12 French lines = 1*06578 English inches.
1 line, do. = 6 French points = 0-088815 English inches.
1 point, do. = = 0-0148025 English inches.
According to General Roy, an English fathom : a French toise :: 1000 : 1065*75.
In the new French system, the metre, which is the unit of linear measure, is the ten-
millionth part of the quadrant of the meridian =3-2808992 English feet; and, as its
multiples and subdivisions are decimally arranged and named by prefixing Greek
numerals, the following table exhibits each : —
Denomination.
Myriametres
Kilometre -
Hectometre
Decametre -
Metre (the unit) ,-
Decimetre -
Centimetre -
Millimetre -
The metre, therefore, is equal to 39*3707904 English inches.
The unit of superficial measure, in the French system, is the are, which is a surface of
10 metres each way, or 100 square metres. The centiare is 1 metre square.
Denomination. English Square Yards.
Hectare - 10000 square metres =11960-33
Are (the unit) 100 = 119*6033
- 10000 metres
- 1000
100
10
1
0-1
0-01
0-001
English Feet.
= 32808-992
; 3280-8992
: 328-08992
32-808992
3-2808992
0-32808992
0-032808992
0-0032808992
Centiare
1 -196033
The are, therefore, is equal to 1076*4297 English square feet.
The unit of measures of capacity, in the French system, is the litre, a vessel containing
a cube of a tenth part of the metre, and equivalent to 0*22009668 British imperial gallon.
Its multiples and subdivisions are as follow : —
Denomination.
Kilolitre
Hectolitre
Decalitre
Litre (the unit)
Decilitre
Eng. Imp. Gallons.
- 1000 litres =220.09668
-100 = 22-009668
10 = 2-2009668
1 = 0-22009668
0-1 = 0-02209668
The unit of solid measure, or the stere, is equal to 35'31 658 English cubic feet ; therefore,
Denomination. English Cubic Feet.
Decastere - - 10 steres =353-1658
Stere (the unit) - - 1 = 35 '31 658
Decistere - - - 0-1 = 3-531658
Under the word FOOT will be found the length of that measure in the principal places
of Europe. We here think it right to add some further continuation of that article as
drawn up by the late Dr. Thomas Young from Hutton, Cavallo, Howard, Vega, and
others.
Altdorfffoot
Amsterdam foot
Amsterdam ell -
Ancona foot
Antwerp foot
Aquileia foot -
Aries foot
Augsburg foot -
Avignon= Aries.
Barcelona foot -
Basle foot
Bavarian foot -
Bergamo foot -
Berlin foot
Berne foot
Besancon foot -
Bologna foot
English Feet.
English Feet.
•775 Hutton.
Bourg en Bresse foot - - 1-030 H.
r-927 H.
- -J -930 Cavallo.
Brabant ell, in Germany - 2-268 Vega.
Bremen foot - - -955 H.
6-931 Howard.
Brescia foot
- 1-560 H.
- 2-233 C.
Brescian braccio
- 2-092 C.
- 1-282 H.
Breslaw foot
- 1-125 H.
•940 H.
Bruges foot
•749 H.
- 1-128 H.
Brussels foot -
(••902 H.
•888 H.
I '954 V.
•972 H.
Brussels, greater ell
- 2-278 V.
Brussels, lesser ell
- 2-245 V.
•992 H.
Castilian vara -
- 2-746 C.
•944 H.
Chambery foot - 1-107 H.
•968 Beigel.
China mathematical foot - 1-127 H.
1-431 H.
•992 H.
•962 Howe.
China imperial foot - - [ J.'JJJ «
Chinese li 606-000 c"
- 1-015 H.
Cologne foot ... -903 H.
f 1-244 H.
' 11-250 Cavallo.
Constantinople. - - {f.JJJ H>
1002
GLOSSARY, ETC.
English Feet.
English Feet.
Copenhagen foot
Cracow foot
- 1-049 H.
- 1-169 H. V.
Parmesan braccio - - 2-242 C.
Pavia foot - - - 1-540 H.
Cracow greater ell
- 2-024 V.
Placentia=Parma - - C.
Cracow smaller ell
Dantzic foot -
- 1-855 V.
•923 H.
f"'Qft7 W
Prague foot - J .jjj£ y|
Dauphine foot -
Delft foot
- 1-119 H.
•547 H.
Prague ell - - - 1'948 V.*
Provence=Marseilles .
Denmark foot -
Dijon foot
- 1-047 H.
- 1-030 H.
Rhinlandfoot - - - (\%* ^telwein.
Dordrecht foot -
Dresden foot
•771 H.
•929 Wolfe.
Riga=Hamburgh .
Roman palm ... -733 H.
Dryden ell=2 feet
- 1-857 V.
Roman foot ... -966 Folkes.
Ferrara foot
- 1-317 H.
Roman deto, 1-1 6th foot - '0604 F.
Florence foot -
- -995 H.
Roman oncia, 1-1 2th foot - -0805 F.
Florence braccio
Franche Comte foot -
" j"l'9K>}CaVall°'
- 1-172 H.
Roman palmo - -2515 F.
Roman palmo di architettura - '7325 F.
Roman canna di architettura - 7'325 F.
Frankfort= Hamburgh
- H.
Roman staiolo - 4-212 F.
f-812 H.
Roman canna dei mercanti (87 e.vwc p
Genoa palm
' |:fg{Cavallo.
palms) - - -j 653G5 R
Roman braccio dei mercanti (4 ) 2-7876 F.
Genoa canna -
- 7-300 C.
palms) - - -S 2-856 C.
Geneva foot
- 1-919 H.
Roman braccio di tessitor di7 o-0868 F
Grenoble=Dauphine.
tela -j '
Haarlem foot -
•937 H.
Roman braccio di architettura 2-561 C.
Halle foot
•977 H,
Hamburgh foot
•933 H.
Russian archine - - 2-3625 C.
Heidelberg foot
Inspruck foot -
Leghorn foot -
Leipzig foot
•903 H.
- 1-101 H.
•992 H.
- 1-034 H.
Russian arschin - - 2-3333 Phil. Mag.
Russian verschock (l-16th ar-7 ,.,_
schin) - - -j >1458
Savoy=Chamberri - - - H.
Leipzig ell
- 1-833 H.
Seville=Barcelona - - - H.
Leyden foot
- 1-023 H.
Seville vara ... g-760 C.
Liege foot
•944 H.
Sienna foot - - - 1-239 H.
Lisbon foot
•952 H.
Stellin foot - - - 1-224 H.
Lucca braccio -
Lyons=Dauphine'.
- 1-958 H.
Stockholm foot- - .|«;JW H-]sius
Madrid foot
C-915 H.
' 1-918 How.
Strasburg town foot - - -956 H.
Strasburg country foot - '967 H.
Madrid vara -
- 3-263 C.
Toledo==Madrid - - - H.
Maestricht foot -
•916 H.
Trent foot ... 1-201 H.
Malta palm
•915 H.
Trieste ell for woollens - 2-220 H.
Mantua brasso -
- 1-521 H.
Trieste ell for silk - - 2-107 H.
Mantuan braccio=Brescia
- C.
Marseilles foot -
•814 H.
Turin foot ... jj.gg| g'
Mechlin foot -
•753 H.
Turin ras 1*958 C.
Mentz foot
•988 H.
Turin trabuco - - - 10-085 C.
Milan decimal foot
•855 H.
Tyrol foot - - - 1'096 V.
Milan aliprand foot
- 1-426 H.
Tyrol ell - 2-639 V.
Milanese braccio
- 1-725 C.
Valladolid foot - - - '908 H.
Modena foot -
- 2-081 H,
f 1-137 H.
Monaco foot
- -771 H.
Venice foot - - -•< 1-140 How.
Montpelier pan -
•777 H.
C 1-167 C.
Moravian foot -
•971 V.
Venice braccio of silk - - 2-108 C.
Moravian ell
. 2-594 V.
Venice ell - - - 2-089 V.
Moscow foot
•928 H.
Venice braccio of cloth - 2-250 C.
Munich foot -
•947 H.
Verona foot ... 1-117 H.
Naples palm
C-861 H.
• £ -859 C.
Vicenzafoot - - -136 H.
Cl'O^fi TT
Naples canna -
- 6-908 C.
Vienna foot - - - Jj.gf gow
Nuremburg town foot -
Nuremburg country foot
Nuremburg artillery foot
Nuremburg ell -
f -996 H.
' i'997 V.
. -907 H.
•961 V.
- 2-166 V.
Vienna ell - - - 2-557 V.
Vienna post mile - - 24-888 V.
Vienne in Dauphine foot - 1-058 H.
Ulmfoot ... -826 H.
Urbinofoot - - - 1-162 H.
Padua foot
1'406 H.
Utrecht foot ... -741 H.
Palermo foot -
•747 H.
Warsaw foot - - - 1-169 H.
Paris foot
- 1-066 H.
Wesel=Dordrecht - - - H.
Paris metre
Parma foot
- 3-2808
- 1-869 H.
Zurich foot - - - {:{Jg ?niLMag.
The uncertainty respecting the ancient Greek and Roman measures had almost in-
duced us to refrain from setting down the usually received notions on those subjects, but
as we may be accused by the omission of neglect, we subjoin some few : —
SCRIPTURE LONG MEASURE.
digit
digits
palms
spans
cubits
= 1 palm
= 1 span
= 1 cubit
= 1 fathom
14 fathoms =1 reed (Ezekiel's)
1£ reeds = 1 pole (Arabian)
1O poles = 1 scoenus, or measuring line
English
Feet. Inches.
0 0-912
0 3-648
10-944
9-888
3-552
11-328
7-104
1-104
0
1
: 7
10
14
145
GLOSSARY, ETC.
1003
100
8
dactylus, or digit
dactyli =
palestre, &c. =
lichas =
orthodoron =
spithame =
pous =
pygme
pygon =
pecus i
orgya, or paces =
stadia, &c. =
GRECIAN LONG MEASURE.
doron, or dochme, or palesta
lichas ...
orthodoron
spithame -
pous, or foot
pygme, or cubit -
pygons -
pecus, or larger cubit
orgye, or pace
stadium, aulus, or furlong -
million, or mile
ROMAN LONG MEASURE.
English
Paces
of 5 ft. Ft. In.
= 00 0-7554
= 00 3-0218
= 00 7-5546
=OO 8-3101
= 00 9-0656
= O 1
0-0875
1 -5984
3-109
6-13125
= 06 0-525
= 100 4 4-5
= 805 5 O
6 scrupula
8 scrupula
1£ duellum
18 scrupulas
1£ digiti
3 unciae
4 palmae
1^ pes, or foot
1£ palmipes
1§ cubits
2 gradus
2 passus
25 passus
8 stadia
MECHANICS. (Gr.
English
Paces. Ft.
In.
sicilicum.
duellum.
semniaria.
digitus transversus - = O 0 0*725
unciae, or inch - -=00 0-967
palma minor - -=00 2*901
= 1 pes, or foot - = 0011 -604
=1 palmipes -=01 2-505
=1 cubit - -=01 5 -406
=1 gradus - - - =• 0 2 5O1
=1 passus - - -=04 10'02
=1 decempeda - -=14 8*04
=1 stadium - - -=120 4 4*5
= 1 milliare, or mile - - = 967 0 0
, machine. ) That science in natural philosophy treating offerees
and powers, and their action on bodies, either directly or by the intervention of ma-
chinery. The theory of mechanics is founded on an axiom or principle, called the
law of inertia, namely, that a body must remain for ever in a state of rest, or in a state
of uniform or rectilineal motion, if undisturbed by the action of an external cause.
Theoretical mechanics consists, therefore, of two parts : — Statics, which treats of the
equilibrium of forces ; and dynamics, or the science of accelerating or retarding forces,
and the actions they produce. (See Book II. Chap. I. Sect. 8.) When the bodies under
consideration are in a fluid state, these equilibria become respectively hydrostatics and
hydrodynamics.
MECHANICAL CARPENTRY. That branch of carpentry which relates to the disposition of
the timbers of a building in respect of their relative strength and the strains to which
they are subjected. See Book II. Chap. I. Sect. 11.
MECHANICAL POWERS. See MACHINE.
MEDALLION. A square, or, more properly, a circular tablet, on which are embossed figures,
busts, and the like.
MEDIAEVAL ARCHITECTURE. The architecture of England and the Continent during the
middle ages, including the Norman and early Gothic styles.
MELSONBY. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 113.
MEMBER. (Lat.) Any part of an edifice or any moulding in a collection of mouldings,
as of those in a cornice, capital, base, &c.
MENAGERIE. (Fr. ) A building for the housing and preservation of rare and foreign
animals. The ancient Romans of opulence usually had private menageries, a sort of
small park attached to their villa, and in them various kinds of animals were placed.
MENSURATION. (Lat.) The science which teaches the method of estimating the magni-
tudes of lines, superficies, and bodies. See Book. II. Chap. I. Sect. 7, ; as applied to
measuring and estimating buildings, see Book II. Chap. III. Sect. 14.
MERCIER, DE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 262.
MERIDIAN LINE. A line traced on the surface of the earth coinciding with the intersection
of the meridian of the place with the sensible horizon. It is therefore a line which lies
due north and south. In Italy we often find these lines in large churches, as at Santa
Maria del Fiore at Florence, the Duomo at Bologna, &c. They are traced on brass rods
let into the pavement of the church, and marked with the signs, and otherwise graduated.
A hole in the roof permits the sun's rays to fall on them at his culmination, thus marking
noon as well as his height each day in the heavens.
1004 GLOSSARY, ETC.
MERLIANO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 204.
MEROS. (Gr.) The plane face between the channels in the triglyphs of the Doric
order.
MESAUL^E. (Gr.) Described by Vitruvius as itinera or passages; they were, however,
smaller courts. Apollonius Rhodlus, in describing the reception of the Argonauts at
the palace of JEetes, conducts them first into the vestibule, then through the folding
gates into the mesaula, which had thdlami here and there, and a portico (cuflovcra) on every
side.
META. (Lat. ) A mark or goal in the Roman circus to which the chariots, &c. ran.
METAL. (Gr. MeraAAoi'. ) A firm, heavy, and hard substance, opaque, fusible by fire, and
concreting again when cold into a solid body such as it was before ; generally malleable
under the hammer, and of a bright glossy and glittering substance where newly cut or
broken. The metals conduct electricity and heat, and have not been resolved into other
forms of matter, so that they are regarded as simple or elementary substances. Modern
chemists have carried the number of metals to forty-two, only seven whereof were known
to the ancients ; namely, — 1. Gold, whose symbol is thus marked 0; 2. Silver, j) :
3. Iron, <? ; 4. Copper, £ ; 5. Mercury, £ ; 6. Lead, J ; 7. Tin, ty . The metals of most
use in building are treated of in Book II. Chap. II. Sections 5, 6, and 7.
METATOME. (Gr. Mera, and Te/wo>, I cut.) The space or interval between two dentels.
METOCHE. (Probably from Merc^a, I divide.) In ancient architecture a term used by
Vitruvius to denote the interval or space between the dentels of the Ionic, or triglyphs
of the Doric order. Baldus observes that in an ancient MS. copy of that author, the
word metatome is used instead of metoche. This made Daviler suspect that the common
text of Vitruvius is corrupt, and that the word should not be metoche but metatome, as
it were section.
METOPA. (Gr. M era, between, and OTTTJ, a hole.) The square space in the frieze between
the triglyphs of the Doric order : it is left either plane or decorated, according to
the taste of the architect. In the most ancient, examples of this order the metopa was
left quite open, whereof notice has been taken at p. 57. in the body of the work.
METRODORUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 52.
MEZZANINE. (Ital. Mezzano, middle.) A story of small height introduced between two
higher ones.
MEZZO RELIEVO. See RELIEVO.
MICHELOZZI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 148.
MIDDLE POST. In a roof, the same as KING POST.
MIDDLE QUARTERS OF COLUMNS. A name given to the four quarters of a column divided
by horizontal sections, forming angles of forty-five degrees on the plan.
MIDDLE RAIL. The rail of a door level with the hand, on which the lock is usually fixed.
MILE. (Lat. Mille passuum, a thousand paces.) A measure of length in England equal
to 1760 yards. The Roman pace was 5 feet ; and a Roman foot being equal to 1 1 '62
modern inches, it follows that the ancient Roman mile was equivalent to 1614 English
yards, or very nearly eleven twelfths of an English statute mile. The measure of the
English mile is incidentally defined by an act of parliament passed in the 35th of Eliza-
beth, restricting persons from erecting new buildings within three miles of London, in
which act the mile is declared to be 8 furlongs of 40 perches each, and each perch equal
to 16| feet.
MILK ROOM. See DAIRT.
MILLSTONE GRIT. A coarse grained quartzose sandstone. It is extracted from the group
of strata which occur between the mountain limestone and the superincumbent coal
formations.
MINARET. (Arab. Menarah, a lantern.) A slender lofty turret, rising by different stages
or stories, surrounded by one or more projecting balconies, common in Mohammedan
countries, being used by the priests for summoning (from the balconies) the people to
prayers at stated periods of the day.
MINION. An iron ore which, mixed with a proper quantity of lime, makes an excellent
water cement.
MINSTER. A church to which an ecclesiastical fraternity has been or is attached. The
name is applied occasionally to cathedrals, as in the case of York Minster.
MINUTE. (Lat.) A term given to the sixtieth part of the lower diameter of a column,
being a subdivision used for measuring the minuter parts of an order.
MISCHIA. See SCAGLIOLA.
MITCHEL. A name given by workmen to Purbeck stones of twenty-four by fifteen inches
when squared for building.
MITER or MITRE. See BEVEL.
MITER Box. See Box FOH MITER.
MIXED ANGLE. An angle of which one side is a curve and the other a straight line.
MIXED FIGURE. One composed of straight lines and curves, being neither entirely tlio
GLOSSARY, ETC. 1005
sector nor the segment of a circle, nor the sector nor segment of an ellipsis, nor a
parabola, nor an hyperbola.
MNESICLES. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 14.
MNESTHES. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 20.
MOAT. (Lat.) An excavated reservoir of water surrounding a house, castle, or town.
MODEL. (Lat.) An original or pattern proposed for any one to copy or imitate. Thus
St. Paul's may be, though not strictly so, said to be built after the model of St. Peter's
at Rome.
The word is also used to signify an artificial pattern made of wood, stone, plaster, or
other material, with all its parts and proportions, for the satisfaction of the proprietor, or
for the guide of the artificers in the execution of any great work. In all great buildings,
the only sure method of proceeding is to make a model in relievo, and not to trust en-
tirely to drawings.
MODILLION. (Fr.) A projection under the corona of the richer orders resembling a
bracket. In the Grecian Ionic there are no modillions, and they are seldom found in
the Roman Ionic. Those in the frontispiece of Nero at Rome consist of two plain faces
separated by a small cyma reversa, and crowned with an ovolo and bead. In the frieze
of the fourth order of the Coliseum, the modillions are cut in the form of a cyma reversa.
For further information on the subject the reader may refer to p. 797. in the body
of the work.
MODULAR PROPORTION. That which is regulated by a module. See MODULE.
MODULATION. (Lat.) The proportion of the different parts of an order.
MODULE. (Lat.) A measure which may be taken at pleasure to regulate the proportions
of an order, or the disposition of the whole building. The diameter or semi-diameter of
the column at the bottom of the shaft has usually been selected by architects as their
module ; and this they subdivide into parts or minutes. Vignola has divided his module,
which is a semi-diameter, into 12 parts for the Tuscan and Doric, and into 18 for the
other orders. The module of Palladio, Cambray, Desgodetz, Le Clerc, and others, is
divided into 30 parts or minutes in all the orders. Some have divided the whole height
of the column into 20 parts for the Doric, 22^ for the Ionic, 25 for the Corinthian, &c.,
one whereof is taken for the module by which the other parts are to be regulated.
There are two ways by which the measures or proportions of buildings may be deter-
mined. First, by a constant standard measure, which is commonly the diameter of the
lower part of the column, termed a module, and subdivided into sixty parts called minutes.
In the second there are no minutes, nor any certain or stated divisions of the module, but
it is divided into as many parts as may be deemed requisite. Thus the height of the
Attic base, which is half the module, is divided into three to obtain the height of the
plinth, or into four for that of the greater torus, or into six for that of the lesser torus.
Both these species of measurement have been used by ancient as well as modern archi-
tects, but the latter was that chiefly used by the ancients, and was preferred by Perrault,
Vitruvius having lessened his module in the Doric order, which in the other orders is
the diameter of the lower part of the column, and having reduced the great module to a
mean one, which is a semi-diameter, Perrault reduces the module to a third part for a
similar reason, namely, that of determining the different measurements without a frac-
tion. Thus, in the Doric order, besides that the height of the base, as in the other
orders, is determined by one of these mean modules, that same module furnishes the
height of the capital, architrave, triglyphs, and metopse. But the smaller module obtained
from a third of the diameter of the lower part of the column has uses considerably more
extensive, inasmuch as by it the heights of pedestals, of columns, and entablatures in all
the orders may be obtained without a fraction,
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY. A term in relation to elastic bodies, which expresses the weight
of themselves continued, which would draw them to a certain length without destroying
their elastic power.
MOLE. (Sax.) A pier of stone for the shelter of ships from the action of the waves.
Amongst the Romans the term was applied, as in the case of the mole of Adrian (castle
of St. Angelo at Rome), to a kind of circular mausoleum.
MOMENTUM. (Lat.) The impetus, force, or quantity of motion in a moving body. The
word is sometimes used simply for the motion itself.
MONASTERY. A house for the reception of religious devotees, but more properly applied to
one for the habitation of monks.
MONKEY. See FISTUCA.
MONOLITHAL. (Gr. Moj/os, one, Aidos, a stone.) A work consisting of a single stone ; such
works are found in many parts of the world.
MONOPTERAL. (Gr.) A species of temple of a round form, which had neither walls nor
cella, but only a cupola sustained by columns. See TEMPLE.
MONOTRIGLYPH. (Gr.) A term applied to an intercolumniation in which only one tri-
glyph and two metopae are introduced.
1006 GLOSSARY, ETC.
MONTEREAU, DE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 116.
MONUMENT. (Lat. Moneo.) A structure raised to perpetuate the memory of some emi-
nent person, or to serve as a durable token of some extraordinary event. Monuments at
first consisted of stones built over the graves of the dead, on which were engraved the
name and frequently a description of the actions of the persons whose memory they are
to record. Monuments were differently formed. Thus some are pyramids, others
obelisks ; in some cases a square stone, in others a circular column serves the pur-
pose,
MOORSTONE, A species of granite found in Cornwall and some other parts of England, and
very serviceable in the coarser parts of a building. Its colours are chiefly black and
white, and it is very course. In some parts of Ireland immense beds of it are found.
MORESQUE ARCHITECTURE. The style of building peculiar to the Moors and Arabs. See
ARABIAN ARCHITECTURE, Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 10.
The word Moresque is also applied to a kind of painting in that style used by the
Moors. It consists in many grotesque pieces and compartments, promiscuously, to ap-
pearance, put together, but without any perfect figure of man or animal. The style is
sometimes called Arabesque.
MORTAR. (Dutch, Morter.) The calcareous cement used in building, compounded of
burnt limestone and sand. See Book II. Chap. II. Sect. 10.
MORTICE or MORTISE. (Fr. Mortoise, probably from the Latin Mordeo, to bite.) In car-
pentry and joinery, a recessed cutting within the surface of a piece of timber, to receive a
projecting piece called a tenon, left on the end of another piece of timber, in order to fix
the two together at a given angle. The sides of the mortice are generally four planes at
right angles to each other and to the surface, whence the excavation is made.
MOSAIC. (It. Mosaico.) A mode of representing objects by the inlaying of small cubes of
glass, stone, marble, shells, wood, &c. It was a species of work much in repute among
the ancients, as may be gathered from the numerous remains of it. It is supposed to
have originated in the east, and to have been brought from Phoenicia to Greece, and
thence carried to Rome. The term Mosaic work is distinguished from marquetry by
being only applied properly to works of stone, metal, or glass. The art continues to be
practised in Italy at the present day with great success.
MOSQUE. (Turk. Moschet.) A Mohammedan temple or place of worship. The earliest
Arabian mosques were decorated with ranges of a vast number of columns, often belong-
ing originally to other buildings. Those of the Turks, on the other hand, are more dis-
tinguished for the size and elevation of their principal cupolas. Each mosque is provided
with a minaret, and commonly with a fountain of water, with numerous basins for
ablutions.
MOSTON. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 170.
MOULD. A term used to signify a pattern or contour by which any work is to be wrought.
The glazier's moulds are of two sorts, one whereof is used for casting the lead into
long rods or cames, fit for drawing through the vice in which the grooves are formed.
This they sometimes call the ingot mould. The other is for moulding the small pieces of
lead, a line thick and two lines broad, which are fastened to the iron bars of casements.
The mason's mould, also called caliber, is a piece of hard wood or iron, hollowed on
the edge, answering to the contours of the mouldings or cornices to be formed. The
ends or heading joints being formed as in a cornice by means of the mould, the inter-
mediate parts are wrought down by straight-edges, or circular templets, as the work is
straight or circular on the plan. When the intended surface is required to be very exact,
a reverse mould is used, in order to prove the work, by applying the mould in a trans-
verse direction of the arrises.
MOULDS, among plumbers, are the tables on which they cast their sheets of lead, and are
simply called tables. They have others for casting pipes without soldering.
The moulds for foundery are described Book II. Chap. III. Sect. 11.
MOULDINGS. The ornamental contours or forms applied to the edges of the projecting or
receding members of an order. The regular mouldings are the fillet, listel, or annulet ;
the astragal, or bead; the torus, the scotia, or trochilus ; the echinus, ovolo, or quarter-
round; the cyma reversa. inverted cyma, or ogee ; the cyma recta, the cavetto, or hollow.
See p. 684.
Mouldings are divided into two classes — Grecian and Roman, The first are formed
by some conic section, as a portion of an ellipse or hyperbola, and sometimes even of a
straight line in the form of a chamfer. The Roman mouldings are formed by arcs of
circles, the same moulding having the same curvature throughout.
For Norman mouldings, see p. 174.
MOUTH, BIRD'S. See BIRD'S MOUTH.
MUET, LE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 254.
MULLION or MUNNION. In pointed architecture, the vertical post or bar which divides a
window into several lights.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 1007
MUNIMENT HOUSE. A strong, properly fire-proof, apartment in public or private build-
ings, for the keeping and preservation of evidences, charters, seals, &c., called muni-
ments.
MURAL. (Lat.) Belonging to a wall. Thus a monumental tablet affixed to a wall is
called a mural monument ; an arch inserted into or attached to a wall is called a mural
arch; and columns placed within or against a wall are called mural columns.
MUSEUM. ( Gr. Motxmoj/. ) A repository of natural, scientific, and literary curiosities, or
of works of art. See Book III. Chap. III. Sect. 10.
MUSTIUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 45.
MUTILATED CORNICE. One that is broken or discontinued.
MUTILATION. (Lat.) The defacing or cutting away of any regular body. The word is
applied to statues and buildings where any part is wanting.
MUTIUS, C. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 31.
MUTULE. (Lat.) A projecting ornament of the Doric cornice, which occupies the place
of the modillion in the other orders, and is supposed to represent the ends of rafters.
The mutule has always been assumed as an imitation of the end of a wooden rafter ;
hence, say the advocates for a timber type, they are properly represented with a decli-
nation towards the front of the coronas.
MYLNE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 311.
N.
NAIL. ( Sax. Naesel. ) A small metal spike for fastening one piece of timber to another.
The sorts of nails are very numerous. The principal are here enumerated. Back nails,
whose shanks are flat so as to hold fast but not open the wood. Clamp nails, are for
fastening clamps. Clasp nails, or brads, are those with flatted heads, so that they may
clasp the wood. They also render the wood smooth, so as to admit of a plane going over
it. The sorts of most common use in building are known by the names of ten-penny,
twenty-penny and two-shilling nails. Clench nails are such as are used by boat and barge
builders, sometimes with boves or nuts, but often without. They are made with clasp
heads for fine work, or with the head beat flat on two sides. Clout nails, used for nailing
clouts on axle-trees, are flat headed, and iron work is usually nailed on with them. Deck
nails, for fastening decks in ships and floors nailed with planks. Dog or jobent nails, for
fastening the hinges of doors, &c. Flat points are of two sorts, long and short ; the
former much used in shipping, and useful where it is necessary to hold fast and draw
without requiring to be clenched ; the latter are furnished with points to drive into hard
wood. Lead nails, used for nailing lead, leather, and canvas to hard wood, are the same
as clout nails dipped in lead or solder. Port nails, for nailing hinges to the ports of
ships. Ribbing nails, used for fastening the ribbing to keep the ribs of ships in their
place while the ship is building. Rose nails are drawn square in the shank. Rother nails,
chiefly used for fastening rother irons to ships. Scupper nails, much in use for fastening
leather and canvas to wood. Sharp nails, much used in the West Indies, and made with
sharp points and flat shanks. Sheathing nails, for fastening sheathing boards to ships ;
their length is usually three times the thickness of the board. Square nails are of the
same shape as sharp nails, chiefly used for hard wood. Brads are long and slender nails
without heads, used for thin deal work to avoid splitting. To these may be added tacks,
the smallest sort whereof serve to fasten paper to wood ; the middling for medium work ;
and the larger size, which are much used by upholsterers. These are known by the name
of white tacks, two-penny, three-penny, and four-penny tacks. See ADHESION.
NAIL-HEADED MOULDING. One common in Norman buildings, and so called from being
formed by a series of projections resembling the heads of nails or square knobs. See
p. 174.
NAKED. A term applied either to a column or wall to denote the face or plain surface
from which the projections rise.
NAKED FLOORING. See p. 540.
NAKED OP A WALL. The remote face whence the projections take their rise. It is gene-
rally a plain surface, and when the plan is circular the naked is the surface of a cylinder
with its axis perpendicular to the horizon.
NAOS or NAVE. ( Gr. Naos. ) See CELL.
NATURAL BED OF A STONE. The surface from which the laminae were separated. In all
masonry it is important to its duration that the laminae should be placed perpendicular
to the face of the work, and parallel to the horizon, inasmuch as the connecting substance
of these laminae is more friable than the laminae themselves, and therefore apt to scale off
in large flakes, and thus induce a rapid decay of the work.
NAUMACHIA. (Gr. from Nous, a ship, and Max??, a battle.) In ancient architecture, a place
for the show of mock sea engagements, little different from the circus and amphitheatre,
since this species of exhibition was often displayed in those buildings.
1008 GLOSSARY, ETC.
NAVE. (Gr. Naos.) The body of a church or place where the people are seated, reaching
from the rail or partition of the choir to the principal entrance. See CELL-
NFBULY MOULDING. (Lat. Nebula.) An ornament in Norman architecture, whose edge
forms an undulating or wavy line, and introduced in corbel tables and archivolts. See
p. 174.
NECK OF A CAPITAL. The space, in the Doric order, between the astragal on the shaft
and the annulet of the capital. Some of the Grecian Ionic capitals are with necks
below them, as in the examples of Minerva Polias and Erectheus, at Athens. But the
Ionic order has rarely a neck to the capital.
NEEDLE. An horizontal piece of timber serving as a temporary support to some super-
incumbent weight, as a pier of brickwork, and resting upon posts or shores, while the
lower part of a wall, pier, or building is being underpinned or repaired.
NERVURES. A name given by French architects to the ribs bounding the sides of a groined
compartment of a vaulted roof, as distinguished from the ribs which diagonally cross the
compartment.
NET MEASURE. That in which no allowance is made for finishing, and in the work of
artificers, when no allowance is made for the waste of materials.
NEWEL. The upright cylinder or pillar, round which, in a winding staircase, the steps
turn, and are supported from the bottom to the top. In stairs, geometrical for instance,
where the steps are pinned into the wall, and there is no central pillar, the staircase is
said to have an open newel.
NJCHE. (Fr. probably from Neoovio, a nest.) A cavity or hollow place in the thickness of
a wall for the reception of a statue, vase, &c. See Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 21.
NICOLA DA PISA. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 121.
NICON. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 51.
NIDGED ASHLAR. A species of ashlar used in Aberdeen. It is brought to the square by
means of a cavil or hammer with a sharp point, which reduces the roughness of the
stone to a degree of smoothness according to the time employed. When stone is so hard
as to resist the chisel and mallet, the method described is the only way in which it can
be dressed.
NOGS. The same as WOOD BRICKS, which see. The term is chiefly used in the north of
England.
NOGGING. A species of brickwork carried up in panels between quarters.
NOGGING-PIECES. Horizontal boards laid in brick-nogging, and nailed to the quarters
for strengthening the brickwork. They are disposed at equal altitudes in the brick-
work.
NONAGON. (Gr. ) A geometrical figure having nine sides and nine angles.
NORMAL LINE. In geometry, one which stands at right angles to another line.
NORMAN ARCHITECTURE. See Book I. Chap. III. Sect. 2.,
NORMAND. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 172.
NOSING OF A STEP. The projecting part of the tread-board or cover which stands before
the riser. The nosing is generally rounded, so as to have a semicircular section ; and
in the better sort of staircases a fillet and hollow is placed under the nosing.
NOTCH-BOARD. A board which is grooved or notched for the reception and support of the
ends of steps in a staircase.
NOTCHING. A hollow cut from one of the faces of a piece of timber, generally made
rectangular in section.
NUCLEUS. (Lat.) In ancient architecture, the internal part of a floor, which consisted of
a strong cement, over which the pavement was laid with mortar.
NYMPH JEUM. (Gr.) A name used by the ancients to denote a picturesque grotto in a rocky
or woody place, supposed to be dedicated to, and frequented by, the nymphs. The
Romans often made artificial nymphasa in their gardens. In Attica, the remains of a
nymphseum are still to be seen decorated with inscriptions and bassi relievi, from the rude
workmanship of which it may be presumed that the grotto is of very ancient date.
O.
OAK. (Sax. Ac, JEc.) A forest tree, whose timber is, from its strength, hardness, and dura-
bility, the most useful of all in building. See Book II. Chap. II. Sect. 4.
OBELISK. (Probably from OSe\os, a spit, brooch, or spindle, or a long javelin.) A lofty
pillar of a rectangular form, diminishing towards the top, and generally ornamented with
inscriptions and hieroglyphics. The upper part finishes generally with a low pyramid,
called a pyramidion. The proportion of the thickness to the height is nearly the same
in all obelisks ; that is, between one ninth and one tenth, and their thickness at top is
never less than half, nor greater than three fourths, of that at bottom. Egypt abounded
with obelisks, which were always in a single block of stone ; and many have been removed
thence to Rome and other places. The following table exhibits a list of the principal
GLOSSARY, ETC.
1009
obelisks whereof there is any record, or which are at present known, being thirty-three
in number.
Situation.
Height.
Thickness.
At top.
Below.
Eng. Feet.
Eng. Feet.
Eng. Feet.
Two large obelisks, mentioned by Diodorus Siculus
158-2
7-9
11-8
Two obelisks of Nuncoreus, son of Sesostris, according
to Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, and Pliny -
121-8
6-6
10-5
Obelisk of Rhameses, removed to Rome by Constantius
118-4
6-2
10-2
Two obelisks, attributed by Pliny to Smerres and Era-
phius
106-0
5-9
9-8
Obelisks of Nectanabis, erected near the tomb of Arsinoe
by Ptolemy Philadelphus
105-5
5-3
9-2
Obelisk of Constantius, restored and erected in front of
S. Giovanni Later ano at Rome
105-5
6-2
9-6
Part of one of the obelisks of the son of Sesostris, in the
centre of the piazza in front of St. Peter's
82-4
5-8
9-4
Two at Luxor - -
79-1
5-3
8-0
Obelisk of Augustus from the Circus Maximus, now in
the piazza, del Popola at Rome
78-2
4-5
7-4
Two in the ruins at Thebes, still remaining
72-8
5-0
7-5
Obelisk of Augustus, raised by Pius VI. in the Piazza
di Monte Citorio -
71-9
4-9
7-9
Two obelisks, one at Alexandria, vulgarly called Cleo-
patra's Needle, and the other at Heliopolis ' -
67-1
5-1
8-1
Obelisk by Pliny, attributed to Sothis
63-3
4-5
5-1
Two obelisks in the ruins of Thebes -
63-3
4-5
5-1
Great obelisk at Constantinople
59-7
4-5
7-2
Obelisk in the Piazza Navona, removed from the Circus
of Caracalla
54-9
2-9
4-5
Obelisk at Aries -
50-1
4-5
7-4
Obelisk from the Mausoleum of Augustus, now in front
of the church of Sta. Maria Maggiore at Rome
48-3
2-9
4-3
Obelisk in the gardens of Sallust, according to Mercati
48-3
2-9
4-3
Obelisk at Bijije in Egypt
42-9
2-6
4-2
Small obelisk at Constantinople, according to Gyllius -
34-2
3-9
5-9
The Barberini Obelisk
30-0
2-2
3-9
Obelisk of the Villa Mattel -
26-4
2-2
2-7
Obelisk in the Piazza della Rotunda -
20-1
2-1
2-4
Obelisk in the Piazza di Minerva
17-6
2-0
2-6
Obelisk of the Villa Medici -
16-1
1-9
2-4
OBLIQUE LINE. One which stands, in respect to another, at a greater angle than ninety
degrees.
OBLIQUE ANGLE. One that is greater or less than a right angle.
OBLIQUE-ANGLED TRIANGLE. One that has no right angle.
OBLIQUE ARCHES. Such as cross an opening obliquely to the front face of it.
OBLONG. A rectangle of unequal dimensions.
OBSERVATORY. (Fr.) A building for the reception of instruments and other matters for
observing the heavenly bodies. See Book III. Chap. III. Sect. 11.
OBTUSE. (Lat. ) Any thing that is blunt.
OBTUSE-ANGLED TRIANGLE. One which has an obtuse angle.
OBTUSE SECTION OF A CONE. Among the ancient geometricians a name given to the hy-
perbola.
OCTAGON. (Gr. OKTW and Toij/to, angle.) A figure having eight sides and eight angles.
OCTAHEDRON. (Gr.) One of the five regular bodies bounded by eight equal and equila-
teral triangles.
OCTASTYLE. ( Gr. O/fTw and SruAos.) That species of temple or building having eight
columns in front. See COLONNADE.
ODEUM. (Gr.) Among the Greeks, a species of theatre wherein the poets and musicians
rehearsed their compositions previous to the public production of them.
ODO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 88.
OECUS. See HALL.
3 T
1010 GLOSSARY, ETC.
OFFICES. The appartments wherein the domestics discharge the several duties attached to
the service of a house ; as kitchens, pantries, brewhouses, and the like.
OFFSETS. The horizontal projections from the faces of the different parts of a wall where
it increases or diminishes in thickness.
OGEE. A moulding, the same as the CYMA REVERSA, which see.
OGIVE. A term used by French architects to denote the Gothic vault, with its ribs and
cross springers, &c. The word is used to denote the pointed arch.
OLOLZAGO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 194.
ONE PAIR OF STAIRS. An expression signifying the first story or floor above that floor level
with, or raised only by a few steps above, the ground, which latter is thence called the
ground floor.
OP^E. (Gr. OTTT?.) The beds of the beams of a floor or roof between which are the ME-
TOP^E, which see.
OPENINGS. (Sax.) Those parts of the walls of a building which are unfilled for admitting
light, ingress, egress, &c. See APERTURE.
OnsTHODOMus. ( Gr. ) The same as the Roman posticum, being the enclosed space behind
a temple.
OPPOSITE ANGLES. Those formed by two straight lines crossing each other, but not two
adjacent angles.
OPPOSITE CONES. Those to which a straight line can be applied on the surfaces of both
cones.
OPPOSITE SECTIONS. The sections made by a plane cutting two opposite cones.
OPTIC PYRAMID. In perspective, that formed by the optic rays to every point of an ob-
ject.
OPTIC RAYS. Those which diverge from the eye to every part of an original object.
ORANGERY. A gallery or building in a garden or parterre opposite to the south. See
GREEN-HOUSE. The most magnificent orangery in Europe is that of Versailles, which is
of the Tuscan order, and with wings.
ORATORY. (Lat.) A small apartment in a house, furnished with a small altar, crucifix,
&c., for private devotion. The ancient oratories were small chapels attached to monas-
teries, in which the monks offered up their prayers. Towards the sixth and seventh
centuries the oratory was a small church, built frequently in a burial place, without either
baptistery or attached priest, the service being performed by one occasionally sent for that
purpose by the bishop.
ORB. (Lat. Orbis.) A knot of foliage or flowers placed at the intersection of the ribs of a
Gothic ceiling or vault to conceal the mitres of the ribs.
ORCHESTRA. (Gr. Op%eo/not.) In ancient architecture, the place in the theatre where the
chorus danced. In modern theatres it is the enclosed part of a theatre, or of a music -
room wherein the instrumental and vocal performers are seated.
ORCHEYARDE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 160.
ORDER. (Lat.) An assemblage of parts, consisting of a base, shaft, capital, architrave,
frieze, and cornice, whose several services requiring some distinction in strength, have
been contrived in five several species — Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Com-
posite ; each of these has its ornaments, as well as its general fabric, proportioned to its
strength and use. There are five orders of architecture, the proper understanding and
application whereof constitute the foundation of all excellence in the art. See Book III.
Chap. I. Sect. 2. on the ORDERS generally.
ORDER, COMPOSITE. See Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 7.
ORDER, CORINTHIAN. See Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 6.
ORDER, DORIC. See Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 4.
ORDER, IONIC. See Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 5.
ORDER, TUSCAN. See Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 3.
ORDERS ABOVE ORDERS. See Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 11.
ORDINATE. In geometry and conies, a line drawn from any point of the circumference of
an ellipsis or other conic section perpendicular to, and across the axis, to the other side.
ORDONNANCE. (Fr. from the Lat.) The perfect arrangement and composition of any ar-
chitectural work. It applies to no particular class, but the term is general to all species
in which there has existed anything like conventional law.
ORGANICAL DESCRIPTION OF A CURVE. The method of describing one upon a plane by
continued motion.
ORIEI, or ORIEL WINDOW. (Etym. uncertain.) A large bay or recessed window in a
hall, chapel, or other apartment. It ordinarily projects from the outer face of the wall
either in a semi-octagonal or diagonal plan, and is of varied kinds and sizes. In large
halls its usual height is from the floor to the ceiling internally, and it rises from the ground
to the parapet on the outside ; sometimes it consists only of one smaller window sup-
ported by corbels, or by masonry projecting gradually from the wall to the sill of the
window. Milner, the learned and good Catholic bishop, in his History of Winchester,
GLOSSARY, ETC. ]011
draws a difference between the bow and oriel window. The first projected circularly,
and was formerly called a compass or embowed window ; whilst the projection of the
last was made up of angles and straight lines forming generally the half of a hexagon,
octagon, or decagon, and was better known by the name of bay window, shot window, or
outcast window, a distinction, however, not generally observed.
ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF ARCHITECTURE. See Book I. Chap. I. Sect. 2.
ORIGINAL LINE, PLANE, or POINT. In perspective, a line, plane, or point referred to the
object itself.
ORLE. (Ital.) A fillet under the ovolo or quarter round of a capital. When the fillet is at
the top or bottom of the shaft of a column it is called a cincture. Palladio uses the word
orle to express the plinth of the bases of the columns and pedestal.
ORNAMENT. The smaller and detailed part of the work, not essential to it, but serving to
enrich it ; it is generally founded upon some imitation of the works of nature.
ORTHOGRAPHY. (Gr. OpBos, right, and Tpatyta, I describe.) The elevation of building show-
ing all the parts in their proper proportions ; it is either external or internal. The first
is the representation of the external part or front of a building showing the face of the
principal wall, with its apertures, roof of the building, projections, decorations, and all
other matters as seen by the eye of the spectator, placed at an infinite distance from it.
The second, commonly called the section of a building, shows it as if the external wall
were removed, and separated from it.
In geometry, orthography is the art of representing the plan or side of any object, and
of the elevation also of the principal parts : the art is so denominated from its etymology,
because it determines things by perpendicular right lines falling on the geometrical plan,
or because all the horizontal lines are straight and parallel, and not, as in perspective,
oblique.
OSCULATING CIRCLE. That, the radius of whose curve at any particular point of another
curve, is of the same length as that of the curve in question at that particular point.
Hence it is the kissing circle, and that so closely, that there is no difference in the cur-
vature of the two curves at that particular point.
OVA. (Lat.) Ornaments in the shape of an egg, into which the echinus or ovolo is often
carved.
OVAL. A geometrical figure, whose boundary is a curve line returning into itself; it in-
cludes the ellipsis or mathematical oval, and all figures resembling it, though with
different properties.
OVOLO. (Ital.) A convex moulding whose lower extremity recedes from a perpendicular
line drawn from the upper extremity. See MOULDING.
OUT TO OUT. An expression used of any dimension when measured to the utmost bounds
of a body or figure.
OUT OF WINDING. A term used by artificers to signify that the surface of a body is that of
a perfect plane ; thus when two straight edges are in the same plane they are said to be
out of winding.
OUTER DOORS. Those common to both the exterior and interior sides of a building
OUTER PLATE. See INNER PLATE.
OUTLINE. The line which bounds the contour of any object.
OUTWARD ANGLE. The external or salient angle of any figure.
OVERHANG. See BATTER.
P.
PADDLE. A small sluice, similar to that whereby water is let into or out of a canal lock.
PAGODA. (Corrupted from Poutgad, Pers., a house of idols.) A name given to the tem-
ples of India. See INDIAN ARCHITECTURE. Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 6.
PAINE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 303.
PAINTER'S WORK. See Book II. Chap. III. Sect. 12.
The work of painting with different coats of oil colour and turpentine the parts of a
building usually so treated.
PALACE. (Lat. Palatium.) In this country, a name given to the dwelling of a king or
queen, a prince, and a bishop. On the Continent, it is a term more extensively used,
almost all large dwellings and government offices being so denominated. See Book III.
Chap. III. Sect. 4.
PALESTRA. (Gr. IlaA.eua>, I wrestle.) A part of the Grecian gymnasium, particularly appro-
priated to wrestling and other gymnastic exercises ; it was sometimes used to denote the
whole building. It contained baths which were open for the use of the public. Accord-
ing to the authority of Vitruvius, no palaestra existed in Rome.
PALE. A small pointed stake or piece of wood used for making landmarks and enclosures
placed vertically.
3 T2
1012
GLOSSARY, ETC.
Demy
Medium
Royal
Super-royal
Imperial
Colombier -
- 20
- 22
- 24
- 27
- 30
- 34
inches
by 15 inches.
17 —
19 —
19 —
21 —
23 —
PAI.E FENCING or PALE FKNCE. That constructed with pales.
PALISADE. A fence of pales or stakes driven into the ground, set up for an enclosure, or
for the protection of property.
PALLADIO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 241.
PALM. A measure of length. See MEASURE.
PAMPRE. (Fr.) An ornament composed of vine leaves and bunches of grapes, wherewith
the hollow of the circumvolutions of twisted columns are sometimes decorated.
PANCARPI. (Gr.) Garlands and festoons of fruit, flowers, and leaves, for the ornament of
altars, doors, vestibules, &c.
PANEL. (From the low Latin panellum.) A board whose edges are inserted into the
groove of a thicker surrounding frame.
A panel in masonry is one of the faces of a hewn stone.
PANNIER. The same as CORBEL, which see.
PANTAMETER. A graduated bevel.
PANTILES. See Book II. Chap. II. Sect. 9.
PANTOGRAPH. An instrument for copying, diminishing, or enlarging drawings.
PAPER. A substance made by the maceration of linen rags in water and spreading them
into thin sheets ; on this the drawings of the architect are usually made ; its usual sizes
being as under : —
Atlas - 34 inches by 26 inches.
Double Elephant - 40 — 26 —
Antiquarian - - 52 — 31 —
Extra Antiquarian 56 — 40 —
Emperor - - 68 — 48 —
PAPERHANGER'S WORK. See Book II. Chap. III. Sect. 12.
PARABOLA. (Gr. Tlapa, through, and BccAAw, I throw.) In geometry, a curve line formed
by the common intersection of a conic surface, and a plane cutting it parallel to another
plane touching the conic surface. See Book II. Chap. I. Sect. 5.
PARABOLIC ASSYMPTOTE. In geometry, a line continually approaching the curve, but which,
though infinitely produced, will never meet it.
PARABOLIC CURVE. The curved boundary of a parabola, and terminating its area, except
at the double ordinate.
PARABOLIC SPIRAL, or HELICOID. A curve arising from the supposition of the axis of the
common parabola bent into the periphery of a circle, the ordinates being portions of the
radii next the circumference.
PARABOLOID. See CONOID.
PARALLEL. (Gr. IIopa\A7j\os.) In geometry, a term applied to lines, surfaces, &c., that are
in every part equidistant from each other.
PARALLEL COPING. See COPING.
PARALLELOGRAM. (Gr.) Any four-sided rectilineal figure, whose opposite sides are
parallel.
PARALLELOPIPED. In geometry, one of the regular bodies or solids comprehended under
six faces, each parallel to its opposite face, and all the faces parallelograms.
PARAMETER. (Gr. Tlapa, through, and Merpcw, I measure.) In conic sections, a constant
right line in each of the three sections, called also latus rectum.
PARAPET. (Ital. Parapetto, breast high.) A small wall of any material for protection on
the sides of bridges, quays, or high buildings.
PARASCENIUM. Another name for the postscenium in the ancient theatre.
PARASTAT^:. See ANT^?.
PARGET. A name given to the rough plaster used for lining chimney flues.
PARKER'S CEMENT. See p. 509.
PARLOUR. (Fr.) A room for conversation, which in the old monasteries adjoined the
buttery and pantry at the lower end of the hall. At the present day it is used to denote
the room in a house where common visitors are received.
PARODOS. (Gr.) The grand entrance of the scene of an ancient theatre that conducted on
to the stage and orchestra.
PARQUETRY. See MARQUETRY.
PARSONAGE HOUSE. A building usually near the church, occupied by the incumbent of
the living ; in former times this sort of building was often embattled and fortified, and
had various appendages, including sometimes a small chapel or oratory.
