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ENCYCLOPAEDIA  AMERICANA. 


A 

POPlJLiAR  DICTIONARY 

OP 

ARTS,  SCIENCES,  LITERATURE,  HISTORY,  POLITICS,  AND 

BIOGRAPHY, 

BR0D6HT  DOWN  TO  THE  PRESENT  TUCE; 

IKGLVDING 

A  COPIOUS  OOLLECnON  OF  ORIGINAL  ARTICLES 

nr 

AMERICAN  BIOGRAPHY; 

ON 

THE  BASIS  OF  THE  SEVENTH  EDITION  Or  THE  GERMAN 


XDITBD'BT 

FRANCIS  LIEBEB, 

AflttlTBD  Wt 

E.  WI6GLESW0RTH  AMD  T.  6.  BRADFORD^ 


Vot.IV. 


HEW  EDITIOir. 


9lill«)rel9li{8: 

THOMAS,  COWPERTHWAIT,  *  CO. 


188a 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


Kf  ^^^s 


HARVARD 

lUNlVhKiJTYl 

LIBRARY 


(^!^/Vi'<Vt^<rpv>^f^^*'4->  U">y--» 


Digitfeed  by  CjOOQIC 


ENCYCLOPAEDIA    AMERICANA. 


V^mAKTABi  (Gaelic,  entm  tarMl;  the 
cross  of  siiame,  because,  says  sir  Walter 
Scott,  in  Ilia  oote  on  the  pasHage  of  the 
Lady  of  the  Lake  (canto  3),  in  which  he 
has  made  such  a  fine  use  of  it,  disoliedi- 
eace  to  what  the  symbol  implied,  infer- 
red infamy.  Tiie  Uigfalandera  of  Scot- 
land appear  to  have  kmrrowed  it  from  die 
anrient  Scandinavians,  of  the  use  of  it 
4in€90g  whom,  ft>r  rousiug  the  people  to 
ffn*«fi,  Glaus  Magnus  gives  a  particular 
«.<,oouiit.  As  late  as  the  insurrection  in 
1745,  the  crcmtoro,  or  ikry  crq^  was  jcir- 
"'jHteii  IB  Scotland,  antf,  on  one  ornision. 
It  passed  tiut>u£h  the  district  of  Breadai- 
Imne,  a  tract  of  33  miJes,  in  three  hours. 
Aficr  Cliarles  Edwanl  had  manthed  into 
Engjaml,  two  of  tlie  king's  (rigates  tlireat- 
•fied  die  coast  with  a  descent.  The  tnm' 
Vara,  was  sent  throtigh  the  district  of  Af)- 
iiitie  by  Alexander  Stuatt  of  Inveniahvle 
(who  retaled  the  circumstance  to  sir  Wal- 
ter Seott),  and,  in  a  fkw  hours,  a  sufficient 
force  was  collected  to  render  the  attempt 
of  the  English  bopeteas. 

Ceave;  a  light,  transparent  stuff,  fike 
gauze,  made  of  raw  silk,  gummed  and 
twisted  on  the  mill,  woven  witbout  cross« 
ing,and  much  used  in  mourning.  Crapes 
are  eitlier  craped  (i.  e.,  cris|jed)  or  smooth. 
The  silk  desdned  for  the  first  is  more 
«wi8ted  than  tliat  for  th#  second,  it  being 
the  greater  or  less  degree  of  twisting, 
especially  of  the  warp,  which  ptoduees 
tiie  crisping  given  to  it,  when  taken  out  of 
die  loom,  steeped  in  clear  water,  and  rub- 
bed widi  a  piece  of  wax  for  the  pur|x>8e. 
Crapes  are  all  dyed  raw.  This  stuff  came 
originally  from  Bologna;  but,  till  of  late 
years,  Lyons  is  said  to  have  had  the  chief 
manufacture  of  it.  It  is  now  manufactur- 
ed m  various  jparta  of  Qreat  Britain.  The 


crape  brought  fh>m  China  is  of  a  mora 
aubetantial  falaic. 

Crapelbt  ;  father  and  son ;  two  printers 
The  father,  Charies,  l)om  at  Bouruiont, 
Nov.  J3,  17(fi2,  esbiblislied  his  fNfintanff' 
ofHce  in  47^.  and  diM  Oct.  19, 18C9.  He 
might  be  ^ikA  die  trtnt^  BoikirviBe. 
Like  this  primer^  be  endeavored  lo  unita 
tlie  greatest  simiilicit^  with  elegance,  to 
deliver  the  an  of  printing  from  the  hetenn 
genemis  ornaments  with  which  it  was  so 
overlpHded,  pardcidarly  in  France,  and 
from  which  even  Didoc  cotttd  iwt-eiiiireiy* ' 
'ihse  biniHelf ;  Hut  he  surpassed  his  model 
is  the  form  of  his  ryfies  and  the  regularity 
of  his  work.  His  ediUons  are  no  less  cor- 
rect than  neat  and  beautiful.  He  has  also 
been  successful  in  printing  on  {Mrctimeut, 
and  has  shown  his  skill  by  producing  an 
impressiott  in  gold  (13  ca]n<»  of  Aude* 
lien's  CHaeaux  doris,  Paris,  18G2,  2  vols,, 
ibiio).— A.  G.  Crapelet  has  extended  his 
father's  bmhiess,  and  lias  even  excelled 
him  in  elegance.  His  Lafontaine  (1814), 
Montesquieu  (1816),  Rousseau  and  Vo^ 
taire  (both  1819),  are  inonuments  of  his 
taste;  and  the  large  vellum-tiaiier^Mes 
are  truly  splendid  works.  The  words 
**  De  Pimprimerie  de  CrapdeT  are  a  great 
retomniendatien.  Renouard  has  had  all 
the  editions  publistied  at  his  expense 
primed  by  Crapelet,  who,  in  18C0,  em- 
ph>ved  29  (iresses. 

Crassus.  Two  Romans  of  this  name 
are  here  to  be  mentioned.  1.  Lucius  Li- 
ciuiiis  Crasstis,  who  was  niaiie  consul 
A.  U.  C.  658  (B.  C.  96),  and  passed  for  the 
ipeatcst  orator  of  his  time.  He  was  dis- 
tmgiiiahed  for  talent,  presence  of  mind 
ami  integrity.  3.  M.  Licinius  CrassuSySiir- 
named  Dhtf  (the  rich),  so  called,  like  ma- 
ny of  his  family,  on  account  of  his  vast 


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CRA8SUS--CRAVAT. 


riches.  He  pCNsaeflsed  a  fortune  equal  to 
95,000,0(XX  He  once  care  an  entertain- 
ment to  the  whole  people,  in  which  10,000 
tables  were  set,  and,  besides  this,  distrib- 
uted corn  enough  to  last  each  familythree 
months.  In  the  years  of  Rome  683  and 
€96,  he  was  a  colleague  of  Pompey,  in  the 
consulship,  and,  in  688,  censor.  As  he 
was  one  of  the  most  influendal  men  in 
Rome,  and  very  ambidous,  his  friendship 
was  sourht  by  Ciesar,  who  formed,  witn 
him  and  Pom|iey,  the  famous  triumvirate. 
He  perished,  with  a  great  part  of  his  army, 
in  an  expedition  against  the  Partliians, 
undertaken  from  motives  of  avarice  and 
ambition,  B.  C.  5a 

Crateil    (See  Volcano,) 

Cravat;  an  unhealthy,  uncQmforta})le, 
unliecomine  article  of  European  and 
American  mress.  The  ancients  were  un- 
acquainted with  this  ridiculous  and  injuri- 
ous style  of  bundling  up  the  neck.  They 
left  uBconfined  diat  important  region  of 
the  body,  through  which  so  many  vessels 
pass,  and  in  which  are  situated  so  many 
organs,  which  will  endure  no  constraint 
with  impunity.  In  some  cases,  hideed, 
they  defended  themselves  fivm  the  cold  by 
a  woollen,  cotton  or  silk  band,  called,  in 
Ijatin,ybcale,  from  faiucts,  throat.  But  no 
one  could  venture  to  use  tliis  contrivance 
publicly,  unless  he  was  sick;  in  which 
case  he  might  cover  his  head,  and  the 
upper  part  of  ^o  shoOlders,  mud  wen 
wear  breeches  (q.  v.^  without  disgrace. 
**  PalUolumf  sieui  fascias  et  focdict^  says 
Quuictilian,  ^adaexcusturt  potest  vaUtudo J" 
It  was  allowable,  indeed,  to  cover  the 
neck  with  the  toga  in  bad  weather,  or  to 
hold  the  hand  over  it,  for  (he  preservation 
or  restoration  of  the  natural  teujperature. 
The  Poles  never  wear  any  thing  round 
the  neck,  notwithstanding  tlie  severity  of 
their  winters.  The  same  custom  prevails 
among  the  Orientals,  by  whom  a  white, 
round  neck  is  coinpared  to  the  beauty  of 
an  ivory  tower.  The  Imre  neck  gradually 
became  unfiishionalile  in  Eun)f)e.  It  was 
at  first  surrounded,  but  not  constrained,  by 
a  starched  bond  of  fine  linen,  on  the  up|)er 
edge  of  the  shirt,  falling  back  natiiml- 
ly  upon  th&  bust,  where  it  was  fastened 
by  a  small  cord.  This  w«s  Uie  origin  of 
all  the  different  species  of  collars  since 
used — the  innocent  parent  of  those  thick, 
hot  folds,  in  which  the  neck  was  destined 
to  be  afterwards  muffled.  Ruffs,  stiffened 
or  plaited,  single  or  ki  many  rows, — an 
inconvenient,  indeed,  but  not  a  dangerous 
omament,-^a(l  their  turn,  and  lasted  as 
long  as  short  hinir  was  in  fashion.  They 
were  abandoned,  when  Louis  XIll  allow- 


ed his  hau*  to  grow:  then  standinf^  collan^ 
embroidered  and  |anked,  the  plaited  col- 
larettes, the  neck-band,  plain  or  laced  and 
pointed,  encompassed  the  neck  chin-deep; 
and,  when  Louis  XIV  adopted  those  enor- 
mous perivngs,  which  hardly  left  the  throat 
visible,  all  these  splendid  envelopes  gave 
way  to  ribands,  tied  in  brilliant  bowet. 
Next  came  the  epoch  of  the  dangerous 
subjection  of  the  neck  to  constriction  and 
compression,  from  which  it  had  hitherto 
been  exempt.  In  1660,  a  foreign  regiment 
arrived  in  France,  composed  of  Croats,  in 
whose  singular  costume  one  thing  was 
genendly  admired  and  imitated.  It  was  a. 
Bandage  about  the  neck,  consisting  of 
common  stuff  for  the  soldiers,  and  of 
muslin  or  silk  for  the  officers.  The  ends 
were  disnoeed  in  a  bow,  or  garnished 
with  A  tuft  or  a  tassel,  and  humr  not  un- 
gracefullv  over  the  breasL  Tnis  new 
article  of  dress  was  at  first  called  a  croofe, 
and  afterwards,  by  corruption,  a  crataL 
The  military  and  the  rich,  at  that  time, 
wore  very  fine  cravats,  witli  the  bonier 
embroidered,  or  edged  with  broad  lace. 
Those  of  the  sokliers  consisted  of  a  scrap 
of  cloth,  of  cotton,  or,  at  the  best,  of  black, 
plaited  tafteta,  bound  round  the  neck  by 
two  small  corda  Afterwards,  the  place 
of  these  cords  was  supplied  by  clnsps  or  a 
buckle,  and  then  cravats  took  the  name  of 
stocks.  Under  Louis  XVI,  tbe  stocks 
yielded  to  the  cravats  d  la  chanceliert. 
The  last  flourished  but  for  a  moment:  the 
revolution  came,  and  with  it  disappeared 
cravats,  and  even  tight  breeches.  Soon 
after  this  epoch  (1706),  the  cravat  recov- 
ered its  popularity,  and  increased  to  an 
incredible  degree  of  extravagance.  Some 
persons  enveloped  the  neck  with  whole 
pieces  of  muslin  ;  others,  with  a  padded 
cushion,  on  which  were  %vrapped  numer- 
ous folds.  In  this  way,  the  neck  was 
puffed  out  so  as  to  be  larger  than  the  head, 
with  which  it  was  imi)ereeptibly  con- 
founded. The  shiit-collar  arose  above 
the  ears,  and  the  U])|)er  edge  of  the  cra- 
vat buried  up  the  chin  and  the  mouth 
nose-deep;  so  that  the  visage,  bristling  on 
either  side  with  a  grove  of  bushy  whis- 
kers, and  its  upfMt  regions  ensconced  to  tlie 
eyes  by  the  hair  flattened  down  over  tlie 
brows,  absolutely  showed  nothing  except 
the  nose,  projecting  in  all  its  plenitude. 
The  exquisites  tl»us  cravatted  resembled 
any  thing  rather  than  men,  and  affordeii 
excellrnt  subjects  for  rarcaturcs.  If  they 
wished  to  look  any  way  except  straiglit 
forward,  they  were  obliged  to  turn  the 
whole  tnink,  with  whirh  the  neck  and 
bead  formed  but  one  piece.    It  was  Im- 


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CRAVAT-CRAWFIgH. 


poeaible  to  incline  the  head  in  any  direc- 
tion. Most  fasliiond  have  been  invented 
to  hide  an  infinnity  or  a  deformity :  large 
cravatB  were  proliably  first,  used  to  conceal 
0onie  disa^eable  scare,  or  some  unlucky 
malformation.  A  singer  or  a  public  speak- 
er cannot  use  his  voice  to  advantage  dur- 
ing tJie  time  when  his  cravat  is  tied  too 
tignt  Tlie  habit  of  wearing  large  cravats 
renders  the  neck  very  liable  to  m  affected 
by  exposure.  By  unooveiing  die  neck 
impmdeutly  when  heated,  severe  and 
dangerous  diseases  have  often  been  con- 
tracted. A  young  man  or  young  lady,  on 
leaving  a  par^  in  a  wann  afiartment, 
should  be  careful  to  protect  the  neck  and 
breast  from  cold. 

Craven,  Elizabeth,  lady;  margravine 
of  Ansfiach,  youngest  daughter  of  the  earl 
of  Berkeley  ;  born  in  1750,  and  married  in 
I7e>7,  to  William,  last  eai4  of  Craven,  by 
whom  she  had  seven  children.  But,  afler 
a  connexion  of  14  years,  in  consequence 
of  his  ill-treatment,  a  separation  was 
a^^ed  upon  in  1781.  Lady  Craven,  after 
this,  lived  successively  at  the  courts  of 
Versailles,  Madrid,  Lisbon,  Vienna,  Berlin^ 
Constantinople,  Warsaw,  St.  Petersburg, 
Rome,  Florence  and  Naples;  tlien  in  An- 
spach,  where  she  became  acquainted  with 
the  margrave  Christian  Frederic  Charles 
Alexander,  a  nephew  of  Frederic  the 
Great.  On  this  tour,  in  1787,  she  was 
persuaded  by  tlie  count  Choiseul-Gouffier, 
French  ambassador  to  Constantinople,  to 
descend  into  the  grotto  of  Anti|>aros, 
which  no  woman  had  ever  before  visited. 
Afler  the  death  of  lord  Craven,  at  Lisbon, 
in  1791,  the  margrave  married  her,  sur- 
rendered his  estates  to  tlie  king  of  Piiisida 
for  a  yeariy  pension,  and  went,  with  Ids 
consort,  to  England,  where  be  purchased 
an  estate  (Bnindeiiburg^  not  far  from 
Hammersmith,  and  died  in  1606.  From 
that  time,  lady  Cmven  has  lived  partly  in 
England,  partly  in  Naples.  The  account 
of  her  travels  through  the  Crimea  to  Con- 
stantinopie,  in  a  series  of  letters,  was  first 
published  in  1789.  A  new  enlarged  edi- 
tion ap|)eared  in  1814.  Besides  these, 
she  has  written  poems,  plKys  and  roman- 
ces ;  also  her  own  memoirs  (Memoirs  of 
the  Margravine  of  Anspach,  formerly  Lady 
Craven,  &c.,  London,  1825).  These  are 
interesting  on  account  of  her  intercourse 
with  Catharine  II,  Joseph  II,  and  other 
princes. 

Crawfiss  (astaaiSfFiA}.)',  a crustaceous 
genus,  belonging  to  the  family  decapoda 
mdcroiara  (ten  legged,  long  tailed),  charac- 
terized by  having  the  anterior  part  of  the 
elongated   seuii-cylindric  superior    shell 


prodoced  to  form  a  rostrum  or  beak ;  th« 
atxlomen  large,  slichtly  attenuated  poste- 
riorly, com|K)8ed  of  six  joints,  fonning  a 
tail  quite  os  long,  when  extended,  as  the 
body,  and  terminating  in  five  broad-fiing- 
ed,  swimming  apix^ndages,  which  fold 
laterally  upon  each  other.  In  both  sexes, 
the  under  fwrt  of  the  abdomen  is  generally 
provided  with  five  imirs  of  false  claws, 
each  terminated  by  two  plates  or  |>ia« 
mcnts.  The  exterior  jaw-feet  are  mostly 
narrow,  elongated,  and  do  not  entirely 
cover  the  other  parts  of  the  mouth.  The 
gills  are  pyramidal,  bnish-Kha|ied,  or 
plume-like,  separated  from  each  other  by 
tendinous  slifis,  and  situated  beneatli  the 
sides  of  the  great  superior  shell,  over  the 
external  base  of  the  feet.  Of  the  latter, 
the  second  and  third  nairs  are  ekmgated, 
slender,  and  funiishea  at  the  last  joint, 
which  is  movable,  with  small  pincers; 
the  fourth  and  fiflh  pairs  have  the  last 
joints  simply  pointed  or  hooked»  The 
sexual  organs  are  placed,  in  botli  sexes,  in 
the  basal  joint  of  tlie  last  pair  of  feet. 
The  8))ecies  l>e]onging  to  this  genus,  as 
at  present  restricted,  do  not  exceed  six. 
Some  of  these  kinds  are  peculiar  to  salt 
and  others  to  fresh  water.  Of  the  former, 
tlie  most  celebrated  is  the  lobster  (atiaicv* 
gammarus),  so  prominent  among  the  lux- 
uries of  New  Yotk,  and  our  other  eastern 
maiftitne  cities.  In  their  modes  of  living, 
the  crawfish  generally  resemble  the  aquat- 
ic oralis  (see  Crab\  feeding  on  putrefying 
aniinal  matter,  s|)ending  their  time  on  the 
sandy  or  rocky  bottom  of  deep  watena, 
and  only  approaching  the  shallows  when 
impelled  by  the  necessity  of  undergoing 
tlieir  change  of  shell,  or  wlien  under  tlie 
sexual  influence.  The  common  fobster  is 
the  largest  species,  and  grows  to  a  size 
which  may  well  appear  wonderful  to  per- 
sons accustomed  to  see  none  but  small 
ones.  They  are  brought  to  the  New  York 
market  more  than  two  feet  in  length,  and 
weighing  20  pounds  and  upwards.  Such 
individuals,  however,  are  not  preferred  for 
the  table,  as  tlieir  size  is  a  good  indication 
of  their  age,  and  their  period  of  life  is 
stated  to  extend  to  20  years  and  more.  The 
smaller,  or  half-sized  lobsters,  are  consid- 
ered the  best.  The  quite  small,  or  young 
ones,  which  are  cominonly  sold  in  New 
Haven  (Connecticut),  as  too  small  for  the 
New  York  market,  are,  in  our  opinion,  far 
sur)erior  to  either — ^The  fresh-water  craw- 
fish, of  which  one  species  {agtacui  barfnoU) 
is  very  common  in  most  of  the  fresh- 
water streams  and  brooks  from  Pennsyl- 
vania southward,  aflbrds  us  the  best  op- 
|K)rtunity  for  observing  their  habit&    We 


Digitized  by 


Lioogle 


CRAWFISH— CREAM  OF  TARTAR. 


find  them  inhabiting  excavations  of  con- 
siderable de])th  along  llie  bordei^  or  a 
short  distance  wiihin  the  current  of  the 
stream,  at  the  bottom  of  which  lliey  lie 
hid.  In  the  spring  of  the  year,  by  cau- 
tiotisly  approacliing,  and  remaining  quietiy 
on  tJie  margin  of  such  a  stream,  we  may 
see  the  crawfish  industriously  bringing 
from  tlie  lower  ])art  of  tlieir  caves  the  dirt 
accumulated  there ;  and  this  enables  us  to 
comprelien<l  tlie  manner  in  which  tliey 
originally  made  their  retreats.  U{K>n  the 
two  great  claws,  folded  towards  each  oth- 
er, and  tints  forming,  with  the  front  of  the 
bo<ly,  a  sort  of  shelf,  the  dirt  is  carefully 
brought  to  the  surface,  and  tJirown  down 
just  where  the  current  wiU  sweep  it  away. 
As  the  substances  tlius  brought  up  are 
very  light,  it  re(|uires  a  very  gentle  move- 
ment of  tlie  ammal  to  avoid  8|>illing,  or 
rather  washhig  off  his  lading;  and  he 
tlicrefbre  rises  in  the  gentlest  and  most 
circumspect  manner.  We  can  testify  to 
the  ]iatience  with  which  this  labor  is  con- 
tinued, as,  with  the  view  of  observing  tlie 
operation,  we  have  oflen  quietly  puslied 
in  tlie  earth  from  tiic  edge  of  the  water, 
which  they  as  often  have  toiled  on  to 
remove.  It  is  upon  these  fresh-water 
species  that  the  observations  have  been 
made,  relative  to  the  re-production  of 
limbs  or  claws  violently  broken  off.  But 
a  short  time  elapses  before  a  growth  or 
vegetation  occurs  at  the  stump  or  broken 
part,  and  a  new  limb,  similar  to  tlie  origi- 
nal, though  sometimes  rather  smaller,  is 
soon  formed.  This  facility  of  re-produc- 
tion is  found  to  extend  througliout  tJie 
crustaceous  class.  Fresh-^vater  crawfish 
are  regarded  bv  many  as  fumislijn^  a  del- 
icate dish  for  the  table,  though  their  small 
size,  and  the  trouble  of  collecting  a  suffi- 
cient num))er  of  them,  are  great  obsULcles 
to  their  l)eiug  extensively  employed  in  this 
way.  They  are  preyed  ujwn  by  various 
animals,  especially  by  certain  hints,  whose 
long  bills  are  adapted  to  picking  them  out 
from  the  bottom  of  their  dens. 

Crayer,  Gasfiar,  a  Dutch  painter,  bom 
in  1582,  at  Antwerp,  was  a  pupil  of  Raph- 
ael Coxie,  and  became,  by  tlie  smdy  of 
nature,  one  of  the  greatest  historical  and 
jiortmit  painters.  At  the  S|ianish  court  in 
Brussels,  he  painted  the  fiortnut  of  the 
cardinal  Ferdinand,  brother  of  the  king, 
and  received  a  fiension.  He  establisliecl 
himself  in  Ghent,  where  he  constantly 
executed  works  for  the  court  He  labored 
with  industnr  and  iierseverance  till  his 
86th  year.  When  Rubens  saw  his  finest 
painting  in  tlie  refectory  of  tlie  abbey  of 
Afflegbem,  he  cried  out,  ''Crayei^  Crayer, 


nobody  will  ever  surpass  thee!"  Tli« 
city  of  Ghent  alone  had  2]  altar-pieces  by 
him.  Li  Flanders  and  Brnbant  ore  many 
of  his  works,  and  some  oi'  his  pictures  are 
in  the  public  collections  at  Vienna  and 
Munich.  His  fjaintings  are  praised  for 
fidelity  to  nature,  exrelk^nt  drawing,  and  a 
coloring  approaching  the  manner  of  A^nn- 
dyke.  The  laner  was  his  fric  nd,  and  took 
his  likeness.    Crayer  died  in  KAjS). 

Crayons  ;  a  general  name  for  oil  color- 
ed stones,  earths,  or  other  minerals  and 
substances  used  in  designing  or  painting 
in  ))aste1,  whether  they  have  been  beaten, 
and  reduced  to  a  |)aste,  or  are  used  in  their 
primitive  consistence,  after  being  sawn  or 
cut  into  long,  narrow  sti{)8.  The  sticks  of 
dry  colors  which  go  under  this  name,  and 
which  are  cemented  into  a  friable  mass,  by 
means  of  gum  or  size,  and  sometimes  of 
clay,af!bnl  a  very  sininle  means  of  apply- 
ing colors,  Ijeing  merely  niblK?d  upon  pa- 
|)er,  afler  which  the  shades  are  blended  or 
softened  by  means  of  a  stump  or  small 
roll  of  leather  or  pafier.  The  dra\\'ings 
require  to  be  protected  by  a  glass  covering, 
to  save  them  from  being  defiiced,  uiiIpss 
some  means  have  been  ado])ted  to  fix 
them,  so  that  they  may  not  be  liable  to  lie 
rubl)ed  off.  This  may  be  done  by  linish- 
ing  the  Liack  of  the  pajier  with  a  strong 
solution  of  isinglass,  or  by  passing  the 
drawing  tlirou^h  a  ]iowerful  press,  in  con- 
tact witli  a  moist  paper. 

Cream  op  Tartar  (pdoisit  wjferiar^ 
trtts;  cremor  turiari).  lliis  salt  exists  in 
grapes  Olid  in  tamarinds,  llie  dregs  of 
wine  also  contain  a  consndernble  quantity 
of  it  Cream  of  tartai*  contains  a  very 
considerable  proi)ortion  of  suner-tartrate 
of  |)Otassa,  aliout  seven  or  eight  liundredths 
of  tartrate  of  lime,  and  a  small  ({uniitity  of 
silica,  albumen,  iron,  &c.  It  is  insoluble 
in  alcohol,  but  may  lie  di8Solve<l  in  15 
])arts  of  boiling  and* 60  of  cold  water.  It 
may  be  rendered  much  more  soluble  by 
mixing  with  it  a  certain  quantity  of  Im)- 
racic  acid  or  borate  of  soda,  which  ren- 
ders the  cream  of  tartar  soluble  in  its  own 
weight  of  cold  water,  and  in  the  half  only 
of  diis  menstmum  when  boiling.  This 
preparation  is  known  by  the  name  of  solu- 
oU  crecan  of  tartar.  Its  aqueous  solution  is 
soon  decomiioscd  by  ihe  contact  of  the 
air.  It  is  obtained  by  dissolving  in  boil- 
ing water  the  common  tartar — a  white  or 
reddish  cr}'stalline  matter,  which  Ibnns  on 
the  internal  sides  of  the  vessels  hi  which 
wine  has  been  kejit — mixing  witii  it  some 
clay,  which  precijiitates  the  coloring  mat- 
ter, and  then  permitting  the  liquor  to 
crystallize.    The  action  of  this  substance 


Digitized  by 


Lioogle 


CREAM  OP  TARTAIU-€REBILLON. 


I  aocordinff  to  the  dose  in  which  it  is 
administered,  in  small  doses,  it  is  ab- 
8Qrt)edf  and  acts  as  a  temperent ;  and,  in 
this  quality,  it  is  employed  in  jaundice, 
foulness  of  the  stomach  and  intestines,  &c. 
In  iBiner  doses,  it  principally  spendis  its 
action  on  tlie  mucous  intestinal  membrane, 
and  induces  alvine  evacuationsi  especially 
when  ffiven  in  powder.  Its  taste  being 
rather  less  unpleasant  than  that  of  some 
other  neutral  salts  used  in  medicine,  and 
its  operation  being  of  a  very  gentle  nature, 
it  is  veiy  frequently  administered.  In 
France,  the  soluble  cream  of  tartar  is  gen- 
erally preferred. 

Cacbillon,  Prosper  Jolyot  de,  the 
elder,  a  vrriter  of  tragedy,  who  is  com- 
pared, by  bis  countrymen,  even  to  ^sehy- 
lus,  bom  at  Dijon,  Feb.  15,  1674,  early 
manifested  talent  at  the  school  of  the  Jesu- 
its in  his  nadve  town,  but,  at  the  same 
time,  a  Imistsrous  and  heedless  temper. 
Being  designed  for  the  profession  of  law, 
he  was  placed  witlb  an  attorney  named 
Prieur  at  Paris ;  but  they  were  both  lov- 
ers of  the  theatre,  so  that  the  youth  made 
little  progress  in  his  studies.  The  attor- 
ney perceived,  too,  that  his  pupil  was  dis- 
qualified for  the  profession  by  his  passion- 
ate temperament,  but  showed  penetration 
and  judgment  in  his  criticisms  on-  dra- 
matic perfonnances :  he  therefore  advised 
him,  though  he  had,  as  yet,  written  poth- 
ing  but  some  trifling  songs  and  scraps  of 
veree,  to  applv  himself  to  dramatic  com- 
position. Crebillon  did  so;  but  his  first 
piece,  Lbl  Mart  des  En/ana  de  Bndua,  was 
rejected  by  the  players.  He  burnt  the 
manuscript,  and  resolved  to  have  no  more 
to  do  vdth  the  drama ;  but,  sulisequentiy, 
at  the  persuasion  of  Prieur,  he  wrote  IdonU^ 
n^  which,  in  1705,  was  brought  upon  the 
stage.  The  fiiults  of  the  plav  were  over- 
looked in  connderation  of  the  youth  of 
the  audior,  and  the  promising  talent 
which  it  displayed ;  and  the  promptness 
with  which  the  author  in  five  davs  wrote 
anew  the  last  act,  which  had  displeased  at 
the  fint  representation,  drew  the  attention 
of  the  public  to  the  young  poet,  whose 
talents,  after  the  appearance  of  his  Mrie^ 
in  1707,  were  loudly  applauded.  Prieur, 
tiiough  sick,  requested  to  be  carried  to  the 
theatre,  and  said  to  the  young  tragedian, 
**  I  die  content ;  I  have  made  you  a  poet, 
and  leave  in  vou  a  man  who  belongs  to 
the  nation."  A  strange  taste  for  uimatnral 
declamation  had  been  excited  by  the  Rfun 
dbgnne,  and  this  manner  was  carried  to 
excess  by  Cr^billon,  in  the  Mr^e.  In  1709 
appeared  his  EUetnj  which  is  as  declain- 
atoiy  and  as  intricate  as  bis  eariier  plays; 


yet  it  suited  the  taste  of  the  age.  His 
ehef  d^cnwrt,  at  least  according  to  La 
Harpe,  is  his  Bhadamistt  (1711).  But  Boi- 
leau,  on  his  death-bed,  neariii^  the  first 
scenes  of  this  tragedy  read  to  him  by  Le- 
verrier,  could  not  help  exclaiming  to  his 
friends,  ^Heavens!  do  you  wish  to  hasten 
my  death  ?  Why,  the  Biyere  and  Pradons 
were  suns  to  this  author !  I  shall  be  more 
willing  to  leave  the  world,  since  our  n^re 
is  becoming  inundated  widi  silly  trasb." 
Most  persons  of  the  jiresent  day  would 
probably  agree  with  Boileau.  In  ei^ht 
days,  the  maJamisU  passed  through  two 
editions,  and  Paris  and  Versailles  vied 
with  each  other  in  aduiirinff  it.  Cr&billon 
had  been  told  that  his  tiuent  lay  in  the 
terrible,  and  thought,  therefore,  tiiat  be 
could  not  exert  himself  too  much  in  scpnes 
of  horror,  and  hence  was  called  the  (cTri- 
hU,  Xerxes  (1714}  exceeded,  in  this  re- 
spect, all  that  he  nad  before  written,  but 
soon  disamieared  from  the  stage.  Semir- 
amis  (1717),  the  mother  enamoured  of  her 
son,  and  not  cure<l  of  her  passion  by  the 
discovery  of  his  ielationshi|>,  was  severely 
censured.  It  was  not  till  nine  years  after 
this  that  his  Pyrrhua  appeared  (172o),  and 
met  with  a  good  reception,  contrary  to  the 
exfiectation  of  the  author,  who,  in  tins 
work,  had  abstained  fh>m  the  fHglitful 
and  shocking.  Domestic  distress  and 
poverty  seem,  from  this  time,  to  have 
crippled  the  powers  of  his  genius.  His 
small  patrimony  was  alisorlMd  by  debts 
and  law  expenses.  A  father  and  a  beloved 
wife  were  taken  from  him  wiUiin  a  short 
time.  Amidst  the  einbarrassments  in 
which  he  was  involved,  he  refused,  with 
characteristic  inflexibility,  all  the  offers  of 
assistance  which  were  made  him.  When 
madame  de  Pom])adour  wished  to  humble 
Vohaire,  Cr^billon  was  thought  of  as  a  fit 
instrument  for  her  purpose.  Tlie  king 
gave  him  the  office  of  censor  of  the  police, 
a  yearly  pension  of  1000  francs,  and  an 
appointment  in  tiie  library.  Thus  freed 
fipom  anxiety,  he  fiuished  his  CotUxnej 
which  was  represented,  at  the  kini^s  ex- 
pense, in  1749,  with  all  the  pomp  that  the 
court  theatre  could  display.  This  piece, 
overrated  by  the  party  opposed  to  Vol- 
taire, is  undervalued  by  La  Haqie.  To 
make  some  atonement  to  the  character  of 
Cicero,  which  was  thought  to  have  been 
wronged  in  his  CaiiUne,  he  wrote,  at  76, 
tbe  IMunmrate,  or  the  I>eath  of  Cicero, 
which  was  brought  upon  the  stage  in  his 
8l8t  year.  The  defects  of  the  piece  were 
overiooked,  from  respect  to  the  age  of  the 
author.  Thus  much  for  his  dramatic 
eompoBitiona.  In  general|Ci^billon  shows 


Digitized  by 


Lioogle 


8 


crebillon-<:rei>it. 


nok^^  of  the  true  elevation  of  the  tragic 
ar:,  bat  only  an  iniitation,  sometimes  a 
h&{y»i3  one,  of  the  maimer  struck  out  hy 
CoRieille.  He  was  a  man  of  a  proud  and 
indeftendent  character,  disdained  to  flatter 
tlie  great,  and  pasBed  much  of  his  life  in  a 
con£tion  bordering  on  poverty.  More 
fortunate  circumstances  miffht  have  given 
more  amenity  to  his-  spirit ;  l)ut,  neglected, 
as  he  imagined,  by  mankind,  he  sought 
consolation  in  the  company  of  dogs  and 
cats,  which  he  picked  up  in  the  streets 
(the  poorest  ana  most  sickly  were  tliose 
whicn  he  preferred),  and  found  a  species 
of  enjoyment  in  an  irregular  manner  of 
living.  In  1731,  he  became  a  member  of 
tlie  academy.  Cr^billon  jlied  June  17, 
1762,  at  tlie  age  of  88.  Louis  XV  erected 
a  magnificent  monument  to  him  in  the 
church  of  St  Gervais,  which,  however, 
was  never  entirely  completed  till  it  was 
removed  to  the  museum  of  French  monu- 
ments (aux  pdits  •^tfgugtins).  Besides  the 
splendid  edition  of  Ci^^hillon's  works  pub- 
lished by  the  order  of  Louis  XV,  for  tlie 
benefit  of  tlie  author,  after  the  successful 
perfonnance  of  CatUine  ((Etmres  de  Cri- 
billon,  imprmerie  R,  da  Lwxrt,  1750,  2 
vols.  4to.),  there  is  another  published  by 
Didot  the  elder,  1812,  3  vols.,  in  both  of 
which,  however,  six  verses  are  omitted  in 
Catiline^  which  had  been  left  out  in  the 
representation,  as  applicable  to  madame 
de  Pompadour. 

C&EBiLLOif,  Claude  Prosper  Jolyot  de, 
the  younger,  son  of  the  preceding,  bom 
at  Paris  in  1707,  succeeded  as  an  author 
in  an  age  of  licentiousness.  By  the  exhi- 
bition of  gross  ideas,  covered  only  with  a 
thin  veil,  and  by  the  subtleties  with  which 
h^  excuses  licentious  principles,  Cr^hillon 
contributed  to  diffuse  a  general  corruption 
ef  manners,  before  ^connned  to  the  higher 
circles  of  Parisian  society.  In  later  times, 
the  French  taste  has  been  so  much  chang- 
ed, especially  by  the  revolution,  that  such 
indelicacies  as  are  found  in  his  works 
would  not  be  tolerated  at  the  present  day. 
His  own  morals,  however,  apiiear  to  have 
been  the  opposite  of  those  which  he  por- 
trayed. We  are  told  of  his  cheerfulness, 
his  rectitude  of  principle,  and  his  blame- 
less life.  In  the  circle  of  tlie  Dominicmtx 
(a  Sunday  society),  be  was  a  favorite,  and 
the  caveau  where  Piron,  Gallet,  Coll^, 
wrote  Uieir  songs  and  uttered  their  jests^ 
was  made  respectable  by  his  company. 
Of  his  works,  the  heat  are — Lettres  de  kt 
Marquijte  *  *  *  uu  C<mU6  de***  (1732,  2 
vols.,  12mo.);  Tomxai  et  Nea'ianU  (less 
licentious,  but  fnii  of  now  unintelligible 
alluaionB) ;  Lef  igaremaiB  da  Caw  et  dt 


P^^sprit  (Hague,  1736^  3  vols.1  perhaps  the 
most  succe^ul,  but  unfinished.  One  of 
his  most  voluptuous  pieces  is  Le  Sopha 
(1745,  2  vols.).  In  the  same  licentious 
strain  are  most  of  his  other  writings  com- 
posed. It  is  still  a  disputed  point  whether 
he  was  the  author  of  the  Ldtrea  de  la  Mar- 
quise de  Pompadow.  They  are  not  in- 
cluded in  the  edition  of  1779,  7  vols., 
12ino.  Cr^billon  held  a  small  ofiice  in^' 
the  censorship  of  the  press.  He  died  at 
Paris,  Ajiril  12, 1777. 

Crect  or  Cresst  en  Pontuieu  ;  a 
town  hi  France,  in  Somme ;  10  miles  N. 
of  Abbeville,  and  ICO  N.  of  Paris ;  fX)pu- 
lation,  1650.  It  is  celebrated  on  account 
of  a  batde  fought  here  Aug.  26, 1346,  be- 
tween the  English  and  French.  Edward 
III  and  his  son,  the  Black  Prince,  were 
boUt  engaged,  and  the  French  were  de- 
feated with  great  slaughter,  30,000  foot 
and  1200  horse  being  lefl  dead  in  the 
field ;  among  whom  were  tlie  king  of  Bo- 
hemia, the  count  of  Alen^on,  Louis  count 
of  Flanders,  with  many  others  of  the 
French  nobility. 

Credit,  in  economy,  is  the  postpone- 
ment affreed  on  by  the  parties  or  the  pay- 
ment of  a  debt  to  a  future  day.  It  im- 
plies confidence  of  tlie  creditor  in  the 
debtor ;  and  a  "  credit  system"  is  one  of  gen- 
eral confidence  of  people  in  each  oiher*^ 
honesty,  solvency  and  resources.  Credit 
is  not  confined  to  civilized  countries ;  Mn 
Park  mentions  instances  of  it  among  the 
Africans;  but  it  will  not  prevail  exten- 
sively where  the  laws  do  not  protect  prop* 
erty,  and  enforce  the  fulfilment  of  prom- 
isea  Public  cvedit  is  founded  upon  a 
confidence  in  the  resources,  good  faith 
and  stability  of  the  government ;  and  it 
does  not  always  flourish  or  decline  at  the 
same  time  and  rate  as  private  credit ;  for 
the  people  may  have  eitiier  greater  or  less 
conndence  in  the  government  than  in 
each  other :  still  there  is  some  sympathy 
and  correspondence  between  the  two ;  for 
a  general  individual  confidence  can  rarely, 
if  ever,  take  place  in  the  midst  of  distrust 
of  the  government;  and,  vice  versa,  a  firm 
reliance  upon  the  government  promotes 
a  corresponding  individual  confidence 
among  the  citizens.  The  history  of  eveiy 
industrious  and  commercial  community, 
under  a  stable  government,  will  present 
successive  alternate  periods  of  credit  and 
distnist,  following  each  other  with  a  good 
deal  of  regularity.  A  general  feeling  of 
prosperity  produces  extension  and  facili- 
ties of  credit  The  mere  opinion  or  im- 
agination of  a  prevailing  success  has,  of 
its  own  force,  a  most  powerful  influence 


Digitized  by 


Lioogle 


CREDIT--CREED. 


n  exc>tmg  the  entefpriae,  and  quickening 
Me  iridiisuy,  of  a  community.  The  fifst 
•equiBite  to  industiy  is  a  stock  of  instru- 
i^«eats,  and  of  matmrials  on  wiiich  to  em- 
pJojr  them:  a  very  busy  and  productive 
community  requires  a  ^reat  stock  of  both. 
Now  if  this  stock,  being  ever  ao  great, 
were  hoarded  up ;  if  the  posBessoiv  would 
neither  use,  let,  nor  seJl  it,  as  long  as 
it  should  lie  so  withdrawn  from  circu- 
lation, it  woukl  have  no  etfect  upon  the 
^neral  activity  and  productiveness.  This 
B  partially  the  case  when  a  general  dis- 
trust and  impression  of  decay  and  decline 
cause  tlie  possessors  of  the  stock  and  ma- 
terials to  be  scrupulous  about  putting  them 
out  of  their  hands,  by  sale  or  otherwise, 
to  be  used  by  others ;  and  othere,  again, 
having  no  confidence  tn  the  markets,  and 
seeing  no  prospect  of  profits,  hesitate  to 
purchase  materials,  or  to  buy  or  hire  the 
implements,  miils^  ships,  &c.,  of  othere,  or 
to  use  their  own  in  the  prooesses  of  pro- 
duction and  transportation.  This  state  of 
surplusage  and  distrust  is  sure  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  reduction  of  money  prices ; 
and  every  one  who  has  a  stock  on  hand, 
and  whose  possessions  are  estimated  in 
money,  is  considered  to  be  growing  poorer 
and  poorer  every  day.  But  when  prices 
have  reached  their  lowest  point,  and  begin 
regularly  to  rise,  every  l)ody  b^;ins  to 
esteem  himself  and  othere  as  being  pros- 
^rcKis,  and  the  <^xinlon  contributes  pow- 
erlttlly  to  verify  itaelfl  Credit  begins  to 
expand  ;  all  the  stores  of  the  commu- 
nity are  unlocked,  and  the  whole  of  its 
resources  is  thrown  open  to  enterprise. 
£very  one  is  able  readily  to  command  a 
sufficiency  of  means  for  the  employment 
of  his  industry ;  capital  is  easily  procured, 
and  services  are  readily  rondered,  each 
one  relying  upon  the  success  of  the  others, 
and  their  readiness  to  meet  their  engage- 
ments ;  and  the  acceleration  of  industry, 
and  the  extension  of  credit,  ^  on  until  a 
sinplus  and  stagnation  are  agam  produced. 
Tlie  af&ire  of  every  industrious  and  ac- 
tive community  are  always  revolving  in 
this  c'uvie,  in  travereing  which,  general 
creflit  passes  through  its  [leriodical  ebbs 
and  flows.  This  facility  and  extension  of 
crpdit  constitutes  what  is  commonly  called 
firiUioug  cajfitaL  The  fiction  consists  in 
many  indiviflua!s  being  supposed  to  be 
})0S4essed  of  a  greater  amount  of  clear 
capital  tlian  they  are  actually  worth.  The 
roost  striking  instance  of  this  fictitious- 
ness  of  capital,  or,  in  other  words,  excess 
of  credit,  appeare  in  the  immense  amounts 
of  negotiable  paper,  that  some  individuals 
and  companies  spread  in  the  community, 


or  of  paper  currency,  where  the  issuing 
of  notes  for  supplyii^  currency  by  com- 
panies or  individuals  is  permitted.  Indi- 
viduals or  comiMuiies  thus  draw  into  their 
hands  an  immense  capital,  and  it  is  by  no 
means  a  fictitious  capital  when  it  comes 
into  their  possession,  but  actual  money, 
goods,  lands,  &c ;  but,  if  they  are  in  a 
bad,  losing  business,  the  capital,  as  soon 
as  they  are  intrusted  with  it,  becomes  fic- 
titious in  respect  to  tliose  who  trusted 
them  with  it,  since  they  will  not  again 
realize  it  Extensive  credits,  both  in  sales 
and  the  issuing  of  paper,  in  new  and 
growing  communities,  which  have  a  small 
stock  and  great  industry,  grow  out  of  their 
necessities,  and  thus  become  habitual  and 
customary,  of  which  the  U.  States  hith- 
erto have  given  a  striking  example. 

Creech,  Thomas,  a  scholar  of  some 
eminence  for  his  classical  translations,  was 
bom  in  1G50.  He  took  the  degree  of 
M.  A.  at  Oxford  in  168!),  having  tlie  pre- 
ceding year  established  his  reputation  as  a 
scholar,  by  printing  his  translation  of  Lu- 
cretius. He  abo  translate<]  several  other 
of  the  ancient  jioets,  wholly  or  in  part, 
comprising  selections  from  Homer  and 
Virgil,  nearly  the  whole  of  Horace,  tlio 
thirteenth  Satire  of  Juvenal,  the  Idyls 
of  Theocritus,  and  several  of  Plutarrli*s 
Lives.  He  likewise  published  an  edition 
of  Lucretius  in  the  original,  with  inter|n^ 
tadoiis  and  annotations.  He  put  an  end 
to  his  life  at  Oxford,  in  1700.  Various 
causes  are  assigned  for  this  rash  act,  but 
they  are  purely  coigectural.  He  owes  bis 
fame  almost  exclusively  to  his  translation 
of  Lucretius,  the  poetical  merit  of  which 
is  very  small,  although,  in  the  vereification 
of  the  argumenuitiveand  mechanical  {lartSy 
some  skill  is  exhibited.  As  an  editor  of 
Lucretius,  he  is  chiefly  valuable  for  his 
explanation  of  the  Epicurean  philosophy, 
for  which,  however,  he  was  largely  *m- 
debted  to  Gessendi. 

Creed  ;  a  summary  of  belief ;  fh)m  the 
Latin  credo  (I  believe),  with  which  the 
Afiostles*  Creed  begins.  In  the  Eastern 
church,  a  summary  of  this  sort  was  called 
ndQn^a  (the  lesson),  because  it  was  learn- 
ed by  tlie  catechumens ;  y^^^  (l'»e  writ- 
uig),  or  irdvwr  (the  nile).  Rut  the  most  com- 
mon name  in  the  Greek  church  was 
vbn&o\ov  (the  sym^K)!,  q.  v.),  which  has  also 
passed  into  the  Western  church.  Numer- 
ous ancient  formularies  of  faith  are  pre- 
served in  the  writinsis  of  the  early  ftthere, 
Irenseus,  Origen,  Tertullian,  &c.,  which 
agree  in  substance,  though  with  some  di- 
vereity  of  expression.  The  history  of 
creeds  would  be  the  history  of  the  churchy 


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CREE6. 


I  of  its  mdancholy  abenvdons  finom 
simple  doctrines  of  Jesus.  Into  this 
cresting,  but  humiliating  history  we 
mot  now  enter,  but  must  confine  ow- 
^es  to  a  rapid  view  of  a  few  of  its 
St  prominent  features.  Of  the  earlier 
eds,  tliere  are  three  which  require  |iar- 
ilar  attention.  I.  The  JipariUs*  Creed  ia 
»lled  from  its  hayin|f  been  formerly  con* 
ered  as  the  work  ot  the  apostles  them- 
^es.  Tliis  notion  is  now  acknowledged 
be  without  foundation.  When  and  by 
om  it  was  drawn  up,  is  not  known.  It 
I  only  be  traced  to  the  4th  centuiy.  It 
itaiiis  a  profession  of  belief  in<  the 
ly  GiuMt,  m  the  divinity  of  Jesus,  his 
icent  uito  hell,  and  his  ascension  into 
iven,  in  the  resurrection  of  the  body, 
life  everlasting,  &c.  II.  The  JS/lcen^ 
iedj  so  called  liecause  it  was  adopted  at 
I  council  of  Nice,  A.  D.  325,  lield  to 
3ose  tlie  Arian  heresy.  It  therefore 
itains  an  explanation  of  the  article  of 
I  A|)08tles'  Creed — ^  I  believe  in  Jesus 
rist,  tlie  only  Son,**  &c.,  which  is  as 
lows :  ^  The  only  Son  of  God,  begotten 
the  Father,  tliat  is  to  say,  of  the  8ul>- 
iice  of  the  Father,  God  of  God,  light 
light,  veiy  God  of  veiy  God,  begotten 
i  not  made,  consubstantial  with  the 
ther,  through  whom  eveVy  tiling  has 
in  made  in  heaven  and  on  earth." 
icedonius^  bishop  ^  of  Constuutinuple, 
ving  denied  the  divinity  of  the  Holy 
lost,  it  became  necessaiy  to  settle  this 
nt,  which  was  done  by  the  comioil  of 
nstantinople,  A.  D.  381,  who  added  the 
rds  which  follow  **I  believe  in  the 
•ly  Ghost;'*  viz.  "the  Lord  and  Giver 
hfe,  who  proceedeth  fiiem  the  Father 
nd  the  Son'  was  afterward  inserted  by 
!  Spanisli  bishops),  who,  with  the  Fa- 
ir and  tlie  Son  together,  is  worshipped 
1  glorified,  who  spake  by  the  prophets." 
le  insertion  of  the  words  **  and  the  Son" 
s  finallysanctioned  by  the  Roman 
irch  in  o83,  but  has  never  been  receiv- 
by  the  Greek  church.  III.  The  Mm- 
nan  Creed  is  now  acknowledged  not  to 
ve  been  the  work  of  Athanasius  (q.  v.), 
lose  name  it  bears.  It  was  probably 
itten  in  Latin,  in  the  sixth  century.  In 
i  10th  century,  it  was  genemlly  received 
the  Western  church,  and,  at  the  refor- 
tion,  was  adopted  by  the  Protestants.  It 
isists  of  an  introduction  and  two  poei- 
18,  witli  their  proofs,  deductions  and  con- 
sioDs.  The  introduction  declares,  that 
hosoever  will  be  saved  must  hold  the 
bolic  faith."  The  first  position  then 
es,  "The  Catholic  faith  is  this— that  we 
rship  one  God  in  Trinity,  and  Trinity  in 


Unity,  neither  confounding  the  persona^ 
nor  dividing  the  substance."  For  (to  pive 
briefly  tlie  remainder  of  tiiis  position)  there 
are  three  penons,  but  one  Godhead.  The 
Father,  Son  and  Holy  Ghost  are  uncreate, 
incomprehenmble,  etemiU,  ahnighty,  Gocf, 
Lord ;  yet  there  are  not  three  Lords,  Gode, 
almighty,  eternal,  incomprehensible,  un- 
created, but  one.  The  Father  is  neither 
made,  created  nor  begotten:  the  Son  is 
of  the  Father  ak)ne,  not  made,  nor  creat* 
ed,  but  begotten.  The  Holy  Ghost  is  of 
the  Fatb«r  and  the  Son,  neither  made,  nor 
created,  nor  be^tten,  but  proceeding; 
and  in  tins  Trinity  none  is  afore  or  after 
another ;  none  is  ffreater  or  less  than  an- 
other. He,  therefore,  that  will  be  saved 
must  thus  diuik  of  the  Trinity.  The  n^o- 
ond  position  establishes  the  doctrine  of 
Christ's  incarnation.  It  is  necessary  to 
everlasting  salvation,  that  we  believe 
rightly  in  the  incarnation  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ.  The  right  faith  is,  that  he 
is  the  Son  of  Crod,  God  and  man ;  |ierfect 
God  and  perfect  man ;  yet  not  two,  liut 
one  Christ ;  one,  not  by  conversion  of  tiie 
Godhead  into  flesh,  Imt  by  taking  of  tiie 
manliood  into  God ;  one  ahogether,  not 
by  confusion  of  sulietanee,  but  by  unity 
of  person.  Tliis  is  the  Catholic  faith, 
which  except  a  man  believe  faithflilly,  lie 
cannot  be  saved. 