PARTITION. (Lat. ) A wall of stone, brick, or timber, dividing one room from another.
When a partition has no support from below it should not be suffered to bear on the floor
with any considerable weight, and in such cases it should have a truss formed within,
in which case it is called a trussed partition. See TRUSS.
PARTY WALLS. Such as are formed between houses to separate them from each other and
GLOSSARY, ETC. 1013
prevent the spreading of fire. The regulations prescrihed for them form a large portion
of the present Building Act of 7 & 8 Victoria, cap. 84.
PARTY FENCE WALL. A wall separating the vacant ground in one occupation from that
in another.
PARVIS. (Etym. uncertain.) A porch portico or large entrance to a church. It seems
also to have signified a room over the church porch, where schools used to be held.
PASSAGES. The avenues leading to the various divisions and apartments of a building.
When there is only one series of rooms in breadth, the passage must run along one side
of the building, and may be lighted by apertures through the exterior walls. If there
be more than one room in breadth, it must run in the middle, and be lighted from
above or at one or both ends.
PATERA. (Lat.) A vessel used in the Roman sacrifices, wherein the blood of the victims
was received. It was generally shallow, flat, and circular. Its representation has been
introduced as an ornament in friezes and fascia?, accompanied with festoons of flowers
or husks, and other accessories.
PATERNOSTERS. A species of ornament in the shape of beads, either round or oval, used
in baguettes, astragals, &c.
PAUTRE, LE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 261.
PAVEMENT. (Lat. Pavimentum. ) A path or road laid or beaten in with stones or other
materials. According to the information of Isidorus, the first people who paved their
streets with stone were the Carthaginians. Appius Claudius, the founder of the Appian
Way, appears to have introduced the practice into Rome, after which the Roman roads
were universally paved, remains of them having been found in every part of the empire.
In the interior of the Roman houses, the pavement was often laid upon timber fram-
ing ; and the assemblages so constructed were called contignata pavimenta. The pave-
ment called coassatio was made of oaken planks of the quercus esculus, which was least
liable to warp. The Roman pavements were also frequently of mosaic work, that is, of
square pieces of stone, called tesserae, in various patterns and figures, many of which
remain in Britain to the present day.
The various sorts of paving are as follows : — 1 . Pebble paving, of stones collected
from the sea beach, mostly obtained from Guernsey or Jersey. This is very durable if
well laid. The stones vary in size, but those from six to nine inches deep are the best,
those of three inches in depth are called holders or bowlers, and are used for paving court-
yards and those places wherever heavy weights do not pass. 2. Rag paving : inferior
to the last, and usually from the vicinity of Maidstone, in Kent, whence it bears the
name of Kentish rag stone. It is sometimes squared, and then used for paving coach-
tracks and footways. 3. Purbeck pitchers, which are square stones, used in footways,
brought from the island of Purbeck. They are useful in court-yards : the pieces running
about five inches thick, and from six to ten inches square. 4. Squared paving, by some
called Scotch paving, of a clear close stone, called blue wynn. This is now, however,
quite out of use. 5. Granite, of the material which its name imports. 6. Guernsey
paving, which, for street work, is the best in use. It is broken with iron hammers, and
squared to any required dimensions, of a prismoidal figure, with a smaller base down-
wards. It is commonly bedded in small gravel. 7. Purbeck paving, used for footways,
of which the blue sort is the best, is obtained in pretty large surfaces, of about two inches
and a half thick. 8. Yorkshire paving : a very good material, and procurable of very
large dimensions. 9. Ryegate or fire-stone paving, used for hearths, stoves, ovens, and
other places subject to great heat, by which this stone, if kept dry, is not affected. 10.
Neivcastle flags, useful for the paving of offices. They run about one and a half to two
inches thick, and about two feet square, and bear considerable resemblance to the York-
shire. 11. Portland paving may be had from the island of Portland of almost any
required dimensions. The squares are sometimes ornamented by cutting away their
angles, and inserting small black marble squares, set diagonally. 12. Sweedland pavinq :
a black slate dug in Leicestershire, useful for paving halls or for party-coloured paving.
13. Marble paving, of as many sorts almost as there are species of marble. It is some-
times inlaid after the manner of Mosaic work. 14. Flat brick paving, executed with
bricks laid flat in sand, mortar, or grout, when liquid lime is poured into the joints.
15. Brick or edge paving, executed in the manner of the last, except that the bricks are
laid on edge. 1 6. Herring-bone paving : bricks laid diagonally to each other. See
HERRING-BONE WORK. 17. Bricks laid endwise in sand, mortar, or grout. 18. Paving bricks^
are made especially for the purpose, and are better than stocks, 1 9, Ten-inch tile paving.
20. Foot tile paving. 21. Clinker paving,
The pavements of churches are often in patterns of several colours, of which, to shew
the great variety that may be obtained from a few colours, M. Truchet (Mem. Acad.
Fran.) has proved that two square stones, divided diagonally into two colours, may bo
joined together chequerwise in sixty-four different ways.
3 T 3
1014 GLOSSARY, ETC.
PAVEMENT (DIAMOND.) That in which the stones, flags, or bricks are laid with their
diagonals perpendicular to the sides of the apartment.
PAVILION. (Ital. Padiglione.) A turret or small building, generally insulated and com-
prised under a single roof. The term is also applied to the projecting parts in the front
of a building. They are usually higher than the rest of the building.
PEDESTAL. (Compound, apparently, of Pes, a foot, and SruAos, a column.) The lowest
division in an order of columns, called also stylobates and stereobates. It consists of three
principal parts: the die, the cornice, and the base. See Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 8.
PEDIMENT. The triangular crowning part of a portico or aperture, which terminates ver-
tically the sloping parts of the roof. In Gothic architecture, this triangular piece is
much higher in proportion to its width, and is denominated a gable. The subject of
pediments is fully treated of in Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 17.
PELASGIC ARCHITECTURE. See Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 2.
PENDENT. (Lat. ) An ornament suspended from the summit of Gothic vaulting, very
often elaborately decorated. The mode in which stone pen-
dents are constructed, will be immediately understood by a
consideration of the annexed figure. The pendent was also
used very frequently to timber-framed roofs, as in that of
Crosby Hall, which has a series of pendents along the centre of
it. Pendents are also attached to the ends of the hammer
beams in Gothic timber roofs.
PENDENTIVE. The entire body of a vault suspended out of the
perpendicular of the walls, and bearing against the arch boutants, or supporters. It is
defined by Daviler to be the portion of a vault between the arches of a dome, commonly
enriched with sculpture. Felibien defines it as the plane of the vault contained between
the double arches, the forming arches, and the ogives. See p. 56O.
PENDENTIVE BRACKETING or CAVE BRACKETING. That springing from the rectangular
walls of an apartment upwards to the ceiling, and forming the horizontal part of the
ceiling into a circle or ellipsis.
PENDENTIVE CRADLING. The timber work for sustaining the lath and plaster in vaulted
ceilings.
PENETRALE. (Lat. ) The most sacred part of the temple, which generally contained an
altar to Jupiter Hercaeus, which appellation, according to Festus, was derived from e/cpos,
an enclosure, and supposed him the protector of its sanctity.
PENETRALIA. (Lat.) Small chapels dedicated to the Penates, in the innermost part of the
Roman houses. In these it was the custom to deposit what the family considered most
valuable.
PENITENTIARY. In monastic establishments was a small square building, in which a peni-
tent confined himself. The term was also applied to that part of a church to which
penitents were admitted during divine service. The word, as used in the present time,
implies a place for the reception of criminals whose crimes are not so heinous as to
deserve punishment beyond that of solitary confinement and hard labour, and where
means are used to reclaim as much as possible those who have become subject to the laws
by transgressing them. See PRISON, Book III. Chap. III. Sect. 18.
PENSTOCK. A small paddle, working up and down vertically in a grooved frame, for
penning back water.
PENTADORON. ( Gr. ) A species of brick used in ancient architecture, which was five
palms long.
PENTAGON. (Gr. Tlevre, five, and Twvia, an angle.) In geometry, a figure of five sides and
five angles. When the five sides are equal, the angles are so too, and the figure is called
a regular pentagon.
PENTAGRAPH. See PANTOGRAPH.
PERIACTI. (Gr. Tlepiayeiv, to revolve.) The revolving scenes in an ancient theatre, called
by the Romans scence Versailles.
PERIBOLUS. (Gr.) A court or enclosure within a wall, sometimes surrounding a temple.
It was frequently ornamented with statues, altars, and monuments, and sometimes con-
tained other smaller temples or a sacred grove. The peribolus of the temple of Jupiter
Olympius, at Athens, was four stadia in circumference.
PERCIER. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 317.
PERCY. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 1 84.
PEREZ. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 126.,
PERIDROME. (Gr. Ilepi, about, Apo/tos, a course.) The space, in ancient architecture, be-
tween the columns of a temple and the walls enclosing the cell.
PERIMETER. (Gr.) The boundary of a figure.
PERIPHERY. (Gr. Ilept^epw, I surround.) The circumference of a circle, ellipsis, para-
bola, or other regular curvilinear figure.
PERIPTERY. (Gr.) The range of insulated columns round the cell of a temple.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 1015
PERIPTERAL. (Gr.) A temple surrounded by a periptery, that is, encompassed by columns.
See TEMPLE.
PERISTYLIUM. (Gr.) In Greek and Roman buildings, a court, square or cloister, which
sometimes had a colonnade on three sides only, and therefore in that case improperly so
called. Some peristylia had a colonnade on each of the four sides ; that on the south
being sometimes higher than the rest, in which case it was called a Rhodian peristylium.
The range of columns itself was called the peristyle. See COLONNADE.
PERITHY RIDES. The same as ANCONES, which see.
PERITROCHIUM. (Gr. ) A term in mechanics applied to a wheel or circle concentric with
the base of a cylinder, and together with it moveable about an axis.
PERPENDICULAR. In geometry, a term applied to a right line falling directly on another
line, so as to make equal angles on each side, called also a normal line. The same de-
'finition will hold of planes standing the one on the other. A perpendicular to a curve
is a right line cutting the curve in a point where another right line to which it is per-
pendicular makes a tangent with the curve.
PERPEND STONE or PERPENDER. A long stone reaching through the thickness of the wall,
so as to be visible on both sides, and therefore wrought and smoothed at the ends.
PERRAULT. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 259.
PERRON. A French term, denoting a staircase, lying open or without side the building ;
or more properly the steps in the front of a building which lead into the first story,
where it is raised a little above the level of the ground.
PERRONET. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 298.
PERSIAN or PERSEPOLITAN ARCHITECTURE. See Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 4.
PERSIANS. See CARYATIDES.
PERSPECTIVE. (Lat. Perspicio. ) The science which teaches the art of representing objects
on a definite surface, so as from a certain position to affect the eye in the same manner
as the objects themselves would. This art forms the subject of Book II. Chap. IV.
Sect. 2.
PERUZZI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 200.
PEST HOUSE. A lazaretto or infirmary where persons, goods, &c., infected with the plague
or other contagious disease, or suspected so to be, are lodged to prevent communication
with others, and the consequent spread of the contagion.
PETER OF COLECHUCH. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 106.
PH^EAX. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 28.
PHALANGJE. (Gr. ) A name applied by Vitruvius to a species of wooden rollers, used to
transport heavy masses from one spot to another.
PHAROS. (Gr. from *o>s, a light, and O/fooj, I see.) The name applied to an ancient light-
house. See Book III. Chap. III. Sect. 12.
PHEASANTRY. A building or place for the purpose of breeding, rearing, and keeping
pheasants.
PHILO. See ARCHITECTS, list of. 26.
PHONICS. The doctrine of sounds, which has not yet been so reduced in its application
to architecture as to have justified in this work more than its definition in this place.
See the Sect. 16. Chap. III. Book III. on THEATRES.
PHOTOMETER. (Gr.) An instrument for measuring the different intensities of light.
PIAZZA. (Ital.) A square open space surrounded by buildings. The term is very fre-
quently and very ignorantly used to denote a walk under an arcade.
PIEDROIT. (Fr.) A French term, signifying a pier or square pillar, partly hid within a
wall. It differs from a pilaster in having neither base nor capital.
PIER. (Fr.) A solid between the doors or windows of a building. The square or
other formed mass or post to which a gate is hung. Also the solid support from
which an arch springs. In a bridge, the pier next the shore is usually called an abut-
ment pier.
PIETRO DI GAMIEL. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 1 95.
PIETRO SAN. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 119.
PILASTER. (Fr.) A sort of square column, sometimes insulated, but more commonly
engaged in a wall, and projecting only a fourth or fifth of its thickness. See Book III.
Chap. I. Sect. 14.
PILES. (Lat.) Large timbers driven into the earth, upon whose heads is laid the founda-
tion of a building in marshy and loose soils. Amsterdam and some other cities are built
wholly upon piles. The stoppage of Dagenham Breach was effected by piles mortised
into one another by dovetail joints. They are best and most firmly driven by repeated
strokes ; but for the saving of time, a pile engine is generally used, in appearance and
effect very much like a guillotine, which, having raised the monkey or hammer to a cer-
tain height, lets it, by pressing the clasps which carry it up, suddenly drop down on the
pile to be driven,
PILLAR. (Fr. Pilier.) A column of irregular form, always disengaged, and always de-
3 T 4
1016 GLOSSARY, ETC.
viating from the proportions of the orders, whence the distinction between a column and
a pillar. In any other sense it is improperly used.
PIN. In carpentry, a cylindrical piece of wood driven to connect pieces of framing
together.
PINNACLE. (Low Lat. Pinnaculum.) A summit or apex. The term is usually applied
to the ornament in Gothic architecture placed on the top of a buttress, or as the ter-
mination to the angle of the gable of a building. It is also placed on different parts of a
parapet, at the sides of niches, and in other situations. Its form is usually slender, and
tapers to a point.
PINNING UP. In underpinning the driving the wedges under the upper work so as to
bring it fully to bear upon the work below.
The term pinning is also used to denote the fastening of tiles together with pins or
pieces of heart of oak in the covering of buildings.
PINO, DI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 201.
PINTELLI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 155.
PJFE. A conveyance for water or soil from any part of a building, usually of lead or iron.
When for the supply of water to a building it is called a service pipe ; when for carrying
off water, a waste pipe ; and when for carrying off soil, a soil pipe ; and those which
carry away the rain from a building are called rain-water pipes. When a cietern or
reservoir is supplied in such a way that those who labour to nil it should be made aware
that it is full, the pipe which discharges the overflow is called a warning pipe.
PIPPI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 218.
PISCINA. (Lat.) Among the Romans this term was applied to a fish-pond, to a shallow
reservoir for practising swimming, and to a place for watering horses and washing
clothes. The piscina in ecclesiastical architecture was a bowl for water, generally in a
niche in the wall of the church wherein the priest laved his hands. There was usually
one attached to every altar for the priest to wash his hands on the performance of the
sacred rites. The variety of their form is great ; some were extremely simple, others
very richly decorated.
PISE. A species of walling, of latter years used in France, made of stiff earth or clay
rammed in between moulds as it is carried up. This method of walling was however in
very early use. (Plin. lib. xxxiv. chap. 14.)
PIT OF A THEATRE. The part on the ground-floor between the lower range of boxes and
the stage.
PITCH. A term generally applied to the vertical angles formed by the inclined sides of
a roof.
PITCHING PIECE. In staircasing, an horizontal piece of timber, having one of its ends
wedged into the wall at the upper part of a flight of steps, to support the upper ends of
the rough strings. See APRON PIECE.
PIVOT. ( Fr. ) The sharpened point upon which a wheel whose axis is perpendicular or
inclined performs its revolutions.
PLACK BRICKS. See p. 504.
PLAFOND or PLATFOND. (Fr.) The ceiling of a room, whether flat or arched; also the
under side of the projection cf the larmier of the cornice; generally any sofite.
PLAIN or PLANE ANGLE. One contained under two lines and surfaces, so called to dis-
tinguish it from a solid angle.
PLAIN TILES, properly PLANE TILES. Those whose surfaces are planes. See Book II.
Chap. II. Sect. 9.
PLAN. ( Fr. ) The representation of the horizontal section of a building, showing its dis-
tribution, the form and extent of its various parts. In the plans made by the architect,
it is customary to distinguish the massive parts, such as walls, by a dark colour, so as to
separate them from the voids or open spaces. In a geometrical plan, which is that above
mentioned, the parts are represented in their natural proportions. A perspective plan is
drawn according to the rules of perspective. The raised plan of a building is the
elevation of it.
PLANCEER. The same as the sofite or under-surface of the corona ; the word is however
very often used generally to mean any sofite.
PLANE. (Lat. Planus.) A tool used by artificers that work in wood for the purpose of
producing thereon a flat even surface. There are various sorts of planes, whose descrip-
tion will be found at p. 564.
PLANE. In geometry, a surface that coincides in every direction with a straight line.
PLANE, GEOMETRICAL. In perspective, a plane parallel to the horizon, whereon the object
to be delineated is supposed to be placed. It is usually at right angles with the per-
spective plane.
PLANE, HORIZONTAL. In perspective, a plane passing through the spectator's eye, parallel
to the horizon, and cutting the perspective plane in a straight line, called the horizontal line.
PLANE, INCLINED. One that makes an oblique angle with a horizontal plane.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 1017
PLANE, OBJECTIVE. Any plane, face, or side of an original object to be delineated on the
perspective plane.
PLANE, PERSPECTIVE. That interposed between the original objects and the eye of the
spectator, and whereon the objects are to be delineated.
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY. See Book II. Chap. I. Sect. 4.
PLANIMETRY. That branch of geometry which treats of lines and surfaces only, Avithout
reference to their height or depth.
PLANK. (Fr.) A name given generally to all timber, except fir, which is less than four
inches thick and thicker than one inch and a half. See BOARD.
PLASTER AND PLASTERER'S WORK. See Book II. Chap. Il£. Sect. 9.
PLASTER OF PARIS. A preparation of gypsum, originally procured in the vicinity of Mont
Martre near Paris. The plaster stone, or alabaster, is, however, found in many parts of
England, as at Chelaston near Derby, and Beacon Hill near Newark. The former pits
yield about 800 tons a year. It is ground and frequently used for manure, or rather as
a stimulant for grass. It is calcined into the plaster used by the modeller, plasterer,
&c. When diluted with water into a thin paste, plaster of Paris sets rapidly, and at
the instant of setting, its bulk is increased. Mr. Boyle found by experiment that a
glass vessel filled with this paste, and close stopped, bursts while the mixture sets, a
quantity of water sometimes issuing through the cracks ; hence this material becomes
valuable for filling cavities, &c., when other earths would shrink. The gypsum is pre-
pared either by burning or boiling, and loses from four to six cwt. in a ton. After
burning, it is ground into powder in a mill.
PLATBAND. Any flat and square moulding whose projection is much less than its height,
such are the fasciae of an architrave, the list between flutings, &c. The platband of
a door or window is the lintel, when it is made square and not much arched.
PLATE. A general term applied to those horizontal pieces of timber lying mostly on walls
for the reception of another assemblage of timbers. Thus, a wall plate is laid round the
walls of a building to receive the timbering of a floor and roof; a gutter plate under
the gutter of a building, &c.
PLATE GLASS. See GLASS.
PLATE RACK. A fixture over the sink in a scullery for the reception of dinner plates and
dishes after washing.
PLATFORM. An assemblage of timbers for carrying a flat covering of a house, or the flat
covering itself. A terrace or open walk at the top of a building.
PLINTH. (Gr. HXivQos, a brick.) The lower square member of abase of a column or
pedestal. In a wall the term plinth is applied to two or three rows of bricks which
project from the face.
PLOTTING. The art of laying down on paper the angles and lines of a plot of land by any
instrument used in surveying.
PLUG. A piece of timber driven perpendicularly into a wall with the projecting part
sawn away, so as to be flush with the face.
PLUG AND FEATHER, or KEY AND FEATHER. A name given to a method of dividing hard
stones by means of a long tapering wedge, called the key, and wedge-shaped pieces of
iron called feathers, which are driven into holes previously drilled into the rock for the
purpose, and thus forcibly split it.
PLUMBING. (Lat. Plumbus.) The art of casting and working in lead and using it in
building. See Book II. Chap. III. Sect. 7.
PLUMB RULE, PLUMB LINE, or PLUMMET. An instrument used by masons, carpenters,
&c., to draw perpendiculars or verticals, for ascertaining whether their work be upright,
horizontal, and so on. The instrument is little more than a piece of lead or plummet
at the end of a string, sometimes descending along a wooden or metal ruler raised per-
pendicularly on another, and then it is called a level. See LEVEL.
PODIUM. (Lat.) A continued pedestal. A projection which surrounded the arena of the
ancient amphitheatre. See AMPHITHEATRE.
POINT. (Lat. Punctum.) In geometry, according to Euclid, that which has neither length,
breadth, nor thickness.
POINT, ACCIDENTAL. In perspective, a term used by the old writers on the science to
signify the vanishing point.
POINT OF DISTANCE. In perspective, the distance of the picture transferred upon the
vanishing line from the centre, or from the point where the principal ray meets it, whence
it is generally understood to be on the vanishing line of the horizon. See DISTANCE.
POINT, OBJECTIVE. A point on a geometrical plane whose representation is required on
the perspective plane.
POINT OF SIGHT. The place of the eye whence the picture is viewed, according to Dr.
Brook Taylor, but, according to the old writers on perspective, is what is now called
the centre of the picture.
POINT OF VIEW. The point of sight.
1018
GLOSSARY, ETC.
POINTED ARCH. See p. 119, et seq.
POINTED ARCHITECTURE. See Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 15.
POINTING. The raking out the mortar from between the joints of brickwork, and re-
placing the same with new mortar.
POINTS OF SUPPORT. The points or surfaces on which a building rests. See p. 438.
POLISHING. See MARBLE.
POLLAJOLO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 179.
POLLARD. A tree which has been frequently lopped or polled of its head and branches, a
practice very injurious to good timber.
POLYGON. (Gr. IIoAus, many, %nd Toavia, an angle.) A multilateral figure, or one whose
perimeter consists of more than four sides and angles. If the sides and angles be equal
the figure is called a regular polygon. Polygons are distinguished according to the
number of the sides ; thus those of five sides are called pentagons, those of six, hexa-
gons, those of seven, heptagons, and so on. The subjoined is a table of the areas and
perpendiculars of polygons the side being == 1 .
Number of Sides.
Names of Polygons.
Area.
Perpendiculars.
3
Trigon -
•433013
•2886751
4
Tetragon
1 -000000
•500OOOO
5
Pentagon
1 -720477
•6881910
6
Hexagon
2.598076
•8660254
7
Heptagon
3-633912
1-0382617
8
Octagon
4-828427
1-2071068
9
Enneagon
6-181824
1 -3737387
10
Decagon
7 -694209
1-5388418
11
Endecagon
9-365640
1 -7028437
12
Dodecagon -
11-196152
1 -8660254
From the above to find the area of a regular polygon, multiply one of the sides of the
polygon by the perpendicular from the centre on that side, and multiply half the pro-
duct by the number of sides ; or, multiply the square of the given side of the polygon
by the number opposite to its name under the word area.
POLYGRAM. (Gr.) A figure consisting of many lines.
POLYHEDRON. (Gr.) A solid contained under many sides or planes. If the sides of a
polyhsedron be regular polygons, all similar and equal, it becomes a regular body, and
may be inscribed in a sphere, that is, a sphere may be drawn round it, so that its surface
shall touch all the solid angles of the body.
POLYSTYLE. (Gr. Ho\vs and SruAos.) Of many columns. See COLONNADE.
POMEL. (Lat. Pomum.) A globular protuberance terminating a pinnacle, &e.
PONTOON. (Fr.) A bridge of boats.
POORE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 112.
POPLAR. (Lat. Populus.) A tree sometimes used in building. See p. 486.
PORCH. (Fr.) An exterior appendage to a building, forming a covered approach to one
of its principal doorways.
PORPHYRY. (Gr.) A very hard stone, partaking of the nature of granite. It is not so fine
as many of the ordinary marbles, but far exceeds them in hardness, and will take a very
fine polish. It is still found in Egypt in immense strata. It is generally of a high
purple, which varies, however, from claret colour to violet. Its variations are rarely dis-
posed in grains. The red lead coloured porphyry, which abounds in Minorca, is variegated
with black, white, and green, and is a beautiful and valuable material. The pale and
red porphyry, variegated with black, white, and green, is found in Arabia Petrzea and
Upper Egypt, and in separate nodules in Germany, England, and Ireland. The sorts
best known are what the Italians call the porfido rosso (red), which is of a deep red with
oblong white spots ; the latter are of feld spath, which resembles schorl. There are two
varieties of black porphyry, the porfido nero, or black porphyry, and that called the
serpentino nero antico. The first has a ground entirely black, spotted with oblong white
spots like the red porphyry ; the other has also a black ground with great white spots,
oblong, or rather in the form of a parallelopipedon, nearly resembling in colour what
the French call serpentin vert antique. The brown porphyry has a brown ground with
large oblong greenish spots. There are several sorts of green porphyry, which the
Italians principally distinguish by the names of serpentino antico verde, found in great
abundance and in large blocks in the neighbourhood of the ancient Ostia, of a green
ground with oblong spots of a lighter shade of the same colour ; and the porfido verde,
which is of a ground of very dark green, almost approaching to black, with lighter shades
of a fine grass green. The art of cutting porphyry, as practised by the ancients, appears
to be now quite lost.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 1019
PORTAL. (Fr. Portail, from Lat. Porta.) The arch over a door or gate; the framework
of the gate ; the lesser gate, when there are two of different dimensions at one entrance.
This term was formerly applied to a small square corner in a room separated from the
rest of the apartment by wainscotting.
PORTCULLIS. (Fr.) A strong grated framing of timber, resembling a harrow, the vertical
pieces whereof were pointed with iron at the bottom, for the purpose of striking into
the ground when it was dropped, and also to break and destroy that upon which it fell. It
was made to slide up and down in a groove of solid stone- work within the arch of the por-
tals of old castles. Its introduction is supposed to have been in the early Norman castles.
PORTICO. (Lat. Porticus.) See COLONNADE.
PORTLAND STONE. A dull white species of stone brought from the island of Portland,
See p. 468, et seq.
PORTUGUESE ARCHITECTURE. See Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 19.
POSITION. In geometry, the situation of one thing in regard to another. Speaking
architecturally, it is the situation of a building in respect of the four cardinal points of
the horizon.
POST. (Fr.) An upright piece of timber set in the earth. Any piece of timber whose
office is to support or sustain in a vertical direction, as the king and queen posts in a roof,
is so called.
POST AND PALING. A close wooden fence constructed with posts fixed in the ground and
pales nailed between them. This kind of fence is sometimes called post and railing,
though this latter is rather a kind of open wooden fence, used for the protection of young
quickset hedges, consisting of posts and rails, &c.
POSTICUM. (Lat.) See CELL.
POSTSCENIUM or PARAscENiuM. (Lat.) In ancient architecture, the back part of the theatre,
where the machinery was deposited, and where the actors retired to robe themselves.
POSTUMIUS, C. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 37.
POULTRY HOUSE. A building for the shelter and rearing of poultry, whereof, perhaps, the
finest example is that at Winnington in Cheshire. The front is one hundred and forty
feet in length, with a pavilion at each end, united to the centre by a colonnade of small
cast-iron pillars, supporting a slated roof, which shelters a paved walk. In the centre
of the front are four strong columns, and as many pilasters, supporting a slated roof, with
an iron gate between them, from which a large semicircular court is entered, with a co-
lonnade round it, and places for the poultry. On one side of the gate is a small parlour,
and at the other end of the colonnade a kitchen.
POWER. In mechanics, a force which, applied to a machine, tends to produce motion. If it
actually produce it, it is called a moving power, if not, it is called a sustaining power. The
term is also used in respect of the six simple machines, viz. the lever, the balance, the screw,
the axis in peritrochio, the wedge, and the pulley, which are called the mechanical powers.
Pozzo, DEL. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 157.
POZZOLANO. See PUZZOLANO.
PR^ECINCTIO (Lat.) or BALTEUS. A wide seat, or rather step, round the audience part of
the ancient theatres and amphitheatres. It was termed 5ia£w/u,a by the Greeks.
PREACHING CROSS. A cross erected in the highway, at which the monks and others
preached to the public.
PRECEPTORY, A manor or estate of the knights templars, on which a church was erected
for religious service, and a convenient house for habitation, and generally placed under
one of the more eminent members of the fraternity, called the prceceptores templi, to have
care of the lands and rents of the place. The preceptories were nothing more than cells
to the temple, or principal house of the knights in London.
PRESBYTERY. That part of the church reserved for the officiating priests, comprising the
choir and other eastern parts of the edifice.
PRESERVING TIMBER. See p. 489.
PRICES OF WORK. See p. 620, et seq.
PRICK POST. The same as QUEEN POST.
PRIME. (Lat.) A figure in geometry that cannot be divided into any other figures more
simple than itself, as a triangle in plane figures, and a pyramid in solids.
A prime number is one that cannot be divided by another number without a remainder.
PRIMING. In painter's work, the first colouring of the work, which forms a ground for
the succeeding coats.
PRINCIPAL BRACE. One immediately under the principal rafters, or parallel to them, in
a state of compression, assisting, with the principals, to support the timbers of the roof.
PRINCIPAL POINT. In perspective, a point in the perspective plane upon which a line will
fall drawn from the eye perpendicular to that plane. The principal point is, in fact, the
intersection of the horizontal and vertical planes, or the point of sight, or of the eye.
PRINCIPAL RAFTERS. Those whose sizes are larger than the common rafters, and framed
in such a manner as to bear the principal weight of the others. See p. 548.
1020 GLOSSARY, ETC.
PRINCIPAL RAY. In perspective, the line passing from the eye to the principal point on
the perspective plane.
PRIORY. A building similar in its constitution to a monastery or abbey, the head whereof
was called a prior or prioress.
PRISM. ( Gr. TIpi(T/j.a. ) In geometry, an oblong or solid body contained under more than
four planes, whose bases are equal, parallel, and similarly situate.
PRISMOID. A solid figure, having for its two ends any dissimilar parallel plane figure of
the same number of sides, and all the upright sides of the solid trapezoids. If the ends
of the prismoid be bounded by dissimilar curves, it is sometimes called a cylindroid.
PRISON. A building erected for the confinement, or safe custody, of those who have trans-
gressed the laws of their country, until, in due course of time, they are discharged. See
Book III. Chap. III. Sect. 18.
PRIVATE BUILDINGS. See Book III. Chap. III. Sects. 20, 21, 22.
PROBLEM. ( Gr. ) In geometry, a proposition in which some operation or construction is
required, as to divide a line, to make an angle, to draw a circle through three points not
in a right line, &c. A problem consists of three parts : the proposition, which states
what is required to be done ; the resolution or solution, wherein are rehearsed the step or
steps by which it is done ; and the demonstration, wherein it is shown that by doing the
several things prescribed in the resolution the thing required is obtained.
PRODOMUS. In ancient architecture, the portico before the entrance to the cell of a temple.
See CELL.
PRODUCING. In geometry, the continuing a right line to any required length.
PROFILE. The vertical section of a body. It is principally used in its architectural sense
to signify the contour of architectural members, as of bases, cornices, &c. The profile of
an order is in fact the outline of the whole and its parts, the drawing whereof is technically
called profiling the order. Profiles of doors are given in Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 19.
PROJECTION. The art of representing a body on a plane by drawing straight lines through
a given point, or parallel from the contour and from the intermediate lines of the body,
if any, so as to cut the plane. When the projection is made by drawing straight lines from
a point, it is called a. perspective representation; but if formed by parallel lines, it is called
an orthographical representation. See PERSPECTIVE, in Book II. Chap. V. Sect. 2., and
DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY, Book II. Chap. I. Sect. 6. For the method of projecting sha-
dows, see Book II. Chap. IV. Sect. 3.
PROJECTURE. An out-jetting or prominence beyond the naked of a wall, column, &c. By
the Greeks projectures were called eKQopai, by the Italians sporti, by the French sailles ; so
our workmen called them sailings over.
PROLATE. (Lat.) An epithet applied to a spheroid when generated by the revolution of a
semi-ellipsis about its longer diameter.
PRONAOS. See CELL.
PROPORTION. The just magnitude of each part, and of each part to another, so as to be
suitable to the end in view. For the proportions of the several parts of a building, the
reader is referred to Book III. Chap. I., wherein they are considered at length.
PROPORTIONAL COMPASSES. See COMPASSES.
PROPORTIONS OF ROOMS. See Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 25.
PROPYL^UM. ( Gr. ITpo, before, and IIuArj, a portal. ) Any court or vestibule before a build-
ing, or before its principal part ; but more particularly the entrance to such court or
vestibule.
PROSCENIUM. (Gr.) That part in the ancient theatre whereon the actors performed in
front of the scene, being what we call the stage. The Romans called this part the
pulpitum.
PROSTYLE. (Gr. ITpo, and "SrvXos, a column. ) A portico in which the columns stand in
advance of the building to which they belong.
PROTHYRIS. ( Gr. ) A word used in ancient architecture to signify a cross beam or overthwart
rafter, as likewise a quoin or course of a wall. See CONSOLE.
PROTHYRUM. ( Gr. ) A porch at the outer door of a house ; a portal.
PROTRACTOR. (Lat. Protractus. ) An instrument for laying down an angle in drawing or
plotting.
PSEUDISODOMUM. See ISODOMUM.
PSEUDODIPTERAL or FALSE DIPTERAL. A disposition in the temples of antiquity wherein
there were eight columns in front and only one range round the cell. It is called false
or imperfect, because the cell only occupying the width of four columns, the sides from
the columns to the walls of the cell have no columns therein, though the front and rear
present a column in the middle of the void. See TEMPLE.
PSEUDOPERIPTERAL or IMPERFECT PERIPTERAL. A disposition in the ancient temples, in
which the columns on the sides were engaged in the wall, and wherein there was no
portico except to the facade in front ; such are the Maison Carree at Nismes, and the
temple of Fortuna Virilis at Rome.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 1021
PTERA. See AISLES.
PTEROMA. (Gr. Tlrepov, a wing.) The space between the wall of the cell of a temple and
the columns of the peristyle, called also ambulatio.
PUDDLING. The filling behind a wall, filling up a cavity, or banking up with clay tem-
pered with water, and carefully rammed down with the repeated strokes of beaters or
beetles.
PUGGING. A coarse kind of mortar laid upon the sound boarding between joists, to pre-
vent the transmission of sound from the apartment above to that below.
PUG-PILING. The same as dovetailed piling, or pile planking.
PULLEY. ( Fr.) One of the five mechanical powers, consisting of a wheel or rundle, having
a channel around it and turning on an axis, serving, by means of a rope which moves in
its channel, for the raising of weights. See p. 391.
PULLEY MORTISE. The same as CHASE MORTISE, which see.
PULPIT. (Ital. Pulpito.) An elevated place, an enclosed stage or platform for a preacher
in a church. The ancient ambo served the same purpose. The pulpits of the present
day are generally wretched affairs, and have great affinity in form to sugar hogsheads
or rum puncheons with the heads knocked out. The Catholic churches abroad almost
invariably furnish fine specimens of carving and composition in their pulpits.
PULPITUM. (Lat.) See PROSCENIUM.
PULVINARIA. (Lat.) Cushions in the ancient temples whereon the statues of the gods
were sometimes laid.
PULVINATED. See FRIEZE.
PUMP. See p. 584, 585., where the different pumps for buildings are described.
PUNCHION. (Fr. Poison.) A name common to iron instruments used in different trades
for cutting, inciding, or piercing a body. In carpentry it is a piece of timber placed
upright between two posts whose bearing is too great, serving, together with them, to
sustain some heavy weight. The term is also applied to a piece of timber raised
upright under the ridge of a building, and in which are jointed the small timbers. Also
to the arbor or principal part of a machine on which it turns vertically, as that of a
crane.
PURBECK STONE. A species of stone obtained from the island of Purbeck in Dorsetshire,
of a very hard texture.
PURFLED. (Fr. Pourfiler.) Ornamented work in stone, or other material, representing em-
broidery, drapery, or lace work.
PURLINS. Horizontal pieces of timber lying generally on the principal rafters of a roof to
lessen the bearings of the common rafters.
PUTEAL. The marginal stone of a well. The celebrated one of Scribonius Libo was
erected by order of the senate to mark the spot where a thunderbolt had fallen near the
statues of Marsyas and Janus by the Comitia.
PUTLOGS. See LEDGERS,
PUTTY. A sort of paste consisting of whiting, with or without a small portion of white
lead, and linseed oil, beaten together until it assumes a kind of tough consistency like dough.
In this state it is used by glaziers for fixing in the squares of glass to sash windows, &c.,
and also by house-painters to stop up holes and cavities in woodwork before painting.
PUZZOLANA. A grey-coloured earth deriving its name from Puzzuoli, whence it was origi-
nally brought. It is a volcanic matter found in many other parts of Italy, and generally
in the neighbourhood of volcanoes active or extinct, from which it has been thrown out
in the form of ashes. It immediately hardens when mixed with one-third of its weight of
lime and water, forming an admirable water cement. See Book II. Chap. II. Sect. 10.
PYCNOSTYLE. (Gr. UVKVOS, close, and SruXoy, column.) See COLONNADE.
PYRAMID. ( Gr. Uvp, fire. ) A solid standing on a square, triangular, or polygonal basis,
and terminating at top in a point ; or a body whose base is a regular rectilinear figure
and whose sides are plain triangles, their several verticals meeting together in one point.
It is defined by Euclid as a solid figure consisting of several triangles whose bases are
all in the same plane and have one common vertex. When the base of a pyramid is but
small in proportion to its height, it is called an obelisk. See that word. For some
account of the pyramids of Egypt see Book I. Chap. II. Sect 7.
The principal properties of pyramids are as follow : — 1. All pyramids and cones
standing on the same base and having the same altitude are equal. 2. A triangular
pyramid is the third part of a prism, standing on the same base and of the same altitude.
3. Hence, since every multangular may be divided into triangulars, every pyramid is the
third part of a prism standing on the same base and of the same altitude. 4. If a pyra-
mid be cut by a plane parallel to its base, the sections will be similar to the base. 5.
All pyramids, prisms, cylinders, &c., are in a ratio compounded of their bases and alti-
tudes ; the bases therefore being equal they are in proportion to their altitudes, and the
altitudes being equal, they are in proportion to their bases. 6. Similar pyramids,
prisms, cylinders, cones, &c., are in a triplicate ratio of their homologous sides. 7.
1022 GLOSSARY, ETC.
Equal pyramids, &c., reciprocate their bases and altitudes, i. e. the altitude of one Is to
that of the other, as the base of the one is to the base of the other. 8. A sphere is equal
to a pyramid whose base is equal to the surface, and its height to the radius of the
sphere.
PYRAMID, FRUSTUM OF A. See FRUSTUM.
PYRAMIDION. The small flat pyramid which terminates the top of an obelisk.
PYTHEUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 8.
a
QUADRA. (Ital. ) A square border of frame round a basso-relievo, panel, &c. ; the term is
not strictly applicable to any circular border. The term is also applied to the bands or
fillets of the Ionic base on each side of the scotia ; and also to the plinth or lower mem-
ber of the podium.
QUADRANGLE. Any figure with four angles and four sides. This term is in architecture
in England applied to the inner square or rectangular court of a building, as in the
college courts of Oxford, &c.
QUADRANT. (Lat.) The quarter of a circle, or an arc of it containing ninety degrees within
its enclosed angle.
QUADRATURE. (Lat.) The determination of the area of a figure in a square, or even any
other rectilinear form.
QUADRELS. Artificial stones perfectly square, whence their name, much used formerly by
the Italian architects. They were made of a chalky or whitish and pliable earth, and
dried in the shade for at least two years.
QUADRIFORES. (Lat.) In ancient architecture folding doors whose height was divided
into two parts. When they opened in one height, they were termed fores valvatce or
valvce.
QUADRILATERAL. In geometry a figure whose perimeter consists of four right lines making
four angles, whence it is also called a quadrangular figure.
QUARREL, vulgarly called QUARRY. (Fr. Carre.) A square or lozenge-shaped piece of
glass used in lead casements.
QUARRY. (Irish, Carrig.) A place whence stones or slates are procured. The principal
stone quarries of England have been given in the body of the work, Book II. Chap. II.
Sect. 1. to which place the reader is referred. The slates obtained from the different
quarries of the country may be found from the information in Book II. Chap. II.
Sect. 8.
QUARRYING. The operation of extracting the produce of a quarry is one which requires
much practical knowledge to render it beneficial to the owner of a quarry, but in respect
of the particulars whereof this work does not require our notice.
QUARTER GRAIN. See FELT GRAIN.
QUARTER PACE. See FOOT PACE.
QUARTER PARTITION. One consisting of quarters.
QUARTER ROUND. The same as OVOLO and ECHINUS, which see, being a moulding whose
profile is the quadrant of a circle.
QUARTERING. A series of quarters, as in a partition, &c.
QUARTERFOIL. (Fr. Quatrefeuille. ) A modern term denoting a form disposed in four
segments of circles, and so called from its imagined resemblance to an expanded flower
of four petals. It is only found in the windows, pannels, &c., of Gothic architecture.
Mr. Gunn with charming simplicity, not unusual among the amateur writers on Gothic
architecture, thinks that the form has no reference to any type in the vegetable kingdom,
but that it was originally a representation of the Greek cross rounded toward% the extre-
mities. If the writings on the subject from the two universities of the country were all
put in juxtaposition, they would perhaps afford more scope for mirth than was ever
exhibited on any subject.
QUARTERS. Small vertical timber posts, rarely exceeding four by three inches, used instead
of walls for the separation or boundary of apartments. They are placed, or ought to be,
about twelve inches apart, and are usually lathed and plastered in the internal apart-
ments, but if used for external purposes are commonly boarded.
QUARTZ. (Germ.) A mineral production better known by the name of rock crystal. It
includes a variety of stones with which we have nothing here to do, and the only motive
for mentioning it is its occurrence in the granites, wherein it is immediately recognised,
from its glass-like appearance.
QUAY. (Fr.) A bank formed towards the sea or on the side of a river for free passage, or
for the purpose of unloading merchandise.
QUEEN-POST. A suspending post where there are two in a trussed roof.
QUICKLIME. See Book II. Chap. II. Sect 10.
QUIRK. A piece taken out of any regular ground-plot or floor ; thus, if the ground
GLOSSARY, ETC. 1023
plan were square or oblong, and a piece were taken out of the corner, such piece is called
a quirk
QUIRK MOULDING. One whose sharp and sudden return from its extreme projection to the
re-entrant angle seems rather to partake of a straight line on the profile than of the curve.
Of this class are a great number of the ancient Greek mouldings.
QUOINS. (Fr. Coin.) A term applied to any external angle, but more especially applied
to the angular courses of stone raised from the naked of the wall at the corner of a
building, and called rustic quoins. See RUSTIC QUOINS.
R.
RABBET. See REBATE.
RABIRIUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 44.
RACK. The case, enclosed by bars, over the manger in a stable, wherein the hay is placed
for the horses.
RADIAL CURVES. In geometry, those of the spiral kind whose ordinates all terminate in the
centre of the including circle, and appear like so many radii of such circle.
RADIUS. In geometry, the semidiameter of a circle, or a right line drawn from the centre
to the circumference.
RADIUS OF CURVATURE. The radius of the osculatory circle at any point in a curve. See
OSCULATORY ClRCLE.
RAFFAELLE D'URBINO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 185.
RAFTERS. (Quasi, Roof-trees.) The inclined timbers of a roof, whose edges are in the same
plane which is parallel to the covering. The rules and regulations that affect their dis-
position will be found in p. 544, et seq.
RAGS and RAG SLATES. See Book II. Chap. II. Sect. 8.
RAIL. (Germ. Riegel.) A term applied in various ways, but more particularly to those
pieces of timber or wood lying horizontally, whether between the panels of wainscotting or
of doors, or under or over the compartments of balustrades, &c. ; to pieces, in framing,
that lie from post to post in fences ; in short, to all pieces lying in an horizontal direction
which separate one compartment from another.
RAIMOND. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 93.
RAIN-WATER PIPE. One usually placed against the exterior of a house to carry off the rain-
water from the roof.
RAISING PIECE. One which lies under a beam or beams and over the posts or pun-
chions. The term is chiefly used in respect of buildings constructed of timber frame-
work.
RAKING. A term applied to any member whose arrisses lie inclined to the horizon.
RAMP. (Fr.) In handrails, a concavity on the upper side formed over risers, or over a
half or quarter pace, by a sudden rise of the steps above, which frequently occasions a
knee above the ramp. The term is also applied to any concave form, as in coping,
&c., where a higher is to be joined by a continued line to a lower body.
RAMPANT ARCH. One whose abutments or springings are not on the same level.
RANGE or RANGING. (Fr.) A term applied to the edges of a number of bodies when
standing in a given plane. Thus, if the edges of the ribs of a groin were placed in a
cylindric surface, they would be said to range. It is also used in respect of a work
that runs straight without breaking into angles
RANULPH. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 91.
RARI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 140.
HATE. An expression used in the Metropolitan Building Act to denote the particular
class to which a building belongs, in order to determine the thickness of its walls and
mode of building.
RAY, PRINCIPAL. In perspective, the perpendicular distance between the eye and the per-
spective plane.
REBATE. (Fr. Rebattre.) A groove or channel cut on a piece of wood, longitudinally, to
receive the edge of a body, or the ends of a number of bodies that are to be secured to
it. The depth of the channel is equal to the thickness of the body ; so that when the
end of the latter is let into the rebate, it is in the same face with the outside of the
piece.
RKBATE PLANE. One used for sinking rebates.
RECESS. (Lat. Recede.) A cavity left in a wall, sometimes for use, as to receive a side-
board, bed, &c., or to add to the quantity of floor room, and sometimes for ornament, as
when formed into a niche, &c.
RECTANGLE. In geometry, a figure whose angles are all right angles. Solids are called
rectangular with respect to their position, as a cone, cylinder, &c., when perpendicular to
the plane of the horizon. A parabola was anciently called a rectangular section of a cone.
1024 GLOSSARY, ETC.
RECTIFICATION. In geometry, the finding of a right line that shall be equal to a given
curve, or simply finding the length of a curve.
RECTILINEAR. A figure whose boundaries are right lines.
REDE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 143.
REDUCT. A quirk or small piece taken out of a larger to make it more uniform and
regular.
REDUCTION of a figure, design, or draught, is the copying it on a smaller scale than the
original, preserving the same form and proportions. For this purpose a pair of propor-
tional compasses are generally used, by which the labour is much lessened.
REFECTORY. (Lat.) A room for taking refreshments. See ABBEY.
REFLEX. The light reflected from a surface in light to one in shade.
REG LET. (Fr.) A flat narrow moulding, used chiefly to separate the parts or members of
compartments or panels from each other, or to form knots, frets, and other ornaments.
REGRATING. In masonry, the process of removing the outer surface of an old hewn stone,
so as to give it a fresh appearance.
REGULA. (Lat.) A band below the taenia in the Doric architrave.
REGULAR. An epithet to a figure when it is equilateral and equiangular. A body is said
to be regular when it is bounded by regular and equal planes, and has all its solid angles
equal.
REGULAR ARCHITECTURE. That which has its parts symmetrical or disposed in counter-
parts.
REGULAR CURVES. The perimeters of conic sections, which are always curved after the
same geometrical manner.
REINS OF A VAULT. The sides or walls that sustain the arch.
REJOINTING. The filling up the joints of stones in old buildings when the mortar has been
dislodged by age and the action of the weather.
RELATION. The direct conformity to each other, and to the whole, of the parts of a
building.
REMIGIUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 82.
RENDERING. The act of laying the first coat of plaster on brickwork.
REPLUM. (Lat.) In ancient architecture, the panel of the impages of a framed door.
REREDOS. (Fr. Arrieredos.) A screen or division wall placed behind an altar, rood-loft, &c.,
in old churches.
RESERVOIR. (Fr.) An artificial pond, basin, or cistern for the collection and supply of
water.
RESISTANCE. That power which, acting in opposition to another, tends to destroy or
diminish its effect. There are several sorts of resistance, arising from the various natures
and properties of the resisting bodies, as the resistance of solids, fluids, air, &c.
The resistance of solid bodies is the force with which their quiescent parts retain their
aggregation. Of it there are two kinds : first, where the resisting and the resisted parts
are only contiguous and do not cohere, or, in other words, where they consist of separate
bodies or masses. This is by Leibnitz called the resistance of the surface, now however
called friction. Second, where the resisting and resisted parts are not only contiguous,
but cohere, that is, are parts of the same continued body or mass. To these may be added
the resistance that takes place between surfaces or solids when completely in contact,
though not forming the same body, or the resistance they offer to separation. To form a
notion of the resistance of the fibres of solid bodies, suppose a cylindrical body suspended
vertically by one of its ends. Here the weight of the parts makes them tend downwards
and endeavours to separate the body where it is weakest. The parts, however, resist this
separation by the force with which they cohere. In this case, then, we see two opposite
powers, viz. the weight of the cylinder, which has a tendency to break it, and the force
of cohesion to resist fracture. If the base of the cylinder be increased, the length re-
maining the same, it is manifest that the resistance will increase as the base ; but the
weight will also increase in the same ratio. Hence, all cylinders of the same matter
and length, when vertically suspended, have an equal resistance, whatever their bases.
When the length of the cylinder is increased, the base and the resistance remaining the
same, the additional weight weakens it, and it will have a greater tendency to break.
We thus learn what length a cylinder may be so as to break with its own weight,
by finding what weight is just sufficient to break another cylinder of the same base and
matter ; for the required length must be such that its weight may be equal to that of the
first, with the additional weight employed to produce the separation.
If the cylinder be fixed horizontally into a wall, and the rest thence suspended, the
weight and resistance will act under different conditions, for if it broke by the action of
its weight, the fracture would occur at the end fixed into the wall. In the fracture of the
cylinder two forces have acted, and one has overcome the other ; that is, the weight of
the mass of the cylinder has overcome the resistance arising from the largeness of the
base ; and as the centres of gravity are points in which all the forces arising from the
GLOSSARY, ETC. 1025
weights of the several parts of the same bodies are supposed to be collected, we may
conceive the weight of the whole cylinder applied in the centre of gravity of its mass,
that is, in a point in the middle of the axis ; and the resistance of the cylinder applied in
the centre of gravity of its base, it being the base which resists the fracture. If the
cylinder breaks with its own weight all the motion is on an immoveable extremity of the
diameter of the base, which extremity is the fixed point of a lever, whose arms are the
radius of the base and half the axis ; hence, the two opposite forces do not only act of
themselves and by their absolute, but also by the relative force derived from their distance
with regard to the fixed point of the lever.
The weight required to break a body placed horizontally being always less than that
required to break it when placed vertically, and being greater or less according to the
ratio of the two arms of the lever, the theory is reducible to the finding what part of the
absolute weight the relative weight must be, supposing the figure of the body known,
which is necessary for finding the centre of gravity. But wherever the centre of gravity
falls, the two arms of the lever are estimated accordingly. If the base by which the body
is fixed in the wall be not circular, but, for an example, parabolical, and the vertex of the
parabola be at top, the motion of the fracture will not be on an immoveable point, but on
a whole immoveable line, which may be termed the axis of equilibrium, and it is with
regard thereto that the .distances of the centres of gravity are to be determined.
A body horizontally suspended, being such that the smallest addition of weight would
break it, there is an equilibrium existing between its positive and relative weight ; those
two opposite powers are consequently to each other reciprocally as the arms of the lever
to which they are applied. So, e converse, the resistance of a body is always equal to the
greatest weight it will sustain, without breaking, in a vertical situation, that is, equal to
its absolute weight. If we, therefore, substitute actual weight for the resistance, it fol-
lows that the absolute weight of a body suspended horizontally is to its relative weight,
as the distance of the centre of gravity from the axis of equilibrium is to the distance
of the centre of gravity of its base from the same axis. From this fundamental
proposition many consequences are deducible. Thus, if the distance of the centre of
gravity of the base from the axis of equilibrium be half the distance of the centre of
gravity of the body, the relative weight will only be half the absolute weight.
M. Mariotte having observed that all bodies bend before breaking, considers the fibres
as so many little bent springs, never exerting their whole force till stretched to a certain
point, and never breaking till entirely unbent. Hence those nearest the axis of equi-
librium, which is an immoveable line, are less stretched than the more distant ones, and
consequently employ a less part of their force.
The following is a synopsis of the most important results that have been drawn by
different writers on the subject, both practical and theoretical : —
1. The resistance of a beam or bar to a fracture by a force acting laterally is as the
solid made by a section of the beam in the place where the force is applied, into the dis-
tance of its centre of gravity from the point or line where the breach will end.
2. In square beams the lateral strengths are as the cubes of their breadths and
depths.
3. In cylindric beams, the resistances of strengths are as the cubes of the diameters.
4. In rectangular beams the lateral strengths are conjointly as the breadths and squares
of the depths.
5. The lateral resistances of any beams whose sections are similar figures and alike
placed are as the cubes of the like dimensions of those figures.
6. The lateral strength of a beam, with its narrower face upwards, is to its strength
with the broader face upwards, as the breadth of the broader face to the breadth of the
narrower.
7. The lateral strengths of prismatic beams, of the same materials, are as the areas of
the sections and the distance of their centre of gravity directly, and as their lengths and
weights reciprocally.
8. When the beam is fixed at both ends, the same property has place, except that
in this case we must consider the beam as only half the length of the former.
9. Cylinders and square prisms have their lateral strengths proportional to the cubes
of their diameters or depths directly, and their lengths and weights inversely.
10. Similar prisms and cylinders have their strength inversely proportional to their
linear dimensions.
The relative resistance of wood and other bodies is shown in the following table : —
Proportional Resistance.
Box, yew, plum tree, oak - - 1 1
Elm, ash - . 8>
Walnut, thorn - 7£
Red fir, holly, elder, plane, crab-tree, apple-tree - 7
Beech, cherry-tree, hazel - - - 63
3 U
1026 GLOSSARY, ETC.
Proportional Resistance.
Alder, asp, birch, white fir, willow - 6
Iron - 107
Brass - 50
Bone - - 22
Lead - - 6±
Fine freestone - ... 1
The following table shows the cohesive force of a square inch of different substances
from the experiments of Professor Robinson : —
Ibs.
Gold when cast ..... 20*000
Silver ...... 40-OOO
Cast iron - 40-000 to 60-OOO
Wrought iron - - 60-000 to 90-OOO
Soft steel - - - 12-000
Razor steel --...- 15-000
Oak and beech in the direction of their fibres from 8 -000 to 1 7 -OOO
Willow ..... 12-OOO
Fir - 8-000
Cedar .... 5OOO
Ivory ...... - 16-000
Bone - - 5-OOO
Rope - - 20-000
RESOLUTION OF FORCES. Seep. 381.
RESSAULT. ( Fr. ) The recess or projection of a member from or before another, so as to be
out of the line or range with it.
RETAINING WALLS. Such as are built to retain a bank of earth from sliding down.
RETICULATED. Like the meshes of a net. The reticulatum opus of the ancients is described
under the article MASONRY, which see.
RETUM. The continuation of a moulding, projection, &c., in an opposite direction. A
side or part which falls away from the front of a straight work.
RETUM BEAD. See BEAD AND DOUBLE QUJRK.
REVEALS. (Lat. Revello. ) The vertical sides of an aperture between the front of the wall
and the window or door frame.
REVOLUTION. In geometry, the motion of a point or line about a centre. Thus a
right-angled triangle, revolving round one of its legs as an axis, generates a cone in its
revolution.
RHOMBOID. (Gr.) A quadrilateral figure whose opposite sides and angles are equal.
RHOMBUS. (Gr.) A quadrilateral figure, whose sides are all equal, and whose opposite
angles are respectively equal, two being obtuse and two acute.
RIB. (Sax.) An arch-formed piece of timber for supporting the lath and plaster work of
a vault.
RIBBING. An assemblage of ribs for a vault or coved ceiling.
RIDGE. (Sax.) The highest part of a roof. The term is more particularly applied to the
piece of timber against which the upper end of the rafters pitch.
RIDGE TILE. A convex tile made for covering the ridge of a roof.
RIGA TIMBER. See p. 484.
.RIGHT ANGLE. One containing ninety degrees.
RIGHT CIRCLE. A circle drawn at right angles with the plane of projection.
RIGHT LINE. A line perfectly straight.
RILIEVO ( It. ) or RELIEF. The projecture from its ground of any architectural ornament.
Among sculptors there are three degrees of rilievo ; namely, alto rilievo, when the figure
stands quite out from its ground ; mezzo rilievo, when one half of the figure projects ;
and basso rilievo, when the figures are raised from the ground in a small degree.
RIPLEY. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 283.
ROD. A measure of length equal to 1 6^ feet. A square rod is the usual measure of brick-
work, and is equal to 272 j square feet.
ROD STONE or OOLITE. A kind of limestone, found under chalk in various parts of Eng-
land. See Book II. Chap. II. Sect. 4.
ROGER, ARCHBISHOP OF YORK. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 97,
ROLLS. Pieces of wood prepared for the plumber to turn over the lead where the sheets
join, so as to protect the flat roof or edge from the admission of water. The term also
signifies in Gothic architecture mouldings representing bent cylinders.
ROLLS or ROLLERS. Among workmen are plain cylinders of wood, seven or eight inches
diameter and three or four feet long, used for the purpose of moving large stones, beams,
and other heavy weights. They are placed successively under the fore part of the masses
GLOSSARY, ETC. 1027
to be removed, and at the same time are pushed forward by levers applied behind. When
blocks of marble, or other very heavy weights, are to be moved, they use what are called
endless rolls. These, to give them the greater force and prevent their bursting, are made
of wood joined together by cross-quarters, double the length and thickness of the common
rollers, and girt with iron hoops at each end. At a foot from the ends are two mortises
pierced through and through, into which are put the ends of long levers, which the
workmen draw by ropes fastened to the ends, still changing the mortise as the roll has
made a quarter of a turn.
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. See Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 13.
ROMAN ORDER. The same as COMPOSITE ORDER, which see.
ROMUALDUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 71.
ROOD. (Sax. Robe.) A cross, crucifix, or figure of Christ on the cross placed in a church.
The holy rood was one, generally as large as life, elevated at the junction of the nave and
choir, and facing to the western entrance of the church. The rood loft was the gallery in
which the rood and its appendages were placed. This loft, or gallery, was commonly
placed over the chancel screen in parish churches. In Protestant churches the organ
now occupies the original place of the rood loft. The rood tower or steeple was that
which stood over the intersection of the nave with the transepts.
ROOF. (Sax. Ror, Hpor. ) The exterior covering of a building, for whose principles of con-
struction and various sorts the reader is referred to p. 544, et seq.
ROOFING. The assemblage of timbers, and covering of a roof whose pitch in this climate, for
different coverings, is shown in the following table : —
Species of Covering. Inclination to the Horizon. Height of Roof in Part of the Span.
Copper or lead 3° 50" - - one-forty-eighth.
Large slates 22 O - one- fifth.
Common slates 26 33 - - one-quarter.
Stone slates 29 41 - two-sevenths.
Plain tiles 29 41 - - two-sevenths.
Pan tiles 24 0 - two-ninths.
Thatch 45 0 - - one-half.
ROOM. (Sax. Rum.) An interior space or division of a house, separated from the re-
mainder of it by walls or partitions, and entered by a doorway.
ROOMS, PROPORTIONS OF. See Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 25.
ROSE or ROSETTE. An ornament of frequent use in architectural decorations. The
centre of the face of the abacus in the Corinthian capital is decorated with what is called
ROSE WINDOW. A circular window with compartments of mullions and tracery branching
from a centre, sometimes called a Catharine wheel or marigold window.
ROSTRUM. (Lat.) Literally, the beak of a bird; also the beak or fore-part of a ship; the
elevated platform in the Forum of ancient Rome, whence the orators addressed the people,
so called from its basement being decorated with the prows of ships. The term is now
used generally to signify a platform or elevated spot from which a speaker addresses his
audience.
ROT, DRY. An extremely destructive disease incident to timber. See p. 49O.
ROTUNDA or ROTONDO. (Ital.) A building circular on the interior and exterior, such as
the Pantheon at Rome. See CIRCULAR BUILDINGS.
ROUGH-CAST. A species of plastering used on external walls, consisting of a mixture of
lime, small shells or pebbles, occasionally fragments of glass and similar materials. This
is usually applied to cottages.
RUDENTURE. (Lat. Rudis, a rope.) The same as CABLING, which see.
RUDERATION. (Lat. Ruderatio.) A method of laying pavements, mentioned by Vitruvius,
and according to some, of building walls with rough pebbles and mortar. The mortar
called statumen by Vitruvius was made of lime and sand.
Ruiz. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 226.
RULE. An instrument for measuring short lengths. Of rules there are various sorts, each
adapted to the class of artificers for whose use they are made. Thus, there are stone-
cutters' rules, masons' rules, carpenters' rules, sliding and parallel rules, &c. The sliding
rule is, however, of more general use, as it solves a number of questions from the change
of the position of the slider by inspection, and therefore of much importance to the less
educated artisan.
RURAL ARCHITECTURE. See Book III. Chap. III. Sections 22, 23, and 24.
RUSSIAN ARCHITECTURE. Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 2O.
RUSTIC ORDER. A species of building wherein the faces of the stones are hatched or
picked with the point of a hammer.
RUSTIC QUOINS or COINS. The stones placed on the external angles of a building projecting
3 U 2
1028 GLOSSARY, ETC.
beyond the naked of the wall. The edges are bevelled, or the margins recessed in a
plane parallel to the face or plnne of the wall.
RUSTIC WORK. A mode of building masonry wherein the faces of the stones are left
rough, the sides only being wrought smooth where the union of the stones takes place.
It was a method much practised at an early period, and re-introduced by Brunelleschi at
the revival of the arts. The most common sorts of rustic work are the frosted, which
has the margins of the stones reduced to a plane parallel to that of the wall, the
intermediate parts having an irregular surface ; vermiculated rustic work, wherein the
intermediate parts present the appearance of having been worm-eaten ; chamfered
rustic work, in which the face of the stones being smoothed and made parallel to the
surface of the wall, and the angles bevelled to an angle of one hundred and thirty-five
degrees, with the face of the stone, where they are set in the wall, the bevel of the two
adjacent stones forms an internal right angle.
S.
SABLIERE. (Fr.) An obsolete word, signifying a piece of timber as long as a beam, but
not so thick.
SACCHETTI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 286.
SACELLUM. (Lat.) In ancient Roman architecture, a small inclosed space without a roof.
Small sacella, too, were used among the Egyptians, attached frequently to the larger
temples. In old church architecture, the term signifies a monumental chapel within a
church, also a small chapel in a village.
SACOME. (Ital.) The exact profile of a member or moulding, applied by the French to
the mouldings themselves.
SACRARIUM. (Lat.) A small sacred apartment in a Roman house, devoted to a particular
deity ; also the cella, penetrate or adytum of a temple.
SACRISTY. See DIACONICUM.
SADDLE-BACKED COPING. See COPING.
SAG or SAGGING. The bending of a body by its own weight when resting inclined or
horizontally on its ends.
SAGITTA. (Lat. an arrow.) A name sometimes applied to the keystone of an arch. In
geometry, it is often employed to signify the abscissa of a curve ; and in trigonometry
it is the versed sine of an arc, which, as it were, stands like a dart upon the chord.
SAIL OVER. See PROJECTURE.
SALIANT. ( Fr. ) A term used in respect of a projection of any part or member.
SALLY. A projecture. The end of a piece of timber cut with an interior angle formed
by two planes across the fibres. Thus the feet of common rafters, and the inclined
pieces which support the flying steps of a wooden stair, are frequently cut; as are, like-
wise, the lower ends of all inclined timbers which rest upon plates or beams.
SALON or SALOON. (Fr.) A lofty and spacious apartment, frequently vaulted at top,
and usually comprehending the height of two floors with two tiers of windows. Its
place is commonly in the middle of a building, or at the head of a gallery, &c. In
palaces it is the state room.
SAN GALLO ANTONIO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 199.
SAN GALLO m GIUL. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 178.
SAN LUCANO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 183.
SAN MICHELI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 213.
SAND. See Book II. Chap. II. Sect. 10.
SANDSTONE. In mineralogy, a stone principally composed of grains, or particles of sand,
either united with other mineral substances or adhering without any visible cement.
The grains or particles of sandstone are generally quartz, sometimes intermixed with
feldspar or particles of slate. When lime is the cementing matter the stone is called
calcareous sandstone. The cementing matter is not unfrequently oxide of iron in-
termixed with alumine. The particles of sand in these stones are of various sizes,
some being so small as to be scarcely visible. See Book II. Chap. II. Sect. 1.
SAP. The juice or pith of trees that rises from the earth and ascends into the arms,
branches, and leaves, to feed and nourish them. Also that part of the stem or wood of
the body of a tree that is soft, white, &c. The term is used also as a verb, to denote the
undermining a wall by digging a trench under it.
SAPHETA. The same as SOFFITE or SOFITE, which see.
SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE. See Book I. Chap. II. Sect 10.
SARCOPHAGUS. (2a/?| flesh, and &ayca, to eat.) A tomb or coffin made of one stone. From
Pliny it appears to have been originally applied as the name of a stone found in the
Troad, which, from its powerful caustic qualities, was selected for the construction of
tombs. From its frequent application to this purpose the name became at length used
for the tomb itself. Sarcophagi were made of stone, marble, alabaster, porphyry, &c.
The Greeks sometimes made them of hard wood, as oak, cedar, or cypress, which resisted
GLOSSARY, ETC. 1029
moisture ; sometimes of terra cotta, and even of metal. The form was usually a long
square, the angle being rounded. The lid varied both in shape and ornament. Those
of the primitive Christians often enclosed several corpses, and were ornamented with
several sets of bassi rilievi. Those of higher antiquity were frequently sculptured with
great taste and beauty of design, the figures being those of the deceased, or parties con-
nected with them, allegorical or mythological. The Egyptian sarcophagi are sculptured
with hieroglyphics. Those of the Greeks and Romans sometimes represent Sleep and
Death with their legs crossed, one hand supporting the head and the other holding an in-
verted torch ; sometimes Mercury is represented conducting the Souls and Charon
ferrying them over in his bark. Occasionally we find on them groups of bacchanals and
bacchic scenes.
SASH. (Fr. Chassis, a frame. ) A frame for holding the glass of windows, and so formed as
to be raised and depressed by means of pulleys. Sashes are single or double hung, or
hung with hinges. See p. 572.
SASH FRAME. The frame in which the sashes are fitted for the convenience of sliding up
and down, or, when hung with hinges, to receive them after the manner of hanging a door.
SAURUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 34.
SAW. (Dutch, SAWC.) A tool made of a thin plate of steel, formed on the edge into
regular teeth for cutting wood, stone, &c. Saws are of various kinds. See p. 565.
SAW- PIT. A pit excavated for sawing timber. The sawing is performed by two persons
called sawyers, one standing above and the other below. Much of the labour, however,
is saved by the use of a saw-mill, or machine moving a circular saw, which by its
revolutions and keeping the timber close up, performs the work quicker and better
than can be done by the labour just described.
SAXON ARCHITECTURE. See Book I. Chap. III. Sects. 1 and 2.
SAXULPHUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 66.
SCABELLUM. (Lat.) A species of pedestal anciently used to support busts or statues. It
was high in proportion to its breadth, ending in a kind of sheath, or in the manner of a
baluster.
SCAFFOLD. (Fr. Echaufaud.) An assemblage of planks or boards sustained by pieces of
wood made fast to vertical poles, and at the other end often resting on the walls, by means
whereof the workmen carry up a building, or plasterers complete their work in the in-
terior of houses. On the Continent, scaffolds for public building are much more solidly
constructed than in this country.
SCAGLIOLA. (Ital. ) A species of plaster or stucco invented at Carpi, in the state of Mo-
dena, by Guido Sassi, between 1600 and 1649. It is sometimes called mischia, from the
mixture of colours introduced in it. It was not, however, till the middle of the eighteenth
century that the art of making scagliola was brought to perfection. The following is
the method of making columns and pilasters: — A wooden cradle, composed of thin strips
of deal or other wood is made to represent the column designed, but about 21 inches less
in diameter than the shaft is intended to be when finished. This cradle is lathed round,
as for common plastering, and then covered with a pricking-up coat of lime and hair.
When this is quite dry, the scagliola artist commences his operations, and, by imitating
the rarest and most precious marbles, produces a work which cannot be, except by frac-
ture or sound, discovered to be counterfeit. The purest gypsum which can be obtained
is broken into small pieces, and calcined. As soon as the largest fragments lose their
brilliancy, the fire is withdrawn ; the calcined powder is passed through a very fine
sieve, and mixed up with a solution of Flanders glue, isinglass, &c. In this solution the
colours are diffused that are required to be imitated in the marble ; but if the work is to
be of various colours, each colour is separately prepared, and they are afterwards mingled
and combined nearly in the same manner that a painter mixes the primitive colours on
his palette to compose his different tints. When the powdered gypsum is prepared and
mingled for the work, it is laid on the shaft of the column or other surface over the
pricked-up coat of lime and hair, and it is then floated with proper moulds of wood, the
artist during the floating using the colours necessary for the imitation, by which means
they become mingled and incorporated with the surface. The process of polishing
follows ; and this is done by rubbing the surface with pumice-stone in one of his hands,
while with the other he cleans it with a wet stone. It is then polished with tripoli and
charcoal and fine and soft linen ; and after going over it with a piece of felt dipped in a
mixture of oil and tripoli, he finishes with application of pure oil.
SCALE. (Sax.) A line divided into a certain number of equal parts, usually on wood,
ivory, or metal, for laying down heights and distances in mathematical and architectural
drawing. There are various sorts of scales ; as, the plane scale, Gunter's scale, the diagonal
scale, &c. ; but the most generally useful scale is that wherein the objects are drawn
some aliquot part of their real size, as a tenth, twelfth, twentieth, twenty-fourth, £c.
SCALENE TRIANGLE. (^KaX-rjvos, oblique.) In geometry, one whose sides are all unequal.
SCAMILLI IMPARES. A term used by Vitruvius, which has puzzled all the commentators
3 U 3
1030 GLOSSARY, ETC.
It probably signifies certain blocks which serve to raise some of the members of a build-
ing, which, from being placed below the level, or below the projection of certain orna-
ments, might be lost to the eye.
SCAMILLUS. A small plinth below the bases of the Ionic and Corinthian columns.
SCAMMOZZI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 247.
ScANDUL^. (Lat.) In early buildings of the Romans, shingles or flat pieces of wood used
for covering instead of tiles. According to Cornelius Nepos, this was the only covering
used in Rome till the war with Pyrrhus in the 470th year of the city.
SCANTLING. (Fr.) The dimensions of a piece of timber in breadth and thickness. It is
also a term used to denote a piece of timber, as of quartering in a partition, when under
five inches square, or the rafter, purlin, or pole plate of a roof. In masonry, scantling
is the length, breadth, and thickness of a stone.
SCAPE or SCAPUS. (Gr.) The shaft of a column; also the little hollow, above or below,
which connects the shaft with the base, or with the fillet under the astragal.
SCAPLING. A method of tooling the face of a stone.
SCARFING. The joining of two pieces of timber by bolting or nailing transversely together,
so that the two appear but one. See p. 538.
SCENE. (Gr. SKTJVTJ.) Strictly an alley or rural portico for shade or shelter, wherein, ac-
cording to Cassiodorus, theatrical pieces were first represented. When first applied to a
theatre, it signified the wall forming the back of the stage, but afterwards came to mean
the whole stage, and is now restricted to the representation of the place in which the
drama represents the action. According to Vitruvius, the Greek scene was occupied in
the middle by a great door, called the royal door, because decorated as the gate of a
palace. At the sides were smaller doors, called hospitalia, because representing the
entrances to habitations destined for strangers, which the Greeks commonly placed on
the two sides of their houses.
SCENOGRAPHY. (Gr.) The method of representing solids in perspective.
SCHEME or SKENE ARCH. One which is a segment of a circle.
SCHENE. (Gr.) The representation of any design or geometrical figure by lines so as to
make it comprehensible.
SCHOLIUM. In mathematics, a remark after the demonstration of a proposition, showing
how it may be done some other way, or giving some advice or precaution to prevent
mistakes, or adding some particular use or application thereof.
SCIAGRAPHY or SCIOGRAPHT. (Gr. 2/cjo, a shadow, and rpa</>&>, I describe.) The doctrine
of projecting shadows as they fall in nature. See Book II. Chap. IV. Sect. 3.
SCOPAS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 16.
SCOTIA. (Gr. SKOT/O, darkness.) The hollow moulding in the base of a column between
the fillets of the tori. It receives the name from being so much in shadow. The scotia
was, from its resemblance to a pulley, called also rpox^os. It is most frequently formed
by the junction of circular areas of different radii, but it ought rather to be profiled as a
portion of an ellipsis.
SCRATCH WORK. (It. Sgraffiata.) A species of fresco with a black ground on which a
white plaster is laid, which being scratched off with an iron bodkin, the black appears
through the holes, and serves for shadows.
SCREEN. (Lat. Excerno.) An instrument used in making mortar, consisting of three
wooden ledges joined to a rectangular frame at the bottom, the upper part of which
frame is filled with wirework for sifting the sand or lime. This term is used in eccle-
siastical architecture to denote a partition of wood, stone, or metal, usually so placed in
a church as to shut out an aisle from the choir, a private chapel from a transept, the
nave from the choir, the high altar from the east end of the building, or an altar tomb
from one of the public passages or large areas of the church. In the form and orna-
mental detail of screens, the ancient artists appear to have almost exhausted fancy, inge-
nuity, and taste.
SCREW. (Dutch, Scroeve.) One of the six mechanical powers, chiefly used in pressing or
squeezing bodies close, though sometimes also in raising weights. See Book II. Chap. I.
Sect. 8.
SCRIBING. Fitting the edge of a board to a surface not accurately plane, as the skirting
of a room to a floor. In joinery, it is the fitting one piece to another, so that the fibres
of them may be perpendicular to each other, the two edges being cut to an angle to
join.
SCROLL. A convolved or spiral ornament variously introduced.
Also the volutes of the Ionic and Corinthian capital. See./iy. R 1Q46
1046.
SCULLERY. The apartment for washing up the dishes and utensils wherein the scullion works.
SCULPTURE. (Lat. Sculpo, to carve.) The art of imitating forms by chiselling and work-
ing away solid substances. It is also used to denote the carved work itself. Properly,
the word includes works in clay, wax, wood, metal, and stone ; but it is generally re-
GLOSSARY, ETC. 1031
stricted to those of the last material, the terms modelling, casting, and carving being applied
to the others.
SEALING. The fixing a piece of wood or iron on a wall with plaster, mortar, cement, lead,
or other binding, for staples, hinges, joints, &c.
SEASONING TIMBER. See p. 491.
SECANT. (Lat.) A line that cuts another. In trigonometry, the secant is a line drawn to
the centre from some point in the tangent, which consequently cuts the circle.
SECOS. See ADYTUM.
SECTION OF A BUILDING. A geometrical representation of it as divided or separated into
two parts by a vertical plane, to show and explain the construction of the interior. The
section not only includes the parts that are separated, but also the elevation of the re-
ceding parts, and ought to be so taken as to show the greatest number of parts, and those
of the most difficult construction. Of every building at least two sections should be
made at right angles to one another, and parallel to the sides. A section of the flues
should also be made, in order to avoid placing timbers near them.
SECTION OF A SOLID. The plane of separation dividing one part from the other. It is un-
derstood to be always a plane surface.
SECTOR. An instrument for measuring or laying off angles, and dividing lines and circles
into equal parts.
SECTOR OP A CIRCLE. The space comprehended between two radii and the arc terminated
by them.
SEGMENT. (Lat.) A part cut off from anything. The area contained by the arc of a circle
and a chord. In the segment of a circle the chord of the arc is called the base of the
segment, and the height of the arc the height of the segment.
SEGMENT OF A SPHERE. A portion cut off by a plane in any part except the centre, so that
the base of such segment must be always a circle, and its surface a part of the sphere.
SELL. See CILL and APERTURE.
SEMICIRCLE. The half of a circle contained by the diameter and circumference.
SEMICIRCULAR ARCHES. Those whose arcs are semicircular.
SENNAMAR. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 55.
SEPULCHRE. (Lat. Sepelire, to bury.) A grave, tomb, or place of interment. The ceno-
taph was an empty sepulchre raised in honour of a person who had had no burial.
SERAGLIO. (Pers. Serai.) A large hall or house. The palace of an eastern prince, but
more particularly that in which the females are lodged.
SERLIO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 238.
SERPENTINE. See PORPHYRY.
SERVANDONI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 288.
SESSPOOL. See CESSPOOL.
SETT. In piling, a piece placed temporarily on the head of a pile which cannot be reached
by the monkey or weight from some intervening matter.
SETTING. The hardening of cement. The term is also used in masonry for fixing stones
in walls or vaults, in which the greatest care should be taken that the stones rest firmly
on their beds, and that their faces be ranged in the proper surface of the work.
SETTING-OUT ROD. One used by joiners for setting-out frames, as of windows, doors, &c.
SETTLEMENTS. Those parts in which failures by sinking in a building have occurred.
SETT-OFF. The projecting part between the upper and lower portion of a wall where it
diminishes in thickness.
SEVERUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 43.
SEVERY. A compartment or division of scaffolding. It is also a separate portion or divi-
sion of a building corresponding with the modern term compartment, being as it were
severed or divided.
SEWER. A drain or conduit for carrying off soil or water from any place. See Book II.
Chap. III. Sect. I.
SEXAGESIMAL. The division of a line, first into sixty parts, then each of these again into
sixty, and so on, as long as division can be made. It is principally used in dividing the
circumference of a circle.
SHADOWS and SHADOWING. In drawing, the art of correctly casting the shades of objects
and representing their degrees of shade. See Book II. Chap. IV. Sect. 3.
SHAFT. (Sax. Sceapfc.) The cylindrical part, or rather body, of a column, between the
base and th capital. It is, properly, the frustum of a conoid, and is also called the fust,
trunk, or body of the column.
SHAFT OF A CHIMNEY. See CHIMNEY.
SHAFT OF A KING POST. The part between the joggles.
SHAKE. A fissure or rent in timber by its being dried too suddenly, or exposed to too
great heat. Any timber when naturally full of slits or clefts is said to be shaky.
SHANKS. (Sax.) The space between two channels of the Doric triglyph, sometimes called
the legs of the triglyph. The ancients called the shank femur.
3 U 4
1032 GLOSSARY, ETC.
SHEET LEAD. See Book II. Chap. III. Sect. 7.
SHELF. (Sax.) A board fixed against a wall by its edge, the upper side being horizontal,
for receiving whatever may be placed upon it. A shelf is usually supported by brackets,
or by pieces at the end, called standards.
SHINGLES. (Germ. Schindel.) Small oaken boards used like slates for covering a building,
from eight to twelve inches long, and about four inches broad, thicker on one edge than
the other. The process of making a roof of this kind is called shingling.
SHOE. The inclined piece at the bottom of a water trunk or lead pipe for turning the
course of the water, and discharging it from the wall of a building.
SHORE or SHOAR. ( Sax. ) A prop or oblique timber acting as a brace on the side of a
building, the upper end resting against that part of the wall upon which the floor is
supported, and both ends received by plates or beams. A dead shore is an upright piece
built up in a wall that has been cut or broken through for the purpose of making some
alterations in the building.
SHOOTING. Planing the edge of a board straight, and out of winding.
SHOOTING BOARDS. Two boards joined together, with their sides lapped upon each other,
so as to form a rebate for making short joints.
SHOULDER OF A TENON. The plane transverse to the length of a piece of timber from
which the tenon projects. It should be at right angles to the length, though it does
not always lie in the plane as here defined, but sometimes in different planes.
SHREAD HEAD The same as JEHKIN HEAD, which see.
SHREDDINGS or FURRINGS. In old buildings, short slight pieces of timber fixed as bearers
below the roof, forming a straight line with the upper side of the rafters.
SHRINE. (Sax. Scran.) A desk or cabinet; a case or box, particularly one in which sacred
things are deposited : hence applied to a reliquary and to the tomb of a canonised per-
son. The altar is sometimes called a shrine, and in this case its form and condition, and
the annexation of a statue to it, was of importance, because such tombs had greater
privileges than plainer monuments.
SHRINKING. The contraction of a piece of timber in its breadth by seasoning, hot
water, &c. It is proportional to its breadth, the length not changing. Hence in un-
seasoned timber mitred together, such as the architraves of doors and windows, the
mitres are always close on the outside and open to the door, forming a wedge-like
hollow on each side of the frame. It is to avoid the effects of shrinking that narrow
boards called battens are used in floors.
SHUTE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 243.
SHUTTERS. The boards which shut up the aperture of a window. See BOXINGS OF A
WINDOW.
SIDE POSTS. Truss posts placed in pairs, disposed at the same distance from the middle of
the truss. Their use is not only to support the principal rafters, &c., but to suspend the
tie beam below. In extended roofs two or three pair of side posts are used.
SIDE TIMBERS or SIDE WAVERS. The same as purlins, the first term being used in
Somersetshire and the last in Lincolnshire,
SIENITE. See SYENITE.
SILL. See CILL and APERTURE.
SILOE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 211.
SILT. The muddy deposit of standing water.
SIMA. See CYMA.
SIMILAR FIGURES. Those whose several angles are respectively equal, and the sides
about the equal angles proportional.
SIMONETTI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 296.
SINE. A right line drawn from one end of an arch perpendicular upon the diameter, or it
is half the chord of twice the arch. The sine of the complement of an arch is the sine
of what the arch wants of ninety degrees. The versed sine is that part of the diameter
comprehended between the arc and the sine.
SINGLE FRAME and NAKED FLOOR. One with only one tier of joists.
SINGLE HUNG. An arrangement in a pair of window sashes, in which one only is
movable.
SINGLE JOISTS FLOOR. One without binding joists.
SINGLE MEASURE. A term applied to a door that is square on both sides. Double mea-
sure is when the door is moulded on both sides. When doors are moulded on one side
and are square on the other, they are accounted measure and half.
SISSIVERNE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 101.
SITE. (Lat. Situs.) The situation of a building; the plot of ground on which it stands.
SKEW BACK. In a straight or curved arch, that part of it which recedes beyond the spring-
ing from the vertical line of the opening.
SKIRTING or SKIRTING BOARD. The narrow board placed round the margin of a floor,
which, where there is a dado, forms a plinth for its base ; otherwise, it is a plinth for the
GLOSSARY, ETC. 1033
room itself. Skirting is either scribed close to the floor or let into it by a groove ; in
the former case a fillet is put at the back of the skirting to keep it firm.
SKIRTS. Several superficies in a plane, which would cover a body when turned up or
down without overlapping.
SKREEN. See SCREEN.
SKYLIGHT. A frame consisting of one or more inclined planes of glass, placed in a roof to
light passages or rooms below.
SLAB. An outside plank or board sawed from the sides of a timber tree, and frequently
of very unequal thickness. The word is also used to express a thin piece of marble,
consisting of right angles and plane surfaces. See CHIMNEY.
SLATE. See Book II. Chap. II. Sect. 8.
SLATERS' WORK. See Book III. Chap. II. Sect. 6.
SLEEPERS. Horizontal timbers disposed in a building next to the ground transversely
under walls, ground joists, or the boarding of a floor. When used on piles they are
laid upon them, and planked over to support the superincumbent walls. Under-
ground joists either lie upon the solid earth, or are supported at various parts by prop
stones. When in the former position, having no rows of timber below, these ground
joists are themselves called sleepers. Old writers on practical architecture call those
rafters lying in the valley of a roof, sleepers ; but in this sense the word is now obsolete.
SLIDING ROLE. One constructed with logarithmic lines, so that by means of another
scale sliding on it, various arithmetical operations are performed merely by inspection.
SLIT DEAL. See BOARD.
SLUICE. A stop against water for the drainage or supply with water of a place. It is
hung with hinges from the top edge when used merely as a stop against the water of a
river ; but when made for supply as well, it moves vertically in the groove of its frame
by means of a winch, and is then called a penstock.
SMITHERY and IRONMONGERY. See Book II. Chap. III. Sect. 10.
SMOOTHING PLANE. See p. 364.
SNACKET. A provincial term for the hasp of a casement.
SNIPE'S BILL PLANE. One with a sharp arris for getting out the quirks of mouldings.
SOANE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 316.
SOCKET CHISEL. A strong tool used by carpenters for mortising, and worked with a mallet.
SOCLE or ZOCLE. A square member of less height than its horizontal dimension, serving
to raise pedestals or to support vases or other ornaments. The socle is sometimes con-
tinued round a building, and is then called a continued socle. It has neither base nor
cornice.
SOFFITA, SOFFIT, or SOFITE. (Ital.) A ceiling; the lower surface of a vault or arch. A
term denoting the under horizontal face of the architrave between columns ; the under
surface of the corona of a cornice.
SOILS. A provincial term, chiefly, however, used in the north, signifying the principal
rafters of a roof.
SOLDER. A metallic composition used in joining together or soldering metals.
SOLID. (Lat.) In geometry, a body which has length, breadth, and thickness ; that is, it
is terminated or contained under one or more plane surfaces, as a surface is under one or
more lines. Regular solids are such as are terminated by equal and similar planes, so
that the apex of their solid angles may be inscribed in a sphere.
SOLID ANGLES. An angle formed by three or more angles in a point, and whereof the
sum of all the plane angles is less than three hundred and sixty degrees, otherwise they
would constitute the plane of a circle and not of a solid.
SOLID SHOOT. See WATER SHOOT.
SOLIVE. The French term for a joist, rafter, or piece of wood, either slit or sawed, with
which builders lay their ceilings. The term is rarely used in the English language.
SOMMERING. See SUMMERING.
SORTANT ANGLE. The same as SALIENT ANGLE, which see.
SOSTRATUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 25.
SOUFFLOT. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 299.
SOUND-BOARD. The same as a canopy or type over a pulpit, to reverberate the voice of the
speaker.
SOUND-BOARDING. In floors, consists of short boards placed transversely between the joists,
and supported by fillets fixed to the sides of the latter for holding pugging, which is any
substance that will prevent the transmission of sound from one story to another. The
narrower the sound-boards the better. The fillets on which they rest may be about
three-quarters of an inch thick and about an inch wide, nailed to the joists at intervals
of a foot. See BOARDING FOR PUGGING.
SOUSE (Fr.)-or SOURCE. A support or under-prop.
SPAN. An imaginary line across the opening of an arch or roof, by which its extent is
estimated.
1084
GLOSSARY, ETC.
SPAN ROOP. One consisting of two inclined sides, in contradistinction to shed or leanto
roofing. It may be with simple rafters, with or without a collar beam, or when of in-
creased span it may be trussed, the term only applying to the external part.
SPANDREL. The irregular triangular space between the outer curve or extrados of an arch,
a horizontal line from its apex, and a perpendicular line from its springing.
SPANDREL BRACKETING. A cradling of brackets fixed between one or more curves, each
in a vertical plane, and in the circumference of a circle whose plane is horizontal.
SPANISH ARCHITECTURE. See Book I. Chap. II. Sect. 19.
SPAR- PIECE. A name given in some places to the collar beam of a roof.
SPARS. The common rafters of a roof for the support of the tiling or slating.
SPECIFICATION. A description at length of the materials and workmanship to be used and
employed in the erection of any building. See Book II. Chap. III. Sect. 13.
SPECIFIC GRAVITT. A gravity or weight of every solid or fluid compared with the weight of the
same magnitude of rain water, which is chosen as the standard of comparison, on account
of its being subject to less variation in different circumstances of time, place, &c., than
any other solid or fluid. By a fortunate coincidence, at least to the English philosopher,
it happens that a cubic foot of rain water weighs 1000 ounces avoirdupois ; consequently,
assuming this as the specific gravity of rain water, and comparing all other bodies with
this, the same numbers that express the specific gravity of bodies will at the same time
express the weight of a cubic foot of each in avoirdupois ounces, which affords great
facility to numerical computations. Hence are readily deduced the following laws
of the specific gravity of bodies : —
I. In bodies of equal magnitudes the specific gravities are directly as the weights or
as their densities. 2. In bodies of the same specific gravities the weights will be as the
magnitudes. 3. In bodies of equal weights the specific gravities are inversely as the
magnitudes. 4. The weights of different bodies are to each other in the compound
ratio of their magnitudes and specific gravities.
Thus it is obvious, that if of the magnitude, weight, and specific gravity of a body any
two be given, the third may be found ; and we may thus arrive at the magnitude of
bodies which are too irregular to admit of the common rules of mensuration ; or, by
knowing the specific gravity and magnitude, we may find the weight of bodies which are
too ponderous to be submitted to the action of the balance or steel yard ; or, lastly, the
magnitude and weight being given, we may ascertain their specific gravities.
TABLE OF SPECIFIC GRAVITIES
(Extracted from Davies, Lavoisier, Young, and other authentic sources).
Note. — Water at 60° is assumed 1000 specific gravity.
Mineral Productions.
Garnet, Bohemian
Sapphire of Pay
Topaz, oriental
Beryl, or oriental aquamarine
Diamond, rose-coloured
, white
, lightest
Glass, flint ...
, white -
, bottle ---
, green -
Fluor ...
Serpentine, green
Mica, black -
Basalt, from the Giant's Causeway
Marble, white Parian
Marble, green
, white, of Carrara
Emerald, Peruvian
Porphyry, red
Jaspar
Alabaster, white
Calcareous spar, rhombic
Platina, purified
•, hammered
Pure gold, cast
, hammered -
Mercury
Lead, cast
Silver, pure, cast
, hammered
Bismuth, cast
Copper, cast -
wire, -
Brass, cast
, wire
Cobalt, cast -
Nickel, cast -
Iron, cast
, bar
Steel, hard, not screwed
, soft, not screwed
Loadstone
Tin, cast
Zinc, cast
Antimony, cast
Tungstein
Arsenic, cast -
Molybdena
Spar, ponderous
Ruby, oriental
19500
20336
19258
19361
13568
11352
10474
10510
9822
8788
8878
8395
8544
7812
7807
7207
7788
7816
7833
4800
7291
7190
6702
6066
5763
4738
4430
4283
Slate -
Pitch stone
Onyx, pebble -
-, pyramidal
4188
4076
4010
3548
3531
3521
3501
3329
2892
2732
2642
3191
2988
2900
2864
2837
2741
2725
2716
2775
2765
2764
273O
2715
2714
2671
2669
2664
GLOSSARY, ETC.
1035
Chalcedony, transparent
2664
Lapis obsidianus
Granite, Egyptian, red
2654
Selenite
Rock chrystal, pure -
2653
Grindstone
Amorphous quartz
2647
Salt -
Agate, onyx -
2637
Sulphur, native
Cornelian
2613
Nitre ...
Sardonyx
2602
Brick ...
Purbeck stone
2601
Plumbago
Flint, white -
2594
Alum
, blackish
2581
Asphaltum
Agate, oriental
2590
Coal, Scotch -
Portland stone
2570
, Newcastle
Mill stone
2483
, Staffordshire -
Paving stone -
2415
Jet -
Touchstone
2415
Ice, probably -
Porcelain, Chinese
2384
Pumice-stone -
Liquids.
Sulphuric acid
1840
Sea Water -
, Ph., London
1850
Muriatic acid -
Nitrous acid, Ph., London
1550
Water of the Seine, filtered
Nitric acid -
1217
Naphtha
Vegetable Productions.
Sugar, white -
1606
Vinegar, distilled
Gum Arabic -
1452
Water at 60° -
Pitch -
1150
Bordeaux wine
Malmsey, Madeira
1038
Turpentine, liquid
Cider
1018
Linseed oil
Animal Substances.
Pearl -
2750 Milk, cow's -
Coral -
2680
Wax, white -
Sheep's bones, recent -
2222
, yellow -
Oyster shell -
2092
Spermaceti
Ivory
1917
Butter
Stag's horn
1875
Tallow
Ox's horn
1840
Lamp oil -
Woods.
Pomegranate tree
1354
Maple
Lignum Vitae
1333
Cherry tree -
Box, Dutch -
1328
Quince tree -
Ebony
1177
Orange tree -
Heart of oak, 60 years felled
1170
Walnut
Oak, English, just felled
1113
Pitch pine
' , „ ,~ii .*»j -
t 925
rved pine . .
Yellow pine -
Bog oak of Ireland
1046
White pine
Teak of the East Indies
- 745 to 657
Fir of New England -
Mahogany
1063 to 637
— of Riga -
Pear tree, trunk
646
— of Mar Forest, Scotland
Medlar tree -
Olive wood
944
927
Cypress
Lime tree
Logwood
931
Filbert wood -
Beach
852
Willow
Ash -
- 845 to 600
Cedar
Yew, Spanish -
807
Juniper
, Dutch -
788
Poplar, white Spanish
Alder
800
, common
Elm ...
- 800 to 6OO
Sassafras wood
Apple tree
793
Larch of Scotland
Plum tree
755
Cork -
2348
2322
2142
2130
2033
2000
2000
1860
1720
1400
1300
1270
1240
1238
930
914
1026
1194
1001
708
1009
1OOO
994
991
94O
1032
968
965
943
942
942
923
755
715
705
705
671
660
657
529
420
553
753
696
644
604
600
585
560
556
529
383
482
530
240
1036 GLOSSARY, ETC.
SPECUS. (Lat.) In ancient architecture, the canal into which the water flowed in aqueducts
raised above the surface of the ground, and constructed of hewn stones or bricks. It
was covered with a vault to preserve the water from the sun, and from being mixed with
rain water. The specus was sometimes covered with flat stones, laid horizontally, as in
the Aqua Martia, part of the Aqua Claudia, and the aqueduct of Segovia. Sometimes
the same arcade carried several of these canals one above the other.
SPH^ERISTERIUM. A building for the exercise of the ball ; a tennis court. The ancients
generally placed sphaeristeria among the apartments of their baths and gymnasia. They
were also placed in large villas, as in those of Pliny the younger.
SPHERE. (Gr. 2</>aipo.) A solid, whose surface is at every point equally distant from a
certain point within the solid, which point is called the centre of the sphere. Every
sphere is equal to two-thirds of its circumscribing cylinder, that is, it is equal to a
cylinder whose ends are circles, equal to a great circle of the sphere, and whose height is
equal to the diameter of the same.
SPHERICAL BRACKETING. That so formed that the surface of the plastering which it is to
receive forms a spherical surface.
SPHEROID. See CONOID.
SPHEROIDAL BRACKETING. That formed to receive the plastering of a spheroid.
SPINA. See CIRCUS.
SPINTHARUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 9.
SPIRAL. A curve which makes one or more revolutions round a fixed point, and does not
return to itself.
SPIRE. (Gr. 'Siraipa, a twisting.) In ancient architecture, the base of a column, ana some-
times the astragal or torus ; but among the moderns it designates a steeple diminishing
as it ascends, either pyramidally or conically. See ADDENDA to Glossary.
SPLAYED. A term applied to whatever has one side making an oblique angle with the
other : thus, the heading joists of a boarded floor are frequently splayed in their thick-
ness ; as are also the jambs or sides of a window. In the latter case, the practice is for
the better lighting of a room. The word fining is sometimes applied to an aperture, in
the same sense as splayed.
SPRING BEVEL OF A RAIL. The angle made by the top of the plank, with a vertical plane
touching the ends of the railpiece, which terminates the concave side.
SPRINGED. In boarding a roof, the setting the boards together with bevel joints, for the
purpose of keeping out the rain.
SPRINGER. The impost or place where the vertical support to an arch terminates, and the
curve of the arch begins ; the term is sometimes used for the rib of a groined roof.
SPRINGING COURSE. The horizontal course of stones, from which an arch springs or rises ;
or that row of stones upon which the first arch stones are laid.
SQUARE. (Lat. Quadra.) A figure of four equal sides, and as many equal angles ; also,
an area of such form surrounded by houses, and ornamented in the centre with a lawn,
shrubs, trees, &c. In joinery, a work is said to be square framed, or framed square, when
the framing has all the angles of its styles, rails, and mountings square without being
moulded. The word is also applied to an instrument for setting out angles square. See
CARPENTER'S SQUARE. It is also a measure used in building of 100 superficial feet.
SQUARE SHOOT. A wooden trough for discharging water from a building.
SQUARE STAFF. A piece of wood placed at the external angle of a projection in a room to
secure the angle, which if of plaster would be liable to be broken, and at the same time
to allow a good finish for the papering.
SQUARING A HANDRAIL. The method of cutting a plank to the form of a rail for a stair-
case, so that all the vertical sections may be right angles.
SQUARING A PIECE OF STUFF. The act of tryingit by the square, to make the angles rightangles.
STABLE. (Lat.) A building for the accommodation of horses.
STACK OF CHIMNEYS. See CHIMNEY.
STADIUM. (Gr.) In ancient architecture, an open space wherein the athletae or wrestlers
exercised running, and in which they contested the prizes. It signifies also the place
itself where the public games were celebrated, often formed a part of the gymnasia. The
word also denotes a measure of length among the Grecians, of 125 paces.
STAFF-BEAD. See ANGLE-BEAD.
STAGE. A floor or story. In a theatre, the floor on which the performers act. The stage
of a buttress is, in ecclesiastical architecture, the part between one splayed projection and
the next.
STAIR. (Sax. Scaesep, to step.) A stone, or piece of other material, by which a person raises
himself one step. A, series of steps or stairs for ascending from the lower to the upper
part of a building, when enclosed by a wall, is called a staircase.
STAIRCASE. That part or subdivision in a building containing the stairs, which enable
persons to ascend or descend from one floor to another. See Book III. Chap. I.
Sect. 23. for its construction.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 1037
STALK. ( Sax.) An ornament in the Corinthian capital, which is sometimes fluted, and re-
sembles the stalk of a plant ; from it spring the volutes and helices.
STALL. (Sax.) A place or division in a stable wherein one horse is placed for feeding ana
sleeping. According to their number in a stable it is called a one-stall, two-stall, &c. sta-
ble. This word is also used to denote an elevated seat in the choir or chancel of a
church appropriated to an ecclesiastic, such as the prebendal stall of a cathedral.
STANCHION. (Fr. Estancon.) A prop or support. The upright mullions or bars of a
window or open screen. Also a PUNCHION, which see.
STANDARDS. The upright pieces in a plate rack, or above a dresser, to support the shelves
thereover.
When the edges of standards are cut into mouldings across the fibres of the wood they
are called cut standards.
STAPLE. A small piece of iron pointed at each end, and bent round, so that the two ends
may be parallel to each other, and of equal lengths, to be driven into wood or into a wall,
thus forming a loop for fastening a hasp or bolt.
STARLINGS or STERLINGS, sometimes called STILTS. An assemblage of piles driven round
the piers of a bridge to give it support.
STATICS. See MECHANICS.
STATUARY MARBLE. See Book II. Chap. II. Sect. 3.
STAVES. Small upright cylinders, sometimes called rounds, for forming a rack to contain
the hay in stables for the supply of it to the horses.
STAY. A piece performing the office of a brace, to prevent the swerving of the piece to
which it is applied. The term is general, and applies to all materials.
STEEL. (Sax. Seal.) Iron united with carbon, which is accomplished in two ways, by fu-
sion and by cementation ; the former is used to convert iron into steel immediately from
the ore, or from crude or cast-iron ; the last-named process is effected by exposing iron,
covered with charcoal, to a strong continued heat. The process for converting iron into
steel was known to the ancients.
STRENING. The brickwork laid dry (that is, without mortar) used for forming the cylin-
drical shaft of a well or cesspool, whose office is to prevent the irruption of the surround-
ing soil.
STEEPLE. (Sax. Srepel.) A lofty erection attached to a church, chiefly intended to contain
its bells. The word is a general term, and applies to every appendage of this nature,
whether tower or spire, or a combination of the two.
STEPS. The same as STAIR, which see.
STEREOBATA. See PEDESTAL.
STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION. That projection of the sphere wherein the eye is supposed
to be placed on the surface.