Besides  these  creecls,  there  are  numer- 
euaCon^cMum^  o/'/W<A,  which  have  l)eeo 
adoptecl  by  different  churches,  as  stand 
ards  to  which  the  ministers  in  the  resfiec- 
tive  communions  are -required  to  conform. 
I.  The  Greek  church  (q.  v.|  pre8ente<l  the 
CaiUesmon  of  the  true  and  sincere  FaiOt 
to  Mohammed  II,  in  1453;  but  in  1643, 
the  Orthodox  Confession  of  the  Catholic 
and  apostolic  Greek  CAtireft,  composed  by 
Mogila,  metropolitan  of  Kiow,  was  af>- 
proved  with  great  solemnity  by  the  pa- 
triarchs of  Constantinople,  Alexandria, 
Antioch  and  Jenisalem,  and  for  a  long 
time  was  the  standard  of  the  principles  of 
the  Russian  Greek  churcli :  it  has  been 
superee<ied  by  the  Summary  of  Christian 
Divinity,  com|)osed  in  1765,  by  the  nif^rro- 
politan  of  Moscow  (translated  into  Eng- 
lish, Edinburgh,  1814).  IL  The  church  of 
Rome  has  alwavs  rece$?ed  the  AfKwtles', 
the  Nicene  and  the  Athanasian  Creeds ; 
iHit  a  public  authoritative  symbol  was  first 
fixed  uy  the  council  of  Trent  A  sum- 
mary of  the  doctrines  contained  in  the 
canons  of  that  council  is  given  in  the 
creed  published  by  Pius  IV  (1564),  in  the 
form  of  a  bull.  It  is  introduced  by  the 
Nicene  Creed,  to  which  it  ad<is  twelve 
articles,  containing  those  dootriaes  which 


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u 


the  eburefa  of  Rome  finally  adopted  after 
her  contro?enifi8  with  refbrmen.  III.  The 
Lutherans  caU  their  standard  books  of 
fidth  and  discipline  LSbn  l^fmboUei  JBecfe- 
ntt  Evamgdic^  They  contain  the  three 
creeds  above  mentioned,  the  Augsburg 
ConfessBon  (q.  vX  the  Apology  for  that 
confession  by  Melancdion,  the  Articles 
of  Smalcalden,  drawn  up  by  Luther,  the 
Catecliisins  of  Lutlier,  and,  in  many 
churches,  the  Form  of  Concord  or  Book  of 
Torgau.  The  best  edition  is  fay  Tittmann 
(Leipsic,  1817).  The  Saxon  (con^wsed 
by  Melancthon),  W&rteraberv,  Suabian, 
Pomeranian,  Manafeldtian  and  Copenha- 
gen Confessions  agree  in  general  with 
the  aymboiical  books  of  the  Lutherans^ 
but  are  of  authority  only  in  the  countries, 
fiom  which  they  are  respecdvely  called. 
IV.  The  confessbns  of  the  Calvinistic 
churches  are  numerous.  The  following 
are  the  principal :  L  The  Helvetic  Confea- 
aioiia  are  three— that  of  Basle  (1530) ;  the 
Summary  and  Confessioh  of  Faith  of  the 
Helvetic  churches  (Bade,  1596);  and  the 
JBxpomtio  tumpUx^  &c.  (1566),  attributed 
to  BuiUnger.  2.  The  Tetrapolitan  Con- 
feasion  (»bf«burg,  1531),  which  derives 
its  name  fiK>m  the  four  dties  of  Sdfvsburg, 
Constance,  Menmiingen  and  Lindau,  b^ 
the  €ieputies  of  wliKh  it  was  signed,  is 
attributed  to  Bucer.  It  diiie»  from  the 
aymbolica]  books  of  the  Lutherans  in  the 
doetrine  of  the  sacraments,  and  especially 
in  its  exposition  of  the  eucharist  S.  The 
PalatiBe  or  Heidelbeig  Confeasion  was 
fiamed  at  Heidelberg  by  older  of  the 
elecfor  paladne,  John  Casimir  (1575). 
4  The  Confession  of  die  Gallic  Churches 
was  accepted  at  the  first  synod  hekl  by 
the  reformed  at  Paris,  in  1559.  Inthefol- 
bwing  year,  it  was  presented  to  Francis  II, 
and,  in  1501,  it  was  presented  by  Beza  to 
OarlcsIX.  5.  The  Confession  of  the  Re- 
foined  Cliurches  in  Belgium  was  drawn 
np  in  1559,  and  approved  in  156L  a  The 
Confession  of  Faith  of  the  Kirk  of  Scot- 
kmL  The  ecclesiastical  discipline  and 
doctrine  of  the  church  of  €}eneva  were 
ad<wted  in  Scotland  ftom  the  lieginnii^ 
of  die  reformation  there.  In  1^1,  die 
Scotch  nation  subscribed  a  General  Con- 
ftflsion,  together  with  a  Solemn  League 
and  Covenant  to  defend  tlie  Protesiani  re- 
ligion and  Presbyterian  government  The 
Scotch  oovenanten  afVerwards  adopted 
die  Westminster  Confossion,  in  the  com- 
pibtioB  of  which  some  delegates  from 
their  genend  assembly  had  assisted.  In 
1688^  that  oonfoarion  was  receive  as  the 
standard  of  the  national  fkith,  which  all 
mitntan,  aadtheoffioemof  the  Scotch uni« 


yendties,  are  required  to  subscribe.  Widi 
this  are  generally  connected  the  catechisms 
of  their  assembly.  7.  Confession  of  Fnith 
of  the  Anglican  Church.  In  the  beginning 
of  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth,  she  gave 
her  assent  to  thir^-ntne  ardcles  agreed  up- 
on in  the  convocation  held  at  D>ndon  m 
1553.  They  were  drawn  up  in  Latin ;  but, 
in  1571,  they  were  revised  and  subscribed 
both  in  Latin  and  English,  They  were 
adopted  b^  the  Episcopal  church  in  the 
U.  States  m  1801,  with  some  alteration^ 
and  the  rejection  of  the  Athanasian  Creed. 
The  first  five  contain  the  doctrines  of 
the  Anglican  church  concerning  the 
Father,  Son  and  Holy  Ghost ;  in  the  sixthi 
seventh  and  eighth,  the  rule  of  faith  m 
established ;  the  next  10  relate  to  Chris- 
tians as  individuals,  and  the  remaining  21 
relate  to  them  as  members  of  a  religious 
society.  (See  Corpu$  et  Swtagma  Conr 
fesnonum  Fidti,  Geneva,  1612  and  1654 ; 
Skfttioge  Cwtfe$9umam^  Oxford,  1804 ;  But- 
ler's .^cotttif  of  Omfessums  of  FaitL) 

Creeks,  or  Muscogees  ;  Indians  in  the 
western  part  of  Georeia  and  the  eastern 
part  of  Alabama,  in  the  coimtry  watered 
by  the  Chatahoochee,  TaUapoosa  and  Coo^ 
sa«  The  number  of  warriors  is  about  6000|L 
and  of  souls  about  20,000.  They  suffered 
severely  in  1813  and  1814,  in  the  war  with 
the  U.  States.  (See  Sbmnofu).  They  are  ac- 
counted the  most  warlike  tribe  found  east 
of  the  Misfflssippi.  Some  of  their  towns 
contain  from  150  to  200  houses.  The^ 
have  made  considerable  progress  in  agn- 
euhure,  and  raise  horses,  catue,  fowls  and 
hogs,  and  cultivate  tobacco,  rice  and  corn« 

Crees,  or  KmsTENAUx;  Indians  in 
North  America,  residing  about  Ion.  105^ 
12^  W. ;  ht.  55^  N.  They  are  of  moder- 
ate stature,  well  proportioned,  active,  hare 
keen  black  eyes  and  open  countenances; 

CiiEPELD ;  a  city  in  the  Prussian  prov- 
ince of  Cleves-Berg,with  1543  houses  and 
16,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  700  are  Men- 
nonites ;  above  12,000  are  manufactur- 
ers. The  city  is  built  in  the  Dutch  taste. 
The  chief  manufactories  are  of  velvet  cloth 
and  ribands.  The  former  is  made  prin- 
cipally in  the  city,  the  latter  in  the  envi- 
rons. Silk  goods  of  various  kinds,  flannel^ 
woollen  stockings,  cotton  and  linen  goods, 
&C.,  are  also  made  here.  Crefeld  Ukewise 
contains  tanneries,  sugar  refineries,  dis- 
tiHeries,  manufactories  of  soap.  Of  late^ 
it  has  exported  much  to  America. 

CaXMTfiTZ,  or  Kremnitz  ;  a  free  roya|' 
city  in  Hungary,  in  Barsch,  mtuated  oii 
the  nde  of  a  hill;  100  miles  £.  Vienna i 
Ion.  I^13f  E.;  lat  48^45'N.;  pop"*-'-- 
9700;  houMB,  1200.    It  is 


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13 


CREMNITZ--CREOLE. 


]o%  oiotmtaiBS,  and  contains  one  Luther- 
an, one'Caivinist,  and  one  Catholic  church, 
and  a  Lutheran  gymnasium.  It  is  cele- 
brated for  its  mines  of  gold  and  silver,  and 
is  the  oldest  mining  town  in  Hungary. 
The  situation  is  elevated,  and  the  air  is  veiy 
cold.  The  town  itself  is  very  small,  not 
containing  50  houses,  but  the  faubaurgs 
are  of  great  ejctent  The  ducats  which 
bear  the  name  of  Cremnitz  have  enjoyed, 
fbr  a  long  time,  the  reputation  of  very  fine 
cold.  'Hiey  are  to  be  known  by  the  two 
Ktters  K.  B.  {Ktrmecz  ^anya,  Cremnitz 
mines),  between  which  is  the  image  of 
the  sovereign.  Much  gold  and  silver  fix>m 
these  mines  is  coined  in  Vienna. 

Cremoita  ;  a  city  of  the  Lombardo- 
Venetian  kingdom,  capital  of  the  province 
and  district,  in  a  beautiful  situation.  It  is 
about  five  miles  in  circumference,  and 
has  spacious  and  regular  streets,  with  sev- 
eral squares,  but  the  bouses  are  in  geneFal 
ill  built  Here  are  44  churches  ahd  chap- 
els, 43  convents,  and  an  obscure  universi- 
W.  It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop.  The  cathe- 
and  18  a  massy  structure,  with  a  facade  of 
beautifiil  white  and  red  marble,  ornament- 
ed, in  the  interior,  with  various  paintings 
and  pictures  in  fresco.  The  tower  of 
Cremona,  built  by  Frederic  Barbaroesa,  in 
the  12th  century,  is  a  very  curious  edifice, 
consisting  of  two  octagonal  obelisks,  sur- 
mounted by  a  cross,  and,  in  all,  372  feet 
In  height    The  silk  manufactures  of  this 

eace  are  considerable,  and  it  has  long 
»en  noted  for  its  superior  violins.  This 
city  is  of  great  antiquity,  having  been 
created  a  Roman  colony  B.  C.  291.  The 
Venetians  possessed  it  a  longtime;  and, 
tmder  Napoleon,  it  was,  until  1814,  capi- 
tal of  the  department  of  Alto  Pa  Popu- 
lation, 23,000;  38  miles  S.  E.  Milan ;  Ion. 
ia>2'12"E.;  lat  45°  7' 43"  N. 

Creole  (from  the  Spanish  CrioUo)  is 
the  name  which  was  originally  given  to 
all  the  descendants  of  Spaniards  bom 
in  America  and  the  West  Indies.  Jt 
is  also  used  for  the  descendants  of  other 
Europeans,  as  French,  Banes,  in  which 
case  we  say,  Drmck-CreoU,  ^anuh-Cre^ 
oU.  Since  tiie  native  Spaniards  have 
been  expelled  from  tlie  former  Spanish 
American  colonies,  the  term  Cndt  is 
comparatively  litde  used,  in  speaking 
of  thoise  parts  of  America,  it  being  seC 
dom  neceasaiy  as  a  term  of  distinction ; 
but,  in  speaking  of  the  French,  Danish 
and  Snanisb  poasessions  in  the  West  In- 
dies, the  word  occurs  more  frequently. 
In  the  U.  States,  it  is  oflea  used  for  the 
descendants  ofthe  French  and  &|paniards 
in  Louisiaaa  (many  of  tba  latter  having 


settled  there  ih>m  Spanish  America),  in 
contradistinction  to  Amaicant^  meaning, 
by  the  hitter  term,  people  bom  in  the  other 
states,  or  their  descendanta.  In  1776, 
Charies  III,  king  of  Spain,  declared  the 
Creoles  capable  of  civil,  military,  and  ec- 
clesiastical offices,  from  which,  till  then, 
they  had  been  excluded.  Native  Sfian- 
iards,  however,  still  continued  to  have  the 
preference,  and  the  Creoles  were  treated 
with  the  arrogance  which  too  oflen  dis- 
tinguishes the  conduct  ofthe  natives  of  a 
parent  country  towards  colonists;  and  the 
consequence  was  great  exacerbation  of 
feeling  on  the  part  ofthe  Creoles.^  In  the 
West  Indies,  tne  Creoles  have  always  en- 
ioyed  equal  rights  with  native  Europeans. 
Before  the  declaration  of  independence 
by  the  colonies  of  Spanish  America,  there 
existed  marked  lines  of  distinction  between 
the  different  classes,  founded  on  difference 
of  birth.  The  Chapdomu  were  Europeans 
by  birth)  and  first  in  rank  and  nower; 
the  Cnoie$  were  the  second ;  the  Jmdattoes 
and  Mutizoei  (descendants  of  white  and 
black,  or  white  and  Indian  parents)  form" 
ed  the  third  class ;  Negroes  and  mdians, 
the  fourth.  At  present,  they  are  all  en- 
titled to  equal  privilege  by  the  constitu- 
tions. Some  of  Bolivar's  generals  are 
dark  Mulattoes,  and  Paez  is  a  Llanero. 
The  Llaneros  are  converted  Indians.  The 
native  Spaniards  formerly  avoided  asso- 
ciating with  the  Creoles,  and  formed  the 
first  class.  In  Venezuela,  there  existed  a 
kind  of  Creole  nobility,  unknown  in  other 
parts  of  South  America.  They  were  call- 
ed MantwmMj  and  divided  themselves 
into  those  of  iSb^fre  Azul  (bhie  blood),  de- 
scendants of  the  first  Spanish  conquerors, 
and  those  of  Sanfre  Mexdada  (mixed 
blood], .  Creole  families  of  a  later  origin, 
who  nad  intermarried  vrith  Spaniards  or 
Frenchmen.  The  Creoles,  in  general,  be- 
fore the  revolution,  were  very  lazy,  leav- 
ing the  mechanical  arts  and  husbandly 
altoj^ether  to  the  Mulattoes,  Negroes  or 
Indians;  and,  even  now,  the  mechanics 
are  mostly  colored  or  black  persons.  The 
ladies  are  of  a  saltow  complexion,  have 
beautiful  teeth,  hurg^  dark  eyes,  and  are, 
like  the  men,  veiy  finely  fanned. — (htoU 
diaUcU  are  those  jar^pons  which  have 
originated  fhim  the  mixture  of  different 
languages  in  the  West  Indies.  They  are 
moken  by  die  slaves,  who  have  destroyed 
tne  ^le  grammatical  construction  of  the 
European  languages,  and  have  intermixed 
with  them  some  original  African  words. 
According  to  the  European  huigua|e 
which  pievails  in  a  Creole  dialect,  it  is 
called  IVmik^CrhUf  DmiihCrtoUj  &c. 


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CllEOLE— CRESCENT. 


13 


In  St  Thomrts,  for  instance,  the  latter  is 
Sfioken  ;  in  Hay ti,  French-Creole.  Among 
the  numerous  comiptions  of  Euroiiean 
words  and  constructions,  we  find,  very 
generaiiy,  in  the  Creole  dialects,  ttje  cor- 
ruptions of  ipainmar  common  amone 
children ;  for  mstance,  me  is  used  instead 
of  /.  Often  DO  distinction  is  made  be- 
tween the  possessive  pronoun  and  the 
|)ereonnl ;  e.  g.,  me  house  for  my  house,  or 
wimassra  for  our  master.  The  infinitive 
is  used  for  the  finite  tenses,  as  mot  domtar 
fur  je  dmvne.  It  is  well  known  that  Ho- 
mer has  several  deviations  from  grammar 
which  are  now  peculiar  to  children ;  and 
the  Creole  dialects  have  several  peculiari- 
ties in  common  with  tliose  used  by  Ho- 
mer. The  mixture  of  words  from  differ- 
eni  languages  is  often  considerable  in  these 
dialects ;  tnit  most  of  them  can  be  under- 
stood, without  a  great  deal  of  diflliculty, 
by  a  man  acquainted  with  English,  Da- 
nish, French  and  Simiiish.  We  will  give 
an  example  of  the  rapimento  language — 
a  Creole  dialect  spoken  in  St  Thomas — 
from  a  work  sxtracted  from  tlie  four  Gos- 
peh^  entiiied  Da  7Vi  va  wi  Massra  eii 
Hdpiman  Jesus  Christus,  so  leki  wifiwK 
dtdH  na  tnni  dem  fo  EvangdisU:  Mat- 
theusy  Marcus^  Lucas  en  JohanneSy  1816 
(The  Stoiy  of  our  Lord  and  Savior  Jesus 
Christ,  as  we  find  it  in  the  four  Evange- 
lists, &C.)  A  part  of  the  fint  chapter  of 
the  Gospel  of  St  John,  from  the  4th  to 
the  8th  verse,  is  given  in  this  work,  as  fol- 
lows : — Libi  ben  de  na  inm  va  hem,  Kaha 
da  fibi  ben  de  Kandera  va  somma.  Kaba 
da  Kandera  de  krun  na  dungru,  ma  dungru 
no  6en  tcld  da  Kandera.  Gako  ben  senni 
wsn,  sommay  dem  kali  JoJumnes,  dissi  ben 
Konun  va  takki  vo  da  Kandera,  va  dem 
somma  Komm  bnbi  na  da  Kandera.  Hem 
srfi  no  da  Kandera,  ma  a  ben  Komm  va 
iakJd  na  somma  vo  da  Kandera,  This 
s|ieciinen  will  ffive  an  idea  of  the  stranore 
mixture  of  woros,  and  of  the  clumsy  peri- 
phrases used  to  express  ideas,  e.  g^  libi 
btndena  inm  va  htm ;  of  the  poverty,  e.  g., 
bm  for  been,  has  been,  has,  was,  and  had,  &c. 
Ttiere  are,  however,  in  all  languages, 
heavy  periphrases,  our  familiarity  with 
Wiiicli  presents  us  from  being  sensible  of 
litem ;  e.  g^  i«  vewus  de  chez  mot,  orhets 
dftoiil  to  set  out  on  a  journey ;  which,  if  we 
bad  one  wonl  for  underiakbig  a  journey, 
snd  a  tense  for  exfvessing  the  intention, 
migiit  be  expressed  in  one  word.  That  a 
eareful  investigation  of  the  Creole  dialects 
w'ouki  lead  to  several  interesting  discovcr- 
ir>s  resiiecting  the  origin  of  some  gram- 
inaticat  fomiations  and  modes  of  ex])res- 
slon,  is  hardly  to  be  doubted.  When  the 
\oh.  IV.  2 


allied  armies  invaded  France,  and  the 
Russian  and  German  soldiers  were  often 
under  the  necessity  of  communicating 
with  each  other,  and  with  the  French,  a 
kind  of  iargon  came  into  use  among  them, 
in  wbicii  the  writer  observed  that  mi — ^the 
Low  Gennan  for  me,  and  pretty  nearly 
resembling  the  French  moi — was  used  \jy 
all  parties  to  exprera  the  first  ])er8on  sin- 
gular. The  infinitive  was  oHao  used  in- 
stead of  the  fuiite  modes,  expressing  only 
the  gross  idea  of  action  witliout  modtfica- 
tJoii.  Flesh,  from  the  German  Fleisch 
(meat),  dobri,  from  the  Russian,  for  good^ 
were  also  em])loyed  by  all  ^rties,  as  was 
also  the  word  cemui,  to  signify  broken  doton, 
spoiled,  &c.  This  last  won!  is  mill  in  use 
among  the  lower  classes  of  I^orth  Germa- 
ny. Mijlesh  caput  meant,  in  this  military 
dialect,  my  meat  is  spoiled.  Several  of  tlie 
modem  £uroi)ean  languages  nmst  have 
originated  in  this  way,  after  the  irruption 
of  the  nordiem  tiibes  into  the  Roman 
empire. 

Crescendo,  or  Cres.  (RaL)  By  the 
term  crescendo,  tlie  Italians  siginfy  that  the 
notes  of  the  |)assage.  over  which  it  is 
placed  are  to  be  gradually  swelled.  This 
oneration  is  not  of  mo<lem  invention. 
The  ancient  Romans,  as  we  learn  frotn  a 
passage  in  Cicero,  were  aware  of  its  beau- 
ty, and  practised  it  continually. — Cresc^ylf^ 
is  also  the  name  of  a  musical  instniment, 
invented  in  1778,  by  the  counsellor  Bauer, 
in  Berlin,  which  is  played  Hke  a  piano,  and, 
Uke  diis,  is  furnished  witli  wire  strings. 

Crescent  (cre*cen*,  Lat) ;  an  emblem, 
representing  the  moon  in  her  state  of 
increase.  This  emblem  of  the  Ottomans 
is  of  very  high  antiquity.  The  Egyptians 
had  tlieir  Isis,  the  Greeks  their  Diana,  and> 
it  is  easy  to  conceive  that  tlie  ch'scent 
which  announced  the  reluming  light  of 
the  moon,  soon  became  an  object  of  wor- 
ship with  such  people.  Thus  Isis,  Diand, 
and  the  bull  Apis,  are  decorated  with  tliis 
cinblem ;  which  is  also  found  on  medals 
of  Alexander,  and  other  ancient  monu- 
ments of  art.  The  citizens  of  Athens  of 
illustrious  birth  wore  crescrnts  of  ivory 
and  silver  u]X)n  their  buskins;  and  the 
same  mark  of  distinction  was  granted  to 
the  patricians  and  senators  of  Konic. 
They  were  called  lumdati  calcei.  The  cres- 
cent was  oflen  used  by  females  as  an  orna- 
ment for  the  head;  an  example  of  which 
nmv  be  seen  on  a  bust  of  Marciana,  in  the 
Villa  Pamfili.  On  many  medals  of  querns, 
the  bust  is  supported  by  a  crescent,  ex- 

1>ressive  of  tlie  relation  they  bore  to  their 
nisliands,  who,  as  kings,  were  as  the  sun, 
while  they  were  as  tiie  moon.    It  is  also 


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CRESCENT— CRESCIMBENI. 


an  emblem  of  the.  eternity  of  an  empire. 
The  god  Lunus  bears  it  upon  his  shoul* 
der;  and  the^iont  of  the  Lucretian  fum- 
ily  have  it  acconifNinied  by  the  Seven  Stars 
of  the  nortliem  hemisphere.  It  is  also 
found  on  medals  of  many  cities,  particu- 
larly of  Byzantium,  from  whence  it  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  borrowed  by  the  Otto- 
mans. Since  their  establishment  in  Eu- 
it>|)e,  it  has  been  the  universal  emblem  of 
their  empire.  It  decorates  their  minarets, 
their  turlNins,  their  ensigns,  their  insignia ; 
every  thing  appertaining  to  the  Mussul- 
mans is  characterized  by  this  sign,  and 
their  stated  are  desig^iated  as  the  Empire  of 
the  Crescent.  During  the  crusades,  par- 
ticularly, the  crescent  was  tJie  distinguish- 
ing symbol  of  the  Mussuhnans,  as  tiie  cross 
was  of  the  Christians. 

Crcscenzi,  Pietro,  or  Petrus  de,  the 
restorer  of  the  scientific  study  of  agricul- 
ture in  Europe,  bom  at  Bologna,  in  1230, 
was  an  attorney  and  magistrate,  till  he 
was  obliged,  by  civil  troubles,  to  leave  his 
native  country.  He  travelled  through 
Italy,  and  collected  useful  observations.  It 
was  not  dll  afler  30  yean  of  absence,  when 
order  was  at  length  restored  to  his  native 
city,  that  he  was  permitted  to  return ;  and, 
at  the  age  of  70,  he  was  made  senator. 
He  now  carried  into  execution  his  princi- 

i)les  of  agriculture,  on  an  estate  near  Bo- 
ogna,  in  tlie  cultivation  of  which  he  pass- 
ed the  remainder  of  his  life.  See  his 
essay  on  agHculture  (Ruralium  Conuno- 
dorum,  12  booksi  which  he  composed  at 
the  desire  of  Cliarles  II.  He  submitted 
his  work  to  the  examination  of  learned 
men  in  Bologna,  by  whom  it  was  coirect- 
ed  and  improved.  It  is  a  remarkable 
monument  of  his  dme,  of  which  it  is  far  in 
advance.  Apostolo  Zeno  has  proved  that 
tliese  12  books,  in  the  arrangement  of 
which  the  author  seems  to  have  followed 
Columella,  were  written  originally  in  Lat- 
in. There  exists  an  Italian  translation 
{R  Ubro  deUa  JIgricvUura  di  P,  Crescent 
Hoy  Florence,  1^^  et  seq.),  which  is  es- 
teemed very  highly,  on  accomit  of  tlie 
purity  of  the  language,  and  has  given  rise 
to  the  opinion  that  Urescenzi  wrote  in  his 
native  tongue.  He  understood  the  ao- 
cients,  and  made  use  of  them.  His  prin- 
ciples are  simple,  founded  upon  experi- 
ence, and  free  from  many  prejudices, 
which  continued  to  prevail  in  Europe  for 
centuries  afler.  His  work  was  no  sooner 
published,  than  it  spread  throughout  Eu- 
rope. It  was  translated  into  several  Eu- 
ropean languages,  particularly  for  Charles 
V  of  France,  in  a  splendid  manuscript 
(1373),  which  is  stiU  extant;  and  no  soon- 


er was  the  art  of  prindng  invented,  than 
copies  of  tiiis  work  were  greatly  multipli* 
ed.  The  oldest  known  edition,  which  is 
now  very  rare,  appeared  at  Augsburg,  in 
1471,  in  folio.  The  eariiest  Italian  trans- 
lation, tlie  author  of  which  is  supposed  to 
be  Lorenzo  Beuvenuti,  of  St  Geminiano, 
and  which  is  accounted  among  the  mod- 
els of  language,  is  contuned  in  the  collec- 
tion of  tlje  (Stutici  ttaliam  (Milan,  18C5). 
A  more  exact,  but  a  less  esteemed  trans- 
lation, was  made  by  Sansovino.  We  are 
indebted  for  much  information  concerning 
Crescenzi  and  his  work  to  professor  Filip- 
po  Re,  at  Bolonia. 

Crescerzi,  D.  Juan  Baptista,  nuuquia 
de  la  Torre,  born  at  Rome  towards  the 
end  of  the  Kkh  century,  studied  the  ait 
of  paintine  under  Pomerancias.  Some 
of  hia  early  compositions  attracted  the 
attention  of  the  ()ope,  Paul  V,  who  intrust- 
ed him  with  the  dv'coration  of  the  Pauline 
chafieU  Cardinal  Zapata^  took  him  to 
Spain  in  1617f  where  he  obtained  the 
fiivor  of  Philip  III.  Some  flower-pieces 
occasioned  his  receiving  the  commission 
to  build  die  sepulchral  monument  in  the 
Escurial,  the  8|)lendor  and  finished  ele- 
gance of  which  place  it  among  the  most 
remarkable  monuments  of  Europe.  (See 
Santo's  History  of  the  Escwialj  with  cop- 
perplates.) The  bronze  figures  were  exe- 
cuted by  Roman  artists.  Philip  IV  made 
him  a  grandee  of  Castile,  with  the  tide  of 
marquis  de  la  Thrre,  aiid  conferred  upon 
him  other  marks  of  distinction.  His  house, 
which  contained  rich  treasures  in  eveiy 
branch  of  art,  was  ever  open  to  artists. 
He  died  in  1660. 

Crescimbeni,  Giovanni  Maria,  a  scholar 
and  poet,  was  lx)m  at  Macerata,  in  the 
Mark  of  Anco»ia,  OcL  9,  1663.  When 
but  a  child,  he  displayed  an  inclination  for 
poetry.  Ariosto's  verses,  in  purticular, 
were  impressed  on  his  memory  ny  an  edi- 
tion of  Orlando  Furioso,  with  copper- 
plates, in  which  he  used  to  search  for  and 
peruse  the  passages  to  which  tiie  engrav- 
mgs  referred.  In  the  Jesuits'  college,  at 
Macerata,  he  wrote,  at  13,  a  tragedy — DtL- 
rius.  At  15,  he  was  a  member  of  an  acad- 
emy, and,  at  16,  doctor  of  laws.  His 
father  sent  him,  in  1681,  to  Rome,  to  per- 
fect himself  in  the  knowledge  of  law ;  but 
he  applied  himself,  widi  still  more  zeal,  to 
poetry.  Some  cmixoni  of  Filicaja,  in  1^, 
gave  him  correct  views  of  the  character 
of  the  poetry  then  in  vogue.  Dissatisfied 
with  all  that  he  had  formerly  attempted, 
he  felt  himself  at  once  constrained  to  imi- 
tate only  the  ancient  models,  and  to  rec- 
ommend their  simple  and  natural  manner 


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CR£SCIMB£NI--CR£ST. 


15 


10  lus  coiitemfK>raries.  Crescimbeni  be- 
longed to  all  the  throe  academies  in  Rome, 
which  jivalled  each  other  in  wretched 
veraesl  Out  of  these,  he  selected  cer- 
tain members,  whose  views  harmonized 
with  his  own,  and  formed  a  new  acad- 
emy»  which  wa^  sportively  called  the 
,^rc€utut^in  allusion  to  the  rural  taste  of 
the  founder.  (See  ^cadiana.)  lie  was 
the  first  autode  of  this  academy,  under 
the  name  of  jSlfesikeo  CariOf  and  was  re- 
elected to  the  office  for  several  succes- 
sive Olympiads.  Crescimlieni,  delighted 
with  the  success  of  his  plan,  was  not  tiie 
least  active  among  his  fellow  poets.  In 
1698  appeared  iiis  htoria  deila  volgar  Poe* 
da — a^work  of  vast  iuduBtry,  but  destitute 
of  method  and  criticism.  He  next  pub- 
lished his  Trattato  dtUa  Bdkxza  delta  vol- 
gar Poaia  (Rome,  1700,  4to.),  which 
passed,  in  a  short  time,  through  tliree 
editions,  and,  like  the  earlier  work,  was 
fifst  nmde  capable  of  being  understood 
and  enjoyed  oy  the  Commentarj  intomo 
aUa  ^ria  deua  volgar  Poesia  (Rome, 
1702,  5  volumes,  4to.).  The  favor  of 
Clement  XI  placed  hirn  m  an  easy  situa- 
tion. In  the  tranquillity  of  his  caiioni- 
cate,  disturbed  only  by  the  disputes  of  the 
Arcadians,  the  number  of  his  works  rap- 
idly increased.  He  made  a  translation  of 
Nostradamus's  Lives  of  the  Provencal 
Poets,  with  additions,  enlarged  his  own 
Commentaries  with  four  valuable  vol- 
umes, and  wrote  a  History  of  the  Arcadia, 
and  Lives  of  the  Arcadian  Poets.  About 
this  time,  also,  appeared  the  two  fiiM  vol- 
umes of  veises  (Rime^  of  his  Arcadia, 
which  were  well  received.  Clement  V 
and  Benedict  XIII  rewarded  his  labors 
with  ecclesiastical  honors;  and  John  V 
of  Portugal  presented  the  Arcadia  with 
some  funds.  The  society  erected  a  thea- 
tre, still  existing,  on  the  Janiculum,  and 
their  first  Olympic  games  were  celebrated 
Sept.  9,  1726,  m  honor  of  the  king  of 
Portugal.  The  poems  which  Crescim- 
beni read  on  that  occasion  were  received 
with  lively  approbation.  Meanwhile  his 
constitution  was  yielding  to  a  disorder  of 
the  breast.  Afler  being  admitted,  at  his 
request,  into  the  order  of  the  Jesuits,  in 
whose  garb  lie  wished  to  die,  he  expired, 
March  8,  17%.  During  his  Ufetime,  he 
had  caused  his  monument  to  be  erect- 
ed in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  Mag- 
giore,  with  the  inscription — I.  M.  C.  P. 
ARC.  C.  (Joannes  Mariug  Cnscunbemua^ 
Paslorum  Arcadtua  Custos),  and  bearing 
the  Arcadian  pipe.  He  was  of  a  gentle 
disposition,  benevolent,  affable  and  mod- 
erate.   Among  his  numerous  works,  oc- 


casiona]  compositions  and  eulogies,  those 
already  mentioned  are  all  that  deserve  a 
high  rank  in  the  literature  of  bis  country. 
A  biography  of  him  is  prefixed  to  his 
History  of  Arcadia  (Rome,  1712,  12mo.), 
by  the  canon  Mancurti  of  Imela. 

Crespi,  Giusep|ie  Maria,  suniamed  U 
SpagnuolOf  a  pamter  of  tlie  Bologiiese 
school,  bom  at  Bologna,  in  1665,  studied 
tlie  masterpieces  in  the  monastery  of  Son 
Michaele  in  Bosco^  and  particularly  imi- 
tated the  Caracci,  whose  works  he  also 
copied.  He  received  uistruction  from 
Caimti,  then  from  Cignani,  afterwards 
studied  in  Venice  and  Purma,  and  finally 
came  out  with  his  own  productions  in  his 
native  city.  His  first  work  was  tlie  Com- 
bat of  Hercules  with  Ajitaeus.  From  tiiis 
time  he  had  continual  employment  He 
painted,  for  cardinal  Ottoboni,  the  Seven 
Sacraments,  now  in  the  Dresden  gallery ; 
several  pieces  for  prince  Eugene  of  Savoy, 
for  the  elector  of  the  Palatinate,  for  die 
grand-duke  of  Tuscany,  and  for  curiiua] 
Laiubertiiii,  his  patron,  who  afterwards, 
when  pope  Benedict  XIV,  conferred  on 
him  the  honor  of  kuightliood.  Crespi, 
however,  has  been  frequently  censured  for 
the  singular  ideas  which  he  often  uitro- 
duced  into  his  |>aiutings ;  e.  g.  he  repre- 
sents Chiren  giving  his  pupil  Achilles  a 
kick  for  some  fault  that  he  had  committed. 
Moreover  he  (wiuted  every  thing  aprimOj 
with  strong,  lx)ld  strokes,  in  tlie  manner 
of  Caravaggio,  and  has  become  a  man- 
nerist from  a  desire  to  be  constantly  new. 
He  had  many  scholars,  among  whom  were 
his  two  sous,  Autouio  and  Luigi  Cres|>i. 
The  latter  distinguished  himself  by  his 
vnritingH  on  painting.  Crespi  died  in  1747. 

Cressy.    (See  Creof,) 

Crest  (from  the  Latin  crista)  is  used 
to  signify  tlie  rising  on  the  defensive 
armor  of  the  head,  also  the  ornament 
frequently  affixed  to  the  helmet,  such 
as  a  plume  or  tufl  of  feathers,  a  bunch 
of  horse-hair,  &c.  Warriors  have  al- 
ways been  in  the  habit  of  adorning  their 
[)erson8;  and  tlie  helmet,  from  its  conspicu- 
ousness,  is  veir  naturally  chosen  as  the 
place  of  one  of  the  principal  ornaments. 
We  learn  from  Homer  (//.  iji,  33(i)  that  the 
crests  of  the  earlier  Greeks  were  of  horsi*- 
hair;  afterwards  plumes,  especially  red 
ones,  were  adopted.  (Viro.  .£».  ix,  50, 
271,  808.)  To  gain  an  enemy^s  crest  was 
accounted  an  honorable  achievement,  as 
it  was  reckoned  among  the  spolicu  The 
Greeks  called  the  crest  ^a'Ao;  and  ^^^r, 
but  some  are  of  opinion  that  these  wonls 
mean  different  things,  ^/iXo;  signifying  the 
raised  part  of  tlie  helmet  (conus\  and 


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16 


CREST-CRETINISM. 


K6fos,  the  real  crest  The  crests  of  com- 
manders (a/i^(^Xoi),  of  course,  were  gen- 
erally larger  than  those  of  common  sol- 
diers. Tlie  iCginetan  statues  (see  JEgi' 
netan  SiuU)  have  crests  of  horse-hair.  In 
the  miiulle  ages,  when  rank  and  honors 
l)ecame  hereditary,  and  particular  heraldic 
devices  were  appropriated  to  particular 
families,  the  crest  became  a  distinguishing 
„  hereditary  murk  of  honor.  '  It  denotes,  in 
heraldry,  a  figure  placed  upon  a  wreatli, 
coronet,  or  cap  of  maintenance,  above  both 
helmet  and  shield  ;  as,  for  ujstance,  tlie 
crest  of  a  bishop  is  the  mitre.  I'lie  cix'st 
KB  considered  a  greater  criterion  of  nobility 
than  the  armor  generally.  It  is  commonly 
a  piece  of  tlie  anus,  as  that  of  Castile  is 
a  castle.  Crests,  dierefoiie,  fonn  an  ini- 
porrant  subject  in  the  unimportant  science 
of  heraldry. 

Crete.    (See  Candia,) 

Creticus.  (See  Rhfthmta.) 

Cretinism  makes  a  very  close  ap- 
proach V.  rickets  in  its  general  symptoms. 
It  dift'ifcf  principally  in  its  tendency  to 
thn!  fieculiar  enlargement  of  the  thyroid 
giand,  which,  in  F  ranee,  is  denominated 
goilre,  and  hi  the  mental  imiiecility  which 
accompanies  it  from  the  first.  The  en- 
largement of  the  gland  does  not  always, 
however,  accompany  the  otlier  ^mptoiiis, 
though  it  does  generally.  Cretinism  was 
first  distinctly  noticed  and  descril)ed  by 
Plater,  about  tiie  middle  of  the  17tli  centu- 
ry, ns  occurring  among  tlie  fieasaiits  in  Ca- 
nntliia  and  the  Valais.  It  was  aih:rwards 
found,  in  a  still  severer  degree,  in  other 
valleys  of  Switzerland,  and  the  Al|)s  gen- 
erally. It  has  since  lieen  detected  in  vari- 
ous other  regions,  where  the  country  ex- 
hibits similar  features,  as  among  a  miser- 
able race  called  CagotSy  inhabiting  the  hol- 
lows of  the  Pyrenees,  whose  district  and 
history  have  been  dcscrilied  by  Mr.  Ray- 
mond ;  and  in  Chinese  Tartary,  where  it 
Is  re))resejited  as  exisdng  by  sir  Geoi^e 
Staimtoii.  On  the  first  discovery  of  cre- 
tinism, it  was  ascribed  by  some  to  the  use 
of  snow-water,  and  by  otliers  to  tlie  use 
of  water  impregnated  with  calcareous 
earth,  both  which  opinions  are  without 
foundation.  The  first  is  sufficiently  dis- 
proved by  the  fact  diat  persons  bom  in 
places  contiguous  to  the  glaciers,  and  who 
drink  no  otlier  water  tlian  what  flows 
from  the  melting  of  ice  and  snow,  are 
not  subject  to  this  disorder ;  and,  on  the 
contrary,  that  the  disorder  is  olmeiTcd  hi 
places  where  snow  is  unknown.  The 
second  is  contradicted  by  the  fact,  that  the 
common  water  of  Switzerland,  instead 
of  being    impregnated    with  calcareous 


matter,  excels  that  of  most  other  conn- 
tries  in  £uro{ie  in  purity  and  flavor.    The 
water  usualW  drank   at    La  Batia   and 
Martigny  is  from  the  river  Dranse,  which 
flows  from  the  glacier  of  St  Bcnianl,and 
falls  into  die  Rhone.    It  is  remarkably 
free  from  earthy  matter,  and  well  tasted. 
At  Berne,  the  water  is  extremely  pure-, 
yet,  as  Haller  remarks,  swellings  of  the 
throat  are  not  uncommon  in  both  sexes, 
though  cretinism  is  rare.    As  comfortable 
am]  congenial  warmth  forms  one  of  the 
hesx  auxiliaries  in  attempting  the  cure  of 
both  cretinism  and  rickets,  there  c^in  be 
no  doubt  Uiat  .the  chill  of  snow-water 
must  consfderal)]y  add  to  the  general  de- 
bility of  the  system  when  laboring  under 
either  of  these    diseases,    though    there 
seems  no  reason  for  suppoang  that    it 
would  ^ve  rise  to  either.    It  is  not  diffi- 
cult to  explain  why  water  impregnated 
with  calcareous  earth  should  have  been 
regarded  as  the  cause ;  for  in  cretinism,  as 
in  rickets,  the  calcareous  earth,  designed 
by  nature  for  the  formation  of  the  bones,  is 
oflcn  separated,  and  floats  loose  in  various 
fluids  of  the  body,  for  want  of  a  sufficien- 
cy of  phosphoric  acid  to  convert  it  into  a 
phosphate  of  lime,  and  give  it  solidity. 
And  as  it  is,  in  consequence,  pretty  freely 
dischar^l  in  the  urine,  this  seems  to  have 
given  nse  to  the  o])inion  tliat  such  calca- 
reous earth  was  introduced  into  the  s>'s- 
teni  with  tlie  common  water  of  the  lakes 
or  rivers,  and  thus  produced  the  moihid 
symptoms.    M.  de  Saussure  has  assigned 
the  real  cause  of  the  disease.    The  val- 
leys of  the  Al|w,  he  tells  us,  are  surround- 
ed  by  very  high    mountains,  slieltered 
from  currents  of  fresh  air,  and  exposed 
to  the  direct,  and,  what  is  worse,  the  re- 
flected rays  of  die  sun.  They  are  marshy, 
and  hence  the  atmosphere  is  humid,  close 
and  opprpR^ive ;  and  when  to  these  causes 
we  add  the  meager,  iimutritious  food  of 
the  poor  of  these  districts,  their  indolence 
and  uncleunliness,  witli  a  pre(Iis])osition 
to  the  disease,  from  a  hereditary  taint  of 
many  generations,  we  can  sufficiently  ac- 
count for  the  prevalence  of  cretinism  in 
such  places,  and  for  the  humiliating  char- 
acter which  it   assumes.     Tlie  general 
8Ym]>toms  of  cretinism  are  the  same  as 
those  of  rickets ;  but  the  disease  shoe's 
itself  earlier,  oflen  at  birth,  and  not  uufre- 
quently  liefore  this  jieriod,  apparendy  com- 
mencing widi  the  procreation  ofdiefcBtus, 
and  aflonting  the  most  evident  proofs  of 
ancestral  contamination.    The  child,  if  not 
defonned  and  diseased  at  birtli,  soon  be- 
comes so ;  the  liody  is  stinted  in  Its  growth, 
and  the  organs  in  their  developement. 


Digitized  by  LjOOQ IC 


CREUSA— CREUZER. 


17 


Creusa  ;  the  name  of  several  celebrat- 
ed females  of  antiquity.  1.  Daughter  of 
Erectheua,  wlio,  before  she  was  married 
to  Xutliiis,  gave  birth  to  Ion,  the  fruit  of 
an  amour  with  A|)oIla  To  her  second 
husiiand  she  bore  Achseus.  2.  The  daugh- 
ter of  Priam  and  Heculia,  wife  to  i£ue- 
as,  and  mother  of  Ascaiiius.  In  the  tu- 
mult of  the  conflagration  of  Troy,  when 
^neas  fled  with  the  images  of  his  gods, 
with  his  &ther  and  son,  he  lost  her,  aud, 
after  he  had  sought  her  a  long  time  ui  vain, 
her  spirit  appeared  to  him,  saying  that  tlie 
mother  of  the  gods  had  taken  her  to  her- 
self, because  she  was  not  willing  diat  she 
sliould  leave  Phrygia. 

Creittz,  Gustavus  Philip,  count  of;  a 
Swedish  poet  and  statesman,  was  bom 
in  Finland  in  1726.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  learned  and  elegant  circle,  which 
surrounded  the  queen  of  Sweden,  Louisa 
Uhrica,  sister  of  Frederic  the  Great ;  and 
his  JtU  og  CamiUOf  an  erotic  poem  in 
i^ve  cantos, published  at  Stockholm  (1761), 
grew  out  or  the  meetings  of  tliis  society. 
This  poem  and  his  Letter  to  Daphne  are 
considered  as  masterpieces  in  Swedish 
poetry.  He  was  aiipoiuted  minister  to 
Madrid,  and,  at  a  taler  period,  to  Paris, 
where  he  remained  twenty  yeani,  and  be- 
came perticularlv  acquainted  with  Mar- 
montel  and  Gnfetry.  April  3,  1783,  he 
signed,  with  doctor  Franklin,  a  treaty  of 
amity  between  the  United  States  and 
Sweden.  He  was  afterwards  placed  at 
the  head  of  the  department  of  foreign  af- 
&ira  in  Stockholm,  but  he  could  not  en- 
dure the  climate  of  his  country,  and  died  in 

1785.  His  works  and  those  of  his  friend 
Gyllenboiv  are  published  together,  under 
the  title  FUUrhks  ArhtUn  of  Crtutz  og 
Giftenbcrgy  Stockholm,  1795.  At  a  chap- 
ter of  the    Seraphim    order,    April  28, 

1786,  king  Gustavus  himself  read  the 
eubgy  of  Creutz. 

Creuzer,  Georee  Frederic  (in  his  late 
publications  called  simply  Frederic),  pro- 
fessor at  the  universirir  of  Heidelbei^, 
a  philologist  and  aiitiouariau,  bora  at 
Marburg,  m  Hesse,  March  10,  1771,  was 
devoted,  fit>m  his  eariiest  youth,  to  the  an- 
cient classics.  He  studied  at  the  univer- 
sities of  Marburg  and  Jena,  and  after- 
wards lived  in  and  near  Giessen,  occupied 
with  the  study  of  the  Greek  historians,  and 
at  the  same  time  with  teaching.  About 
this  time,  be  published  his  first  literary 
producdon,  Herodotus  vni  Thucydides ; 
Venuck  einer  naherm  WurcHgung  Virer 
Hisiorischen  Chrundsatze  (Essay  toward 
determining  the  Historical  Principles  of 
Herodotus  and  Thucvdides),  Leipsic,  1796 


and  1803,  which  was  received  with  ap- 
probation, as  W{is  also  his  siibeecfuent  pub- 
lication, De  XenopkonU  Histonco  (1799). 
In  1802,  he  was  made  professor  of  elo- 
quence in  the  university  at  Marburg,  and, 
in  1804,  professor  of  philology  and  an- 
cient history,  at  Heidelbei^.  His  Diomf^ 
sus  sive  CommenUUiorus  Acadtmic4t  de 
Rtrum  Bacchicarwn  Origmibus  (Heidel- 
berg, 1808)  may  be  considered  as  tlie  ftrat 
specimen  of  his  views  on  the  connexion 
of  tlie  nivthological  trHdidons  of  tlie  an- 
cient world.  According  to  Creuzer,  there 
existed,  in  tlie  most  ancieni  'imes  of 
Greece,  a  body  of  Grecian  poetry  bcTt)w- 
ed  from  the  East  Homer,  and  mors 
pardcularly  Hesiod,  instead  of  beinc  the 
authors  of  the  religion,  or  even  of  the 
mythology,  of  their  country,  merely  intro- 
duce us  to  a  previously  existing  worid  of 
poetry,  philosophy  and  theology.  The 
most  ancient  Greek  poetry  contained 
the  symbolical  and  even  the  Magian  and 
allegorical  ideas ;  and  tiiough  this  {loetry, 
which  was  introduced  from  the  East, 
changed  its  forms  at  different  times,  it 
was  never  substantially  lost  amon^  the 
Greeks.  It  was  preserved  in  tlie  hierar- 
chical institutions  and  mysteries,  and  waa 
in  later  times  an  object  for  the  investiga- 
tion of  historians  and  philosophei-s ;  but 
the  traces  which  reinaui  are  only  suffi- 
cient to  enable  us  to  determine  and  de- 
scribe its  most  essential  features.  Accord- 
ing to  Creuzer,  diis  ancient  wisdom  was 
received  first  from  the  Pelasp,  who  were, 
if  not  altogether  a  ruling  tnbe  of  priests, 
yet  a  tribe  with'  ruling  priests.  But  ex- 
clusive hierarchical  institutions  could  not 
Prosper  upon  the  soil  of  Greece.  The 
*elasgi  were  expelled  by  the  Hellenes. 
Afler  the  ancient  races  had  become  ex- 
tinct, the  Hellenic  spirit  departed  more 
and  more  from  the  spuit  of  the  East. 
Families  of  priests  had  united  into  castes, 
and  what  remained  of  the  old  and  relig- 
ious poetry  was  confined  to  die  mysteries. 
In  Homer  and  Hesiod  tliere  are  evident 
traces  of  a  misunderstanding  of  the  elder 
notions  and  traditions ;  yet  there  are  also 
evidences  that  they  were  not  ignorant  of 
the  ancient  theology.  The  first  germ  of 
the  more  profound  tbeok>gical  doctrines 
can  therefore  be  found  only  in  a  revela- 
tion from  above,  to  which  we  must  refer 
the  religious  belief  of  different  nations^ 
and  we  must  conclude  that  similar  sym- 
bols and  allegories  are  founded  upon  sim- 
ilar primitive  views.  Creuzer  developed 
these  principles  in  his  SymboUk  uni  Ah- 
thologie  der  dUm  Vdlherj  besonders  Jir 
Griecken  (Leipsic  and  Darmstadt,  181d— 


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CREUZER-^RICHTON. 


1821,  5  volumes,  with  an  atlos).  Ho  has 
met  with  much  opposition.  G.  Hermann, 
bi  his  Briefe  Uber  Homer  uni  Hesiod,  vor- 
ziiglick  uber  dU  TheogonU  (Heideltjerg, 
lbi8j,  ami  in  a  letter  midressed  to  Creu- 
zer,  Uber  das  Wtsen  und  dU  Bthandiung 
dtr  Mi/tkologie  (Lei|)sic,  1819),  op|K>8ed 
him  with  much  iierspicuilr  and  force  of 
argument  1.  H.  Voss  declared  open  war 
against  Creuzer,  in  the  ' Litteraturzeilung 
of  Jena,  and  nublislied  his  Ardisymbclik 
(Stuttgait,  1824),  wliich  was  followed  by 
replies  from  Wolfg.  Menzel  and  others. 
The  study  of  the  tlieories  of  Creuzer, 
which  are  elaborated  in  his  S^mJMik  with 
the  most  extensive  learning,  has  been 
facilitated  by  u  uerspicuous  al^tract,  t^us- 
zug  dtr  Symbolxk  und  M\fihdogit  nLei|)sic 
and  Donnstadt,  1822, 1  volume).  In  1809, 
Creuzer  accepted  the  professorship  of 
philology  in  li;yden ;  but,  before  entering 
on  the  office,  he  felt  the  injurious  influence 
of  the  Dutch  climate  upon  his  health, 
and  returned  in  October  of  the  same  year 
to  Heidelberg.  He  lias  since  published 
an  edition  of  PloHnus  de  Ptdchritudine^ 
acced.  Procli  Disp.  de  PtdchritudiM  et  Urn- 
iaiey  JSTicephxni  JVcdhanadis  Jhdiihdicus 
(Heidelberg,  1814).  Guigniaut  has  iNutly 
translated,  partly  recomposed,  Creuzer^) 
l^mbolik  in  his  work  Rdigiana  de  tAn- 
hquiU  considiries  princtpalemtnt  dans  Uur 
Ihrmcs  Si/mholiques  et  Mjthologiqiies  (Pa- 
ris, 1624).  The  academy  of  iiiHcripdons, 
at  Paris,  chose  Creuzer  a  foreign  member 
in  1825. 

Crevenna,  Pietro  Antonio  (commonly 
called  Bclongaro  Crevenna,\  a  bibliogra- 
pher, bom  in  die  middle  of  the  18tli  century, 
at  Milan,  received  from  his  father-in-law 
Bolongoro  (whose  name  he  took)  a  large 
fortune,  and  lived  mostly  m  Holland. 
liOve  for  the  sciences,  in  particular  for 
literary  history,  induced  him  to  devote  his 
hours  of  leisure,  from  an  extensive  com- 
mercial businesE^  to  literary  pursuits,  and 
to  collect  a  choice  library.  The  learned 
catalogues  of  his  lK)oks,  prepared  by  him- 
self and  others,  have  given  to  the  works 
which  belonged  to  him  great  value  in 
the  eyes  of  amateurs,  and  tlie  catalogues 
themselves  have  bibliographical  authority. 
His  Catalogtie  RaisowU  de  la  CoUectian 
des  Livrea  de  M.  CrSvetma  (Amsterdam, 
177G,  6  vols.,  4to.)  conbiins  an  exact  de- 
scription of  tlie  hicunainda,  with  colki- 
tions  of  rare  books,  and  letters  of  many 
learned  men  of  the  17th  and  18th  centu- 
ries, printed  there  for  the  first  time.  To 
understand  tlie  importance  of  tlie  Creven- 
nian  library,  it  is  necessary  to  compare 
with  tliis  catak)gue  another,  the  Catalogue 


dea  lAvres  de  la  BUd,  de  M,  Crevenna 
(Amsterdam,  1789,  6  vols.).  In  1790,  he 
sold  the  greatest  part  of  his  library  by 
public  auction.  What  he  retained  may  be 
known  by  tlie  Catalogue  de  la  Bibl.  defeu 
M.  Crhetma  (Amsterdam,  1793).  Towwtis 
the  end  of  !iis  life,  he  left  Holland,  and 
died  in  Rome,  Oct.  8, 1792. 

Cribbaoe;  a  game  at  cards,  wlierein 
no  cards  are  to  be  thrown  out,  and  the  set 
to  make  61 ;  and,  as  it  is  an  advantage  to 
deal,  by  reason  of  the  crib,  it  is  proper  to 
Hit  for  it,  and  he  that  has  the  least  caird 
deals. 

Crichton,  James,  was  bom  in  Scot- 
land, in  1551,  or,  according  to  some  ac- 
counts, in  1560,  of  a  noble  family.  On 
account  of  his  remarkable  endowments, 
both  of  body  and  mind,  he  obtained  the 
surname  of  the  Admirable,  He  was  edu- 
cated at  tlie  university  of  St,  Andrew, 
and,  before  his  20th  year,  had  run  throuffh 
the  whole  circle  of  tlie  sciences,  could 
B{)eak  and  write  to  i)erfection  10  different 
languages,  and  was  equally  distinguished 
for  his  skill  in  riding,  dancing,  singing, 
and  playuig  upon  all  sorts  of  instruments. 
Thus  accomplished,  he  set  out  on  his 
travels,  and  is  said  to  have  gone  to  Paris, 
where  he  offered  to  dispute  in  any  art  or 
science,  and  to  answer  whatever  should 
be  pro|jo8ed  to  him  in  any  of  these  12  lan- 
guages—Hebrew,  Syriac,  Arabic,  Greek, 
Latin,  Spanish,  French,  Italian,  English, 
Dutch,  Flemish  and  Sclavonic ;  and  this 
either  in  prose  or  verse,  at  the  option  of 
his  antagonist  On  the  day  fixed,  he  is 
said  to  have  maintahied  the  contest  fit>m 
nine  o'clock  in  the  morning  until  six  at 
night,  to  the  great  admiration  of  the  spec- 
tatoi's,  who  saluted  him  ss  the  **  admirable 
Crichton.**  Before  and  after  the  dispute, 
he  was  engaged  m  tilting,  vaulting,  &c^ 
or  ill  balls,  concerts,  and  otlier  similar 
amusements.  This  account  is  probably  de- 
rived from  the  following  letter,  which  has 
generally  been  applied  to  Crichton.  •*  There 
came  to  tlie  college  of  Navarre  a  young 
man  of  20  years  of  age,  who  was  perfectly 
well  skilled  in  all  the  sciences,  as  the 
most  learned  masters  of  the  university 
acknowledged.  In  vocal  and  instrumental 
music,  none  could  excel  him.  In  paint- 
hig  and  drawing  in  colors,  none  could 
equal  him.  In  all  military  feats,  he  was 
most  expert,  and  could  play  with  the 
sword  so  dexterously,  with  hoth  his  hands, 
that  no  man  could  fight  him.  When  be 
saw  his  enemy,  he  would  throw  himself 
upon  him  at  one  jump  of  20  or  24  feet 
distance.  He  was  a  master  of  arts,  and 
disputed  wiili  us,  ui  the  schools  of  the 


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CRICHTON-X:nWCKET. 


19 


college,  in  medicine,  the  civil  and  canon 
law,  and  theology  ;  and,  although  we 
were  above  50  in  number,  besides  above 
3000  that  were  present,  bo  pointedly  and 
learnedly  he  answered  to  all  the  questions 
inoposed,  that  none  but  eye-witnesses  can 
believe.  He  spake  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew, 
and  other  languages^  most  politely.  He 
was  a  most  excellent  horseman ;  and,  tru- 
ly, if  a  man  should  live  a  hundred  years , 
without  eating,  drinking  or  sleeping,  he 
could  not  attain  to  this  man^  knowledse, 
which  struck  us  with  a  panic  ;  for  he 
knew  more  than  human  nature  can  well 
bear.  He  overcame  four  of  the  doctore 
of  the  church,  for,  in  learning,  none  could 
contest  with  him,  and  he  was  thought  to 
be  AntichrisL*'  Whoever  this  astonisliing 
youdi  may  have  been,  it  could  not,  says 
doctor  Kippis,  have  been  Crichton;  for 
Pasquier,  from  whose  Bedurchu  de  la 
France  this  letter  is  taken,  says,  expressly, 
that  this  young  man  made  his  appearance 
in  1445,  about  a  century  before  Crichton's 
birth.  After  similar  exhibitions  at  Rome 
and  Venice,  we  find  him,  in  1581,  at  Pa- 
dua, exposing  the  errors  of  Aristotle,  as- 
tonishing his  hearers  with  his  ingenuity 
and  ele^mce  in  an  extempcHe  oration  In 
Piaise  of  Ignorance ;  and,  finally,  to  con- 
found bis  enemies,  ofiering  to  prove  the 
fallacies  of  Aristotle,  and  the  ignorance  of 
his  cofflmentatorB,  to  dispute  in  all  the 
sciences,  to  answer  aH  that  should  be  pro- 
posed or  objected,  in  the  common  logical 
way,  or  by  numbers  and  mathematical 
figures,  or  in  a  hundred  sorts  of  verses, 
and,  during  three  days,  sustaining  this 
contest  with  a  spirit  and  enei^,  with 
such  kaming  and  skill,  as  to  obtain  the 
praises  and  admiration  of  all  men.  His 
next  exploit  was  at  Mantua.  There  was 
in  that  city  a  famous  gladiator,  who  had 
fi>iied  the  most  skilful  fencers  in  Europe, 
and  had  lately  killed  three  persons,  who 
had  entered  the  lists  with  him.  Crichton 
ofiered  to  fight  him  for  1500  pistoles,  and, 
having  slain  him  in  the  cont^  he  distrib- 
uted his  prize  among  the  widows  of  the 
three  persons  above-mentioned*  The  duke 
of  Mantua,  in  consequence  of  his  wonder- 
ful performances,  chose  him  preceptor  to 
fajs  son — a  youth  of  a  dissolute  life  and 
riotous  temper.  To  amuse  his  patron, 
Crichton  composed  a  comedy,  ridiculmg 
the  weokneases  of  men  in  all  employ- 
ments, and  sustained  15  characten  in  his 
own  play,  *<  setting  before  the  eyes  of  the 
spectators  the  overweening  monarch,  the 
peevish  swain,  the  superficial  courfier,  the 
proud  warrior,  the  dissembled  churcliman, 
the  cozening  lavvyer,  the  lying  traveller, 


the  covetous  merchant,  the  rude  seaman, 
the  ]jedantic  scholar,  and  tlie  tricksy  ser- 
vant," &c.  During  tiie  carnival  (1583), 
while  amusing  himself  with  his  guitar,  he 
was  attacked  by  half  a  dozen  persons  in 
masks.  He  defended  himself,  and,  dis- 
arming tlieir  leader,  found  him  to  lie  his 
own  pupil.  Crichton  fell  on  his  knees, 
and  presented  his  own  swonl  to  tlie  prince, 
who  immediately  stablied  him  to  the  hc^rt. 
The  motives  which  impelled  his  pupil  to 
the  commission  of  so  savfige  a  deed  are 
unknown.  It  is  difiicuh  to  decide  wiJi 
certainty  on  tlie  merits  of  Criditoii.  The 
works  which  he  has  left  us,  consisting  of 
a  few  Latin  odes,  and  some  sketches  of 
scliolasiic  reasoning,  do  not  give  us  a  very 
elevated  idea  of  his  talents ;  and  the  origi- 
nal sources,  fix>m  which  our  information 
is  derived,  are  not  of  tlie  most  indubitable 
character.  It  apfiears,  from  the  usual 
account,  that,  at  20  years  of  age,  he  was 
acquainted  with  all  sciences,  and  was 
master  of  12  languages.  His  death  tork 
place  13  years  after,  during  which  (icriod 
we  do  not  find  that  he  ])erformed  any 
thing  worthy  of  his  early  fame.  The  liest 
account  of  him  is  contained  in  the  Bio- 
graphia  £rtfaimtca,and  the  folk>wing  sen- 
tence is  passed  upon  him  there : — **•  What, 
then,  is  the  opinion  which  we  are  to  form 
of  the  admunble  Crichton  ?  It  is  evident 
that  he  was  a  youth  of  such  parts  as  ex- 
cited a4iniratiQn  of  his  present  attainments, 
and  great  expectations  of  liis  future  per- 
formances. He  appears  to  have  haid  a 
fine  person,  to  have  been  adroit  in  his 
bodily  exercises,  to  have  possessed  a 
peculiar  faculty  in  learning  languages,  to 
have  enjoyed  a  remarkably  quick  and  re- 
tentive memory,  and  to  have  excelled  in 
power  of  declamation,  fluency  of  sfieech, 
and  readiness  of  reply.  His  knowkdge, 
likewise,  was>  prolmbly  very  uncommon 
for  his  years;  and  this,  in  coniunction  with 
his  other  qualities,  enabled  him  to  shine 
in  public  disputation.  But  whetlier  his 
knowledge  and  learning  were  accurate  or 
profound,  mav  justly  lie  questioned ;  and 
It  may  equally  be  doubted,  whetlier  he 
could  have  risen  to  any  great  eminence  in 
the  literary  world." 

Cricket  (gryllus,  Lin. ;  achdtOj  Fab.) ;  a 
^enus  of  orthopterous  or  straight-winded 
insects,  belon^ng  to  the  gryUoid  family, 
which  comprises  the  giassnoppers,  mole- 
crickets,  cnckets  proper.  This  family, 
like  all  other  orthoptera,  do  not  undergo 
a  complete  transformation.  They  are 
hatched  fiom  eg^  symmetrically  stuck 
together  by  a  viscous  material,  either 
upon  vegetables,  or  placed  under  ground ; 


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CRICKET. 


and,  from  the  moment  of  escaping  from 
^c  egg?  the  young  are  sufficiently  vi^rous 
to  seek  their  own  food,  which  consists  of 
organized  substances.  While  yet  v»-iy 
soil,  tliey  are  perfectly  fbrme^,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  rudiments  of  the  eltftra  and 
wings.  These,  in  some  species,  are  never 
developed.  As  the  insect  grows,  the  skin 
becomes  too  small,  and  requires  to  be 
changed  as  often  as  seven  or  ei|^ht  times, 
before  the  insect  attains  its  full  size.  The 
crickets  are  distinguished  from  the  other 
members  of  this  family  by  their  long, 
silken  amiemut^  by  having  but  three  joints 
to  their  iarsiy  and  by  the  comparative 
sniallness  of  their  tiiighs.  Their  bodies 
are  short,  thick-set  and  soft,  with  the  head, 
corselet  and  alxlomen  immediately  applied, 
and  of  equal  length  and  breadth.  The 
head  is  thick,  rounded  above,  and  nearly 
vertical  Between  the  eyes,  which  are 
^  widely  separated  and  reticulated  on  the 
surface,  there  are  two  hnXXmii  sttmmaUu 
The  corselet  is  quadrangular,  somewhat 
larger  transversely,  and  rounded  at  the 
edges.  The  dytroj  which  do  not  com- 
pletely cover  the  belly,  are  curved  square- 
ly, and  are  not  roof-shaped,  as  in  the 
locust  and  grasshopper.  In  the  winged 
species,  the  wines  exceed  the  dytra^  and 
even  abdomen,  beyond  which  tney  pro- 
ject, in  the  form  of  a  sort  of  bifid  tail  In 
addition  to  the  lyro  flexible  abdominal 
appendages  common  to  both  sexes,  the 
females  have  a  long  borer  or  oviduct, 
which  is  a  stiff,  square  tube,  formed  of 
two  pieces,  separable,  and  five  at  the  point, 
sometimes  seeming  to  be  split,  and  termi- 
nating by  a  slight  enlargement — The 
noise,  for  which  ul  crickets  are  remarka- 
ble, and  usually  called  chirpings  is  pro- 
duced by  tlie  fnction  of  the  na^  of  their 
elytra,  or  wing-cases,  against  each  other, 
these  parts  being  curiously  adapted  to 
produce  tliis  sound.  Both  sexes  have  the 
diftra  longitudinal,  divided  into  two  por- 
tions, one  of  which  is  vertical  or  lateral^ 
covering  the  sides,  and  the  other  dorsal, 
covering  the  back.  These  portions,  in 
tlie  female,  have  their  nervures  alike,  run- 
ning obliquely  in  two  directions,  forming, 
by  their  intersection,  numerous  smaU 
meshes,  which  are  of  a  rhomboidal  or 
lozenge  shape.  The  diftra  of  the  females 
have  an  elevation  at  the  base.  The  ver- 
tical portion  in  the  males  does  not  materi- 
ally differ  from  that  of  the  females,  but,  in 
the  horizontal  part,  the  base  of  each  dy- 
trum  is  so  elevated  as  to  form  a  cavity 
beneath.  The  nervures  are  stronger,  and 
very  irregular  in  their  course,  with  various 
inflexions,  curved,  spiral,  Sui^  producing  a 


variety    of  diflerent   sized   and    sliaped 
meshes,  generally  larger  than  in  tlie  fe- 
male: towards  the  extremity  of  the  wing, 
particularly,  there  is   a    nearly   circular 
space,  surrounded  bv  one  nervure,  and 
divided  into  two  meshes  by  another.  I'he 
friction  of  tiie  nervures  of  the  convex 
surface  of  the  base  of  the  left  or  under- 
most dytrum  against  those  of  the  concave 
surface  of  the  base  of  the   right  one.f 
causes   vibrations   of   the   membranous 
areas  of  an  intensity  propoitioned  to  the 
rapidity  of  the  friction.    In  fact,  the  insect 
may  be  regarded  as  perfonning  on  a  sort 
of  violin,  the  base  of  one  djftrum  serving 
for  a  liow,  and  tiie  cords  of  the  other  as 
the  strings  of  the  instrument.    The  reader, 
who  may  wish  to  enter  upon  a  veiy  mi- 
nute study  of  this  and  similar  insects' con- 
trivances for  producingsounds, may  ad van- 
tageouslv  consult  De  Geer  (vol.  iii,  p.  5121 
and  Kirby  and  Spence  (24th  letter,  vol.  2, 
p.  375  et  seq.)    The  chirping  of  the  do- 
mestic cricket    [acheta  dtmestica)   is  by 
many  regarded  as  pleasant  or  musical, 
and  their  presence  in  holes  is  regarded  as 
a  good  omen  by  some  people.    Where 
they  are  numerous,  certainly,  to  our  earn, 
then*  noise  is  any  thing  but  agreeable ;  and 
it  requires  considerable  habituation  to  it  to 
be  able  to  sleep  undisturbed  by  it    They 
are  very  harmless,  taking  up  their  abode 
near  chimneys,  fire-places,  and  other  warm 
simations,  whence  they  come  out,  when 
the  inmates  of  the  house  have  retired  to 
■rest,  and  commence   their   monotonous 
song.    If  a  light  be  brought,  they  speedily 
rttreat,  leaping  lightiy  to  their  holes,  the 
length  and  peculiar  structure  of  their  long 
thighs    especially  fitting  them    for   this 
mode  of  progression.    One  action  which 
we  have  observed  them  perform  with  the 
atitemuB  shows  the  delicacy  and  perfec- 
tion of  the  muscles.    They  move  the  long 
silken  appendages,  as  if  cleaning  or  polish- 
ing them,  somewhat  as  we  see  birds  do 
with  their  feathera    The  field  crickets 
(^.  campestri$\  are  as  loud  And  noisy  in  the 
day  as  tnose  above-mentioned  are  at  night, 
and  largely  contribute  to  the  music  of  the 
fields,  so  delightful  to  the  ear  of  the  stu- 
dent of  nature.   Both  species  have  attract- 
ed the  attention  of  poets,  who  have  cele* 
brated  their  simple  but  lively  notes  in 
verse  of  various  degrees  of  excellence. 
Both  species  are  equally  innoxious,  sub- 
sisting on  small  particles  of  otvanized 
matter,  which  might  otherwise  become 
troublesome  from  accumulation ;   while,  • 
from  their  numbers,  birds  and  other  ani- 
mals of  higher  rank  in  the  scale  of  being 
obtain  a  part  of  their  supply  of  food. 


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CRILLON— CRIME. 


31 


Crilloiv,  Louis  de  Balbe,  one  of  the 
greatest  warrioiB  of  the  16tb  century,  and 
the  friend  of  Henry  IV,  was  bom  in  1541, 
at  Mure,  ID  Provence,  of  a  re8|)ectable 
&]nily  of  Piedmont.  Being  a  younger 
son,  the  name  of  CnUon  was  given  liim 
from  an  estate  belonging  to  the  ftmtly — a 
name  which  be  so  ennobled  by  his  ex- 
ploits and  virtues,  that  the  heads  of  the 
nalbe  fiiiiiily  adopted  it  for  their  own. 
The  army  called  Crillon  the  ntan  mihoui 
fiar  (Cbomme.  sans  pew).  Charles  1 X,  He  n- 
ly  III  and  queen  Margaret  called  him  sim- 
I^y  U  brave ;  but  Henrv  IV  gave  him  the  sur- 
name of /e  6rave  </<»  Jrovetf.  His  indepen- 
dence and  nobipness  of  spirit  were  equal 
to  bis  bra  very,  and  his  humanity  and  vir- 
tue were  not  less  famous  than  bis  heroic 
achievements.  He  was  distiiiguisbed  in 
five  successive  reigns— those  of  Henry  II, 
Francis  II,  Charles  IX,  Henrv  III,  and, 
above  all,  in  that  of  Heniy  IV.  In  his 
first  cani|Miip]  ( 1557),  he  contributed  much 
to  the  sfieeay  conquest  of  Caliiis,  by  a  bokl 
deed  of  arms.  He  was  the  first  to  storm 
the  breach.  Here  lie  encountered  the 
commander  of  the  fort,  grappled  with  him, 
and  threw  bim  into  the  moat  The  Eng- 
lish had  employed  11  months  in  the  re- 
duction of  the  place.  The  French  retook 
it  in  8  davs.  Crillon  subsequently  distiu- 
euished  himself  in  the  Inttles  of  Dreux 
(15()1),  Jarnac  (1563),  and  Moncontour  (in 
156^),  against  the  Huguenots.  As  a  knight 
of  Malta,  the  youiig  hero  gained  renown 
in  tiie  crusades  against  the  Turks.  Selim 
II  had  taken  Cyprus  from  the  Venetians. 
The  terror  of  tlie  Moslem  arms  filled  all 
Europe ;  a  coalition  was  formed,  and  tJie 
famout»  naval  battle  of  Lepanto  fi>ught  in 
1571.  Crillon,  in  this  action,  dis|)laved 
prodigies  of  valor,  and,  though  won  tided, 
was  appointed  to  carry  the  tidings  of  the 
great  victory  to  the  pom  and  the  king  of 
France.  Pope  Pius  V  and  the  king  of 
France  (Charles  IX)  loaded  liim  with 
honors  and  fiivors.  The  massacre  of  St. 
Bartholomew  (1572),  the  pre|)arations  for 
which  bad  lieen  carefully  concealed  from 
Crillon,  was  loudly  reprol»ted  by  him. 
We  find  him,  the  tbllowiiig  year,  at  the 
celebrated  siege  of  Rochelle,  and,  subse- 
quently, in  various  military  operations, 
where  diere  was  need  of  courage  and  en- 
terprise. Henry  III  ventured  to  propose 
to  him  the  nmrder  of  the  duke  or  Guise, 
which  bad  been  resolved  upon  by  the 
estates  of  Bloia  **  I  cannot  stain  my  hon- 
or with  a  deed  of  shame**  was  his  answer. 
He  fought  heroically  for  Henry  IV  against 
the  leoff ue.  After  the  battle  of  Arqnes,  in 
Nofmandy,  Henry  wrote  to  hiin— **  Peiids- 


iot,  hravt  CnUan,  nous  avotis  amibaUu  a 
Ar<pu9  et  iu  rCy  ilais  pas,  JUitUf  brave 
CnUon,  Je  vous  ainus  a  tort  el  a  trovers.^ 
He  succeeded  in  tlirowing  himself  into 
Quillebeeuf)  which  was  definded  bv  a 
small  force  against  marshal  Villars.  Vil- 
lars  summoned  tJie  city  to  siimndcr,  rep- 
resenting to  Crillon  that  it  was  impossible 
for  him,  in  an  almost  open  place,  with  a 
comfiaratively  feeble  garrison,  to  hold  out 
against  his  army:  Crillon's  answer  was, 
"  Crilion  est  dedans^  et  ViUars  est  dehors.'^ 
Villars  onlered  an  assault,  hut  wns  reptds- 
e<l,  and  the  siege  was  raised.  The  young 
duke  of  Guise,  who  wits  with  Crillon  at 
Marseilles,  when  a  S|>anish  fleet  was 
cmising  liefore  the  place,  indulged  in  a 
frolic,  which  afforded  new  pruof  of  the 
heroism  of  Crillon.  Guise  rusbecl,  wiih 
some  of  his  young  friends,  aliout  midnight, 
into  tlie  warrior's  sleeping  a|Nirtnieiit, 
They  hastily  awaked  him,  and  exclaimed 
that  all  was  lost ;  diat  die  Spanianis  had 
made  themselves  masters  of  the  hari'or, 
and  of  all  tlie  ini|)ortant  points  in  the  citv : 
rescue  was  impoiwible.  The  yonng  duke 
BOW  proposes  to  Crillon  to  make  their 
e8cai)e  togetlier.  Crillon  rejects  the  pro- 
posal with  indignation.  *^  It  is  liettf  r,**  lie 
cries,  *^  to  die  with  arms  in  our  hands  than 
to  survive  the  loss  of  tins  place."  He  anus 
himself,  and  ruslies  down  stairs,  when  the 
laugh  of  the  young  duke  discovers  the 
iest  that  had  tieen  played  upon  hiiri.  Cril- 
lon turned  with  a  serious  air,  seized  the 
duke  by  the  arm,  and  said,  **  Young  man, 
never  ajniise  yourself  with  trying  the  cour- 
age of  a  brave  man.  By  Heaven,  hud  you 
found  me  weak,  I  woitltl  have  pluiigt>d 
diis  dagger  into  your  breast!"  Finally, 
when  the  wars  which  had  shaken  Europe 
were  teniitnated  by  the  |)eace  with  Snvoy, 
Crillon  returned  to  Avignon,  where  hedie<l 
in  1616,  in  his  75th  year.  History  repre- 
sents this  hero  as  a  brilliant  warrior,  a  wise 
counsellor,  Urue  to  his  word,  and  faithful 
to  every  duty.  He  did  not  desert  Htiiry 
III  when  his  crown  seemed  to  Ihs  litst. 
He  was  faithful  to  Henry  IV  when  he  hud 
nothing  but  in  prosfiect.  Neverthelesw,  his 
iii(le|)endence  sometimes  became  rudeneKs. 
He  was  excee<iingly  sensitive  on  die  point 
of  honor,  and  any  phrase  which  lookeil  Tike 
an  insult  would  make  him  draw  his  sword. 
He  was  remai>kable  for  his  profanity,  and, 
in  die  last  days  of  his  life,  swore  with  his 
favorite  oath  never  to  swear  again.  Next 
to  Bayard,  Crillon  is  die  greatest  character 
of  liis'^class,  to  lie  found  in  French  history. 
Crime.  [The  present  article  is  fi*oiii  the 
German,  and,  of  counse,  was  writun  by  a 
European  lawyer,  and  has  reference  to 


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22 


CRIME. 


the  jiirispnidence  of  the  European  conti- 
DeiiL]  Crime  is  generally  used  to  desig- 
nate an  act  of  guilt,  which  offends  the 
laws  both  of  God  and  man.  It  implies 
fi«edom  of  will,  and  a  power  of  dis- 
tinguishing between  right  and  .wron^. 
Hence  young  children,  madmen  and  idi- 
ots cannot  commit  crimes,  neither  can 
persons  in  a  state  of  great  intoxication.* 
But  tlie  circumstances  under  which  full  im- 
putability  or  responsibility  shall  commence 
cannot  be  decided  by  general  rules,  but 
each  case  must  be  jud^d  by  itself.  To 
constitute  a  crime,  there  must  be  an  inten- 
tion manifested  by  an  outward  act.  If 
the  intention  be  wanting,  the  act  is  merely 
accidental.  If  the  outward  act  is  want- 
ing, there  is  nothing  for  human  tribunals 
to  punish.  Merje  intention  does  not  come 
under  dieir  cognizance.  There  are,  more- 
over, many  acts  of  ^ilt  committed,  in  ev- 
ery community,  which  are  not  of  a  nature 
to  be  made  the  subject  of  legislation,  and 
cannot  be  brought  before  the  courts.  On 
the  other  hand,  there  are,  in  every  state, 
certain  actions,  ^i  themselves  naturally 
Indifferent,  but  which  are  forbidden  and 
piinished  as  injurious  to  the  community. 
These  form  the  greater  part  of  the  class 
of  mere  offences  against  the  police  regula- 
tions. .  Many  actions,  in  themselves  indif- 
ferent, may,  however,  by  reason  of  the 
heavy  penalties  attached  to  them,  be  class- 
ed among  crimes  in  the  technical  and 
juridical  sense.  The  degree  of  punish- 
ment imposed  on  any  crime  should  be 
proportioned  to  the  degree  of  injury  vol- 
untarily inflicted.  It  is  a  matter  of  impor- 
tance to  decide  whether  an,  uninterrupted 
series  of  illicit  acts  is  to  be  considered  as 
the  continuation  of  a  single  crime  (delictum 
conHnuatum),  or  as  several  crimes  of  the 
same  kind  {deiictum  reHeratum).  In  the 
former  case,  there  would  be  only  one 
punishment;  in  the  latter,  several.  But 
the  award  of  several  punishments,  if  capi- 
tal, cannot  be  executed  by  more  ihan  one 
punishment  of  death ;  and,  if  the  punish- 
ment consist  in  a  deprivation  of  freedom, 
the  confinement  can  only  be  prolonged. 
According  to  the  scientinc  principles  of 
law,  it  would  be„  perhafis,  most  correct  to 
consider  tlie  several  crimes  as  constituting 
a  whole,  deserving  only  one  punishment,  to 
be  pro{)ortioned  to  tlie  amount  of  guilt  (j90s- 
na  nie^or  ahsorbel  mtnorem),  altliough  the 
majonty  of  learned  jurists  is,  at  present,  of 
another  opinion. — Quasiddida  are  injuries 
which  must  be  re^iaired  by  tlieir  authors, 

*  Drunkenness  is  not  admiUed  as  a  ground  of 
icquiital,  or  even  of  mitigaliou  of  punishment, 
either  iii  England  or  the  U.  Stales. 


though  the  intention  to  perpetrate  an  illicit 
act  need  not  be  evident  The  Roman  law 
has  made  such  provisions  in  various  cases. 
(See  CrittUnal  Lmo,)  Punishments  them- 
selves may  be  divided  into  criminal  or 
civil,  or  police  punishments.  The  crimi- 
nal or  severe  punisliments  nre  such  as 
have  ffreat  crimes  for  their  object  They 
may  be  divided  into,  1.  capital  punish- 
ments (see  Deathy  PurUshmeni  of):  2.  de- 
privation of  libeity  simply  ^as  m  the  case 
of  imprisonment,  and  exile  from  the  coun- 
try), or  accompanied  with  hard  labor  (for 
instance,  labor  in  a  work -house,  a  tread- 
mill, &C.),  or  sharpened  by  the  infliction 
of  pain  (for  instance,  the  punishment  of 
laboring  in  the  work-house,  with  stripes  at 
the  entrance  and  exit,  or  hard  labor,  with 
an  iron  chain  round  the  neck):  3.  pun- 
ishments inflicting  mere  bodily  pains,  or 
corporeal  punishments,  such  as  mutila- 
tion (whicn,  however,  is  discarded  in 
well  ordered  states)  and  whipping  (the 
latter  is  frequently  applied  in  inferior 
crimes,  or  on  young  persons  not  yet  en- 
tirelv corrupted):  4.  punishments  anecting 
the  honor.  All  punishments  of  crime,  in- 
deed, have  this  character;  but,  in  some 
cases,  the  punishment  consists  mainly  in 
the  degradation.  Of  this  latter  sort  are, 
1.  such  punishments  as  have  for  their 
object  to  work  complete  degradation ;  for 
instance,  the  breaking  of  tlie  armorial 
bearings  of  a  noble  family  by  the  hang- 
man, branding,  and  the  public  flogging 
usually  connected  with  it,  deprivation  of 
decent  burial,  civil  death,  hanginff  in 
efiigy :  2.  such  as  are  intended  merely  to 
withdraw  some  particular  civil  honor ;  as 
loss  of  nobility,  exclusion  from  guilds  and 
corporations,  removal  from  office :  3.  such 
as  nave  for  their  object  merely  humilia- 
tion and  chastisement  The  latter  sort 
may,  according  to  the  rank  of  the  crimi- 
nal and  the  magnitude  of  the  crime,  be 
connected  with  corjioreal  punishiuent ; 
for  instance,  the  pillory,  &c.:  or  they  may 
be  of  a  different  Kind ;  as  susjiension  from 
office,  church  penances,  judicial  repri- 
mands, begginff  of  pardon,  recantation  of 
injuries,  &c.  This  latter  class  of  punish- 
ments is  intended  chiefly  for  tlie  rorrec- 
tion  of  the  jierson  chastised.  The  highest 
degree  of  degrading  punishments  is  always 
to  be  considered  as  equal  to  loss  of  life. 
4.  CSml  death  is  a  fiction  of  law  (^ficHo 
juns\  by  means  of  which  an  individual 
can  be  considered  as  really  dead,  with 
regard  to  all  or  some  of  the  common  legal 
privileges.  This  is  not  always  to  be  con 
sidered  as  a  degrading  punishment,  since 
any  one  can  give  occasion  to  a  sen{^uce 


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23 


of  civil  death  by  absence  or  neglect 
This,  however,  in  such  instances,  hc^  no 
effect  beyond  the  case  which  jjave  occa- 
SBon  to  the  sentence.  5.  Fines  m  money 
are  not  always  attended  with,  a  loss  or 
dimbiution  of  honor.  They  are  imposed 
nincipaHy  on  usurers,  counterfeiters,  libel- 
kra,  adultereiiB,  forestallers,  persons  guil^ 
of  finauds  against  tlie  revenue,  and  other 
finauds,  of  lululterating  wine,  of  canying 
on  trades  which  tiiey  are  not  entitled  to 
exercise,  and  on  many  offenders  against 
the  police  regulations  and  the  feudal  insti- 
tutions. Except  in  the  case  of  high  trea- 
son, fines  or  confiscations  do  not  usually 
embrace  the  whole  fortune  of  the  offender, 
and  are  mostly  limited  to  the  histruments 
with  which  the  crimes  were  perpetrated. 
A  colorable  transfer  of  property  wliich  has 
become  liable  to  confiscation  will  not  pro- 
tect It.  Civil  and  police  punishments  are 
such  as  are  inflicted  for  petty  ofiences,  and 
can  be  imposed  by  the  civil  judge.  They 
are  chiefly — 1.  fines ;  yet  a  corporeal  pun- 
ishment, when  changed  by  the  sovereign 
into  a  fine,  retains  tlie  character  of  a  crim- 
inal punishment,  without  being  generally 
connected  with  ignominy;  2.  imprison- 
ment ;  for  instance,  civil  confinement,  ar- 
rest, which  is  not  connected  with  criminal 
imprisonment;  3.  such  fines  as  are  nei- 
ther equivalent  to  a  corporeal  punicAiment, 
nor  can  be  chanced  mto  one  ;  4.  con- 
demnation to  mechanical  and  agricultural 
labors,  or  chastisement  with  stripes,-coh- 
finement  within  jail  limits^  or  confinement 
to  a  country,  city  or  district,  by  which  a 
pereon  is  laid  under  an  obligation  not  to 
pass  over  certain  limits ;  5.  removal  from 
ofiice  without  infamy ;  6.  temporaiy  sus- 
pension fix>m  ofiice ;  / .  reprimand  from  the 
court ;  S^  recantation  before  the  court,  or 
publicly ;  9.  apologies  ordered  by  the  court, 
runisbment  can  be  inflicted  only  upon  the 
perpetrator  of  a  crime,  and  his  accomplices. 
Fuies,  which  have  not  been  imposed  dur- 
ing the  life-time  of  the  criminal,  cannot  be 
exacted  after  his  death,  unless,  iu  order  to 
escape  punishment,  he  commits  suicide, 
or  endeavors  to  delay  the  judgment  in 
other  unlawful  ways;  If  the  laws  of  the 
place  where  the  crime  has  been  com- 
mitted, differ  from  those  where  the  crimi- 
nal is  tried,  the  milder  punishment  is 
usually  preferred  to  the  more  severe.  The 
severity  of  the  laws  of  a  country  ought  not 
to  add  to  the  severity  of  the  punishment 
of  a  crime  committed  abroad.  In  the 
case  of  crimes  of  a  very  deep  die,  the  pun- 
ishment is  determined  by  the  general  law. 
Punishments  are  also  divided  into  ordinary 
or  legiJ,  and  discretionoiy  punishmeatB. 


The  former  are  expressly  provided  by  the 
law  for  any  case  that  may  occur ;  the  lat- 
ter are  pronounced  by  the  judge,  in  cases 
in  which  the  legal  puniahnient  cannot  take 
efiect,  or  in  which  the  punishment  is  left 
to  his  discretion.  Alterations  in  the  legal 
punishments  take  place,  1.  when  the  ob- 
ject of  the  punishment  would  not  lie  ob- 
tained by  its  application;  2.  when  the  exe- 
cution is  impossible,  or,  at  least,  very  difli- 
cult ;  3.  when  the  execution  wouki  be 
injurious  not  so  much  to  the  criminal  as 
to  some  innocent  individual ;  4.  when  the 
rank  or  die  iiersonal  relations  of  the  crim- 
inal reqture  an  exception.  Before  making 
such  an  alteration,  however,  die  hiferior 
court  or  jud^  must  first  obtain  the  opin- 
ion of  the  higher  court  Punishments  do 
not  take  effect  in  case,  1.  of  unlimited  re- 
mission or  pardon ;  3.  of  a  mitigation  of 
the  sentence ;  3.  of  entire  al)olttion,or  tiie 
stopping  of  all  proceedings,  by  the  sove- 
reign power ;  4.  of  the  expiration  of  the 
period  witiiin  which  process  can  be  insti- 
tuted, which  is  generally  20  years ;  5.  of 
the  restoration  of  the  offender  to  his  for- 
mer rank ;  6.  where  die  party  is  provis- 
ionally discharged,  but  remains  liable  to 
bo.  put  again  on  trial,  if  new  evidence 
should  be  produced ;  7.  of  the  death  of 
the  criminal,  unless  he  was  convicted  of 
high  treason,  or  unless  the  case  was  one  in 
which  the  punishment  was  to  have  been 
executed  in  efligy ;  8.  in  the  case  of  small 
offences,  die  punishment  ma^  be  remitted 
upon  an  accommodation  takuig  place  be- 
tween the  parties,  or  upon  a  request  for 
rxlon  coming  from  the  offended  |Nuty ; 
corporeal  punishments  are  remitted,  in 
general,  when  the  criminal,  before  Uie  ex- 
ecution of  die  sentence,  liecomes  insane 
or  sick,  to  such  a  degree,  that  die  inflic- 
tion of  the  punishment  might  prove  fatal 
to  him.  In  such  a  case,  fines  are  usually 
substituted  for  cor|K>real  punishments. 
The  ol>ligation  to  re|)air  the  injury  done 
to  the  ofiended  partv,  does  not  liecome  ex- 
tinct with  the  punishment. — [The  forego- 
ipg  article  contains  a  summary  view  of 
the  tlieory  of  crimes,  and  of  the  princi- 
ples applicable  to  them,  derived  from  the 
civil  law,  or  the  jurisprudence  of  conti- 
nental Europe.  'I'he  admission  of  drunk- 
ards into  the  class  of  persons  not  res|ion- 
sible  for  die  acts  which  they  commit,  on 
the  ground  that  the  injuries  which  tliey 
commit  are  not  accomfianied  with  a  ra- 
tional intention,  is  liable  to  much  objection. 
The  common  law  has  decided  that,  as  it  is 
a  voluntary  madness,  residting  from  the 
vice  of  the  party,  he  sliall  not  excuse  one 
ofifence  by  setting  up  another.    But  a  dis- 


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CRIME. 


tincdon  is  taken  between  a  crime  com- 
mitted when  tlie  party  is  in  a  state  of 
actual  intoxication,  and  a  crime  com- 
mitted when  he  is  insane,  and  his  insanity 
is  remotely  caused  by  an  indulgence  in 
habits  of  di-uukenne8&  In  tlie  former 
case,  he  is  deemed  culpable,  in  tlie  latter, 
not.  The  principle  that  there  are  degrees 
in  crime,  is  not  always  sufficiently  attend- 
ed to,  and  codes  of  penal  law  often  assign 
very  disproportionate  punishments  to  of- 
fences. Tiie  criminal  code  of  England 
has  been  justly  stigmatized  as  sanguinaiy, 
as  it  punishes  capitally  crimes  of  very 
different  magnitudea  It  seems  to  have 
been  regulated,  in  a  great  measure,  by 
the  principle  of  ttrror,  and  not  of  reform. 
In  the  U.  States,  ptmishments  are  com- 
paradvely  mild.  There  are  very  few 
crimes  punished  with  death.  No  state 
punishes  capitally  more  than  10  or  12 
offences.  The  other  punishments  are 
^nerally  fine,  imprisonment,  confinement 
m  a  house  of  correction,  hard  labor,  &C., 
in  {>cnitentiaries  for  a  term  of  years  or 
for  life ;  and  the  punishments  are  pro|)or- 
tioned,  boUi  in  length  of  time  and  decree, 
to  the  ofience.  In  many  of  the  Amencau 
8tatc»,  the  punishment  by  the  pilloiy  is 
abolished ;  and  in  all,  the  tendency  is  to 
avoid  disgraceful  punishments  which  are 
cnieL  The  consdtution  of  the  U.  States 
has  expressly  declared,  that  excessive 
fines  shall  not  be  imposed,  n«>r  cijel  and 
unusual  punishments  inflicted.  The  com- 
mon law  provides  that  every  offence, 
which  is  not  punishable  by  law  in  any 
other  manner,  shall  be  punished  by  fine 
or  imprisonment,  or  both,  at  the  discretion 
of  the  court  before  which  the  conviction 
is  had,  according  to  the  aggravation  of  the 
ofTbnce.]  (For  more  information  on  this 
subje/'.t,  see  Cnnwnal  Law.) 

Crimtt  the  ^atisHcs  of.  This  forms  a 
veiy  interesting  subject,  which  has  not 
been  as  yet  sufficiently  investigated  to  en- 
a!)le  us  to  give  as  accurate  an  account  as 
we  cou\d  wish  of  the  comparative  amount 
of  crime  in  different  countries,  and  of  the 
numerical  proportion  of  the  different 
kinds  of  crime.  In  deducing  inferences 
from  such  views,  we  shomd  keep  in 
mind  the  general  condition  of  different 
countries,  and  not  argue,  for  instance, 
against  the  moral  9tate  of  a  rich  and 
pof)uIous  countiy,  liecatise  many  crimes 
against  pro})erty  are  committed  therein, 
nor  against  that  of  a  poor  and  thinly  |^eo- 
pled  region,  because  it  affiirds  compara- 
tively numerous^  iustanoes  of  personal 
violence.  For  the  study  of  the  statistics 
of  crime  in  France,  we  would  recommend 


the  CompU  ^hiiraU  de  PAdminislration  de 
la  Justice  cnmineUe  en  fVance^  which  had 
been  published  annuaHy,  since  1825,  by 
the  keeper  of  the  seals.  It  gives  an  ex- 
cellent viQW  of  all  the  criminal  processes 
in  France.  For  England,  we  have  the  re- 
turns to  parliament,  of  which  an  abstract 
has  appeared,  for  two  yeais  past,  in  tlie 
Companion  to  the  British  Almanac,  pub- 
lished under  the  direction  of  the  society 
for  the  diffiision  of  usefid  knowledge 
(London).  For  America,  we  do  not  know 
of  anv  more  complete  statement,  than 
that  given  in  the  Annual  Reports  of  the 
Prison  Discipline  Society  (Boston),  though 
it  has  not  yet  been  in  die  power  of  this 
praiseworthy  institution  to  give  a  com- 
plete view  of  tlie  nature  of  crimes  in 
all  the  states.  Respecting  Germany  and 
many  other  parts  of  the  European  conti- 
nent, much  mformation  is  to  he  found  in 
die  Jakrbucher  der  Straf-  und  Besaenmgs^ 
AnsUdien  (Annals  of  Establishments  for 
Punishment  and  Correction),  by  Nicholas 
Henry  Julius  (Berlin),  publisned  in  montii- 
ly  numbers— a  very  Excellent  work,  em- 
bracing a  wide  extent  of  information. 
The  same  writer  has  collected,  ip  a  high- 
ly judicious  manner,  a  great  number  of 
statements  respecting  crimes,  prisons, 
houses  of  correction,  common  schools, 
&C.,  both  in  Europe  and  America,  in  his 
VorUmngm  iiher  GefungnisS'Kundt,  &c. 
(Lectures  on  the  Subject  of  Prisons),  by 
doctor  N.  H.  Julius,  Berlin,  1828.  The 
last  report  of  the  keeper  of  the  seals  in 
France,  for  1828,  contains  the  following 
infonnation.  The  courts  of  assize  de- 
cided within  the  year  G3Q6  cases.  The 
number  of  individuals  accused  was  7d9(i, 
being  an  increase  of  467  al)ove  those  of 
1827.  The  proportion  of  the  pereons  ac- 
cused to  die  whole  population,  was,  in 
1827,  as  1  to  4593,  and  in  1828,  as  1  to 
4307.  Among  the  7396  persons  brought 
to  the  bar  of  the  courts  of  assize,  5970 
were  men,  and  1426  women,  being  in  tiie 
proportion  of  100  to  24.  Among  tlipse, 
4166  could  neither  read  nor  write ;  1858 
could  write  and  read  but  im|)erfectiy ; 
780  were  weU  instructed  in  die  first  ele- 
ments of  knowledge  ;  and  118  had  receiv- 
ed an  education  in  colleges,  or  otherwise 
sunerior  to  that  sui)plied  by  ])rimary 
schools.  Of  tlie  7396  prisoners,  2845 
were.acquitted,  and  4551  convicted.  Of 
the  latter,  114  were  condemned  to  death, 
268  to  hard  labor  for  life,  1142  to  hanl  la- 
bor for  different  teniis,  1228  to  solitary 
imprisonment,  and  the  rest  to  dificnnt 
kinds  of  correctional  pcuaitics.  TJie  pro- 
portion of  acquittals  to  convictions  is  us  39 


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CRIME. 


S5 


1o  61.  Of  the  persons  convicted  and  con- 
demned, 3833  appealed  to  the  court  of 
cassation  against  their  sentences.  Among 
the  114  condemned  to  capital  punishment, 
17  were  persons  who  had  aheady^  been 
sentenced  to  penalties  less  severe.  The 
chambers  of  the  first  instance  discharged, 
before  trial,  16,409  persons  who  had  teen 
arrested,  or  against  whom  informations 
had  been  lodged.  The  police  cases  or 
charges,  decided  within  tlie  year,  amount- 
ed to  95,589,  including  132,169  persona 
This  is  an  excess  of  9162  over  those  of 
the  preceding  year.  Among  the  facts,  of 
which  justice  was  called  upon  to  verify 
and  state  the  causes,  were  4855  accidental 
deaths,  1754  suicides,  and  86  duels,  of 
which  29  were  &taL  Late  reports  to  the 
E^ngljsh  parliament  contain  the  following 

Return  of  the  Jfumber  of  Persons  charged 
wUh  Criminal.  Offences  eomnUUedfor  TruUj 
whether  eonvietedor  acquitted^  ajidthe  J^um- 
her  executed  in  England  and  IVaieSj  with  a 
sintilar  Return  for  Jrslandy  in  the  years 
lc27  and  ii^. 