STEREOGRAPHY. ( Gr. Srepeos, solid, and Tpatpw, I describe. ) That branch of solid geometry
which demonstrates the properties and shows the construction of all regularly defined
solids ; it explains the methods for constructing the surfaces on planes, so as to form the
entire body itself, or to cover its surface ; or, when the solid is bounded by plane sur-
faces, the inclination of the planes.
STEREOTOMY. The science of cutting solids to suit certain conditions required for their
forms.
STILE. (Sax.) The vertical part of a piece of framing into which, in joinery, the ends of
the rails are fixed by mortises and tenons.
STILTS. See STARLINGS.
STOA. (Gr.) tn Grecian architecture, a term corresponding with the Latin porticus, and
the Italian portico.
STOCK. The part of a tool for boring wood with a crank whose end rests against the breast
of the workman, while with one hand he holds the boring end steady, and with the other
turns the crank ; the steel borers are called bits, and the whole instrument is called a
stock and bit.
STONE. (Sax.) A natural indurated substance found beneath and on the surface of the
earth in almost every part of the world, and which for its strength and durability has
been universally employed for building purposes. See Book II. Chap. II. Sect. 1.
STOOTHINGS. A provincial term which signifies the battening of walls.
STOP-COCK. A cock used in plumbery to turn off the supply to a reservoir.
STORY. (Lat. or Sax. Ston.) One of the vertical divisions of a building; a series of apart-
ments on the same level.
STORY POSTS. Upright timbers disposed in the story of a building for supporting the
superincumbent part of the exterior wall through the medium of a beam over them ; they
are chiefly used in sheds and workshops, and should have either a solid wall below or
stand upon a strong wooden sill upon inverted arches, or upon large stones, with their
ends let into sockets.
STORY ROD. One used in setting up a staircase, equal in length to the height of the story,
1038 GLOSSARY, ETC.
and divided into as many parts as there are intended to be steps in the staircase, so that,
they may be measured and distributed with accuracy.
STRAIGHT JOINT FLOOR. See FLOOR.
STRAIN. (Sax. Stpens.) The force exerted on any material tending to disarrange cr
destroy the cohesion of its component parts.
STRAINING PIECE or STRUTTING PIECE. A beam placed between two opposite beams to
prevent their nearer approach, as rafters, braces, struts, &c. If such a piece serves also
the office of a sill, it is called a straining sill.
STRAP. (Dutch, Stroppe.) An iron plate for the connection of two or more timbers, where-
into it is screwed by bolts.
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. See Book II. Chap. I. Sect. 11.
STRETCHED OUT. A term applied to a surface that will just cover a body so extended that
all its parts are in a plane, or may be made to coincide with a plane.
STRETCHER. A brick or stone laid with its longer face in the surface of the wall.
STRETCHING COURSE. In walling, a course of stones or bricks laid with their longer
dimensions in a horizontal line parallel to the face of the wall ; it is exactly the contrary
of a heading course, in which the breadths of the stones or bricks are laid in a straight
line parallel to the face of the wall.
STRIDE. (Lat.) The lists or fillets between the flutes of columns.
STRIATED. Champered or channeled.
STRIGES. The channels of a fluted column.
STRIKING. A term used to denote the draught of lines on the surface of a body ; the term
is also used to denote the drawing of lines on the face of a piece of stuff for mortises, and
cutting the shoulders of tenons. Another application of the word occurs in the practice
of joinery, to denote the act of running a moulding with a plane. The striking of a centre
is the removal of the timber framing upon which an arch is built, after its completion.
STRING or STRING PIECE. That part of a flight of stairs which forms its ceiling or sofite.
STRING BOARD. In wooden stairs, the board next the well-hole which receives the ends of
the steps ; its face follows the direction of the well-hole, whatever the form : when curved,
it is frequently formed in thicknesses glued together, though sometimes it is got out of
the solid, like a hand-rail.
STRIX. (Lat.) A channel in a fluted column.
STRUCK. A term used to denote the removal of any temporary support in a building
during its execution.
STRUT. See BRACE.
STRUTTING BEAM or STRUT BEAM. A term used by old writers in carpentry, for what
is now called a straining or collar beam.
STRUTTING PIECE. The same as STRAINING PIECE, which see ; and also BRIDGINGS ana
KEYS.
STUCCO. (Fr. Stuc.) A term indefinitely applied to calcareous cements of var^us descrip-
tions.
STUDS. (Sax.) The quarters or posts in partitions. The term is used chiefly in the
provinces.
STUFF. (Dutch.) A general term for the wood used by joiners.
STYLOBATA. See PEDESTAL.
SUBDIVISION AND APARTMENTS OF A BUILDING. See Book III. Chap. II. Sect. 5.
SUBNORMAL. The distance between the foot of the ordinate and a perpendicular to the curve
(or its tangent) upon the axis.
SUB-PLINTH. A second and lower plinth placed under the principal one in columns and
pedestals.
SUB-PRINCIPALS. The same as auxiliary rafters or principal braces.
SUDATIO. (Lat.) See CONCAMERATA SUDATIO.
SUGER. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 96.
SUMMER. (Perhaps from Soma, Ital. ) The lintel of a door, window, &c. A beam tenoned
into a girder to support the ends of joists on both sides of it. It is frequently used as a
synonyme for a girder. Also a large stone laid over columns and pilasters in the com-
mencement of a cross vault. It is, moreover, used in the same sense as BRESSUMMER,
which see.
SUMMER TREE. See DORMANT TREE.
SUMMERING. See BEDS OF A STONE.
SUNK SHELVES. Such as are formed with a groove in them to prevent the plates, dishes,
or other materials sliding off their upper surface.
SUPERSTRUCTURE. (Lat.) The work built on the foundation of a building. The upper part.
SUPPORT. See POINTS OF SUPPORT.
SURBASE. The series of mouldings immediately above the base of a room.
SWALLOW-TAILED. See DOVE-TAILED.
SWEDISH TIMBER. See p. 485.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 1039
SYCAMORE. The acer pseudo-platanus, a tree, whose wood is much used by turners. See
p. 486.
SYENITE. A stone which consists of feldspar and hornblende, of various colours, as red-
dish, dull green, &c., as the feldspar or hornblende may predominate. It obtained the
name from its abundance of syene, and according to Pliny was at first named pyropoecilos.
It is, in fact, a species of granite, and was the material used for Pompey's Pillar.
SYMMETRY. ( Gr. Suv, with, and Merpw, I measure. ) A system of proportion in a build-
ing, from which results from one part the measurement of all the rest. It also conveys
the meaning of uniformity as regards the answering of one part to another.
SYSTYLE. (Gr.) See COLONNADE.
T.
TABERN. A provincial term for a cellar.
TABERNACLE. (Lat.) In Catholic churches the name given to a small representation of
an edifice placed on the altar for containing consecrated vessels, &c.
TABLE. In perspective, the same as the plane of the picture, being the paper or canvas on
which a perspective drawing is made, and usually perpendicular to the horizon. In the
theory of perspective, it is supposed to be transparent for simplifying the theory.
TABLE or TABLET. (Lat. Tabula.) A flat surface generally charged with some ornamental
figure. The outline is generally rectangular, and when raised from the naked of the
wall, is called a projecting or raised table. When not perpendicular to the horizon, it is
called a raking table. When the surface is rough, frosted, or vermiculated, from being
broken with the hammer, it is called a rusticated table.
TABLE, CORBEL. See CORBEL TABLE.
TABLE OF GLASS. In glass works and among glaziers, a circular plate of glass, being its
original form before it is cut or divided into squares. Twenty-four tables make a case.
TABLE, WATER. An inclined plane where a wall sets off to a smaller projection, for the
purpose of throwing off the water, principally used in buttresses and other parts of
Gothic edifices.
TABLET. The same as TABLE.
TABLING. A term used by the Scotch builders to denote the coping of the walls of very
common houses.
TABLINUM. (Lat.) In Roman architecture, an apartment situated in the narrow part of
the atrium, as is supposed, fronting the entrance. Its exact position is not now known,
and indeed the situation of it may, under circumstances, have varied, its true place
therefore must be a matter of doubt.
TABULATUM. (Lat.) A term used by the Romans not only in respect to the floors, wains-
cottings, ceilings, &c., which were constructed of wood, but also to balconies and other
projecting parts, which latter Vitruvius calls projectiones.
TACKS. Small nails used for various purposes, but principally for stretching cloth upon a
board.
TuENiA. ( Gr.) The fillet which separates the Doric frieze from the architrave.
TAIL. (Verb.) A term denoting the hold of any bearing piece on that which supports it, as
where the end of a timber lies or tails upon the wall. The expression is similar to what
in joinery is called housing, with this difference, that housing expresses the complete sur-
rounding of the cavity of the piece which is let in.
TAIL BAYS. See CASE BAYS.
TAIL TRIMMER. One next the wall, into which the ends of joints are fastened, in order to
avoid flues.
TAILING. The part of a projecting stone or brick inserted in a wall.
TAILLOIR. ( Fr. ) The name which the French give to the abacus.
TALON. (Fr.) The name given by the French to the ogee.
TAMBOUR. (Fr. a drum.) A term denoting the naked ground on which the leaves of the
Corinthian and Composite capitals are placed. It signifies also the wall of a circular
temple surrounded with columns, and further the circular vertical part below a cupola
as well as above it.
TANGENT. (Lat. Tango.) A line drawn perpendicular to the extremity of the diameter of
a circle, and therefore touching it only at one point. In trigonometry it is a line drawn
perpendicularly from the extremity of the diameter, at one end of the arc, and bounded
by a straight line drawn from the centre through the other.
TAPERING. A term expressive of the gradual approach, as they rise, of the sides of a body
to each other, so that if continued they would terminate in a point.
TARRAS. See Book II. Chap. II. Sect. 10. It is a strong cement, useful in aquatic works.
TASSALS. (Fr.) The pieces of timber lying under the mantel tree.
TASTE. See p. 673. 676.
TATTI SANSOVINO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 229.
1040
GLOSSARY, ETC.
TAVELLJE. (Lat.) Bricks in ancient Roman architecture which were seven inches long
and three and a half broad.
TAXIS. (Gr. ) A term used by Vitruvius to signify that disposition which assigns to
every part of a building its just dimensions. Modern architects have called it or-
donnance.
TAYLOR, SIR ROBERT. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 302.
TEAZE TENON. A tenon on the top of a post, with a double shoulder and tenon from each,
for supporting two level pieces of timber at right angles to each other.
TECTORIUM OPUS. (Lat.) A name in ancient architecture given to a species of plastering
used on the walls of their apartments.
TELAMONES. (Gr. TAow, to support.) Figures of men used in the same manner as Cary-
atides. They are sometimes called atlantes.
TEMONES. ( Gr. Tepvos. ) The places in a temple where statues were placed.
TEMPERED. An epithet applied to bricks which may be cut with ease, and reduced with
ease to a required form. The term is also applied to mortar and other cement, which
has been well beaten and mixed together.
TEMPLA. (Lat.) Timbers in the roof of the Roman temples, which rested on the cant/ierii,
or principal rafters, similar to our purlins.
TEMPLATE. An improper orthography for TEMPLET, which see.
TEMPLE. (Lat.) Generally an edifice erected for the public exercise of religious worship.
The subject of temples has been so fully considered in the body of the work, under the
different heads of Ancient, Grecian, and Roman Architecture, that we shall here confine
ourselves to the description of the different species of temples mentioned by Vitruvius.
The difference between temples is by that author thus given (book iii. ) : — A temple is
said to be in antis when it has antae or pilasters in front of the walls, which enclose the
cells, with two columns between the antae. A plan of such a temple is seen in fig. 1047.
n
b
O
FiR. 1047. Fig. 1048.
It was crowned with a pediment, and was not dissimilar to the prostylos temple, to which
we shall presently come. In the figure, A is the cell, aa the antae, and if in front of
them, the columns bbbb were placed, it would be a prostyle temple ; C is the door of the
cell, and B the pronaos. The appearance in front of this species is the same as the
amphiprostyle temple, which is given in fig. 1048., and wherein columns are also placed in
front of the antae. Of the prostyle temple, an example, that of the temple of Jupiter and
Faunus, existed on the island of the Tyber at Rome. In the figure of the amphiprostyle
temple, A is the cell, B the pronaos, C the posticus, D the door of the cell, and aa are the
antae. It will be immediately seen that the same elevation will apply (fig. 1049.) to both
the plans just given. The amphiprostyle temple, be it observed, has columns in the rear
as well as in front, and is distinguished by that from the prostylos of fig. 1047., wherein
the columns bbbb {fig. 1048.) would make that prostylos which, but for them, would be
merely a temple in antis. The amphiprostylos then only differs from the prostyle by
having columns in the rear, repeated similarly to those in the front. The fig. 1049.
GLOSSARY, ETC.
1041
applies on double the scale of the plan to both fiys. 1047. and 1048., and is a diastyle
tetrastyle temple, that is, one whose intercolumniations (see COLONNADE) are of three
diameters, and the number of whose columns is four.
Fig. 1019.
A peripteral temple had six columns in front and rear, and eleven on the flanks, count-
ing the two columns on the angles (see fig. 1050.), and these were so placed that their
Fig. 1050.
distance from the wall was equal to an intercolumniation or space between the columns
all round, and thus it formed a walk around the cell. In fig. 1 051 . is the elevation of
FIR. 1051.
1042
GLOSSARY, ETC
the species, which is hexastyle and eustyle, that is, with six columns in front, whose
intercolumniation is eustyle, or of two diameters and a quarter. (See COLONNADE. 1 In
this figure, which is to a double scale of the plan, aaa are acroteria.
The pseudo-dipteral temple was constructed with eight columns in front and rear, and
with fifteen on the sides, including those at the angles, see Jig. 1052. The walls of the
e •
O 0
o o
© ©
Q 8
© ©
© o
© e
0 ©
Pig. 1052.
Fig. 1053.
cell are opposite to the four middle columns of the front and of the rear. Hence, from
the walls to the front of the lower part of the columns, there will be an interval equal
to two intercolumniations and the thickness of a column all round. No example existed
of such a temple at Rome ; but there was one to Diana, built by Hermogenes of
Alabanda, in Magnesia, and that of Apollo by Menesthes. The dipteral temple (fig.
1053.) is octastylos like the former, and with a pronaos and posticum, but all round the
cell are two ranks of columns : such was the temple of Diana, built by Ctesiphon. The
Fig. 1054.
elevation (fig. 1054.) is the same in the dipteral and pseudo -dipteral temple, and in the
figure is with the systyle intercolumniation.
The hypcEthral temple, or that uncovered in the centre, is decastylos in the pronaos
and posticum ; it is in other respects (see jig. 1055.) similar to the dipteral, except that
GLOSSARY, ETC.
J043
Fig. 1055.
in the inside it has two stories of columns all round, at some distance from the walls,
after the manner of the peristylia of porticoes (see fig. 1056.), in which one half is the
elevation and the other half the section of the temple.
Fig. 1056.
We have described the peripteral temple, but there is still another connected with
that species, though distinct, and that is the pseudo-peripteral, or false peripteral, in
which there is no passage round the walls of the cell, but an appearance of surrounding
columns (see fig. 1057.).
Fig. 1057.
By this arrangement more room was given to the space of the cell.
3X2
1C44
GLOSSARY, ETC.
Fig. 1058.
The elevation of this is given \nfig. 1058. Vitruvius thus describes, as follows, the
proportions of the Tuscan temple :
The length of the site of the temple intended
(see fig. 1059.) must be divided into six parts,
whence, by subtracting one part, the width thereof
is obtained. The length is then divided into two
parts, of which the furthest is assigned to the cell,
that next the front to the reception of the columns.
The above width is to be divided into ten parts,
of which three to the right and three to the left
are for the smaller cells, or for the alae, if such are
required ; the remaining four are to be given to
the central part. The space before the cells in the
pronaos is to have its columns so arranged that
those at the angles are to correspond with the antas
of the external walls : the two central ones oppo-
site the walls between the antae and the middle of
the temple are to be so disposed, that between the
antae and the above columns, and in that direction,
others may be placed.
Their thickness below is to be one-seventh of
their height, their height one-third of the width of
the temple, and their thickness at top is to be one-
fourth less than their thickness at bottom. Their
bases are to be half a diameter in height. The
plinths, which are to be circular, are half the height
of the base, with a torus and fillet on them as high
as the plinth.
Fig. 1059.
The height of the capital is to be half a diameter, and the width of the abacus equal
to the lower diameter of the column. The height of the capital must be divided into
three parts, whereof one is assigned to the plinth or abacus, another to the echinus, the
third to the hypotrachelium, with its apophyge.
Over the columns coupled beams are laid of such height as the magnitude of the
work may require. Their width must be equal to that of the hypotrachelium at the top
of the column, and they are to be so coupled together with dovetailed dowels as to
leave a space of two inches between them. Above the beams and walls the mutuli
project one-fourth of the height of the columns. In front of these members are fixed,
and over them, the tympanum of the pediment, either of masonry or timber.
Of circular temples there are two species ; the monopteral (Jig. 1060.) having columns
without a cell, and the peripteral with a cell as in fig. 1061. In this last the clear
diameter of the cell within the walls is to be equal to the height of the columns above
the pedestal. Of this species was the celebrated temple at Tivoli, in the admiration
whereof no dissentient from its allowed beauty has hitherto been recorded. With it
situation has doubtless much to do.
GLOSSARY, ETC.
1045
Fig. 1060.
Fig. 1061.
noulding the end of the work, and its reverse for trying the face. When many stones
ricks are required to be wrought with the same mould, the templets ought to be
TEMPLET. A mould used in masonry and brickwork for the purpose of cutting or setting
out the work. When particular accuracy is required, two templets should be used, one
for moul
or bricks
made of copper.
The term is also used to denote a short piece of timber sometimes laid under a girder,
particularly in brick buildings.
TENON. (Fr. Tenir.) A projecting rectangular pi'ism formed on the end of a piece of
timber to be inserted into a mortise of the same form.
TENON SAW. One with a brass or steel back for cutting tenons.
TENSION. The stretching or degree of stretching to which a piece of timber or other
material is strained by drawing it in the direction of its length.
TEOCOPOLI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 231.
TEPIDARIUM. (Lat.) A name given to one of the apartments of a Roman bath.
TERM or TERMINUS. A sort of trunk, pillar, or pedestal often in the form of the frustum
of an inverted obelisk with the bust of a man, woman, or satyr on the top.
TERRA COTTA. (It.) Baked or burnt earth, frequently used at an early period for the
architectural decoration of a building. In the time of Pausanias there were in many
temples statues of the deities made of this material. Bassi rilievi of terra cotta were
frequently employed to ornament the friezes of temples. In modern times it has also
been much used for architectural decoration, being plastic at first, easily worked, solid,
and not expensive.
TERRACE. An area raised before a building above the level of the ground to serve as a
walk. The word is sometimes but improperly used to denote a balcony or gallery.
TESSELATED PAVEMENT. A rich pavement of Mosaic work made of small square marbles,
bricks, tiles, or pebbles, called tesselce or tessera.
TESSERA. (Gr.) A cube or die. This name was, for what reason we are at a loss to con-
ceive, applied to a composition used some years ago for covering flat roofs, but now,
from its failure, quite abandoned.
TESTUDO. (Lat.) A name given by the ancients to a light surbased vault with which
they ceiled the grand halls in baths and mansions. Generally, any arched roof.
TETRADORON. (Gr.) A species of brick four palms in length.
TETRAGON. ( Gr.) A figure which has four sides and as many angles.
3X3
1046 GLOSSARY, ETC.
TETRASPASTOS. (Gr. Terpo, four, and 2iracr<ru, to draw). A machine working with four
pulleys.
TETRASTYLE. (Gr. Terpo, and 2rt/Aos, a column.) See COLONNADE.
THATCH. The covering of straw or reeds used on the roofs of cottages, barns, and such
buildings-
THEATRE. (Gr. Oeoo^ot, to see.) A place appropriated to the representation of dramatic
spectacles. In respect of the ancient theatres see page 71.; and of modern theatres,
Book III. Chap. III. Sect. 16.
THEODOLITE. An instrument used in surveying for taking angles in vertical or horizontal
planes.
THEODORUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 1.
THEOREM. A proposition which is the subject of demonstration.
THERMS. See BATH.
THOMAS OP CANTERBURY. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 138.
THOROUGH FRAMING. The framing of doors and windows, a term almost obsolete.
THOROUGH LIGHTED ROOMS. Such as have windows on opposite sides.
THRESHOLD OF A DOOR. The sill of the door frame.
THROAT. See GORGE and CHIMNEY.
THRUST. The force exerted by any body or system of bodies against another. Thus the
thrust of an arch is the power of the arch stones considered as a combination of wedges
to overturn the abutments or walls from which the arch springs.
THYNNE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 235.
TIE. (Sax. Tian, to bind.) A timber- string, chain, or iron rod connecting two bodies
together, which have a tendency to diverge from each other, such as tie-beams, diagonal
ties, truss-posts, &c. Braces may act either as ties or straining pieces. Straining pieces
are preferable to ties, for these cannot be so well secured at the joints as straining
pieces.
TIE (ANGLE). See ANGLE BRACE.
TIE BEAM. The beam which connects the bottom of a pair of principal rafters, and prevents
them from thrusting out the wall.
TIERCE POINT. The vertex of an equilateral triangle. Arches or vaults of the third point,
which are called by the Italians di terzo acuto, are such as consist of two arcs of a circle
intersecting at the top.
TlETLANDUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 72.
TIGE. (Fr.) A term used by the French, signifying the shaft of a column.
TILE. (Sax. Tisel.) A thin piece or plate of baked clay or other material used for the
external covering of a roof. See Book II. Chap. III. Sect. 9. In ancient buildings
two forms of tiles were used. The imbrex, placed in regular rows to receive the shower,
and the tegula, which covered and prevented the rain from penetrating the joints. The
latter were fixed at the eaves with upright ornamental pieces called antefixae, which were
also repeated along the ridge at the junction of the tiles. The present common tiles of
Italy are on this principle, and are shown by fig. 1062.
Fig. 1062.
TILE CREASING. See CREASING.
TILING. See Book IT. Chap. III. Sect. 2.
TIMBER. (Sax. Timbpian, to build.) Properly denotes all such wood, either growing or
cut down, as is suited to the purposes of building. A single piece of wood, similarly
employed, is so called as one of the timbers of a floor, roof, &c. See Book II. Chap. II.
Sect. 4.
TIODAS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 73.
TOMB. (Gr. Tv^gos.) A grave or place for the interment of a human body, including also
any commemorative monument raised over such a place. The word embraces every
variety of grave and sepulchral monument, from the meanest grave to the most sumptuous
mausoleum.
TONDINO. (It.) Same as TORUS, which see.
TONGUE. See GROOVE.
TOOLS. (Sax.) Instruments used by artificers for the reduction of any material to its
GLOSSARY, ETC. 1047
intended form. An account of those used by each set of workmen will be found under
each department in Book II. Chap. III.
TOOTH. The iron or steel point in a gage which marks the stuff in its passage, or draws a
line parallel to the arris of the piece of wood.
TOOTHING. A projecting piece of material which is to be received into an adjoining piece.
A tongue or series of tongues.
TOP BEAM. The same as COLLAR BEAM, which see.
TOP RAIL. The uppermost rail of a piece of framing or wainscotting, as its name
imports.
TORSEL. The same as TASSAL, which see.
TORSION. The twisting strain on any material.
TORUS. (Lat.) A large moulding whose section is semicircular, used in the bases of
columns. The only difference between it and the astragal is in the size, the astragal
being much smaller.
TOWER. (Sax.) A lofty building of several stories, round or polygonal.
TOWN HALL. A building in which the affairs of a town are transacted. See Book III.
Chap. III. Sect. 7.
TRABEATION. Another term for ENTABLATURE.
TRABS. The Latin term for a wall-plate.
TRACERY. In Gothic architecture, the intersection, in various ways, of the mullions in the
head of a window, the subdivisions of groined vaults, &c.
TRAMMEL. An instrument for describing an ellipsis by continued motion.
TRANSEPT (quasi, transseptum). The transverse portion of a cruciform church ; that part
which is placed between and extends beyond those divisions of the building containing
the nave and choir. It is one of the arms projecting each way on the side of the stem of
the cross.
TRANSOM. A beam across a window of two lights in height. If a window have no tran-
som it is called a clear story window.
TRANSTRA. (Lat.) The horizontal timbers in the roofs of ancient Roman buildings.
TRANSVERSE. Lying in a cross direction. The transverse strain of a piece of timber is that
sidewise, by which it is more easily bent or broken than when compressed or drawn as a
tie in the direction of its length.
TRAPEZIUM. ( Gr. ) In geometry, a quadrilateral figure whose opposite sides are not parallel
TRAVERSE. A gallery or loft of communication in a church or other large building.
TREAD OF THE STEP OF A STAIR. The horizontal part of it.
TREFOIL. In Gothic architecture, an ornament consisting of three cusps in a circle.
TRELLICE. A reticulated framing made of thin bars of wood for screens ; windows where
air is required for the apartment, &c.
TRESSEL or TRUSSEL. Props for the support of any thing, the under surface of which is
horizontal. Each trussel consists of three or four legs attached to a horizontal part.
When the tressels are high the legs are sometimes braced. Tressels are much used in
building for the support of scaffolding, and by carpenters and joiners for ripping and
cross-cutting timber, and for many other purposes.
TRIANGLE. (Lat.) A plane rectilineal figure of three sides, and consequently of three
angles. In measuring, all rectilineal figures must be reduced to triangles, and in con-
structions for carpentry all frames of more than three sides must be reduced to triangles
to prevent a revolution round the angles.
TRIANGULAR COMPASSES. Such as have three legs or feet by which any triangle or any
three points may be taken off at once.
TRICLINIUM. (Lat.) The room in the Roman house wherein the company was received,
and seats placed for their accommodation. It was raised two steps from the peristyle, and
had therein a large window, which looked upon the garden. The aspect of winter
triclinia was to the west, and of summer triclinia to the east. See p. 1 02.
TRIFORIUM. (Lat. ) The gallery or open space between the vaulting and the roof of the
aisles of a church, generally lighted by windows in the external wall of the building, and
opening to the nave, choir, or transept over the main arches. It occurs only in large
churches, and is varied in the arrangement and decoration of its openings in each suc-
ceeding period of architecture.
TRIGLYPH. (Gr. Tpeis, and TXv^-rj, a channel.) The vertical tablets in the Doric frieze
chamfered on the two vertical edges, and having two channels in the middle, which are
double channels to those at the angles. In the Grecian Doric, the triglyph is placed
upon the angle ; but, in the Roman, the triglyph nearest the angle is placed centrally
over the column.
TRIGONOMETRY. ( Gr. Tpeis, three, Tamo, an angle, and Merpw, I measure. ) The science of
determining the unknown parts of a triangle from certain parts that are given. It is either
plane or spherical ; the first relates to triangles composed of three right lines, and the
3X4
1048 GLOSSARY, ETC.
second to triangles formed upon the surface of a sphere by three circular arcs. Tliis
latter is of less importance to the architect than the former, which is, for his purpose,
sufficiently explained in Book II. Chap. I. Sect. 14.
TRILATERAL. (Lat.) Having three sides.
TRIM. (Verb.) To fit to any thing ; thus, to trim up, is to fit up.
TRIMMED. A piece of workmanship fitted between others previously executed, which is
then said to be trimmed in between them. Thus, a partition wall is said to be trimmed
up between the floor and the ceiling ; a post between two beams ; a trimmer between two
joists.
TRIMMED OUT. A term applied to the trimmers of stairs when brought forward to receive
the rough strings.
TRIMMER. A small beam, into which are framed the ends of several joists. The two
joists, into which each end of the trimmer is framed, are called trimming joists. This
arrangement takes place where a well-hole is to be left for stairs, or to avoid bringing
joists near chimneys, &c.
TRINE DIMENSIONS. Those of a solid, including length, breadth, and thickness ; the same
as threefold dimensions.
TRIPOD. (Gr. Tpeis, and TIovs, a foot.) A table or seat with three legs. In architectural
ornament its forms are extremely varied, many of those of the ancients are remarkable
for their elegance and beauty of form.
TRISECTIOK. The division of any thing into three equal parts.
TROCHILUS. (Gr. Tpo%iAos, a pulley.) An annular moulding whose section is concave, like
the edge of a pulley. It is more commonly called a scotia, and its place is between the
two tori of the base of a column.
TROCHOID. (Gr. Tpoxos a wheel, and EtSos, shape.) A figure described by rolling a
circle upon a straight line, such circle having a pin or fixed point in its circumference
upon a fixed plane, in or parallel to the plane of the moving circle. It is also called a
cycloid.
TROPHONIUS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 3.
TROPHY. (Gr. TpoTraiov.') An ornament representing the trunk of a tree charged with
various spoils of war.
TROUGH. ( Sax. Tpoh. ) A vessel in the form of a rectangular prism, open on the top for
holding water.
TROUGH GUTTER. A gutter in the form of a trough, placed below the dripping eaves of a
house, in order to convey the water from the roof to the vertical trunk or pipe by which
it is to be discharged. It is only used in common buildings and outhouses.
TRUNCATED. (Lat. Trunco, I cut short. ) A terra employed to signify that the upper por-
tion of some solid, as a cone, pyramid, sphere, &c. has been cut off. The part which re-
mains is called a frustum.
TRUNK. That part of a pilaster which is contained between the base and the capital ;
also a vessel open at each end for the discharge of water, rain, &c.
TRUSS. (Fr. Trousse. ) A combination of timber framing, so arranged* that if suspended at
two given points, and charged with one or more weights in certain others, no timber
would press transversely upon another except by strains exerting equal and opposite
forces. The principle of a truss is explained at p. 546.
TRUSS PARTITION. One containing a truss within it, generally consisting of a quad angu-
lar frame, two braces, and two queen posts, with a straining post between them, opposite
to the top of the braces.
TRUSSED BEAM. One in which the combination of a truss is inserted between and let
into the two pieces whereof it is composed.
TRUSSING PIECES. Those timbers in a roof that are in a state of compression.
TRY. (Verb.) To plane a piece of stuff by the rule and square only.
TUBE. (Lat.) A substance perforated longitudinally; generally quite through its
length.
TUMBLED IN. The same as trimmed in. See TRIMMED.
TUNNEL. (Fr.) A subterranean channel for carrying a stream of water under a road,
hill, &c.
TURNING PIECE. A board with a circular edge for turning a thin brick arch upon.
TURPENTINE. A resinous juice extracted from several trees belonging to the genus Finns.
All turpentine is obtained by exudation and hardening of the juice flowing from inci-
sions into the pine trees. To obtain the oil of turpentine, the juice is distilled in an ap-
paratus like the common still, and water is introduced with the turpentine.
TURRET. (Lat. Turris.) A small tower often crowning the angle of a wall, &c.
TUSCAN ORDER. See Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 3.
TUSK. A bevel shoulder made above a tenon, and let into a girder to give strength to the
tenon.
TYMPANUM. (Gr.) The naked face of a pediment (see PEDIMENT) included between the
GLOSSARY, ETC. 1049
level and raking mouldings. The word also signifies the die of a pedestal, and the
panel of a door.
TYPE. (Gr. Tinros.) A word expressing by general acceptation, and consequently appli-
cable to, many of the varieties involved in the terms model, matrix, impression, &c.
It is, in architecture, that primitive model, whatever it may have been, that has been the
foundation of every style, and which has guided, or is supposed to have guided, the
forms and details of each. What it was in each style is still only conjecture, and forms
the ground for the various observations on them in various parts of the body of this
work.
TYPE. The canopy over a pulpit.
U.
UNDERPINNING. Bringing a wall up to the ground sill. The term is also used to denote
the temporary support of a wall, whose lower part or foundations are defective, and the
bringing up new solid work whereon it is in future to rest.
UNGULA. The portion of a cylinder or cone comprised by part of the curved surface, the
segment of a circle, which is part of the base, and another plane.
UNIVERSITY. An assemblage of colleges under the supervision of a senate, &c. See
Book III. Chap. III. Sect. 8.
UPHERS. Fir poles, from four to seven inches in diameter, and from twenty to forty feet
in length. They are often hewn on the sides, but not entirely to reduce them square.
They are chiefly used for scaffolding and ladders, and are also employed in slight and
common roofs, for which they are split.
UPRIGHT. The elevation of a building ; a term rarely used.
URIA, DE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 209.
URILLA. See HELIX.
URN. (Lat.) A vase of a circular form, destined among the ancients to receive and pre-
serve the ashes of the dead.
USTAMBER. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 80.
V.
VAGINA. (Lat.) The lower part of a terminus in which the statue is apparently inserted.
VALDEVIRA. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 224.
VALERIUS OF OSTIA. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 32.
VALLEY. (Lat.) The internal meeting of the two inclined sides of a roof. The rafter
which supports the valley is called the valley rafter or valley piece, and the board fixed
upon it for the leaden gutter to rest upon is called the valley board. The old writers
called the valley rafters sleepers.
VALUATIONS OF PROPERTY. See APPENDIX, p. 882.
VALVED. Any thing which opens on hinges.
VANBRUGH. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 270.
VANE. A plate of metal shaped like a banner fixed on the summit of a tower or steeple,
to show the direction of the wind.
VANISHING LINE. In perspective, the intersection of the parallel of any original plane and
the picture is called the vanishing line of such plane. The vanishing point is that to
which all parallel lines in the same plane tend in the representation.
VANVITELLI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 291.
VARIATION OF CURVATURE. The change in a curve by which it becomes quicker or flatter
in its different parts. Thus, the curvature of the quarter of an ellipsis terminated by
the two axes is continually quicker from the extremity of the greater axis to that of the
lesser. There is no variation of curvature in the circle.
VARNISH. A glossy coat on painting or the surface of any matter. It consists of dif-
ferent resins in a state of solution, whereof the most common are mastic, sandarac, lac,
benzoin, copal, amber, and asphaltum. The menstrua are either expressed, or essential
oils, or alcohol.
VASE. (Lat. Vas.) A term applied to a vessel of various forms, and chiefly used as an
ornament. It is also used to denote the bell, or naked form, to which the foliage and
volutes of the Corinthian and Composite capitals are applied. The vases of a theatre in
ancient architecture were bell-shaped vessels placed under the seats to produce reverber-
ation of the sound.
VAULT. (It. Volto.) An arched roof over an apartment, concave towards the void, whose
section may be that of any curve in the same direction. Thus a cylindric vault has its
surface part of a cylinder. A full-centred vault is formed by a semi-cylinder. When a
vault is greater in height than half its span, it is said to be surmounted when less surlased.
A rampant vault springs from planes not parallel to the horizon. The double vault occurs
in the case of one being above another. A conic vault is formed of part of the surface
1050 GLOSSARY, ETC.
of a cone, as a spherical vault consists of part of the surface of a sphere. The plane of an
annular vault is contained between two concentric circles. A vault is said to be simple
when formed by the surface of some regular solid round one axis, and compound when
formed of more than one surface of the same solid or of two different solids. A cylindro-
cylindric vault is formed of the surfaces of two unequal cylinders : and a groined vault is
a compound one rising to the same height in its surfaces as that of two equal cylinders,
or a cylinder with a cylindroid. The reins of a vault are the sides or walls that sustain
the arch. See the section on ARCHES, Book II. Chap. I. Sect. 9.
VELARIUM. (Lat.) The great awning which by means of tackle was hoisted over the
theatre and amphitheatre to protect the spectators from the rain or the sun's rays.
VELLAR CUPOLA. A term used by Alberti to denote a dome or spherical surface termi-
nated by four or more walls, frequently used over large staircases and salons, and other
lofty apartments.
VENEER. A very thin leaf of wood of a superior quality for covering doors or articles of
furniture which are made of an inferior wood.
VENETIAN DOOR. A door having side lights on each side for lighting an entrance hall.
VENETIAN WINDOW. One formed with three apertures separated by slender piers from each
other, whereof the centre one is much larger than those on the sides.
VENT. The flue or funnel of a chimney ; also any conduit for carrying off that which is
offensive.
VENTIDUCT. A passage or pipe for the introduction of fresh air to an apartment.
VENTILATION. The continual supply of fresh air to an apartment, a subject which latterly
has been considered so necessary, though much neglected as the moderns seem to think
by their ancestors, that a volume would not hold the schemes that have been latterly pro-
posed for that purpose. Generally it is enough for the architect to provide means for
letting off the hot air of an apartment or building by apertures at the upper part of the
rooms, &c., to which the hot air will ascend without afflicting, with the currents of fresh
air that are to be introduced, those that inhabit them.
VERMICULATED. (Lat.) A term applied to rustic-work which is so wrought as to have
the appearance of having been eaten into by worms.
VERTEX. (Lat. the top.) A term generally applied to the termination of any thing
finishing in a point, thus we say the vertex of a cone, &c.
VERTICAL ANGLES. The opposite ones made by two straight lines cutting each other.
VERTICAL PLANE. One whose surface is perpendicular to the horizon.
VESTIBULE. (Lat. Vestibulum.) An apartment which serves as the medium of communi-
cation to another room or series of rooms. In the Roman houses it appears to have
been the place before the entrance where the clients of the master of the house, or those
wishing to pay their court to him, waited before introduction. It was not considered as
forming a part of the house. The entrance from the vestibulum led immediately into
the atrium, or into the cavaedium.
VESTRY. (Lat. Vestiarium.) An apartment in, or attached to, a church for the preser-
vation of the sacred vestments and utensils.
VICE. A term in old records applied to a spiral or winding staircase. In mechanics a
machine serving to hold fast any thing worked upon, whether the purpose be filing, bend-
ing, riveting, &c.
VILLA. A country-house for the residence of an opulent person. Among the Romans
there were three descriptions of villa, each having its particular destination, namely. The
Villa urbana, which was the residence of the proprietor, and contained all the conve-
niences of a mansion in the city. The Villa rustica, which contained not only all that
was essential to rural economy, such as barns, stables, &c., but comprised lodging apart-
ments for all those who ministered in the operations of the farming establishment. The
Villa fructuaria was appropriated to the preservation of the different productions of the
estate, and contained the granaries, magazines for the oil, cellars for the wine, &c. See
Book III. Chap. III. Sect. 22.
VINCI, DA. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 181.
VINERY. A house for the cultivation of vines. See CONSERVATORY.
VISORIUM. (Lat.) See AMPHITHEATRE.
VISUAL POINT. In perspective a point in the horizontal line in which the visual rays
unite.
VISUAL RAY. A line of light supposed to come from a point of the object to the eye.
VITONI. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 168.
VITRIFICATION. The hardening of argillaceous stones by heat
VITRUVIUS POLLIO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 40.
VITRUVIUS CERDO. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 41.
Vivo. (Ital.) The shaft of a column.
VOLUTE. A spiral scroll which forms the principal feature of the Ionic and Composite
capitals.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 1051
VOMITORIA. (Lat.) See AMPHITHEATRE.
VOUSSOIR. (Fr.) A wedge-like stone or other matter forming one of the pieces of an arch.
See ARCH.
W.
WAGON-HEADED CEILING, The same as cylindric ceiling. See VAULT.
WAINSCOT. (Dutch, Wayschot.) A term usually applied to the wooden lining of walls in
panels. The wood originally used for this purpose was a foreign oak (see p. 482.) ;
hence the name of the material became attached to the work itself.
WALKELYN. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 84.
WALL. A body of materials for the enclosure of a building and the support of its various
parts. See Book II. Chap. I. Sect. 10.
WALLS OF THE ANCIENTS. Emplecton, Isodomum, Pseudo-isodomum. See MASONRY.
WALLS, CASED. Those faced up anew round a building, in order to cover an inferior mate-
rial, or old work gone to decay.
WALNUT. A forest tree useful for building purposes. See p. 484.
WALSINGHAM. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 142.
WARE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 289.
WARREN. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 250.
WATER-CLOSET. See p. 583.
WATER SHOOT. See SQUARE SHOOT.
WATER TABLE. See TABLE, WATER.
WAYNEFLETE. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 165.
WEATHER-BOARDING. See BOARDING FOR OUTSIDE WORK.
WEATHER-TILING. The covering an upright wall with tiles.
WEDGE. (Dan. Wegge.) An instrument used for splitting wood or other substances; it is
usually classed among the mechanical powers. See p. 392.
WEIGHT. (Sax. Wihc. ) In mechanics, a quantity determined by the balance; a mass by
which other bodies are examined. It denotes anything to be raised, sustained, or moved
by a machine as distinguished from the power, or that by which the machine is put in
motion.
WEIGHT, in commerce, denotes a body of given dimensions, used as a standard of com-
parison for all others. By an act of parliament passed in June 1824, all weights were to
remain as they then were, that act only declaring that the imperial standard pound troy
shall be the unit or only standard measure of weight from which all other weights shall
be derived and computed; that this troy pound is equal to the weight of 22*815 cubic-
inches of distilled water weighed in air at the temperature of 6 2° of Fahrenheit's thermo-
meter, the barometer being at 30 inches, and that there being 5760 grains in a troy
pound, there will be 7000 such grains in a pound avoirdupois.
TROY WEIGHT.
24 grains = 1 pennyweight.
480 . . . = 20 =1 ounce.
5760 . . . =240 =12 ... =1 pound.
AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT.
16 drams = 1 ounce.
256 . . . = 16 , . =» 1 pound.
7168 . . . = 448 . . = 28 . . . = 1 quarter.
28672 . . . = 1792 . . = 112 ... = 4 . . . . = 1 cwt.
573440 . . . =35840 . . . =2240 . . . =80 .... =20 .. =1 ton.
The avoirdupois pound : pound troy : : 1 75 : 144, or : : 1 1 : 9 nearly ; and an avoirdu-
pois pound is equal to 1 Ib. 2 oz. 11 dwts. 16 grains troy. A troy ounce =1 oz. 1-55 dr.
avoirdupois.
The following is a table of weights according to the new French system.
Names. French value. English value.
Millier, 1000 kilogrammes =1 French ton - = 19'7 cwts.
Quintal, 100 kilogrammes - - - - = 1*97 cwt.
T^M /Weight of one cubic decimeter of water of _ f 2*6803 Ibs. troy.
' \ the temperature of 39° 12' Fahrenheit. ~ \ 2-5055 Ibs. avoirdupois.
Hectogram, Ath of Jdlog™™ ' ~ { %£££&*#*.
Decagramme, -^th of kilogramme - - - - = 6 '43 dwts. troy.
{15'438 grains troy.
0-643 pennyweight.
0'032 ounce troy.
.Decigramme, -pj^th of kilogramme - - - - = 1 -5438 grain troy.
1052 GLOSSARY, ETC.
The following table exhibits the proportion of weights in the principal places of
Europe to 100 Ibs. English avoirdupois.
100 Ibs. English = 91 Ibs. 8 oz. for the pound of Amsterdam, Paris (old), &c.
= 96 8 Antwerp or Brabant.
= 88 0 Rouen (the Viscounty weight).
— = 106 0 — Lyons (the city weight).
— = 90 9 — Rochelle.
— = 107 11 — Toulouse and Upper Languedoc.
— =113 0 — Marseilles or Provence.
— = 81 7 — Geneva.
— = 93 5 — Hamburgh.
— = 89 7 — Frankfort, &c.
— =96 1 — Leipsic, &c.
— = 137 4 — Genoa.
= 132 1 — Leghorn.
= 153 11 Milan.
— = 152 0 _ Venice.
= 154 10 — Naples.
= 97 0 — Seville, Cadiz, &c.
= 104 13 Portugal.
— = 96 5 — Liege.
— = 112 0§ — Russia.
= 107 02!j Sweden.
— = 89 Q\ — Denmark.
The Paris pound (poids de marc of Charlemagne) contained 921 6 Paris grains ; it was
divided into 16 ounces, each ounce into 8 gros, and each gros into 72 grains. It is equal
to 7561 English troy grains.
The English troy pound of 12 ounces contains 5760 troy grains = 7021 Paris grains.
The English avoirdupois pound of 16 ounces contains 7000 English troy grains, and is
equal to 8538 Paris grains.
To reduce Paris grains to English troy grains, divide by "1 1.910
Or, to reduce English troy grains to Paris grains, multiply by j
To reduce Paris ounces to English troy, divide by *j ?
To reduce English troy ounces to Paris, multiply by J
WEIGHTS OF A SASH are two weights by which the sash is suspended and kept in the
situation to which it is raised by means of cords passing over pulleys. The vertical sides
of the sash frames are generally made hollow in order to receive the weights, which, by
this means are entirely concealed. Thus, to keep the sash in suspension, each weight
must be half the weight of the sash. The cords should be of good quality, or they
soon fret to pieces.
WELCH GROINS. Groins formed by the intersection of two cylindrical vaults, one whereof
is of less height than the other.
WELL. A deep circular pit, or sort of shaft, sunk by digging down through the different
strata or beds of earthy or other materials of the soil, so as to form an excavation for the
purpose of containing the water of some spring or internal reservoir, by which it may
be supplied.
WELL-HOLE. In a flight of stairs, the space left in the middle beyond the ends of the steps.
WESTON. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 137.
WHEEL. (Sax.) In mechanics, an engine consisting of a circular body turning on an axis,
for enabling a given power to move or overcome a given weight or resistance. This
machine may be referred to the lever.
WHEEL WINDOW. In Gothic architecture, a circular window, with radiating mullions,
resembling the disposition of the spokes of a wheel.
WHETSTONE. A stone of fine quality by which tools for cutting wood are brought to a
fine edge, after being ground upon a gritstone, or grinding-stone, to a rough edge.
WHITE LEAD. A material forming the basis of most colours in house-painting. The
common method of making it is by rolling up thin leaden plates spirally, so as to leave the
space of about an inch between each coil. These are placed vertically in earthen pots, at
the bottom of which is some good vinegar. The pots are covered, and exposed for a
length of time to a gentle heat in a sandbath, or by bedding them in dung. The vapour
of the vinegar, assisted by the tendency of lead to combine with the oxygen which is
present, corrodes the lead, and converts the external portion into a white substance
which conies off in flakes. These are washed and dried in stoves in lumps, and form the
white lead of the painters.
WICKET. A small door made in a gate.
GLOSSARY, ETC. 10.53
WILLIAM OF SENS. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 100.
WILLIAM OF WYKEHAM. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 141
WIND-BEAM. An obsolete name for a COLLAR-BEAM.
WINDLASS or WINDLACE. A machine for raising weights, in which a rope or chain is
wound about a cylindrical body moved by levers ; also a handle by which anything is
turned.
WINDOW. An aperture in a wall for the transmission of light to an apartment. See
Book III. Chap. I. Sect. 20.
WINE CELLAR. The apartment on the basement story, under ground, for stowing wine.
The most important point in its construction is its being kept at a cool equal temper-
ature. See BINNS.
WIRE. A small flexible bar of metal, elongated by means of a machine called a draw-
bench.
WITH. (Sax.) The partition between two chimney flues. See CHIMNEY.
WOOD. (Sax.) A fibrous material much used in building, and formed into shape by edge
tools. The different sorts in use form the subject of Sect. 4. Chap. II. Book II.
WOOD BRICKS. Blocks of wood cut to the form and size of bricks, inserted in the interior
walls as holds for the joinery.
WORKING DRAWINGS. See Book II. Chap. IV. Sect. 4.
WOTTON, SIR HENRY. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 251.
WREATHED COLUMNS. Those which are twisted in the form of a screw, also very appro-
priately called contorted columns.
WREN. See ARCHITECTS, list of, 264.
X.
XENODOCHIUM. (Gr. Hevos, a guest, and Acx°tJ-ai> t° receive.) A name given by the ancients
to a building for the reception of strangers.
XYSTUS. (Gr.) In ancient architecture, a spacious portico, wherein the athletae exercised
themselves during winter. The Romans called, on the contrary, their hypcethral walks
xysti, which walks were by the Greeks called TreptS/xyuSes.
Y.
YARD. A well known measure of three feet.
Z.
ZAX. An instrument used for cutting slates.
ZIGZAG MOULDING. An ornament used in Gothic architecture. See p. 174.
ZINC. A metal now much used in building. See Book II. Chap. II. Sect. 7.
Zocco and ZOCCOLO. (It.) The same as SOCLE, which see.
ZOPHORUS. The same as FRIEZE, which see.
ZOTHECA. A small room or alcove, which might be added to, or separated from, the room
to which it adjoined.
ADDENDA TO THE GLOSSARY.
AUMBRYE. A recess for holding the sacred vessels, &c., used in the mass.
BARTISAN. A turret on the summit of a tower, castle, or house, whereon was generally
hoisted the standard or flag proper to the place.
BEACON TURRET. The turret of an angle of a tower, sometimes in border counties used
for containing the apparatus for kindling at the shortest possible notice the need-fire.
BED-MOULDINGS. The mouldings under the corona in a cornice.
BENATURA. The holy water vessel placed at the entrance of churches, generally on the
right hand of the outer or inner porch door, or both.
CASSINOID. An elliptic curve wherein the product of any two lines, drawn from the foci
to a point in the curve, shall be equal to the rectangle under the semi-transverse and
semi-conjugate diameters.
CHEVET. (Fr.) A term used by the French architects and antiquaries to denote the
surrounding aisles of the choir of a cathedral, from their resemblance on the plan to the
form of a bolster.
CHRISMATORY. A recess resembling a piscina, near the spot where the font originally
stood, to contain the chrism, or holy oil, with which, after baptism, infants were anointed.
COLUMEN. The ridge piece of a roof. See figs. 91 and 92.
CREDENCE. The slab whereon, in the sacrifice of the mass, the elements are deposited
previous to the oblation. Sometimes a plain recess, sometimes a slab on a bracket, but
in all cases on the south side of the altar. The word is derived from Credenza (It.), a
butlery or pantry.
DOSSEL. See REREDOS.
EASTER or HOLY SEPULCHRE. A recess for the reception of the holy elements consecrated
on the Ccena Domini or Maunday Thursday, till high mass on Easter-day. It is
generally shallow, under an arch of obtuse or broad ogee form, rising about 3 feet from
the ground, and should be on the north side of the church.
EOPYLA. A church with an apsis at the eastern end.
EOTHOLA. A church with an apsis at the western end.
FALDSTOOL. A moveable reading desk provided with a kneeling shelf at the foot thereof.
FLAMBOYANT. (F. Flaming or Flamelike.) A term applied in France to a style in Gothic
architecture, in which the mullions and tracery terminate in waved lines of contrary
flexure in flamelike forms. Examples of it occur about the beginning of the fifteenth
century, and continue down to the middle of the sixteenth, being coincident nearly with
the latter part of the period of our ornamented English, and the whole period of the
florid English or Tudor style.
GARGOUILLE. See GURGOYLE.
GURGOYLES. The carved representations of men, monsters, &c., on the exterior of a
church, and especially at the angles of the tower, serving as waterspouts, being connected
with the gutters for the discharge of the water from the roof.
HAGIOSCOPE. (Gr. S.ytos, holy, and fficoiros, mark.) An aperture made in the interior
walls or partitions of a church, generally on the sides of the chancel arch, to enable
persons in the aisles to see the elevation of the host. They are technically called squints,
and sometimes elevation apertures.
JUBE. The stand (often ending upwards in an eagle with expanded wings) in the choir
of a church on which the Gospel is placed to be read, receiving its name from the words
ADDENDA TO THE GLOSSARY.
1055
" Jube Domine benedicere," used by the deacon when the missal is presented to him
by the officiating priest at mass, previous to the reading of the Gospel.
LEVELLING. In the practice of levelling, it is evident that the level
line carried on by means of a spirit level or other instrument used
for the purpose, is a tangent to the earth : it is therefore necessary to
make an allowance for the difference between the true level B C and
the apparent level B D. This difference is, of course, equal to the
excess D C of the secant of the arch of distance above the radius of the
earth. Hence, from station to station, accordingly, allowance must be
made. The subjoined table exhibits the corrections or values of C D.
Distance
orBC.
Diff. of Lev.
or CD.
Distance
orBC.
Diff. of Lev.
or CD.
Yards.
Inches.
Miles.
Feet. In.
ICO
0-026
0 0£
200
0-123
0 2
300
0-231
0 4*
400
0-411
1
0 8
500
0-643
2
2 8
600
0-925
3
6 0
700
1-260
4
10 7
800
1-645
5
16 7
900
2-081
6
23 11
1000
2-570
7
32 6
1100
S'110
8
42 6
1200
3-701
9
53 9
1300
4-344
10
66 4
1400
5-038
11
80 3
1500
5-784
12
95 7
1600
6-580
13
112 2
1700
7-425
14
130 1
LOGGIA. (It.) In its strict meaning a lodge; but usually signifying an open gallery.
LOUVRE. A turret or lantern over a hall or other apartment with openings for the es-
cape of smoke or steam. The word is also used to denote the internally open polygonal
tower over the intersection of the nave with the transepts of a church, as at Ely
Cathedral, &c.
LYCH-GATE or CORPSE GATE (from the Anglo-Saxon Leich, a dead body). A gate at the
entrance of a church-yard, where the coffin was set down for a few minutes before burial.
It is generally wood, and thatched. Lych-gates are not of frequent occurrence in
England. Wales has many.
MISERERE. A small moveable seat attached on an horizontal axis to a stall in a church or
cathedral. It was so contrived that if, during the performance of religious ceremonies,
the occupier of it slept, he would fall on (perchance) the floor. Hence the name.
ORIENTATION. (Lat. Oriens.) The deviation of a church from due east, it being supposed
that the chancel points to that part of the east in which the sun rises on the day of the
patron saint. This is, however, doubtful.
PARCLOSE. The screen which separates chapels (especially at the east end of the aisles)
from the body of the church. They are usually of wood, but are also sometimes of stone.
PARVIS TURRET. The small tower which encloses the staircase to the parvis.
PEW. (Fr. Piou.) An enclosed seat in a church. Pews were not used until long after
the Reformation.
POPPY HEADS, or POPPIES. The terminations of the ends of open seats, often carved as
heads, foliage, &c.
PROTHESIS, TABLE OF. See CREDENCE.
RAYONNANT. (Fr. Radiating.) A term applied in France to a style in Gothic archi-
tecture, wherein the mullions and tracery terminate in forms founded on the divergence
of rays from certain centres. It prevailed from the latter end of the thirteenth until
near the end of the fourteenth century.
1056 ADDENDA TO THE GLOSSARY.
RESPONDS. Half-piers at the east or west end of the nave, transepts, or choir. They are
sometimes in the forms of brackets.
SANCTE-BELL COT. A small erection at the east end of the nave for the reception of the bell
that gives notice of the Sanctus being commenced, and also to warn the people of the ap-
proaching elevation of the Host.
SCREEDS. See 2242.
SEDILIA. (Lat.) Seats provided for the clergy in the sacrifice of the mass, during that
part of the office in which the " GLORIA " and '« CREDO " are sung. Their proper place
is only on the south side of the altar.
SEPULCHRE. See EASTER OR HOLY SEPULCHRE.
SESQUIALTERAL. In the proportion of one and a half.
SPAWLED. A term in masonry.
SPIRE. A spire which is octagonal, the sides facing the cardinal points being continued to
the eaves which project over the tower, and the diagonal faces being intercepted at the
bottom by semipyramidical projections whose edges are carried from the angles of the
tower upwards, terminating in points on the corresponding oblique faces of the spire, is
called a broach spire. ( Fr. Broche, a spit. )
SQUINT. See HAGIOSCOPE.
STOOL. In brick-making the name given to the bench whereon the brick-moulder moulds
the bricks.
SYMBOLS. Attributes or signs accompanying a statue or picture of a figure, in allusion to
some passage in the life of the person represented, and hence often used as a figurative
representation of the person himself. See p. 845.
TIP. (Verb.) To discharge a barrow or waggon load of any thing by turning it over.
TRAPEZOID. A quadrilateral figure having one pair of opposite sides parallel,
TRIBUNE. See APSIS.
WASHER. A flat piece of iron, or other metal, pierced with a hole for the passage of a
screw, between whose nut and the timber it is placed to prevent compression on a small
surface of the timber. Also the perforated metal plate of a sink or drain, which can be
removed for letting off the waste water, and thus more easily cleansing it.
INDEX.
to the page.
A.
ABATTOIRS, 2932, et seq. Ought to be esta-
blished in large towns, 2932. Erected
first at Paris, 2933, 2934. Those of
Menilmontant and Montmartre, 2934.
That of Menilmontant described, 2935,
2936.
Abbreviation, method of, in architectural
composition, 2857.
Aberdeen, Lord, his opinion on the pointed
arch, 300.
Aberystwith Castle, 402.
Abury, circles of stones, 16, 17. 40.
Adam, architect, temp. George III., 518.
Adam, Robert, an architect, temp. George
III., 517. His work, ib.
Adams, Bernard, an architect, temp. Eliza-
beth, 442.
Adams, Robert, an architect, temp. Eliza-
beth, 440.
Adelphi, in the Strand, by Adam, 517.
Adi, temple of, at Ellora, 26.
Admiralty, designed by Ripley, 507.
Admiralty, in London, 2886. In Paris,
2887.
Adrian I., Pope, arts under, 281.
Adze, a carpenter's tool, 2003.
^Esthetics, in architecture, 2493.
Ayopcu, or Fora, of the Greeks, 173.
Agricola, architecture under, in Britain,
381.
Agrigentum, temples of Peace and Concord,
148.
Air drains, what, and use of, 1886.
Air vessel in pumps, 2223.
Aix-la-Chapelle, cathedral and palace of,
283.
Alae of a Roman house, 249. 253.
Alatrium, Cyclopean remains at, 32.
Alberti, Leo Bat., 324. Account of his
book,Z>e Re jEdificatoria,325. His works,
ib.
Alcala, church and college of the Jesuits at,
37!.
Alcala, college and church of, 367. Palace
of, 368.
Alcantara in Spain, bridge at, 193.
Alcazars of Segovia and Seville, 128.
Alcinous, house of, illustrative of Greek
architecture, 138. Described, generally,
ib.
Aldrich, dean of Christchurch, his works
and skill as an architect, 490.
Alfred, king, his care of buildings of his
time, 386.
Alhambra, ornamental detail of, 125. When
founded, 127. Description of, 127.
All Saints', York, parochial church of, 421.
All Souls' College, Oxford, some part by
Hawksmoor, 499.
Amberley Castle, built by Rede, bishop of
Chichester, 413.
Amboise, palace at, Appendix, pp. 849, 850.
Ambresbury House, Wilts, by Webb, on
Jones's designs, 465.
Amiens, cathedral at, 31 0. 314, 315. Com-
parison of, with Salisbury Cathedral, 3 1 5.
Ammanati, Bartol., his works, 331. His
work La Citta, ib.
Amphitheatre at Capua, 193.
Amphitheatres described. Those of Alba,
at Otricoli, on the banks of the Gari-
gliano, Puzzuoli, Capua, Verona, Pola,
Aries, Saintes, Autun, Nismes, and Nice,
228. Coliseum described, with plan, sec-
tion, and elevation, 1 92. 228, 229. First
used by the Etruscans, 232. That at
Nismes, dimensions of, 233.
Ampthill, Beds., 423. 426.
Ampthill, drawings relating to, 440.
Amsterdam, town hall at, 2897. Exchange
at, 2939.
Anastasius II., architecture under, 271.
Angle of vision, in perspective, how to se-
lect, 2444, et seq.
Angle ribs for square domes, 2064,
Angle tie, what, 2009.
Anglo-Saxon architecture, 383, et seq.
Characteristics of, 390. Buildings enu-
merated, 389. Columns, 390. Arches,
ib. Capitals, ib. Windows, ib. Walls, ib.
Ceilings and roofs, ib. Ornaments, ib.
and 397. Plans, ib. Towers, ib. Style,
three aeras of, 391.
Annex, of Friburg, an early German archi-
tect, 365.
Annuities. See Compound Interest.
Annuities on lives, tables relating to, Ap-
pendix, p. 879, et seq.
Annulet, 2532.
Annunziata, choir of church of, at Florence,
325.
Anson, Lord, house for, in St. James's
Square, by Stuart, 516.
Antas, 2671.
Aritefixa?, in a Roman house, 247.
Antoine, architect of the Mint at Paris, 36O.
3 Y
10.58
INDEX.
Antonine column, 2603.
Antoninus and Faustina, Corinthian temple
of, at Rome, 211.
Antwerp, town hall at, 2897.
Apodyterium of the Roman baths, 235.
Apollo Didymaeus, Ionic temple of, near
Miletus, 153.
Apollo Epicurius, temple of, in Arcadia,
150.
Apotheca of a Roman house, 253.
Apron-piece in stairs, 2026.
Apsis, different forms of, Appendix, pp.
823, 824.
Aqueducts, earliest, of Rome, 223. That
of Appius Claudius and Aqua Appia, ib.
That of Quintus Martius, Aqua Julia,
Aqua Tepula, Virginia, Aqua Claudia, ib.
Cubic feet of water supplied to Rome, ib.
That at Metz, ib. Castella in, 225. Ven-
ter in, ib. Injured, 238. Of the Greeks,
174.
Arabian architecture, its appearance after
the seventh century, 118. Decline of,
128. Domestic architecture exemplified
in a house at Algiers, 130.
Araeostyle Intercolumniation, 2605. 2608,
2609. 2613.
Aranjuez, royal pleasure house of, at, 371.
Arc, complement of, 1037. Supplement of,
1038. Sine of, 1039. Versed sine of,
1040. Tangent of, 1041. Cosine of,
1042. Cotangent of, 1043. Cosecant of,
1044.
Arc doubleau, Appendix, p. 835.
Arcades and arches, 2617, et seq.
Arcades. Theory of equality between
weights and supports, 2618, 2619. 2626.
Tuscan, 2621, 2622. Doric, ib. 2623.
Ionic, ib. 2624. Corinthian, ib. 2625.
Generally in respect of the theory, 2622.
Chambers' law for regulating, 2626.
Ratios between the solid and void parts,
2627. Tuscan, with pedestals, 2628.
Doric, with pedestals, 2629. Ionic, with
pedestals, 2630. Corinthian, with pedes-
tals, 2631. Imposts and archivolts of,
2632. Vignola's rules in, 2633. Pal-
ladio's rules in, 2634. Columns used in,
2635. Scamozzi's rules in, ib. Their in-
ternal decorations, ib. At Massimi pa-
lace, ib. Late Mews at Charing Cross,
ib. By Serlio, 2636. At Caprarola, 2637.
At the Belvidere garden, Rome, 2638.
By Palladio, 2639. By Vignola, for
Borghese family, at Mondragone, 2640.
At Basilica, Vicenza, 2641.
Arcades above Arcades, 2653, et seq. Best
mode of disposing, according to Cham-
bers, 2654, et seq. According to Scamozzi,
2655. In the Carita at Venice, ib. and
2656. In Palazzo Thiene, ib. Balus-
trades of, 2657. Doric above Tuscan,
2658, 2659. Ionic above Doric, 2660,
2661. Corinthian above Ionic, 2662.
Of the Basilica at Vicenza, 2663. Con-
fined by the ancients to theatres and am-
phitheatres, 2664.
Arcadius, architecture under, 271.
Arch, elliptical, to draw and find the joints,
1934 — 1937. Flat, in masonry, to draw
the joints, without the centre, 1932.
Flat, to draw and find the joints, 1932.
Arch, introduction of, effected great change
in the art, 266.
Arch, no trace of, in the ruins of Babylon,
45e In Egypt, at Saccara, 75.
Arch of Claudius Drusus, niches at, 2776.
Arch of Constantine, 262. 2547.
Arch of the Goldsmiths at Rome, 1 95.
Arch of Janus, niches at, 2775.
Arch of Severus at Rome, 264.
Arch of Titus, 2547. Of Septimus Severus,
ib.
Arch of Titus at Rome, 264.
Arch rampant, pointed, to draw and find
the joints, 1943.
Arch unknown in Grecian architecture.
134.
Archer, pupil of Vanbrugh, 498.
Arches, Arabian, species most employed,
129. At Bussorah, 131.
Arches, equilibrium of, history, 1353 —
1 363. Observations on friction, and me-
thods of estimating, 1364 — 1389. Ob-
servations on the way in which arch stones
support each other, 1390 — 1397. Geo-
metrical application of foregoing, 1398,
1399. Experiments on surmounted arches,
1400. Application of the principles to
the pointed arch, 1401. The same to a
surmounted catenarean arch, 1402 — 1406.
Application of the principles to surbased
arches, 1407. Thrusts of arches : cas-
sinoid, cycloid, and ellipsis, 1408 — 1412.
Raking arches, 1413 — 1416. Arch with
a level extrados, 1417 — 1421. Different
application of principles in the last case,
1422. 1431. Arches whose voussoirs
increase towards the springing, 1432 —
1441. Mode in which an arch fails, 1442.
Compound vaulting, 1443. Groined
vaulting, 1444 — 1458. Application of
principles of groined vaulting, 1459 —
1463. Model of a coved vault, principles
applied to, 1464 — 1477. Spherical vault-
ing, principles applied to, 1478 — 1493.
Adhesive power of mortar and plaster
upon stones and bricks, 1494 — 1499.
Arches, inverted, in foundations, 1 885.
Arches, to make working drawings for, and
describe moulds of voussoirs, 1959 — 1966.
Elliptical, cutting through a wall ob-
liquely to bevels and moulds of, 1967 —
1970. In sloping walls, to make working
drawings for, 1971,1972. An abridged
method of doing the last, 1973, 1974.
Oblique, whereof the front slopes and
rear are perpendicular to the axis, 1976
— 1979. Semicircular-headed, in a mass
of masonry battering on an oblique
plane, 1980 — 1983. On the quoin of
a sloping wall to find the moulds, 1 984
— 1987. In round towers or circular
walls, 1988 — 1990. Oblique in a round
INDEX.
1059
sloping tower, intersecting a semicircular
arch within it, 1991 — 1994.
Architects of France, attached to Venetian
in preference to Roman school, 358.
Architectural design, maxims in, 2502.
Bounding lines of buildings not sources
of beauty, considered geometrically, 2503.
Architecture, as a fine art, dependent on
expression, 2492. Its end, ib. Genius
in, what, ib. Taste in, what, ib. Esthe-
tics in, 2493. Considered in respect of
rules of art, 2494. Fitness is the basis
of proportion, 2496 — 2499. Fitness de-
pendent on equilibrium, 2,500. Stability,
source of fitness in, ib. Maxims relating
to fitness, 2502. Bounding lines of
buildings, 2503. Interiors of buildings,
beauty of, 2504. Types in, 2507. Styles
in, all dependent on fitness, 2508. Unity
and harmony in, 2509. Symmetry in, ib.
Colour in, 2511. Polychromatic, 2512.
Decoration of, 2513 — 2522.
Architecture in llth century not a liberal
art, Appendix, p. 821.
Architecture in 12th century, Appendix, p.
819.
Architecture, secular, of France, Appendix,
p. 847.
Architecture of England from James I. to
Anne, 451, et seq. Its character, 451.
Deficient in picturesque beauty, 451.
Architecture of England said by Walpole
to have resumed her rights under George
II., 506.
Architecture of England under George I.,
499, et seq. Under George II., 506, et seq.
Under George III., 514, et seq.
Architecture of the Greeks in its decline,
177.
Architecture of Mexico, 109, et seq.
Architecture not a fine art until founded on
rules of proportion, 1.
Architecture not confined to a single type, 1.
Architecture, pointed. See " Pointed Ar-
chitecture," and " Gothic Architecture."
Architrave, to form, in joinery, 2196.
Archivolts of arcades, 2632.
Area given, method of enclosing in any
regular polygon, 1518 — 1524.
Arena of an amphitheatre, 228. 230, 231.
Arena of the Roman Circus, 24O.
Argentino theatre at Rome, 2958.
Argos, gate and chief tower of, Cyclopean,
29.
Arithmetic and Algebra, introduction, 522,
523. Signs + and —, 524— 526. Mul-
tiplication of simple quantities, 527 —
531. Whole numbers in respect to their
factors, 532, 533. Division of simple
quantities, 534 — 539. The properties of
integers as respects their divisors, 540 —
548. Fractions, 519 — 554. * Properties
of fractions, 555 — 557. Addition and
subtraction of fractions, 558 — 560. Mul-
tiplication and division of fractions, 561
— 574. Square numbers, 575 — 582.
Square roots and the irrational numbers
that result from them, 583 — 592. Im-
possible or imaginary quantities, 593 —
600. Cube roots, and the irrational
numbers that result from them, 601 —
605. Of powers in general, 606 — 610.
Calculation of powers, 611 — 616. Roots
relatively to powers in general, 617 —
620. The representation of powers by
fractional exponents, 620 — 625. Me-
thods of calculation, and their mutual
connection, 626 — 631. Logarithms, 632
— 638. Logarithmic tables now used,
639, 640. Method of expressing loga-
rithms, 641 — 654. The subtraction of
compound quantities, 655 — 658. The
multiplication of compound quantities,
659—661. The division of compound
quantities, 662 — 666. The resolution of
fractions into infinite series, 667 — 679.
The squares of compound quantities,
680 — 687. Extraction of roots of com-
pound quantities, 688 — 692. Calcula-
tion of irrational quantities, 693 — 698.
Of cubes, and the extraction of their
roots, 699 — 701. The higher powers
of compound quantities, 702 — 706. On
the transposition of letters whereon the
last rule rests, 707 — 711. The expres-
sion of irrational powers by infinite
series, 7 1 2 — 7 1 8 . Resolution of negative
powers, 719 — 726. Arithmetical ratio,
727 — 731. Arithmetical proportion, 732
— 734. Arithmetical progression, 735
— 742. Summation of arithmetical pro-
gressions, 743 — 748. Geometrical ratio,
749 — 751. Greatest common divisor,
752, 753. Geometrical proportion, 754
— 762. Compound relations, 763 — 773.
Geometrical progression, 774 — 782. In-
finite decimal fractions, 783—796. Cal-
culation of interest, 797 — 810. Solu-
tion of problems, 811 — 815. Resolution
of simple equations, or of the first de-
gree, 816 — 824. Resolution of two or
more equations of the first degree, 825
— 832. Resolution of pure quadratic
equations, 833 — 841. Resolution of
mixed equations of the second degree,
842 — 848. Resolution of complete equa-
tions of the third degree, 849 — 860.
Decimals, 861 — 867. Duodecimals, 868
— 872. Table of squares, cubes, and
roots of numbers up to 10OO.
Arithmetical progression, 735 — 742. Sum-
mation of, 743 — 748.
Arithmetical proportion, 732 — 734.
Arithmetical ratio, 727 — 731.
Armarium of a Roman house, 253.
Arriaga, Luigi, a Spanish architect, 368.
Arris of a piece of stuff, 2125.
Arroyo Giuseppe, an architect of Spain, 368.
Arts in England have never thoroughly
taken root, 437. Flourished while in the
hands of the clergy, ib.
Arundel Castle, 394. 398.
Asgill, Sir Charles, villa for, at Richmond,
by Taylor, 515.
3 Y2
1060
INDEX.
Ashlar stone walls, 1918. Facing, 1919 —
1924.
Asinelli tower, at Bologna, 250O.
Asphalte, 1876—1880.
Assisi, church of S. Francesco at, 318.
Assumption, church of, at Moscow, de-
scribed, 375.
Assyrian architecture, 50.
Astragal, Bead, or Baguette, 2532.
Athenians, their early superiority in the
arts, 136.
Athens, early buildings at, of earth and
Atkinson's cement, 1863, 1864. [clay, 136.
Atlantes, 2682.
Atreus, treasury of, at Mycene, description
of, 35.
Atrium of a Roman house, 246. Different
species of, & c. , 247. In a house at Pompeii,
253.
Atrium, why so called in Roman houses,
181.
Attelborough, parochial church of, 408.
421.
Attics and basements, 2665, et seq. Exam-
ples of, 2668.
Attributes, in decoration, 2519, 252O.
Audley End, designs by Thorpe, 440.
Audley Inn, in Essex, 442. 445. 451, 452.
Augustins, royal convent of, at Madrid, 371.
Augustus, portico of, at Athens, 151.
Avington, church of, 389.
Axe, a carpenter's tool, 2O03.
Avot, St. Lawrence, church at, by Stuart,
516.
Aztec architecture, 110. 116.
B.
Baalbec, extraordinary structures at, 196.
First described by Maundrel, ib.
Baalbec, niches at, 2775.
Babylon, ruins of, described, according to
Rich, 38—41 . Citadel of, 42. Tunnel
under the Euphrates, 43. Dimension,
rather than art, its character, 44.
Bacchus, Ionic temple of, at Teos, 153.
Back flaps of shutters, 2147.
Back linings of sash-frame, 2147.
Back of a slate, 2211.
Badajos, Giovanni di, a Portuguese archi-
tect, 367.
Bagdad, foundations of, laid by Almansor,
119.
Bagdad, its walls, 131.
Bagnall, Sir John, house for, designed by
Thorpe, 440.
Baguette, 2532.
Balleso, Giovanni, a Spanish architect, 367.
Ballium of a castle, what, 394.
Balusters, 2695, et seq. Not used by an-
cients, 2696. Their measures, 2697.
For Tuscan order and table of propor-
tions, 2699. 2702. For Doric and Ionic
orders, 2700. For Corinthian and Com-
posite orders, 2701. Double-bellied,
2703. Double-bellied for Doric order,
2704. Double-bellied for Ionic order,
2705. Double-bellied for Corinthian
order, 2706. Intervals between, 2708.
Bulbs or bellies of, 2711. See also
" Balustrades."
Balustrades and Balusters, 2695, et seq,
Rules for setting out, 2697. Height
of, 2698. At Chiericato palace, 2698.
At Porti palace, ib. At Valmarana pa-
lace, ib. Scroll and Guiloche, 2707.
Intervals in, 2708. Pedestals of, 2708,
2709. Applied to staircases, 2710. Sta-
tues used on, 27 1 2. Vases used on, 2713.
See also " Balusters."
Balustrades of arcade, 2657.
Bamborough Castle, 394. 398.
Bank of England, parts of, well planned,
2885.
Banker, bricklayer's, 1890.
Banqueting House, window at, 2762.
Baptistery at Florence, doors of, 2735.
Barbacan of a castle, what, 394.
Barfreston, church of, 389. 391.
Bar iron, weight of a foot in length, 2254.
Barracks, 2982.
Bars with latchets, 2263.
Bartholomew's Hospital, by Gibbs, 503.
Basements and attics, 2665, et seq. Ge-
nerally decorated with rustics, 2666.
Courses of, how disposed, 2667. Rock-
work in, 2670.
Bases of columns, origin of, 135.
Bases of columns, mode of gluing up, 2202.
Basilica of Antoninus, 2547.
Basilicas, ancient, of Rome, 273 — 275.
Plan and interior view of S. Paolo fuori
la Mura, ib.
Basing House, date and founder, 449.
Bastard stucco, 2236 — 2243.
Bastileat Paris, 311.
Bat, denned, 1896.
Batalha, church of, 321. Described, ib.
Bath Abbey church, Appendix, p. 835.
Bath, city, many buildings there by Wood,
513.
Bath, conventual church of/ founders and
dimensions, 434.
Baths, number of, at Rome ; those of Ca-
racalla described, 234, 235. Of Titus,
Diocletian, Agrippa, Nero, and Domi-
tian, ib. Highly decorated with painting
and sculpture, 237. Those of Agrippa,
ib. None erected after the removal of
the empire, 238. Of Titus, paintings in,
239. Of Caracalla, described, and plan
of, 241. Alluded to, 282. Of Diocle-
tian, 264. 2547. Of Nero, dimensions
of, 240.
Battening of walls, how measured, 2338.
Battista, Giovanni, an architect of Toledo,
370.
Bay window, what, 427.
Bead or Baguette, 2532.
Bead and Butt, what, 2131.
Bead and double quirk, 2127.
Bead and flush, what, 2131.
Beaulieu, palace at, 426.
Beaumaris Castle, 402.
INDEX.
1061
Beaupre Castle, Gloucestershire, 452.
Beauty in architecture, partly from suitable
forms, 2495. Sources of, 2492, et seq.
Beauvais Cathedral, north porch, Appendix,
p. 830.
Bee, in Normandy, abbey at, 310.
Bed of a slate, 2211.
Bedding stone, 1890.
Bedford Castle, 394.
Beeston Castle, Cheshire, 391. 398.
Bellhanger's work, in specifications, 2292.
Bell metal, 1791.
Bells, introduced, 390.
Belus, tower of, described, 38. 41.
Belvedere Garden, arcade at, 2638.
Belvedere House, Kent, for Lord Eardley,
by Stuart, 516.
Bench, joiner's, and parts of, 2102.
Bench planes, 2102.
Beni-hassan, tomb at, exhibits Doric co-
lumn, 133.
Berkeley Castle, 394. 398. 414.
Berlin, Brandenburg, gate at, 366.
Bernardo Buontalenti, windows by, 2759.
Bernini, 347. His style considered, 348.
Made designs for the Louvre, ib. Left
design for fa9ades of Louvre, and his
disgust with workmen at Paris, 359.
Berruguette, a Spanish architect of the
sixteenth century, 368.
Bethel and Bothel mentioned, 13. That
set up by Jacob, ib. Object of idolatrous
worship where the Canaanites appeared, ib.
Bevel, bricklayer's, 1890.
Beverley Minster, conventual church of,
407. 421. West front restored to per-
pendicularity, 449.
Biban el Melook, subterranean chambers
of, 63.
Bibbiena, his theatres, 2950.
Bibliotheca of a Roman house, 252.
Bibliotheque du Roi, Paris, 2911.
Billet ornament, 397.
Binding joists, 2019 — 2022.
Birs Nemroud, near Babylon, as described
by Rich, 40. The ruins spoken of by
Pere Emanuel, 40, 41.
Biscop, Benedict, founder of the abbey of
Weremouth, 385, 386.
Blackfriar's Bridge, by Mylne, 521.
Blenheim House, account of, with plan and
elevation, 493.
Blondel employed in Germany, 366.
Boarding of roofs, how measured, 2342.
Boarding, value of labour of, 2368.
Boards, cutting of, for covering domes,
groins, &c., 2068 — 2078.
Boaster, mason's, 1910.
Boffrand employed in Germany, 366
Boisserie, 418. 428.
Bolection mouldings, 2129. 2145.
Bologna, theatre at, 2950.
Bolsover House, Derby, 452.
Bolsover, additional buildings by Marsh,
466
Bolton, conventual church at, 398.
Bolts, different sorts, 2259.
Bolts, in carpentry, 2012.
Bond, &c., value of labour of, 2350.
Bond in bricklaying, 1891. English bond,
1892. 1894. 1896. Flemish bond, 1897.
Comparison of English with Flemish
bond, 1898.
Bond of a slate, 2211.
Bond stones, 1921.
Bond timber, how used in walls, 1899.
Boorde, Andrew, his " Dietorie " quoted,
and directions for building a mansion,
427.
Borde, Andrew, 438.
Borromini, 336. 339. 342. His style con-
sidered, 347.
Bosse, tilers, 1908.
Boston, Lincolnshire, parochial church of,
408. 421.
Bott, a German architect, 365.
Bottom panels of a door, 2130.
Bottom rails of a door, 2130.
Bouman, a German architect, 366.
Bourdeaux, Gate du Caillau, Appendix, p.
849. Theatre, 2951.2958.
Bourgtheroude, Hotel de, Appendix, pp.
851, 852.
Bow Church, Cheapside, description of, 484.
Bower, my Lady's, or parlour, its situation,
415.
Boxings for shutters, 2146, 2147.
Boyd, Sir John, house for, at Shooter's
Hill, by Taylor, 515.
Bracciano Palace, window at, 2768.
Braces in carpentry, 2010.
Bracket staircase described, and mode of
forming, 2183.
Bracketing, value of labour of, 235O.
Brackets and bracketing for cornices, to
make similar to one given, 2080. Angle
to support plastering, 2081, 2082. For
coves, 2083. Angle brackets for coves,
2084, 2085, 2086. In external and in-
ternal angles, 2087. For moulded cor-
nices, 2088.
Brackets, shelf, 2263.
Brad-awl, 2110.
Bradding hammer, glazier's, 2226.
Bradshaw, Lawrence, an architect, temp.
Elizabeth, 442.
Bramante, some account of, and his works,
335. 371.
Bramshill House, Hants, 452.
Brass, 1790. Specific gravity of, ib. Weight
of, ib.
Brass points, glazier's, 2226.
Brick axe, 1890.
Brick came much into use in England, 41 6.
Brick clamps, 1816.
Bricklayer, how many bricks he can lay in
a given time, 1901.
Bricklayer's tools, 1890.
Bricklayer's work in specifications, 2282.
Bricklaying and tiling, 1 889 — 1 903. Brick-
laying defined, 1889. See " Bond."
Bricknogged partitions, 2021.
Bricknogging defined, 1902. How mea-
sured, 2313.
3 Y 3
1062
INDEX.
Brick paving, 2300.
Bricks, 1811 — 1833. Description of, and
antiquity, 1811. Species of, used, accord-
ing to Vitruvius, by the ancients, 1812.
Improper bricks used by the moderns,
1813. Manufacture of bricks, 1815.
Clamps, what, 1816. Kilns for burn-
ing, 1817. Species of bricks, 1820 —
1830. Marl stocks, 1821. Stocks, 1822.
Place bricks, 1 823. Burrs and clinkers,
1824. Fire-bricks, 1826. Windsor
bricks, ib. Welsh lumps, ib. Paving,
1827. Compass, 1828. Concave or
hollow, 1829. Dutch clinkers and
Flemish bricks, 1830. Size of, regulated
by statute, 1831. Should be well satu-
rated before laying in summer, 1832.
Weight of, 1833.
JBiicks employed in Egyptian architecture,
72.
Bricks necessary for a given quantity of
work, table of, 2317.
Brickwork, crushing weight of a cubic
foot, 1833.
Brickwork, table of, showing number of
reduced feet in quantities of different
thicknesses, 2318.
Bridewell and Blackfriars' Palace, 426.
Bridge at Croyland, Lincolnshire, 419.
Bridge della Santissima Trinita, 331.
Bridges, 221, 222. Earliest in Rome, 222.
That at Narni, ib. That of Trajan over
the Danube, ib. That over the Tagus at
Alcantara, ib.
Bridges, architecture of, 41 9.
Bridges, 2865, et seq. Decorations of,
2865. Should be at right angles to the
stream, 2866. Best forms of arches,
2867. At Pavia over the Tesino, 2868.
Position of, 2869. Piers and centres of,
ib. Coffer dams, ib. Caissons for piers, ib.
Bridges, building of, considered an act of
piety, 310.
Bridges of China, 108.
Bridges of timber, 2095, et seq. Over the
Brenta by Palladio, 2096. By the same
architect over the Cismone, 2096. Other
bridge by, 2097. Method of, by Price,
2098, 2099.
Bridging joists, 2019.
Brinkbourn, conventual church of, 407.
Brinkbourn in Northumberland, conventual
church at, 398.
Bristol Cathedral, 398. 421. Founders and
dimensions of, 434.
Britain, architecture of, 379, et seq. Under
Claudius, 381. Under Agricola, ib.
Britain in the time of Constantius abounded
with good artificers, 381.
Britain, Roman works in, ruins of, 382.
British Museum, 2918.
British Museum, formerly Montague
House, 466.
Britons ignorant of architecture before final
departure of Romans, 381, 382. Early
houses and architecture of, 379, 380.
How lodged under the Normans, 393.
Broaching in masonry, 1914.
Broad tool, mason's, 1910.
Brontteum of the Greek theatre, 172.
Brunelleschi, reviver of the arts, 436. Short
account of his life, 323. 327.
Brussels, Plotel de Ville, 2896. Appendix,
p. 848.
Buckhurst House, in Sussex, 440. Its date
and founder, 446.
Buckingham House, built by Winde for
Sheffield, Duke of Buckingham, 465.
Buildings, covering of, as to comparative
weights. See " Covering of Buildings."
Buildings, public and private, general ob-
servations on, 2861, et seq. Different
parts of, 2863, 2864. Bridges, 2865,
et seq. Churches, 2870, et seq.
Bullant, Jean, one of the early French
architects, 357, 358.
Buonarotti, Michel Angelo, 335. Em-
ployed on St. Peter's, and his disinter-
estedness, ib. His letter to Vasari, ib.
Burgh Castle, in Suffolk, 391.
Burghley-on-the-Hill, garden front, 44O.
Burgos, cathedral at, 320.
Burgundian, so called, architecture, Ap-
pendix, p. 848.
Burleigh House, by Thorpe, 440.
Burleigh House, date and founder, 446.
Burlington, Earl of, an architect of great
talent, account of, and his works, 509, 51 0.
His liberality to Kent, 511.
Burlington House, colonnade, 51 0. En-
gaged pilasters condemned, 2615. Con-
sidered, 2995.
Burlington, Lord, 464.
Burrough, Sir James, able amateur archi-
tect, 490.
Burrs, 1824.
Buschetto, architect of cathedral at Pisa,
286. His epitaph, ib.
Bustamente, Bartolomeo di, celebrated
Spanish architect, 370.
Butting in carpentry, 2009.
Byland, conventual church at, 398.
Byzantine architecture, 270, et seq.
Byzantine architecture continued till intro-
duction of pointed style, 283.
Byzantine cathedrals, Appendix, p. 822.
C.
Caaba of Mecca, description of, spared by
the Wahabees in 1803, 118.
Cable ornament, 397.
Cablings, 2588.
Cadmians, Jacob Bryant's thoughts on, 27.
136.
Caen, Chateau de la Gendarmerie, Appen-
dix, p. 850.
Caen Wood House, by Adam, 517.
Caer-Philly Castle, 398. View of, 404. 419.
Caernarvon Castle, and view of, 402, 403.
Cairn, or Cam, what, and its etymology, 24.
Cairo, founded by Akbah, 120.
INDEX.
1063
Caissons, in cylindrical vaulting, how to
regulate, 2835, 2836. In hemispherical
vaulting, 2837.
Culdarium of the Roman baths, 235.
Caldogno, villa, cornice of, 2725.
Camalodunum, first Roman colony in
Britain, 381.
Camber slip, bricklayer's, 1890.
Campbell, Colin, architect, temp. George I.,
and his works, 504.
Campden, Gloucestershire, parochial church
of, 421.
Campden House, Gloucestershire, 445. De-
scription of, 451.
Campo Vaccino, columns of, 2547.
Canarah, excavations in Island of Salsette,
near Bombay, 57.
Cancellaria at Rome, doorway at, 2739.
Cannons, Middlesex, James employed on,
505.
Canterbury Castle, 394. 398.
Canterbury Cathedral, 396. 398. 421.
Founders and dimensions of, 434.
Canterbury Cathedral, Appendix, p. 830.
Central tower of, Appendix, p. 835.
Capitals of columns, mode of gluing up
2203, 2204.
Capitals of columns, origin of, 135.
Capitals of pilasters, 2677, et seq. Tuscan
and Doric, 2677. Ionic, 2678. Corin-
thian and Composite, 2679.
Caprarola, arcade at, 2637. Doorway at,
2737.
Carceres of the Roman Circus, 240.
Cardiff Castle, 398.
Carisbrook Castle, 398.
Carita, convent of, at Venice, 354.
Carlisle Cathedral, 406. Founders and di-
mensions of, 434.
Carlo, Maderno, employed on St. Peter's,
336. 338. 341.
Carnac (Egypt), temple at, 81.
Carnac, in Britany, remains of Druidical
monument, 14. 40.
Carpenter's and joiner's work in specifica-
tions, 2285.
Carpentry and joinery, measurement and
value of labour of, 2330 — 2369.
Carpentry mechanical. See " Mechanical
Carpentry."
Carpentry practical, what, 2003. The tools
of the carpenter, ib. Antiquity of, 2004.
Among the moderns, 2005. Scarfing,
2007. Mortises and tenons, 2008, 2009.
Method of framing wall-plates, together
at angles, 2009. Most approved method
of forming butments for struts and braces,
2010. Straps, 2011. Bolts, 2012. Floor-
ing and floors, 2013 — 2023. Single floor-
ing, 2014. Common joists and their
scantlings, 2014, 2015. Trimmers and
trimming joists, 2017. Double floor,
2019. Double-framed floor, 2020, 2021.
Girders, ib. Mode of trussing girders,
2021. Binding joists, 2022. Scantlings
of, ib. Ceiling joists and their scantlings,
ib. Floors, method of constructing, with
short timbers, 2023. Partitions, 2024,
2025. Carriage of stairs, 2026. Roofs,
slope of, 2027 — 2030. Tie-beam, 2031.
Collar-beam, ib. Sagging prevented, ib.
King post, ib. Truss, what, ib. Struts,
what, ib. Framing principal rafters,
2033. Queen posts, 2034. Straining
piece, ib. Mansard roof, 2035. Common
rafters, ib. Purlin, ib. Pole plate, ib.
Ridge piece, ib. Hip rafters, ib. Jack
rafters, ib. Scantlings of timbers for roofs,
ib. Mode of framing roofs of different
spans, 2042 — 2045. Roof of St. Martin's-
in-the- Fields, 2046. Of chapel at Green-
wich Hospital, 2047. Of old Drury Lane
Theatre, 2048. Dome of St. Paul's,
2049. Of S. Paolo fuori le Mura, 2051.
Delorme's mode of framing domes, 2052.
Lines for framing roof, 2053 — 2057.
Ribs for groins, 2058 — 2077. Bracket-
ing, 2079—2088. Domes, 2089. Pen-
dentives, 2090—2094. Bridges, 2095—
2099.
Carpentry, system of, in use among the
Chinese, 102.
Carr, of York, an architect, temp. George
III., 514. Much employed in northern
counties, ib.
Cart, Pietro, a German architect, 365.
Carter, pupil of Inigo Jones, 464.
Cartmell, in Lancashire, choir at, 398.
Carton, pierre enrichments, 2251.
Caryatides, used at an early period of the
art, 85. Account of their origin by Vi-
truvius, 165. Used in other than the
classic styles of architecture, 166. Pro-
bable origin, 168, 169.
Caryatides and Persians, 2682, et seq. By
Jean Gougeon, 2683. 2693. Those de-
signed for Whitehall, 2685. By Michel
Angelo, 2687, 2688. 2691. By Biffi, at
Milan, 2689. By Quellinus, from Am-
sterdam, 2690. At the Louvre, 2693.
From the arch of the Goldsmiths at Rome,
2694.
Casement, 2532.
Caserta, palace at, described, 2877, 2878.
Castel St. Angelo at Rome, 256.
Castella, of aqueducts, what, 225.
Castle Abbey, Northamptonshire, 452.
Castle Howard, in Yorkshire, by Vanbrugh,
494.
Castle Rising Castle, 398.
Castle Rising, Norfolk, parochial church of,
398.
Castles encouraged by William the Con-
queror, 393. And William Rufus, ib.
Description of, and list, 394. Gateway,
important part of, 416.
Castles of Benevento, Penafiel, and Torde-
sillas, 128.
Castles, principal, in the time of the Nor-
mans, 394.
Castletown (Derbyshire) Castle, 391.
Castor Castle, in Norfolk, 391.
Catenarean curve, contained in walls of
Gothic buildings, Appendix, p. 829.
3 Y 4
1064
INDEX.
Cathedrals, English, synoptical view of
their leading dimensions, 435. Having
parts of Norman erection, 396.
Cathedrals, principal of France, and their
dates, 317. Of Italy, 318. Of Spain,
320. Of Portugal, 321.
Catledge House, date and founder, 446.
Caudebee, sacristy, Appendix, p. 830.
Lady Chapel of, Appendix, pp. 833. 837.
Caumont, M., his work, Appendix, p. 829.
His division of styles, Appendix, p. 830.
Cavaedium of a Roman house, 246.
Caves of Ellora, description of apartments
at, 56. Indra Subba, apartments of, ib,
Cavetto, Mouth, or Hollow, 2532.
Cavetto, ornament in Norman architecture,
397.
Cecil, Sir Thomas, a house designed for, at
Wimbledon, by Thorpe, 440.
f felling joists, 2019 — 2022.
Ceilings, in plastering, how set, 2246.
Ceilings, ribbed, how measured, 2339.
Ceilings, 2815, et seq. Type for forming
panels in, 2816. Coves to, ib. Examples
of ornaments for, ib. Examples of sub-
divisions, 2817, 2818. Cornices to, pro-
portions of, 2819.
Cellae domesticae et familiaricae of a Roman
house, 253.
Cements, 1863—1867.
Centering, how measured, 2332.
Centering, value of labour of, 2349.
Centre of motion, 1241.
Centre-bits, plumber's, 2212.
Centre of gravity, 1242. 1266—1292. See
" Mechanics and Statics."
Cesspools, bad substitutes for drains and
sewers, 1887.
Chalda?a, architecture of, 9.
Chambers, Sir William, architect, temp.
George III., 518. His works, 518 —
520. His Treatise on Architecture, 520.
Chapel at Greenwich Hospital, roof of,
2047.
Chapel of San Bernardino, by San Micheli,
350.
Chapel of St. Pietro in Montorio, 335.
Character of Elizabethan architecture, 449.
Characteristics of early English architec-
ture, 405. Arches, i&. Trefoil and cinque-
foil heads, ib. Columns, ib. Windows,
ib. Roofs, ib. Walls, ib. Ornaments, ib.
Plans, ib.
Characteristics of ornamented English style
in arches, columns, windows, roof, or
ceiling ornaments, 420.
Characteristics of the Tudor style in win-
dows, ceilings, flying buttresses, orna-
ments, canopies, pedestals, &c., 430.
Characters of the different orders, 2538,
et seq.
Charite, la, sur Loire, church at, 289.
Charlemagne, architectural era of, 283. 289.
Charles V., of France, architecture under,
311.
Charles V., of Spain, a great patron of ar-
chitecture, 368.
Charles VI., of France, architecture under,
311.
Charles VIII., of France, acquainted with
the arts of Italy, 358.
Charlton House,* Kent, 452.
Charlton House, Wilts, 445. 451,452.
Chartres, cathedral of, 289. Appendix, p.
831.
Chased mortises, 2019.
Chateau d'Ecouen, by Bullant, 357.
Chateau Fontaine le Henri, Appendix, p.
853.
Chateau de Meilau, Appendix, p. 853.
Chel-Minar, or Persepolis, ruin* of, 46 — 49.
Chelsea Hospital, 2976.
Chepstow Castle, 402.
Cherson, church at, 375.
Chester Cathedral, 398. Founders: and di-
mensions of, 434.
Chester, conventual church of St. John at,
398.
Chesterford Castle, in Essex, 391.
Chevron ornament, 397.
Chichester Cathedral, 398. 421. Founders
and dimensions of, 434.
Chillambaram, on the Coromandel coast,
pagoda at, 58.
Chimney openings, how proportioned by
Morris, 2792. By Chambers, ib. An-
gular funnels of, 2793.
Chimney pieces, 2788, et seq. Method of
proportioning dressings of, 2789. Exam-
ples of, 2790, 2791. Materials employed
in, 2794.
Chimney shafts, 2795. Well designed by
Vanbrugh, ib.
China, architecture of, 9.
Chinese architecture : — Tent, the type of,
93. Does not seem to have improved, 94.
Principles of, as connected with its type,
95. Quality of, is gaiety of effect, 96.
Its ornaments, 97. Timber, chief mate-
rial used in, 98. Brick also employed,
ib. Police of, and regulations in build-
ing, ib.
Chinese houses described generally, 101.
Chinese palaces, 103. That at Pekin de-
scribed, 103.
Chinese wall, description of, 108.
Chisel, a carpenter's tool, 2003.
Chisels, mason's, 1909.
Chisels, the firmer, paring, 2111. Mortise,
2112.
Chiswick, villa at, by Lord Burlington, 509.
Cholula, great pyramid of, 112.
Chopping block, bricklayer's, 1890.
Christmas, Gerard, an architect, temp. Eliza-
beth, 442.
Christ Church College, Oxford, 426. 2904.
Christ Church, Hampshire, church at, 398.
Christ Church, Oxford, 391. Chapter
house, 4O6. Founders and dimensions
of, 434.
Christ Church, Spitalfields, by Hawksmoor,
499.
Church of our Lady of Kevan at St. Peters-
burg, founded, 378.
INDEX.
1065
Churches, 2870, et seq. Best forms of,
2871. Portico essential, 2872. Use of
the modern church, 2873. Form of ba-
silica well adapted to, 2874. Facilities
in designing in that form, 2875. St.
James's, Westminster, description of, ib.
Maximum of size for all to hear well, ib.
General and usual forms of pulpits of,
2876.
Churches built by Wren in London, list of,
and their cost, 488.
Churches from 9th to 12th century, and
after 12th century, general forms of sec-
tions, 290.
Churches, new commissioners for building,
521.
Churches of Greek religion, distribution of,
described, 375.
Churton Mendip, parochial church of, 421.
Cicero's Formian and Tusculan villas, 243.
Cigoli, door by, 2742.
Cima recta, 2129. Reversa, ib.
Circle, segments of, table of areas when the
diameter is unity, 1225.
Circle, to describe independent of a centre,
2074.
Circles, 908 — 928.
Circles of stone common in Wales and the
Western Isles, in Iceland, Norway, Swe-
den, and various parts of Germany, 1 6.
Circles of stones used by the Israelites, 1 5.
One set up by Joshua, ib. Remains of,
in counties of Derby, Devon, Dorset,
Somerset, and Westmoreland, 16.
Circular windows and their lobes, Appendix,
pp. 826, 827. 842, 843.
Circus Maximus at Rome, dimensions of,
240.
Circus of the Greeks and Romans, 240.
Clamps of bricks, 1816.
Clare Hall Chapel, Cambridge, designed by
Sir James Burrough, 490.
Clarke, Dr., an able amateur architect, 490.
Claudius, architecture under, in Britain,
381.
Claudius, temple of, at Camalodunum, 381.
Clear coaling, what, 2273.
Clef de Voute, or Boss, Appendix, p. 835.
Clermont, fountain at, Appendix, p. 853.
Cliefden House, Bucks, 465.
Climates of Europe, 1030.
Clinkers, 1824.
Clinkers, Dutch, 1830.
Clips, glazier's, 2229.
Closet knobs, 2263.
Clugny, abbey of, 289.
Cluny, Hotel de, Appendix, p. 853.
Coarse stuff, plasterer's, 2235.
Cobarrubias, an architect of Spain, 367,
368.
Cockermouth Castle, 398.
Colchester Castle, 394.
Colchester, monastery of, 389.
Coleshill House, in Berkshire, by Jones,
462.
Colin Campbell, window by, 2771.
Coliseum, 2547.
Coliseum, or Flavian amphitheatre, at Rome,
192. 228, 229. Drainage of, 231.
Collar beam, 2031. 2034.
Colleges, 2899, et seq. Parts of, 2899.
Ours different from continental, 2900. At
Rome described, 2901. One at Genoa,
2902. At Paris, 2903. At Oxford and
Cambridge, 2904. Queen's College, Ox-
ford, good example as to disposition, ib.
Christchurch, Oxford, 2906. Trinity Col-
lege, Cambridge, 2907. King's College,
Cambridge, ib. Corpus Christi, Cam-
bridge, a bad modern example, ib.
Cologne, cathedral of, described, and plan
and elevation thereof, 306. Contributions
of late years to the fabric, 307. Average
yearly expenditure on, 308.
Cologne, John and Simon of, early German
architects, 365.
Colonette of shafts, Appendix, p. 839.
Colonna, author of the Poliphili Hypnero-
tomachia, 326.
Column in Place Vendome at Paris, 363.
Columns, Chinese, mode of forming, 10.
Columns, grouping of, 2614.
Columns, heights and diameters of ancient
Roman, 2547. Diminution of, according
to heights, 2548. Height and diminution
of, 2543, et seq. Vignola's method of
diminishing, 2545. BlondePs method,
2546. Diminution in ancient examples,
2547.
Columns in apartments, how arranged, 2849
— 2851.
Columns, mode of gluing up, in joinery,
2201. Origin of, 135.
Columns should not penetrate each other,
2681.
Columns, stone, mode of working, 1925.
Comari palace at Venice, 351.
Combe Abbey, by Winde, 465.
Combination of parts of a building, 2825,
et seq. Horizontal and vertical, 2838.