Enolaud  Arm  Wales. 


Committed  for  trial 
Males, .  . 
Females, 


1897.  leas. 

15,151 .  .  13,832 

2,770.  .   2,732 

17,921.  .^6,564 

Convicted, 12,564  .  .  11,723 

Acquitted, 3,407 .  .   3,169 

No  bills  found,  and  7  ,  qk^        i  ««, 

not  prosecuted,  i   -    1,950..    1,67-^ 

17,921 .  .16,564 

Of  whom  were  executed,       70  79 

Ireland. 

Committed  for  trial  1897.  1898. 

Males,   .  .  .  14,598  .  .  11,919 

Females,   .  .  3,433  .  ,  2,764 

18,031  .  .  14,683 

Convicted, 10,207  .  .  9,269 

Acquitted, 3,059  .  .  2,245 

No  bills  found, 4,461  .  .  3,078 

Bailed  and  not  prosecuted,  304  .  .  91 

18,031  .  .  14,683 
Of  whom  were  executed,      37  .  .        21 

Retumofthe  ffumher  of  Male  Convicts  went  to 
Jfew  South  Wales  and  Van  Dieman's  Lund, 
in  1896  and  1827,  with  the  total  Expense  of 
their  Gmveysjiee,  and  the  average  per  head, 

Nwnhcr.  Tnlal  Expanw.  Avmn  abnat 

1826 .  .  2097 .  .  £53,349    5  2  £25  8  10 
1827  .  .  3393 .  .    81,682  17  8     24  1    6 

VOL.  lY  3 


A  report  of  a  committee  of  the  house 
of  commons,  in  1828,  contains  the  follow- 
ing statement  of  the  comparative  amount 
of  crime  in  England  ana  France  in  the 
year  1826. 
In  France,  the  total  number  of  accused 

was  . 6,968 

Acquitted, 2,640     

Convicted, 4,348 

6,988 

In  England,  committed  for  trial, .  .  16,147 

Acquitted, 3,266 

Not  prosecuted,  or  no  >      ,  .^q^ 

bills  found, >..lj786 

5,052 

Convicted, 11,095 

16,147 

Of  4,348  convicted  in  France,  were  oon> 

demned  to  death, 150 

In  England,  of  11,095 1,200 

Of  those  condemned  to  death  in  France, 
it  would  appear  that  the  greater  part  were 
executed :  in  Eneland,  of  1,200,  only  57 
were  executed.— Of  the  crimes  for  which 
the  punishment  of  death  was  inflicted, 
we  nnd,  in  the  French  statement,  mur- 
der, 11 ;  attempt  to  murder,  88 ;  parricide, 
4;  infanticide,  6;  poisoning,  11;  folse 
money,  9 ;  robheiy  on  a  public  road,  1 ; 
other  robberies,  2 ;  arson  of  houses,  17 ; 
areon  of  other  descriptions,  1.  The  Eng- 
lish statement,  besides  the  crimes  contain- 
ed above,  contains,  burglary,  10;  forg- 
ery, 1;  horse-stealing,  7;  larceny  in  a 
dwelling-house  to  the  valueof  408h)llingi«, 
5;  rape,  2;  sheep-stealing,  3.  In  France, 
it  anpears  to  be  the  pracuce  to  condemn, 
in  die  first  instance,  to  the  punishment  in- 
tended to  be  inflicted.  For  instance,  in 
France,  robbery  on  the  highway  givecs 
condemned  to  death,  1 ;  hard  labor  for 
life,  30 ;  for  a  term,  8 ;  solitary  confine- 
ment, 5;  correctional  punishments,  22. 
The  Englisii  gives,  robbenr  on  person,  on 
the  highway  and  other  places,  sentenced 
to  death,  144;  executed,  15.— Of  secon- 
dary punishments,  France  gives,  hard 
labor  for  life,  281 ;  for  a  term,  1139;  soli- 
tary confinenjent,  1228 ;  to  the  pillory,  5 ; 
banishment,  1 ;  degradation  from  civil 
rights,  1 ;  correctional  punishments,  1478. 
In  England,  we  have  transportation  for 
life,  133;  for  14  years,  1&5;  for  7  years. 
1945;  imprisonment  5  years,  none:  3 
years,  11 ;  2  years,  and  above  1  year,  297 ; 
1  year,  1201 ;  6  months  and  ynder,  5813 ; 
whipping  and  fine,  310.— With  respect  to 
terms  of  imprisonment,  we  find  in  tlie 
French  statement, 
For  20.yearB, 46 


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28 


CRIME. 


For  15  years, 59  u&ctures  tend  to  iDcrease  depredations  on 

10 175  property,  and  to  diminish  acts  of  violence 

5 857  against    the    person. — In    Pnissia,    9646 

From  1  to  5  years, 512  crimes  were  committed  in  1817.     The 

6  months  to  1  year, ....     68  proportion  of  crimes  to  the  population 

Less  than  6  months, 104  was  ereatest  in  Berlin,  in  which  it  was  as 

¥«  !?«.«««  ♦!,«  »..in»K^..»r...^.ia^^  ■»,««» ;«  1  to  297.    In  the  Rhenish  provinces,  the 

lL^^:.^^nf^^l!u^f^^  proportion  was  1  to  400;  in  Siksirand 

^;?Trrcc!;id"tie?r^^^^^  If s  ^r;\o\t'±;reS^ 

s^i^'^XtCdXatf^^  crdirrismtJ'ofci^^^^^ 

^before  the  corJ^cdond  trihunaJs  in  TuT oT^^c^ciV^n?  on^^^^^^^ 

Fnmce  are  of  a  graver  characer  than  ^      to  135,414  inhabitentsf  For  a  fuU 

lf^^7™"^/^3^^^^^^  ^^n^r  J^i  '^^<^o"°t  of  the  statistics  of  crime  in  Pms- 

ll^   Fn"^«LrrF^irrHJr?^^  ^^^^  the  above-mentioned  Ge/ar^gv^ 

^r^  J  .r^^^n^  JTSvYi^^l^.  ^^  by  doctor  Juliu8.-In  the  Nlther- 

S^l  i^hZk  fw  «^n^^r  ^tJ^rZ  ^'^^ '»  1825,  when  the  inhabitants  were 

tide  t«faS^    107^^  6,157,286,the^ wero440(rcriminalsin  the 

™L^.i-X^' h^  '^  fnf«  P"8ons,  2400  in  houses  of  correction,  and 

were  punished  by  imprisonment  for  a  hgo  nVilitaiy  prisonere.    See  Vaslakvan 

lead  is,  in  FiTuice,  of  accused,  1907;  un-  ^j^^^Jf^^!!^^^ 

derthelotter  0988:1^^^^^  ^^^^^Tof^"^^^^ 

former  Auni^  would  be  reduced  to  1821,  ^  J^     ^^  Meeting  of  the  Netherland 

Je  latter  to  6939.    In  England,  including  ,^^  ^^      ^     ^^  Improvement  of  th* 

the  same  class  of  crimes,  die  number  are,  Condition  of  Prisonere,  held  in  Amstenlam 

Against  the  person, .531  fccWRussia  presents,  from  1823  to  1827 

Against  property, 15,616  ^^h  inclusive. 

But  adding  to  the  6939, 10,796,  the  num-  353  thefts  and  robberies, 

bers  would  be  5^817  munlers. 

For  France,  against  the  person, .  .  1,821  5J263  suicides, 

property,  17,735  95  cases  of  exposed  children, 

For  England,  against  the  person,  .       531         -.^  Qg^  \  whole    number  of  criminals^ 
r-  property,  15,616  '       \     ineludmg  deserters. 

Without  pretending  to  any  great  exact-  — ^In  Spain,  in  1826,  according  to  official 

ness  on  tnis  subject,  it  may  be  inferred  reports,  in  which,  however,  no  information 

that  tiie  whole  quantity  of  crime  is  greater,  is  contained  respecting  the  state  of  crime 

in  proportion  to  the  population,  in  Eng-  in  Arragon,  Valencia  and  the  Balearic  isl- 

lond  than  in  France ;  but  that  of  offences  ands,  the  number  of  criminals  amounted 

against  the  person,  there  are  more,  both  in  to  12,937,  which,  if  the  population    is 

proportion  to  the  whole  number  of  offen-  11,447,629,  would  give  one  crime  for  885 

CM,  and  to  the  popuhttion,  in  France  than  persons. 

in    England.      The  general   conclusion        The  following  table  shows  the  number 

from  this  and  other  facts  seems  to  be,  and  offences  of  the  convicts  in  the  Massa- 

that  crowded  towns  and  flourishing  man-  chusetts  Pi'ison  fTx>m  1820  to  1628  inclusive : 

Crimes.  1890.  i83i.  1893.  leas.  iea4.  18S5.  isss.  issr.  leas. 

Stealing,  shopti{ling,&c., 244    207    ...    230    222    199    192    180    186 

Counterfeit  money, 16  13    . . .      22      26      35      30      23      18 

Burglary, .19  17    ...      15      16      16      17      16      18 

Forgery, 3  9    . . .        8      11      11        8        7        9 

Robbery, 3  3...        5        4       2        1        1        1 

Anion, 5  7    ...        8        5        6        65       4 

Assault, 2  4    ...       3    2       3 

Attempt  to  commit  rape,  .....     4  5    . . .        7        7      11       10.     10        7 

Adultery,  &^ 3  1     ..^        1     3       3 

Attempt  to  murder, 1  6    . . .        6        6        9      10      11      10 

Conspiracy,  .  • .     3  2    ...     . .  r    


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CRIME. 


27 


Crimes.  uao.  nai.  i9sa,  lasx  i8B4.  laas.  lase.  i8S7.  laas. 

Manslaughter, 1       1    3      3      14 

Bestiality, 1       1    

Fraiitl, 3      3    1 

Maiiiiiug  cattle, 1    1    

Perjury, , •    ...       1    ...       1     

RobbingbaDk. 1       1    ...       1       1       1 

Coiriinoii  cheat, 3      2       1    ... 

Cominoo  tliief, 8     30     16    20 

Assault  and  botteiv, 1 

Murder  committed, 2      2      2      2 

Attempt  to  rescue  convicts, 2       1       1     ... 

0{jen  and  otobs  lewdness, 2      2    

Horae-stealiug,  .  .  •  .  , 1       1       1 

Maiming, 2    

Receiving  stolen  goods, 1       4       1       1 

Escape  vom  house  of  correction, 1       1       1    ... 

Cons()iracy  to  <lefniud, 1    

Accessory  to  tliiev'mg, ...    .  .^    2    ... 

The  four  reports,  which  have  been  published  by  the  prison  discipline  society  above- 
mentioned,  contain  many  interesting  tacts  respecting  other  prisons,  but  do  not  enable 
us  to  ffive  a  general  view  of  the  state  of  crime  m  the  U.  States.  (See  the  article  Prison.) 
The  toliowing  is  an  abstract  of  the  state  of  crime  in  several  countries,  such  as  we 
should  wish  to  be  able  to  give  of  all  civilized  countries : — 

Manber  of  Crimes  bnmght  before  Courts  ofJ^stice, 


Scodaiul,  1806—1811, 
In^land,  1805—1810, 
Wales,  1805—1811, 
England,  1805-1811,  j 


GkIMSB  AGAintT    CkIMM  ACAllfBT 

Pkabon*.  Phopbbtt. 

Whole  No.  Per  a.    W.No.    Per  a. 


ri805, 


England,  \^ 
11828; 


C 1823-1825, 

London,  2  182lfl, 

C 1827, 


France,   < 


Before  courts  5  1825, 
of  ossizes,    }  1826, 

Of  correction-  J  1825, 
aliiolice,      )  1826, 

Of  local  po- 5  182.-1, 
lice,  )  1826, 

Total,  I  jggg^ 


2066      29      5168      71 
1907      27      5081      73 


^™^Wn!i^V'''  \  181»-1826,  «  52,583      30  132,549     70 

/-Assizes,  182^-26,  «     23      27 

^^"^^^°^  1 1822-26,  «    S5      48 

Local  police,  1822 — 26,  **    , 

Total,  1822-26,  «     


s  m 


Totfil. 

89 
2,644 

72 
4,777 


Proportion  to 
PopuUtion. 

1:20,279 
1:  1,702 
1:  8,436 
1:   1,988 


4,527 
16,147 
17,921 
16,564'    1 


3,457?    , 
3,381s 


7,234 
6,988 
141,733 
159,740 
13i>,944 
141,021 
288,911 
308,749 


185,132 
817 


212^4 
252,679 


1:  1,951 

1:      763 

721 

403 

380 


7,744      1 


4,424 
4,4.-36 
219 
194 
222 
221 
107 
104 

427 

6,6(16 

276 

51 
42 


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39 


GRIME. 


C&pgrieUd  Criminals, 


Scotland,  1823, 

?1810— 1826, 2,539 

England,}!^;:;;;;;;;;;;:;     ;;;;; 

11828, 

LcmdoDy  1827, 

ri815, 

1823, 

1827, 

.1828, 

1825, 


For  CriiuM     For  Crimes 
Bgaiost  Pen.  against  Prop. 


119,349 


Ireland, 


France,    < 


Correctional 
police. 

Local  police. 


•  1826,. 
il825,. 

1826,. 

1825,. 

1826,. 
;i825,. 
11826,. 


1,046 
1,459 


3,548 
3,451 


Total, 

Pays  de  Yaud,  1826, 

C  Old  proi^ce^  ..... 
Pruasia,   <  Rhenish  nrovinces,  . 

(  The  whole  countiy,  . 
Sleswic  Holstein,  in  1820,  .... 

Norwav    J  ^^^  centiim,  in  1821, 
i^orway,  <fp.^-i    ^otA loc^ 


Spain, 


\  Total,  1814—1826, 
I  Total,  in  1826,  .... 
I  Per  centum,  in  1826, 


827 
110 
937 

10 


37 


8,048 

3,307 

11,355 

90 


63 


Tola!. 

288 

121,888 

11,C95 

12,564 

11,723 

2,300 

2,319 

7,923 

10,307 

11,919 

4,594 

4,910 

118,251 

134,384 

119,C91 

119,746 

241,936 

259,040 

79 

8,875 

3,417 

12,292 

1,089 

100 

9,740 

12,^37 

100 


Pitoportlon  to 
Popalatlbn^ 

1:9,649 


Sentences  ofDeaUu 

Sentenced. 
Scotland,  1806—1811, annual  average  .  .  74 


England  and  Wales,  1805—1811, « 

Ireland,  1805-1810, « 

Scotland,  1821—1823, total. 

England,  1810—1826, « 

London,  1731—1740, « 

C  1810—1826, •« 

France,    }  1825, 

( 1826, « 

C  Old  provinces,  1818—1827, « 

Prussia,    <  Rhenish  prov.,  «*  " 

(Total, «  *^ 

Spain,  1826, ~ 

Executions, 


375i 

85 

49 

15,653 

531 

2,755 

176 

150 

140 

70 

210 

167 


9C2 
1,C82 
1,019 


1:  587 
1:2^C3 
1:  820 
1:  666 
1:  570 

1 : 6,748 
1:6,313 


262 
231 
260 
259 
128 
120 


1:2,151 
1:  924 
1:    543 

1:    818 

1:6^1 

1:1,403 
1:    885 


Ezeented. 

3i 
56 

48 

28 

1,384 

316 

350 

111 

110 

77 

10 

87 


Scotland, 


'1768—1775, 

1776-1780, 

^827, 


England,  j}|^;;;;  ; 

(1731—1740, 
1749-1780, 
1781-1806, 
1827, 


Fur  Crimea 
against  Pera. 

11 

2 


46 

112 

61 


For  Crimea 
against  Prop. 

21 

7 


270 


726 


Totel. 

32 

9 

13 

57 

70 

316 

1,001  I 

787  ( 

17 


Proportion  to 
Population. 


169,271 
210,526 
182,857 

30,CCO 
79,412 


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CRIMK 


29 


For  Crimw 
against  Pen. 

^1815 — 1819  (annual  averacel  .... 

France,    ^1825, .... 

082G, .... 

C  Old  provinces,  1818—1827, 
PrufiBfta,    •<  Rhenish  pro  v.,  "  .... 

<J  Whole  couutiy,        "  .... 


For  Criroet 
against  Frop. 


Total. 

3C3 
111 
110 

77 
10 
87 

Number. 


«%^^t1«Ml  5  ^®^'  including  debtors, 8^378 

ScoUBnd,  ^    ^      ^^^^^j  j^j^j^ g|y^ 


Pmpnrtion  to 
Populntiiin. 

:  90,9C9 
:  27f)^79 
:  28]  ,818 
:  1^4X50 
:2,371,CC0 
:  1,354,140 

Proportion  to 
Pupulati  >n. 


{Endand,  April  29, 1826, 
Wdes,  «  «  «  . 
Scotiand,  «  «  «  . 
Ireland,  «  «  a  , 
France,  1821, 


2,864 

"      -    73 

«      «    216 

"      «    663 

41,307 

Southern  Netherlands        5  ifllo ]\'l^ 

(ciTil  and  miUt.  prisoners), ^  |^j|  [['////[ 10557 


1 1821, , 


Prussia,    H???* 


» 1826, 

Pruseian  \  1826,  standing  army, 

army,    \    **     militia, 

Prussia,  civil  and  mOitaiy,  .  .  .  . 
Sleswic  Holstein^  1819,  ...... 

C  1821, 

Norway,  2 1826, 

( 1814-1886, 

Sweden,  1824, 


2,179 

5,300 

1,124 

724 

8,100 

622 

693 

633 

7,740 


2(J2 

»>^ 

4,187 

10,411 

10,1^5 

11,011 

778 

512 

528 

568 

3,671 

2,396 

111 

122 

1,550 

112 

1,399 

1,200 

1,371 

1,600 


Though  the  number  of  persons  committed 
for  trial  has  progressively  increased,  in 
England,  for  a  series  of  years,  it  by  no 
means  follows  that  the  quantity  of  crime 
has  increased ;  and  it  is  perfectly  certain, 
that  crimes  of  the  most  atrocious  chanu> 
ter  have  diminished.  Thus,  tbouffh  the 
parliamentary  returns  of  the  number  of 
criminal  offenders  committed  for  trial  in 
lc<27  be  greater,  by  1774,  tlian  those  of 
1826,  we  should  nimutely  investigate  the 
nature  of  the  oflfences  with  which  these 
persons  are  charged,  before  we  affirm 
that  the  morals  of  the  people  generally 
were  more  unsound  in  1827  than  in  1826. 
*•  Offences,"  say  a  committee  of  the  house 
of  conunons,  m  a  report  on  the  criminal 
commitments  and  convictions,  **  which 
were  formerly  either  passed  over  entirely, 
or  were  visited  with  a  summary  chastise- 
ment on  the  spot,  are  now  made  occasions 
of  commitment  to  jail  and  regular  trial. 
Mr.  Dealtry — a  magistrate  for  the  West 
Riding  of  tlie  county  of  York — says,  *  I 
think  one  reason  we  may  give  for  the 
increase  of  crime,  or  the  greater  exliibition 
of  it  to  public  view,  is  the  seizure  and  de- 
livery to  the  police  of  att  those  who  com- 
mit offences,  that  are  styled  offences  at  alL 
3* 


I  remember,  in  former  days,  persons  were 
taken  and  pumped  upon,  or  something  of 
that  sort ;  but  now  ttiey  are  handed  over 
to  tlie  police  and  tried.'  Sir  Thomas  Bar- 
ing, and  other  witnesses,  gave  a  similar 
testimony.  The  malicious  trespass  act, 
the  act  for  paying  prosecutors  tlieir  ex- 
penses in  cases  of  misdemeanor,  and  other 
acts  not  necessary  to  mention,  have  tended 
to  fill  the  prisons,  without  any  positive 
increase  of  crime.  The  magistrates,  like- 
wise, are  more  ready  to  commit  than  they 
used  to  be."  There  is  a  fact,  which  is 
most  iinportant  to  keep  in  view,  namely, 
that,  iu  England,  and  in  every  other  coun- 
try rapidly  advancing  in  civilization,  offen- 
ces against  the  person  are  diminished  pre- 
cisely in  the  proportion  that  the  means  of 
education  are  enlarged.  The  most  numer- 
ous class  of  offences  has  been  found,  not 
only  in  that  countr}',  but  in  France,  in  the 
U.  States,  and  in  Switzerland,  to  be  that 
of  the  smaller  offences  against  property ; 
for  example,  in  London  and  Middlesex,  as 
stated  bv  Mr.  Peel  in  the  house  of  com- 
mons, the  number  of  commitments,  in 
1820,  was  2773;  in  1826,3457;  increase 
of  commitments,  684.  In  1820,  of  these 
commitment's,  the  number  for  larceny  waa 

Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


^^SQ 


i^^ 


30 


CRIME. 


1384;  in  J  826,  2118;  increase  of  commit- 
ments for  larceny,  734.  Thus  we  see 
that,  whilst,  in  1826,  there  was  a  large 
increase  of  offences  against  property,  there 
was  an  actual  diminution  of  crimes  a^inst 
tlie  person.  The  repoit  of  the  committee 
before-mentioned  states,  that  ^  the  numbers 
of  iiereous  convicted  of  murder,  from  the 
year  1821  to  1827  inclusive,  adding  there- 
to those  convicted  of  shooting  at,  stabbing, 
and  administering  poison  with  intent  to 
munler,  were  respectively,  35,  57,  26,  ^ 
29,  27,  47.  The  numbers  charged  with 
iiiurder,  shooting  at,  stabbing,  ana  admin- 
istering poison  with  intent  to  murder, 
were,  from  1821  to  1827,  232,  241,  239, 
253,273,  245,  288..  The  whole  number 
of  persons  tried  for  offences  against  the 
person,  in  1827,  including  robbery  of  tiie 
i)er8on,  which  ought  not  property  to  have 
been  included,  was  under  1000.  The 
criminal  calendar  of  London  and  Middle- 
sex exhibits,  for  the  respective  periods 
from  1811  to  1817,  and  from  1821  to  1827, 
an  average  increase  of  committals  in  the 
latter  seven  years,  equal  to  48  per  cent 
The  convictions,  during  an  average  of  the 
«ime  jMiriods,  have  increased  55  iier  cent. 
The  population  of  London  and  Middlesex 
has  been  computed  to  have  increased  19 
,  per  cent ;  therefore,  of  the  convictions,  36 
per  cent  remains  to  be  accounted  for  by 
other  causes  than  the  increase  of  popula- 
tion. That  large  increase,  afflicting  as  it 
is,  may  be  attributed  to  the  brge  increase 


of  petty  offences,  of  stealing  from  the 
bouse,  or  the  person,  *  goods  which  are 
easily  transported,  and  may  be  quickly 
converted  into  money,'  and  to  the  greater 
vigilance  of  the  jiolice,  which  rendera 
prosecutions  more  certain.  Moreover,  the 
number  of  those  sentenced  to  deatli  has 
increased  only  4  per  cent ;  but,  the  pop- 
ulation having  increased  19  per  cent., 
tliere  is  thus  a  positive  diminution  of  15 
per  cent  upon  the  higher  ofl'ences,  subject 
to  the  penalty  of  death  generally.  For  the 
higher  crimes  against  the  person,  such  as 
murder,  manslaughter,  shooting,  stabbing 
and  poisoning,  tLe  nuDil)er  of  convic- 
tions Allowed  by  sentence  of  death  has 
decreased  50  per  cent.  For  some  of  the 
moat  atrocious  offences  against  property, 
such  as  arson  and  mainihig  of  cattle,  tlie 
number  of  convictions  followed  by  sen- 
tence of  death  has  decreased  50  per  cent 
For  the  offences  of  coining  and  foi^ry, 
uttering  base  coin,  &c.,  the  number  of 
convictions  has  decreased  22  per  cent, 
and  tlie  nunjber  of  jthose  sentenced  to 
death  has  decreased  43  per  (^nt  This 
particular  decrease  is  principally  to  be 
attributed  to  tlie  withdrawal  of  small  notes 
of  the  iMink  of  England  from  circulation. 
The  great  increase  of  convictions  has, 
therefore,  been  in  the  class  of  frauds,  and 
larcenies  of  all  descriptions.  This  result 
for  London  and  Middlesex  is  also  true,  as 
will  be  seen  from  the  following  table,  with 
reference  to  all  England  and  Wales. 


Total 

Total 

Yearly 

Yearly  Inc.  of 

Yearly  Inc.  of 

Years. 

Convictions. 

Convictions 

Increatw  of 

Convictions 

Convictions  not 

for  Ijirceny. 
6,629 

Convictions. 

for  Larceny. 

for  f^irceny. 

1821 

8,788 

.... 

1822 

8,209 

6,424 





.... 

1823 

8,204 

6,452 

..... 

26 

.... 

1824 

9,425 

7,550 

1,221 

1,068' 

123 

1825 

9f)6i 

8,011 

539 

461 

78 

1626 

11,095 

8,9()2 

1,131 

951 

180 

1827 

12,564 

9,803 

1,4(59 

841 

628 

Much  of  the  large  increase  of  convictions 
not  for  larceny,  in  1827,  may  be  distinctly 
referred  to  the  passing  of  the  act  for  pay- 
ing prosecutors  their  expenses  in  cases  of 
misdemeanor.  The  increase,  in  1824, 
lgS5  and  1826,  is  also  to  be  referred  to 
changes  in  legislation  and  temporary 
causes.  Oflfences  against  the  game  laws 
have  greatly  multiplied  the  nninher  of 
commitments.  From  1820  to  1826, 12,000 
persons  were  committed  to  the  county 
IHisons  on  the  charge  of  poaching.  From 
the  returns  for  England  and  Wales,  of 
which  we  have  thus  given  the  results,  it 
appears  that,  since  1821,  the  convictions 


for  larceny  (that  is,  for  robbery  and  tlieft 
of  all  descriptions)  have  increased  .50  per 
cent,  while  the  {)opulation  has  increased, 
by  computation,  about  16  per  cent  We 
have  thus  34  per  cent  of  tliis  increase  of 
crimes  against  property  unaccounte<l  for 
by  the  increase  of  iK>pulation.  Some  of 
this  increase  is  real,  and  some  only  more 
apparent — With  reference  to  the  real  and 
ap))arent  increase  of  the  smaller  crimes 
aeainst  property,xbe  greater  multiplication 
of  property,  in  a  higSily-civilized  state  of 
society,  oners  a  ready  solution  why  such 
a  growing  tendency  to  theft  may  exist, 
notwithstanding  tlie  progress  of  education. 


CRIME— CRIMINAL  LAW. 


31 


The  number  of  tLieves  increases  from  the 
constant  addition  to  tlie  number  of  the  ob- 
jects of  temptation,  from  tlie  greater  luxu- 
ries with  which  every  individual  is  sur- 
roundef  1^  from  the  increased  rapidity  with 
which  goods  may  be  transported  to  distant 
pans  of  the  country,  and  from  the  more 
easy  communication  with  tlie  continent 
Add  oU  these  causes,  and  many  others^  to 
a  more  vigilant  administration  of  justice, 
which  produces  committals  for  the  most 
trifling  offences  against  property,  and  we 
shall  easily  understand  how  the  return  of 
committals  may  be  increased,  while  the 
great  bulk  of  the    people  is  becoming 
more  intelligent  and  more,  prudent* — M. 
Lucas,  an  lulvocate  in  the  rojal  court  at 
Paris,  has  collected,  with  mvtAi  accuracy, 
a  body  of  facts  relating  to  France,  Great 
Britain,  the  cantons  of  Geneva  and  Vaud, 
and  the  U.  States,  all  of  which  tend  to 
confirm  the  principles  we  have  endeavored 
to  estalilish — that  the  higher  crimes  are 
lessened  as  men  become  more  civilized 
and  enlightened ;  and  that,  though  offences 
against    property   may    increase,  crimes 
against  the  person  are  invariably  dimin- 
ii^ed.    With  regard  to  France,  this  fact 
has  been  clearly  proved  by  the  calculations 
of  M.  Charles  Dupin.    In  the  northern 
departments  of  that  coimtry,  where  the 
inhabitants  are  the  best  instructed,  the 
Mgher  crimes  against  the  person  are  rare ; 
in  the  southern,  where  the  people  are  very 
ignorant,  tlie  most  firiglitful  crimes  are 
twice  as  numerous.    But,  again,  it  is  re- 
markable, that,  in  the  north — the  richest 
and  most  enlightened  portion  of  France — 
the  crime9  against  property  exceeded,  in 
1826  and  1827,  those  in  the  south  by  917. 
Of  those  crimes,  however,  the  south  ex- 
hibits the  greatest  niunber  of  atrocious  ex- 
amples, having  207  highway  robberies, 
while  the  north  had  only  82.    In  the  can- 
ton of  Vaud,  from  1803  to  1826,  the  total 
number  of  offences  was  1914.    Of  these, 
there  were  only  52  of  the  highest  crimes 
against  the  person.  Of  the  oflences  against 
property,  only  75  were  of  the  gravest 
character  of  crime,  such  as  burglary  and 
highway  robbery.    In  the  canton  of  Ge- 
neva, from  1815  to  1826,  there  were  212 
criminal  processes,  of  which  27  only  were 
fbr  crimes  against  the  person.    The  num- 
ber of  offences  against  property  was  185, 
of  wliich  145  were  simple  larcenies.    In 
the  state  of  Pennsvlvania,  firom  1787  to 
1825,  the  total  number  of  convictions  was 
7397,  of  which  628  were  for  offences 
agauist  the  persoiL     Of  the  remaining 
6769  offences  against  property,  5338  were 
laroenies.    In   Spain,  the   catalogue  of 


crimes  against  the  permn  for  one  year 
amounts  to  3436,  amongst  which  are  the 
following  :^- 

Horaicides, 1233 

Infanticides, 13 

Poisonings, 5 

Anthro|)ophagy, 1 

Cutting  and  maiming, 1773.* 

We  thus  see  that,  in  Spain,  die  greater 
quantity  of  crime  is  precisc^ly  of  an  op|K>- 
site  character  to  that  which  exists  in 
France,  Great  Briuiin,  Switzerland  and 
Pennsylvania.  On  the  other  hand,  tlie 
crimes  against  pro|)erty  amount  oiilv  to 
2379.  From  tliese  data,  we  may  conclude 
that  the  greater  pro|K)rtion  of  offences 
amongst  an  ignorant  people  are  tliose 
which  proceed  from  the  licentious  and 
revengeful  passions,  unsubdued  by  the 
cultivation  of  the  understanding,  and  the 
subjection  of  tlie  will  to  true  morality  and 
pure  religion.  The  greater  portion  of  of- 
fences among  a  rich  and  highly-cultivated 
people,  are  of  that  sort  which  proceed 
from  the  temptations  of  pro|)erty,  tlie  ac- 
cumulation of  which  is  the  result  of  capi- 
tal and  intellectual  energy.  (For  furtlier 
uiformation,  see  PrisoUy  and  SchooL] 

Crimka.    (See  Taurida,) 

Criminal  Law.  [This  article,  to  the 
paragraph  on  page  34,  is  fix)m  the  Gennan 
Lexicon.]  In  no  de[>artment  of  legal  sci- 
ence do  so  many  different  views  prevail 
among  jurisconsults,  and  in  none  have 
these  ¥iews  exercised  so  great  an  influence 
upon  the  theory  and  practice,  as  in  this. 
The  doctrine  of  tlie  criminal  law  is,  tliat 
the  individual  committing  an  unlawful  act, 
must  not  only  make  amends  to  the  party 
uijured,  but  also  be  punished  by  the  su- 
preme authority  of  the  state.  The  first 
Question  is,  whether  and  how  far  tlie  state 
is  authorized  to  inflict  punishment.  This 
question  cannot  be  decided  by  positive 
rules  of  kw,  because  the  object  of  the 
inquiiy  is  to  reconcile  these  rules  widi 
naturM  justice.  States  hove,  indeed,  at  all 
times,  exercised  the  power  of  punishment, 
vrithout  waiting  for  or  regarding  such  the- 
oretical investigations,  liecause  it  is  obvi- 
ous that,  without  the  right  of  punishing, 
no  state  could  exist  The  different  sys- 
ten^  which  have  attempted  to  establish 
theoretically  the  right  of  punishment,  may 
be  brought  under  die  following  heads : — 

I.  The  system  of  vejtgeance.    From  the 

•  This  comparative  statement  of  offences  in 
France,  Swii-zeriaiid^  the  U.  Slates  and  iSpatn, 
rests  u^n  the  authority  of  an  article  in  the  BiUU- 
tin  Unirersel,  for  September.  The  precise  year 
taken  for  Spain  is  not  meuiiopvd.^  ^  ^  ■  ^ 
JigitizedbyVjOOQlc 


^^ 


m'  ¥  j'^r  ^  I 


32 


CRIMINAL  LAW. 


opinion  that  lie  who  has  injured  another, 
cannot  complain  of  injustice,  if  a  similar 
evil  is  inflicted  u|)on  himself,  and  the  in- 
jured f)ei:son,  or,  in  case  of  murder,  his 
family,  would  bedis^ced,  if  they  did  not 
obtain  satisfaction,  arises  the  rude  system 
of  retaliation,  which  we  meet  with  in 
so  many  nations  ;  but,  whilst  those  who 
take  revenge  must  beware  not  to  exceed 
the  measure  of  the  injury  received,  lest 
they  become  aggressors  in  their  turn, 
they  will  be  obli^  to  adhere  literally  to 
the  nde  of "  an  eye  for  an  eye,  a  tooth  for 
a  tooth ;"  and  in  tliis  state  we  fuid  the 
criminal  law  sulisisting  among  nations  for 
a  considerable  time,  and  bloody  revenge 
and  retaliation  become  a  conmion  right 
and  duty.  (See  Michaelis,  On  the  Mosaic 
Law,)  In  this  state  of  things,  the  punish- 
nieut  of  offences  against  the  law  belongs 
not  to  the  community,  but  to  the  individ- 
ual, and  the  public  authority  is  active 
onl^  in  putting  limits  to  the  continual  ex- 
ercise of  revenge,  and  in  providing  means 
for  terminating  tJie  hostilities  among  fam- 
ilies, which  tlireaten  the  nation  itself  with 
destruction.  From  this  arises  the  system 
of  composition.  Offences  are  estimated 
at  certain  rates  in  money ;  and  not  only 
is  the  offender  forced  to  {)ay  the  sum  fixed, 
but  the  offended  party  nmst  also  receive 
it  in  satisfaction.  With  this  degree  of 
progress  is  connecteil  the  idea  of  a  nation- 
al peace,  which  is  developed  in  various 
fonns  and  relations,  as  the  peace  of  the 
king,  the  peace  of  the  court,  &c.,  involv- 
ing, at  the  same  time,  the  acknowledg- 
ment of  a  public  power,  whose  duty  it  is 
to  protect  and  judge.  We  find  the  law 
of  composition  among  the-  old  Germans, 
as  well  as  the  nations  of  the  Indian  archi- 
pelago, and  the  tribes  of  American  sava- 
ges. The  next  step  is  the  acknowledg- 
ment of  the  principle,  that  the  commtmity 
is  bound  to  prevent  crimes.  The  right 
of  revenge  passes  into  the  hands  of  the 
state,  which  does  not  wait  for  the  com- 
plaint of  the  offended  (>arty,  but  takes  up- 
on itself  the  duty  of  the  accuser.  The 
theory  which  next  succeeds  is, 

II.  The  system  of  deterring.  By  the 
punishment  of  the  offender,  others  are  to 
be  deterred  from  similar  acts.  The  pun- 
ishment is,  therefore,  infhcted  publicly; 
and  the  more  horrible  the  cnme,  the 
more  eflfbrt  is  made  to  confirm  the  popu- 
lar abhorrence  of  it  by  severe  penalties. 
This  system  is  liable  to  the  most  weighty 
objections.  It  cannot  he  allowable  to  tor- 
ment or  put  to  death  a  human  being,  sim- 
ply with  the  view  that  others  may  receive 
from  his  sufferings  such  an  impression,  as 


to  be  proof  against  the  temptation  to  com- 
mit crime.  In  point  of  fact,  this  end  has 
never  been  attained,  and  would  require  a 
scale  of  punishments  offensive  to  sound 
reason.  The  mere  fear  of  punishment  is 
of  very  little  weight.  Men  are  kept  from 
crime  princi[)ally  by  the  natural  abhor- 
rence of  wrong,  heightened  by  a  good 
education  and  good  example.  If  the  plan 
of  deterring  should  be  carried  through* 
consistently,  it  would  compel  us  to  propor- 
tion punishment  rather  to  the  temptation 
to  commit  crimes  than  to  their  magnitude. 
{See  Feuerbach's  Revision  der  Grundsatzt 
des  peird.  Rechts,  Erfurt,  1799 — ^Rievision 
of  the  Principles  of  Penal  Law.)  With 
regard  to  capital  punishments,  more  par- 
ticulariy,  the  system  of  deterring  fell  by 
degrees  into  disrepute,  after  the  marquis 
Beccaria  (On  Crimes  and  Punishments, 
London,  1770),  and  a  great  many  other 
learned  men,  had  declared  themselves 
for, 

III.  The  system  of  iwwenHbn,  which  is 
ingeniously  defended  by  the  Hessian 
minister  Von  Groiman  [Grundsatze  der 
Criminalrechiswissenschfi/UnjGksscn,  1798 
— Principles  of  the  Science  of  Criminal 
Lawj.  Every  crime  contains,  if  man  is 
considered  as  a  consistent  being,  the  ex- 
pression of  a  principle  of  conduct,  and, 
accordingly,  besides  the  present  transgres- 
sion of  tlie  law.  a  threat  of  a  rey^etition  of 
the  offence.  Tne  community  is,  therefwre, 
entitled  to  take  measures  of  prevention 
against  it,  which,  if  the  injury  done  is  irrep- 
arable, may  extend  to  the  dcj>ri>aiion  of 
life.  This  system  may  be  said  to  afford 
the  true  reason  for  punishment  in  general 
It  may,  however,  l)e  objected  to  it,  that 
this  provision  against  future  crimes  is  not 
really  punishment,  and  that  the  punish- 
ment must  needs  be  omitted,  if  tliis  pre- 
sumption of  the  future  offences  is  refuted 
by  the  |)articulur  circumstances  of  the  case. 
This  prinri])le,  moreover,  admits  of  no 
scale  of  punishment,  because  the  means 
of  effectual  prevention  must  always  be 
the  same— death  or  imprisonment  for  life. 
The  direction  which  the  science  of  natural 
law  had  taken,  at  this  ()eriod,  seeking  for 
the  foundation  of  every  right  in  a  contract, 
led  to, 

IV.  The  system  of  compact^  which  as- 
serts that,  by  becoming  a  memlier  of  the 
state,  every  individual  has,  by  tacit  com- 
pact, bound  himself  to  submit  to  punish- 
ment, if  the  society  choose  to  inflict  it. 
As,  however,  no  one  can  be  bound  by  a 
contract  to  any  thing  which  is  not  right  in 
itself,  the  lawfulness  of  punishment  cannot 
be  shown  in  this  manner.    Fichte,  there- 


CRIMINAL  LAW. 


33 


fore,  in  his  original  way,  modified  this 
theory.  He  fHOceeded  upon  the  principle 
^at,  by  trespassing  unon  the  right  of  others, 
the  criminal  deprivea  himself  of  the  claim 
to  be  treated  as  a  rational  being,  since 
the  rights  of  a  free  agent  depend  on  his 
respect  for  those  of  others.  Every  crime, 
therefore^  he  savs,  justifies  the  expulsion 
of  tlie  offender 'from  human  society.  The 
compact,  by  which  tlie  punisiiment  is  de- 
tennined,  is  consequently  in  favor  of  those 
who  receive  a  lighter  punishment  than 
such  expulsion.  They  acquire  a  ririit,  by 
suffering  some  detennined  evil,  to  be  ad- 
mitted again  into  civil  society.  Much  of 
this  theory  h  true,  but  tlie  real  existence 
of  such  a  compact  seems  to  be  wanting. 

V.  At  the  same  time,  the  theory  of 
atonemenl  was  introduced  by  Klein  and 
others.  The  criminal  does  injury  in  two 
ways;  1.  to  the  person  who  is  the  imme- 
diate subject  of  the  wrong,  for  which  he 
has  to  make  him  amends  according  to  the 
niles  of  private  law ;  and,  2.  by  the  bad 
example  afforded  by  the  diminished  re- 
spect fbr  the  laws  of  the  state,  for  which 
he  is  answerable  to  the  community.  This 
latter  injury  is  compensated  by  the  pun> 
ishment,  which  vindicates  the  authority 
of  the  law  in  the  minds  of  the  people. 
This  theory  has,  in  later  times,  been  fur- 
ther developed,  with  great  ingenuity,  by 
Bchultz  (Enhmchtlung  der  jffkUasopk,  Prvn- 
cipien  dis  brftrgerl,  una  petrU,  ReaUsy  1813 
— ^Dcvelopementof  the  philosophical  Prin- 
ciples of  Civil  and  Criminal  Law),  and 
by  Martin  (Lekrbuch  des  CrinUnaLrechta, 
1819 — ISaS—Compendium  of  Criminal 
Law). 

VI.  The  theory  of  psychological  con^ 
draint,  by  Feuerbach,  is  founded  u|)on  the 
system  o"f  deterring,  with  tl|e  addition  of 
the  position — that  the  threatening  of  pun- 
ishment, in  general,  is  lawful,  because  it 
forbids  no  one  to  do  any  thing  which  he 
can  have  a  right  to  do ;  and  this  menace 
renders  punishment  lawful  in  case  of  an 
offence  occurring,  because  the  individual 
knew  beforehand  what  he  had  to  ex|)ect 
This  theory  is  exposed  to  most  of  the  ob- 
jections against  the  theory  of  deterring, 
and  the  grounds  on  which  it  rests  often 
&il  in  particular  cases. 

VII.  The  principle  of  moral  comdumy 
has  been  little  used  as  the  basis  of  tlie 
tight  to  punish.  It  has  for  its  eiid  to  cor- 
rect, by  punishment,  in  the  criminal  him- 
self those  unlawful  propensities  whieh 
impelled  him  to  crime,  it  is  undeniably 
correct,  so  fkr  as  this,  that  the  punishment 
ought  never  to  be  such  as  to  make  the 
moral  correction  of  the  criminal  impossi- 


ble, by  the  annihilation  of  his  sense  of 
honor,  by  exposing  him  to  corruption  in 
the  society  of^other  criminals,  and  destroy- 
ing his  ability  to  support  himself  in  an 
honest  manner.  But  it  is  evident,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  the  sentiments  of  men, 
and  their  moral  reformation,  cannot  be  th^ 
direct  object  of  legislation,  from  the  veiy 
circumstance,  that  this  effect  is  not  of  a 
kind  to  he  ascertained;  but  to  produce 
an  outwaid  habit  (fbr  instance,  to  dispose 
the  idle  to  labor,  the  drunkard  to  sobriety, 
&C.),  is  practicable. 

Finally,  VIll.  The  theory  of  rdaUatum 
has  been  adopted,  since  the  time  of  Kant, 
by  almost  all  the  German  phik)sopherB, 
but,  at  the  same  time,  by  very  few  law- 
yers. It  is  founded  upon  the  principles, 
that  the  state  ought  to  suffer  no  wrong 
within  itself;  that  every  unlawful  action 
ought  to  be  annihilated,  and  is  annihilated 
when  made  to  revert  on  the  author ;  and 
that  the  latter  suffers  no  injustice  by  being 
treated  in  the  same  way  as  he  has  treated 
others.  This  retaliation  is  not,  however,  a 
literal  one.  It  inflicts  not  the  same  evil  on 
the  criminal  whicli  he  has  done  to  anoth« 
er ;  but  it  seeks  for  a  generic  notion  of  the 
offence,  and  ai^lics,  accordin^^  to  this,  the 
principle  of  the  criminal  agamst  himself. 
Phis  afferds,  at  the  same  time,  a  measure 
for  punishment,  which  no  other  principle 
of  penal  law  affords,  though  it  still  requires 
that  tlie  <legree  of  punishment,  in  particular 
cases,  should  be  fixed  by  positive  law. 

We  have  thus  set  forth  the  tlieorics 
on  the  subject  of  crimuial  legislation.  In 
no  branch  of  law  has  legislation  been  at 
all  times  so  active  as  in  this.  The 
influence  of  theory  has  extended  even 
to  the  forms  of  proems,  and  the  civili- 
zation of  nations  always  manifests  itself 
early  by  the  improvement  of  the  criminal 
law.  Criminal  law  was  first  treated  sci- 
entifically in  Italy,  but  remained  in  a  very 
rude  state  till  the  middle  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury. The  dreadful  abuses  in  the  admin- 
istration of  criminal  justice  in  Germany 
and  France,  gave  occasion  to  the  two 
great  reforms  introduced  by  the  penal 
code  of  Charles  V,  of  1532,  and  the  crim- 
inal ordinance  of  Francis  1,  of  1539.  This 
liranch  of  jurisprudence  now  assumed  a 
more  systematic  character.  The  ordinance 
of  Charles  V  greatly  improved  the  forms 
of  process,  but  retained,  acconling  to  the 
spirit  of  the  times,  cruel  punishments,  and 
even  torture.  Of  the  points  of  criminal 
law,  which,  in  i^ecent  times,  have  given 
rise  to  much  diversity  of  opinion,  the 
following  are  of  particular  practical  iinfior- 
tance  :~1.  The  right  of  punishing  flagrant 


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CRIMINAL  LAW. 


crimes  without  the  authority  of  an  exprefls 
law.     Those  who  ackuowledge  the  au- 
thority of  a  natural  ]aw,  aliirm  the  exist- 
ence of  such  a  right,  and  divide  criminal 
actions  into  those  which  are  had  in  them- 
selves {ddieta  juria  naharalis\  or,  as  the 
English  hiw  terms  them,  mala  in  «e,  and 
actions  wiiich  are  of  themselves  indiffer- 
ent, but  are  subjected  to  a  penalty  by  par- 
ticular laws  {ddida  juris  pontivi),  or,  as 
the  English  law  terms  them,  nuda  prohab- 
iia.    Crimes  of  the  firat  class,  as  murder, 
thefl,  &C.,  must  be  every  where  punislied, 
even  without  a  positive  law ;  but  those  of 
the  second,  as  contraband  trade,  are  pun- 
isha>))e  only  when  made  penal  by  express 
enactment    Feuerbach  and  others,  how- 
ever, acknowledge  no  right  of  punishment 
without  an  express  law.    2.  Witli  the  pre- 
ceding is  nearly  connected  the  questi^m 
— \\ovt  far  it  is  the  right  or  duty  of  the 
state  to  punish  crimes,  which  have  been 
committed  in  foreign  countries.    On  this 
point,  in  addition  to  the  difficulties  attend- 
mg  the  main  question,  there  exists  a  great 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  laws  by 
which  such  crimes  are  to  be  judged,  wheth- 
er by  tlie  laws  of  the  foreign  countiy,  or  of 
*  that    to   which   the    individual   belongs. 
3.  What  power  should  be  given  to  Uie 
judge  to  vary  the  punislimeut  according 
to  the  different  circumstances  attending 
the  offence .'    The  tendency,  in  modem 
times,  is  to  define  crimes  and  their  punish- 
ments so  exactly  as  to  leave  notliing  to 
the  discretion  of  the  judge,  and  to  enable 
every  jiian  to  see  what  he  has  to  expect 
from  a  violation  of  the  law.    It  is  doubt- 
ful whether  so  much  precision  is  gener- 
ally a«lvantageous,  since  it  almost  necessa- 
rily produces  an  unef|ual  distribution  of 
punislirnent,  the  question  whether  it  sliall 
be  light  or  severe  frequently  dejiending 
on  a  little  difference  in  the  age  of  the 
offender,  the  amount  of  property  stolen, 
&c. ;  so  that  a  |)enuy  more  or  less  may 
make  a  diflerence  of  several  years'  con- 
finement in  a  penitentiary ;  or  tlie  differ- 
ence of  a  day,  in  the  age  of  tlie  culprit, 
may  decide  whether  he  shall  be  punislied 
Willi  a  few  stripes,  or  deprived  of  his  lib- 
erty for  years,  or  of  his  life.    4.  One  of  the 
most  difficult  fioints  is  the  just  estimation 
of  injuries  done  to  the  honor  of  another, 
which  involves  the  great  question  of  the 
hlierty  of  the  press.    The  most  important 
differences  of  opinion,  however,  are  those 
which   prevail  with   regard    to    criminal 
process.    From  the  representation  given 
above  of  the  principles  and  the  devel- 
0|)enient  of  penal  law,  it  is  evident  tliat 
criminal  proceedings  have  always  been 


founded  at  first  upon  private  accusations^ 
in  regard  to  which  almost  the  same  princi- 
ples prevail  as  those  observed  in  civil  ac- 
tiona    In  the  course  of  time,  this  mode  is 
superseded  by  a  public  accusation  on  the 
part  of  the  state,  appearing  by  an  attorney, 
to  prosecute  the  onence.    Upon  tliis  prin- 
ciple are  founded  the  criminal  proceed- 
ings of  the  English  courts,  and  of  the 
French  courts  since  the  revolution.    With 
tliis  may  be  united  the  public  trial  by  jury, 
which  has  found  so  many  adherents  in 
modem  times.    Its  fundamental  character 
consists  in  this,  that  the  party  accused 
remains  merely  passive,  and  waits  for  the 
charge  to  be  proved.    The  consequence 
is,  tliat  the  sentence  must  be  pronounced 
from  a  view  of  probabilities,  and  deiiends, 
therefore,  more  on  a  knowledge  of  men, 
and  tlie  deductions  of  a  sound  judgment, 
than  on  technical  rules.    It  has  been  con- 
sidered the  safest  mode  of  trying  offences, 
m  particular,  as  it  prevents  the  dangers 
arisuig  from  the  influence  of  the  higher 
officers  of  tlie  state  over  judges  deriving 
their  salaries  from  the  sovereign,  by  refer- 
ring the  question  of  guilt  or  innocence  to 
the  verdict  of  men  taken  immediately  from 
among  the  people,  i.  e.  Jurors.    Tlie  Ger- 
man criminal  proceedings   are  directed 
principally,  it  may  be  said  solely,  to  the 
end  of  obtainhig  from  the  accused  a  con- 
fession of  tlie  deed,  and  of  its  circuni* 
stances,  by  inquisitory  process.    This  ad- 
mits neither  of  an  accuser  nor  of  a  public 
trial,  but  tlie  judge  must  inquire  of  tlie 
accused  himself,  and  obtain  from  him,  if 
possible,  by  a  skilful  combination  of  the 
circumstances,  as  well  as  by  awakening, 
the  voice  of  conscience,  complete  tmth. 
What  is  in  Germany  the  chief  business  of 
tlie  judge,  belongs,  in  France,  to  the  jugt 
instrvcUwy  and,  in  England,  to  justices  of 
the  jieace,  as  fiolice  officers,  whose  inves- 
tigations aflbnl,  in  common  cuses,  the  ma- 
terials for  tlie  final  trial.    The  ofiponents 
of  the  trial  by  jury  allege,  as  a  chief  reason 
for  tlieiropj)osition,that,  when  the  prepar- 
atory process  affords  no  certain  results,  the 
subsequent  trial  is  attended  by  the  same 
uncertainty. 