Combination of parts in leading forms,
2855. Examples of, 2856. Method of
abbreviation in composition, 2857. De-
sign proceeded with, 2858. Examples,
2859, 2860.
Common joists and their scantlings, 2014,
2015.
Common rafters, 2035.
Complement of an arc, 1037.
Compasses, bricklayer's 1890.
Compluvium of a Roman house, 247. 253.
Composite order, table of examples, 264.
General proportions of, 265.
Composite order, 2591, et seq. Vignola's
profile of, 2592. Table of parts of, ib.
Parts to a larger scale, 2593. Mode of
profiling capital of, 2594. Profile of, by
Vitruvius, 2595, By Palladio, 2596.
By Serlio, 2597. By Scamozzi, 2598.
Arrangements of modillions, 2614.
Composition enrichments, 2252.
Composition, general principles of, 2825,
et seq. Ornament a non-essential, 2826.
Facades should depend on internal dis-
1066
INDEX.
tribution, 2827. What compositions
please, 2828. Method of the Gothic
architects as to windows, 2829. Talent
of an architect how to be judged of,
2829, 2830. Drawings necessary in, 2831,
et seq.
Composition, method of abbreviation in,
2857.
Compound interest and annuity tables, Ap-
pendix, p. 859, et seq.
Compound quantities, subtraction of, 655 —
658. Multiplication of, G59 — 661. Di-
vision of, 652 — 666. Squares of, 680 —
687. Extraction of roots of, 688 — 692.
Higher powers of 702 — 706.
Compound relations, 763 — 773.
Concamerata sudatio of the Roman baths,
236.
Concave bricks, 1829.
Concave surfaces, to form, in joinery, 2199.
Concord, Ionic temple of, at Rome, 213.
Concrete, how composed, 1862.
Conditions annexed to specifications, 2294.
Cone, sections of, 1056 — 1109.
Confraternite des Fonts founded by St.
Benezet, 310.
Conic sections, 1056 — 1109. Definitions,
1057. Ellipsis, 1058—1082. Hyberbola,
1083—1094. Parabola, 1095— 1109.
Conic surfaces, to form, in joinery, 2206,
2207.
Conisburgh Castle, 394.
Conisterium of the Greek gymnasium, 175.
Of the Roman baths, 235.
Constantine unsuccessful in restoring the
art, 199. His attempt towards it, 200.
His triumphal arch, 201.
Constantinople, works at, by Theodosius,
Anastasius, and Justinian, 271.
Constantius exhibited little desire to restore
the art, 202.
Convent della Pace at Rome, by Bramante,
33 5a
Conventual architecture, 435.
Conway Castle, and view of, 402 — 404.
Coppen, Sir George, a design for, by Thorpe,
440.
Copper, 1787 — 1791. A metal early em-
ployed, 1787. Weight, 1787. Ore in
England, where found, and how smelted,
1788. Sheet copper, its uses in build-
ing, 1789. Alloyed with zinc for furni-
ture, 1790. With zinc for the formation
of bell metal, 1791.
Copthall, Essex, built for Sir Thomas
Heneage, 440.
Cora, Cyclopean remains at, 32.
Cora, near Velletri, walls of, 179.
Corbel table ornament, 397.
Cordova, mosque of, commenced by Abder-
haman, 126. Described, ib.
Corduan, lighthouse of, 2929.
Corfe Castle, Dorset, 391. 394.
Corinthian arcade, 2625. With pedestal,
2631.
Corinthian capital, origin of, according to
Vitruvius, 140.
Corinthian order, 2582, et seq. Vignola's
profile of, 2583. Table of parts of, ib.
Parts of, to a larger scale, 2584. Mode
of drawing capital, 2585. Volutes of, 2586.
Parts of the capital, ib. Profile of, by
Vitruvius, 2587. By Palladio, 2588.
By Serlio, 2589. By Scamozzi, 2590.
Expedients relative to modillions, 2614.
Best manner of proceeding, ib.
Corinthian order in Greece, 161, et seq.
Corinthian order of the Romans, 262. Table
of examples, ib. General proportions of,
263.
Corn, or Wheat, weight of, Appendix, p.
884.
Cornice crowning buildings, 2724, et seq.
Proportion it should bear to the total
height of building, 2725. That of Farnese
palace, ib. Of the Spanocchi palace, at
Siena, ib. Of the Piccolomini palace, at
Siena, ib. Of the Pojana palace, by Pal-
ladio, ib. Of the Strozzi palace at Florence,
ib. Of the Pandolfini palace at Florence,
ib. Of the Villa Monteccio, by Palladio,
ib. Of the Villa Caldogno, by Palladio,
ib. Of another villa for same family, ib.
Of the Farnese palace, ib. Of the Gondi
family at Florence, ib. Entablature by
Vignola, 2726. Block cornices, 2727,
2728.
Cornices, brick, 1 904.
Cornices, in plastering, 2250.
Cornices of the Florentine palaces, 327. 329.
Cornices of rooms, proportions of, 281 9.
Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, 2904.
Cortona, walls of, 179.
Co-secant of an arc, 1014.
Co-sine of an arc, 1042.
Co-tangent of an arc, 1043.
Cottage orne", 3001.
Cottages, 3005, et seq. Loudon's observa-
tions on, 3007.
Counterforts, 1592.
Countersinks, 2108.
Countess slates, 1806.
Coupled columns, 267.
Course of brickwork, what, 1894.
Court of the Lions in the Alhambra de-
scribed, 127.
Courts of law, 2888, et seq. Very ill con-
trived in this country, ib. Requisites for,
2891. Entrances and exits, 2892. Pro-
vinces, 2893.
Coved vaulting, 1464 — 1477.
Covent Garden, square of, by Jones, 462.
Covent Garden Theatre, 2958 — 2967.
Covering boards of domes, groins, &c.,
2068—2078.
Covering of buildings, comparative weights
of different materials, 1796.
Covert, Sir Walter, a house in Sussex de
signed for, by Thorpe, 440.
Coves of ceilings, height of, 2816.
Cowdray, Sussex, mansion, 426.
Crate of glass, 1872.
Crennels of a castle, what, 394.
Croisee d'Ogive, Appendix, p. 835.
INDEX.
1067
Cromlechs described, 23. Found on the
Malabar coast, ib.
Crosses, different sorts of, Appendix, p. 846.
Crow iron, bricklayer's, 1890.
Crown glass, 1869.
Crown tiles, 1835.
Croyland, monastery of, expenses for build-
ing, how raised, 392. Conventual church
of, 421.
Crushing weight of several materials, 1500.
Of a cubic foot of brickwork, 1833.
Cube roots, 601— 6O5. Table of, 873.
Cubes and the extraction of their roots,
699—701. Table of, 873.
Cubiculum of a Roman house, 253.
Cuen9a, cathedral of, 368.
Cul de Four, what, 1995.
Cunei of the Roman theatre, 226.
Curb for circular windows, to form, 2065.
Current, in plumbery, 2213.
Cur-tail step, 2186. 2190—2192.
Custom-houses, 2944, et seq. Requisites in,
2944. That of London, 2945.
Cutters, bricks, species of, 1821.
Cutting knives, plumber's, 2212.
Cyclopean buildings, four eras of, according
to Mr. Hamilton, 32.
Cyclopes, the seven, Jacob Bryant's opinion
on, 31.
Cylindrical surfaces, to form in joinery,
2198. 2205.
Cyma, Cyma recta, or Cymatium, 253.
D.
Dado, value of labour of, 2368.
Dais in a castle, what, 394.
Damascus houses, how built, 131.
Dance, George, architect, temp. George III.,
521.
Darby, Mr., a London house for, designed
by Thorpe, 440.
David I. of Scotland, his zeal in erecting
religious buildings, 392.
Day, length of, longest in different coun-
tries of Europe, 1030.
Day work, materials and labour, how
charged in, 2322 — 2329.
Deal, three-quarter or slit, value of, 2368.
Deal, inch and quarter, value of labour on,
2368.
Deal, inch and half, value of labour on,
2368.
Deal, two inch, value of labour on, 2368.
Deal, two and half inch, value of labour on,
2368.
Deal,* three inch, value of labour on,
2368.
Deals and battens, memoranda relating to,
2362.
Deals, how to reduce, 2363. Table of va-
lues of, 2364. Explanation of, 2365.
De Brosse, Jacques, architect of the Luxem-
bourg in Paris, 358.
De Campo Aguero, a Spanish architect, 367.
Decimal fractions, infinite, 783—796.
Decimals, 861—867.
Decorated Gothic, or ornamented English,
410.
Decoration, 2513 — 2522. Arises from de-
sire of variety, 2515. Analogy in, 2517,
2518. Allegory in, 2520. Examples of,
2521, 2522.
De Cotte, Robert, employed in Germany,
366.
D'Emere, Garcia, celebrated architect of
Spain, 370.
D'Escobado, Giovanni, Alonso, and Fra.
Giovanni, early Spanish architects, 367.
De Foix, Luigi, a Spanish architect, 371.
De Gumiel, Piet.ro, an early Spanish archi-
tect, 367.
D'Herrera, Giovanni, a Spanish architect of
great fame, 371.
De Uria, Pietro, a Portuguese architect,
367.
Delorme, Philibert, one of the early French
architects, 357, 358. Translated into
English, 438. His mode of framing
domes, 2052. On pendents, Appendix,
p. 833.
Delphi, temple of, mentioned by Homer,
136.
Denbigh Castle, 398.
Denmark, buildings in, erected by Inigo
Jones, 456.
Denny bole slates, 1808.
Dentels, centres of, 2612.
Derby, plasterer's, described, 2242.
Descriptive geometry, explanation of, 1 1 10
— 1115. Division of, 1115. First class of
objects or solids with plane surfaces, 1116
— 1121. Second class or solids, termi-
nated by plane or curved surfaces, 1122
— 1124. Third class or solids, whose sur-
faces have a double curvature, 1 1 25 —
1129. Projection of right lines, 1130 —
1 133. Projection of surfaces, 1 134 — 1 136.
Projection of curved lines, 1137 — 1141.
Projection of solids, 1 1 42 — 1 1 48. Devel-
opement of solids whose surfaces are plane,
1149, 1150. Developement of regular
polyhedrons, 1151 — 1155. Developement
of pyramids and prisms, 1 1 56 — 1 158. De-
velopement of an oblique pyramid, 1159 —
1 1 64. Developement of right and oblique
prisms, 1165 — 1169. Developement of
right and oblique cylinders, 1 170 — 1174.
Developement of right and oblique cones,
1 1 75 — 1 1 83. Developement of bodies or
solids, whose surfaces have a double cur-
vature, 1 1 84 — J 1 90. Angles of planes or
surfaces by which solids are bounded,
1191—1211.
Design, architectural. See "Architectural
Design."
Design, method in proceeding to make one,
2833.
Diagannatha, temple of, at Ellora, 56.
Diamond, glazier's, 2226.
Diastyle intercolumniation, 2605. 2609.
2611.
Die of a pedestal, 260S.
1068
INDEX.
Dijon, palace at, Appendix, p. 849.
Dilapidations, mode of determining, &c.,
Appendix, p. 858.
Diminution of columns, 2543, et seq. Vig-
nola's method, 2545. Blondel's method,
2546. In ancient examples, 2547.
Diminution of columns according to their
height, 2548.
Dioclesian desirous of reviving the art, 198.
His palace at Spalatro described, and
plan, ib.
Dionysiaca of the Greeks, what, 172.
Dispersion of mankind from a central spot,
11—14.21.
Ditriglyph, 2611.
Division of simple quantities, 534 — 539.
Divisor, greatest common, 752, 753.
Djenonasla, temple of, at Ellora, 56.
Dog-legged staircase described, and mode
of forming, 2182.
Domes, mode of framing, by Delorme, 2052.
Circular and polygonal, to determine ribs
of, 2064. To cover with boards, 2070 —
2073. Construction of, in timber, 2089.
Domes, how to regulate caissons in, 2837.
Dome vaulting, in masonry, 1956, et seq.
1995 — 2002. Pendentives formed in,
1999.
Domestic architecture of the Romans, 242
—255.
Domestic architecture of the Tudor period,
423, et seq. Division into three periods,
425.
Domma, temple of, at Ellora, 56.
Doncaster, parochial church of, 421.
Door chains and barrels, 2263.
Doors, profiles of, 2729, et seq. Considered
in respect of masses and voids, 2730.
Their proper dimensions, 2731. Their
proper places and numbers, 2732. Their
decorations, 2733. Gates and piers, 2734.
Of St. Peter's, baptistery at Florence,
and San Giovanni Laterano, 2735. Manu-
facture of, 2736. Examples of doorways,
2737, 2738, 2739. At the Cancellaria,
2739. By Michel Angelo, 2740. By Vig-
nola, at the Farnese, 2741. By Cigoli,
2742. By Inigo Jones, 2743. By Serlio,
2744.
Doors, square and flat panel on both sides,
2133. Quirked ovolo fillet and flat with
square back, 2134. Quirked ovolo bead,
and flat panel with square back, 2135.
Quirked ovolo bead, fillet, and flat panel
with square back, 2136. Quirked ogee,
quirked bead, and flat panel _with square
back, 2137. Quirked ogee, cocked bead,
and flat panel with square back, 2138.
Cove, cocked bead, flat panel, and square
back, 2139. Quirked ovolo, bead, fillet,
and raised panel on front and square back,
2140. Quirked ovolo, bead, and raised
panel with ovolo on the raised panel and
square back, 2141. Quirked ogee, raised
panel with ovolo, and fillet on the rising,
and astragal on the flat of panel in front,
and square back, 2142. Quirked ovolo,
bead, fillet, and flat panel on both sides,
2143. Bead and flush front and quirked
ogee, raised panel with ovolo on the
rising, grooved on flat panel on back,
2144.
Doors, value of labour of, 2365—2367.
Doorways, Appendix, p. 843, et seq.
Dorbay, a French architect engaged on
Tuileries, 357.
Dorchester Church, Oxon, Appendix, p. 830.
Doric arcade, 2623. With pedestal, 2629.
Doric, Grecian, first used in Paris by An-
toine, 360.
Doric, Grecian, relative antiquity of exam-
ples determined from intervals between
the CDlumns, &c., 140. Dorus, imagined
inventor of, 140 — 142. Table of exam-
ples of, 142.
Doric, Greek, used in Germany by Lang-
hans, 366.
Doric order, among the Romans, 258. Of
the theatre of Marcel 1 us, ib. In the baths
of Dioclesian, ib. Of the Italian archi-
tects, ib.
Doric order, intercolumniations of, 2605.
Doric order, table of members composing
it, 2565. Vitruvius's profile of, 2566.
Palladio's profile of, 2567. Serlio's pro-
file of, 2568. Scammozzi's profile of,
2569. Grecian in the Parthenon, 2570.
Table of its parts, ib. Principal build-
ings of Grecian Doric, 2572.
Doric order, 2560. Vignola's commended
by Daviler, 2561. Parts of the mutular
Doric on larger scale, 2562. Table of
heights and projections, ib. Difficulties
in arranging entablature, 2563. How
employed by the ancients, 2564. Den-
ticular Doric, 2565. Parts of, on larger
scale, ib. Table of heights and projec-
tions, ib.
Doric temple at Corinth, early specimens,
146.
Doric temples, general proportions of place
examined, 152.
Dorrell, Sir Thomas, house for, designed
by Thorpe, 440.
Double bead, or double bead and quirk,
2128.
Double-framed flooring, 2013 — 2019.
Double slates, 1 809.
Dover Castle, Kent, 391. 393, 394.
Dowelled floors, 2171 — 2173.
Dowels, 2173.
Dragon beam, what, 2009.
Drainage of foundations, 1887, 1888.
Drawer handles, 2263.
Drawing in general, 2381. — As applied to
landscapes, 2404.
Drawing knife, 2114.
Drawing, methods of teaching, 2383, et seq.
Method of Dupuis, 2385. Ancient
method, 2387, et seq.
Drawings necessary in composition, 2831,
et seq. Consist of plan, section, and ele-
vation, 2832. In making a design, to
proceed on, 2833. Ought not to be co-
INDEX.
1069
loured nor highly finished in shadow,
2834. Of caissons in vaulting, 2835 —
2837. Of horizontal and vertical com-
binations, 2839, et seq. By interaxal
divisions, 2842. Prevention of false
bearings, 2843.
Dressing and flatting tool, plumber's, 2212.
Drips, in plumbery, 2213.
Droving, in masonry, 1914.
Druidical and Celtic architecture intro-
duced into Britain by the Canaanites of
Tyre and Sidon, 14.
Druids of the British Isles, a colony of the
first race of people, 11.
Drury Lane Theatre, 2958. Old Drury
Lane, 2967.
Drury Lane Theatre, old, roof of, 2048.
Drybergh Abbey, 431.
Drying oil, what, and how made, 2274.
Du Cerceau, one of the early French archi-
tects engaged on Tuileries, 357.
Duchess slates, 1805.
Dungeon of a castle, what, 394.
Duodecimals, 868 — 872.
Durham Castle, 394. 398. 414.
Durham Cathedral, 406. Founders and
dimensions of, 434.
Durham Cathedral, Appendix, p. 836.
Kitchen, 837.
Duster, glazier's, 2226.
Dutch clinkers, 1830.
Dutch arras, 1866.
E.
Earl's Barton Tower, Northamptonshire,
398.
Early English architecture, 399, et seq.
Characteristics of, 405. Examples of,
406.
Eastbury House, in Dorsetshire, by Van-
brugh, 495.
Echinus, or quarter round, 2532.
Ecole de Medecine, at Paris, 363.
Edfou, near Thebes, temple at, described,
77.
Edgar the Peaceable, his care of the Anglo-
Saxon buildings, 386.
Eddystone Lighthouse, 2930.
Egypt, architecture of, 9.
Egyptian architecture, its analysis and de-
velopement, 70, et seq. Considered in
respect of style, taste, and character, 76,
et seq., 84, et seq. Temples and tombs,
the principal work in it, 67. Mono-
tonous, 88.
Egyptian architecture, physical causes which
affect it, 63, et seq. No circular temple
in, 69.
Egyptian architecture, principal edifices
and their situations, and map of the Nile,
91.
Egyptian earlier than Greek architecture,
10.
Egyptian temple, form and disposition of,
described, 76.
Elaeotherium of the Greek gymnasium, 175.
Of the Roman baths, 235.
Electroplating, Appendix, p. 1797.
Elephanta, near Bombay, excavated temple
of, 57.
Elizabeth did not patronise architecture,
438.
Elizabethan architecture, or last Tudor style,
425. 436, et seq. Character of, 449. Se-
pulchral monuments, ib. Absurdity of
attempting to revive it in the present
day, ib.
Elizabethan architecture practised till the
days of Inigo Jones, 445.
Elizabethan palatial houses, list of, 446.
Ellipsis, 1058—1082.
Elliptical arch, to draw, in masonry, and
find the joints, 1934—1937.
Ely, capitals at, 390. Arch at, ib. Priors'
entrance at, 397, 398.
Ely Cathedral, 406. Founders and di-
mensions of, 434.
Ely House, Dover Street, by Taylor, 515.
Engaged pilasters, Burlington House, 2615.
England, Saxon churches of, 290.
English bond, 1892. 1894.
Enrichments in plastering, 2250.
Entablature, height of, 2523, et seq., 2542.
2544.
Entablatures, subdivision of, 2549.
Entasis, or swelling of columns, first verified
by Mr. Allason, 144. Explanation of
the object of it, ib.
Entasis, 2545.
Eopylae, Appendix, p. 824.
Eosander, a German architect, 365.
Eotholae, Appendix, p. 824.
Ephebeum of the Greek gymnasium, 175.
Of the Roman baths, 235.
Episcenium of the Greek theatre, 172.
Equations, simple, resolution of, 816 — 824.
Resolution of two or more of the first
degree, 825 — 832. Of pure quadratic
equations, 833 — 841. Of mixed, of the
second degree, 842 — 848. Of complete
equations of the third degree, 849 — 8GO.
Equilateral triangle applied to buildings,
Appendix, p. 821.
Equilibrium necessary for fitness, 2500.
Erectheus, Ionic temple of, at Athens, 155.
Erwin of Steinbach, architect of cathedral
at Strasburg, 305.
Escurial, designs for, by Giovanni Battista
of Toledo, 370, 371. Cause of its erec-
tion, ib. Described, ib.
Esher, in Surrey, palace at, 426.
Esneh, ruins at, 71.
Estimating, 2295, et seq.
Eaton College Chapel, 421.
Etruscan architecture, probably a branch of
the Cyclopean, 178. Marked by great
solidity of construction, 179.
Euclid's Elements early used, Appendix,
p. 819.
Eudes de Montreuil, architect, 310.
Eustyle intercolumniation, 2605 — 2611.
Evreux Cathedral, Appendix, p. 830.
1070
INDEX.
Examples of the Florid or Tudor style,
432.
Excavator's work in specifications, 2281.
Exchanges, 2937, et seq. Definition of,
2937. How sometimes designed, 2938.
That of Amsterdam, 2939. Sir Christo-
pher Wren's opinion relative to, 2940.
New Royal Exchange, 2941. That at
Paris described, 2943.
Exedra of the Greek gymnasium, 175. Of
the Roman baths, 235.
Exedrae of a Roman house, 252, 253.
Exeter Castle gateway, 391.
Exeter Cathedral, founders and dimensions
of, 434.
F.
Fagade of Nero at Rome, 262.
Falling mould of stairs, 2188.
Fancelli and Michelozzo, scholars of Bru-
nelleschi, 323.
Fancy colours in painting, 2272 — 2276.
Fan vaults, Appendix, pp. 833, et seq.,
837.
Farm-houses, 3002, et seq. Distribution
of, 3003. On large scale, 3004.
Farnese Palace cornice, 2725. Door at,
2741.
Farnese Palace, door at, by Vignola, 2741.
Window at, 2763.
Fauces of a Roman house, 250. 253.
Fez, ancient Arabian city, described gene-
rally, 132.
Fiesole, walls of, 179.
Figures in decoration, 2519. 2521. Similar,
958—968.
Filippo, Mastro, a Spanish architect, 367.
Fillet, Listel, or Annulet, 2532.
Fillets, 2129.
Fine stuff, plasterer's, 2236.
Fischers, a German architect, 365.
Fitness, the basis of proportion, 2496, 2497.
Dependent on equilibrium, 2500. Max-
ims relating to, 2502.
Fitzwilliam. Mr. William, house designed
for, by Thorpe, 440.
Flamboyant style, Appendix, p. 829, et seq.
Foliage in, 830. Sculpture in, ibid.
Flashings, in plumbery, 2213.
Flemish bond, 1892. 1897.
Flemish bricks, 1830.
Fliers, in stairs, 2186.
Flitcroft, Henry, an architect, temp. George
II., 512.
Float stone, bricklayer's, 1840.
Floated work, plasterer's, 2242.
Flooring and floors, 2013 — 20^3. Single,
2014, et seq. Constructed with short
pieces of timber, 2023. Boards, value of
labour of, 2368.
Flooring, value of labour of, 2350.
Floors, 2168—2173.
Floors, variable loads on, and largest weight
placed on, 1778.
Florence, palaces of, 358.
Florentine school of architecture, 329.
Principles of, best traced in the palaces,
330. Principal churches of, ib. Byzan-
tine architecture traced in works of, 332.
Period of, 333. Principal masters of, ib.
Florid English or Tudor style, its a?ra, &c.,
422, et seq. Examples in Scotland, 431.
In England, 432,
Flush rings, 2263.
Flutes of columns, their nature and pro-
bable origin, 145.
Folded floor, what, 2168.
Folding doors, what, 2130.
Fontaine de la Croix, Rouen, Appendix, p.
848.
Fontaine le Henri Chateau, Appendix, pp.
853, 854.
Fontana, Carlo, employed at Fulda and
Vienna, 365.
Fontana, Domenico, employed on St. Pe-
ter's, 336. Palace by, 344.
Foot's Cray, villa at, 3000.
Fora of the Romans described, 218. Ci-
vilia and Venalia, ib. Great Forum at
Rome, ib. Forum of Nerva, ib. Forum
of Trajan, ib. Forum at Fano, built by
Vitruvius, ib. Forum at Pompeii, de-
scription and plan, 219.
Formation of bodies by glue in joinery,
2193—2208.
Formeret, Appendix, p. 835.
Fortuna Virilis (Ionic), temple of, at Rome,
212.
Foundations, 1881 — 1888. Vitruvius's ad-
vice on, 1 881. Best soils for, 1882, 1883.
What depth they should be, 1884. Use
of inverted arches in, 1885. Walls
above, should be kept dry, 1886. Drain-
age of, 1887.
Founder's work in specifications, 2286.
Founder's work, method of estimating,
2374.
Foundery, 2265, 2266.
Fountains, conventual church of, 398. 407.
Fractions, 549 — 554. Properties of, 555
— 557. Addition and subtraction of,
558 — 560. Multiplication and division
of, 561—574. Resolution of, into infi-
nite series, 667 — 679.
Framing of joinery, 2174, 2175.
France, oldest buildings in, 289.
France, principal cathedrals of, and their
dates, 317.
Francis I., of France, patron of arts in
France, 358.
Franking sash bars, 2165.
Freemasons, society of, 401 . 820. 822. An-
tiquity of, Appendix, pp. 819, 820.
French architects, attached to Venetian in
preference to Roman schools, 358. The
first in Europe, 360.
French casement frames, value of labour of
2368.
French school of architecture, 357. Early
masters of, 357, 358.
Frette-embattled ornament, 397.
Frette-triangular ornament, ib.
INDEX.
1071
Fretwork, glazier's, 2229.
Friction, 1331 — 1341. Observations on,
1364 — 1389.
Frigidarium of the Greek gymnasium,
175. Of the Roman baths, 235.
Frize panels of a door, 2130.
Frize rails of a door, 2130.
Fuller, prebendary of Sarum, his aphor-
isms relating to private buildings, 2985
—2989.
Funnels of chimneys, 2793.
Furness, conventual church of, 398.
Furring and battening, value of labour of,
2350. Joints of floors, 2169.
G.
Gabriel Jacques Anges, architect of Garde
Meuble at Paris, 360.
Gaillon, Chateau de, Appendix, pp. 847.
853.
Galleries, height of, 2822.
Gandon, an architect of reputation, 504.
Garde Meuble at Paris, by Mansart, 360.
Garde Meuble at Paris, 2887.
Garisendi Tower at Bologna, 2500.
Gate of the Lions at Mycene, 34.
Gates and piers, 2734.
Gauge, 2120.
Gauged arches, how measured, 2311.
Gauge stuff, 2237.
Geber, an early Spanish architect, 368.
Genius in architecture, what, 2492.
Genoa, church of S. Lorenzo at, 319.
Geometrical progression, 774 — 782.
Geometrical proportion, 754 — 762.
Geometrical ratio, 749 — 751 .
Geometrical staircase in joinery described,
and mode of forming, 2184. Much used
on the Continent, 2185.
Geometry denned, 874. Definitions, 875.
Right lines and rectilineal figures, 876 —
907. Circles, 908 — 928. Surfaces, 929
— 934. Proportion, 935 — 957. Similar
figures, 958 — 968. Planes, 969 — 978.
Solids, 979—995.
Geometry, practical, 996 — 1031. Conic
sections, 1032.
Gerbert (Sylvester II.), Appendix, p. 819.
Gerbier, Sir Balthazar, employed soon after
the Restoration, 465.
German architecture, 365, et seq.
German sheet glass, 1873.
Germany, early architects of, 365. Em-
ployed in other countries, ib. Italian ar-
chitects employed in, ib.
Germany, two different styles in its ancient
churches, 283.
Germany, two principal churches of, 305.
Ghent, prison at, 2981.
Gibbs, James, an architect of great repu-
tation, temp. George L, and criticism
by Walpole on, 501. Works of, 502,
503.
Giddea Hall, Essex, altered by Thorpe,
440.
Gilding, 2277.
Giralda, celebrated bell tower at Seville,
320.
Giralda, La, tower of, at Seville, 368o
Girders, 2020. Scantlings for, 2021.
Girders, how measured, 2335.
Gisborne Priory, conventual church of,
421.
Gisborough Castle, 398.
Glass, 1868 — 1875. Constituent parts, 1868,
Crown glass, 1869. Common window
glass, how made, 1870. Knob-glass, ib.
Three qualities of, 1872. German-sheet,
1873. Plate, 1874, and Glossary. Pliny's
account of discovery of, 1875.
Glass used in Anglo-Saxon buildings, 385,
386.
Glastonbury Abbey, 435.
Glastonbury, chapel of St. Joseph at,
398.
Glastonbury, monastery of, 389.
Glazier's vice, 2228.
Glazier's work in specifications, 2289.
Glazier's work, method of estimating, 2378.
Glazing, 2225—2231. Knife, 2226.
Gloucester, St. Peter's, 396, 397. 421.
Founders and dimensions of, 434.
Glover, Moses, an architect employed in
completing Northumberland House, and
probably Sion House, 442.
Godstone House, design for corridor, 440.
Going of stairs, 2179.
Gondi Palace, cornice of, 2725.
Gondouin, Jean Jacques, celebrated French
architect, 363.
Gores of boards for covering domes, groins,
&c., 2068—2078.
Gormanbury House, date and founder, 446.
Gosfield Hall, Essex, 426.
Gothic arch, in masonry, to draw and find
the joints, 1938—1941.
Gothic architecture, 294- — 456., and Ap-
pendix, pp. 819 — 857. See also " Pointed
Architecture," and " Florid English."
Gothic, decorated. See " Decorated Go-
thic."
Gotthard, a German architect, 366.
Gouge, 2113.
Gouge-bit, 2107.
Gougeon, Jean, the sculptor, 358.
Goutard, a German architect, 366.
Government offices, 2883, et seq. Character
of. 2883. Disposition of, 2884. Parts of
Bank of England, by Soane, good ex-
amples, 2885. Admiralty and Treasury,
instances of indifference of government
to the arts, 2886, 2887. Fine examples
of, in Paris, 2887.
Gradus of the Roman theatre, 226, 227.
Grafton, Duke of, house for, in Piccadilly,
by Taylor, 515.
Granada, church at, 368. Palace at, ib.
Granite, 1668 — 1672. Constituent parts
of, 1669. Not decomposed by acids,
1670. Grey granite or moorstone, 1671.
Peterhead, ib. Weight of different sorts
of, 1672.
1072
INDEX.
Grantham, parochial church at, 408. 42 L
Gravity, centre of, 1242. See " Centre of
Gravity."
Grecians, early buildings of, were palaces
of princes, 137. Described, ib.
Grecian temple, origin of, 139.
Grecian architecture, strict meaning, as dis-
tinguished from Roman, 134. No arches
used in, ib.
Grecian identical with columnar architec-
ture, 133.
Greek churches, distribution of, described,
375 — 377.
Greenwich Church, by James, 505.
Greenwich Hospital, 2976.
Greenwich Hospital, interior of chapel, by
Stuart, 516.
Greenwich, Palace at, 423.
Greenwich, Queen's House at, by Inigo
Jones, 462.
Gregory III. (Pope), arts under, 281.
Greville, Sir Robert, garden front for, near
Gray's Inn, 440.
Grimani Palace, Verona, by San Micheli,
350.
Grimsthorpe, Lincolnshire, palace at, 426.
Grinding stone, bricklayer's, 1890.
Groined arches in brickwork, 1903.
Groined vaulting, 1444—1456. Ready
method of equilibrating, 1457, 1458.
Applied to churches with naves and aisles,
1459—1463.
Groining, simplest form of, Appendix, p.
835.
Groins, in masonry, 1945, et seq. Where
they intersect in the plane of the diagonal,
1945. Where the narrow opening is a
semicircle, and the wide one a semi-
ellipse, 1 946. With two circular vaults
of different heights, 1947, 1948. When
they are of the same height and of
different species, 1949. When a cylin-
drical and conic vault intersect, 1950.
When the centres are made for the widest
avenue, 1951. For rectangular groins,
1952. When several vaults meet in a
common centre, 1953. When the piers
of support are octangular, 1954. Arches
intersecting a coved ceiling, 1955. In
inclined vaults, 1957, 1958.
Groins, to describe parts where the arches
are of unequal height, 2059. To describe,
where the parts are of equal heights,
2060. Ribs for, 2058—2077.
Groove, what, 2104.
Grounds, 2166, 2167.
Grounds, value of labour of, 2368.
Grozing irons, plumber's, 2212.
Guarini, employed at Prague, 365.
Guildford Castle, 394. 398.
Guiloches, 2817. .
Gundulph, introduced ornament to Norman
architecture, 395.
Gutter tiles, 1837.
Guttering, value of labour of, 2350.
Gymnasia of the Greeks, parts of them and
plan, 176.
H.
Hacking knife, glazier's, 2226.
Haddon Hall, Derbyshire, 426.
Hadrian's Villa, walls at, 1535.
Half paces, in stone stairs, 1929.
Hallman, architect of Hanover, 377.
Halls : at Westminster ; Chester ; Bristol ;
Woodstock ; Beaumont, in Oxford ;
Windsor ; Eltham ; Kenilworth ; Dart-
ington ; Crosby, in London ; Durham ;
Conway ; Raby ; Lumley ; Swansea ;
Castle Hall, Leicester ; Spofforth ; Caer-
philly ; Warwick ; second one, at Swan-
sea ; Berkeley, 414.
Halnacre, in Suffolk, 428.
Hamelin's cement, 1863. 1865.
Hammer, bricklayer's, 1890. Plumber's,
2212. Slater's, 2210.
Hampton Court, Herefordshire, 423.
Hampton Court, gateway at, 427.
Hampton Court, Middlesex, palace at, 426.
Handlinch House, Wilts, portico at, 516.
Handpick, slater's, 3210.
Handrails and curtail step, 2187—2192.
Handrail, value of labour of, 2368.
Hardwick Hall, date and founder, 446.
Hare wood, Lord, his house, by Carr, 514.
Harlaxton Hall, Lincolnshire, 426.
Harlech Castle, 402.
Harmony in architecture, 2509.
Hart, Sir Percival, Lullingstone, Kent, 440.
Haslerigg, Sir William, elevation designed
for, by Thorpe, 440.
Hatched ornament, 397.
Hatchet, 2117.
Hatfield House, 445. 451, 452.
Hatfield Lodge, a plan for, by Thorpe, 440.
Hawarden Castle, 398.
Hawk, plasterer's, 2234.
Hawksmoor, Nicholas, pupil of Wren, ac-
count of, and his works, 499.
Headers, what, 1 894.
Heckington, parochial church of, 421.
Hedingham Castle, 394. 398.
Height of columns, 2543, et seq.
Hempstead Marshall, finished by Winde,
465.
Hengreave Hall, Suffolk, 426.
Henry III., many religious buildings
founded in his reign, 401.
Herbert, Henry, Earl of Pembroke, an
amateur of talent, 508. His works, ib.
Hereford Cathedral, 398. 421. Founders
and dimensions of, 434.
Herodes Atticus, his munificence in archi-
tectural expenditure, 193. Temple of
Neptune in the Isthmus, ib. Theatre at
Corinth, ib. A stadium at Delphi, ib.
A bath at Thermopylae, ib. An aque-
duct at Canusium, ib.
Hever Castle, Kent, 426.
Hexastyle temples, 2528, et seq.
Hexham, cathedral at, 385.
Hieroglyphics in Egyptian architecture,
86.
INDEX.
1073
Higham Ferrars, parochial church of, 408.
421.
High Church, Edinburgh, alluded to,
485.
Hill Hall, Essex, 426.
Hingeing, 2149—2163.
Hinges, different sorts, 2258.
Hiorne, an architect, temp. George III.,
his works, 514.
Hip rafter, what, 2009.
Hip rafters, 2035.
Hip tiles, 1836.
Hips, to find back of, 2054.
Hod and board, slater's, 2210.
Hod, bricklayer's, 1 890.
Holbein, Hans, and his design of Whitehall
Palace, 427.
Holdenby, designed by Thorpe, for Sir
Christopher Hatton, 440.
Holkham, 2997.
Holkham, excellent distribution of plan,
2822.
Holkham, in Norfolk, by Kent, 511.
Holland, architect, temp. George III., 521.
Holland House, Kensington, built by
Thorpe for Sir Walter Cooper, 440. 452.
Hollow, 2532.
Hollow bricks, 1829.
Holte, Sir Thomas, ground-plan for, 440.
Holte, Thomas, architect of public schools
at Oxford, 443.
Holy Apostles, church of, at Constanti-
nople, 271.
Holy rood Chapel, finished by James II. of
Scotland, 431.
Hou, of the Chinese, 106.
Hontanon, an architect of Spain, 15th cen-
tury, 367.
Horse Guards, designed by Kent, 511.
Horseheath House, Cambridgeshire, by
Webb, 465.
Hospitals, 2973, et seq. What, 2973. Not
known to the ancients, 2974. Examples
of, in Durand's Parallele des Edifices,
particularly that at Milan, 2975. Of
Greenwich and Chelsea, 2976.
Hospitium of a Roman House, 251.
Hotel des Ambassadeurs, Dijon, Appendix,
p. 848. De Bourgtheroude, Rouen, Ap-
pendix, pp. 851, 852. De Cluny, Paris,
Appendix, p. 853.
Hotel des Invalides at Paris, 359.
Hotels de Ville, Bruges, Appendix, p. 855.
Brussels, pp. 848. 855, 856. Ghent, p.
857. Louvain, pp. 856, 857. Orleans,
p. 850. St. Quentin, p. 849.
Houghton Hall, water-house at, by Earl
of Pembroke, 508.
House of the Forest of Lebanon, 53.
Houses, first, according to Vitruvius, 5.
First, of the Egyptians, Peruvians, ib.
Present, of the Abyssinians, ib. In the
East, consisting of more tha« a single
story, 140. Terrace on the tops of them,
ib.
Housing, principal rafters, 2033.
Howard, Earl of Northampton, present
Northumberland House built for, 442.
Howden, conventual church of, 407. 451.
Hull, brick used early as a material at,
416.
Hiiltz, John, of Cologne, engaged on ca-
thedral at Strasburg, 305.
Human figure, proportions of, 2394. Ac-
tions of, 2396, et seq. Centre of gravity
of, ib. Motion of, 2397. In running,
2398. In preparing to strike, 2399. In
bearing a weight, 2400. In leaping,
2401. In leaning, 2402. In flying and
falling, 2403.
Hundred of lime, how much, 2303.
Hunsdon House, date and founder, 446.
Palace at, 426.
Hurlers, the, circle of stones in Cornwall,
16.
Hurstmonceaux in Sussex, 423.
Hyperbola, 1083—1094.
Hypnerotomachia, 326.
I.
Ifley Oxon, parochial church of, 398.
Ilyssus, Ionic temple, on the, 153.
Imaginary quantities, 593 — 600.
Imperial slates, 1804.
Impluvium of a Roman house, 247.
Impossible quantities, 593 — 600.
Imposts and archivolts of arcades, 2632.
Imposts, pendent, Appendix, pp. 833, 834.
837.
Inch tool, mason's, 1910.
Inclination of roofs in various climates,
2O27— 2030.
Inclined plane, 1293 — 1306.
Indian architecture, similarity of, to Perse-
politan, 55. Sir William Jones's opinion,
on, ib.
Indra Subba, column of, ib. Apartment of,
56.
Indra, temple of, at Ellora, ib.
Infinite decimal fractions, 783 — 796.
Ingelramme, employed on cathedral of
Notre Dame at Rouen, 516.
Inigo Jones, 425.
Inigo Jones, door by, 2743.
Inigo Jones, window by, 2770.
Inside head of sash frames, 2147.
Inside linings of sash frames, 2147.
Insula in Roman domestic architecture,
what, 253.
Integers, properties of, as respects their di-
visors, 540 — 548.
Interaxal divisions in a design, 2842. Pre-
vent false bearings, 2843. Applied to
the Villa Capra, ib. Great use in, 2844.
Used by Gothic architects, 2845. Ob-
ligations to Durand for introduction of,
2846. Number of, in different apart-
ments, 2848. Columns of, how arranged
in apartments, 2849. Applied in de-
signing churches, 2875.
3Z
1074
INDEX.
I ntercol animation, 2605, ct seq. Different
species of, ib. Of the Doric order, ib.
Of the Tuscan order, 2606. Of the
Ionic order, 2607. Of the Corinthian
order, 2608. Vignola's practice, 2610.
Cases of wide, 2613. Araeostyle, 2613.
To be of equal width, 2614 — 2616.
Interest, calculation of, 797 — 810. Solution
of problems in, 811 — 815.
Interiors of buildings, beauty of, 2504,
2505.
Interpenetration of mouldings, Appendix,
pp. 831, 832.
Intertie of a partition, 2025.
Invalids, hospital of, at Paris, points of
support of, 1581.
Inverted arches in foundations, 1885.
Ionic arcade, 2624. With pedestal, 2630.
Ionic order, inter col umniations of, 2607.
Ionic order, origin of, according to Vitru-
vius, 140. 2573, et seq. Vignola's profile
of, 2574. Table of parts of, ib. Parts
of, to a larger scale, 2575. Volutes of,
described, 2576. Profile of, by Vitru-
vius, 2577. By Palladio, 2578. By
Serlio, 2579. By Scamozzi, 2580. Gre-
cian, principal examples of, 2581. In the
temple on the Ilyssus, ib. Table of the
parts in the temple on the Ilyssus, ib.
Ionic order of the Greeks, height of its
columns, 154. Entablature, ib. Bases
of, 156. Volute of, 157.
Ionic order of the Romans, 260. Table of
examples, ib. General proportion of,
261.
Ipswich, college at, 426.
Irish, a colony of the first race of people, 11.
Iron, 1754—1780. Three species of the
ore, 1755. Mode of smelting, 1756 —
1759. Manufacture of bar iron, 1760,
1761. Malleable iron, 1762. Founding,
1764 — 1766. Security for supporting
weight, 1 767. Soft grey, best sort, 1 768.
Test of goodness of cast, 1769. Varies
in strength, 1770. Transverse strength
of, 1771—1774. Points relative to loads
on beams of, 1775 — 1777. Cohesive
strength of, 1779, 1780. Weight of cast
and bar, 1780.
Ironmonger's work, in specifications, 2286.
Ironmongery and smithery, 2253.
Iron work, how preserved from action of
moisture, 2264.
Irrational numbers, 583 — 592. 601 — 605.
Irrational powers, expressed by infinite
series, 712 — 718.
Irrational quantities, calculation of, 693 —
698.
Italian architecture, 323, et seq.
Italy, principal cathedrals of, and their
dates, 318.
Ivan IV. of Russia, a great patron of the
arts, 375.
Ivan Valiki, celebrated clock tower in Mos-
cow, 375.
Ivara, Filippo, a very celebrated architect
of Spain, 372.
J.
Jacchetti, a pupil of Ivara, a Spanish archi-
tect, 372.
Jack plane, plumber's, 2212.
Jack rafters, 2035.
James, John, an architect of reputation,
temp. George I., 505.
Jammet, Mons., house at Paris, design for,
by Thorpe, 440.
Jannin House near Paris, design for, by
Thorpe, 440.
Jansen, Bernard, an architect, temp. Eliza-
beth, 442.
Jedburgh Abbey, 431.
Jerusalem, temple of, constructed by Solo-
mon, described ; curious notion about, of
Villalpanda, 52. A small building, ib.
Its columns, ib.
Jib door, what, 2130.
Joffred, abbot of Croyland, 392.
Joggles in carpentry, 2009.
Joggles in stone stairs, 1927.
John of Gaunt's gateway at Lancaster
Castle, 416.
John of Padua and his followers, 425.
John VI. (Pope), arts under, 281.
Joiner's work and mode of measuring, va-
lue of labour of, 2351—2369.
Joinery, articles valued by running foot,
value of labour of, 2368.
Joinery, 2100, et seq. Defined, 21OO. Tools
used in, 2102 — 2124. Mouldings, 2126
— 2129. Wood used for, 2124. Doors,
2130—2145. Shutters, 2146—2148.
Hingeing, 2149—2163. Sash frames
and sashes, 2164, 2165. Grounds, 2166,
2167. Floors, 2168—2173. Framing,
2174,2175. Stairs, 2176— 2186. Hand-
rails and curtail steps, 2187 — 2192.
Formation of bodies by joining with
glue, 2193 — 2208.
Jointer, bricklayer's, 1890.
Jointing rule, 1890.
Joists. See under their several heads of
" Ceiling," " Binding," " Bridging,"
" Trimming," " Common," &c.
Jones, Inigo, account of, and his works, 454
— 464, inclusive.
Julian patronised the art, and extent of his
patronage, 203.
Juno, Ionic temple of, at Samos, 153.
Jupiter Olympius, temple of, in Sicily, de-
scribed generally, 148.
Jupiter Panhellenius, temple of, at Egina,146.
Jupiter Stator, Corinthian temple of, in
the Campo Vaccino at Rome, 208.
Jupiter, temple of, at Olympia, an early
temple, 141.
Jupiter Tonans, Corinthian temple of, at
Rome, 209.
Justin, architecture under, 272.
Justinian, architecture under, 272. His
architects, Anthemitis and Isidore, ib.
Restored Byzantine palace, ib. Fortifi-
cations in Europe and Asia, ib.
INDEX.
1075
K.
Kaila^a, temple of, at Ellora, 56.
Keddlestone House, Derbyshire, by Adam,
517.
Keddlestone, in Derbyshire, form of, 2996.
Keep of a castle, what, 394.
Kelso Abbey, 431.
Kelston House, date and founder, 446.
Kenil worth Castle, 398. 414.
Kenilworth, large sum spent on, by Lord
Leicester, 438.
Kenilworth House, date and founder, 446.
Kenilworth, palace at, 423.
Kenninghall, Norfolk, mansion at, 426.
Kennington, palace at, 423.
Kent, William, architect, temp, George II. ,
511. His works, ib.
Kent, window by, 2772.
Kerrich, Mr., his opinions on pointed ar-
chitecture, 302. On Milan Cathedral,
318.
Kief, church built at, in the time of Vladi-
mir, 375. Convent of Petchorsky, ib,
Killing knots in painting, 2268.
Kiln-burnt bricks, 1817.
Kimbolton, Hants, palace at, 426.
Kingpost, 2031.
King's College, Cambridge, 2904.
King's College, Cambridge, Appendix, pp.
835. 838. 845.
King closer defined, 1 896.
King's Langley, Herts, palace at, 426.
Kirby, John, house for, designed by Thorpe,
440.
Kirkham, in Yorkshire, conventual church
of, 421.
Kirkstal, conventual church of, 42.
Kit's Cotty House, between Maidstone and
Rochester, 23.
Knob glass, 1870.
Knots in painting, to kill, 2268.
Knowle House, date and founder, 446.
KOL\OV, or cavea of the Greek theatre, 172.
Kremlin at Moscow founded, 375.
L.
Labra of the Roman baths, 235.
Laconicum of the Roman baths, 235, 236.
Ladies' slates, 1807.
Ladles, plumber's, 2212.
Lake Albano, small building at, niches in,
2775.
Lancaster Castle, 398. John of Gaunt's gate-
way at, 416.
Lancet, Gothic, origin of the term, 405.
Lancet-headed windows, why so called,
303.
Landings in stone stairs, 1929.
Lanercost, conventual church of, 407.
Langhans, a German architect, 366.
Lansdowne House, Berkeley Square, by
Adam, 517.
Lap of a slate, 2211.
Lapo, an early German architect, 365.
Lararium of a Roman house, 253.
Lastringham, capital from, 390.
Latches, different sorts, 2262.
Lathing, 2238.
Lathing hammer, tiler's, 1908.
Lathing staff, tiler's, ib.
Lath layed, plastered, and set, 2241.
Laths, for tiling, 2301, 2302.
Laths, plasterer's, different sorts, 2238.
Latterkin, glazier's, 2228.
Launceston Castle, 398.
Lavatio, frigida et calida, of the Greek
gymnasium, 175.
Lavenham, parochial church of, 421.
Law courts. See " Courts of Law."
Layer Marney, Essex, 426.
Laying, plasterer's, 2239.
Lead, 1781—1786. Heaviest of metals ex-
cept gold and quicksilver, 1781. Specific
gravity, &c., ib. Not altered by exposure
to air and water, 1 782. Of two sorts, cast
and milled, 1783, 1784. Manufacture
of milled lead, 1784. Thicknesses and
weights of sheet lead, 1 785. Pipes of, ib.
For glaziers, 1 786.
Leases on lives, Appendix, p. 884.
Lebrun, M., his analysis of loads and weights
of an order, 2524.
Lebrun's theory as respects arcades, 2618,
2619.
Leicester, Roman wall at, 382.
Le Mercier, a French architect of talent,
359.
Leo the Isaurian destroys statues, 272.
Leon, in Chinese architecture, described, 100.
Lescot, one of the early French architects,
357, 358.
Lescot's works at the Louvre, 358.
Letters, transposition of, for powers of com-
pound quantities, 707 — 711.
Le Veau, a French architect, engaged on
the Tuileries, 357.
Le Veau, Louis, associated with Perrault
in building the Louvre, 359.
Level, bricklayer's, 1890.
Lever, properties of, 1265 — 1269.
Lias, blue, 1843.
Libraries. See " Public Libraries."
Lichfield Cathedral, 421. Founders and
dimensions of, 434.
Lichfield Chapter- house, doorway, Appendix,
p. 844.
Liernes, Appendix, p. 835.
Light, area of, in Pantheon at Rome, 2747.
Lighthouses, 2924, et seq. Built at an
early period, 2925. Jacob Bryant on,
2926. Pharos of Alexandria, 2927. Of
Corduan, 2929. Eddystone, 2930. North
Foreland, 2931.
Lights, leadwork for, 2227.
Ligorjo, Pirro, architect of the Villa Pia at
Rome, 345.
Lime, measures of, 2303»
Lime, 1840—1857. What, 1840. Varie-
ties of limestone, 1841, 1842. Dorking
and Merstham lime, 1843. LIES of So-
3Z2
1076
INDEX.
mersetshire, ib. Of Sunderlaml, ib.
South Shields, ib. Brown most esteemed,
1844. Limestone, how to analyse, 1845.
Burning, 1846, 1847. Best that which
heats most in slaking, 1849. Use of fresh,
1850. Limestones examined by Smeaton,
1851. Forming mortar from, 1852 — 1857.
Proportion of, to sand, 1853.
Lincoln Castle, 394. 398.
Lincoln Cathedral, 396. 406. 421. Founders
and dimensions of, 434.
Lincoln Chapter-house, Appendix, p. 837.
Lindisfarne, church built at, 388.
Line pins, bricklayer's, 1890.
Linings, value of labour of, 2368.
Listel or Annulet, 2532.
Llanphey Court, castellated palace at, 413.
Llantony, conventual church of, 398.
Loads and supports in an order, equality
of, 2524. Principles of proportion for
the orders, 2525, et seg. In tetrastyle,
hexastyle, and octastyle temples, 2528.
Concordance with the laws given by Vi-
truvius, 2529. Ancient examples of,
2531. Principles applied to points of
support, ib.
Lock rails of a door, 2130.
Locks, different sorts, 2261.
Logan or rocking stones, celebrated one in
Cornwall, 25.
Logarithmic tables, 639, 640.
Logarithms, 632 — 638. Method of ex-
pressing, 641 — 654.
Aoyeiov, of the Greek theatre, 172.
Lomazzo, his work translated into English,
438.
Lombards overrun Italy, their civilisation
and works, 280.
London buildings, commission temp.
James I. to prevent, on new foundations,
457.
Longford Castle, Wilts, designed by
Thorpe, 440. 452.
Longleat House, date and founder, 446.
Long Meg and her daughters, circle of, in
Cumberland, 16.
Loriot's cement, 1865.
Lorsch, convent of, 283.
Louis XII., of France, acquainted with
the arts of Italy, 358.
Louis XIV., extravagances of style under
the reign of, reprobated, 2604. Works of
architects under, 359.
Louvain, Hotel de Ville, 2898., Appendix,
p. 848.
Louvre and Vieux Louvre, Paris, lighting
of, 2916.
Louvre, facade of, 359. 2613.
Lowth, parochial church of, 421.
Lozenge ornament, 397.
Ludlow Castle, 394. 398.
Ludlow, parochial church of, 408. 421.
Lullingstone, Kent, design for, by Thorpe,
440.
Lunettes, what, 1955.
Lunghi Onorio, 342.
Luxor (Egypt), temple at, 81,
Lynn, St. Nicholas, doorway, Appendix, p.
844.
Lyons, hospital at, 2887.
Lysicrates, choragic monument of, 163.
M.
Machuca, a Spanish architect of the age of
Charles V., 368.
Madrid, palace at, 368.
Madurah, tchoultry or inn at, and teirmle
there, 61.
Maestricht, town hall at, 2897.
Magdalen College, Oxford, chapel, 421.
Mahadeo, temple of, at Ellora, 56.
Maidstone, parochial church of, 408. 421.
Maison Carree, temple at Nismes (Co-
rinthian), 212. Niches at, 2775.
Mallet, mason's, 1909.
Mallet, plumber's, 2212.
Manchester College, 421.
Manorial houses, of timber, short account
of, 439.
Mansard roof, 2035.
Mansart, Jules Hardouin, architect in
France, temp. Louis XIV., 359.
Mansions, few of the Tudor age now exist,
429.
Marble Hill, Twickenham, by Earl of Pem-
broke, 508.
Marble, what, 1673. External characters
and constituent parts, 1674. May be
burnt into quicklime, 1675. Different
varieties of ancient and modern, 1676—
1683.
Margins of the xystus, 175.
Marl stocks, 1821.
Marsh, an architect mentioned by Vertue,
465.
Mars Ultor, Corinthian temple of, at Rome,
210.
Martinelli, employed in Germany, 365.
Mason's marks, Appendix, pp. 821, 822.
Mason's work, in specifications, 2284.
Mason's work, how measured, 2370. Values
of labour of, 2373.
Masonry, 1909— 1956. What, 1909. Tools
used in, 1909, 1910. Stone walling, 1916
— 1924. Footings of stone walls, 1916.
Foundations of same, 1917. Rubble
walls, ib. Ashlar facing, 1918, 1919.
Columns, 1925. Stairs, 1926 — 1929.
Geometrical stairs, 1927 — 1929. Scien-
tific operations of stone-cutting, 1 930, et
seq. Construction of arches and simple
vaults, and their groins, 1931. To draw
elliptic arch and find the joints, 1 934 —
1937. To draw Gothic arch and find
joints, 1938 — 1941. To draw rampant
Gothic arch and find the joints, 1 943.
Construction of intersecting vaults and
groins, 1944, etseq. Dome vaulting, 1956,
et seq.
Masques, decorations for, designed by Inigo
Jones, 460.
Massimi Palace, arcade at, 2635.
INDEX.
1077
Materials, crushing weight of, 1500.
Mathematics, generally defined, 523.
Mattei Palace at Rome, windows at, 2758.
Mausoleum of King John, Portugal, 321.
Mayence, cathedral of, 287, 288.
Measuring and estimating, 2295, et seq.
Measuring brickwork, 2295, et seq.
Measuring digging, 2298.
Measuring rule, plumber's, 221 2.
Measuring tiling, 2301, et seq., 2316.
Mecca, houses, how built, 131.
Mechanical arts, not absolutely necessary to
progress of architecture, 9.
Mechanical carpentry, 1598—1635. Woods
used in, 1593—1595. Weights of wood
in the same tree, 1597. Timber, experi-
ments on, 1598, et seq. Cohesive force
of timber in direction of its length, 1 598.
Strength of wood in an upright position,
1600 — 1602. Horizontal pieces of tim-
ber, 1603 — 1613. Tables of experiments
on timber, 1613 — 1624. Tables applied
to other timber besides oak, 1624 — 1635.
Method of using tables for horizontal
timbers, 1625, 1626. The same for ver-
tical bearing timbers, 1627 — 1629. The
same for obtaining the absolute or co-
hesive strength, 1630 — 1632. Strength
of timbers in an inclined position, 1633
—1635.
Mechanics and statics, general observations
and definition, 1240 — 1243. Parallelo-
gram of forces, 1244—1259. Of the
lever, 1260 — 1265. Centre of gravity,
1266 — 1268. Centre of gravity of lines,
1269 — 1274. Centre of gravity of sur-
faces, 1275 — 1280. Centre of gravity of
solids, 1281 — 1290. Centre of gravity
of irregular solids, 1291,1292. Of the
inclined plane, 1293 — 1306. Of the
wheel and axle, 1307 — 1314. Of the
pulley, 1315 — 1320. Of the wedge,
1 32 1 — 1 323. Of the screw, 1 324 — 1 330.
Of friction, 1331—1341. Values of
moving powers, 1342 — 1352.
Mediaeval architecture, division of styles,
Appendix, p. 830.
Medicean Library at Florence, 2910.
Meilan, Chateau de, Appendix, p. 853.
Melrose Abbey, 431.
Melton Mowbray, parochial church of,
421.
Melton, parochial church at, 398.
Members, what, 2129.
Memnonium, statues of, described, 85.
Menilmontant, abattoir of, at Paris, de-
scribed, 2935.
Mensuration, defined, 1212, 1213. To find
the area of a parallelogram, 1214. To
find the area of a triangle, 1215. To find
the area of a trapezoid, 1216. To find
the area of any trapezium, 1217. To find
the area of an irregular polygon, 1218.
To find the area of a regular polygon,
1219. To find the diameter and circum-
ference of a circle, 1220. To find the
length of any arc of a circle, 1221. To
find the area of a circle, 1222. To find
the area of a circular ring, 1223. To find
the area of the sector of a circle, 1224.
To find the area of the segment of a
circle, 1225. To find the area of an
ellipse, 1227. To find the area of a pa-
rabola or its segment, 1228. Of solids,
1229 — 1239. To find the superficies of a
prism, 1231. To find the surface of a
pyramid or cone, 1232. To find the sur-
face of the frustum of a pyramid or cone,
1233. To find the solid content of any
prism or cylinder, 1234. To find the
content of any pyramid or cone, 1235.
To find the solidity of the frustum of a
cone or pyramid, 1236. To find the sur-
face of a sphere or any segment, 1237. To
find the solidity of a sphere or globe,
1238. To find the solidity of a spherical
segment, 1239.
Merab, extraordinary reservoir of, 118.
Mereworth, in Kent, by Campbell, 504.
Mereworth, villa at, 3000.
Merton College Chapel, Oxford, 421.
Meta of the Roman circus, 240.
Metopa?, origin of, 135.
Meulan, Waltier de, employed on Abbey of
Bee, in Normandy, 310.
Mexican pyramids, 111, 112.
Mexico, city of, described generally, 117.
Mews, late at Charing Cross, arcade at,
2635.
Miao, or idol temples in Pekin and en-
virons, 104.
Michel Angelo, door by, 2740.
Michelozzo, pupil of Brunelleschi, 323.
Middleburg, in Yorkshire, 423.
Middleham Castle, 398.
Middle panels of a door, 21 30.
Middle rails of a door, 2130.
Middle stiles of a door, 2130.
Milan, cathedral at, described, 318, 322.
Milan, hospital at, 2975.
Milan Theatre, 2958 — 2967.
Military architecture, from Edward III. to
close of York and Lancaster contention,
413.
Milled lead, 1783.
Milton Abbey, Dorset, conventual church
of, 407.
Minaret, introduced by Alwalid II., 119.
Minerva Medica, temple of, at Rome,
214.
Minerva Polias, Ionic temple of, at Athens,
153.
Minerva Polias, Ionic temple of, at Priene,
153.
Minerva, temple of, at Sunium, 150.
Ministers, English, care little about the
arts, 364.
Mint, at Paris, 2887.
Mint, at Venice, by Sansovino, 351 .
Minyas, king of Orchomenus, treasury of, 37.
Mitla, palace of, in the district of Oaxaca,
115,
Mitre box, 2122.
Mitre Square, 2124.
373
1078
INDEX.
Modillions, centres of, 2612 — 2614.
Module, what, 2550.
Moenianum of an amphitheatre, 228.
Mondragone, arcade at, by Vignola, 2640.
Montague House, now British Museum,
466.
Montague House, Portman Square, by
Stuart, 516.
Montecchio Villa, cornice of, 2725.
Monument of Archbishop Stratford, Can-
terbury, Appendix, p. 838.
Monument of London, description of, and
cost, 486. 2603.
Monuments, sepulchral, of Elizabethan
architecture, 449. Of Ratcliffe, Earl of
Surrey, ib. Of Dudley, Earl of Leicester
at Warwick, ib. Of Carey, Lord Huns-
don, ib. Under James I., 453.
Mora, Giovanni Gomez de, succeeded
d'Herrera at the Escurial, 371.
Morard, abbot of St. Germain des Pres, 289.
Morecroft, Dr., architect mentioned in
Salmon's account of Essex, 466.
Moresque, or Arabian architecture, 118, et
seq., 272. Decline of, 128.
Mortar, 1852 — 1857. Mode of making,
1852. Blue, 1855. Ashes mortar, 1 856.
Scales of iron in, 1 857. Liquid or grout,
1860.
Mortar and plaster, adhesive power of, upon
stones and bricks, 1494 — 1499.
Mortar beds, should be thin, 1900.
Mortise gauge, 2120.
Mortises, 2008.
Morton Hall, representation of, 439.
Moscow, an insignificant village in 1154,
375. Capital of the empire in 1304, ib,
Mosque, first, erected, out of the limits of
Arabia, 119.
Motion, centre of, 1 241 .
Mould, bricklayer's, 1890.
Mould Greswold, parochial church of, 421.
Mouldings in joinery, 21 26 — 21 29.
Mouldings, penetration of, Appendix, pp.
831, 832.
Mouldings, Roman, contours of, 268.
Mouldings, wood, value of labour of, 2368.
Mouldings, Ovolo, Echinus, or Quarter
round, 2532. Talon or Ogee, ib. Cyma,
Cyma recta, or Cymatium, ib. Torus, ib.
Scotia or Trochilos, ib. Cavetto, Mouth
or Hollow, ib. Casement, ib. Astragal,
Bead, or Baguette, ib. Fillet, Listel, or
Annulet, ib. Proper places of mouldings,
2533. Their contours, how to describe,
2534. Ornaments of, 2535. How they
should be arranged, ib.
Moulures prismatiques, Appendix, pp. 831,
832.
Mount Surrey, near Norwich, mansion at,
426.
Mouth or Hollow, 2532.
Mujelibe, Babylon, to what applied, 39.
Description of, 39. 41.
Multiplication of simple quantities, 527 —
531.
Munich, Glyptotek and Pinacotek, 2918.
Museums, 2913, et seq. That founded by
Ptolemy Philadelphus, 2913. Becoming
common in this country, 2914. Mode of
lighting, 2915, 2916. Containing several
classes of objects, 2917. Vatican, 2918
British Museum, 2918. Uffizi at Flo-
rence, ib. Portici, ib. Paris, ib. At
Munich, ib. Form for general distribu-
tion, 2919.
Mycenae, walls of, were Cyclopean, 28. 30.
33, 34. Treasury at, 36.
Mylne, Robert, architect, temp. George
III., 521
N.
Nail head, ornament, 397
Naked flooring, 2013. How measured, 2334.
Nancy, palace at, Appendix, p. 849.
Napoleon column, at Paris, 2603.
Naumann, a German architect, 366.
Nave, bays of, dependent on apsis, Appen-
dix, p. 824.
Nebuchadnezzar's prison, same as Birs
Nemroud, 40.
Nebule, ornament, 397.
Negative powers, resolved, 719 — 726.
Nerta Chabei, or temple of joy and eternity,
58.
Netley Abbey, conventual church of, 407.
Neuman, a German architect, 365.
Neville, Sir Henry, house designed for, by
Thorpe, 44O.
Newark-upon-Trent, parochial church of,
421.
Newcastle, Duke of, house for, in Lincoln's
Inn Fields, 465.
Newcastle-upon-Tyne Castle, 394. 398.
New College Chapel, Oxford, 421.
Newel of stone stairs, open and solid, 1926.
Newgate prison, built by Dance, 521.
New Grange, near Drogheda, in Ireland, 35.
New Shoreham, parochial church at, 398.
Niche, to form, in joinery, 2197.
Niches and statues, 2773, et seq. Niches
not found in early Greek works, 2774.
At the Maison Carree, and other places,
2775. Their decorations, 2776. Rules
for proportioning, 2777. Tiers of, in
stories, 2778. Chambers's rules for niches,
2779. Depth of, 2780. Examples of,
2781—2787.
Niches, brick, 1905.
Niches, construction of, in carpentry, 2036,
2067.
Nidging, in masonry, 1915.
Nilometer, opposite the rocks of E'Sooan,
91.
Nonsuch, Surrey, palace at, 426.
Norba, Cyclopean remains at, 32.
Norman and Saxon styles, difference be-
tween, 397.
Norman architecture, 383. 392, et seq. Cha-
racteristics of, 397. Examples of, 398.
Norman bishops, and their works, 396.
Norman cathedrals, 396.
INDEX.
1079
Norman churches, 290.
Norman columns, 397. Arches, ib. Arches
of entrance, ib. Windows, ib. Ceilings,
ib. Walls, ib. Ornaments, ib. Plans, ib.
North Foreland lighthouse, 2931.
Northumberland House, by Chrismas and
Jansen, 442.
Norwich Castle, 393, 394.
Norwich Cathedral, 398. 421. Founders
and dimensions of, 434.
Nosing of stairs, 2180.
Notre Dame de bonnes Nouvelles, at Or-
leans, church of, 289.
Nottingham Castle, 423. Works by Marsh,
466.
Nubia, temples and remains of, 92.
Nympheea Lotus, or water-lily, source of
Egyptian ornament, 87.
O.
Observatories, 2920, et se.q. At Paris, 2920.
A regular observatory, what, 2921. That
at Edinburgh described, ib. Piers of,
how constructed, 2922. That of Sir
James South, ib. Situations of, should
be dry, 2923.
Observatory at Paris, built by Perrault,
359.
Octastyle temples, 2528, et seq.
Odilo, abbot, commenced cathedral at
Chartres, 289.
Odoacer, annihilation of the arts on inva-
sion of, 276 — 278.
OZcus of a Roman house, 252. Several
species of, ib. That called Cyzicene, ib.
OZillet holes, at Carnarvon Castle, 402.
Offices of government. See " Government
Offices."
Ogee, 2129.
Old Louvre, windows from, 2760.
Old Somerset House, ground plan, 440.
Olotzaga, an early architect of Biscay, 367.
Oppenheim, church at, dedicated to St.
Catherine, described, 304.
Orchestra, of a Roman theatre, 226. Of
the Greek theatre, 172.
Order, Tuscan. See « Tuscan Order.'
Doric, see " Doric Order."
Orders above orders, 2642, et seq. Vitru-
vius thereon, 2643. Scamo/zi's rule,
2644. Laws of solidity respecting, 2645.
Axes of upper and lower columns, how
placed, 2646. Disposition of, according
to Chambers, 2647, et seq. Doric above
Tuscan, 2648. Ionic above Doric, 2649.
Corinthian above Ionic, 2650. Com-
posite above Corinthian, 2651. Most
eligible intercolumniations, 2652.
Orders, character of the different, 2538, et
seq. Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, 2539.
Sir Henry Wotton's description of them,
2540. Invention of new ones, 2541.
Entablatures, height of, in, 2542.
Orders, mode of measuring them, 2550.
Application of, 2552.
Orders of architecture, 2523, et seq. Con-
sist of essential and subservient parts,
2523. Are five in number, ib. Mode of
profiling an order, ib. Lebrun's analysis
of loads and supports in an order, 2524.
Principles of proportion as to loads and
supports, 2525, et seq. Systylos inter-
col umniation produced by such prin-
ciples, 2527. Principles of load and sup-
ports carried into tetrastyle, hexastyle,
and octastyle temples, 2528, et seq. Con-
cordance thereof with the laws given by
Vitruvius, 2529. Ancient examples of
different orders in verification of the
theory, 2531. Principles applied to
points of support, ib. Tuscan, 2553. Do-
ric, 2560. Ionic, 2573. Corinthian, 2582.
Composite, 2591.
Orford Castle, 398.
Orgagna, loggia of, at Florence, plan and
elevation, 327.
Oriel window, where used in halls, 415.
Orleans, churches at, 289.
Orleans, Hotel de Ville, Appendix, p. 850.
Ornament, a non-essential in architecture,
2826.
Ornamented English architecture, 409, et
seq. Subdivided into two aeras, 410.
Flourished notwithstanding civil wars,
411. Characteristics of, 420. Examples
of, 421.
Ornaments of mouldings, how to arrange,
2535. How to be cut, 2536. Degree of
relief they should have, 2537.
Ornaments of the Grecian edifices suitable
to their destination, 1 64.
Orvieto, cathedral at, 318.
Osterley House, date and founder, 446.
Anecdote relating to, 447.
Ostiarius of a Roman house, where sta-
tioned, 246.
Osymandyas, tomb of, according to Dio-
dorus, 85.
Outline, the fundamental principle of draw-
ing, 2386.
Outside linings of sash frames, 2147.
Outside stiles of a door, 2130.
Ovens, &c.,how measured, 2314.
Ovolo, 21 29. Echinus or quarter round,
2532.
Oxford Castle, 394. 398.
Oxford, palace at, 423.
Oxford, public schools of, designed by
Holte, 444. First who introduced the
classical orders, 444. 451.
P.
Packing, in masonry, 1921.
Paestum, great hypaethral temple of, 149.
Page, Sir Gregory, house for, at Black-
heath, by James, 505.
Pagodas, or Chinese towers, that of Nan-
king described, 105. That of Honang,
in the southern suburb of Conan, at Can-
ton, described, 104.
3 Z 4
1080
INDEX.
Paine, an architect, temp. George III. His
works, 514.
Painter's tools, 2268.
Painter's work, in specifications, 2290. Me-
thod of estimating, 2379.
Painting and sculpture, intimately con-
nected with architecture, 68. Much used
in ornamented English architecture, 412.
Painting, coats in, how laid, 2268.
Painting, gilding, and paper-hanging, 2267
—2278.
Painting, in Egyptian architecture, 86.
Paintings on walls, as decorations, 2519.
2522.
Palace at Westminster, 423. At Oxford, ib.
At Woodstock, ib. Kensington, ib.
Palaces, 2877, et seq. That of Caserta de-
scribed, 2877, 2878. That designed by
Jones, for Whitehall, 2879, 2880. Tui-
leries and Louvre, designed by Bernini,
2881. Proper sites for, 2882.
Palaces of Florence, 358. Of Rome, 343,
344.
Palaestra of the Greek gymnasium, 175.
Palatial houses, list of Elizabethan, 446.
Palazzo della Cancelleria, at Rome, 335.
Palazzo Farnese, at Rome, 335. Elevation
of, 343.
Palermo, cathedral at, 319.
Palladian school, in England, 464.
Palladio, Andrea, some account of, and his
works, 352 — 354.
Palladio, window by, 2761. 2765, 2766.
Palm-tree leaf, used in Egyptian ornament,
and the supposed peculiarity of the tree, 87.
Palmyra, extraordinary structures at, 196,
197. Niches at, 2775.
Pandolfini Palace at Florence, 329. Ele-
vation of, 2725. Cornice of, ib. Window
at, 2767.
Pandoo Koolies, of Hindostan, what, 1 2.
Panels of a door, 2130.
Pansa, house of, at Pompeii, description and
plan, 253.
Pantheon at Rome, 215, 216. 262. 2547.
Lighted from a very small aperture,
2747. Niches at, 2775. 2779. 2787.
Pantheon of the Escurial, sepulchres of
kings of Spain, 37 1 .
Pantheon or church of St. Genevieve at
Paris, 361. Points of support of, 1581.
Pantiles, 1838.
Pantiles, table of the number required for
a given quantity of work, 2321.
Pantiling, 2302.
Panton, Mr., a house designed for, 440.
Papautla, pyramid of, 113.
Paperhanger's work, in specifications, 2291 .
Paperhanger's work, method of estimating,
2380.
Paperhanging, 2278.
Parabola, 1095-^1109.
Parascenium of the Greek theatre, 172.
Parastatae, 2671.
Pardo, partly by Arroyo, as is supposed,
368.
Parigi, Alfonso and Giulio, 331.
Paris, Bourse or Exchange at, 2943.
Paris, Hotel de Ville at, 2897.
Paris, street architecture of, 364.
Paris, Theatre Italien, 2958. Theatre
Fran9ais, ib.
Parker's cement, 1863.
Parma theatre, 2958.
Parocona, temple of, at Ellora, 56.
Parthenon, or temple of Minerva, at Athens,
141. 150. 258. 2570.
Parting bead of sash frames, 21 47.
Parting strip in sash frames, 2165.
Partitions, how measured, 2336.
Partitions of carpentry, 2024, 2025.
Partitions, value of labour of, 2350.
Parts of an order, essential and subservient,
2523.
Patent slating, 1809.
Patrixborne, circular window at, Appendix,
p. 842.
Paving, how measured, 2372.
Paving bricks, 1827.
Paving tiles, 1839.
Pay-leon, or triumphal arches of the Chi-
nese, 107.
Peace, temple of, at Rome, description and
plan, 217. A type of the basilicae of the
early Christians, ib.
Peckings, 1823.
Peckwater Quadrangle, Christchurch, Ox-
ford, 490.
Pedestals, 2599, et seq. Table showing
their heights, ancient and modern,
whether to be considered as component
parts of an order, 2601. The parts
whereof a pedestal consists, 2602. Dies
of, how decorated, 2603. Employment
of them, 2604.
Pediment, origin of, 135. Observation of
Cicero on, ib.
Pediment, Roman, inclination of, 269.
Pediments, 2715, et seq. Of varied forms,
2716. How they should be used, 2717,
2718. Vitruvius's rule respecting, 2719.
Different-sized in same fa9ade to be
avoided, 2720. Mode of connecting the
horizontal and raking parts, 2721.
Heights of, how regulated, 2722. Face
of tympanum, how disposed, 2723.
Pegmata of the amphitheatre, 229.
Pelican Office, Lombard Street, by Taylor,
515.
Pellet ornament, 397.
Pembroke, Philip, Earl of, his discreditable
notes on Jones, 461.
Penaria of a Roman house, 253.
Pendentives defined, 2090. Conical, for
coves to ceilings of square rooms, 2091.
To find springing lines of, 2092. Me-
thod of coving a square room with sphe-
rical, 2093. Intersections of ribs in, to
find, 2094.
Pendentives in dome vaulting, masonry,
1 999, et seq.
Pendents, Appendix, p. 832, et seq.
Pendent imposts, Appendix, pp. 833, 834.
837.
INDEX.
1081
Penetration of Mouldings, Appendix, pp.
831, 832.
Penitentiary at Millbank, 2981.
Penshurst House, date and founder, 446.
Pentalpha, Appendix, p. 822.
Pergula of a Roman house, 253.
Pericles, architecture of Greece under, 141.
Peridromedes of the Greek gymnasium,
175.
Peristylium of the Greek gymnasium, 175.
Of a Roman house, 245. 252, 253.
Perrault, architect of Louvre, some account
of, 359, 360.
Persepolis, or ruins of Chel-Minar, 46 — 49.
Architectural details of, compared with
those of Egypt and Persia, 50.
Persia, present architecture of, 51.
Persians, 2682. 2684.
Perspective, 2405 — 2457. Definitions,
2406 Methods of putting objects into
perspective, 2408, et seq. Angle of vi-
sion, 2444, et seq. Principles on which
internal delineations are conducted, 2449,
et seq. Mode of delineating cornices,
2451, et seq.
Petchorsky, at Kief, in Russia, convent of,
375.
Peterborough Cathedral, 396. 398. Found-
ers and dimensions of, 434.
Petersham, house at, for Lord Harrington,
by Earl of Burlington, 510.
Petra, ruins of, 3.
Pevensey Castle, in Sussex, 391.
Pharos of Alexandria, 2927.
Philip of Macedon, portico of, 151.
Philip the Good, Appendix p. 848.
Phoenicia, architecture of, 9. 54.
Phoenician architecture, 54.
Piazza San Marco, Scamozzi's plan, 355.
Picolomini, Palazzo, at Siena, 329. Cornice
of, 2725.
Piers, 2734.
Piers of mediaeval buildings Appendix, p.
839.
Piers, rules for finding proper stability of,
1563 — 1582. Of windows, 2754.
Pigs of lead, 1782.
Pilasters, 2671, et seq. At Trevi, 2672.
Projection of, 2673. When used with
columns, 2674. Pilaster capitals, 2675.
2677, et seq. Supposed to represent
columns, 2676. Should be avoided at
inward angles, 2680.
Pilasters engaged, 2615.
Piles, how measured, 2331.
Pinacotheca, of a Roman house, 252, 253.
Pipes, lead, weights of different sizes, 2215.
Pirro Ligorio, employed on St. Peter's,
336.
Pisa, cathedral at, and description of, 286.
Baptistery of, 291, 292. Campo Santo,
291. 293. Campanile, ib.
Piscina of the Roman baths, 235.
Pitching piece in stairs, 206.
Pitti, Palazzo, at Florence, 325. 329. 331.
Place bricks, 1823.
Placentia Palace, at Greenwich, 423.
Plain tiles, 1 835.
Plain tiles, table of the number required
for a given quantity of work, 2321.
Plain tiling, 2301.
Plane trigonometry, 1033 — 1055.
Planes, 969—978.
Planes, jack, trying, long, jointer, smooth ing,
2102. Compass, forkstaff, straight block,
2103. Rebate, moving fillister, sash
fillister, plough, 2104. Moulding, 2105.
Bead, snipe bill, 2106.
Plasterer's work, in specifications, 2287.
Method of estimating, 2376.
Plastering, 2232 — 2252.
Plastering, quantity of different materials
in a given number of yards, 2248.
Plate glass, 1874.
Plumber's work, in specifications, 2288.
Method of estimating, 2377.
Plumbery, 2212—2224.
Plumb rule, 1890.
Podium of an amphitheatre, 228.
Pointed arch, 397. 400.
Pointed arch in Italy, 318.
Pointed arch, origin uncertain, Appendix,
p. 820.
Pointed architecture : theories respecting,
294 — 300. Whittington's opinion on,
300. Sir Christopher Wren's opinion
on, ib. Ancients acquainted with, ib.
Countries in which it appeared, 301.
Prevailed in the East, ib. Its origin
probably there, ib. Moller's opinions of,
302. Appearance immediately after First
Crusade, ib. Mr. Kerrich's opinion of
origin, ib. Best age of, 303. Charac-
teristics of, ib. Alteration of style in
character, 312, 313.
Point, mason's, 1910.
Points of support, 1581 — 1583.2531. Table
of, in principal buildings of Europe,
1583.
Points of support in Gothic buildings, Ap-
pendix, p. 827. Table of examples, p. 828.
Points of support of apartments, 2848, et seq.
Pojana Palace, cornice of, 2725.
Pole plate, 2035.
Polychromatic architecture, 2511, 2512.
Polychrome architecture of the Greeks,
171.
Polyphili Hypnerotomachia, account of the
work, 326.
Pompei Palace at Verona, 350.
Ponte, Giovanni da, 356.
Pont St. Esprit, erected by Confraternite
des Ponts, 310.
Pope, the poet, his ignorance of art, 491.
507.
Porchester Castle, in Hampshire, 391. 394.
398.
Port crayon, its uses in drawing, 2391, et
seq. Applied to the whole figure, 2393.
Porta del Pallio, Verona, 350.
Porta, Jacopo della, employed on St.
Peter's, 336.
Porta Nuova, at Verona, 350.
Portcullis of a castle, what, 394.
1082
INDEX.
Portici, museum of, 2918.
Portico of Septhnius, 2547.
Porticus of the Greek gymnasium, 175.
Of the Roman house, 244. 253.
Portugal, architecture of, 367, et seq.
Powers in general, 606 — 610. Calculation
of, 611 — 616. Representation of, by frac-
tional exponents, 620 — 625. Methods of
calculation of, and their mutual connection,
626—631.
Pozzo, employed at Vienna, 365.
Practical carpentry, 2003, et seq. See " Car-
pentry, Practical."
Practical geometry, 996 — 1032.
Praecinctio of the Roman theatre, 226. Of
the amphitheatre, 228.
Presence or privy chamber, 415.
Priam's palace had fifty chambers, 140.
Pricking-up, plasterer's, 2240.
Priests, ridicule of, Appendix, p. 820.
Primary Gothic, Appendix, p. 830.
Principles of composition, 2825.
Prior Park, by Wood, 513.
Prisons, 2977, et seq. Their particular des-
tination, 2977. Essentials of, 2978. Re-
quisites of, according to Howard, 2979,
2980. That at Ghent, 2981. Peniten-
tiary at Millbank, ib.
Private buildings, general observations on,
2983, et seq. Principles on which they
should be designed, 2984 — 2989. In
towns, 2990, et seq. Common houses of
London, 2992. Of a grade higher, 2993.
First class of, 2994. Burlington House,
2995. In the country, 2996, et seq.
Keddlestone, ib. Holkham, 2997. Villa,
smallest size of, 2999. Those at Foot's
Cray and Mereworth, 3000.
Private houses of the Romans, 242. Earliest,
only one story, ib. Later houses, 243.
Splendour of them, ib. Parts of which
they consisted, 244 — 255. Parts of, re-
served for the family, 245.
Procceton of a Roman house, 252.
Profiling an order, 2523. 2551.
Progression arithmetical, 735 — 742. Sum-
mation of, 743 — 748.
Progression, geometrical, 774 — 782.
Propigneum of the Greek gymnasium, 175.
Proportion, 935 — 937.
Proportion, arithmetical, 732 — 734. Geo-
metrical, 754 — 762.
Proportion in architecture, based upon fit-
ness, 2496 — 2499.
Proportion of the orders deduced from the
loads and supports, 2524, et seq.
Proportions of rooms, 2820, et seq.
Propylaea at Athens, plan and description
of, 150.
Proscenium of a Roman theatre, 226. Of
the Greek theatre, 172.
Prothyrum of the Roman house, 246. 253.
Public libraries, 2908, et seq. Requisites
in, 2908. That at Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, ib. Mode of warming, ib. Of
the Vatican, 2909. Medicean Library at
Florence, 2910. St. Mark's, at Venice,
ib. At Paris, called Bibliotheque du
Roi, 2911. Of abbey of St. Genevieve,
ib. Radcliffe, at Oxford, 2912.
Pugging, described, 2247.
Pulley, 1315—1320.
Pulley mortises, 2019, 2020.
Pulleys, 2260.
Pulpitum of a Roman theatre, 226. Of
the Greek theatre, 172.
Pumps, lifting, 2220. Suction, or common,
2221. Forcing, 2222—2224.
Purlin, 2035.
Putty, different sorts used by glaziers,
2231.
Putty used by painters, 2275.
Puzzolana, 1867.
Pycnostyle, intercolumniation, 2605 — 2609.
Pyramids of Cheops, Cephrenes, and My-
cerinus, Saccara, 74. Generally, 83.
Pyramids of Ktoube el Meuschich, of brick,
72.
Pyramids of Mexico, 111. Of Cholula,
112. Of Papautla, 113. Of Egypt, 72.
74. 83.
Q.
Quarter paces in stone stairs, 1929.
Quarter round, 2129. 2532.
Quartered partitions of carpentry, 2024,
2025.
Queen closer defined, 1896.
Queen posts, 2034.
Queen's College, Oxford, 2904.
Quirk defined, 2106.
Quirked bead, 2126.
R.
Radcliffe Library, at Oxford, 2912.
Raglan Castle, Monmouthshire, 426.
Rails of a door, what, 2130.
Rake, plasterer's, 2233.
Raker, bricklayer's, 1890.
Ramichouer, temple of, at Ellora, 56.
Rammer, bricklayer's 1890.
Rampant pointed arch, to draw and find the
joints, 1943.
Ranging of glass, 2226.
Ratio, arithmetical, 727 — 731.
Ratio, geometrical, 749 — 751.
Ratisbon, church at, 309.
Ravenna, buildings at, 272. 278
Rayonnant, or secondary Gothic, Appendix,
p. 830.
Reading Abbey, 435.
Redentore church del., at Venice, 354.
Reeds, what, 2129.
Relations, compound, 763 — 773.
Relief to be given to ornaments, 2537.
Renaissance, style of the, what, 323 — 329.
Rendering, 2238.
Reredos, what, 415.
Reveley, Willey, an architect, temp. George
III., 521.
Revett, Nicholas, an architect, temp. George
III., 516.
INDEX.
1083
Rheims and Salisbury cathedrals compared,
315.
Rheims, cathedral at, 310. 314.
Rialto, bridge of, at Venice, 356.
Rib-pointed vaulting, Appendix, p. 83G.
Ricardi, Palazzo, at Florence, 327.
Richborough Castle, in Kent, 391.
Richmond Castle, 394. 398.
Richmond, entertainment at, by Henry VI I.,
428.
Richmond House at Whitehall, by Lord
Burlington, 510.
Richmond Park, new lodge by Earl of
Pembroke, 508.
Ridge piece, 2035.
Ridge tiles, 1836.
Right lines and rectilineal figures, 876 —
907.
Rimers, 2108.
Ripley, Thomas, an architect, temp. George
II., 507. His works, ib.
Ripon Minster, conventual church of, 407.
Riser of stairs, 2180.
Rivaulx, in Yorkshire, conventual church
of, 407.
Robert the Pious, of France, architecture
under, 289.
Robison, Dr., on architects of 1 3th century,
Appendix, p. 835.
Rochester Castle, 394.
Rochester Cathedral, 396. 406. Founders
and dimensions of, 434.
Rocking stones. See " Logan Stones."
Rock-worked rustics, 2669, 2670.
Rod of brickwork, decimal parts of, 2320.
Rod of brickwork, how to ascertain value
of, 2314. Table of value of, at different
prices, 2319.
Rodrigo Gil, a Spanish architect, 367.
Rolbrich, circle of stones, in Oxfordshire, 16.
Rollers brass, 2263.
Rolls in plumbery, 2213.
Roman architecture, character of, and ob-
servations on, 258.
Roman architecture, not an original species,
182. Succinct history of, to 309s. c.,
ib. At and after the time of Appius
Claudius, 183. Under Oesar, 186. Under
Augustus, 187. Tiberius to Claudius,
191. Galba to Vitellius, 192. Vespa-
sian and Titus, ib. Domitian to Nerva,
ib. Trajan, 193. Hadrian, ib. An-
tonines, 194. Decline, 1 95, et seq. Under
Dioclesian, 198, et seq.
Roman architecture revived but little under
Valentinian II., 204. Honorius raised
or repaired some basilicas at Rome, 204.
Roman empire in the West ended in, 476.
Roman brickwork, ancient, 1895.
Roman or Parker's cement, 1863.
Roman school, its character, 334. Period
of, 346. Principal masters of, ib.
Roman temples of the quadrangular species,
208, et seq. Of the circular species, 214,
et seq., 217.
Romanesque or Byzantine architecture,
270, etseq.
Romanesque style, Appendix, p. 830.
Romans, private houses of, 245.
Rome, palaces of, 343, 344.
Rome, principal churches of, and their cha-
racter, 342.
Rome taken by Totila, and again united to
Eastern Empire, 279.
Roof, examination of strains in, 2031. Tie
beam, ib. Collar beam, ib. Sagging,
how prevented, ib. King post, what, ib.
Truss, what, ib. Struts, what, ib. Prin-
cipal rafters, framing of, 2033. Queen
posts, 2034. Straining piece, ib. Man-
sard roof, 2035. Common rafters in,
ib. Purlin, ib. Pole plates, ib. Ridge
piece, ib. Hip rafters, ib. Jack rafters,
ib. Scantlings of timbers for different
spans, 2037 — 2040. Mode of framing for
different spans, 2042 — 2045. Of St.
Martin's-in-the- Fields, 2046. Of chapel
at Greenwich Hospital, 2047. Of old
Drury Lane Theatre, 2048. Dome of
St. Paul's, 2049. Roof of St. Paolo
fuori le Mura, 2051. Delorme's mode
of framing domes, 2052. Lines for
framing, 2053. Hips, to find the back
of, 2054. Lines of, to find, 2053—2057.
Roofing, how measured, 2337.
Roofing, value of labour of, 2350.
Roofs of the edifices of Athens and Rome,
176.
Roofs, proper inclination of, in various cli-
mates, 2027 — 2030.
Rooms, proportions of, 2820, et seq. Height
of, 2821. Height of galleries, 2822.
Palladio's rules, 2823, 2824.
Roots, relatively to powers, 617^ — 620. Of
compound quantities, 688 — 692.
Rosellini, Bernardo, employed by Julius II.
for restoring basilica of St. Peter's, 335.
Roslyn Chapel, erected by Sir William St.
Clair, 431.
Rouen, cathedral of Notre Dame at, 310.
Rouen, Palais de Justice, Appendix, pp. 850
— 852. Hotel Bourgtheroude, pp. 851.
852.
Roughcast, 2249,
Royal Exchange, new, 2941 — 2943.
Rubbed returns, 1890.
Rubbing stone, bricklayer's, 1890.
Rubble wall defined, 1917.
Rudstone Pillar, in East Riding of York,
shire, 14.
Ruiz, P'erdinando, a Spanish architect, 368.
Rule, glazier's, 2226.
Rumsey, church of, in Hampshire, 396.
Russian architecture, 374, et seq. Eccle-
siastical, coeval with the introduction of
Christianity in the country, 375. Churches
built in the eleventh century, 375.
Russian churches, type of, 377.
S.
Sacrificial stones, what, 22.
Saffron Walden, parochial church at, 421.
Sagging prevented, 2031.
1084
INDEX.
Saint Mark, at Venice, library of, 357. ; and
elevation of, ib.
Salamanca, cathedral at, 367.
Salisbury Cathedral, 314. And Rheims
compared, 315. Comparison with that
of Amiens, 315. Founders and dimen-
sions of, 434.
Salisbury Chapter-house, Appendix, p. 837.
Salsette, excavation of, near Bombay, 57.
Saltzburg Cathedral, designed by Scamozzi,
355.
San Carlos, theatre of, at Naples, 2967.
Sand, measures of, 23O4.
Sand, river, 1858. Pit, 1859.
Sanding, in painting, 2277.
San Domenico di Silos, church and monas-
tery of, 369.
San Domenico, Palermo, walls at, 1535.
San Fantino, at Venice, church of, 351.
Sangallo, consulted on building St. Peter's,
335. Architect of Farnese Palace, 343.
San Giovanni Battista, near Toledo, hos-
pital of, 370.
San Giovanni Laterano, doors of, 2735.
San Lorenzo fuori le Mura, at Rome,
church of, 281.
San Mantino, gate of, at Toledo, 368.
San Micheli, some account of, and his
works, 350. A military architect, ib.
San Paolo fuori le Mura, at Rome, church
of, 281.
San Salvadore, at Venice, Scamozzi em-
ployed on, 355.
Sansovino, some account of, and his works,
351. His architectural problem of the
Doric frieze, 365.
Santa Croce, college of, at Valladolid, 367.
Santa Engracia at Saragossa, 367.
Saracenic or Arabian architecture, 118, et
seq. Decline of, 128.
Sarum, old, cathedral, 396.
Sash frames and sashes, 2164, 2165.
Sash lines and weights, 2263.
Sash tools, glazier's, 2226.
Sashes and frames, value of labour of,
2368.
Savoy, palace at, 423.
Saw, a carpenter's tool, 2003.
Saw (the), not known to the Greeks, 7.
Saws, ripping, half-ripper, hand, panel,
tenon, sash, dovetailed, compass, keyhole
or twining, 2115. Teeth of, 2116.
Saxon and Norman styles, difference be-
tween, 397.
Saxons, arrival of, in Britain, 383.
Scales and weights, plumber's, 221 2.
Scamozzi, Vincenzo, some account of, and
his works, 355. His plan for Piazza San
Marco, ib. Employed at Salzburg, 365.
Scantle, what, 2210.
Scantlings for joists, 2015—2022. For
girders, 2021.
Scarfing, 2007.
Schbnbrun, palace at, 365.
Sciography, 2458—2484. See " Sha-
dows. "
Scotia or Trochilos, 2532.
Scotland, architecture of, in time of the
Saxons, 383. 888. Stone buildings in, of
high antiquity, 388.
Scotland, Tudor examples of style in, 431.
Screw, 1324 — 1330.
Screw check, what, 2102.
Screws, 2257.
Scribe, bricklayer's, 1890.
Sculpture much used in the early English
style, 401.
Sculpture rather than painting allied to ar-
chitecture, 2522.
Seams in plumbery, 2213.
Secular architecture of France, Appendix,
p. 847.
Segments of a circle, table of areas when
the diameter is unity, 1225.
Segovia, bridge of, at Madrid, 371.
Segovia, cathedral of, 367.
Selby, conventual church at, 398.
Selby, Yorkshire, conventual church of,
421.
Selinus or Selinuns, city of, in Sicily,
147.
Semiramis, works of architecture attributed
to, 9.
Semita? of the xystus, 175.
Seraglio, reception room of, 1 32.
Serlio, door by, 2744.
Servandoni, an Italian architect, employed
on St. Sulpice, at Paris, 362.
Service pipes, 2215.
Setting board, glazier's, 2228.
Setting knife, glazier's, 2228.
Severeys, what, 415.
Seville, cathedral at, 320. 368.
Sewers, 3008.
Sewers, their importance, size, and proper
form, 1887, 1888.
Seyssel's asphalt, 1879.
Shade, as distinguished from shadow, 2459.
Shadows, method of projecting in archi-
tectural drawings, 2458 — 2484. Angle
usually employed for the light, 2459 —
2462. Examples, 2464, et seq. Sha-
dows on steps, 2468. Of modillions,
2469 — 2471. On triglyphs, 2472. Of
consoles, 2473. Of niches, 2475. Of
pediments, 2476. Of bases, 2480. Of
Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian capitals,
2480 — 2484.
Shaftesbury House, Aldersgate Street, by
Jones, 462.
Shafts of columns, Appendix, p. 839.
Shafts, bases of Attic, in eleventh and twelfth
centuries, Appendix, p. 839.
Shah Abbas, caravanserai of, described, 51.
Shah Meidan, at Ispahan, described, 51.
Sheet-lead, 1783.
Shene, in Surrey, palace at, 424.
Sherbourn Minster, Dorset, 398.
Sheriff Hutton, Yorkshire, palace at, 426.
Shooting, what, 2102.
Shute, John, author of earliest publication
in the English language on architecture,
438. Patronised by Dudley, Earl of
Northumberland, ib.
INDEX.
1085
Shutter bars, 2263.
Shutters, 2146—2148. Value of lahour
of, 2368.
^Kf)vr], or Scena, of the Greek theatre,
172.
Skew back, 1890.
Skirts of a roof, 2053.
Skylights, value of labour of, 2368.
Sicily, Grecian temples of, 147.
Side boards, what, 2102.
Side nook, 2121.
Siena, cathedral at, 318.
Signia, Cyclopean remains at, 32.
Signs, in algebra, 524—526.
Sill of a partition, 2025.
Siloe, a Spanish architect, 368.
Similar figures, 958 — 968.
Sine of an arc, 1039.
Single flooring, 2013.
Single stones, early practice of erecting, and
of what probable emblem, 1 3.
Sion House, Middlesex, completed for
Henry, Earl of Northumberland, 442.
Slate, 1798 — 1810. Description of, 1798.
Whence brought to London, 1799.
Species of, ib. Desirable properties of,
1800. Tests of quality of, 1800, 1801.
Different sorts of, 1802—1808. Patent
slating, 1809.
Slater's work, how measured, 2370.
Slater's work, in specifications, 2283.
Slates, proper slope of roofs for, 2030.
Slating, 2209—221 1.
Slating, patent, 1809.
Slaughter houses. See " Abattoirs."
Sleaford, parochial church at, 398.
Sleepers and planking, how measured,
2331.
Small cut brads, glazier's, 2226.
Smithery and ironmongery, 2253 — 2263.
Smith's and ironmonger's works, method of
estimating, 2375.
Smith's work, in specifications, 2286.
Smithson, Huntingdon, engaged on Wol-
laton Hall, 443.
Smithson, Robert, architect connected with
building Wollaton Hall, 440. 443.
Soils best for foundations, 1882, 1883.
Solar cell of the baths of Caracalla, 235.
Solids, 979—995.
Solids, mensuration of, 1229 — 1239. See
" Mensuration."
Solids to voids, ratio of, in vertical sections
of Gothic buildings, Appendix, p. 829.
Somerset House, 2883.
Somerset House, built by Chambers, de-
scription of, 519.
Somerset House, old, water front by Inigo
Jones, 459.
Somersetshire has many churches in the
florid English style, 423. Characteristics
of, 430.
Soufflot, architect of Pantheon at Paris, 361.
Southwell, church of, 389. 391.
South Wingfield, Derbyshire, 426.
Spain, architecture of, 367, et seq.
Spalatro, niches at, 2775.
Spanocchi Palace, cornice, 2725.
Spans of roofs, scantlings of timbers for,
2037—2040.
Specifications, 2279 — 2294. Excavator's
work, 2280. Bricklayer's work, 2282.
Slater's work, 2283. Mason's work,
2284. Carpenter's and joiner's works,
2285. Founder's, smith's, and iron-
monger's works, 2286. Plasterer's work,
2287. Plumber's work, 2288. Glazier's
work, 2289. Painter's work, 2290.
Paperhanger's work, 2291. Bellhanger's
work, 2292. Conditions, 2294.
Sphaeristerium of the Greek gymnasium,
175.
Sphere, surface or segment of, 1237. So-
lidity of, 1238. Solidity of segment of,
1239.
Spherical surfaces, to form in joinery, 2208.
Spherical vaulting, 1478 — 1493.
Sphinx of Egypt, 74.
Spiller, James, architect, quoted, 521.
Spina of the Roman circus, 240.
Spire, cathedral of, 287.
Spire, Gothic, wrought into Italian archi-
tecture, 484.
Square, 2118.
Square, bricklayer's, 1890. Bricklayer's
large, 1890.
Square, glazier's, 2226.
Square numbers, 57.5 — 582.
Square roots, and the irrational numbers
that result from them, 583—592. Table
of, 873.
Squares, table of, 873.
Squaring the rail of stairs, 2187.
St. Alban's, abbey of, 389. 398. 407.
St. Anne, Limehouse, by Hawksmoor, 499.
St. Antoine, abbey of, near Paris, 310.
St. Antony, church of, at Padua, 285.
St. Apollinaris, church of, at Ravenna, 278.
St. Basil, in Cherson, church at, 875.
St. Benigne, at Dijon, among the oldest
buildings of France, 289.
St. Carlo alle quattro Fontane, at Rome,
342.
St. Carlo on the Corso, at Rome, 342.
St. Catharine, Honfleur, Appendix, p. 830.
St. Chrysogono, Rome, walls at, 1535.
St. Cross, Hampshire, church of, 396.
St. David's, circular window, Appendix, p.
842.
St. Denys, abbey of, 310.
St. Dunstan's ( London )-in-the-Ea.w, 485.
St. Edmundsbury church, 391. 398. 408.
St. Etienne du Mont, Paris, Appendix, p.
835.
St. Filippo Neri, Naples, walls at, 1535.
1552.
St. Francesco, at Assisi, 318.
St. Francesco, church of, at Rimini, 325.
St. Frideswide, church of, at Oxford, 389.
St. Genevieve, church of, 289.
St. Genevieve, church of, at Paris, by
Soufflot, 361. Plan and section, ib.
St. Gene'vieve, library of, 2911.
St. George, in Russia, convent of, 375.
1086
INDEX.
St. George's chapel, Windsor, Appendix, p.
834. Doorway, p. 844.
St. George's, Bloomsbury, by Hawksmoor,
499.
St. George's, Middlesex, by Hawksmoor,
499.
St. Germain des Pres, church of, 289.
St. Germain 1'Auxerrois, Appendix, p. 831.
St. Germain's, monastery of, in Cornwall,
389.
St. Gervais, Paris, Appendix, p. 831.
St. Giles's-in-the-Fields, by Flitcroft, 512.
St. Giovanni Laterano, palace of, 344.
S. Giuseppe, Palermo, walls at, 1535.
St. Ildefonso, palace of, 372.