To  the  preceding  article,  taken  from 
the  German  Lexicon,  we  have  to  add  a 
few  suggestions  growing  out  of  the  prac- 
tice of  the  common  law,  which  constitutes 
the  liasis  of  tlie  institutions  of  the  U.  States, 
as  well  as  of  England.  The  general  tlie- 
ory  of  the  common  law  is,  tliat  all  wrongs 
are  divisible  into  two  sfiecies ;  first,  civil 
or  private  wrongs ;  secondly,  critninnl  or 
public  wrongs*  The  foririer  are  to  be 
redressed  by  private  .suits,  or  re»iie(lies  in- 


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fidtuted  by  the  parties  injured.    The  latter 
are  refhfssed  by  the  state,  acting  in  its 
BQvereign  capacity.    The  general  descrip- 
tion of  private  wrongs  is,  that  they  com- 
prehend thoee  injuries  which  affect  the 
rights  and  property  of  the  individual,  and 
tenninate  there;   that  of  public  wrongs 
or  ofiences  is,  that  they  comprehend  such 
acts  as  injure,  not  merely  individuals,  but 
die  community  at  large,  by  endangering 
the  peace,  the  comfort,  the  good  order,  the 
policy,  and  even  the  existence  of  socie- 
ty.   The  exact  boundaries  between  tliese 
classes  are  not,  perhaps,  always  easy  to  be 
discerned,  even  in  theory;  for  there  are 
few  private  wrongs  wliich  may  not  and  do 
not  exert  an  influence  beyond  the  individ- 
ual whom  they  direcdy  injure.    In  doubt^ 
fid  cases,  the  legislature  usually  interferes, 
and  prescribes  a  positive  rule.    In  clear 
cases,  the  right  of  punishment  on  the  part 
of  the  state  is  assumed  as  a  deduction 
from  natural  justice  and  the  duty  of  the 
state  to  protect  all  its  subjects.    Hence,  in 
the  common  hiw,  two  classes  of  offences 
are  distinctly  traced  out.    The  first  em- 
braces thoee  which  rest  upon  legislative 
enactmeDCs.    The  second  embraces  those 
which,  independently  of  any  such  enact- 
ment, are  deemed,  from  their  veiy  nature, 
injiuies  to  the  pubhc.    The  offences  be- 
longing to  this  last  class  are  not,  periiape, 
cafMible  of  a  perfect  enumei-ation ;  and  the 
test  by  which  they  are  ascertained  is  left 
to  the  judgment  of  judges,  as  cases  arise, 
tt>  be  frx^,  not  acconung  to  theur  oym 
discretion,  but  by  analogy  and  apprecia- 
tion of  the  principles  and  cases  already 
well    setded    by    former    adjudications. 
When,  therefore,  a  non-enumerated  wrong 
arises,  which  does   not  Ml  under  any 
known  former  rule,  the  question  which  is 
discussed  is,  how  far  it  falls  under  the 
principles  already  established  respecting 
public  crimes.    If  reasoning  furnishes  a 
strong  analogy,  it  is  deemed  a  public  of- 
fence ;  if  otherwise,  it  is  left  for  the  legis- 
lature to  declare  that  it  shall  be  such. 
Treason,  murder,  setting  fire  to  a  dwelling 
house  in  a  large  city,  riots  disturbing  the 
general  peace,  poisoning  public  wells,  &c., 
it  wUl  be  readily  admitted,  naturally  en- 
danger die  cood  order  and  safety  of  the 
state,  and  therefore  are  properly  to  be 
punished  by  die  state.    But  it  is  not  so 
easy  to  trace  the  same  principle  in  mere 
secret  thefU,  or  a  private  fight,  and  yet 
deny  its  existence  m  violent  seizures  of 
private  property,  and  private  quarrels  pro- 
ducing defamation   of  character.     The 
common  law  considers  the  great  object 
o[  the  public  punjahmeut  of  crimes  to  be 


the  prevention  of  offences,  by  deterring 
both  the  offender  and  others  from  a  re|>e- 
tition  of  the  same.    Its  object  is  not  so 
much  an  atonement  for,  or  expiation  of, 
tlie  offences,  as  a  precaution  against  tiieir 
recurrence.    This  naturally  includes,  not 
as  a  primary  motive,  but  as  an  incident, 
the  reformation  of  the  criminal  himself; 
for,  so  &r  as  that  is  effected,  it  prevents 
offences.    That  system  of  punishments  is 
indeed  mcnt  desirable,  which  attains  its 
object  by  such  a  reformation.    But  it  is 
obvious,  that  reformation  cannot  always 
be  relied  upon  as  a  sufficient  security  for 
society.    Hence  arises  the  necessity  or 
pohcy  of  capital  punishment,  which,  by 
cutting  off  the  offender,  not  only  operates 
as  a  terror  to  others,  but  secures  society 
agamst  the  possible  peqietration  of  the 
same  offence  by  him.     Undoubtedly  it 
ought  never  to  be  .resorted  to  except  in 
cases  of  atrocious  guilt,  and  where  less 
punishments  are  manifesdy  inadequate  to 
produce  securinr.    Some  persons,  indeed, 
doubt  the  lawfulness  of  capital  punish- 
ment altogether;  but  the  divine  law  has 
certainly  sanctioned  it    Others,  who  do 
not  question  its  lawfulness,  doubt  or  deny 
its  policy.    It  is  certain  that  the  frequency 
of  capitsJ  punishment  has  some  tendency 
to  abate  its  terrors ;  and  it  is  by  no  means 
as  ceitain  that  capital  punishments  have  a 
tendency  to  prevent  the  occurrence  of  the 
crime,  or  to  secure  a  conviction.    There 
is  a  natural  repupiance  to  punish,  with  so 
much  severity,  shght  offences ;  and  judges 
and  juries,  as  well  as  the  public,  under 
such  circumstances,  lean  against  prosecu- 
tions and  in  favor  of  acquittiOs.    Hence  the 
probability  of  conviction  is  sometimes  in 
proportion  to  the  moderation  of  punish- 
ments.   On  the  other  lumd,  it  is  found  by 
experience,  that  the  punishment  of  death 
is  not  sufficient  to  deter  men  from  the 
commission  of  offences  to  which  tfiey  are 
strongly  tempted  by  their  passions  or  their 
wants.*    The  tendency  of  modem  legis- 
lation  has,  therefore,  almost   uniformly 
been  in  favor  of  relaxing  the  severity  of 
the  penal  code.  .  In  England,  capital  pun- 
ishments are  very  extensively  provided 
for  by  statute.    There  are  more  than  160 
capital  offences  in  her  code.  (4  Bl.  Qnnm. 
la)    In  the  U.  States,  there  has  been  a 
constant  effort  to  diminish  the  number  of 
capital  offences.    There  are  but  9  in  the 
criimual  code  of  the  U.  States ;  and  the 
codes  of  the  respective  states  do  not  gen 

*  Tndeed^  the  Mveritv  of  the  punishment  some, 
times  induces  the  oflencfer  to  become  more  savage 
and  atrocious.  Thus,  where  robbery  is  punishaUe 
with  death,  it  is  often  aiteaded  with  muxder. 


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erally  embrace  a  larger  number.  Treason, 
murder,  rape,  argon  pr  buniinj;  of  a  dwel- 
ling houae,  are  generally  punishable  with 
death;  and  sometinies  robbery,  bui^lary 
or  breaking  into  a  dwelling  house  in 
the  night  time  with  intent  to  steal.  The 
code  of  the  U.  States  also  includes  piracy, 
the  slave-trade,  fraudulently  casting  away 
ships  on  the  sea,  robbeiy  of  the  mail, 
burning  public  ships  of  war,  and  the  res- 
cue of  convicts  capitally  convicted  when 
the  sentence  is  about  to  be  executed.  The 
punishment  of  other  offences  is,  for  those 
of  great  enormity,  solitary  confinement  or 
hai^  labor  in  a  penitemiaxy  or  prison 
erected  for  that  purpose ;  and  for  those  of 
a  lower  degree,  fine  or  imprisonment,  or 
both,  according  to  the  nature  and  aggm- 
vation  of  the  offence.  Li  the  U.  States, 
no  capital  punishments  are  inflicted  unless 
by  the  injunctions  of  some  positive  statute. 
In  England,  the  same  rule  prevails  to  a 
limited  extent  A  few  offences  are  pun- 
ished by  the  common  law  with  death, 
without  any  statute  to  direct  it,  founded 
either  upon  the  notion  of  conformiQr  to  the 
divine  law,  or  upon  some  positive  law 
whose  existence  cannot  now  be  traced. 
Such  are  murder,  rape,  robbeiy,  burglaiy, 
and  certain  other  felonies  at  the  common 
law.  In  resfiect  to  other  offences,  for 
wliich  no  statute  has  prescribed  any  pun- 
ishment, the  general  rule  of  the  common 
law  is,  that  they  are  punishable  by  fine  or 
imprisonment,  or  bv  both.  Considerinff 
the  infinite  variety  of  pircumstances  which 
may  occur  to  extenuate  or  aggravate  the 
offence,  not  only  the  common  law,  but  the 
legislature  has  left  much  of  the  decree  of 
punishment  to  the  discretion  of  the  judges 
who  try  the  case.  That  discretion  must 
be  exercised  in  public;  and  experience 
has  proved  that  it  is,  on  the  whole,  wiser 
and  safer  to  leave  it  to  the  natural  opera- 
tions of  judicial  responsibility,  than,  by  any 
attempts  to  define  and  limit  the  exact  de- 
fX^e  of  pimishment,  to  run  tlie  hazard  of 
mtroducing  other  mischiefs  by  excluding 
mercy  where  it  might  be  most  desirable. 
No  code  of  laws  could  be  sufiSciently  mi- 
nute to  embrace  all  circumstances;  and 
none  could,  tlierefbve,  provide  for  a  perfect 
uniformity  of  punishments,  according  to 
the  absolute  nature  of  the  offence.  Anoth- 
er inquiiy  is,  Who  are,  in  a  legal  sense, 
capable  of  committing  crimes,  so  as  to  be 
amenable  to  punishment?  The  general 
rule  of  the  common  law  is,  that  all  per- 
sons are  punishable  for  disobedience  to, 
and  infiractions  of  the  law.  The  excep- 
tions are  few,  and  are  clearly  defined. 
They  are  such  as  presuppose  a  defect  of 


reason  and  underetsndinf^,  or  of  intention. 
A  defect  of  understandmg  exists  in  the 
case  of  injuries  conmiitted  by  persons  in  a 
state  of  in&ncy,  lunacy,  idiocy,  or  intoxi- 
cation. A  defect  of  intention  exists  in  the 
ease  of  offences  committed  by  chance, 
mistake  and  ignorance,  wholly  without  or 
against  the  intention  of  the  party.  In 
respect  to  want  of  capacity,  idiots,  mad- 
men, and  other  persons  not  at  the  time  in 
possession  of  reason,  such  as  somnambu- 
lists, are  generally  excused,  whatever  in- 
juries they  may  commit  But  the  com- 
mon law  does  not  extend  this  indulgence  to 
crimes  committed  by  persons  who  are  in 
a  state  of  voluntary  intoxication.  It  con- 
sideiB  this  circumstance  rather  in  the  light 
of  an  aggravation  of  the  ofifence.  But  a 
distinction  is  here  to  be  made.  If  the 
paity  be,  at  the  time  of  the  offence,  drunk 
tnr  the  use  of  strong  liquors,  he  is  punish- 
able, though  he  may  be  thereby  reduced^ 
at  the  time,  to  a  state  of  insanity.  But  if 
drunkenness  be  only  the  remote  cause  of 
die  insanity,  and  the  party  be  not,  at  the 
time,  under  the  influence  of  intoxicating 
hquors,  the  law  treats  his  case  Kke  that  of 
any  other  insane  person.  It  does  not  look 
back  to  the  original  and  remote  cause  of 
the  insanity,  to  ascertain  whether  it  has 
been  produced  bv  criminal  indulgence,  or 
n^lect  of  duty,  but  to  the  immediate  and 
operating  cause,  at  the  time  when  the 
crime  is  committed.  The  exception, 
therefbre,  of  the  case  of  insanity  by  imme- 
diate intoxication,  is  carved  out  of  the 
general  exception  in  favor  of  insanity,  and 
arises  frem,  or  at  least  is  countenanced 
by,  motives  of  public  policy,  to  prevent 
the  dangerous  eflfects  arising  from  indul- 
gence in  strong  liquors.  The  common 
uiw  is,  in  this  particular,  more  severe  than 
the  civil  law.  The  latter  never  punished 
capitally  for  an  offence  committed  under 
such  circumstances.  (4  BL  Comm.  1^.)— ■ 
As  to  crimes  committed  by  infants.  Tliere 
are  various  ages  of  infancy,  in  the  com- 
mon law,  for  different  purposes.  TTie 
^neral  age  of  majority  for  all  purposes  is, 
m  our  law,  21  yeara ;  in  the  civil  law,  25 
years.  Children  under  7  years  of  age  are 
deemed  without  discretion,  and  are  uni- 
versally exempted,  by  our  law,  from  pun- 
islimeut  Between  7  and  14  yeare,  they 
are  said  to  be  in  a  dubious  stage,  in  point 
of  discretion.  If  they,  in  fact,  possess  it, 
if  they  appear  to  have  judgment,  and  un- 
derstanding, and  a  sense  of  crime,  they 
are  liable  to  punishment ;  otherwise  not 
Generally,  the  rule  of  presumption  is  in 
&vor  or  mercy,  that  an  infant  under 
14  is  daU  iftctqtax ;  but  this  presomption 


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may  be  remoyed  l^  facts  esta})Ii8]iing  a 
clear  sense  of  the  difference  between  good 
and  evil,  togetlier  with  niaiice  and  sit])e- 
rior  cunning.  (4  BL  Conim,  22, 23.)  How- 
ever, it  deserves  consideration,  whether 
this  is  a  sufficient  test  of  rational  discern- 
ment of  the  nature  of  crime  ami  duty ; 
and  judges  may  well  lean  against  convic- 
tious  in  such  cases,  uiK)n  principles  not 
merely  of  humanity,  but  of  philoso|>liical 
responsibility.  After  14,  the  general  jire- 
sumption  is  in  iavor  of  an  infant  being 
doU  capax,  and  therefore  he  generally 
stands  u|x>n  grounds  similar  to  tliose  of 
adults,  until  his  actual  incaiwcity  is  proved. 
— ^As  to  crimes  committed  by  lunatics  and 
idi'Jts,  the  exception  on  account  of  want 
of  cajmcity  obviously  applies  only  to 
r,kses  where  it  exists  at  the  time  of  die 
umimission  of  the  offence.  Hence  it  is 
no  excuse,  if  a  person  who  has  been  in- 
sane commits  an  offence  in  a  lucid  inter- 
val, or  at  a  time  when  his  reason  is  clearly 
lestored.  So,  on  tlie  other  hand,  a  por- 
son  may  not  be  an  absolute  idiot,  so  as  to 
have  no  discernment  whatsoever,  and  yet 
may  lie  excusable  from  mmishment  if  his 
capacity  be  so  weak  mat  he  does  not, 
thougii  an  adult,  understand  clearly  tlie 
distinctions  between  right  and  wrong.  Ex- 
treme old  age  sometimes  reduces  {lersons 
to  a  state  ^most  of  fatuity,  and  exposes 
them  to  be  iini)08ed  upon,  and  even  se- 
'Inced  to  the  commission  of  offences, 
dnder  circumstances  where  they  would 
be  held  no  more  liable  to  ]n]nishment 
dian  infants.  Every  thing  deiiends  upon 
soundness  of  mind  and  real  discretion 
at  the  time  of  committing  the  offence. 
When  a  ])erson  becomes  insane  after  tlie 
commission  of  an  offence,  and  before  trial, 
he  is  not,  by  tlie  common  law,  ever  al- 
lowed to  be  brought  to  trial,  until  he  is 
lestored  to  his  reason.  At  whatever  stage 
of  a  public  prosecution  tiie  insanity  occurs, 
it  operates  as  a  suS|)ension  of  all  further* 
proceedings.  Thus,  if  it  occurs  before 
arraignment,  the  jmrty  ought  not  to  be 
arraigned  for  tlie  offence ;  if  afler  arraign- 
ment, be  oifght  not  to  be  required  to  plead  ; 
if  a&r  plea,  he  ought  not  to  be  ]>ut  to 
trial ;  if  after  trial,  he  ought  not  to  have 
judgment  or  sentence  pronounced  against 
bini ;  if  afler  judgment,  execution  of  the 
Kntence  ought  to  oe  stayed.  The  ground 
upon  which  this  rule  of  law  is  commonly 
6up]]06ed  to  stand  is,  that  it  ought  never 
to  be  presumed  that  the  party,  if  sane, 
might  not  suggest  some  defence  that,  In 
reason  or  justice,  would  entitle  him  to 
mercy,  or  to  exemption  from  punishment 
A  reason  quite  as  satisfactory  is,  that  the 

VOL.  IV.  4 


punishment  of  an  insane  person  can  pnh 
duce  no  good  result,  either  to  refonn  the 
offender  or  as  a  miblic  example.  It  would 
sliock  all  the  feelings  of  humanity  to  inflict 
punishment  on  tliose  whom  die  visitation 
of  Providence  had  already  made  objects 
of  wretchedness  and  of  compassion.  In 
all  cases  where  it  is  doubtful  wheUier  the 
])arty  Ije  insane  or  not,  die  fact  is,  bv  the 
common  law,  to  be  tried  by  a  jury. — In  re- 
sj)ect  to  injuries  committeil  without  die  in- 
tention of  die  party,  as  dirough  misfortune 
or  chance.  Where  an  accidental  i nisei i ief 
hapi^ens  in  the  performance  of  a  lawful 
act,  in  tlie  doing  of  which  the  iwrty  uses 
reasonable  care  and  diligence,  he  is  whol- 
ly free  from  guilt,  and  it  is  deemed  his 
misfortune ;  but  if  he  does  not  use  rea- 
sonable care  and  diligence,  he  is  liable  to 
punishment  acconling  to  the  nature  and 
extent  6f  his  negligence.  If  guilty  of  gross 
negligence,  he  is  sometimes  ])unisliable  u) 
the  same  manner  as  if  die  act  were  inten- 
tionally committed;  if  guilty  of  slight 
negligence  only,  he  escapes  with  a  more 
moderate  punishment  If  the  mischief 
happens  in  die  jieiformance  of  an  unlaw- 
ful act,  and  a  consc(iiience  ensues  which 
was  not  iiitendetl  or  Ibivseen,  the  party  is 
not  free  from  guilt  But  die  degree  of 
punishment  ought  to  depend  u])on  the 
nature  of  the  unlawful  act  itself,  /^dis- 
ttnction  is  taken,  in  the  common  law^ 
between  c&ses  where  the  original  act  is 
wrong  and  unlawful  in  itself  (m5/um;>cr  *c), 
and  where  it  is  merely  prohibited  by  stat- 
ute (malum  prohibilmn).  In  die  former 
case,  die  party  is  resi)oiisible  for  all  hici- 
dental  consequences  of  the  unhmilil  act ; 
in  the  latter,  not  An  illustration  of  diese 
principles  may  be  found  in  cases  com- 
monly put  in  our  treatises  on  criminal 
law:  If  a  mnn  lie  nt  work  widi  a  hatchet, 
and  the  head  flies  off,  and  kills  a  staiuler- 
by,  diis  is  not  any  offence,  for  the  party 
was  doing  a  lavvftil  act,  widiout  any  ui- 
tention  of  hurt.  So  a  ^Mireiit  may  mod- 
erately correct  a  child,  and  if^  in  so  doin^ 
death  hapiiens,  against  his  intention,  it  is 
mere  misadventure.  But  if  he  coiTccts 
die  chiUl  immodcmtcly,  or  uses  an  instni- 
ment  which  is  dangerous  to  life,  or  is 
wanting  in  reasonable  caution,  he  is  guiltv 
either  of  manslaughter  or  iiiunler,  acconf- 
ingto  the  circumstances  and  the  degree  of 
the  punishment  If  a  man,  riding  a  horse 
with  reasonable  care,  accitlentally  runs 
over  a  child  and  kills  him,  he  is  not  guilty 
of  any  offence.  If  he  rides  him  fuiiouslv 
in  a  street  where  diere  may  lie  duiiger^ 
and  die  like  mischief  liapi>eiisjie  is  guilty 
of  manslaughter  at  least    If  lie  rides  liini 


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CRmiNAL  I^W. 


furiously  into  a  crowd,  either  fiora  wan- 
tonness or  thoughtlessness,  and  the  like 
accident  happens,  it  will  be  murder.    If  a 
perbon  in  England,  duly  qualified  by  law  to 
kill  game,  accidentally  ki^  another  while 
so  doing,  he  is  guilty  of  no  offevce.    If  a 
person  he  prohibited  by  statute  from  kill- 
ing ^ame,  and  the  like  accident  happens 
by  his  shooting,  he  is  not  answerable  in 
any  other  maimer  than  a  person  duly 
qualified.     This  last  case  illustrates  the 
disdncdon  as  to  cases  of  malum  prohUntwiu 
On  tlie  other  hand,  if  a  person,  shooting 
at  poultry  belonging  to  another  person, 
by  accident  kills  a  man,  if  his  intention 
was  to  steal  the  poultry,  it  will  be  murder, 
by  reason  of  the  felonious  intent :  if  his 
intention  was  not  to  steal,  but  it  was  an 
act  of  mere  wantonness,  it  will  be  man- 
daughter  onl}r.    In  these  last  cases,  the 
act  IS  malum  in  se. — ^In  respect  to  injuries 
committed  through  ignorance  or  mistake. 
This  may  arise  when  a  man,  intending  to 
do  a  lawful  act,  does  what  is  unlaw^fuL 
An  illustration  commonly  put  is  that  of  a 
man  intending  to  kill  a  thief  or  house- 
breaker, in  his  own  house,  who,  by  mis- 
take, kills  one  of  his  own  family.    In  this 
case,  if  he  acted  under  circumstances  of 
reasonable  belief  that  the  party  killed  was 
the  thief  or  housebreaker,  there  is  no 
ground  to  impute  crinotinality  to  him.    His 
conduct  was  founded  in  a  mistake  of  &ct, 
that  is,  of  the  person ;  for  it  is  sometimes 
lawful,  by  the  common  law,  to  kill  a 
housebreaker  found  in  your  house.     But 
a  mistake,  or  ignorance  of  law  wiU  not 
juptity  an  act  of  the  like  nature.    If  a  per- 
ron supposes  he  has  a  right  to  kill  a  tres- 
pateer  or  outlaw,  or  excommunicated  per- 
son, and  he  does  so,  he  is  guilty  of  murder. — 
In  respect  to  crimes  committed  by  compul- 
sion or  force.  The  common  law  reco^ises 
but  few  cases  in  which  the  authoiity  or 
command  ^f  a  superior  furnishes  any  ex- 
cuse for  the  commission  of  an  offence.    In 
the  case  of  children  or  servants,  the  com- 
mands of  the  master  or  parent  furnish  no 
etcuse.    In  the  case  of  a  wife  who  com- 
mits a  crime  in  company  with  her  husband, 
she  is  deemed,  by  the  benignity  of  our  law, 
to  act  under  compulsion,  and  therefore 
she  is  excused  in  all  cases  except  murder, 
manslaughter  and  treason.    These  excep- 
tions are  founded  ujion  the  peculiar  dan- 
ger and  atrocity  of  the  offences,  and  the 
public  policy  of  discouragixtff  eveiy  motive 
to  commit  them.    Where  uie  wife  com- 
mits the  offence  alone,  without  the  com- 
pany or  compulsion  of  her  husband,  she 
IB  personally  responsible  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  if  she  were  unmarried.    There  are 


other  species  of  compulsion  recognised  in 
the  common  law,  wliioh  may  excuse  the 
commission  of  offences.    Thus  where  a 
pen*on  commits  an  offence  in  consequence 
of  threats  or  menaces,  which  induce  a  fear 
of  death  or  other  bodily  barm.    This  is 
called  dures9  per  mmas.     But  the  fear 
which  compels  a  man  to  do  an  illegal  act 
must  be  just  and  well  grounded,  such  as. 
may  intimidate  a  firm  and  resolute  man, 
and  not  merely  of  such  a  nature  as  may 
operate  upon  the  timid  and  irresolute,  oth- 
erwise it  will  constitute  no  excuse.    Thus, 
in  time  of  war  or  rebellion,  a  man  may 
\ie  excused  for  doing  treasonable  acts,  if 
they  are  caused  by  the  compulsion  of  the 
enemy  or  rebels.     But  the  compulsion 
must  not  be  a  mei-e  threat  to  do  injury  to 
property,  nor  even  slight  injury  to  the 
person,  but  a  just  fear  either  of  death  or 
of  great  bodily  injury ;  and  even  in  such 
case,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  party  to  avoid 
doing  such  acts  as  soon  as  he  safely  may, 
by  escape  or  otherwise  ;>  for  if  he  does  not, 
he  will  be  liable  to  punishment  as  a  vol- 
unteer.   But  even  tnis  excuse  is  not  al- 
lowed in  all  cases,  but  seems  principally 
confined  to  crimes  positively  created  by 
society ;  for  no  man  can  justiiy  or  excuse 
himself  for  murdeiing  an  innocent  person, 
under  the  pretence  of  fear  or  necessity, 
though  he  certainly  may  kill  another  in 
necessaiy  self-defence.     Another  case  of 
compulsion  or  necessity  often  occurs  in  the 
reasoning  of  speculative  writers,  whether 
a  person  in  extreme  want  of  food  is  excu- 
sable for  stealing  to  satisfy  his  hunger. 
Whatever  rfiay  be  the  doctrine  of  foreign 
jurists,  or  the  opinion  of  publicists,  it  is 
certain  that  no  such  excuse  is  now  admit- 
ted in  the  common  law.    If  the  offence 
should  be  committed  under  circumstances 
of  extraordinary  suffering,  the  case  would 
rarely  be  brou^t  before  any  tribunal  of 
justice ;  and  if  it  should  be,  the  power  of 
pardon  in  the  government,  and  the  human- 
ity of  the  court  itself,  would  either  annul  or 
mitigate  the  punishment  There  is  another 
case  often  put,  where  two  persons  at  sea 
are   shipwrecked,   and  get  on  a  single 
plank,  and  it  cannot  support  botli,  but 
Doth  must  be  drowned  unless  one  is  dis- 
placed :  what  is  then  to  be  done  ?    In  such 
a  case,  the  law  of  self-preservation  has 
been  supposed  to  justify  either  party  in  a 
forcible  dispossession  of  the  other.    The 
common  law  seems  to  recognise  this  prin- 
ciple, and,  an  such  a  deplorable  calamity, 
imputes  no  blame  to  the  survivor. — We 
now  proceed  to  notice  another  important 
disdnction,  which  the  common  law  acts 
upon  in  relation  to  crimes.    It  is  the  dis- 


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SD 


tinction  in  guilt  and  punishment  which  is 
made  between  principals  and  accessories. 
Peifioos  are  called  principals  in  the  first 
d^rte^  who  are  the  actors  or  perpetrators 
or  the  ofience.  Persens  who  are  present, 
aiding  and  abetting  the  perpetrator,  are 
called  principals  in  Sie  second  degree.  This 
presence  may  be  either  in  &ct,  as  where 
the  parties  are  immediately  standing  by, 
or  are  within  sight  and  hearing ;  or  con- 
structive, as  when  tlie  party,  tnough  not 
within  si^ht  or  bearing,  is  on  the  watch 
at  a  convenient  distance,  ready  to  assist, 
and  near  enough  to  do  so,  if  required. 
There  are  cases,  too,  in  which  a  person 
may  be  the  principal  in  construcuon  of 
law,  although  he  is  absent,  and  the  fiict  is 
done  through  the  instrumentality  of  anoth- 
er; as,  in  case  of  murder  by  poisoning, 
a  man  may  be  the  principal  felon  b]^  pre- 
paring or  laying  the  poison,  witli  an  inten- 
tion that  it  ^ould  be  taken,  or  by  employ- 
ing an  innocent  person  to  administer  it, 
under  false  pretences,  although  he  is  not 
personally  present  when  it  is  taken  or 
admiiusterecL  Many  cases  of  tlie  like 
nature  may  be  easily  pm.  An  aecessoiy 
is  he  who  is  not  the  chief  actor  in  the  ot- 
fence,  nor  present  at  its  perpetration,  in 
the  sense  above  stated,  but  who  is  in  some 
manner  concerned  in  it,  either  before  or 
after  the  fact  is  committed.  If  he  irror 
cures,  counsels,  abets  or  commands  the 
crime,  and  is  absent  at  its  commission,  he 
is  deemed  an  accessory  before  the  feet 
l€,  without  any  such  participation  in  it,  he 
knows  that  the  crime  nas  been  committed, 
and  aflerwards  relieves,  assists,  comforts 
or  receives  the  offender,  he  is  deemed  an 
accessory  after  the  &ct  Thus,  if  he  fluds 
the  offender  to  escape,  or  rescues  him  from 
arrest,  or  conceals  oV  supports  him,  he  is 
deemed  an  accessory  imer  the  &ct;  so 
if  he  buys  or  receives  stolen  goods,  know- 
ing them  to  be  stolen.  There  are  certain 
classes  of  offences  at  the  common  law 
which  admit  of  no  accessories.  Thus,  in 
treason,  all  the  parties  concerned  are  deem- 
ed principals  propter  odium  delicti ;  and  in , 
offences  which  are  under  the  degree  of  fel- 
ony, and  in  trespasses,  all  persons  con- 
cerned are  deemed  principals,  for  an  opfio- 
site  reason,  because  the  law  will  not  con- 
descend, in  petty  crimes,  to  ascertain  the 
dif]ferent  degrees  of  guilt  In  all  other 
offences,  that  its  in  all  except  the  higliest 
and  the  lowest,  there  may  be,  technically 
speaking,  accessories.  It  follows  as  a 
maxim,  that,  in  such  cases,  the  accest-ory 
cannot  be  guilty  of  a  higher  offence  than 
bis  princi|ML  In  respect  to  puiii^hmetit, 
the  ancient  common  law  did  not  make  any 


distinction  between  accensories  and  princi- 
pals ;  but  by  statute,  many  distinctions  are 
now  made,  and  especially  regarding  ac- 
cessories after  the  met  In  tlie  U.  States, 
few  of  our  crimuial  codes  have  failed  to 
mark  out  very  strong  differences  in  the 
punishment  There  are,  in  fact,  many 
reasons  which  require  the  distinction  be- 
tween principals  and  accessories  to  be 
constantly  kept  in  view.  In  the  first  pbce, 
in  many  instances,  a  man  cannot  be  tried 
as  accessory  until  after  the  trial  and  con- 
viction of  the  priuci|ial.  In  the  next 
place,  if  a  man  be  indicted  as  accessory 
and  acquitted,  he  may  still  be  indicted  as 
principal.  In  the  tliird  plaee,  as  a  natural 
mference  from  tlie  other  considerations, 
the  defence  of  the  accused  may,  and  often 
must,  turn  upon  very  different  princinlea, 
where  he  is  accused  as  accessory,  from 
what  might  or  could  arise  if  he  were 
accused  as  principal. — ^In  respect  to  the 
mode  of  presentment  and  tnal  for  of- 
fences. In  England,  no  person  can  be 
brought  to  trial,  for  any  capital  offence  or 
felony,  except  upon  the  presentment  or 
indictment  of  a  grand  jury ;  but  for  infe- 
rior offences  or  misdemeanors,  an  informa- 
tion, in  the  namre  of  an  indictment,  may 
be  filed  by  tlie  king's  attorney-general,  or 
other  proper  officer,  upon  which.the  party 
may  be  put  upon  trial  Even  in  such 
cases,  an  indictment  also  Kes.  In  the  U. 
States,  informations  are  rarely  resorted  to 
in  any  of  the  states  in  such  cases ;  and 
the  usual,  and,  in  many  cases,  tlie  only 
constitutional  course  is  an  indictment  by  a 
grand  jury.  All  offences,  whether  chai^ged 
by  indictment  or  information,  are,  by  the 
common  law,  to  be  tried  by  a  jury  com- 
posed of  12  men,  and  tfaetr  verdict  is  con- 
clusive upon  tlie  fects.  In  the  U.  States^ 
this  privilege  of  trial  by  jury  is  generally 
secured  by  the  constitutions  of  tlie  slate 
and  national  governments.  A  privilege 
often  quite  as  valuable  to  the  accused,  is 
that  of  being  assisted  by  counsel  in  the 
management  of  his  defence.  It  is  a  cu* 
nous  anomaly  in  the  English  jurispru- 
,  dence,  tliat  counsel  are  admissible  in  the 
argument  of  facts  to  the  jury  only  in  tlie 
highest  cmd  lowest  offences;  in  treason, 
by  the  express  provision  of  statute,  and  in 
mere  misdemeanors,  by  the  common  law. 
In  all  capital  cases,  except  treason,  the  ac- 
cused is  denied  this  privilege ;  and,  how- 
ever important  and  useful  such  a  privilege 
may  lie,  tlie  introduction  of  it  has  been 
hitlierto  successfully  resisted  in  the  British 
parliament  In  the  U.  States,  a  far  differ- 
ent, and,  lis  we  think,  wiser  and  more  hu- 
mane n^le  prevails.    In  all  cnminal  cases, 


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CRIMINAI.  LAW-CROCODILE. 


the  accused  k  entitled,  as  of  right,  to  the 
assistance  of  counsel  in  his  defence ;  and 
this  right,  also,  is  generally  secured  by  the 
state  and  national  constitutions  of  govern- 
ment This  is  not  the  place  for  a  discus- 
sion of  tlie  value  of  such  a  right,  though 
to  us  it  seems  recommended  by  principles 
of  pohcy  as  well  as  of  justice  and  human- 
ity. The  mode  of  im])anneling  juries,  the 
ri^t  of  challenge,  and  other  incidents  of 
cnminal  trials,  belong  more  appropriately 
to  other  heads.  (See  Crime^  CourU,  and 
Juru.) 

Crisis  (from  x^vttv,  to  decide),  in  medi- 
cine ;  a  point  in  a  disease,  at  which  a  de- 
cj<ied  change  for  the  better  or  the  wor^ 
takes  place.  The  crisis  is  most  strongly 
marked  in  the  case  of  acute  diseases,  and 
with  strong  patients,  particularly  if  the 
course  of  the  disease  is  not  checked  by 
energetic  treatment.  At  the  approach  of 
a  crisis,  the  disease  appears  to  take  a  more 
violent  character,  and  the  disturbance  of 
the  system  reaches  the  highest  p>oint.  If 
the  change  is  for  the  better,  the  violent 
symptoms  cease  with  a  copious  perspira- 
tion, or  some  other  discharge  from  the 
system.  In  cases  where  the  discharge 
may  have  been  too  violent,  and  the  nobler 
orffans  have  been  greatly  deranged,  or 
where  the  constitution  is  too  weak  to  re- 
siKt  the  disease,  the  patient's  condition 
becomes  worse.  In  regular  fevers,  the 
crisis  takes  place  on  regular  day^  wliich 
are  called  enticed  days  (the  7th,  14th  and 
21st);  sometimes,  however,  a  little  sooner 
or  later,  according  to  the  climate  and  tlie 
constitution  of  the  patient  A  bad  turn 
often  produces  a  crisis  somewhat  sooner. 
When  the  turn  is  favorable,  the  crisis  fre- 
quently occurs  a  litde  later.  After  a  salu- 
tary cnsis,  the  patient  feels  himself  relieved, 
and  tlie  dangerous  symptoms  cease. — It 
hardly  need  be  mentioned,  tliat  tlie  word 
crigis  is  figuratively  used  for  a  decisive 
point  in  any  important  affair  or  business, 
for  instance,  in  politics. 

Crispin;  tlie  name  of  two  legendary 
sainUi,  whose  festival  is  celebrated  on  the 
125th  of  October.  They  are  said  to  hava 
been  bom  at  Rome,  aliout  303  A.  D.,  and 
to  have  travelled  to  Finance  to  proiiagate 
Christianity,  where  they  died  as  martyrs. 
During  their  niission,  tliey  maintained 
themselves  by  shoemakiug;  hence  they 
are  the  patrons  of  shoemakers. 

Critical  Puilosopht.  (See  Kant,  and 
PhiUaophy,) 

Croatia  ;  a  kingdom  of  the  Austrian 
monarchy,  connected  with  Hungary.  It 
is  divided  into  Civil  aixl  Military  Croatia, 
rhe  former  coutiyns  36G5  square  miles, 


441,000  inhabitants,  7  cities,  16  market 
towns,  1827  villages,  and  consists  of  the 
three  counties  of  Agram,  Creutz,  and  the 
Hungarian  Littorale  (of  which  the  princi- 

gd  place  is  Fiume).  It  is  watered  by  the 
rave.  Save,  Culpa  and  Unna,  and  liound- 
ed  by  Hungary,  Sclavonia,  Bosnia,  Dal- 
matia,  IlJyria  and  Styria.  Military  Croa- 
tia (see  Military  Districis)  contains  61  GO, 
according  to  some,  4^,  square  miles, 
with  414,800  inhabitants,  in  6  cities,  6 
inai^et  towns,  and  1241  villages.  The 
inhabitants  are  Croats  and  Rascians,  mix- 
ed with  a  few  Germans  and  Hungarians. 
The  Croats,  a  Sclavonic  tribe,  are  Roman 
Catholics,  and  are  known  as  good  sol- 
diei-s,  but  have  made  litde  progress  in 
science  and  the  arts';  nay,  they  have  not 
among  them  even  all  of  tlie  ordinary 
mechanics.  Their  langua^  is  the  Slave- 
no-Horwatic  dialect  In  Turkish  Croatia 
(on  the  Unna  and  near  Biliatsch),  they 
are  Greek  Catholics.  Civil  Croatia  is 
fertile,  and  intersected  by  heights  of  very 
moderate  elevation,  extending  down  from 
Styria  and  Camiola.  Military  Croatia, 
however,  towards  Bosnia  and  Duimatia, 
has  mountains  rising  to  tlie  height  of 
5400  feet ;  as,  for  instance,  Wellebit,  die 
Plissivicza  mountains,  and  tlie  mountains 
of  Zrin.  The  climate  is  healdiier  tlian 
tliat  of  the  neighboring  Sclavonia,  and 
mild.  The  country  produces  chiefly  wine, 
tobaccO|  grain  of  various  sorts,  including 
maize,  fruits,  particularly  plums,  wood, 
caule,  horses,  sheep,  swine,  game,  fish, 
bees,  iron,  copper,  and  sulphur. 

Crocodile  (crocodUua) ;  a  genus  of 
saurian,  or  lizard-like  reptile,  species  of 
which  are  found  in  tlie  old  and  new 
world.  That  inhabiting  the  Nile  and 
otlier  rivera  of  Afrfca  has  lieen  known 
for  many  ages,  and  celebrated,  from  the 
remotest  antiquity,  for  qualities  which 
render  it  terrible*  to  .mankind.  As  the 
largest  reptile  known,*  and  as  the  most 
ferocious  and  destructive  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  waters,  it  could  not  but  com- 
mand tlie  attention,  and  excite  the  fears, 
of  those  who  were  near  enougii  to  observe 
its  pecuharities.  Few  persons  have  read 
tlie  sublime  book  of  Job,  wiUiout  being 
struck  wiUi  the  magnificent  and  tenible 
descrif>tioii  of  the  attributes  of  leviatlian 
to  wluch  alone  tlie  characters  of  the 
croco<iile  corres^iond.  It  is  not  surprising 
that  the  Egypuans,  who  deified  aliimst 

*  The  skeletons  of  much  larger  reptiles  have 
beeu  discovered  within  the  last  half  cciiiury  j  but, 
from  lliv  strata  in  \%'hioh  tlicy  were  found,  it  is 
certain  they  had  become  extinct  long  before  the 
earth  was  iuhabited  by  man. 


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every  thing,  should  place  among  their 
gods  aiiiitiais  so  powerttil  and  destructive, 
though  a  better  reason  is  to  be  found  in 
the  defence  which  they  afforded  against 
the  uicursions  of  Arabs  and  other  robbers, 
who  were  not  fond  of  adventuring  across 
'  canals  and  rivers  frequented  by  cr^Mxiiles. 
A  rv^gular  priesthood  and  worship  were 
consecrated  to  tliis  ferocious  deinr,  and  in 
the  tetnpie  of  Memphis  a  sacred  individ- 
ual of  the  species  was  reared  with  great 
care,  being  abundantly  fed,  adorned  with 
iewel^  and  lodged  in  a  spacious  basin, 
having  offerings  ai^d  sacrifices  made  to 
luni.  Being  thus  fed  and  managed,  the 
terrible  reptile  became  sufficiently  mild 
and  tnirtable  to  be  led  about  in  ceremo- 
nial processions.  When  he  died,  the 
priests  embahned  his  body,  and  buried  it 
in  the  royal  sepulchre !  So  much  for  the 
wisdom  of  the  nation  which  is  commonly 
regarded  as  the  most  enlightened  of  an- 
tiquity !  The  most  ancient  description  of 
the  crocodile  is  that  given  by  Herodotus, 
in  his  observations  on  Egypt,  in  his  first 
book.  This  account,  though  mingled 
with  a  considerable  share  of  mble,  is  gen- 
erally correct ;  and  some  of  the  errors  still 
in  existence  concerning  this  animal,  ap- 
pear to  be  derived  from  his  statement: 
such  are  the  stories  of  the  bird  which 
picks  the  crocodile's  teeth,  and  that  the 
animal  moves  only  the  upper  jaw.  The 
kuter  assertion,  though  utterly  incorrect, 
is  repeated,  even  at  uiis  day,  by  persons 
who  have  had  opportunities  of  knowing 
better  from  actual  observation,  had  they 
not  been  too  much  blinded  by  preiudice 
to  profit  thereby.  The  genus  is  cbarac- 
Cerized  by  the  follovTing  peculiarities :  The 
tail  is  compressed  or  broadest  vertically ; 
the  posterior  feet  are  whojly  or  partly 
palmated;  the  tofrgue  attached  to  the 
mouth,  even  to  its  very  edges,  without 
being  in  the  least  extensible;  a  single 
range  of  simple  pointed  teeth ;  the  male 
oigan  single.  There  are  five  toes  on  the 
front,  four  on  the  hind  feet,  only  three 
toes  of  each  foot  being  provided  with 
claws.  The  body,  above  and  below,  and 
the  entire  length  of  the  tail^  are  covered 
with  square  scales  or  plates,  most  of  those 
on  the  back  having  ridges  or  spines  of 
various  lengths:  the  flanks  are  only  pro- 
tected by  small  round  scales.  Two  rang- 
es of  spines,  forming  a  double  dentat^ 
fine,  are  placed  at  the  base  of  the  tail, 
which  subsequently  unite  or  form  a  single 
ridge  on  the  remainder  of  its  length.  The 
ears  are  externally  closed  by  two  fleshy 
slipe;  the  nostrils  form  a  long  narrow 
canal,  which  only  opens  interioriy  at  the 


back  of  the  throat  The  eyep  :.rp  provid- 
ed with  tiiree  lids ;  and  under  tlie  throat . 
there  are  two  smnll  pouches,  which  se- 
crete a  strongly  musky  suljstance.  Cuvier 
has  divided  the  genus  into  three  sub-gen- 
era, viz.  gamcUs,  having  an  elongated  nar- 
row beak  or  snout ;  ccasnutM^  or  alligators, 
with  broad  snouts,  and  having  four  lower 
teeth  to  fit  into  botes  excavated  for  them 
in  the  upper  jaw,  and  crocodUes  proper, 
having  the  head  oblong,  twice  as  long  as 
broad,  and  tlie  four  long  lower  jaw  teeth 
passing  by  grooves,  and  not  entering  into 
cavities  in  the  U[)i)er  jaw.  The  ga vials 
are  most  common  in,  if  not  peculiar  to, 
the  great  rivers  of  India.  The  alligaton 
are  confined  to  the  new  continent,  and  the 
crocodile  proper,  with  a  single  excepdon, 
to  Africa.  These  reptiles  are  truly  for- 
midable, from  their  great  size  and  strength, 
and,  if  they  were  not  rendered  unwieldy 
by  the  length  of  the  Iwdy  and  tail,  might 
become  as  dreadful  on  land  as  in  the 
Water,  where  they  can  act  to  the  greatest 
advantage.  Where  they  abound,  it  is  ex- 
tremely dangerous  to  venture  into  the 
rivers  for  die  purpose  of  bathing,  or  to  be 
carelessly  exposed  in  a  small  boat  On 
shore,  their  shonness  of  limb,  great  length 
of  body,  and  difficulty  of  turning,  or  of 
advancing  otherwise  than  directly"  for- 
vrard,  enable  men  and  animals  readily  to 
esca[>e  pursuit  For  a  crocodile  of  1^ 
]5,  or  lo  feet  in  length,  to  turn  fairiy,  k 
must  necessarily  describe  a  very  large 
circle.  In  the  water,  the  vast  force  it  can 
exert  by  means  of  the  long  oar-like  tail, 
amply  compensates  for  want  of  flexibility, 
and  renders  the  animal  more  than  a 
match  for  any  of  its  enemies.  The  force 
with  which  it  darts  through  the  water,  in 
pursnit  of  prey,  resembles  the  flight  of  an' 
arrow  rather  than  the  progression  of  a 
huge  animal,  and,  when  engaged  in  rude 
gambols,  or  in  combating  widi  others  of 
its  kind,  the  waves  are  lashed  into  foariL 
and  may  be  truly  said  to  **  boil  like  a  pot" 
The  mouth,  when  expanded,  forms  a  hor- 
rible chasm,  extending  even  to  the  earn, 
and,  armed  around  its  bonier  by  strong 
pointed  teeth.  This  construction,  with 
the  absence  of  lips,  arid  the  confined  posi- 
tion of  the  tongue,  show  that  the  acdon  of 
the  mouth  is  confined  simply  to  seizing 
and  tearing  the  food.  These  animals  are 
exclusively  carnivorous,  feeding  on  such 
animals  as  frequent  the  waters,  on  fish,  or 
carcasses  thrown  into  the  streams  they 
inhabit  They  always  prefer  their  food 
in  a  certain  state  of  putrefaction,  and  ar6 
found  to  keep  animals  killed  by  them- 
selves in  the  mud,  until  this  process  has 


Digitized  by 


Lioogle 


43 


CROCODrLE—CROISADE. 


begun.  In  regard  to  the  ^neral  chamc- 
ter  and  habits  of  crocodiles,  we  might 
safely  refer  to  the  account  given  in  the 
first  volume  of  this  work,  under  the  title 
MigatoTj  which  has  been  more  carefully 
observed.  Tliey  are  so  similar  in  every 
respect,  that  what  is  said  of  the  American 
B|)ecies,  with  very  sJi^ht  modification,  will 
hold  good  of  the  Afncan.  The  crocodile 
of  Egy|)t  is  no  longer  found,  except  in  the 
upi)pr  i>arts  of  that  countiy,  where  tlie 
heat  is  greatest,  and  the  population  least 
mimerous.  Anciently,  the  species  was 
common  nearly  to  the  outlet  of  the  Nile ; 
and  it  is  stated  by  Pliny,  that  they  used  to 
puss  the  winter  months  buried  in  the 
mud,  in  a  state  of  torpidity.  They  are 
still  common  enough  in  the  river  Senegal, 
the  Jaire,  JoUba,  ^c.  The  size  to  which 
these  creatures  grow  is  very  remarkable, 
and  would  lead  us  to  l>elieve  that  they  live 
to  a  vast  age.  It  is  stated  by  excellent  au- 
tliorities,  tliat  individuals  have  been  killed 
in  Ipfier  Egypt  measuring  30  feet  hi 
length.  51.  Cloquet,  who  was  one  of  the 
French  institute,  engaged  in  exploring 
that  country,  while  the  armies  of  the  re- 
public were  present,  saw  a  crocodile  '25 
feet  long.  A  little  reflection  upon  the 
muscular  power,  of  such  a  reptile  will 
serve  to  convince  us  of  its  ability  to  com- 
mit extensive  ravages  on  the  lives  of  other 
creatures.  There  are  numerous  particu- 
lars connected  with  the  anatomy  of  these 
beings,  which  are  very  curious  and  inter- 
esting. Such  are  tlie  articulations  of  the 
lower  jaw  with  the  upper,  tlie  joint  being 
so  far  back  as  to  cause  almost  every  inci- 
dental observer  to  believe  that  the  upper, 
not  the  lower  jaw,  is  moved  in  opening 
the  mouth ;  tlie  lateral  spines  on  tiie  ver- 
tebrae, which  prevent  (lie  tuniing  of  the 
body,  except  in  a  large  circle ;  the  curious 
set  of  ribs  designed  exclusively  for  the 
protection  of  the  belly,  aided  by  two 
broad  bones  standing  on  the  anterior  edge 
of  the  pelvis,  which  may  be  compared 
with  the  ossa  TnarsupiaHa  of  certain  quad- 
nipeds ;  the  construction  of  the  external 
ears ;  the  apparatus  for  the  protection  of 
the  eye,  &c.,  &c  But  for  such  <letails, 
we  are  under  the  necessity  of  referring 
the  reader  to  treatises  especially  devoted 
to  their  illustration.  The  species  of  croc- 
odile admitte<i  by  Cuvier,  in  the  excellent 
researches  contained  in  the  10th  and  12th 
volumes  of  the  Atmalta  du  Musiwa,  are 
the  following :  1.  the  common  crocodile 
of  Egypt  (C.  vulfi^aris);  2.  the  double- 
crested  (C  bworcatus);  3.  the  lozenge 
crocodile  (C.  rhymbifer) ;  4.  the  two-plate 
crocodile  (C.  InscukUus) ;  and  5.  the  Hay- 


tian  (C,  aciUua\  the  only  true  crocodile 
found  in  the  new  world,  according  to  his 
definition.  The  memoirs  above  referred 
to  contain  very  minute  and  satisfiictory 
accounts  of  the  discriminating  marks  of 
these  species,  and  to  that  source  tlie  read- 
er who  desires  such  information  may  refer 
with  great  advantage. 