St. Irene, in Russia, convent of, 375.
St. James's Church, Westminster, descrip-
tion of, 875.
St. James's, Westminster, palace, 426.
St. Jacques, Dieppe, Appendix, pp. 830.
854, 855.
St. Jean, Caen, Appendix, p. 830.
St. John, at Ephesus, church of, 271.
St. John's College, Oxford, Inigo Jones
employed at, 456.
St. John's, Westminster, by Archer, 498.
S. Lorenzo, Florence, walls at, 1535. 1550.
1554.
St. Lo, Notre Dame de, Appendix, p. 830.
St. Louis, under, great number of ecclesi-
astical buildings in France, 310.
St. Margaret, Norwich, parochial church of,
421.
St. Margaret's porch, at York, 398.
Sta. Maria del Fiore, church of, at Florence,
described, 323. Plan, section, and ele-
vation of, ib. Vasari's testimony of its
grandeur, ib. Partially Gothic, 327.
Sta. Maria Maggiore, niches at, 2779.
Sta. Maria Maggiore, walls at, 1535. 1549.
Sta. Maria, in Trastevere, walls at, 1 535.
St. Mark, church of, at Venice, description
of, 284.
St. Mark's library, at Venice, 2910.
St Martin's-in-the- Fields, Westminster, by
Gibbs, described, 502. Roof of, 2046.
St. Mary, Edmundsbury, Suffolk, parochial
church of, 408. 421.
St. Mar y-le- Strand, by Gibbs, described,
508.
St. Mary Overy, Southwark, parochial
church of, 421.
St. Mary Redcliff, Bristol, parochial church
of, 421.
St. Mary's Chapel, Ely Cathedral, 421.
St. Mary's, Oxford, parochial church of,
421.
St. Mary's, York, conventual church of,
421.
St. Mary Woolnoth, Lombard Street, de-
scription and representations of, 499.
St. Mery, Appendix, p. 831.
St. Michael, Coventry, parochial church of,
408. 421.
St. Michael, Pavia, church of, 280.
St. Nicholas, Newcastle, alluded to, 485.
St. Olave, Southwark, by Flitcroft, 512.
St. Ouen, at Rouen, church of, 311. Cir-
cular window, Appendix, p. 843.
S. Paolo fuori le Mura, 1534—1546. 1553.
Points of support of, 1581. Roof of,
2051.
St. Paul's Cathedral, by Wren, 339. 2828.
Designs for, and plan, 467. Ruins re-
moved, 468. Foundations, ib. First
stone laid, 469. Last stone, ib. Plans
and description of, 470 — 474. Cost, 475.
Dimensions compared with St. Peter's, ib.
Size compared with three other principal
churches of Europe, 476. Defect in sec-
tion as compared with them, 477. Points
of support and mechanical skill as com-
pared with them, 478. Its defects and
abuses, 479. Failures in, ib. Fine view
of, 2503. Points of support of, 1581.
Timbering of dome, 2049.
St. Paul's, old cathedral, 396. Founders and
dimensions of, 434. Repairs of, by Inigo
Jones, 457.
St. Peter, Mancroft, Norwich, parochial
church of, 408. 421.
St. Peter's, Northampton, parochial church
of, 398.
St. Peter's, Oxford, parochial church at,
398.
St. Peter's, Rome, 335 — 341. 2828. Doors
of, 2735. Nave of, 2779. Niches and
statues in, ib. Points of support of, 1581.
Windows at, 2757.
St. Petersburgh, city of, founded, 378. Pa-
laces of, ib.
St. Philip's, Birmingham, by Archer, 498.
St. Pierre, Senlis, Appendix, p. 830.
S. Pietro in Vincola, Rome, walls at, 1535.
St. Poole, Sir George, designs for, by
Thorpe, 440.
St. Quentin, Hotel de Ville, Appendix, p.
849.
St. Remi, Rheims, Appendix, p. 831.»
Sta. Sabina, Rome, walls at, 1535. 1548.
1554.
St. Severin, Appendix, p. 831.
St. Sophia, church of, at Constantinople,
description of, with plan, elevation, and
section, 271. Served as a model after
conquest of Constantinople, 300.
Sto. Spirito, Florence, walls at, 1535. 1551.
1554.
St. Stephen, Bristol, parochial church of,
421.
St. Stephen, church of, at Caen, 290.
St. Stephen's Chapel, Westminster, 421.
St. Stephen's, Walbrook, description of,
483.
St. Sulpice, church of, at Paris, 362.
St. Vincent, Rouen, Appendix, p. 830.
St. Vitalis, church of, at Ravenna, 282. Plan
and section, ib.
Stability, source of fitness, 2500. Depend-
ent on laws of gravitation, 2501.
Stadium of the Greek gymnasium, 175.
Stafford, Duke of Buckingham, his palaces,
426.
Staircases, 2796, et scq. Designing of, im-
INDEX.
1087
portant, 2797. One at Prebendal House,
Westminster, t'6. Light in, 2798. Of
the Greeks and Romans, 2799. Few-
remains of, at Pompeii, 2800. Those at
the Vatican and that by Bernini, 2801.
Of the Trinita de' Monti and Araceli,
2802. Palladio's rules for forming, 2803,
2804. The sorts of stairs in, 2805.
Winding or spiral, 2806. Palladio's rules
for, 2806, 2807. Spiral, with solid newel,
2808. Spiral, with open newel, 2809.
Elliptical, with open newel, 2810. El-
liptical, with solid newel, 2811. Easiness
of ascent in, 2813. BlondePs rule for
obtaining it, 2814.
Stairs, 2176 — 2185. Rules for risers and
treads of, 2177, 2178.
Stairs, stone, 1926—1929. With solid or
open newel, 1926. Geometrical, 1927 —
1929. Landings, half paces and quarter
paces of, 1929. Thickness of steps, 1928.
Stairs, carriage, &c., of, 2026.
Stairs, value of labour of, 2368.
Stamford, parochial church of, 421.
Stationes of the Greek gymnasium, 175.
Statues. See " Niches," 2773, et seq.
Stefano, S., rotondo church of, at Rome,
1528.
Stellar vaults, Appendix, p. 833, et seq.,
838.
Steyning, parochial church at, 398.
Sticking, what, 2105.
Stock and bit, 2107.
Stocks, red and grey, 1822.
Stoke- Pogis House, date and founder, 446.
Stone Buildings, Lincoln's Inn, by Taylor,
515.
Stone, early working of, and tempering tools
for, attributed to Tososthes, 10.
Stone, 1636—1667. Freestone, what, 1637.
Limestones and sandstones, ib. Requisite
qualities of, 1639. Causes of decay, 1640.
Report relating to, on occasion of selecting
stone for the new Houses of Parliament,
1641 — 1665. Alphabetical list of sand-
stone, limestone, magnesian limestone,
and oolitic stone quarries in the pro-
vinces, 1664, 1665. Alphabetical list of
buildings of sandstone, p. 470 — 473. Al-
phabetical list of buildings of limestone,
p. 473 — 476. Alphabetical list of build-
ings of magnesian limestone, p. 476 —
478. Analysis of sixteen different sorts
of stone, 1666, 1667.
Stone quarried and worked with skill by
the Egyptians, 73.
Stonehenge, account of, 18. By Inigo Jones,
457 — 461. Account of, by Mr. Cunning-
ton, 19. 40. Not built by the Britons,
380. 388.
Stopping and picking-out tools, plasterer's,
2233.
Story-rod for stairs, 2182.
Straight-edge, 2123.
Straight-edges, plasterer's, 2233.
Straight-joint floor, what, 2168.
Straining-piece, 2034.
Straps in carpentry, 2011.
Strasburg, cathedral of, described, 305.
Strasburg, Freemason's lodge at, Appendix,
p. 822.
Stratford-upon-Avon, parochial church of,
408. 421.
Stretchers, what, 1894.
Strings of stairs, 2026.
Striping, in masonry, 1914.
Stroking, iu masonry, 1910.
Strozzi, Palazzo, at Florence, 327. 329.
Cornice of, 2725.
Struts, in carpentry, 2009, 2010.
Struts, what, 2031.
Strutting pieces, 2018.
Stuart, James, an architect, temp. Geo. III.,
and his works, 516.
Stucco painting, 2269.
Stuck, what, 2105.
Stukely, church of, in Bucks, 389.
Styles of a door, what, 2130.
Styles of architecture all dependent on fit-
ness, 2508.
Styles of mediaeval architecture, as called by
the French, Appendix, p. 830.
Subdivisions and apartments of buildings,
and their points of support, 2848. Vaults
for covering, how arranged, 2849, 2850,
2851. 2853, 2854. Examples of, 2849,
et seq.
Subterranean style of Egypt caused by the
climate, 64.
Sudatio of the Greek gymnasium, 175. Of
the Roman baths, 235, 236.
Sudeley, in Gloucestershire, 423.
Sugar, tonnage of, in warehouses, Appen-
dix, p. 884.
Summer Hill, Kent, 452.
Summit-ribs omitted, Appendix, p. 838.
Superficies, mensuration of, 1212 — 1228.
See " Mensuration."
Supplement of an arc, 1038.
Surfaces, 929—934.
Swansea Castle, 413,414.
Swift, Dean, his ignorance of art, 491.
Sybil (Corinthian), temple of, at Tivoli,
214.
Symbolism in churches, Appendix, pp. 822.
824, 825.
Symbols, Appendix, pp. 845, 846.
Symmetry in architecture, 2510.
Sy style intercolumniation, 2605. Mono-
triglyph, ib.
T.
Ta, or sepulchral towers of the Chinese,
106.
Tabernacle, plan of, from Mbller, Appendix,
p. 832.
Tablinum of a Roman house, 248. 253.
Tadmor or Palmyra, extraordinary struc-
tures at, 196, 197.
Tai of the Chinese, 106.
Tangent of an arc, 1041.
Tanjore, pagoda at, 59.
1088
INDEX.
Taper shell bit, 2109.
Taste in architecture, what, 2492. Stand-
ard of, 2506.
Tattersall in Lincolnshire, 423.
Tattersall Castle, doorway, Appendix, p.
844.
Tatti Jacopo. See " Sansovino."
Taunton, parochial church at, 421.
Tavistock slates, 1 809.
Taylor, Mr., his house at Potter's Bar, by
Thorpe, 440.
Taylor, Sir Robert, an architect of high
reputation, temp. George III., and his
works, 515.
Tea, tonnage of, in warehouses, Appendix,
p. 884.
Temple, Newsham House, Yorkshire,
452.
Temple of Concord, at Rome, 261. 2547.
Of Fortuna Virilis, ib. Of Peace, at
Rome, ib. Of Vesta, 16. Of the Sybil,
at Tivoli, ib. Of Faustina, ib. Of Bac-
chus, ib. Of Jupiter Stator, at Rome,
262. Of Jupiter Tonans, at Rome, ib.
Of Peace, niches at, 2775.
Templet, bricklayer's, 1890.
Tenons, 2008.
Tentyris, temple at, 91.
Teocallis, houses of Gods of the Mexicans,
114.
Teotihuacan, pyramids of, 111.
Tepidarium of the Roman baths, 235.
Terminus, 2686.
Tertiary Gothic or Flamboyant style, Ap-
pendix, p. 830.
Testocopoli, a Grecian, executed many
works in Spain, 369.
Tetbury Church, by Hiorne, 514.
Tetrastyle temple, 2528, et seq.
Tewkesbury, conventual church of, 421.
Tewkesbury, monastery of, 389. 421.
Thaxted, parochial church at, 421.
Theatre, none in Rome permanent till
time of Pompey, 185. That of ^milius
Scaurus, ib. One erected by Curio, ib.
Theatre of Marcel lus, 2547.
Theatres, 2947, et seq. That constructed
by Bramante, ib. Palladio's at Vicenza,
2948. Their revival, 2949. Those of
Bologna and Verona, 2950. At Bour-
deaux, 2951. Points for consideration
in, 2952. Forms of, considered, 2953.
Wyatt's principles on rebuilding Drury
Lane Theatre, 2957. Sizes of, and
schemes for hearing and seeing, 2958 —
2965. Use of semicircle in, 2966. Seeing
in, 2969. Ingress and egress, 2970.
Fire proof, 2972.
Theatres, earliest of Rome, 226. Roman,
described by Vitruvius, ib. That of Mar-
cellus at Rome, 226. 258. That of Bal-
bus, 226. That of Pompeii, 227.
Theatres of the Greeks, described, and plan
of one, 172. First constructed in a tem-
porary manner, ib.
Theobald's House, date and founder,
446.
Theodoric, architecture under, 278. His
mausoleum at Ravenna, ib. His succes-
sors, 279.
Theodosius, architecture under, 271.
Theodosius II., architecture under, 271.
His works at Constantinople, 271.
Theron, tomb of, at Agrigentum, 158.
Theseus, temple of, 150.
Thiene Palace, window at, 2769.
Thornbury Castle, bay window at, 428.
Thornbury, Gloucestershire, palace at,
426.
Thornton College, for Sir Vincent Skinner,
by Thorpe, 440.
Thorpe, John, account of his designs from
folio volume, formerly belonging to the
Hon. Charles Greville, 440. Observa-
tions by Walpole on his compositions,
441. Design for his own house, ib.
Probably engaged at Wollaton, 443.
Through stones, what, 1920.
Thumb screws, 2263.
0ujU6Ai7 of the Greek theatre, 172.
Tiange, Jean de, first stone of Pont St.
Esprit laid by, 310.
Tie beam, 2031.
Tierceron, Appendix, p. 835.
Tiler's tools, 1908.
Tiles, hollow, proper slope of roofs for,
2030.
Tiles, 1834 — 1839. Of what composed,
and how manufactured, 1834. Plain or
crown tiles, 1835. Ridge roof and hip
tiles, 1836. Gutter tiles, 1837. Pan or
Flemish tiles, 1838. Paving tiles, 1839.
Tiles, plain, proper slope of roofs for,
2030. Roman, proper slope of roofs for,
ib.
Tiling, 1906. Tools used in, 1908. Plain
tiles, 1906. Pantiles, 1907.
Tiling, trowel, 1 908.
Timber, chief material in use among the
Chinese, and the sorts employed, 98.
Timber, cubic foot of, to compute value,
2344, 2345.
Timber, different species of, 1684—1738.
Oak, 1685—1695- Chesnut, 1696 —
1700. Beech, 1701, 1702. Walnut,
1703, 1704. Cedar, 1705. Fir, 1706
— 1709. White fir, 1710. Spruce fir,
1711. American pine, 1712— ,1716.
Larch, 1717. Poplar, 1718. Alder,
1719. Elm, 1720—1722. Ash, 1723.
Sycamore, 1724. Birch, 1725. Ma-
hogany, 1726. Spanish mahogany, 1728.
Teak, 1729. Table of heights and
diameters of different trees, 1729. Mode
of preserving, 1730 — 1738. Preserva-
tion of, 1739 — 1744. Decay of, 1745 —
1747. Prevention of decay, 1748 —
1752. Cure of rot in, 1753.
Timber, different species of strength, 1598.
Cohesive force of, in the direction of its
length, 1598, 1599. Strength of, in an
upright position, 1600 — 1602. Resist-
ance of a post, 1602. Horizontal pieces
of timber, experiments on, 1603 — 1611.
INDEX.
1089
Strength of, modified to its absolute and
primitive force and its flexibility, 1611.
Deduction from loss, 1612, 1613. Ex-
periments on pieces of, in five tables,
1613. Explanation of tables, 1614, 1615.
Mode of representing strength of, 1616
— 1621. Deduction from, 1 622. Table
showing the greatest strength of, lying
horizontally in Ibs. avoirdupois, and ex-
planation of, 1622 — 1624. Application
of preceding table to other besides oak
timber, 1624 — 1635. Method of using
last table for horizontal timbers, 1625,
1626. The same for strength of vertical
bearing pieces, 1627 — 1629. Method
for obtaining absolute or cohesive strength,
1630 — 1632. Strength of other timbers
besides oak in an inclined position, 1633
— 1635.
Timber houses in England, short account
of, 439. On the Continent, ib.
Timber not an element in Egyptian archi-
tectural composition, 63 — 71.
Timbers, scantlings of, for roofs, 2037 —
2040.
Timbers should be measured when carcass
of building completed, 2341.
Tinemouth, conventual church of, 407.
Tin saw, bricklayer's, 1890.
Tinterne Abbey, conventual church of, 407.
Tiryns, walls of, very ancient, described by
Homer, 31. 33.
Toad's back rail, 2189.
Toddington House, date and founder, 446.
Toils of a hinge, 2155.
Toledo, church of, 367.
Toledo, gate of San Martino, 368.
Tolmen or colossal stones, description of,
26. The Constantine Tolmen in Corn-
wall, 26.
Tombs of the Romans, 254. That of the
Horatii, 255. That of Caius Cestius, at
Rome, 256. That of Adrian, at Rome,
ib. That of Cecilia Metella, at Rome,
ib. Group of, from Pompeii, 257.
Tongue in joinery, 2191.
Tonnage, means of valuation of warehouses
by, Appendix, p. 883.
Tools for building used by the early
Greeks, 7.
Tools used by painters, 2268.
Tools used in joinery, 2102 — 2124.
Toothings of walls, 1900.
Top rails of a door, 2130.
Torus, 2532.
Torus, ornament in Norman architecture,
397.
Tote of a plane, 2104.
Totila takes Rome-, 279.
Toultecs, architecture of, 1!0.
Tower of London, 394 — 398. 423.
Town halls, 2894, et seq. Size to be suit-
able to importance of place, 2894. Rooms
required in, 2895. Good examples of,
on the Continent, 2896. At Brussels,
ib. That of Amsterdam described, 2897.
Antwerp, Maestricht, and Louvain, good
examples at, 2898. Hotel de Ville at
Paris, ib. Appendix, pp. 855 — 857.
Trajan's column, 193. 2603. Bridge over
the Danube, 193. Forum, 193.
Transition style, what, 410.
Traversing wood, 2121.
Tread of stairs, 2180.
Trevi, Corinthian temple at, 211. 2672.
Trevigi, an architect employed in England,
427.
Triclinium of a Roman house, 252, 253.
Triforium, what, 286.
Triglyphs, origin of, 135. Regulate the
disposition of Doric order, 2605.
Trigonometry, plane, 1032 — 1054.
Trimmers and trimming joists, 2017.
Trimmers and trimming joists, how mea-
sured, 2340.
Trimming of slates, 2211.
Trinity College, Cambridge, 2904. Li-
brary of, by Wren, 487. 2908.
Tripoli, described generally, 132.
Triumphal arches, different sorts of, 220.
That of Constantine, Septimius Severus,
Titus, &c., ib.
Trochilos, 2532.
Trowel, brick, 1890.
Trowel, slater's, 2210.
Trowelled or bastard stucco, 2236 — 2244.
Trowels, plasterer's, 2233.
Truro, parochial church at, 408—421.
Truss explained, 2031. System of trusses,
2032.
Trusses for girders, 2021.
Trying plane, plumber's, 2212.
Trying up, what, 2102.
Tudor style, examples of, in Scotland, 431.
In England, 422, et seq. ; 432.
Tuileries and Louvre, designs for, by Ber-
nini, 2881.
Tuileries, at Paris, palace of, 357.
Tunbridge Castle, 394.
Turin theatre, 2958.
Turnbuckles, 2263.
Tusk, in carpentry, what, 2008.
Tuscan arcade, 2621. With pedestal, 2628.
Tuscan order, 2553. Admits of few orna-
ments, 2554. Method of profiling, 2555.
Parts of, on larger scale, ib. Table of
heights and projections, ib. Whole height
of, 2556. Palladio's method of profiling,
2557. Serlio's method, 2558. Scamozzi's
method, 2559.
Tuscan order, intercolumniation of, 2606
—2609.
Tuscan order, inventors of, 258.
Tympanum of a pediment, 27 1 5. Face of,
how disposed, 2723-
Types in architecture, 2507.
Types of architecture, in three states of life,
2. 258.
U
Uffizj, at Florence, museum of, 2918.
Ulm, cathedral at, 309. Reputed to be the
largest church in Germany, ib.
4 A
1090
INDEX.
Ulric, an early German architect, 365.
Unity in architecture, 2509.
Upholsterers and decorators, to be avoided
in matters of taste, 2604.
V.
Vale Royal, in Cheshire, conventual church
of, 407.
Valle Crucis, Denbighshire, conventual
church of, 407.
Valuation of property, Appendix, p. 882,
ct seq.
Value of work, to ascertain by constants of
labour, 2346, et seq.
Vanbrugh, Sir John, account of, 491. Sir
J. Reynolds' opinion of his works, 492.
His works, 493 — 497. Clarencieux king-
of-arms, ib. A dramatist, ib.
Variety, desire for, cause of decoration,
2515.
Vatican Library described, 2909. Museum
of, 2918.
Vaulting, cylindrical, how to regulate cais-
sons in, 2835, 2836.
Vaulting, groined, 1444 — 1456. Coved,
1464 — 1477. Spherical, 1478—1493.
Vaulting, terms employed in, Appendix, p.
835. In Gothic architecture, different
species of, Appendix, p. 836, et seq.
Vaults for covering apartments, how ar-
ranged, 2849. Its weight and thrust,
2852. Springing of, 2849—2854.
Velarium of the amphitheatre, and mode of
raising it, 229.
Veneers, gluing together in joinery, 2200.
Venetian and Palladian sashes and frames,
value of labour of, 2368.
Venetian school, Inigo Jones a follower of,
463. Plans of houses of this school
scarcely suited to English habits, 464.
Venetian school, its character, 349. Its
period, 356.
Venetian windows, 2756.
Venice, theatre of San Benedetto, 2958.
Venter of an aqueduct, what, 225.
Ventilation, 2862. 2974. 2982.
Verona, theatre at, 2950.
Versed sine of an arc, 1040.
Vesica Piscis, supposed to have given hint
for forms of plans of churches, 302. Ap-
pendix, p. 825. As applied to the forms
of churches, Appendix, p. 825.
Vesta (Corinthian), temple of, at Rome, 214.
Vestibulum of the Roman house, 244.
Vicenza, basilica of, arcade at, 2641.
Vignola, 37 1 . Door by, at Farnese Palace,
2741. Resided in France many years.
His profiles of the orders followed there,
358.
Villa Capra, near Vicenza, by Palladio, 353.
Interaxal divisions applied to, 2843.
Villeneuve, an Italian architect, employed
on the Escurial, 371.
Villa Pia, at Rome, and view of, 345.
Villa, site on which it can be designed,
2999, 3000.
Villa, Cicero's, 243. Those of Lucullus and
Pollio, ib.
Villas of Rome, 345.
Villas of the Romans very extensive, 184.
Vincennes, castle of, 311.
Vine, portico to, Hants, by Webb, 465.
Vitruvius, manuscripts of, 326. His pre-
cepts on intercolumniations of the Doric
order, 2610.
Vittoria, Alessandro, 356.
Volterra, walls of, 179.
Volute of the Ionic order, 151. Method
of describing, 2576.
Vomitoria of the amphitheatre, 229.
W.
Wade, General, house for, by Lard Bur-
lington, 510.
Wainscotting, value of labour of, 2368.
Wakefield Chapel, on the bridge, 421.
Church at, ib.
Wakefield, parochial church of, 421.
Wales, early buildings in, 387.
Wall plate, what, 2009.
Wall plates and bond, how measured, 2333.
Walls, at S. Filippo Neri, Naples, 1535.
S. Giuseppe and S. Domenico Palermo,
1535. Of two hundred and eighty build-
ings in France and Italy, 1537. In pri-
vate houses, 1538. In large buildings,
1539, 1540. Rules and examples for,
1 542 — 1 554. Examples for thickness of,
in houses of many stories, 1555 — 1560.
In ordinary houses, 1556, 1557. In
double houses, 1558. Of the Hotel
Vendome, 1 560. Of a house built for
the Brothers Mocenigo, 1562. Pressure
of earth against, and rules for finding
thickness, 1584—1592.
Walls, brick, mode of measuring, 2306 —
2308. Should be gradually carried up,
i891. Precepts to be observed respect-
ing, 1898—1900.
Walls, stability of, and resistance, 1500 —
1502. Stability of, 1503—1517. Me-
thod of enclosing a given area in a regu-
lar polygon, 1518—1528. Thickness of.
in buildings, not vaulted, 1529 — 1541.
Rules for, 1542, 1543. Example of,
1544, 1545. Other examples, 1546—
1562.
Walls, stone, 1916—1924.
Walls, 1500 — 1592. Thickness propor-
tioned to height, 1502. Stability of,
1503 — 1528. Mode in which forces act
on, 1505—1509. Enclosing spaces of
different forms, 1 5 1 2 — 15 1 7. Must have
a certain thickness to acquire stability,
1 525. Exterior wall of S. Stefano Ro-
tondo, 1528. Thickness of, in buildings
not vaulted, 1529—1554. Kept to-
gether by rooft, 1532 — 1541. At Ha-
drian's Villa, 1535. At S. Paolo fuori
le Mura, 1534. 1546. At Sta. Subina,
1535. At Sta. Maria Maggiore, ib. At
Sta. Maria in Trastevere, ib. At S. Chry-
INDEX.
1091
sogono, ib. At S. Pietro in Vincola, ib.
At S. Lorenzo and Sto. Spirito, Flo-
rence, ib.
Walter, of Coventry, an architect of the
Norman age, 395.
Waltham, abbey of, 389. 391.
Wanstead House, Essex, date and founder,
446. By Campbell, described, and ele-
vation of, 504.
Ware, his tract on vaults and bridges,
Appendix, pp. 836 — 838.
Warehouses, valuation of, Appendix, p. 883.
Tonnage, mode of ascertaining value, ib.
Weight of wheat in, p. 884.
Warkworth Castle, 398,
Warwick Castle, 414. Description and
view of, 418. 423.
Warwick Sessions' House, by Hiorne, 514.
Water, 1861.
Water-lily, used in Egyptian ornament, 87.
Wavy ornament, 397.
Webb, John, pupil of Inigo Jones, 464, 465.
Wedge, 1321 — 1323.
Weights, comparative, of different materials
used in covering buildings, 1796.
Weights of brickwork, &c., 2305, et seq.
Wells Cathedral, 398. 406. 421 . Founders
and dimensions of, 434. Chapter-house,
Appendix, p. 837.
Welsh groins, 2058.
Welsh lumps, 1826.
Welsh rag slates, 1803.
Wenlock, in Shropshire, choir at, 398.
Westminster Abbey, 389. 406. Founders
and dimensions of, 434. Circular win-
dow, Appendix, p. 843.
Westminster Hall, section of, 415.
Westminster, palace at, 423.
Westminster School Dormitory, by Lord
Burlington, 510.
Westmoreland slates, 1802.
West Walton Tower, Norfolk, 398.
Westwood Hall, Worcestershire, 426.
Westwood House, date and founder, 446.
Wheat, its weight in warehouses, Appendix,
p. 884.
Wheel and axle, 1307 — 1314.
Whitby, in Yorkshire, conventual church
of, 407.
Whitehall, palace of, 457. Palace pro-
posed at, 2879, 2880. Banqueting house
at, 458.
White lead, 2272.
Whittington, on pointed architecture, quoted,
310. 313—315.
Whittlesea, parochial church of, 421.
Whole numbers, in respect to their factors,
532, 533.
Wilfrid, bishop of York, 383. 385. 386.
William of Sens, architect of Bishop Lan-
franc, 395.
Willis, Mr., his paper on penetration of
mouldings, Appendix, p. 839.
Wilton House, designed by Inigo Jones,
461. Improved, 508.
Wimbledon, house at, for Sir Thomas Cecil,
440.
Wimbledon House, date and founder, 446.
Point and particulars of, 448.
Winchelsea, parochial church at, 398.
Winchester Cathedral, founders and dimen-
sions of, 434.
Winchester Palace, circular window, Ap-
pendix, p. 843.
Winde, Captain William, built Cliefden
and other works, 465.
Winders in stairs, 2186.
Winding sticks, 2123.
Windows, 2745, et seq. Blank to be
avoided, ib. Proportions of, as connected
with apartments, 2746. Mode of obtain-
ing proper quantity of light, 2747. Rule
for size, by Chambers, 2748. Proper
rules, by Morris, ib. Examples of rules
for sizes, 2749 — 2752. When there are
two stories of windows in rooms, 2753.
Piers of, 2754. In the same story should
be similar, 2755. Venetian, 2756. St.
Peter's at Rome, lower story, 2757.
From Mattel Palace, at Rome, 2758.
Two examples of, by Bernardo Buonta-
lenti, 2759. From the old Louvre, 2760.
From Palladio, 2761. 2765, 2766. From
Banqueting House, Whitehall, 2762.
From Farnese Palace, 2763. From Re-
nuccini Palace, 2764. From Pandolfini
Palace, 2767. From Bracciano Palace,
2768. From Thiene Palace, 2769. By
Inigo Jones, 2770. By Colin Campbell,
2771. By Kent, 2772.
Windows : St. Alban's, Appendix, p. 840. ;
Beaudesert, ib. ; Trinity Chapel, Canter-
bury, ib. ; Lincoln, ib. ; Painted Cham-
ber, 841. ; Ely, ib. ; Merton College, Ox-
ford, ib. ; Oxford Cathedral, ib. ; St.
Ouen, ib. ; Cawston Church, ib. • Nor-
wich, ib. ; Aylsham, ib.
Windows in Egyptian buildings, 82.
Windsor bricks," 1826.
Windsor Castle, 393, 394. 398. 414.
Wingfield Manor, Gloucestershire, 423.
Witney, Oxon, parochial church cf, 408.
Woburn Abbey, great part of, by Flitcroft,
512.
Wolfe, an architect of reputation, 504.
Wollaton Hall, Notts, 440. 443. 445. 452.
Wolsey, his magnificent buildings, 426.
Wolterton Hall, Norfolk, 426.
Wood, earliest material employed in build-
ing, 7.
Wood, of Bath, an architect, temp. George
II., 513.
Wood used for joinery, 2124.
Woodstock, palace at, 423.
Worcester Cathedral, 421. Founders and
dimensions of, 434.
Worcester Chapter-house, Appendix, p. 837.
Worcester College, library, designed by Dr.
Clarke, 490.
Working drawings explained, and the prin-
ciples on which they are to be made,
2485—2491.
Worms, cathedral of, and description, 287.
Plan, part, section, and view of, ib. One
1092
INDEX.
of the most ancient of churches in Ger-
many, ib. Shafts of, Appendix, p. 839.
Wren, Sir Christopher, 466—480. Paren-
talia of, 481 — 489. His epitaph, 482.
Employed at Cambridge, 487. List of
his principal works, 488. Churches by,
date and cost, ib. Like Palladio, fol-
lowed certain proportions, 353.
Wrexham, parochial church of, 421.
Wyken church, doorway, Appendix, p. 842.
X.
Xochiculco, military intrenchment of, 114.
Xystus of the Greek gymnasium, 175. Of
the Roman baths, 235.
Y.
Yaroslat, Russian prince, patron of archi-
tecture, 375.
York Castle, 394.
York Cathedral, 406.
York Cathedral, founders and dimensions
of, 434. Circular window, Appendix, p.
842.
York Place, Whitehall Palace, 426.
York Stairs to the Thames, by Jones, 462.
Ypsambool, temple at, 71.
Z.
Zamodia, an early German architect, 365.
Zax, slater's, 2210.
Zecco or Mint, at Venice, by Sansovino,
351.
Zebra, near Cordova, city, palace, and gar
dens, founded, 121.
Zinc, 1792 — 1797. Found every where,
1792. Mode of extracting from ore, ib.
Method of forming into plates, 1793.
Points relating to, ib. Increased de-
mand for, 1794. Its peculiarities, 1975.
Tenacity of, and sheets usually employed,
1796. A good material for cisterns, &c.
Oxyde of, 2272.
THE END.
I.OMDO.V:
A. and O. A. SPOTTISWOODE,
New -street- Square.
OP
NEW WORKS IN GENERAL LITERATURE,
PUBLISHED BY
LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS,
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Caird's Letters on Agriculture - '
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Loudon's Agriculture - - - 15
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Richardson's Art of Horsemanship 18
Scrivenor on the Iron Trade - - 19
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Biography.
Arago's Autobiography - - 23
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Bodenstedt and Wagner's Schamyl 23
Buckingham's (J. S.) Memoirs - 5
Bunsen's Hippolytus ... 5
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Hayward's . hesterfield and Selwyn 23
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Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopedia - 12
Maunder's Biographical Treasury- 15
Memoir of the Dukeof Wellington 23
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St. John's Audubon - 19
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" Life and Correspondence 20
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Stephen's Ecclesiastical Biography 21
Sydney Smith's Memoirs - - 20
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Waterton's Autobiography & Essays 22
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How to Nurse sick Children - - 10
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Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia - 12
Maunder's Treasury of Knowledge 15
" Biographical Treasury 15
" Scientific Treasury - 15
" Treasury of History - lo
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Piscator's Cookery of Fish - - 18
Pocket and the Stud - - - 9
Pycroft's English Reading - - 18
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CLASSIFIED INDEX.
Pages.
Rich's Comp. to Latin Dictionary 18
Richardson's Art of Horsemanship 18
Riddle's Latin Dictionaries - - 18
Roget's English Thesaurus - - 19
Rowton's Debater - 19
Short Whist ----- 20
Thomson's Interest Tables - - 22
Webster's Domestic Economy - 22
West on Children's Diseases - - 24
WUlich's Popular Tables - - 24
Wihnot's Blackstone - 24
Botany and Gardening.
Hooker's British Flora - 9
" Guide to Kew Gardens - 9
" " " Kew Museum - 9
Lindley's Introduction to Botany 13
" Theory of Horticulture - 13
Loudon's Hortus Britannicus - 13
" Amateur Gardener - 13
" Trees and Shrubs - - 13
" Gardening - - - 13
" Plants - - - 13
M'Intosh & Kemp's Year-Book for
the Country - . - 14
Pereira'sMaterlaMedica - - 17
Rivera's Rose Amateur's Guide - 18
Wilson's British Mosses - - 24
Chronology.
Blair's Chronological Tables - 4
Brewer's Historical Atlas - - - 4
Bunsen's Ancient Egypt 5
Haydn's Beatson's Index - - 9
Jaquemet's Chronology - - 11
Johns & Nicolas' Calendar of Victory,!!
Nicolas's Chronology of History - 12
Commerce and Mercantile
Affairs.
Francis's Stock Exchange - 8
Gilbarfs Treatise on Banking - 8
Lonmer's Young Master Mariner 13
Mac l.eod's Banking - - - 14
M'Culloch'sCommerce & Navigation 14
Scrivenor on Iron Trade •• - 19
Thomson's Interest Tables - - 22
Tooke's History of Pi ices - - 22
Tuson's British Consul's Manual - 22
Criticism, History, and
Memoirs.
Austin's Germany 3
Blair's Chron. and Histor. Tables - 4
Brewer's Historical Atlas - - - 4
Bunsen's Ancient Kgjpt 6
" Hippolytus 5
Burton's History of Scotland - 5
Chapman 's Gustavus Adolphus - 6
Conybeare and Howson's St. Paul 6
Eastlake's History of Oil Painting 7
Erskine's History of India - - 7
Francis's Annals of Life Assurance 8
Gleig's Leipsic Campaign - - 23
Gurney's Historical Sketches - 8
Hamilton's Essays from the Edin-
burgh Review - ... 8
Haydon's Autobiography, by Taylor 9
Jeffrey's (Lord) Contributions - 11
Johns and Nicholas's Calendar of
Victory - - - 11
Kemble's Anglo-Saxons - 11
Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia - 12
Le Quesne's History of Jersey - 11
Macaulay's Crit. and Hist. Essays 14
History of England - 14
" Speeches - 14
Mackintosh's Miscellaneous Works 14
" History of England - 14
M'Culloch'sGeographicalDictionary 14
Manstein's Memoirs uf Russia - 14
Muunder's Treasury of History - 15
Memoir of the Duke of Wellington 23
Merivale's History of Rome - - 15
" Roman Republic - - 15
Milner's Church History - - 16
Moore's (Thomas) Memoirs, &c. - 17
Mure's Greek Literature - 17
Raikes's Journal - 18
Ranke's Ferdinand & Maximilian 23
Pages
Rich's Comp. to Latin Dictionary 18
Riddle's Latin Dictionaries - 18
Rogers' Essays from Edinb. Review, 19
Roget's English Thesaurus - - 19
Russell's (Lady Rachel) Letter* - 19
" Life of Lord W. Russell 19
Schmitz's History of Greece - 19
Smith's Sacred Annals - - 20
Southey's Doctor - 21
Stephen's Ecclesiastical Bioj .aphy 2]
" Lectures on French B story 21
Sydney Smith's Works - - - 20
" Select Works - 23
" Lectures - - 'M
" Memoirs - - 20
Taylor's Loyola - - - 21
" Wesley - - 21
Thirlwall's History of Greece 2!
Thornbury's Shakspeare's England 22
Townsend's State Trials - - 22
Turkey and Christendom - - 23
Turner's Anglo Saxons. - - 22
" Middle Ages - - 22
" Sacred Hi*t. of the World 22
Vehse's Austrian Court - - -
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Woods' Crimean Campaign - - 24
Young's Christ of History - - 24
Geography and Atlases.
Arrowsmith's Geogr. Diet, of Bible
Brewer's Historical Atlas - - 4
Butler's Geography and Atlases -
Cabinet Gazetteer 6
Cornwall, its Mines, &c.
Durrieu's Morocco
Hughes's Australian Colonies - 23
Johnston's General Gazetteer - II
Lewis's English Rivers - - 13
M'Culloch's Geographical Dictionary 14
" Russia and Turkey - 23
Milner's Baltic Sea - 16
" Crimea -
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Murray's Encyclo. of Geography - 17
Sharp's British Gazetteer - - 20
Wheeler's Geography of Herodotus 24
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Amy Herbert ....
CleveHall - 19
Earl's Daughter (The) - - - 19
Experience of Life - 19
Gertrude - - 19
Gilbart's Logic for the Young
Howitt's Boy's Country Book - 10
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Katharine Ashton - - - 19
Laneton Parsonage - - - 19
Mrs M arcet's Conversations - - 15
Margaret Percival - 19
Pycroft's English Reading -
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Bull's Hints to Mothers - - - 5
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Cust's Invalid's Own Book - 7
Holland's Mental Physiology - 9
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Kesteven's Domestic Medicine - 11
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Pereira's Materia Medica - -17
Recce's Medical Guide - - - 18
West on Diseases of Infancy - - 24
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Austin's Sketches of German Life 3
Carlisle's Lectures and Addresses 23
Chalybaeus'Speculative Philosophy 6
Defence of Eclipse oj Faith . - 7
Eclipse of Faith - - 7
Greg's Political and Social Essays 8
Gurney's Evening Recreations - 8
Hassall on Adulteration of Fc oi - 9
Haydn's Book of Dignities - 9
Holland's Mental Physiology - 9
Hooker's Kew Guides 9
2 CLASSIFIED INDEX.
Pages. Pages.
Pages.
Hov/itt's Rural Life of England - 10 Laneton Parsonage - 19
" Visitsto RemarkablePlaces 10 | Letters to my Unknown Friends - 11
Marcet's (Mrs.) Conversations - 15
Moseley'sEngineering&Architecture 17
Jameson's Commonplace Book - 10
" on Happiness - 11
Owen's Lectures on Comp. Anatomy 17
Jerl'rey's (Lord) Contributions - 11
Long's Inquiry concerning Religion, 13
Our Coal Fields and our Coal Pits 23
Last of the Old Squires - - 17
Lyra Germanica - 5
Pereira on Polarised Light - - 17
Macaulay's Crit. and Hist. Essays 14
Maitland's Church in Catacombs - 14
Peschel's Elements of Physics - 17
" Speeches - 14
Margaret Percival - 19
Phillips's Fossils of Cornwall, &c. 19
Mackintosh's Miscellaneous Works 14
Ma.tineau's Christian Life - - 15
Mineralogy - - 17
Memoirs of a Maitre d'Armes - 23
Milner's Church of Christ - - 16
" Guide to Geology - - 18
Maitland's Church in the Catacombs 14
Martineau's Miscellanies - - 15
Montgomery's Original Hymns - 16
Moore On the Use of the Body - 16
Portlock's Geology of Londonderry 18
Powell's Unity of Worlds - - 18
Pascal's Works, by Pearce - - 17
" " Soul and Body - 16
Smee's Electro-Metallurgy - - 20
Printing: Its Origin, &c. - - 23
Pycroft's English Reading - - 18
Rich's Comp. to Latin Dictionary 18
" 's Man and his Motives - IS
Mormonism .... 23
Neale's Closing Scene - - 17
Steam Engine (The) - 4
Tate On Strength of Materials - 21
Wilson's Electric Telegraph - - 23
Riddle's Latin Dictionaries - - 18
Rowton's Debater
Newman's (J.H.) Discourses - 17
Ranke's Ferdinand & Maximilian 23
Rural Sports.
Seaward's Narrative of his Shipwreck20
Sir Roger de Coverley - - - 20
Smith's (Rev. Sydney) Works - 20
Southey's Common -place Books - 21
Readings for Lent - - - 19
Confirmation - - 19
Robins against the Roman Church, 19
Robinson's Lexicon to the Gnek
Baker's Rifle and Hound in Ceylon
Berkeley's Reminiscences - *
Blaine's Dictionary of Sports - J
Cecil's Stable Practice f
" The Doctor &c. - - 21
Souvestre's Attic Philosopher - 2J
Testament 19
Saints our Example - - - 19
" Records of the Chase - - 6
(t Stud Farm - - - - 6
" Confessions of a Working Man 23
Sermon in the Mount - - 20
The Cricket Field - - - - 7
Spencer's Psychology - - 21
Stephen's Essays - 21
Stow's Training System - - 21
Sinclair's Journey of Life - - 20
Smith's (Sydney) Moral Philosophy 20
" (G.) Sacred Annals - - 20
Davy's Piscatorial Colloquies- - "
Ephemera On Angling - - - J
Strachey's Hebrew Politics - - 21
Tagart on Locke's Writings- - 21
Thomson's Laws of Thought - 22
Townsend's State Trials - - 22
Willich's Popular Tables - - 24
Yonge's English-Greek Lexicon - 24
« Latin Giadus - - 24
Southey's Life of Wesley - - 21
Stephen's Ecclesiastical Biography 21
Tayler's (J. J.) Discourses - - 21
Taylor's Loyola - - 21
Wesley - - - - 21
Theologia Germanica - - - 5
Thomson on the Atonement - - 22
Hawker's Young Sportsman - - 9
The Hunting Field - 8
Idle's Hints on Shooting - - 10
Pocket and the Stud - - - 9
Practical Horsemanship 9
Richardson's Horsemanship - - 18
Stable Talk and Table Talk - - 8
Zumpt's Latin Grammar - - 24
Thumb Bible (The) - - 22
Stonehenge On the Greyhound 21
Natural History in general.
Catlow's Popular Conchology - 6
Ephemeraand Young On the Salmon 8
Gosse's Nat. Hist, of Jamaica - 8
Turner's Sacred History- - - 22
Twining's Bible Types - - - 22
Wheeler's Popular Bible Harmony 24
Young's Christ of History - - 24
Mjsteryof Time - - 24
The Stud, for Practical Purposes - 9
Veterinary Medicine, &c.
Cecil's Stable Practice - - C
" Stud Farm - - - 6
Kemp's Natural Hist, of Creation 23
Kirby and Spence's Entomology - 11
Lee's Elements of Natural History 11
Mann 011 Reproduction
Maunder's Natural History - - 15
Turton's Shells oftheBritishlslands 22
Von Tschudi's Sketches in the Alps K
Waterton's Essay son Natural Hist. 22
Youatt's The Dog -
The Horse - 24
Poetry and the Drama.
Arnold's Poems - - 3
Aikin's (Dr.) British Poets - - 3
Baillie's (Joanna) Poetical Works 3
Bode's Ballads from Herodotus - 4
Calvert's Wife's Manual - - 6
" Pneuma - - - - 6
Flowers and their Kindred Thoughts 11
Goldsmith's Poems, illustrated - 8
Hunting Field (The) - - - 8
Miles's Horse-Shoeing - 15
" On the Horse's Foot - - 15
Pocket and the Stud - i
Practical Horsemanship '
Richardson's Horsemanship - 18
Stable Talk and Table Talk - - 8
Stud (The)
Youatt's The Dog - - - - 24
" The Horse - - 24
L. E. L.'s Poetical Works - 13
1-Volume Encyclopaedias
and Dictionaries.
Linwood's Anthologia Oxoniensis - 13
Lyra Germanica - - - 5
Macaulav's Lays of Ancient Rome 14
Voyages and Travels.
Allen's Dead Sea -
Arrowsmith's Geogr. Diet, of Bible 3
Mac Donald's Within and Without 14
Baines's Vaudois of Piedmont - 23
Blaine's Rural Sports
Brande's Science, Literature, & Art 4
Copland's Dictionary of Medicine - 6
Cresy's Civil Engineering - 7
Montgomery's Poetical Works - 16
" Original Hymns - 16
Moore's Poetical Works - - 16
" Lalla Rookh - - * - 16
Baker's Wanderings in Ceylon - J
Barrow's Continental Tour - - 23
Earth's African Travels - - J
Burton's Medina and Mecca - - J
Gwilt's Architecture - - - 8
" Irish Melodies - 16
Carlisle's Turkey and Greece - f
Johnston's Geographical Dictionary 11
Loudon's Agriculture * - - l!
" Songs and Ballads - - 18
Reade's Man"in Paradise - - 18
De Custine's Russia
Duberly's Journal of the War - 7
" Rural Architecture - 13
Shakspeare, bv Bowdler - -20
Eothen -
" Gardening - - - 13
Southey's Poetical Works - - 21
Ferguson's Swiss Travels - - 23
" Plants - - - - 13
" British Poets - 21
Forester's Rambles in Norway - 23
" Trees and Shiubs - - 13
Thomson's Seasons, illustrated - 22
Gironiere's Philippines - - - 23
M'Culloch'sGeographicalDictionary 14
" Dictionary of Commerce 14
Murray's Encyclo. of Geography - 1'
Sharp's British Gazetteer - - 20
Political Economy and
Statistics.
Gregorovius's Corsica - 23
Hill's Travels in Siberia - - 9
Hope's Brittany and the Bible - 23
« Chase in Brittany - - 23
Ure's Dictionary of Arts, &c. - - 22
Webster's Domestic Economy - 22
Caird's Letters onAgriculture - &
Census of 1651 - <j
Hewitt's Art Student in Munich - H
" (W.) Victoria - - - K
Religious & Moral "Works.
Amv Herbert - - 19
Arrbwsmith's Geogr. Diet, of Bible 3
Bloomfield's Greek Testament - 4
Dodd's Food of London - - '
Greg's Political and Social Essays 8
Laing's Notes of a Traveller - - 2;
M'Culloch'sGeog. Statist. &c.Dict. 14
" Dictionary of Commerce 14
it T 9**
Hue's Chinese Empire - - - 1>>
Hue and Gabet's Tartary & Thibet 2-
Hughes's Australian Colonies - t
Humboldt's Aspects of Nature - 1
Hutchinson's African Exploration 23
Jameson's Canada - - ~ -83
" Annotations on do. - 4
Bode's Bampton Lectures - - 4
Calvert's Wife's Manual - - 6
CleveHall • - - - - 19
Conybeare's Essays - - -
" London - - -to
Marcet's Political Economy -
Rickards On Population & Capital 18
Tegoborski's Russian Statistics - 21
Willich's Popular Tables - - 24
Kennard's Eastern Tour - - 11
Jerrmann's St. Petersburg - - 23
a'" g * Note*1 of a Traveller - 23
M'Clure's Ixorth West Passage - U
Conybeare and Howson's St. Paul t
Dale's Domestic Liturgy - - 7
The Sciences in general
- Marrvats California - - ~ ..
Mason's Zulus of Natal - -• w
Defence of Eclipse of Faith - - >
Desprez On the Apocalypse - <
and Mathematics.
Mayne's Arctic Discoveries - - 23
Miles's Rambles in Iceland -
Discipline ----- 7
Earl's Daughter (The) - - -11
Arago's Meteorological Essays - 3
" Popular Astronomy - - 3
Monteith's K.irs and Km-roum - 16
Pfeiffer's Voyage round the W orld 23
Eclipse of (• aith - - -
Englishman's Greek Concordance 7
Bourne On the Screw Propeller - 4
Brande's Dictionary of Science, &c. 4
" Second ditto - }'
Scott's Danes and Swedes -
Englishman'sHeb.&Chald. Concord.
Experience of Life (The) - 1£
" Lectures on Organic Chemistry 4
Brougham and Routh's Principia i
Seaward's Narrative
Weld's United States and Canada- 23
Gertrude 19
Harrison's Light of the Forge -
Hook's Lectures on Passion Week
Home's Introduction to Scriptures 10
Cresy's Civil Engineering
DelaBeche'sGeologyolCornwall,&c. 7
De la Rive's Electricity - 7
Faraday's Non Metallic Elements 8
Werne's African Wanderings - 28
Wheeler's Travels of Herodotus - -4
Wilberforce's Brazil & Slave Trade 23
Whutingham's Pacific Expedition H
" Abridgment of ditto - K
" Communicant's Companion !
Jameson's Sacred Legends - 1
" Monastic Legends - 1
" LfgendsiftheMadonn 1.
" Sisters of Charity I1
Grove's Correla. of Physical Forces £
Herschel's Outlines ot Astronomy !
Holland's Mental Physiology - J
Humboldt's Aspects of Nature - «
" Cosmos
Works of Fiction.
Arnold 's Oakfield - *
Lady Willoughby's Diary - - 24
Macdonald's Villa Verocchio - 1<
Jeremy Taylor's Works -
Kvlisch's Commentary on Exodus 1
Katharine Ashton 1
Konig's Pictorial Life of Luther
Kemp'snPn^istof Matter ' ' U
Lardner'*- Cabinet Cyclopaedia - V-
Mann on Reproduction - - - 14
Sir Roger de Coverley - 20
Sonthev's The Doctor &c. -
Trollope's Warden
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