CaoBsuB,  the  last  king  of  Lydia,  lived 
in  the  sixth  century  Itefore  Christ.  He 
vras  brave,  and  augmented  his  empire  by 
the  conquest  of  many  provinces  of  Asia 
Minor.  His  riches,  which  he  obtained 
chiefly  from  mines,  and  the  gold  dust  of 
the  river  Pactolus,  were  greater  thau 
those  of  any  king  before  him;  and  the 
expression  **  riches  of  CrcBsus"  came  to 
signify  unbounded  wealth.  Proud  of  bis 
treasures,  he  carried  his  love  of  splendor 
to  extravagance,  and  thought  himself  the 
happiest  of  men.  Herodotus  telLs  us  that 
Solon  visited  him  at  his  court,  and,  on 
being  asked  by  him  who  was  the  happiest 
man  he  knew,  mentioned,  ftrst,  Tellus, 
then  Cleobis  and  Biton,  all  three  humble 
individuals  of  Greece,  who  had  died  in 
the  midst  of  a  virtuous  career.  The  stoiy 
of  these  individuals,  as  related  bv  Solon, 
is  one  of  the  most  affecting  and  channing 
passages  in  the  work  of  the  father  of  his- 
tory. Cix]e8us  manifested  displeasure  that 
the  choice  of  the  sage  had  not  fallen  upon 
him ;  but  Solon  reminded  him  that  no  one 
can  be  safely  pronounced  happy  until  his 
death;  and  Croesus  was  soon  forced  to 
acknowledge  the  truth  of  the  reflection, 
having  lost  two  beloved  sons  by  violent 
death,  and  having  been  conquered  him- 
self by  Cyrus,  against  whom  he  had 
waged  war  for  the  benefit  of  the  Baby- 
k)nians.  He  was  taken  prisoner  in  his 
capital,  Sardis,  and,  having  been  placed 
on  a  pile  in  order  to  be  burnt,  he  three 
times  exclaimed,  "Oh,  Solon!"  Cyrus, 
ha\ing  learned  the  meaning  of  his  ex- 
clamation, was  much  moved,  ordered  him 
to  descend,  took  him  as  his  companion  in 
his  wars,  and  treated  him  well.  The 
time  of  the  deatli  of  Crcesus  is  not  known. 
He  was  alive  in  the  reign  of  Cambyses, 
the  son  and  successor  c3*  Cyrus.  He  is 
represented  as  one  of  the  most  pious 
among  the  ancients,  constandy  ]abi>ring 
to  please  the  gods.  Some  historians  deny 
the  interview  with  Solon ;  others  do  not 
mention  his  having  been  sentenced  to  be 
burnt :  at  all  events,  the  history,  as  it  is 
told  in  Herodotus,  is  equalled  by  few  nar- 
ratives, true  or  fictitious,  in  touching  sim- 
plicity. 

Crocus.    (See  Saffivn). 

CaoiSADE.    (See  Vruaade). 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


CROIX--CROMWELL. 


43 


C&oix,  Saint,  is  the  name  of  many  riv- 
ers and  places,  as  is  also  Santa  Croce  in 
Italian,  Atnia  Cruz  in  Spanish,  and  the 
compositions  with  Knuz  in  German. 
Amoiig  the  many  St.  Croix  are : 

iSL  Croix,  or  SJwodic,  or  Pas$anuxquoidy ; 
a  river  of  North  America,  which  diviiJes 
Maine  from  New  Brunswick,  and  flows 
into  Passamaquoddy  bay.  It  is  navigable 
for  ships  25  miles. 

iS3L  Croix;  a  river  in  the  North-West 
Territory,  which  runs  into  the  Mississippi 
90  miles  below  St.  Anthony's  &ils.  It  is 
navigable  for  boats  about  100  miles. 

SL  Croix;  a  river  of  Canada,  which 
runs  into  the  river  Sl  Maurice  33  miles 
above  Quebec. 

Choker,  John  W.;  first  secretary  to  the 
board  of  admiralty,  member  of  tlie  Brit- 
ish pariiameut,  a  poet,  and  an  active  con- 
tributor to  tlie  Quarterly  Review.  He 
was  bom  in  Dubtiu,  1781,  and,  afler  hav- 
ing studied  in  Trinity  college,  in  that 
city,  was  entered  at  Lincohi's  Inn,  and,  in 
1802,  admitted  to  the  Irish  bar.  .  In  1807, 
be  was  chosen  meuiber  of  parliament  for 
Bownpatrick  (Ireland), and  has  ever  since 
retained  a  seat  in  that  body.  In  1809,  he 
distinguished  himself  by  his  activity  in 
the  a&ir  of  the  duke  of  Yotk  and  Mrs. 
Clarke,  and  was  rewarded  with  the  ap- 
pointment of  secretary  for  Ireland  dur- 
ing the  al«3nce  of  sir  Arthur  VVelleslev 
(duke  of  Wellington),  and  soon  afler  with 
that  of  first  secretaiy  to  the  admiralty. 
In  parliament,  he  is  a  fluent  speaker,  and 
an  eflficient  supporter  of  tlie  ministry.  Mr. 
Croker  has  published  several  literary 
works  of  some  merit,  which  appeared 
anonymously.  Among  them  are,  Famil- 
iar Epistles  on  the  Irish  Stage  (poetical, 
1803) ;  an  Intercepted  Letter  from  China 
(1805),  a  Satirical  Sketch ;  State  of  Ire- 
land, past  and  present  (1807) ;  the  Baule 
of  Talavera,  a  poem,  in  which  the  battle 
is  described  with  much  fire  (1809).  He 
has  been  one  of  the  most  lively  and  popu- 
lar of  the  regular  contributors  to  the 
Quarterly  Review.  His  articles  have 
been  more  commonly  on  literary  than 
political  subjects,  and  show  much  tact 
and  considerable  talent  His  favorite 
weapon  is  sarcasm.  The  most  of  the  ar- 
ticles on  French  literature  are  from  his 
pen,  and  display  much  illiberal  preju- 
dice, with  not  a  litde  ignorance  of  the 
subject 

Cbomlecb,  or  Cromleh,  in  British  an- 
tiquities; huge,  broad,  flat  stones,  lying 
upon  other  stones  set  up  on  end.  They 
are  common  in  the  isle  of  Anglesea. 
These  monuments  are  described  by  Mr. 


Rowland,  Dr.  Borlase,  &c.,  under  the 
name  of  artSy  or  altars.  Mr.  Rowland, 
however,  is  divided  in  his  opinion,  sup- 
posing them  to  have  been  originally  tomlis, 
but  that,  in  afler  times,  saeritices  were  per 
formed  upon  them  to  the  heroes  deposit- 
ed within.  There  is  an  account  of  king 
Harold  having  been  uiterre<l  beneath  a 
monument  of  this  kind,  in  Denmark  ;  and 
Mr.  Wright  discovered,  in  Ireland,  a  skel- 
eton deposited  in  one  of  tliem.  Mr.  To- 
land  mentions  a  cromlech  in  Neverii  par- 
ish, in  Pembrokeshire,  South  Wales,  hav- 
ing the  middle  stone  18  feet  high  and  9 
broad  towards  the  base,  but  narrowuig  up- 
wards ;  and  by  it  tliere  lay  a  broken  niece, 
10  feet  in  length,  which  seemed  to  be  of 
a  weight  heavier  tlian  20  oxen  could 
draw.  But  at  Poitiers,  in  France,  there  is 
one  supported  by  five  lesser  stones,  much 
exceeding  all  in  tlie  British  islands,  as  it  is 
50  feet  in  circumference.  This  he  con- 
ceives to  have  been  a  ^^  rocking-stone.** 
At  Boudoyr,  in  Anglesea,  there  is  a  noble 
cromlech,  ^lany  of  the  stones  being  30 
tons  in  weight 

Cromwell,  Oliver,  protector  of  the 
commonwealth  of  England,  Scotland  and 
Ireland,  one  of  the  most  powerful  charac- 
ters ttiat  ever  rose  from  a  revolution ;  a 
statesman  and  general,  who,  with  the  Bl 
ble  in  one  hand,  and  the  sword  in  the 
other,  raised  and  ruled  the  stormy  ele- 
ments of  political  and  religious  fanati- 
cism ;  with  a  bold,  yet  artful  ambition, 
achieved  great  enterprises,  and  planned 
still  greater;  admired,  feared,  and  cahuiHii- 
ated  by  bis  contemporaries,  and  first  truly 
appreciated  by  afler  ages, — was  bom  at 
Huntingdon,  April  25, 1599,  and  descend- 
ed from  a  family  which  traced  its  geneal- 
ogy til  rough  Richard  Williams,  who  as- 
sumed the  name  of  Cromwell  from  his 
maternal  uncle,  Thomas  Cromwell,  secre- 
tary of  state  to  Henry  VIII,  and  through 
William  ap  Yevan,  up  to  the  barons  of 
the  11th  century.  His  father,  Robert 
Cromwell,  proprietor  of  the  borough  of 
Huntingdon,  had  a  seat  in  parliament, 
but,  at  die  same  time,  to  support  a  numer- 
ous family,  undertook  a  large  brewing 
estabhshment  Oliver  receiv^  a  careful 
education.  Anticipations  of  future  great- 
ness early  seized  upon  his  imagination. 
When  a  child,  he  met  with  several  hair- 
breadth escapes.  During  his  infiuicy,  a 
large  ape  snatched  liim  out  of  his  cradle, 
and,  to  the  terror  of  the  family,  mounted 
with  him  to  the  roof  of  the  house.  Some 
years  afler,  he  was  rescued  by  a  clergy- 
man from  drowning.  The  unusually 
strict  discipline  of  the  grammar  school  at 

Digitized  by  LjOOQ IC 


44 


CROMWELL. 


which  he  was  educated,  created  a  di8|riist 
in  the  ainUtious  boy  for  all  prescribed 
tasks.  While  at  school,  he  performed 
witti  great  enthusiasm,  in  the  old  play  of 
Lingua,  the  part  of  Tactus,  who  finds  a 
erowu  and  purple  mantle.  He  retained 
an  impression,  in  after  life,  of  having  seen, 
in  his  youtli,  an  apparition  of  a  gigantic 
wotiiau  ut  his  bedside,  who  told  him  that 
he  would  become  the  greatest  man  in  the 
kingdom.  In  his  17tli  year,  be  went  to 
Cambridge,  where  he  studied  with  zeal, 
but,  at  the  same  time,  carried  his  fondness 
for  atliletic  exercises  even  to  a  love  of 
brawls  and  combats.  After  staying  there 
a  year,  his  motlier  sent  him  to  rtudy  law 
hi  London,  where  he  became  a  member 
of  Lincohi's  Inn,  and  spent  most  of  his 
time  m  dissipated  com{)any.  After  re- 
maining here  a  short  time,  be  returned  to 
reside  upon  his  paternal  pro|)erty,  where 
he  continued  his  dissolute  habits,  ajid  had 
a  quarrel  with  his  uncle.  Tliere  was  a 
restlessness  in  his  nature,  which  made 
strong  excitements  necessary  to  him ;  but 
he  6ariy  renounced  tlie  vices  and  follies 
of  his  youth,  when,  at  21,  he  espoused 
Elizabeth,  daughter  of  sir  James  Bour- 
chier,  a  womau  whose  conduct  was  ever 
vreproachable.  His  change  of  character 
was  owing,  however,  in  a  great  measure,  to 
his  close  connexion  with  a  religious  sect, 
which  afterwards  became  formidnl>le,  in  a 
political  view,  under  tlie  name  of  Puriton^ 
aud  htJepenienis.  At  the  same  time,  he 
became  a  student  of  theologicd  and  mili- 
tary works.  In  1625,  he  was  member  of 
parliament,  under  the  reign  of  Charles  I, 
from  the  borough  of  Huntingdon.  Here 
he  saw,  with  indignation,  the  abuses 
of  public  administration,  and,  by  the  \n:r- 
suasion  of  the  famous  Hamixlen  and  St. 
John,  his  relations,  took  tlie  side  of  the 
o[>)M)sitiou.  Both  of  them  hated  the  es- 
tablished church,  and  their  sentiments 
were  embraced  by  Cromwell,  whose 
spirit  was  early  inclined  to  enthusiasm. 
Ills  heated  imagination  often  made  him 
believe  lliat  he  was  dying,  and  the  physi- 
cians pronounced  him  a  "  vaporous  and 
fanciful  hypochoiidriac."  No  one  but  the 
}>enetrating  Hampden  had  a  correct  idea 
of  his  great  talents.  In  the  parfiament  of 
1628,  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal 
against  poj^ry.  After  this,  he  retired  to 
a  farm,  made  f^stitution  of  some  money 
that  he  had  won  in  earlier  years  by  gam- 
ing, and,  from  1635,  devoted  himself  whol- 
ly to  agriculture  at  Ely,  where  he  had  in- 
herited an  estate.  While  in  this  place,  he 
prevented  the  draining;  of  the  fens,  and 
thereby  made  himself  so  popular  with  the 


peo])le  of  tlie  place,  that  they  gave  him  the 
title  of  **  lord  of  the  fens."  He  afterwards 
])atrouised  this  measure  during  his  protec- 
torate. The  storm  was  lUready  at  hand 
which  was  to  shake  the  repose  of  England. 
The  king  wished  to  reign  without  a  par- 
liament, and  tlie  artiitrary  manner  in  which 
he  im{)osed  taxes,  assisted  by  the  prevail- 
ing rehgious  feeling  and  sectarian  ani- 
mosity, inflamed  tlie  passions  of  men,  and* 
urged  them  into  political  cx>nflict  The 
op{M>nentsof  the  arbitrary  measures  of  the 
government  had  so  little  idea  of  the  im- 
])euding  convuMcn,  that  several  of  them 
were  making  arrangements  to  embark, 
with  tlieir  families,  for  New  fkigland. 
Among  those  already  engaged  in  this 
scheme  were  Cromwell,  Hampden,  Pym, 
Hasulrigg  and  other  men,  afterwards  so 
formidable  in  the  revolution;  but  the 
government  forbade  their  emigration,  as 
the  icing  yns  fearftil  that  they  >Vould  help 
to  widen  the  breach  that  already  existed 
between  the  colonies  and  the  English 
church.  Thus  did  Charies  himSelf  coun- 
teract the  movements  of  fortune  in  his 
favor.  Cromwell  returned  to  Ely,  where 
he  lived,  for  a  time,  a  quiet  and  pious  life. 
It  was  at  this  {leriod  that  he  wrote  to  iiis 
friend  St  John,  tliat  **he  was  ready  to  do 
and  to  sufter  for  the  cause  of  his  God." 
He  also  held  meetings  of  the  sectaries  at  his 
house,  and  not  unfrequentiy  preached  and 
prayed  himself  before  them.  At  len^h,the 
king  was  compelled,  by  the  state  ol  aftbiis 
in  Scotland,  to  summon  a  jiarliament. 
Cromwell  (who  was  returned  member  by 
the  town  of  Cambridge)  and  others  were 
so  loud  in  their  comphiints  of  abuses  in 
church  and  state,  that  Charles  prorogued 
the  parliament,  but,  six  months  after, 
Novemlier,  1640,  was  obliged  to  reassem- 
ble it  In  this  parliament,  called  the  long 
parliament  (from  November,  1640,  to  April, 
1653)  Cromwell  attracted  notice  chiefly  by 
his  rustic  and  slovenly  dress,  and  by  the 
vehemence  of  his  oratoir,  often  degenerat- 
ing into  coarseness.  "  That  sloven,"  said 
Hampden  of  him,  '*  that  sloven  hath  no 
ornament  in  his  s^ieech,  but  he  will  be 
the  greatest  man  in  England,  if  we  should 
over  come  to  a  breach  witli  the  king."  In 
the  declaration  of  grievances  called  tlie 
Rsmonstratiet,  which  was  passed  by  a 
small  majority,  and  which  brought  on 
the  civil  war,  Cromwell  took  an  active 
part  He  was  at  this  time  a  sincere  Puri- 
tan ;  but  his  crafty  nature  soon  led  him 
into  the  windings  of  intrigue.  On  tlic 
breaking  out  of  the  war  in  1642,  beine 
appointed  captain,  and  afterwards  colonel, 
he  raised  a  troop  of  horse  composed  of 


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CROMWELL. 


45 


zealous  Puritans,  who  were  ready  to  risk 
all  for  the  cause  of  Grod.  The  address 
Willi  which  he  infused  his  own  spirit  into 
his  soldiera,  and  the  strict  discipline  which 
he  maintained,  gave  proof  of  the  sagacity 
with  which  he  afterwards  ruled  three 
kingdoms.  His  first  military  exploit  was 
the  occuiJation  of  Cambridge,  where,  with 
puritanical  zeal,  he  seized  tlie  university 
plate,  in  tlje  name  of  God,  to  defray  the 
expenses  of  the  wai-.  He  then  routed 
the  royalists,  and  made  hunself  master  of 
their  supplies.  This  success  very  much 
fiicilitateci  the  pariiament's  levies,  wliUe  it 
had  the  opposite  eftect  on  those  of  the  roy- 
alists. His  troops  behaved  with  remark- 
able order,  except  on  occasions  when 
their  religious  feeiingH  were  excited.  He 
laid  the  foundation  of  his  miiitaxy  fame 
by  the  relief  of  Gainsborough.  From 
that  time,  he  rivalled  in  boldness,  in  decis- 
ion, and  in  presence  of  mind,  the  most 
practised  warriors.  At  Marston  Moor, 
July  2,  1644,  the  cavalry  which  he  had 
trained,  and  which  was  commanded  by 
Fairfax  and  himseli^  decided  the  victo- 
ry. And  now  his  political  influence  be- 
gan. Both  a  Puritan  and  a  republican,  he 
diought  with  Ireton  and  Hampden,  but 
spoke  out  more  boldly  and  distinctly,  and 
thus  became  the  prominent  leader  of  tlie 
pany  that  was  resolved  to  carry  matters 
to  the  last  extremity.  But  amid  all  his 
real  and  fei^ed  honesty,  he  was  al- 
ready beginnmg  to  play  tlie  secret  part, 
for  which  his  sagacity  and  knowledge  of 
human  mature  soon  suggested  the  most 

E>litic  course.  He  constantly  served,  as 
obt)es  remarks,  the  strongest  party,  as 
well  as  he  was  able,  and  carried  matters 
with  it  as  far  as  it  wished.  Once,  indeed, 
when  he  had  charged  lord  Manchester 
with  cowardice,  before  parliament,  be- 
cause, afler  the  batde  of  Newbury  (1643), 
he  would  not  pennit  the  cavahy  to  charge 
the  enemy  on  their  retreat,  from  fear  that, 
if  routed,  they  would  all  be  treated  as 
rebels  and  traitors,  the  earl  publicly  ac- 
cused him  of  an  intention  of  putting  hinv 
self  at  the  head  of  the  army,  and  giving 
the  law  to  king  and  parliament  Fortu- 
nately for  Cromwell,  the  influence  of  the 
}ude|)endents  (q.  v.)  preventerl  a  thorough 
investigation  of  the  matter.  From  that 
time,  however,  the  English  Presbyterians 
regarded  him  as  a  dangerous  man ;  and 
the  commander-in-chief,  Essex,  joined 
with  the  Scots,  who  hated  Cromwell  for 
his  contemptuous  treatment  of  them,  in 
seeking  his  downfall.  Upon  this,  Crom- 
well, in  concert  with  his  friends,  planne<l 
a  measure  which  may  be  regarded  as  the 


masteistroke  of  his  polidcal  conning. 
On  fast  day,  he  induced  the  London  cler- 
ffy  to  preach  on  the  necessity  of  the  par- 
liament ireeuig  itself  from  the  charge  of 
seltish  ends,  which  could  be  done  only  by 
its  meml)erB  resigning  all  their  lucrative 
offices,  civil  and  mihtaiy,  and  leaving  it 
to  the  Lord  to  choose  other  instruments 
for  bringing  to  a  concluaion  so  glorious  a 
worit.  In  consequence  of  tliis,  the  fiar- 
liament  passed  wliat  was  called  the  self- 
dtnying  orUiiumce^  in  accordance  with 
which  sir  Harry  Vane,  Cromwell,  and 
others,  gave  in  their  resignations,  because 
the  anny,  as  they  said,  stood  in  neetl  of  a 
stricter  discipline,  and,  above  all,  of  more 
Christian  leaders.  The  project  was  car- 
ried through ;  Essex  was  dismissed,  and 
the  zealous,  but  irresolute  sir  Thomas 
Fairfax  was  put  in  his  place.  As  the 
honorable  but  weak  Fairfax  did  not  feel 
himself  qualified  for  tlie  duties  of  general, 
he  obtained  an  exemption  from  the  aliove- 
mentioned  ordinance  for  Cromwell,  who, 
uniting  ability  with  boldness,  was  again 
placed  under  him,  with  the  command  of 
tlie  cavahy.  Cromwell  now  introduced 
into  the  whole  anny  the  excellent  disci- 
pline in  which  he  had  already  trained  a 
part  of  it,  and  gained  the  decisive  battle 
of  Nuseby  (June  14,  1645),  in  which  the 
king  was  routed  witli  great  loss.  Crom- 
well got  [KMscssion  of  the  correspondence 
of  Charles  1  with  tlie  queen,  from  which 
the  parliament  published  all  the  passages 
which  would  injure  the  king  and  queen 
in  public  opinion.  After  this  victory,  and 
the  capture  of  Bristol,  Cromwell  wrote  to 
the  parliament,  in  that  affectedly  humble 
and  sancdfied  strain,  with  which  he  dis- 
guised his  ambitious  designs;  ^This  is 
none  other  but  the  hand  of  God,  and  to 
him  alone  belongs  the  glory."  The  spirit 
in  the  army,  which  the  officers,  and  es- 
pecially Cromwell,  excited  by  tlieir  ser- 
mons and  prayers,  had  now  risen  to  fanat- 
icism ;  at  the  same  time  that  good  ortler 
and  morality  were  so  well  maintained, 
that  profauinr,  drunkenness,  robbery,  and 
the  like  offences,  hardly  ever  •  occurred. 
By  this  coune,  Cromwell  succeeded  in 
crushing  the  last  efforts  of  the  royal  party, 
which  he  persecuted  witli  fanatical  bit- 
terness. Charles  I  at  UuA  took  refuge 
with  the  Scotch  army ;  but  was  sold  by 
tliem  to  the  parliament  (May  5, 1646)  for 
their  arrears  of  pay,  on  which  occasion 
Cromwell  was  one  of  the  commissioners. 
Contrary  to  the  expectation  of  the  people, 
Charies  was  treated  as  a  prisoner  bv  the 
leaders  of  the  war  party  and  the  Inde- 
pendents) who  carried  their  cruelty  so  fur 


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CROMWELL. 


as  even  to  deny  him  the  consolation  of 
having  one  of  his  chaplains  with  him. 
The  iiarliament  was  now  in  poBses^ion  of 
the  supreme  power.  It  distributed  re- 
wards to  its  adherents^  and  Cromwell  re- 
ceived £3500  a  year,  from  the  estates  of 
the  marquis  of  Worcester.  But  when  the 
parliament  wished  to  disband  the  army, 
which  was  infected  with  the  ianaticai 
spirit  of  the  Independents,  the  soldiers 
appointed,  from  the  creatures  of  Cromwell 
and  the  wildest  visionaries,  a  council  of 
officers  and  a  body  of  subalterns  and  pri- 
vates, coiled  agttaUfrSj  who  iusolendy  de- 
clared to  tlie  {Nirliatnent,  tliat  they  would 
not  lay  down  their  anns  till  the  freedom 
of  the  nation  was  established.  Some  of 
the  soldiers  conducted  with  so  much 
lioldness,  tiiat  the  fmrljament  ordered  tlieir 
arrest ;  on  which  occasion  Cromwell  not 
only  sup|x>rted  the  house,  but,  with  tears 
m  his  eyes,  deplored  the  seditious  temper 
of  the  troo|)s,  which,  he  said,  had  even  put 
his  own  life  in  danger.  Some  of  the 
niemljers,  however,  saw  in  him  the  secret 
mover  of  those  measures,  and  accordingly 
proposed  his  afiprehension ;  but,  on  that 
very  day,  Cromwell  refiaired  to  the  army, 
in  order,  as  he  wrote  to  the  lower  house, 
to  restore  t[ie  deluded  soldtera  to  their 
duty,  and,  at  the  same  time,  requested 
that  Fairfax  and  tlie  other  officers  would 
cooperate  with  him  to  this  end.  On  tlie 
same  day  (June  3,  1647),  one  of  the  agi- 
tators, Joyce,  forcibly  carried  off  the  king 
from  Iloltnby,  and  delivered  him  into  the 
hands  of  the  anny.  Cromwell  seems  at 
this  time  to  have  contemplated  the  restor- 
ation of  the  kuig.  But  he  was  convhiced, 
on  a  nearer  view  of  the  fanatical  spirit 
that  reigned  in  the  anny,  that  he  could 
not  venture  such  a  measure  without  dan- 
ger of  his  life  ;  besides,  be  was  only 
second  in  command,  and  could  not  reckon 
on  the  assistance  of  the  most  iufluendal 
men,  some  of  whom,  as  Vane  and  St. 
John,  were  his  equals  in  cunning,  and 
others,  as  I^idlow,  Haselrigg,  and  many 
more,  his  equals  in  courage.  They  were 
all  zealous  republicans,  and  iinnly  resolv- 
ed to  destroy  monarchy  with  tlie  mon- 
arch. Cromwell  seems,  too,  to  have  feared 
the  |K>litica]  principles  of  his  son-in-law, 
Ireton.  Thus  he  was  finally  obliged  to 
continue  in  the  course  which  he  had 
begun,  and,  in  onler  to  preserve  the 
favor  of  die  army,  to  make  a  hyiiocriti- 
cal  show  of  sentiments  which  he  no 
longer  felti  He  iiersonally  res))ecteil  tlie 
king  as  an  upright  and  conscientious  man. 
He  is  said  to  have  coniiivetl  at  his  flight 
from  Hampton  court,  and  to  have  wished 


that  he  might  escape  from  the  kingdom ; 

and  spoke  with  tears  of  his  first  meeting 
with  his  children  ;  for  Cromwell,  in  pri- 
vate life,  was  mild  and  noble  in  bis  tem- 
per; At  last,  yielding  to  the  force  of  cir- 
cumstances, be  united  himself  entirely  to 
the  commonwealth  party,  and,  in  their 
deliberations  about  tne  tiiture  form  of 
government,  feebly  advocated  a  monar- 
chy, wlijch  this  iMuty  called  a  mischief 
and  a  nn,  because  they  regarded  God 
alone  as  their  Lord  and  King.  Cromwell 
had  now  learned  the  diqiosition  of  his 
people,  and,  with  that  coarse  levity  which 
was  a  leading  trait  in  bis  character,  he 
concluded  a  conference  by  throwmg  a 
cushion  at  Ludlow^s  bead,  and  running 
down  stairs,  where  another  was  thrown 
after  him  in  return.  The  next  day,  he 
said  to  Ludlow,  that  he  thought  the  aboli- 
tion of  tiie  monarchy  was  desirable,  but 
hardly  practicalile.  Soon  after,  Cromwell 
had  a  proof  of  the  strengtli  of  his  party. 
Major  Huntingdon  accusing  him,  in  par- 
Uarnent,  of  a  design  to  raise,  in  concert 
with  Ireton,  an  anny  against  the  parlia- 
ment, and  establish  a  military  government 
under  the  name  of  the  king,  the  influence 
of  the  Independents  outweighed  tliat  of 
the  Presliyterians ;  and,  as  3ie  insurrec- 
tions of  tlie  Welsh  and  Scotch  were  to  be 
subdued,  tl^ie  parliament  did  not  dare  to  con- 
demn or  dismiss  a  general  whose  services 
were  so  necessary-.  UiK>n  tliis,  Cromwell 
reduced  Wales  by  a  sudden  attack ;  and,  as 
Fairfax,  from  Presbyterian  scruples,  de- 
clined the  command  of  tlie  expedition 
against  Scotland,  he  undertook  it  with  tiie 
more  eagerness,  as  be  knew  tlie  weak 
condition  of  the  Scotch  anny,  and  bad, 
for  many  years,  heartily  hated  die  Scotch 
lieople.  With  a  much  inferior  force,  he 
defeated  them  at  Preston,  and  was  re- 
ceived in  Edinburgh  as  a  deliverer. 
Now  followed  the  tragedy  of  tlie  king's 
execudon  (see  Charles  /),  who  was  be- 
headed Jan.  29,  1649.  Cromwell  was 
induced  to  consent  to  this  act  by  tlie 
advice  of  Ireton,  and  took  a  consiiicuous 
]Mut  in  it,  as  be  had  not  tlie  courage  or 
tlie  power  to  prevent  it.  He  carried  bis 
want  of  feeling  so  far,  as  not  only  to  l)e  a 
sfiectator  of  the  execution  i'rom  a  window 
fitted  up  for  him,  but  even  to  have  the 
body  in  tlie  coffin  shown  to  him.  The 
republic  was  established,  and  Cromwell, 
as  a  proof  of  his  republican  virtue,  resolved 
on  the  deadi  of  lord  Cafiel,  because,  as  be 
said,  the  friendship  which  he  felt  for  iliis 
loyal  adherent  of  the  king  must  be  sacri- 
ficed to  public  dutv.  Yet  Cromwell  was 
not  natui^ly  cruel.    He  shed  blood  firom 


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CROMWELL. 


47 


a  poKtic  calculation  of  his  own  interest 
He  was  more  afraid  of  his  old  friend^  the 
levellers,  than  of  the  royalists.  At  last,  he 
succeeded  in  putting  down  the  former 
by  strong  measures,  and  then,  to  the  aston- 
ishment of  his  enemies,  who  wished  for 
nothing  more  than  his  absence,  he  led  his 
army  to  Ireland.  Victory  was  now  to 
raise  him  still  higher  in  the  fevor  of  the 
people.  He  took  Drogheda  by  storm 
(SepL,  1649),  where  he  gave  orders  tliat 
nothing  should  be  spared.  '^This  bit- 
terness," he  said,  ''will  save  much  effu- 
sion of  blood,  through  the  goodness  of 
God."  Most  of  the  cities  opened  iheur 
gates  without  resistance,  and  Cromwell, 
trusting  to  the  terror  of  his  name,  though 
his  army  was  greatly  weakened  by  sicK- 
nesa,  marched  lx>ldly  into  the  interior,where 
cowardice  and  treachecy  every  where 
yielded  him  a  submissive  welcome.  With- 
in six  months,  the  myalist  party  in  Ireland 
was  wholly  crushed.  Resigning  the  com- 
mand to  Ireton,  he  now  undertook,  at  the 
request  of  the  parliament,  a  similiar  ex- 
pedition against  Scotland,  where  Charles 
Stuart,  afbrwards  Charles  II,  had  been 
prockimed  kin^.  Cromwell  had,  at  first, 
desired  that  Fau-fax  should  take  the  com- 
mand of  the  army;  but  Fair&x  had  taken 
the  covenants  (see  Cofvewfnt^  and  would 
not  fight  against  the  Scotch.  Cromwell 
was  therefore  appointed  commander-in- 
chie(  and  marched  into  Scotland.  Being 
ignorant  of  the  nature  of  the  country,  and 
of  the  situation  of  the  Scotch  forces,  his 
supplies  were  cut  off,  his  army  became 
sickly,  his  retreat  was  intercepted,  and  he 
roust  have  been  forced  to  surrender  at 
Dunbar,  had  the  Scotch  avoided  a  battle. 
When  he  saw  them  advance,  he  exclaimed, 
''The  Lord  hath  delivered  them  into  our 
hands !"  The  wtory  at  Dunbar  (Sept  3, 
1650)  rid  the  fortu^iate  genend  of  his  ene- 
mies the  Presbyterians.  He  then  marched 
into  Edinburgh.  Meanwhile  king  Charles 
had  collected  new  forces;  but  CromwelL 
by  skilful  marches  near  Stirling,  cut  him  off 
from  his  points  of  support,  when,  contrary 
to  hb  expectation,  the  king  entered  Eng- 
land, and  threatened  London  itself.  Every 
thing  was  done  to  strengthen  the  army 
of  Cromwell,  who  conducted  like  an  active 
and  reacdute  general,  while,  in  the  royal 
camp,  irresolution  and  discord  prevailed. 
Gharlee  was  totally  defeated  at  Worces- 
ter, Sept.  3,  1651.  This  victory,  which 
Cromwell  called  the  croK^ittng  mercu  of  God, 
gave  the  commonwealth  party  full  power 
over  three  kingdoms.  Cromwell  already 
exerted  a  we^ty  influence  on  the  su- 
preme direction  of  public  afiairs.     He 


succeeded  in  restoring  the  continental  rela- 
tions of  England,  which  liad  been  almost 
entirely  dissolved,  and  regulated  tiiem  so 
as  to  promote  the  interests  of  conunerce. 
The  navigation  act,  from  which  may  be 
dated  tlie  rise  of  the  naval  power  of  Eng- 
land, was  fhimed  upon  his  suggestion,  and 
passed  in  1651.  At  the  same  time,  tlie 
general,  who  was  honored  by  the  city  of 
London  as  the  father  of  his  country,  was 
aiming  at  sole  sovereignty.  The  only  man 
whom  he  feared,  Ireioii,  was  dead.  At  a 
consultation  with  some  iitembers  of  |mr- 
liament,  and  tlie  most  disanguiahed  offi- 
cers, on  the  form  of  govenunent  to  lie 
establislied,  he  recommended  a  sficcies 
of  mouarcliy,  but  was  silent  when  some 
lawyers  in  the  convention  proposed  tlie 
young  duke  of  Gloucester  for  king.  Mean- 
time the  long  ])arliament,  which  wad 
aiming  to  establisl)  its  own  power,  was 
growing  more  and  more  unpopular,  in 
consequence  of  its  undisguised  tyranny, 
the  war  which  it  had  provoked  wiih  tlie 
Dutch,  and  its  treatment  of  the  prisoners 
taken  at  Worcester,  some  of  whom  were 
put  to  death  in  prison,  and  others  sold  for 
slaves  in  the  colonies.  A  frightful  tem- 
pest, too,  which  occurred  on  the  day  of 
the  execution  of  a  London  clergyman  by 
the  name  of  Love,  made  a  deep  impres- 
sion on  tlie  people.  And  now  Cromwell 
broke  silence,  lie  spoke  o|)enly  to  his 
friends  of  the  ambition,  the  godlessuess 
and  injustice  of  the  parliaihent.  Encour- 
aged by  their  support,  he  at  last  hazarded 
a  decisive  step,  ami,  with  300  soldiers,  (h»- 
persed  that  body,  "  for  the  glory  of  God 
and  the  good  of  the  nation."  He  tlien 
summon^  a  council  of  war,  in  which  the 
officers  finally  chose  a  parUamciit  of  128 
persons,  selected  from  tlie  three  kingdoms, 
which,  from  Praiae-Go<l  Barebone,  one  of 
the  principal  characters  in  it,  by  trade  a 
leather-se!ler,  was  nicknamed  Praxst-Gad 
Barfkowi's  parUcanenL  Cromwell  himself 
opened  the  session  with  a  speech,  in 
which  he  said,  that  the  day  had  come,  on 
which  the  saints  were  to  commence  their 
reign  upon  earth.  Fifteen  montlis  after,  a 
new  annual  parliament  was  chosen ;  but, 
after  a  sesnon  of  five  montlis,  Cromwell 
prevailed  on  this  body,  who  were  totally 
incapable  of  governing,  to  place  tiie  charge 
of  the  commonwealth  in  his  hamls.  The 
chief  power  now  devolving  again  upon 
the  council  of  officers  (Dec.  12,  1653), 
they  declared  Oliver  Cromwell  sole  gov- 
ernor of  the  commonwealth,  under  the 
name  of  lord  protectory  with  an  assistant 
council  of  21  men.  The  new  protector 
behaved  with  dignity  and  firmness.    With 


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the  aid  of  general  Lambert,  he  foimed  a 
constitution,  called  the  hutrumeiit  cf  Chv- 
emment^  by  which  tlie  protector  was  in- 
vested with  tlie  power  of  peace  and  war, 
and  was  to  summon  a  parliament  once 
every  three  years,  which  he  should  not 
dissolve  under  five  months ;  bills  presented 
to  him  were  to  have  tlie  force  of  laws  if 
not  ratified  by  him  witliin  20  days ;  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  he  had  power  to  enact 
laws,  with  the  consent  of  his  council, 
which  should  be  binding  in  the  intervals 
of  tlie  sessions  of  parliament  In  case  of 
his  deatli,  the  council  were  immediately 
to  choose  a  new  protector ;  but  no  protec- 
tor after  him  was  to  command  the  army. 
Cromwell,  having  concluded  peace  with 
Poitugal,  turned  the  resources  of  the  state 
to  the  enlargement  of  its  navy  and  com- 
merce. France  and  Spain  courted  the 
friendship  of  the  fortunate  protector,  who 
at  length  united  with  cardinal  Mazarin,  in 
order  to  increase  the  colonial  power  of 
Encland.  To  make  a  thorough  reduction 
of  Scotland,  he  gave  orders  to  general 
Monk  to  plunder  every  place  that  made 
resistance,  and  put  the  garrison  to  the 
sword— K)rder8  which  were  so  rigorously 
executed  by  Monk,  iliat  terror  ensured  the 
most  implicit  submission.  The  nobles 
feared,  ilie  clergy  hated  the  protector, 
while  the  people,  whom  he  treated  with 
equity  and  kindness,  loved  him,  because 
they  enjoyed  much  more  liberty  under 
liim  than  before.  The  protector  treated 
Ireland  with  great  severity.  His  act  of 
pardon  was,  in  reality,  a  desperate  reme- 
dy for  a  desperate  evil.  The  surviving 
inhabitants  of  an  island  wasted  by  fire, 
sword  and  ])estilence,  were  compelled  to 
remove,  on  iienalty  of  death,  to  a  barren 
tract  of  the  province  of  Connaught,  which 
was  divided  among  them  ;  the  rest  of  the 
island  became  tlie  proiierty  of  the  con- 
querors. Such  was  tlie  bitter  hatred  oc- 
casioned by  the  unceasing  quarrels  of  the 
Protestants  and  Catholica.  Here,  how- 
ever, 88  in  Scotland,  the  protector  estab- 
lished an  equitable  form  of  government, 
which,  in  tlie  course  of  a  few  generations, 
would  have  very  much  improved  the 
state  of  the  island.  But,  in  England,  tlie 
situation  of  the  protector  was  far  from 
beinff  secure.  A  member  of  parliament 
loudly  declared,  that  he  could  not  brook, 
afler  the  oveitlirow  of  one  tyrant,  to  see 
tlie  liberties  of  the  nation  shackled  by 
another,  whose  prerogative  had  no  meas- 
ure but  the  len^h  of  his  sword;  and 
Cromwell  met  with  so  much  opposition, 
that,  after  the  first  five  months,  he  dissolved 
the  jiariiament.  On  the  whole,  his  political 


administration  was  masterly,  and  adapted 
to  the  circumstances  of  his  situation. 
He  established  large  magazines  of  pro- 
visions ;  the  pay  of  the  soldiers  was  regu- 
lariy  delivered  to  them  a  mouth  in  ad- 
vance; the  public  revenues  were  strictly 
and  economically  managed,  without  any 
additional  imposts.  He  apiiointed  for 
judges  the  most  upright  and  distinguished 
men.  Among  tliese  was  the  famous  sir 
Mattbew  Hale.  He  never  interfered  with 
the  proceedings  of  the  courts  of  jusdce. 
In  religion,  he  acted  6n  the  principle  of 
toleration.  Every  man  had  liberty  of 
conscience,  in  other  things,  too,  Crom- 
well, as  his  own  correct  judgment  prompt- 
ed, would  have  governed  with  mildness 
and  justice,  promoted  the  arts  and  sci- 
ences, and  healed  the  wounds  of  the  na- 
tion ;  but  he  was  obliged  to  maintain  his 
power,  as  he  had  ac(|uired  it,  against  his 
tetter  will,  by  a  seventy  often  amounting 
to  tyranny.  Equally  afraid  of  die  royalists 
and  the  levellers,  he  could  not  rely  upon 
the  officers  of  the  army ;  he  did  not  place 
confidence  even  in  the  soldiers,  and  would 
have  taken  a  regiment  of  Swiss  for  his 
body-guard,  had  he  not  been  fearful  of 
making  himself  unpopular,  and  betraying 
his  suspicions,  by  so  doing.  With  tlie 
help  of  the  fanatics,  he  kept  the  royalists 
in  check ;  and  the  latter  served  as  a  coun- 
terpoise to  the  former.  For  this  reason 
he  rejected,  as  much  from  policy  as  from 
principle,  the  propoation,  which  was  re- 
peatedly made  in  the  council  of  war,  to 
massacre  all  the  royalista  They  were 
obliged,  however,  to  give  up  a  tenth  nart 
of  their  property,  were  always  looKed 
upon  as  enemies,  and  were  denied  the 
common  privileges  of  a  court  of  justice. 
In  order  to  collect  the  fines  imposed  on  the 
royalists,  to  prosecute  those  whom  he  sus- 
pected, perhaps  also  to  disunite  the  army, 
the  protector  divided  England  into  12 
military  jurisdictions,  and  placed  over  each 
a  major-general  with  absolute  power,  from 
whose  decisions  there  was  no  appeal,  ex- 
cejit  to  tlie  protector  himself;  but  he  specd- 
ily  broke  up  this  odious  ffoveniment  of 
pachas.  On  the  other  hand,  he  strength- 
ened the  British  navy.  The  ftimoiis  admi- 
ral Blake,  and  other  naval  heroes,  fought 
several  well-contested  battles  with  the 
Dutch  fleets,  under  De  Ruyter,  Tromp 
and  others.  In  the  peace  with  Holland 
(April  15, 1654),  England  maintained  the 
honor  ofher  flag,  and  t  he  navigation  act  gave 
a  new  impulse  to  the  colonial  trade.  The 
skilful  and  fortunate  conduct  of  the  war  with 
Spain,  from  1655  to  1658,  in  which  Jamaica 
and  Dunkirk  were  tiiken,  made  the  new  par- 


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llament,  from  which  Cromwell  liad  care- 
fully excluded  all  republicans,  so  obsequi- 
ous, that  they  at  last  offered  him  the  title 
of  king.  Some  individuals,  among  whom 
was  Lambert,  the  second  in  c5mmand  of 
the  army,  who  was  in  hopes  of  being  pro- 
tector after  Cromwell,  .and  the  majority 
of  the  officers,  opposed  the  measure  so 
resolutely,  that  Cromwell,  fearing  the  fete 
of  Csesar,  declined  the  title.  His  brother- 
in-law,  Desborough,  and  his  son-in-law, 
Fleetwood,  also  dissuaded  him  from  ac- 
cepting iL  For  tliis,  the  parliament,  by  an 
act  entitled  Humble  Petition  and  Aimce^ 
gave  him  the  title  of  kigkness,  and  the  right 
of  appointing  his  succensor ;  and  he  was 
a  second  time  solemnly  invested  by  the 
speaker  with  the  ensigns  of  his  office — a 
velvet  mantle  of  purple  color,  symbolical 
of  justice  and  mercy,  the  Bible,  the  staff 
and  the  sword.  CromweU  received  from 
all  quarters  marks  of  the  highest  respect; 
yet  the  incense  of  admiration  did  not  in- 
to.ticate  Ills  understanding :  he  saw  things 
in  their  true  light,  with  a  calm,  clear  and 
careful  eye.  Shakspeare  himself  has 
portrayed  no  situation  more  dramatic 
than  that  of  Cromwell;  but,  unlike  the 
stupified  and  despairing  Macbeth,  the  pro- 
tector rose  in  spirit  as  he  rose  in  fortune. 
He  renounced  the  principles  with  which 
he  had  set  out,  as  untenable.  Gladl  v  would 
he  have  repaired  the  past  mischief;  but 
the  men  whom  he  had  hitherto  used  as 
instruments  were  opjwsed  to  him,  and 
the  blood  of  the  king  was  inexpiable, 
Charles  Stuart,  son  of  the  late  king,  of- 
fered to  allow  him  to  make  his  own  terms, 
if  he  would  place  him  on  the  throne;  and 
Cromwell's  wife  urged  him  to  accept  the 
proposal ;  but  he  answered,  "  If  Charles 
Stuart  can  forgive  me  all  that  I  have  done 
against  him  and  his  family,  he  does  not 
deserve  to  wear  the  crown  of  England." 
Cromwell,  the  lord  of  three  kingdoms,  the 
mightiest  potentate  in  Europe,  the  great- 
est man  in  an  age  of  great  men,  and  wor- 
thier than  any  otiier  of  his  high  station, 
had  he  risen  by  upright  means,  was  un- 
happy in  the  last  years  of  his  life.  In  his 
h^rt,  he  wished  to  govern  on  mild  and 
constitutional  principles;  but  self-preser- 
vation compelled  him  to  be  severe  and 
suspicious.  A  usurper  must  be  a  des- 
pot He  at  last  governed  without  a  par- 
liament, since  none  was  pliant  enough  for 
him ;  and  the  bigots,  who  once  extolled 
him,  now  called  him  a  shameful  tyrant 
Their  conspiracies  against  his  life  kept 
him  in  continual  alarm.  He  never  went 
out  without  a  guard ;  no  one  knew  what 
route  he  would  take ;  he  usually  turned 

VOL.  IV.  5 


back  after  stortmg,  and  took  another  direc- 
tion ;  he  wore  a  shirt  of  mail  under  his 
dress,  and  seldom  slept  two  nights  suc- 
cessively in  the  same  room.  According 
to  Ludlow's  account,  he  expressed,  on  his 
death-bed,  some  fears  that  bis  memory 
would  be  insulted,  and  his  remains  tram- 
pled upon.  He  asked  his  preacher,  wheth  - 
er  it  was  true  that  the  elect  could  never 
finally  fall ;  and,  when  assured  that  it  w:is 
so,  Cromwell  rejoined,  "  Then  I  am  safe ; 
for  I  am  sjire  that  once  I  was  in  a  state  of 
grace."  The  powerful  medicines  which 
were  administered  to  him,  while  his  body 
was  weakened  by  the  tertian  ague,  brought 
on  a  kifid  of  insanity.  He  assured  his 
physicians,  os  tlie  fanatics  about  him  had 
persuaded  him  to  believe,  that  he  should 
not  die,  whatever  they  might  think  of  his 
situation ;  "  for  God  was  far  above  nature, 
and  God  had  promised  his  people  his 
recovery."  His  last  words  appeared  to 
be  those  of  a  person  interceding  with  God 
for  the  people.  Cromwell  died  Sept  3, 
1658,  at  the  age  of  59,  and  was  buried  in 
Westminster  abbey.  Most  of  the  Euro- 
pean courts  went  into  mourning  for  him, 
even  tliat  of  Versailles.  Great  as  a  gen- 
eral, Cromwell  was  still  gi-eater  as  a  civil 
ruler.  He  lived  in  a  simple  and  retired 
way,  like  a  private  man,  without  any 
parade  or  ostentation.  He  was  abstemi- 
ous, temperate,  indefatigably  indiistiious, 
and  exact  in  his  official  duties.  His  exte- 
rior inspired  neither  love  nor  confidence ; 
his  figm-c  had  neither  dignity  nor  grace  ; 
his  conversation  and  mannera  were  rude 
and  vulgar ;  his  voice  was  harsh ;  in  bis 
public  speeches,  he  expressed  himself 'wiili 
force  and  fire,  but  without  method  or  taste. 
On  the  other  hand,  he  possessed  extraor- 
dinary penetration  and  knowledge  of  hu- 
man nature ;  no  one  knew  so  well  as  ho 
tlie  artof  winnins:  men  and  using  them  to 
his  purposes.  He  devised  the  boldest 
plans  with  a  quickness,  equalled  only  by 
the  decision  nnd  intrepidity  with  which 
he  executed  them.  No  obstacle  deterred 
him ;  and  he  was  never  at  a  loss  for  ex- 
pedients. His  coins  bore  the  motto  Pax 
qtuErUur  bdlo.  Cool  and  reserved,  but  full 
of  great  projects,  he  patiently  waited  for 
the  favorable  moment,  and  failed  not  to 
make  use  of  it  Under  the  guise  of  piety 
and  virtue,  he  practised  the  most  subtle 
Machiavellism ;  yet  he  was,  iii  tnith,  an 
upright  and  tolerant  Calvinist  As  his 
political  interest  was  often  at  variance  witli 
his  real  sentiments,  he  sometimes  showed 
himself  crtiel,  sometimes  moderate,  even 
towards  his  avowed  enemies.  In  his  in- 
tercourse with  others,  he  often  indulged  in 


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CROMWELL. 


low  and  scun'ilous  jests,  frivolity  and 
coarseness,  which  agreed  as  ill  with  his 
iron  sternness  of  character,  as  with  the 
noble  spirit  whicli  brtjathes  in  some  of  his 
speeches,  and  Avith  tlie  force  of  his  orator}', 
which  swayed  not  only  the  ignorant  and 
fanatical  soldiery,  but  also  the  more  en- 
lightened parliament  His  elevation  was 
the  fruit  of  injustice  and  deceit ;  and,  on 
his  death,  his  family  soon  sunk  into  ob- 
scurity. He  had  appointed  his  eldest  son, 
Richard,  his  successor ;  but  the  republican 
and  religious  fanaticism  of  the  army  and 
officers,  with  Fleetwood  at  their  head, 
now  subverted,  as  it  had  formerly  served, 
the  projects  of  Cromwell.  Thetinild  and 
virtuous  Richard  was  compelled,  by  tlie 
mutinous  officers,  to  dissolve  tlie  parlia- 
ment ;  and,  a  few  days  after,  conscious  of 
his  inca|)acity,  he  voluntarily  abdicated 
the  protectorship,  April  22,  1659.  His 
brotlier  Henry,  who  had  talent,  bravery 
and  mildness  of  temper,  and  who,  from 
1(354,  had  governed  Ireland  in  tranquillity, 
improved  its  trade,  and  won  the  affections 
of  the  people  by  his  upright  administra- 
tion, followed  the  example  of  Richard, 
and  died  in  privacy  in  England.  Richard 
lived  in  narrow  circumstances,  his  projicr- 
ty  being  nearly  exhausted  in  the  expenses 
of  his  other's  ftmeral.  At  tlie  restoration, 
he  went  to  the  continent,  and  returned  to 
England  in  1680,  and,  assuming  the  name 
of  Clark,  passed  the  remainder  of  his  days 
in  tranquil  seclusion,  at  Cheshunt,  in  Hert- 
fordshire. He  died  in  1712,  at  the  age  of 
86.  His  father^s  corpse,  by  the  command 
of  Charles  II,  was  dug  up  in  1661,  hanged, 
and  buried  under  the  gallows. — For  fur- 
ther information  respecting  the  life  of 
Cromwell,  the  reader  may  consult  Claren- 
don and  Hume,  Ludlow's  Memoirs,  and 
those  of  Whitelocke  and  Noble ;  also  the 
accounts  of  him  by  Banks,  Jeudy  Dugour 
(Paris,  1795),  and  Villemain's  Histoire  de 
Cromwdl  (Paiis,  1819,  2  vols.) ;  besides 
these,  the  collections  of  Cromwell's  let- 
ters and  state  papers,  bv  Carte,  1736,  and 
Nichols,  1743,  published  at  London.  A  de- 
scendant of  the  family,  Oliver  Cromwell, 
published  Memoirs  of  the  Protector  Oliver 
Cromwell,  and  of  his  Sons,  Richard  and 
Heniy  (London,  1820,  4to.).  Su  the  fd- 
lowing  article, 

Cromwell,  Oliver,  a  gentleman  re- 
cently deceased,  was  the  great-grandson 
of  Heniy  Cromwell,  son  of  the  protector. 
He  practised  as  a  solicitor  in  Essex  street 
(liondon]  for  several  yean,  and  was  clerk 
to  St  Tnomas's  hospital  He  succeeded 
to  the  estate  of  Theobald's,  which  de- 
scended to  him  through  the  children  of 


Richard  Cromwell,  eldest  son  of  the  pro- 
tector, and  died  at  Cheshunt  park,  Hert- 
fordshire, Mfty  31,  1821,  aged  79.  He 
\^TOte  the  Mcmoiis  of  the  Protector,  Oli- 
ver Cromwell,  and  his  Sons,  Ricliard  and 
Henry,  illustrated  by  Original  Letters  and 
other  Family  Papers  (London,  1820,  4to.). 
Cromwell,  Thomas,  earl  of  Essex, 
was  the  son  of  a  blacksmith  at  Putney,  in 
Surrey,  and  was  bom  about  the  year  1490. 
In  his  youth,  he  was  employed  as  clerk  to 
.  the  English  factory  at  Antwerp.  In  1510, 
he  went  to  Rome,  and,  on  his  return  to 
England,  became  the  confidential  servant 
of  cardinal  Wolsey.  On  his  maker's  dis- 
grace, in  1529,  Cromwell  defended  him 
with  great  spirit,  in  the  house  of  com- 
mons, of  which  he  was  then  a  member, 
and  effectually  opposed  the  articles  of  trea- 
son brought  against  Wolsey.  After  the 
cardinal's  death,  he  was  taken  into  the 
king's  service,  into  which  he  entered  with 
zea^  but  with  Uttle  consideration  or  re- 
gard for  others.  He  was  knighted  and 
made  a  privy  counsellor,  and,  in  1534,  be- 
came principal  secretary  of  state  and 
master  of  the  rolls.  In  1535,  he  was  ap- 
pointed visitor-general  of  all  the  monas- 
teries in  England,  in  order  to  suppress 
them.  In  this  office,  he  acted  with  great 
severity  and  iniustice.  His  services  were 
rewarded  by  the  situation  of  lord  keeper 
of  the  privy  seal,  and  a  seat  in  the  house 
of  peers,  with  the  title  of  baron  Cromwell 
of  Okcham.  On  tlie  abolition  of  the 
pope's  supremacy,  he  was  created  king's 
vicar-general,  and  used  all  his  influence 
to  promote  the  reformation.  He  caused 
articles  of  religion  to  be  published  by  the 
royal  authority,  acknowledging  only  three 
sacraments,  and  speaking  doubtfully  of 
purgatory.  He  was  made  chief  justice 
Itinerant  of  tlie  forests  beyond  Trent, 
knight  of  the  garter,  and  ftnaliy,  in  15^^ 
earl  of  Essex,  and  lord  high  chamberlain. 
He  at  length  fell  into  disgrace  with  the 
king,  for  the  interest  he  took  in  promoting 
his  marriage  with  Anne  of  CJeves.  Her 
])erson  jiroved  disagreeable  to  Henry, 
who  fell  in  love  with  Catharine  Howard, 
a  lady  allied  to  the  principal  CathoUt 
families ;  and,  in  consequence  of  her  in- 
fluence and  the  royal  displeasure,  Crom- 
well was  arrested  at  the  council  table  on 
a  charge  of  treason,  committed  to  the 
Tower,  and  condemned  without  a  hearing 
He  was  beheaded  on  Tower-hill,  July  J^, 
1540,  declaring  that  he  died  in  the  faith 
of  the  Cathohc  church,  from  which  he 
confessed  he  had  been  seduced.  He 
bore  his  good  fortune  with  moderation, 
was  charitable  to  the  poor,  and  willing  to 


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51 


benefit  the  deseiriiig.  The  Protestants 
praiae  him  for  his  hidustir  and  solidity,  aiid 
all  the  qualities  which  fitted  him  ibr  the 
■aauagement  of  important  affaire ;  while 
the  Papists  dwell  on  his  violence,  ambition 
and  injusiace.  lie  always^teftilly  return- 
ed any  fiivors  he  liad  received  while  in  an 
humble  condition.  He  left  a  son,  who  was 
created  lord  Cromwell,  which  title  remain- 
ed in  the  family  for  several  generations. 

Cronion.    (See  JupUer.) 

C&O90S.   (See  Sattum.) 

CaoNSTADT,  orBuRZENLAND  (in  Hun- 
garian, Brassau) ;  a  free  royal  city  of  Tran- 
sylvania, in  the  Land  of  the  Saxons,  25 
leagues  E.  S.  E.  of  Hermanstadt,  31  N. 
N.  W.  of  Bucharest,  with  a  citadel ;  lat 
45°3G'  30"  N. ;  Ion.  25°  43'  47"  E.  It  con- 
tains six  Lutheran,  one  Roman  Catholic, 
two  Greek  Catholic  churches,  one  Luther- 
an gymnasium,  one  normal  school ;  25,000 
inhabitants.  Its  commerce,  chiefly  with 
Walachia,  is  very  brisk. 

Cro^stadt,  or  Kro.nschtat;  a  sea- 
port and  fortress  of  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  St.  Petersburg,  situated  on  the 
south-eastern  extremity  of  the  island  of 
Retusari,  in  the  gulf  of  Finland,  two  miles 
from  the  const  of  Ingria,  and  eight  irom 
that  of  Carelia,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Neva. 
It  was  founded  by  Peter  I  in  1710.  Some 
of  the  streets  are  tolerably  regular;  but 
the  houses  are  in  genei-al  built  of  wood, 
and  there  is  scarcely  any  pavement.  The 
principal  public  buildings  are  the  imperial 
hospital  n>r  sailors,  the  civil  hospital,  the 
barracks,  the  English  and  German  church- 
es, See,  The  population  amounts  to  about 
40,000,  of  whom  at  least  10,000  are  sail- 
ors. The  harbor  is  very  spacious,  and 
consists  of  the  three  divisions  of  the  mer- 
chants' harbor,  the  war  harbor,  and  the 
man  of  war's  mole.  The  war  harbor  is 
the  principal  station  of  the  Russian  fleet. 
JVdjoining  it  are  the  docks  for  building 
and  careening  ships  of  war.  They  can 
hold  ten  men  of  war,  and  are  faced  with 
stone  and  paved  with  granite:  they  are 
40  feet  deep  and  105  broad.  The  man 
of  war's  mole  is  an  interesting  structure, 
enclosed  by  a  strong  ramfiart  of  granite, 
built  in  the  sea,  under  the  direction  of  the 
late  admiral  Greig.  Here  is  a  foundery  for 
casting  cannon,  and  a  rope  walk  for  manu- 
facturing cables  of  all  sizes,  with  "great 
magazines  of  naval  stores.  Cronstfl.lt  is 
defended  towards  the  sea  by  two  fortifi- 
cations, called  Cronschiot,  on  the  Neva, 
where  this  river  is  2000  paces  wide, 
and  towards  the  land  by  ramparts  and 
bastions.  About  11  GO  vessels  enter  and 
leave  the  port  annually.     The  princii>al 


exports  from  tliis  harbor  are  iron,  flax, 
hemp,  linseed,  oil  and  tar.  22  miles  west 
St.  Petereburg.  Lon.  29°  49^  30"  E. ;  lat. 
59°  59' 26'' N. 

Crosier  ;  a  taD  staff  of  silver  or  gold, 
curved  at  tlie  upper  end,  which  is  car- 
ried before  bishops,  abbots  and  abbesses, 
as  an  ensign  expressive  of  their  dignit}', 
while  they  are  exercising  the  functions  of 
their  office ;  and  the  figure  of  which  is 
also  borne  in  their  coat  of  arms.  When 
bestowing  the  blessing  upon  the  people, 
they  take  the  staff  into  their  own  hands. 
It  was  ori^nally  a  shepherd's  crook,  the 
bishops  being  regarded  as  the  pastors  of 
their  dioceses.  By  degrees  the  humble 
emblem  became  highly  adorned,  and  was 
made  of  costly  materials.  Artists  like 
Benvenuto  Cellini  and  Giovanni  da  Bo- 
logna were  employed  to  make  it.  The 
invfesdture  of  the  bishop  is  indicated  by 
the  delivery  of  the  crosier.  Some  say 
that  die  crosier  was  originally  only  a  sim- 
ple staff,  which,  from  the  earliest  times,  has 
been  given  as  an  emblem  of  authority  to 
judges,  kings,  &c.  In  conformity  to  this 
explanation,  St.  Isidore  says  that  bishops 
bear  the  staff  because  they  have  the  right 
to  correct  the  enring,  and  the  duty  to  su{>- 
port  the  weak.  The  excess  of  splendor 
lavished  in  later  times  upon  tliis  uistru- 
ment,  gave  occasion  to  the  following  sa- 
tirical Enes : 

Au  temps  paasi  du  ti^cU  tPor, 
Cros$t  <U  boiSf  evetqut  (for : 
MairUenant  changent  Us  loiXf 
Crosse  (Por^  evesque  de  bois. 

Cross  ;  one  straight  body  laid  at  any 
angle  upon  another;  the  ensign  or  em- 
blem of  the  Christian  religion,  as  being  a 
representation  of  the  instrument  of  pun- 
ishment, on  which  /esus  Christ  suffered 
deaUi  from  the  Jews ;  the  form  in  which 
many  churches  and  cathedrals  are  built. 
The  cross  of  the  ancients  was  simply  a 
piece  of  wood,  fastened  across  a  tree  or 
upright  post,'  on  which  were  executed 
criminals  of  the  very  worst  class.  After 
the  crucifixion  of  Jesus,  and  tlie  exten- 
sion of  the  Christian  religion,  the  cross  was 
assumed  as  the  ensign  of  his  followers. 
The  cross  was  used  emblematically  be- 
fore the  Christian  era.  Upon  a  multitude 
of  medals  and  ancient  monuments,  ai-e  to 
be  found  crosses  placed  in  the  hands  of 
statues  of  Victory,  and  of  figures  of  em- 
perors. It  was  also  placed  ui)on  a  globe, 
which,  ever  since  the  days  of  Augustus, 
has  l)een  tlie  sign  of  the  empire  of  the 
world  and  the  image  of  victory.  The 
shields,  the  cuirasses,  the  helmets,  the  im- 
perial cap,  were  all  thus  decorated.    The 


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52 


CROSS. 


cross  has  also  been  often  stamped  upon 
tlie  reverses  of  money,  as  is  proved  by 
the  old  English  game  of  cross  and  pile. 
The  coins  struck  at  Constantinople,  and 
those  of  the  Franks  from  the  time  of 
Clovis,  were  also  thus  marked.  '  Exam- 
ples of  these  are  given  in  the  dissertation 
l>y  Ducange,  Sur  les  MidaiUes  Byzantrnts, 
and  in  the  treatise  by  Le  Blanc,  Swr  les 
Moimaies  dt  France,  The  cross  is  now 
the  universal  Christian  emblem,  being 
used  upon  the  arms  and  banners  of  the 
soldier,  the  vestments  of  the  priest,  and 
in  the  armorial  bearings  of  nobles.  The 
foiTOS  of  cathedrals,  and  often  the  pat- 
terns of  their  pavements,  are  adapted  to 
the  representation  of  the  cross,  which  is 
also  sculptured  and  elevated  upon  tomlis 
juid  sepulchres.  Sculptured  crosses  of 
various  descriptions,  elevated  upon  hand- 
some pedestals,  were  formerly  erected  in 
cemeteries  and  market-places,  ta  designate 
peculiar  events ;  as  the  queen's  crosses  at 
JN'orthampton,  Waltham,  &c.  Very  fine 
ones  are  still  to  be  seen  in  many  parts  of 
Great  Britain,  and  particularly  in  Ireland. 
In  order  to  understand  the  meaning  of 
tlie  sign  of  the  cross  among  the  first 
Christians,  it  must  be  kept  in  mind,  that 
the  cross  was  in  their  time  an  instrument 
of  infamous  punishment,  Jike  the  gallows 
at  present,  and  that  they  assumed  this 
sign  to  show  that  they  gloried  in  being 
the  followers  of  Christ,  notwithstanding 
the  infamy  which  bad  been  attempted  to 
be  thrown  upon  him,  by  the  manner  of 
his  execution.  The  custom  of  making 
the  sign  of  the  cross,  in  memory  of  Jesus, 
may  be  traced  to  the  3d  century  of  our  era. 
Constantine  the  Great  had  crosses  erected 
in  public  places,  m  palaces  and  churches. 
This  emperor  is  generally  supposed  to 
have  been  the  firet  who  onlered  the 
cross  to  be  used  as  the  sign  or  emblem 
under  which  he  would  fight  and  con- 
quer, irt'  remembrance  of  the  miraculous 
ap|)earance  of  a  cross  in  the  heavens. 
A  certain  legend  relates  that,  before  his 
battle  with  Maxentius,  a  cross  appeared  to 
him,  bearing  the  wonis  Tourv  vikH  (Under 
this  thou  slmlt  conquer.  In  hoc  signo  vince8\ 
in  consequence  of  which  he  had  a  stand- 
ard made  bearing  this  image,  and  called 
labanim.  It  was  customary,  in  his  time,  to 
paint  a  cross  at  the  entrance  of  a  house, 
to  denote  that  it  l)eIonged  to  a  Christian. 
Subsequentiy,  the  churches  were,  for  the 
greater  part,  built  in  die  fonn  of  this  in- 
strument. But  it  did  not  become  an  ob- 
ject of  adoration,  until  the  empress  Hele- 
na (Constantine's  mother)  found  a  cross 
in  Palestine,  which  was  believed  to  be 


tlie  one  on  whidi  Christ  suffered,  and 
conveyed  a  .part  of  it  to  Constantinople. 
This  18  die  origin  of  the  festival  of  the 
finding  of  the  cross^  which  the  Catholic 
church  celebrates  on  the  third  of  May. 
Standards  and  weafions  were  now  orna- 
mented w^itii  it,  and  the  emperor  Henic- 
lius  thouffht  he  had  recovered  the  palla- 
dium of  his  empire,  when  he  gained  pos- 
session of  a  piece  of  the  tine  cross,  in  G28, 
which  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Per- 
sians, in  616.  In  memory  of  this  event,  the 
festival  of  the  exaltation  of  the  cross  waa 
instituted,  Heraclius  having  caused  the 
cross  to  be  erected  at  Jerusalem,  on  mount 
Calvary.  This  festival  is  celebrated  on 
the  14th  of  September.  It  is  remarkable 
how  this  holy  relic  became  multiplied. 
Numberless  churches  possessed  some 
pans  of  it,  the  miraculous  power  of  which 
was  said  to  have  been  proved  by  tiie  most 
astonishing  facts ;  and  many  persons  ac- 
tually believed  that  it  could  be  infinitely 
divided  without  decreasing.  It  was  in 
vain  that  the  Iconoclasts,  w'ho  condemned 
the  wonship  of  images,  attempted  to  over- 
throw the  adoration  of  the  cross.  The 
crucifix  was  considered  as  a  principal  ob- 
ject of  worship,  in  preference  to  the  im- 
ages of  the  saints,  and,  in  compliance  with 
the  teaching  of  John  of  Damascus,  was 
adored,  dunng  the  7th  century,  in  all  the 
churches  of  the  East  That  the  West 
also  ascribed  a  mysterious  power  to  this 
symbol,  is  evident  from  the  use  which 
was  made  of  it  in  the  trials  **  by  the  judg- 
ment of  God,"  in  the  middle  ages.  There 
never  has  existed  any  sign,  which  has 
been  so  often  repeated  in  works  of  art  as 
the  cross.  This  may  be  ascribed,  in  peit^ 
to  its  form  being  applicable  to  many  more 
purposes  than  those  of  other  emblems; 
sudi,  for  instance,  as  the  crescent.  The 
distinguishufig   cipher  of  the  Jesuits  is 

I1(S,  wlilch  signifies  In  hoc  cruet  solus,  or 

Jesi^y  in  Greek  letters,  and  abbreviated. 
Crosses  have  been  die  badge  of  uuuiljer- 
less  orders,  military  and  civil.  To  make 
the  sign  of  the  cross,  is  tliought  by  many 
people,  in  Catholic  countries,  a  defence 
against  evil  spirits,  evil  influences,  &c. 
The  Greeks  make  this  sign  constandy, 
hardly  taking  a  glass  of  raJy  without 
signfng  the  cross  over  it.  Catholic  bish- 
ops, archbishops,  abbots  and  abbesses 
wear  a  small  golden  cross.  The  Catiiolic 
oenediction  is  generally  performed  by 
making  die  sign  of  the  cross  over  the 
object.  There  are  different  kinds  of 
crosses,  as  the  common  cross,  f ,  St.  An- 
drew's cross,  X  J  &ۥ    (See  the  article  Ad- 


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CROSS— CROTCH. 


53 


oratioTL)  Two  sorts  of  crosses  are  used 
for  the  forms  of  churches,  the  Greek  and 
tlie  Latin.  The  Greek  cross  has  its  arms 
at  right  angles,  aud  all  of  equal  Icngtli ; 
whereas  the  Latin  cross  has  one  of  its 
limbs  much  longer  tlian  the  other  three. 
Bramante  originally  designed  St.  Peter's 
for  a  Latin  cross ;  Michael  Angelo  reduced 
it  to  the  proportions  of  the  Greek  cross ; 
but  Carlo  Mademo  again  elongated  it  to 
the  original  dimensions  of  i3ramante. 
The  cathedral  of  St  PauFs,  London,  is  a 
Latin  cross,  with  its  base  spread  by  a  sort 
of  second  transept,  wliich  increases  the 
hreadth  of  the  western  front 

CrosSy  in  baptism.  In  tlie  administra- 
tion of  the  ordmance  of  baptism,  the 
practice  of  making  tlie  sign  of  the 
cross  on  the  forehead  of  the  pereon  bap- 
tizedf  was  adopted  at  an  early  period, 
though  not  enjoined  by  any  express 
command,  or  sanctioned  by  any  known 
example  in  scripture.  The  ljo  of  the 
cross,  indeed,  war,  very  frequent  in  the 
primitive  ages  of  Christianity.  .  Such  was 
the  respect  paid  to  it,  that  it  formed, 
iii  one  mode  or  anotlier,  a  distinguishing 
part  of  tlie  civil  and  religious  ceremonies 
of  those  times.  The  first  Christian  writer 
who  mentions  it  in  connexion  with  bap- 
tism, is  Tertullian,  who  wrote  after  the 
middle  of  the  2*1  century.  This  writer 
says  (De  Cov,  Mil.  r.  2),  that  "at  every 
setting  out,  or  entry  ui)on  business,  when- 
ever we  come  in  or  go  out  from  any 
place,  when  we  dress  for  a  journey,  when 
we  go  into  a  bath,  when  we  go  to  meat, 
when  tlie  candles  are  brought  in,  when 
we  lie  down  or  sit  dowir,  and  whatever 
business  we  have,  we  make  on  our  fore- 
lieads  the  sign  of  the  cross ;"  and,  speak- 
ing of  baptism,  in  his  treatise  De  Cam. 
Besur^  he  says,  "  the  flesh  is  signed  that 
tiie  soul  may  be  fortified." 

CyosS'hearer  (porie-croiXf  cruciger)^  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  church,  the  chaplain 
of  an  arehhisho]),  or  a  primate,  who  bears 
a  cross  before  him  on  solemn  occasions. 
The  pope  has  the  cross  home  before  him 
every  where ;  a  patriarch  any  where  out 
of  Rome;  and  primates,  metropolitans, 
and  those  who  have  a  right  to  the  pallium^ 
throughout  their  respective  jurisdictions. 
Gregory  XI  forbade  all  patriarchs  and 
prelates  to  have  it  borne  in  the  presence 
of  cardinals.  A  prelate  bears  a  single 
cross,  a  patriarch  a  double  cross,  and  the 
pope  a  triple  one  on  his  arms. 

Cross-bar  Shot  are  shots  with  iron 
bars  crossing  through  them,  sometimes 
standing  out  6  or  8  inches  at  both  sides. 
They  are  used  at  sea  for  injuring  die  ene- 


my's ringing,  and  in  sieges,  for  destroying 
the  palisades  in  tlie  covert-way,  ditches, 
&c. 

Cross-Bow,  or  Arbalist  ;  formerly  a 
^•ery  common  weapon  for  shooting,  but  not 
long  used  in  war  after  the  invention  of 
fire-arms.  It  is  a  strong  wooden  or  steel 
bow,  fixed  to  a  stock,  stretched  by  the 
sjjanner,  and  shot  off  by  die  trigger  fixed 
to  the  stock.  All  kinds  of  weapons,  in 
which  the  bow  was  fastened  to  the  stock, 
were  called  cross-bows,  some  of  which 
were  attached  to  carnages,  and  drawn  by 
horses.  There  was  a  small  kirrJ,  from 
wliich  were  shot  littie  balls.  To  the 
larger  sort  were  attached  instruments  for 
liending  the  bow.  There  are  some  socie- 
ties still  existing  in  Gcnnany,  who  exer- 
cise with  the  cross-bow ;  for  instance,  in 
Aix-la-Chapelle.    (See  Archery.) 

Cross  Examiivation  ;  the  examination 
of  a  witness  called  by  one  party,  by  the 
opposite  party  or  his  counsel. 

Cross  Fire,  in  the  art  of  war,  is  when 
the  lines  of  fire,  from  two  or  more  parts 
of  a  work,  cross  one  another.  It  is 
frequendy  made  use  of  to  prevent  an 
enemy's  passing  through  a  defile.  The 
ftanks,  as  well  as  the  faces  of  two  adjoin- 
ing liastions,  aflTord  the  means  of  cross 
fire,  as  do  also  tlie  feces  of  two  adjoining 
redoubts. 

Crotch,  William,  in  his  infancy  a  mu- 
sical prodigy',  was  bom  at  Norwich,  Eng., 
July  5, 1775.  His  fadier,  a  carpenter,  had 
made  a  httie  organ  for  his  amusement, 
and,  one  evening,  when  a  friend  was  play- 
ing on  the  instrument,  and  singing  at  tfie 
satne  time,  the  child  became  so  excited, 
that  the  parents  were  anxious  to  account 
for  the  cause :  their  surprise  was  extreme, 
when  they  remarked  the  delight  with 
which  the  child  touched  the  keys,  when 
his  mother  carried  him  to  the  organ 
The  following  morning,  his  father  placed 
liim  at  the  instrument,  when  he  repeated 
several  passages  irotn  airs  which  he  had 
Iieard  performed.  After  this,  the  boy  was 
permitted  to  play  on  the  organ,  when- 
ever he  was  inclined,  lie  learnt  different 
airs  with  facility,  and  often  intermixed 
passages  of  his  owTi  composition,  which 
were  always  harmonious,  as  he  had  a 
natural  aversion  to  discorcls.  This  prodi- 
gy of  two  years  old  was  fi^quently  called 
on  to  amuse  the  public  by  his  extraordina- 
ry talent  In  November,  1778,  his  mother 
took  him  to  Cambridge,  and,  in  December, 
to  London,  where  the  boy  excited  universal 
astonishment  by  his  performance  on  the 
organ.  In  1779,  he  played  before  the 
court  of  St  James  with  great  applause, 


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54 


CROTCH— CROUP. 


his  infantine,  playful  manner  prepossess- 
ing every  one  in  his  favor.  Whatever  he  had 
once  heard  he  could  repeat,  and  often  with 
variations.  In  every  other  respect,  Crotch 
was  a  perfect  child,  animated,  petulant, 
Bometiiiiea  obstinate,  and  of  a  weak  frame. 
He  now  received  regidar  instruction,  first 
at  Canibridofe,  then  in  the  college  of  St 
Mar>%  at  Oxford.  Here  he  was  chosen 
organist,  in  his  18th  year,  and  likewise 
studiod  drawing  and  painting,  in  which 
he  made  rapid  progress.  Alter  he  liad 
l)een  appointed  doctor  and  professor  in 
Oxfonl,  he  pix)ceeded  to  London,  where 
he  delivered  lectures  on  music  in  the 
Royal  and  Surry  institurion,  and  gave 
lessons  on  the  piano  during  20  years.  He 
now  lives  at  rulham,  near  London,  and 
has  not  appeared  in  uubiic  for  several 
years.  He  is  a  well  informed  and  modest 
man.  His  musical  publications  consist  of 
arrangements  of  compositions  for  the  pi- 
ano-fbrUJ  from  the  first  masters,  and  an  in- 
teresting collection  of  characteristic  pieces 
for  tlj€  ttii!erent  musical  styles  of  conipo- 
sitiofi,  entitled  Specimens  of  various  Styles 
of  Music  (3  vols.,  folio).  Only  one  work 
of  his  Ui-^  created  a  sensation  amongst  the 
music*!  connoisseurs  in  England — his  ora- 
torio called  Palestine,  It  is  evident  that 
Crotch  has  more  capacity  for  acquiring 
than  inventing. 

Crotona,  also  Croto,  in  ancient  ge- 
ography; a  Greek  republic  in  Magna 
Gnccia,  or  South  Italy.  Ijivy  gives  tlie 
circumference  of  tlie  city  of  Crotona  at 
12,000  paces.  This  city  was  famous  for 
pix)ducing  the  strongest  aUdeta,  Milo, 
e.  g.,  was  bom  here.  Under  the  Ro- 
mans, Crotona  was  infamous  for  luxury 
and  dissoluteness.  The  ruins  of  this 
place  are  still  to  be  seen  above  Capo  della 
Colonna. 

Croton  Oil  is  expressed  from  the 
seeds  of  an  East  Indian  plant,  the  croton 
tigliuni,  and  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
ot  the  late  additions  to  the  materia  medi- 
ca.  It  is  so  strongly  purgative,  that  one 
drop  is  a  full  dose,  and  half  a  drop  will 
sometimes  produce  a  powerful  effect  It 
is  also  found  to  produce  the  same  effect 
when  rubbed  upon  the  tongue,  or  even 
upon  the  skin.  It  is  so  active,  tiiat  it 
should  never  be  used  but  under  the  direc- 
tion of  an  experienced  physician.  In  the 
hands  of  such,  it  is  of  groat  value,  as  its 
small  bulk  and  insipid  taste  render  it  ser- 
viceable in  cases  m  which  no  common 
medicine  can  be  used,  and  its  groat  power 
makes  it  operate  when  other  medicines 
fail.  It  has  been  given  to  the  extent  of 
8  or  10  drops,  in  a  bad  case  of  Hens,  which 


it  cured,  without  producing  any  bad  symp- 
toms. It  should,  however,  be  used  with 
great  caution. 

Croup;  a  disease  that  mostly  attacks 
infants,  who  are  suddenly  seized  with  a 
difficulty  of  breathing  and  a  crouping 
noise ;  it  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mu- 
cous membrane  of  the  windpipe,  induc- 
ing the  secretion  of  a  very  tenacious, 
coagulable  lymph,  which  lines  the  air 
passages  and  impedes  respiration.  Tho 
croup  does  not  ai)pcar  to  be  contagious, 
whatever  some  physicians  may  think  to 
tiic  contrary;  but  it  sometimes  pre\'ails 
epidemically.  It  seems,  however,  pecu- 
har  to  some  families ;  and  a  child,  having 
once  been  attacked,  is  very  liable  to  a 
return.  It  is  confined  to  young  children, 
and  has  never  been  known  to  attack  a 
person  arrived  at  the  age  of  puberty.  The 
application  of  cold  seems  to  be  the  gen- 
eral cause  which  produces  this  disonler, 
and  therefore  it  occurs  more  frequently  in 
the  winter  and  spring  than  in  the  otlier 
seasons.  It  has  been  said,  tliat  it  is  most 
prevalent  near  the  sea-coast;  but  it  is 
frequently  met  with  in  inland  situations, 
ancl  particularly  those  which  are  marshy. 
Some  days  preWous  to  an  attack  of  the 
disease,  the  child  appears  drowsy,  inac- 
tive and  fretful;  the  eyes  are  somewhat 
suffused  and  heavy ;  and  there  is  a  cough, 
which,  from  the  first,  has  a  pecuharly 
shrill  sound ;  this,  in  the  course  of  two 
days,  becomes  more  violent  and  trouble- 
some, and  likewise  more  shrill.  Every 
fit  of  coughing  agitates  the  patient  veiy 
much;  tlie  face  is  flushed  and  swelled, 
the  eyes  are  protuberant,  a  general  tremor 
takes  place,  and  there  is  a  kind  of  convul- 
sive endeavor  to  renew  respiration  at  the 
close  of  each  fit  As  tlie  disease  ad- 
vances, a  constant  difliculty  of  breathing 
prevails,  and  the  head  is  thrown  back  in 
the  agony  of  attemptmg  to  escape  suffo- 
cadon.  There  is  not  only  an  unusual 
sound  produced  by  the  cough  (something 
between  the  yelping  and  barking  of  a  dog\ 
but  respiration  is  performed  wii£  a  hissing 
noise,  as  if  the  windpipe  was  closed  up 
by  some  slight,  spongy  substance.  The 
cough  is  generally  dry ;  but  if  any  thing 
is  spit  up,  it  has  either  a  purulent  appear- 
ance, or  seems  to  consist  of  films  resem- 
bling portions  of  a  membrane.  Where 
great  nausea  and  frequent  retchings  pre- 
vail, coagulated  matter  of  the  same  nature 
is  brought  up.  With  these  symptoms, 
there  is  much  thirst,  and  an  uneasy  sense 
of  heat  over  the  whole  body,  a  continual 
inclination  to  change  from  place  to  place, 
great  restlessness,  and  frequency  of  the 


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CROUP— CROW. 


pulse.  In  an  advanced  stage  of  the  dis- 
ease, respiration  becomes  more  striduious, 
and  is  performed  with  still  greater  diffi- 
culty, being  repeated  at  longer  periods, 
and  with  greater  exertions,  until,  at  last,  it 
ceases  entirely;  The  croup  frequently 
proves  fatal  by  suffocation,  induced  eitlier 
by  spasm  aftectuig  the  glottis,  or  by  a 
quantity  of  matter  blocking  up  the  air  pas- 
sages ;  but  when  it  terminates  in  health, 
it  is  by  a  resoli^tion  of  the  inflammation, 
by  a  ceasing  of  tlie  spasms,  and  by  a  free 
expectoration  of  tlie  matter  exuding  from 
tiie  trachea,  or  of  the  crusts  formed  there. 
The  disease  has,  in  a  few  instances,  ter- 
minated fatally  within  ^  hours  after  its 
attack ;  but  it  more  usually  happens,  that 
where  it  proves  fatal,  it  nins  on  to  the 
4th  or  5th  day.  Where  considerable  por- 
tions of  the  membranous  films,  formed  on 
the  surface  of  the  trachea,  are  thrown  up, 
life  is  sometimes  protracted  for  a  day  or 
two  longer  than  would  otherwise  nave 
happened.  Dissections  of  children,  who 
have  died  of  the  croup,  have  mostly  shown 
a  preternatural  membrane,  lining  the  whole 
internal  surface  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
trachea,  which  may  always  be  easily  sep- 
arated from  the  proper  membrane.  There 
is  likewise  usually  found  a  good  deal  of 
mucus,  with  a  mixture  of  pus,  in  the  wind- 
pipe and  its  ramifications.  The  treat- 
ment of  this  disease  must  be  conducted  on 
the  strictly  .antiphlogistic  plan.  It  will 
commonly  be  proper,  where  the  patient  is 
not  veiy  young,  to  begin  by  taking  blood 
finom  the  arm  or  the  jugular  vein ;  several 
leeches  should  be  appued  along  the  fore 
part  of  the  neck.  It  will  then  be  right  to 
give  a  nauseating  emetic,  ipecacuanha 
with  tartarized  antimony,  or  with  squill,  in 
divided  doses ;  this  may  be  foUowed  up 
by  cathartics,  diaphoretics,  di^talis,  &c. 
I^ge  blisters  ou^t  to  be  applied  near  the 
affected  part,  and  a  discharge  kept  up  by 
savin  cerate,  or  other  stimulant  dressing. 
Mercury,  carried  speedily  to  salivation, 
has  in  several  instances  arrested  the  prog- 
ress of  the  disease,  when  it  appeared  pro- 
ceeding to  a  &ta]  termmation.  As  the 
inflammation  is  declining,  it  is  very  im- 
portant that  free  expiectoration  should  take 
place.  This  may  be  promoted  by  nauseat- 
ing medicines,  by  inhaling  steam,  and  by 
stimulating  gargles,  for  which  tiie  decoc- 
tion of  seneka  is  particularly  recommend- 
ed. Where  there  is  much  wheezing,  an 
occasional  emetic  may  relieve  the  patient 
considerably,  and,  under  symptoms  of 
threatening  suffocation,  the  operation  of 
bronchotomy  has  sometimes  saved  life. 
Should  fits  of  spasmodic   difficulty  of 


breathing  occur  in  the  latter  periods  of 
the  disease,  opium,  joined  with  diapho- 
retics, would  be  most  likely  to  do  sood. 
Napoleon,  on  die  occasion  of  the  death 
of  his  nephew,  the  prince  of  Holland,  of 
this  disease,  offered  a  premium  of  12,000 
frames  for  tlie  best  treatise  on  the  croup. 
Of  8^3  essays,  which  were  presented  to  the 
committee  of  12  members  assembled  for 
the  examination  at  Paris,  in  1811,  two 
were  acknowledged  as  the  best,  one  by 
lurine,  in  Geneva,  and  die  other  by  Aibers, 
of  Bremen,  between  whom  the  prize  was 
divided. 

Crousaz,  John  Peter  de,  a  celebrated 
mathematician  and  philosopher,  was  bom 
at  Lausanne,  in  1660.  He  early  distm- 
guished  himself  by  his  progress  in  mathe- 
matics and  philosophy,  under  able  pro- 
fessors at  Geneva  and  Lausanne,  apply- 
ing himself  particularly  to  the  writings  of 
Descartes.  In  1682,  be  went  to  the  uni- 
versity of  Leyden,  and  thence  proceeded 
to  Paris,  where  he  became  acquainted 
with  the  celebrated  fiither  Malebianche, 
who,  with  other  celebrated  men,  vainly 
endeavored  to  convert  him  to  the  Catholic 
religion.  On  returning  to  his  native  coun- 
try, he  was  ordained  minister,  appointed 
honorary  professor,  and  remained  pastor 
of  the  church  at  Lausanne.  In  1699,  he 
was  made  professor  of  Greek  and  of  phi- 
losophy in  the  academy  of  Lausanne,  ap- 
pointed rector  in  1706,  and  again  in  171221 
In  1724,  he  was  chosen  mathematical  and 
philosophical  professor  at  the  university  at 
Groningen.  In  1732,  he  was  nominated 
counsellor  of  embassies  to  the  king  of 
Sweden,  and,  in  1737,  elected  pro&sor 
of  philosophy  and  mathematics  at  Lau- 
sanne. His  works  are  distinguished  for 
learnings  liberality  and  acuteness.  The 
principal  are,  A  S3rstem  of  Reflections  that 
may  contribute  to  the  Illustration  and  fix- 
tension  of  Knowledge,  or  a  new  Essay  on 
Logic  (in  6  vols.,  l2mo.,  1741];  Summa 
Logica  (1724) ;  a  Treatise  on  Education ; 
Examen  du  Piprrhonisme  ancien  d  nuh- 
dtme;  G69mHne  de»  lAgnes  d  du  Surfaces 
redUignes  d  circvlaires ;  Examen  de  PEs- 
sai  de  M,  Pope ;  Commentaire  sur  la  Tra- 
dudion  de  VEssai de  M,  Pope^deVAhbi  du 
Resnd;  TraiU  du  Beau;  a  Treatise  on 
the  Human  Understanding. 

Crow  (corvus,  L.) ;  a  genus  of  buds 
remarkable  for  their  gregarious  and  preda- 
tory habits,  distinguish^  by  the  following 
characters:  The  bill  is  stnight,  convex 
and  compressed,  being  covered  at  its  base 
by  incumbent,  bristly  feathers ;  the  upper 
mandible  is  curved  at  tip,  the  lower  is  a 
littie  shorter,  carinated  on  both  sides,  and 


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56 


CROW. 


sljghtly  ascending  at  the  extremity ;  the 
nostrils  are  placed  on  tlic  base  of  the  bill, 
and  are  patulous,  though  covered  by  the 
incumbent  feathers;  tlie  tongue  is  short, 
cartilaginous,  acute  and  bifid  at  tip ;  the 
tarsus  scarcely  exceeds  the  middle  toe  in 
length ;  the  toes  are  separated  almost  to 
the  base,  andthe  middle  one  is  the  lonsest ; 
the  nails  are  moderate,  pointed,  hollow 
beneath,  and  sharp-edged,  the  hind  one 
being  generally  longest;  the  wings  are 
subeTongated,  acute,  the  first  primary  short, 
third  or  fourdi  longest ;  the  tail  consists  of 
twelve  featliers.  Four  sjjecies  of  this 
genus,  as  at  present  restricted,  are  found 
in  North  America — ^the  raven  { C.  corax); 
the  crow  (C.  coron£\;  fish-crow  (C  ossi- 
Jragus);  and  Clark^s  crow  (C  cdufrMa- 
nus).  These  and  other  members  of  the 
genus  are  very  extensively  spread  oyer 
uie  globe,  and  areahnost  equally  distin- 
guished for  their  remarkable  sagacity,  and 
uie  amount  of  mischief  which  they  occa- 
sion where  they  are  very  numerous.  The 
raven  is  by  no  means  common  in  the  Mid- 
dle Stales  of  the  Union,  but  is  found  in 
con^derable  numbers,  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  northern  lakes,  and  the  interior  of  the 
Union.  This  is  the  largest  species  of  its 
tribe,  very  little  inferior  in  size  to  a  com- 
mon cock,  being  26  inches  in  length,  and 
more  than  3  feet  Irom  the  tip  of  one  wing 
to  Uiat  of  the  other.  The  plumage  is  of  a 
very  glossy  black,  with  some  reflections 
of  bluish  purple  on  the  back.  The  female 
is  leas  purely  black  than  the  male,  and  a 
litde  smaller.  The  raven,  when  on  the 
ground,  marches  at  a  grave  and  stately 
pace :  his  iavorite  haunts  are  the  vast  soli- 
tudes of  rocks  and  forests,  whence  he  sel- 
dom emerges  except  called  by  hunger, 
and  tlien  never  in  large  fiock8,«like  the 
crows.  The  ordinaty  food  of  the  raven, 
and  that  which  he  prefers,  is  putrefying 
animal  matter,  which  this  bird  discovers, 
by  the  acuteness  of  his  sense  of  smelling, 
at  great  distances,  and  flies  to  the  feast 
witn  unerring  precision.  When  carrion 
is  not  attainable,  the  raven  feeds  on  various 
fruits,  insects,  dead  fish,  &c.  Jud^ng  by 
the  habits  of  the  crow  and  other  kindred 
species,  there  is  no  question  but  the  m- 
ven,  when  pressed  by  hunger,  will  kill 
small  birds  or  other  animals  coming  with- 
in its  reach.  They  have  been  known  to 
pluck  the  eyes  out  of  the  heads  of  lamlis 
and  sick  animals  unable  to  drive  them 
away.  Birds  so  voracious  and  destruc- 
tive cannot  be  regarded  otlierwise  than 
injurious  in  a  poor  country,  though  in  a 
rich  one,  their  services,  as  scavengers  and 
destroyers  of  the  larves  of  noxious  uisects, 


might  more  than  counterbalance  their 
mischief.*  Like  most  of  their  tribe,  ra- 
vens have  a  considerable  talent  for  imi- 
tating sounds,  and  may  be  taught  to  pro- 
nounce words  with  remarkable  distinct- 
ness. When  domesticated,  they  become 
very  bold  and  impudent,  fearless  of  dogs 
or  cats,  and  fighting  fiercely  with  them 
when  provoked :  sometimes,  indeed,  their 
insolence  renders  them  dangerous  inmates, ' 
as  they  will  wound  children,  and  even 
grown  persons,  with  their  powerful  bill. 
They  also  participate  in  the  disposition 
common  to  most  of  then:  fraternity,  to 
steal  and  hide  pieces  of  money,  plate,  and 
other  shining  objects,  which  cannot  be  of 
the  slightest  use  to  the  purloiner.  The 
raven  is  a  model  of  conjugal  fidelity,  hav- 
ing but  one  female,  to  whom  he  remains 
attached,  most  probably,  for  life.  Obser- 
vations were  made  on  one  pair  by  lord 
Ross,  during  30  years,  and  there  can  be 
but  littie  doubt,  that  the  union  was  only 
interrupted  by  deatli.  Their  nests  are 
commonly  placed  in  chinks  of  rocks,  lofty 
old  walls,  or  the  tops  of  tall,  insulated 
trees,  and  are  made  extemally  of  roots 
and  branches  of  shrubs;  a  second  layer  is 
then  formed  of  animal  bones,  or  other  hard 
materials,  and  this  is  covered  with  a  bed 
of  sofl  grass  or  moss.  About  the  month 
of  Mareh,  the  female  lays  5  or  6  pale- 
green  and  bluish  eggs,  speckled  with  very 
numerous  spots  and  touches  of  a  darker 
color.  The  incubation  continues  for  20 
days,  and  both  parents  |)articipate  in  it. 
The  male  also  defends  the  nest  courage- 
ously against  the  approach  of  hawks  and 
other  birds  of  prey,  and  provides  for  the 
subsistence  of  his  companion.  The  young 
remain  with  the  parents  throughout  the 
summer  succeeding  their  hatching,  and, 
when  able  to  provide  for  themselves,  are 
sent  off  to  establish  new  colonies  else- 
where. The  flight  of  the  raven  is  veiy 
lofly,  and  its  power  of  wing  great,  so  that 
it  is  able  to  pass  over  immense  spaces  in  a 
short  time. — Few  birds  are  more  numerous 
and  annoying  to  the  farmers  of  the  Atlan- 
tic States  than  the  coinmon  crow  (C  co- 
rfme\  which,  throughout  a  considerable 
part  of  the  year,  collects  in  astonishingly 
large  flocks,  and  makes  destructive  descents 
upon  newly-planted  maize  and  other  giuin. 
In  tliis  species,  it  seems  as  if  all  the  evil 
propensities  of  the  race  were  united  and 
augmented.    Exceedingly  cunning  in  de- 

*  In  EnglaJid.  ihe  rook  tC.  fn/giJegvs)  ifl  not 
allowdl  lo  DC  killed,  and  a  lai^e  rookery  is  con- 
sidered a  valuable  appendage  to  an  estate.  The 
young  are  obtained  Irom  the  nest,  and  considered 
very  fine  for  the  table. 


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CROW. 


57 


tecting  every  contriyance  intended  for  their 
destruction/they  are  rarely  destroyed  to  any 
great  extent,  except  in  seasons  of  excessive 
and  long-protracted  cold  weather.  Then 
(as  during  the  winter  of  1828 — 9)  vast  num- 
bers {)erish  from  starvation,  since,  t>ie  earth, 
brooks,  rivers  and  bays  being  completely 
locked  up,  all  their  sources  of  supply  are 
cut  off.  At  such  times,  their  hunger  is  so 
digressing  as  to  force  them  to  the  most 
extraordinary  exertions,  and  they  devour 
sulwta^ices,  which  nothing  but  excessive 
hunger  could  induce  any  animal  to  swal- 
low. During  the  hard  winter  alluded 
to,  immense  flocks  were  olwerved  passing 
from  tlie  direction  of  the  famous  roosting 
place  in  the  vicinity  of  Bristol,  Pa.  (partic- 
ularly noted  by  Wilson),  towards  the 
shores  of  the  sea  and  bay,  and  returning 
regularly  in  the  afternoon..  Thousands 
upon  tliousands,  for  several  hours,  moved 
heavily  along  in  a  broad,  irregular  line; 
and,  from  the  numbers  found  dead  in  the 
fields,  it  is  most  probable  that,  during  the 
severest  weather,  but  little  benefit  resulted 
from  their  long  diurnal  pilgrimage.  The 
common  crow  is  voracious  at  all  times, 
and  nearly,  if  not  quite,  as  omnivorous  as 
the  brown  rat  Grain  of  all  sorts,  but 
especially  IncHan  corn,  insects,  carrion, 
eggs,  fish,  young  birds,  the  young  of  vari- 
ous domestic  fowls,  and  even  young  pigs, 
are  sought  for  eagerly,  and  devoured  with 
avidity.  This  species,  from  the  peculiar 
excellence  of  its  sight,  smell  and  hearing, 
by  which  it  is  very  early  warned  of  ap- 
proaching danger,  is  very  audacious,  fre- 
quently coming  close  to  the  fiurn-houses 
in  search  of  prey,  and  persevering  in  ef- 
forts to  rob  the  hens  of  their  chickens, 
until  successful.  The  writer  has  wit- 
nessed several  times,  in  the  state  of  Ma- 
n-land, where  crows  are  far  too  abun- 
dant, the  pertinacity  of  one  of  these  rob- 
bers in  attempting  to  seize  a  young  chick- 
en, notwithstanding  the  fierce  defence 
made  by  the  hen.  His  approaches  ap- 
peared to  have  in  view  the  withdrawal  of 
the  hen  to  a  little  distance  from  the  brood ; 
then,  taking  advantage  of  his  wings,  he 
would  fly  suddenly  over  her,  and  seize  the 
chick.  The  same  attempts  were  fre- 
quenrfy  made  upon  the  goose,  with  a  view 
to  seize  her  goslins,  but  the  vigilant  gan- 
der, though  sorely  fatigued  by  his  strug- 
gles, never  failed  to  defeat  a  single  crow : 
it  was  otherwise,  however,  when  two  or 
more  united  for  the  purpose  of  feasting  on 
the  young.  It  is  not  an  uncommon  thing 
for  formers  to  be  under  the  necessity  of 
replanting  corn  several  times  in  the  spring, 
and,  when  it  is  just  rising  above  the  ground, 


to  be  obliged  to  keep  several  persons  con- 
tinually on  guard  in  the  fields.  When  the 
com  has  shot  up  an  inch  or  two  above  the 
surface,  a  host  of  these  black-coatedAplun- 
derers  invade  the  fields,  and,  having  posted 
sentinels  in  several  commanding  sitna* 
tions,  march  regukirly  along  tlie  cornr 
rows,  drawing  up  the  grain,  pulling  skil- 
fully by  the  shoot,  and  then  swallowing 
the  germinating  com.  Among  the  most 
successful  experiments  made  to  prevent 
the  crows  firom  doing  this  mischiei  is  that 
of  coating  the  seed  corn  with  a  mixture 
of  tar,  oil,  and  a  small  quantity  of  slacked 
lime,  in  powder.  The  ingredients  being 
mixed  in  a  tub,  the  seed  com  is  stirred  in 
it  until  each  grain  receives  a  thorough 
coating  of  the  mixture.  This  preparation, 
as  it  necessarily  keeps  the  grain  fiiom 
being  readily  affected  by  moisture,  is  found 
to  retard  the  germination  about  three  days. 
In  tlie  instance  we  witnessed  of  the  trial 
of  this  preventive,  it  was  fully  successful ; 
for,  although  the  field  was  dally  visited  bv 
hosts  of  crows,  they  were  content  with 
pulling  up  enough  com,  in  various  places, 
to  be  satisfied  that  it  was,  throughout, 
equally  unpalatable.  During  their  breed- 
ing season,  which  is  in  the  spring  months, 
the  flocks  spread  over  a  great  extent  of 
country,  and  buikl  their  nests  of  small 
sticks,  lined  with  grass,  in  lofly  trees, 
choosing  the  most  remote  and  difficult  of 
approach.  The  young,  generally,  are  two 
in  number,  and,  until  fully  fledged,  are 
most  solicitously  protected  by  their  pa- 
rents. When  the  young  crows  first  begin 
to  receive  lessons  in  flying,  nothing  is 
more  remarkable  and  anecting  than  the 
efforts  made  to  preserve  them,  by  the 
parents,  when  a  gunner  approaches  the 
vicinity.  Every  artifice  is  employed  to 
caU  attention  away  from  the  young,  which 
seem  to  comprehend  the  directions  or  calls 
of  their  parents,  and  remain  perfectly 
silent  and  motionless.  In  the  mean  while, 
the  father  and  mother  fly  towards  the 
gunner,  taking  care  not  to  remain  an  in- 
stant in  one  place,  and,  by  the  must  vo- 
ciferous outcries,  deprecate  his  cruelty. 
These  efforts  being  continued,  their  vol- 
untary exposure,  and  the  eagerness  with 
which  they  fly  about  a  particular  spot,  are 
almost  always  successfiil  in  withdrawing 
the  spoilsman  from  the  place  where  the 
young  actually  are.  As  soon  as  they  have 
succeeded  in  leading  him  to  a  sufficient 
distance,  they  cease  their  accents  of  dis- 
tress, fly  a  httle  farther  from  their  young, 
and  from  a  lofly  perch,  which  enables 
them  to  watch  all  around,  utter  an  occa- 
sional ciy,  which  one  may  readily  im- 


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CROW— CROWN. 


a^ne  to  be  intended  for  tlie  direction  and 
encouragement  of  their  offspring.  The 
most  successful  mode  of  destroying  crows, 
la  that  of  invading  them  in  their  extensive 
donnitories  during  the  night  When  tliey 
liave  selected  a  pine  thicket,  or  other  dense 
piece  of  wood,  for  a  roosting  place,  they 
repau:  tliither  with  great  regularity.  Every 
evening,  vast  flocks  come  sailing  to  the 
retreat,  and  the  trees  are  literally  covered 
and  bowed  down.  When  the  state  of 
Maryland  received  crow  scalps  in  pay- 
ment of  taxes,  at  tliree  cents  each,  parties 
were  frequently  made  to  attack  the  crow 
roosts.  Gunners  were  stationed  at  various 
parts,  surrounding  the  roosts,  and  all  tliose 
of  one  division  fired  at  once ;  the  slaughter 
was  necessarily  dreadful,  and  those  re- 
maining unhurt,  bewildered  by  the  dark- 
ness, the  flashing  and  report  of  the  guns, 
and  the  distressing  cries  of  their  compan- 
ions, flew  but  to  a  little  distance,  and  set- 
tled near  another  portv  of  gunners.  As 
soon  as  they  were  fairly  at  rest,  the  same 
tragedy  was  reacted  and  repeated,  until 
the  approach  of  day  or  the  fatigue  of 
their  destroyers  caused  a  cessation.  The 
wounded  were  then  despatched  bv  knock- 
ing them  on  the  head  or  wringing  their 
necks,  and  the  bill,  with  so  much  of  the 
skull  as  passed  for  a  scalp,  was  cut  off 
and  strung  for  the  payment  of  tlie  tax- 
gatherer.  The  poor  people,  who  had  no 
taxes  to  pay,  disposed  of  tlieir  crow  scalps 
to  the  store-keqters,  who  purchased  them 
at  rather  a  lower  rate.  This  premium  has 
long  been  discontinued,  and  the  number 
of  mese  marauders  is,  in  many  parts  of 
that  state,  quite  large  enough  to  require  its 
reCstablishinent 

Crown.  In  the  early  ages,  when  men 
were  fond  of  expressing  all  their  feelings 
by  outward  signs,  a  wreath  of  flowers  or 
leaves  was  naturally  one  of  the  first  em- 
blems of  honor  or  of  joy.  Such  was  the 
ornament  of  the  priest  in  tlie  performance 
of  sacriifice,  of  die  hero  on  his  return  from 
victory,  of  the  bride  at  her  nuptials,  and 
of  the  guests  at  a  feast  The  ancient  my- 
thology, which  gave  every  thing  a  distinct 
lieginning  and  a  poetical  ori^i,  ascribes 
the  invention  of  wreaths  to  Prometheus, 
who  imitated,  with  flowers,  the  fetters 
which  he  had  borne  for  his  love  to  man- 
kind, whom  he  had  created.  According 
to  Pliny,  wreatlis  were  first  made  of  ivj', 
and  Bacchus  first  wore  tliem.  In  {irocess 
of  time,  they  were  made  of  very  different 
materials.  Those  worn  by  the  Greeks  at 
feasts  in  honor  of  a  divinity,  were  made 
of  the  flowers  of  the  plant  consecrated  to 
the  god.     Wreaths  of  roses  aAcrwards 


became  very  common.  In  some  cases, 
wreaths  were  even  made ,  of  wool. 
Wreaths  of  ivy  and  ametliyst  were  worn, 
by  tlie  Greek^,  on  the  head,  neck  and 
breast,  at  entertainments,  with  a  view  to 
prevent  drunkenness.  Mnesitheus  and 
CaUimachus,  two  Greek  physicians,  wrote 
entire  txK)ks  on  wreaths,  and  their  medi- 
cal virtues.  Corpses  were  covered  with 
wiieaths  and  green  branches.  Lovers 
adorned  vnth  Wreaths  and  flowers  the 
doors  of  their  mistresses,  and  even  cap- 
tives, who  were  to  be  sold  as  slaves,  wore 
wreaths ;  hence  the  phrase  9vb  corona. ve^ 
ntre  or  wndere.  The  beasts  sacrificed  to 
the  gods  were  also  crowned.  Wreaths, 
in  process  of  time,  were  made  of  metal,  in 
imitation  of  flowers,  or  of  the  fillet  wliicli 
the  priest  wore  round  his  head  when  he 
sacrificed,  which  was  called  itdirifta.  This 
attribute  of  distinction  was  early  adopted 
by  the  kings,  when  they  united  in  Uieir 
persons  the  temporal  and  spiritual  power. 
Among  the  various  crowns  and  WTcaths 
in  use  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
were  the  following : 

Corona  agonoV^tarum ;  the  reward  of 
the  victor  in  the  great  gymnastic  games. 

Corona  aurea  (the  eolden  crown) ;  the 
reward  of  remarkable  bravery. 

Corona  castrensis ;  given  to  him  who 
first  entered  the  camp  of  the  enemy. 

Corona  civica  (see  Civic  Crovm) ;  one  of 
the  highest  military  rewards.  It  was  given 
to  him  who  had  saved  the  life  of  a  citizen. 

Corona  convivalis ;  the  wreath  worn  at 


Corona  muralis;  given  by  the  general 
to  the  soldier  who  fij^  scaled  the  enemy's 
wall. 

Corona  natalUia ;  a  wreath  which  pa- 
rents hung  up  before  the  door  at  tlie  birtii 
of  a  child.  It  was  made  of  olive-branches 
if  the  child  was  a  boy,  and  of  wool  if  a 
giri. 

Corona  navalis,  the  next  in  rank  aflcr 
the  civic  crown,  was  given  to  hmi  who 
first  boarded  and  took  an  enemy's  vessel. 

Corona  nuptialis ;  a  crown  or  wreath 
woni  by  brides.  The  bridegroom,  also, 
and  his  relations,  on  tlie  day  of  tlie  wed- 
ding, adorned  themselves  with  wreaths. 
At  first,  the  corona  nuptialis  was  of  flow- 
ers ;  aflerwards,  of  gold  or  silver  and  pre- 
cious stones. 

Corona  ohsidioTudis ;  a  reward  given  to 
him  who  delivered  a  besieged  town,  or  a 
blockaded  army.  It  was  one  of  the  high- 
est military  honors,  and  very  seldom  ob- 
tained. It  was  made  of  grass;  if  possible, 
of  such  as  grew  on  the  (felivered  place. 

Corona  irivanphalia ;  a  wreath  of  laurel 


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CROWN— CROWN  OFFICE. 


59 


which  was  givcD,  by  the  army,  to  the  im- 
perator.  He  wore  it  on  his  head  at  the 
celebration  of  his  triumph.  Another 
crown  of  gold,  the  material  of  which 
(coronarium  aunan)  was  furnished  by  the 
conquered  cities,  was  carried  over  the 
head  of  the  general.  The  wreaths,  con- 
ferred at  the  great  games  ©f  Greece,  were 
of  difibrent  kinds ;  at  tlie  Olympic  games, 
of  wild  olive ;  at  tlie  Pythian  games,  of 
fauirel ;  at  the  Nemean  games,  fust  of 
oiive,  dien  of  parsley  ;  at  the  Isthmian 
games,  a  wreath  of  pine  leaves,  afterwards 
of  parsley ;  '^subsequendy  pine  leaves  were 
resumed. 

In  the  middle  a^es,  crowns  became  ex- 
ehisively  appropriated  to  tlie  roval  and 
impeiial  dienity ;  the  coronets  of  nobles 
were  only  borne  in  their  coats  of  arms. 
(See  Corimet,  also  7\arcu)  From  tlie  Jew- 
ish king  being  called,  in  the  Scriptures,  the 
amnaUd  of  the  Lord^  a  kind  of  religious 
mystery  and  awe  became  attached  to 
crowned  heads,  which,  in  most  countries 
continues  to  the  present  day,  though  his- 
tory has  shown  us  abundantly  that  crowns 
often  cover  the  heads  of  very  weak  or  veiy 
wicked  individuals,  and  tliat  there  is  no 
great  mystery  about  their  origin ;  some 
having  been  obtained  by  purchase,  some 
by  cnme,  some  by  grants  from  a  more 
powerfid  prince,  some  by  contract,  some 
by  choice,  but,  on  the  whole,  compara- 
tively few  in  an  honest  way.  The  iron 
crown  of  Loraberdy,  preserved  at  Monza, 
in  the  territory  of  Milan,  is  a  ^Iden  crown 
set  with  precious  stones,  with  which  in 
former  times  the  Lombarrl  kings  vrere 
crowned,  and,  at  a  later  period,  the  Ro- 
man-German emperors,  when  they  wished 
to  manifest  their  claims  as  kings  of  Lorn- 
bardy.  An  iron  circle,  made,  according  to 
the  legend,  out  of  a  nail  of  Christ's  cross, 
which  is  fixed  inside,  gave  rise  to  the 
namp.  Agilulf,  king  of  Lombardy,  was 
the  first  person  crowned  vnth  it  (in  590V 
Charlemagne  was  crowned  with  it  in  774. 
Napoleon  put  it  on  his  head  in  1805,  and 
established  the  order  of  the  iron  crown. 
In  1815,  when  Austria  estabhshed  the 
Lombardo- Venetian  kingdom,  the  empe- 
ror admitted  the  order  of  the  iron  crown 
among  those  of  the  Austrian  empire. — 
Gmon  is  used,  figuratively,  for  the  royal 
power,  in  contradistinction  either  to  the 
pi^rson  of  tiie  monareh,  or  to  the  bodv  of 
the  nation,  with  its  representatives,  mte- 
rests,  &C.  Thus,  in  modem  times,  the 
word  crowa  is  used,  on  the  European  con- 
tinent, to  express  the  rights  and  preroga- 
tives of  the  monarch  considered  as  a  part  of 
the  state,  which  includes  all  powers — ^the 


legislative,  judicial,  &c.  Thus  the  crown 
domains  are  distinguished  frona  the  state 
or  national  domains.  In  France,  a  diiTer- 
ence  is  even  made  between  the  crown  do- 
mains and  the  private  domains  of  the 
king;  the  former  are  inalienable,  and  be- 
long to  the  reigning. monarch,  whilst  the 
second  may  be  treated  like  any  othvr  pri- 
vate property.  The  distinction  between 
crown  and  state,  of  course,  does  not  exist  in 
perfectly  arbitrary  governments. — CVoion- 
ofBjcera  are  certain  officers  at  the  courts  of 
European  sovereigns.  Formerly,  when 
the  different  branches  of  government  were 
not  accurately  defined,  they  were  oflen,  or 
generally,  also  state  officers,  as  in  the  old 
German  empire,  and  still  in  Hungaiy. 
The  offices  were  generallv  hereditary ;  but, 
of  late  vears,  they  are  almost  exclusively 
attached  to  the  court,  the  title,  in  a  few 
cases,  being  connected  with  military  digni- 
ties, as,  for  instance,  in  France,  where  civil 
and  military  grand  oflScers  of  the  crown 
have  always  existed.    (See  Ihgnitarits,) 

Croum,  in  commerce ;  a  common  name 
for  coins  of  several  nations,  which  are 
about  the  value  of  a  dollar.  (See  Gnnt, 
Table  of.) 

CrowTij  in  an  ecclesiastical  sense,  is  used 
for  the  tonsure,  the  shaven  spot  on  the 
head  of  the  Roman  Catholic  priests,  where 
they  received  the  ointment  of  consecra- 
tion.   (See  Tonsure,) 

Croww  Glass,  the  best  kind  of  win- 
dow-giass^  the  hardest  and  most  colorless, 
is  made  almost  entirely  of  sand  and  al- 
kali and  a  litde  lime,  without  lead  or 
any  metallic  oxide,  except  a  ver^  small 
quantity  of  manganese,  and  sometimes  of 
cobalt  Crovm  glass  is  used,  in  connex- 
ion with  flint  glass,  for  dioptric  instru- 
ments, in  order  to  destroy  the  disagreeable 
effect  of  the  aberration  of  colors.  Bodi 
kinds  of  glass  are  now  made,  in  the  high- 
est perfection,  in  Benedictbeum  (q.  v.)^ 
where  Reichenbach's  fiunous  manumctory 
of  optical  instruments  is  atuated. 

Crown  OrncE.  The  court  of  king's 
bench  is  divided  into  the  plea  side  and  the 
croum  side.  In  the  plea  side,  it  takes  cog- 
nizance of  civil  causes ;  in  tlie  crown  side, 
it  takes  cognizance  of  criminal  causes, 
and  is  thereupon  called  the  croum  of- 
fice. In  the  crown  office  are  exhibited 
informations  in  the  name  of  the  king, 
of  which  there  are  two  kinds :  1.  those 
which  are  tndy  the  king's  own  suits, 
and  filed,  ex  officio,  by  his  own  inunediate 
officer,  the  attorney-general ;  2.  those  in 
which,  though  the  king  is  the  nominal 
prosecutor,  yet  some  private .  person,  as  a 
common  informer,  is  the  real  one :  these 


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60 


CROWN  OFFICE-CRUSADES. 


are  filed  by  the  king's  coroner  and  attorney, 
usually  called  master  of  the  crown  office, 

Caowrf  Point  ;  a  post-town  in  Essex 
county,  New  York,  on  lake  Champlain  3 
12  rniles  N.  Ticondero^,  96  N.  Albany  ; 
population,  in  1820, 1522 ;  lat  44°  3^  N. ; 
Ion.  72°  29'  W.  This  town  received  its 
name  from  a  noted  fortress,  much  cele- 
brated in  the  history  of  the  American 
l?irars.  The  fortress,  which  is  now  in  ru- 
ins, is  situated  in  the  north-east  part  of  the 
township,  on  a  point  of  land  projecting 
some  distance  into  the  lake,  elevated  47 
feet  above  the  surface,  and  15  miles  north 
of  fort  Ticonderoga.  It  was  an  exten- 
sive and  regular  K>rtification,  about  X500 
yards  square,  surrounded  by  a  deep  and 
broad  ditch,  cut  in  rock,  with  immense 
labor.  The  walls  were  of  wood  and  earth, 
22  feet  thick  and  16  high,  and  are  only 
partially  decayed. 

Crozat,  Joseph  Antony,  marquis  du 
Chd.tel,  born  in  1696,  at  Toulouse,  a  great 
lover  and  coUector  of  works  of  art,  in- 
herited a  large  fortune  from  his  fatlicr 
(who  was  a  financier  during  the  last  years 
of  the  reign  of  Louis  XI  VjL^  was  counsel- 
lor of  the  parliament  of  Toulouse,  and 
subsequently  reader  to  the  king.  The 
whole  of  his  life  was  dedicated  to  the 
works  of  art  which  he  had  collected,  and 
to  the  artists  who  wished  to  profit  by 
them.  The  sketches  in  his  collection  ex- 
ceeded 19,000,  and  he  had  expended  above' 
450,000  livres  in  this  particular  branch. 
During  the  60  years  which  he  employed 
in  collecting,  no  cabinet  was  sold  in  any 
part  of  Europe,  of  which  some  part  was  not 
purchased  by  him.  Crozat  went  to  Italy, 
in  1714,  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  his 
collection.  Corn.  Vermeulen  came  yearly 
fh)m  Antwerp  to  Paris,  to  bring  him  the 
works  of  the  artists  of  the  Netherlands.  He 
was  also  presented  with  several  valuable 
collections.  His  cabinet  of  antiques  and 
sculpture,  particularly  of  gems,  was  equal- 
ly valuable,  and  contained  about  1400 
pieces.  This  treasure  became  more  fii- 
mous  from  the  description  which  Mariette 
ffave  of  it,  when  in  the  possession  of  the 
duke  of  Orleans,  in  1742.  It  is  at  pres- 
ent at  St.  Petersburg.  On  Crozat's  death 
(1740),  his  collection  came  into  the  pos- 
session of  his  brother,  the  marquis  du 
Chatel.  Mariette^  Descriptkni  somnudre 
des  Collections  de  M.  Crozatj  avec  des  Ri- 
fiexions  svr  la  Manikre,  de  Dessiner  des 
prineipaux  Maitres  (Paris,  1741),  is  the 
only  account  we  now  have  of  this  great 
museum* 

Cruisers,  in  naval  affairs ;  vessels,  as 
the  name  imports,  employed  on  a  cruise. 


The  name  is  commonly  given  to  ouall 
men  of  war,  made  use  of  to  secure  iner- 
chant  ships  and  vessels  from  the  enemy's 
small  frigates  and  privateers.  They  are 
generally  formed  for  fast  sailing,  and  well 
manned. 

Crusades  are  the  wars  which  were 
carried  on  by  the  Christian  nations  of  the 
West,  from  ibe  end  of  the  11th  to  the  end 
of  the  13th  century,  for  the  conquest  of 
Palestine.  They  were  called  crusades  be- 
cause all  the  warriors  who  followed  the 
holy  banner  (crusaders\  wore  the  sign  of 
the  cross.  The  Christian  and  Moham- 
medan nations  had  been,  during  a  long 
period,  in  a  state  of  war,  not  only  in  Asia, 
but  also  in  Europe,  where  the  Moons 
Mohammedans  by  religion,  had  taken 
possession  of  part  of  the  Spanish  penin- 
sula. The  nations  of  the  West  were 
grieved  that  the  Holy  Land,  where  Jesus 
had  lived,  taught,  and  died  for  mankind, 
w^here  pious  pilgrims  resorted  to  pour  out 
their  sorrows,  and  ask  for  aid  from  above,  at 
the  tomb  of  their  Savior,  should  be  in  Uie 
power  of  unbelievers.  The  pilgrims,  on 
their  return,  related  the  dangers  diey  had 
encountered.  The  caliph  Hakem  was 
particularly  described  as  a  second  Nero. 
Being  the  son  of  a  Christian  woman,  he 
shed  the  blood  of  Christians  without  mer- 
cy, to  prevent  the  suspicion  of  his  being 
secretly  attached  to  tliat  religion.  These 
representations  kindled  the  religious  zeal 
of^  Christian  Europe  into  a  flame,  and 
a  general  ardor  was  awnakened  to  de- 
liver the  sepulchre  of  Christ  f^om  the 
hands  of  the  infidels.  In  order  to  undei"- 
stand  this  general  excitement,  we  must 
remember  toat,  at  this  period,  the  conf  11- 
sion  and  desolation,  which  hsid  followed 
the  imipdon  of  the  barbarians  into  the 
south  and  west  of  Europe,  had  ceased,  and 
the  dawn  of  civilization  and  intellectual 
cultivation  had  commenced.  In  this  men- 
tal twilight,  men  were  just  in  a  state  to 
receive  a  strong  religious  excitement, 
^he  idea  of  the  Virpn,  too,  harmonized 
well  with  the  Teutonic  reverence  for  tlie 
female  sex ;  and  to  fight  in  her  cause  was 
gratifying  to  the  spirit  of  chivalry.  The 
undisciplined  minds  of  men  were  bent 
upon  adventure,  and  their  imaginations 
were  easily  roused  by  the  reports  of  the 
riches  of  the  East  The  joys  of  paradise 
were  the  sure  reward  of  all  who  fell  in 
the  holy  cause.  Thus  a  crowd  of  the 
strongest  feehngs,  chivalrous  devotion  to 
the  female  sex,  the  hope  of  adventure, 
of  wealth,  of  honor  and  of  heaven, 
stirred  up  the  spirit  of  Europe,  and  im- 
peUed  her  sons  into  the  East    (See  Qkiv- 


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CRUSADES. 


61 


abyJ)  The  pope  coosidered  the  invanon 
of  Asia  as  the  means  of  promoting  Chris- 
tianity amongst  the  infideis,  and  of  win- 
ning whole  nations  to  the  bosom  of  the 
church ;  monarchs  expected  victory  and 
increase  of  dominion  ;  the  peasant,  who, 
in  the  greater  part  of  JSurope,  was  strug- 
^ng  with  wretchedness  in  the  degrading 
condition  of  bondage,  was  ready  to  foUow 
to  a  country  which  was  pictured  as  a  par- 
adise. ^  The  East  has  always  had  a  poeti- 
cal charm  for  the  people  of  the  West, 
which  has  by  no  means  ceased  in  our 
time.  The  crusades,  and  the  ardor  with 
which  whole  nations  engaged  in  them, 
must  be  attributed  to  the  above  causes. 
Peter  of  Amiens,  or  Peter  the  Hermit,  was 
the  immediate  cause  of  the  first  crusade. 
In  1093,  he  had  joined  other  pilgrims  on 
a  journey  to  Jerusalem.  On  his  return, 
he  gave  pope  Urban  II  a  description  of 
the  unhappy  situation  of  Christians  in  the 
East,  and  presented  a  petition  from  the 
patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  in  which  he  anx- 
iously entreatecf  the  assistance  of  the 
Western  Christians  for  their  suffering 
brethren.  The  pope  disclosed  to  the 
council  which  was  held  at  Piacenaui,  in 
1095,  in  the  -open  air,  on  account  of  the 
number  of  people  assembled,  the  message 
which  Christ  harl  sent,  through  Peter  the 
Hermit,  caused  the  ambassadors  of  the 
Greek  emperor  Alexius  to  describe  the 
condition  of  Christianity  in  the  East,  and 
induced  many  to  promise  their  assistance 
for  the  relief  of  their  oppressed  brethren. 
The  sensation  which  he  produced  at  the 
council  assembled  at  Clermont,  in  1096, 
where  ambassadors  from  all  nations  were 
present,  was  still  greater ;  he  inspired  the 
whole  assembly  so  completely  in  favor 
of  his  plan,  that  they  unanimously  ex- 
claimed, afler  he  had  described  the  mis- 
erable condition  of  the  Oriental  Christians, 
and  called  upon  the  West  for  aid,  Deus 
vuU  (It  is  God's  will) !  In  the  same  year, 
numberless  annies  went  forth  in  different 
divisions.  This  is  considered  the  first 
crusade.  Many  of  these  armies,  being 
ignorant  of  military  discipline,  and  unpro- 
vided with  the  necessaries  for  such  an  ex- 
pedition, were  completely  destroyed  in 
the  different  countries  through  which  tliey 
bad  to  pass  before  reaching  Constantino- 
ple, which  had  been  chosen  for  tlieir 
place  of  meeting.  A  superficial  knowl- 
edge of  these  holy  vrsis  throws  a  false 
glare  ronnd  the  character  of  the  crusading 
armies.  They  contained,  indeed,  some 
men  of  elevated  character;  but  the  great- 
er part  consisted  of  crazy  fanatics  and 
wretches  bent  on  plunder.    A  well  con- 

YOU  IV.  6 


ducted,  regular  army,  however,  of  80,000 
men,  was  headed  by  Godfrav  of  Boulogne, 
duke  of  Lower  LorroiDe,  Hugh,  brotlier 
to  Philip  king  of  France,  Bald  win,  brother 
of  Godfrey,  Robert  of  Flanders,  Raymond 
of  Toulouse,  Bohemond,  Tancred  of  Apu- 
lia, and  other  heroes.  WitJi  this  army, 
the  experienced  commanders  traversed 
Germany  and  Hungary,  passed  over  the 
strait  of  Gallipoli,  conquered  Nice  in  1097, 
Antioch  and  Edessa  in  1098,  and,  lastly, 
Jerusalem  in  1099.  Godfrey  of  Boulogne 
was  chosen  king  of  Jerusalem,  but  died  in 
1 100.  The  news  of  the  conquest  of  Jeru- 
salem renewed  the  zeal  of  the  West  In 
U02,  an  army  of  260,000  men  lefl  Europe, 
which,  however,  perished  partly  ou  the 
march,  and  partly  bv  the  sword  of  the  sul- 
tan of  Iconium.  The  Genoese,  and  other 
commercial  nations,  undertook  several  ex- 
peditions by  sea.  The  second  great  and 
regularlv  conducted  crusade  was  occa- 
sioned by  the  loss  of  Edessa,  which  the 
Saracens  conquered  in  1149.  The  news 
of  this  loss  produced  great  consternation 
in  Europe,  and  it  was  apfHvhended  that 
the  other  acquisitions,  including  Jemsa- 
lem,  would  fall  again  into  the  hands  of 
the  infidels.  In  consequence  of  these 
fears,  pope  Eugene  III,  as^sted  by  St 
Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  exhorted  the  Ger- 
man emperor,  Conrad  HI,  and  the  king 
of  France,  Louis  VII,  to  defend  the  cross. 
Both  these  monarchs  obeyed  the  call  in 
1147,  and  led  large  bodies  of  forces  to  the 
East;  but  their  enterprise  was  not  suc- 
cessful, and  they  were  compelled  to  with- 
draw, leaving  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem 
in  a  much  weaker  condition  than  they 
had  found  it  When  sultan  Saladin,  in 
1187,  took  Jerusalem  from  the  Christians^ 
the  zeal  of  the  West  Ijecame  still  more 
ardent  than  at  the  commencement  of  the 
crusades ;  and  the  monarchs  of  the  three 
principal  European  countries — ^Frederic 
I,  emperor  of  Germany,  Philip  Augus- 
tus, kin?  of  France,  and  Richard  I,  king 
of  Engtend — determined  to  lead  their  ar- 
mies in  person  against  tlie  infidels  (1189). 
This  is  regarded  as  the  third  cnisade. 
Frederic's  enterprise  was  unsuccessful ; 
but  the  kings  of  France  and  England 
succeeded  in  gaining  possession  of  Acre, 
or  Ptolemais,  which,  until  the  entire  ter- 
mmation  of  the  crUsadefl,  remained  the 
bulwark  of  the  Christians  in  the  East. 
The  fourth  crusade  was  conducted  by  the 
king  of  Hungary,  Andrew  n,  in  1217,  by 
sea.  The  emperor  Frederic  II,  compelled 
by  the  pope,  who  wished  for  his  destnic- 
tion,  to  fulfil  a  promise  iiwde  in  early 
youth,  undertook  th|^  fiflh  crusade,  and 


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63 


CRUSADES— CRUZADA. 


succeeded  in  regaining  Jerusalem,  al- 
though he  could  not  secure  the  perma- 
nent possession  of  the  country.  The  list 
of  heroes  who  conducted  the  crusades  is 
honorably  closed  with  St  Louis,  king  of 
France  (who  conducted  the  sixth  crusade, 
commencing  in  1348),  although  fate  frus- 
trated his  plan,  which  was  ably  conceived 
and  bravely  executed.  While  Louis  was 
still  in  Egypt  (for  he  proposed  concmering 
the  Holy  Land  by  an  invasion  of  Egypt, 
the  seat,  at  that  time,  of  the  rulers  of 
Palestine),  a  revolution  broke  out  in  that 
country,  which  proved  decisive  with  re- 
card  to  the  possession  of  the  Holy  Land. 
The  house  of  Saladin  was  dethroned, 
and  the  dominion  of  the  Mamehikes  and 
sultans  established.  These  directed  their 
efforts  against  the  possessions  of  the 
Christians  in  Palestine.  Tripoli,  Tyre,/ 
Berytus,  fell  into  their  hands  successively, 
and,  on  the  fall  of  Acre,  or  Ptolemais, 
the  last  bulwark  and  the  last  remains  of 
the  Christian  empire  on  the  continent  of 
Asia,  were  overthrown.  By  means  of 
these  joint  enterprises,  the  European  na- 
tions became  more  connected  with  each 
other,  tiie  class  of  citizens  increased  in 
influence,  partly  because  the  nobility  suf- 
fered by  extravagant  contributions  to  the 
crusades,  and  jmrtly  because  a  commer- 
cial intercourse  took  place  throughout 
Europe,  and  greatly  augmented  the 
wealtn  of  the  cities ;  the  human  mind  ex- 
pended, and  a  number  of  arts  and  scien^ 
ces,  till  then  unknown  in  Europe,  were  in- 
troduced there.  The  present  civUkation . 
of  the  European  world  is,  in  a  great  de- 
gree, the  result  of  these  cnisades.  It  be- 
longs to  a  histoiy  of  poetry  to  describe 
how  much  contemporary  poetry  was  af- 
fected by  the  crusades,  and  the  extent  to 
which  they  have  given  currency  to  a  cer- 
tain class  of  ideas  that  has  prevailed  ever 
since.  Some  of  the  best  works  on  the 
cnisades  are  Frederic  Wilken*s  (ksehidUt 
dor  Kreuzsciige  nock  mveenS^mdischm  und 
abmdlandisf^B(Tkhtmjheipe\c  (the  three 
first  volumes  appeared  in  1807 — 19 :  vol- 
ume 4,  which  treats  of  the  period  from 
1188  to  1195,  appeare.d  in  1896) ;  HUtoire 
des  CraiscideSy  by  De  Michaud,  a  member 
of  the  French  academy,  foiuth  edition, 
Paris,  1825;  Charles  Mills's  History  of 
the  Crusades,  London,  1820;  Heeren's 
Versuch  emer  ErUtrickdun^  der  Fod^  der 
Kremx^tfar  Uuropo^Gdttingen,  1808. 

Crusade,  and  Crusada.  (See  cruzo- 
cb,  M  and  new,  in  the  article  Cwna,  under 
the  division  Ptjrtagal, 

Crusca,  Acaoemia  della.  (See  Acadr 
emtef.) 


Crustaceovs  Animals,  in  natural  liis- 
toiy ;  tliose  covered  with  shells,  consist- 
ing of  several  pieces  or  scales,  as  crabs, 
lobsters,  &c.  Their  shells  are  generally 
softer  than  the  sheUs  of  the  testaceous 
kind,  which  consist  of  but  few  pieces  or 
valves,  such  as  those  of  the  oyster,  scal- 
lop, cockle. 

Cruz,  Santa  (Spanish;  Holy  Cross). 
Among  the  various  places  of  this  name, 
the  most  important  are,  1.  An  island  in 
the  West  Indies,  belonging  to  Denmark, 
the  most  southerly  of  the  Virgin  isles; 
lat  17°  45^  N. ;  Ion.  64°  35^  W.  It  is 
about  24  miles  in  length,  witli  an  area  of 
84  square  miles,  and  contains  33,000  in- 
habitants, of  which  30,000  .are  slaves. 
The  countiy  is  mostly  level,  the  climate 
unhealthy  at  certain  seasons,  the  water 
scarce  and  bad.  The  soil  is  fertile,  produc- 
ing cotton,  sugar-cane,  some  coffee  and  in- 
digo, and  tropical  fruits.  About  9,000,000 
^llons  of  rum  are  annually  exported. 
The  best  ports  are  Christianstadt  and 
Frederickstadt  The  former,  situated  on 
the  nortliem  coast  of  the  island,  is  the 
capital  of  all  the  Danish  West  Indies.  Af- 
ter having  been  successively  in  the  hands 
of  the  Dutch,  English,  French,  and  Span- 
iards, Santa  Cruz  was  ceded  to  Denmark 
in  1733.  In  1807,  H  was  taken  by  the 
English,  but  was  restored  to  the  Danes  b^ 
the  peace  of  Paris,  in  1814.  2.  A  city  on 
the  island  of  Teneriffe;  lat.  28°  28^  N.  • 
Ion.  16^  Wf  W.  The  road  is  much  visited 
by  European  vessels,  on  their  way  to  the 
Indies  and  to  America,  fbr  water  and  mxv< 
visions.  The  population  is  8400.  The 
principal  article  of  export  is  Tenerifie 
wine.    (See  TenerWt.) 

Cruzada  (Spamsk),  A  bull  called  the 
IvU  ^f  tht  crusade,  is  a  source  of  consider-  • 
able  revenue  to  the  Spanish  crown.  Pope  ■ 
Calixtus  III  first  issued  this  bull,  during 
the  reign  of  king  Henry  of  Castile,  in 
1457,  granting  an  absolution  fbr  past  of- 
fences to  all  who  would  fight  against  infi- 
dels, or  pay  a  certain  sum  (200  maravedis), 
to  aid  the  crown  in  carrying  on  war 
against  them ;  and,  as  this  bull  is  granted 
only  for  five  years,  the  king  has  the  power 
of  renewing  it  It  confers  also  certain 
inmiunities,  such  as  the  right  to  eat  some 
kinds  of  prohibited  food  in  Lent.  It  has  not 
been  customary  to  renew  the  grant  since 
1753.  These  bulls  were  formerly  sold,  in 
a  printed  form,  by  priests  and  monks,  who 
very  often  abusea  their  authority,  and 
would  not  confess  people,  or  give  them 
extreme  unction,  unless  they  would  buy 
the  bulls.  The  revenue  thus  received  by 
the  crown  ynoi  estimated,  for  Spain  and 


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CRUZADA-CRYPTOGRAPHY. 


<53 


S|ianish  America,  at  $1,500,000.  Portugal 
abo  received  sucii  a  bull  in  1591,  for  Uie 
support  of  her  fortifications  in  Africa. 
Mendoza,  in  one  chapter  of  his  Vida  de 
Lazantio  de  TormeSy  describes  the  abuses 
by  which  the  huUarios,  or  sellers  of  bulls, 
eztoited  money  from  the  people., 

Crtpt,  in  architecture ;  a  hollow  place 
or  vault  constructed  under  ground.  The 
tombs  of  the  Christian  martyrs  also  were 
so  called,  where  the  eariy  Christians  met 
to  perform  their  devotions,  for  fear  of  per- 
secution. Hence  crypt  came  to  signify 
a  church  under  ground,  or  the  lower 
story,  like  that  of  St  Paul's,  London, 
LastiDgham  priory,  and  many  of  the 
ancient  ecclesiastical  edifices  of  Eitgland, 
Germany  and  France.  When  crypts  are 
on  a  large  scale,  like  those  of  Rome,  Na- 
ples and  Paris,  tliey  are  then  called  cata- 
combs. (See  Catacombs,)  Bartoli  and 
Bellori  have  published  engravings  of 
paintings  foiind  in  the  crypts  of  Rome,  of 
which  there  are  several  editions.  The 
one  of  1738  is  in  Latin. 

Crypto;  a  prefix  from  the  Greek 
«fw«rof  (secret),  used  in  several  compounds ; 
for  instance,  cryptography  (g.  v.),  cryp- 
U^amy  (q.  v.),  CryptO'Valvvnists  (q.  v.) 
When  the  Jesuits  were  dissolved  by  a 
papal  bull,  much  was  said  of  Crypto^ts- 
rats.  In  France,  we  hear  sometimes  of 
crypto-repMicans,  &c. 

Crtpto-Calvinists  [crypto  from  the 
Greek  k^titos,  secret^;  a  name  given  to 
the  favorers  of  CalvmLsm  m  Saxony,  on 
account  of  their  secret  aHachmquttu  the 
Grenevan  doctrine  and  discipline.  (See 
Ckmcord,  Form  of,] 

Crtptogabiia,  in  botany;  the  24th 
and  last  class  of  the  sexual  system  of 
Linnceus,  including  several  very  numerous 
families  of  plants,  in  which  the  parts  es- 
sential to  their  fructification  have  not  been 
sufiiciently  ascertained,  or  are  too  small 
to  admit  of  their  being  accurately  de- 
scribed and  referred  to  any  of  the  other 
classes. 

Crtptoqrapht  (from  the  Greek  Kpvnrtt, 
secret,  and  yfw^«»,  to  writej;  the  art  of 
transmitting  secret  information  by  means 
of  writing,  which  is  intended  to  be  illegi- 
ble, except  by  the  person  for  whom  it  is 
destined.  The  ancients  sometimes  shaved 
the  head  of  a  slave,  and  wrote  upon  the 
skin  with  some  indelible  coloring  matter, 
and  tiien  sent  him,  afler  his  hair  had 
^wn  affain,  to  tiie  place  of  his  destina- 
tion. Tnis  is  not,  however,  properly 
secret  writing,  but  only  a  concealment  of 
writing.  Another  sort,  which  corresponds 
better  with  the  name,  is  the  following,  used 


by  the  ancients.  They  took  a  small  stick, 
and  wound  around  it  bark,  or  papyrus. 
Upon  which  they  wrote.  The  bark  was 
then  unrolled,  and  sent  to  the  correspond- 
ent, who  was  furnished  with  a  stick  of  the 
same  size.  He  wound  the  bark  again 
round  this,  and  thus  was  enabled  to  read 
what  had  been  written.  This  mode  of 
concealment  is  evidently  very  imperfect. 
Cryptography  properly  consists  in  writing 
with  signs,  which  are  legible  only  to  him 
for  whom  the  writing  is  intended,  or  who 
has  a  key,  or  explanation  of  the  signs. 
The  most  simple  method  is  to  choose  for 
every  letter  of^the  alphabet  some  sign,  or 
only  another  letter.  But  this  sort  of  cryp- 
tography (chiffire)  is  also  easy  to  be  deci- 
phered without  a  key.  Hence  many  illu- 
sions are  used.  No  separation  is  made 
between  the  words,  or  signs  of  no  meaning 
are  inserted  among  those  of  real  meaning. 
Various  keys  likewise  are  used,  according 
to  rules  before  agreed  upon.  By  this 
means,  the  deciphering  of  the  writing  be- 
comes difiSculr  for  a  third  person,  not 
initiated  ;  but  it  is  likewise  extremely 
troublesome  for  the  correspondents  them- 
selves ;  and  a  slight  mistake  often  makes 
it  illegible,  even  by  them.  Another  mode 
of  communicating  intelli^nce  secretly, 
viz^  to  agree  upon  some  pnnted  book,  and 
mark  the  words  out,  is  also  troublesome, 
and  not  at  all  safe.  The  method  of  con- 
cealing the  words  which  are  to  convey  the 
information  intended  in  matter  of  a  very 
diflTerent  character,  in  a  lon^  letter,  which 
■the  wiiwpondeBtris  euabled'to  read^by 
applying  a  paper  to  it,  with  holes  corre^f 
Bponding  to  the  places  of  the  significant 
words,  is  attended  with  many  disadvan- 
tages :  the  paper  may  be  lost ;  the  repeti- 
tion of  certain  words  may  lead  to  discov- 
ery ;  and  the  difficulty  of  connecting  the 
important  with  the  unimportant  matter,  so 
as  to  give  the  whole  the  appearance  of  an 
ordin^  letter,  is  considerable.  If  this  is 
effected,  however^thismode  has  the  advan- 
tage of  concealing  the  fact  tiiat  any  secrecy 
is  intended.  Writing  with  sympathetic  ink, 
or  viilk,  lemon-juice,  &c.,  is  unsafe,  be- 
cause the  agents  to  make  the  letters  visible 
are  too  generallv  known.  Hence  the  chiffire 
quarri,  or  chigoe  ifuUchiffirabUy  so  called, 
has  come  very  much  into  use,  because  it 
is  easily  applied,  difficult  to  be  deciphered, 
and  the  key  may  be  prescrveii  in  the 
memory  merely,  and  easilv  changed.  It 
consists  of  a  table,  in  whicn  the  letters  of 
the  alphabet,  or  any  other  signs  agreed 
Ufjon,  are  arranged  under  one  another, 
thus: — 


Digitized  by 


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64 


CRYPTOGRAPHY— CUBA. 


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Any  word  is  now  taken  foEotkey ;  Pctris, 
for  example.  Tbis  i8  a  8hort  wor8,  and, 
for  the  sake  of  secrecy,  it  would  be  well 
to  choose  for  the  key  some  one  or  more 
words  less  striking.  Suppose  we  wish  to 
write  in  this  cipher,  with  this  key,  the 
phrase  "  We  lost  a  battle  ;**  we  must  write 
jPom  over  the  phrase,  repeating  it  as  often 
as  is  necessary,  thus : — 

Pa  risPa  r  isPar 

We  lost  a  battle. 
We  now  take,  as  a  cipher  for  ir,  tlvB  letter 
which  we  find  in  the  squaie  opposite  w  in 
the  left  marginal  column,  and  under  j?  on 
the  top,  which  is  nu  Instead  of  f,  we 
take  the  letter  opposite  e  and  under  «, 
which  19  f;  for  /,  the  letter  opposite  /  and 
under  r,  and  so  on.  Proceeding  thus,  we 
should  obtain  tlie  following  series  of  let- 

'  mfcxlibtkmimw 

The  person  who  receives  the  epistle 
writes  the  key  over  the  letters ;  as, 

.  P  ar  %  aPar  i  a  Pa  r 

mfcxlibtkmimw 
He  How  goes  down  in  the  perpendicular 
line,  at  the  top  of  which  is  p,  until  fae 


meets  tfi,  opposite  to  which,  in  the  left 
marginal  column,  he  finds  w.  Next,  going 
in  the  line  of  a  down  to  /,  he  finds  on  the 
left  «.  In  the  same  way,  r  gives  /,  i  gives 
0,  and  so  on.  Or  you  may  reverse  the 
process;  begin  with  o,  in  the  left  marginal 
column,  and  look  along  horizontally  till 
you  find  m,  over  which,  in  tlie  top  line, 
you  will  find  w.  It  is  easily  seen,  that  tlie 
same  letter  is  not  always  designated  by 
the  same  cipher;  thus,  e  and  a  occur 
twice  in  the  phrase  selected,  and  they  are 
designated  respectively  by  the  ci]»lier8  / 
and  IT,  6  and  h  Thus  the  posgibility  of 
finding  out  the  secret  writing  is  almost 
excluaed.  The  key  may  he  changed  from 
time  to  time,  and  a  difterent  key  may  be 
used  with  each  correspondent '  The  ut- 
most accuracy  is  necessary,  because  one 
character,  accidentally  omitted,  changes 
the  whole  cipher.  The  correspondi^nt, 
however,  may  ascertain  this  with  consid- 
erable trouble.    (See  Deciphering.) 

Cuba  ;  the  largest  and  most  westerly 
of  the  Antilles.  Its  configuration,  extent, 
geographical  position,  great  number  of 
ports,  fertility  and  climate,  contribute  to 


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65 


render  it  one  of  the  most  interesting 
countries  of  America.  Its  length,  fix>m 
cape  St.  Antonio  to  point  Maisi,  in  a  direc- 
tion from  W.  S.  W.  to  E.  N.  E.,  and  then 
from  W.  N.  W.  to  E.  S.  E.,  is  257  leagues, 
and  its  greatest  width,  in  the  direction 
north  to  south,  is  38  leagues.  The  learned 
geographer  don  Felipe  fiausa  calculated, 
in  June,  1825,  that  the  surface  of  Cuba 
contained  3615  square  marine  leagues  (20 
to  a  degree).  Cuba  is  situated  between 
Ion.  73P  56^  and  85*^  W.  and  between  lat. 
19°  48^  30"  and  23°  12f  45"  N.  It  lies  14 
leagues  west  from  cape  Nicolas,  in  the 
island  of  St  Domingo,  34  south  from 
point  Monmt,  in  Jamaica,  27  east  from 
cape  Catoche,  and  37  south  from  cape 
Florida.  The  gulf  of  Mexico,  which  is 
very  nearly  of  a  circular  form,  of  more 
than  250  leagues  in  circumference,  is  closed 
by  the  island  of  Cuba,  with  the  exception 
of  two  narrow  passages,  the  one  to  the 
south,  between  cape  Catoche  and  cape 
St.  Antonio,  and  the  other  to  the  north, 
between  Bahia  Honda  and  the  Florida 
shoalsL  Along  the  coast  of  Cuba  are 
many  keys  and  small  islands,  which  are 
included  in  the  same  government  with 
the  large  island.  The  navigation  of  the 
coast  is  very  unsafe  on  account  of  the 
rocks  and  shoals  which  encompass  it  al- 
most without  interruption,  and  often  ex- 
tend from  2  to  3  miles  into  the  sea.  The 
broken  outline  of  this  vast  extent  of  coast, 
however,  aflbrds  more  than  50  ports  and  an- 
choring places,  which  are  equally  safe  and 
easy  of  access.  The  most  remarkable,  in 
a  commercial  point  of  view,  are  those  or 
Havanna,  Matanzas,  Nuevitas,  Jibara  and 
Baracoa,on  the  nofth;  St.  Jago,  Manza- 
niUo,  Trinidad,  Jagua  and  Batabano,  on 
the  south  side  of  the  island.  There  is 
another  port  between  Manzanillo  and 
Trinidad,  called  Santa  Cruz^  which,  in 
February,  1829,  was  declared  a  free  port, 
and  which,  undoubtedly,  will  be  much 
frequented,  Aimishing  gr&X  facilities  for 
trading  with  Puerto  Principe  (the  second 
city  in  Cuba  in  point  of  population)^  being 
the  only  good  harbor  in  its  vicinity  on  the 
south  «de  of  the  island,  and  distant  from 
it  but  20  leagues.  The  harbors  of  Bahia 
Honda,  Nipe,  Naranjo  and  Guantanamo 
also  deserve  to  be  mentioned,  as  they  are 
very  spacious,  and  have  plenty  of  water 
for  such  large  vessels  as  may  be  in  want 
of  a  sale  port.  A  ridge  of  mountains 
traverses  the  whole  of  the  island,  from  the 
east  to  the  west,  dividing  it  into  two 
parts.  At  the  foot  of  these,  the  country 
opens  into  extensive  savannas.  A  canad- 
erable  number  of  small  streams  from 
6* 


these  heights  water  the  island  on  both 
sides.  These  streams  abound  in  frsh  of 
different  kinds,  and  are  said  to  bring  down 
considerable  quantities  of  gold.  There  are 
likewise  many  salt  ponds,  which  furnish 
abundance  of  fish  and  game ;  also  several 
springs  of  mineral  water,  which  have 
proved  very  useful  for  the  cure  of  many 
diseases.  The  most  remarkable  are  those 
of  St  Diego,  40  leagues  west  of  Havan- 
na ;  those  of  Madruga,  14  leagues  S.  W. 
of  the  said  city ;  those  of  the  town  of 
Guanabacoa ;  and  those  of  Camugiro,  1^ 
league  from  Puerto  Principe.  Those  of 
St  Diego  are  the  only  ones  which  have 
been  analysed.  They  consist  of  two 
wells  (Tigre  and  Tempiado),  and,  accord- 
ing to  the  analysis  of  seiior  Esteves,  a 
pound  of  the  water  contains  0.46  grains 
of  sulphureted  hvdrogen  gas,  10.5  of  sul- 
phate of  lime,  1.0  of  hydrochlorate  of 
magnesia,  and  one  grain  of  carbonate  of 
magnesia.  They  are  particularly  useful 
in  cases  of  scrofula,  cutaneous  diseases, 
&c.  The  island  is  very  rich  in  minerals, 
particularly  In  copper,  iron  and  loadstone. 
In  1813,  some  persons  endeavored  to 
work  a  mine  which  they  found  near  the 
city  of  Trinidad,  and  from  which  they 
obtained  good  gold  and  silver.  They 
were,  however,  obliged,  firom  want  of 
funds,  to  desist,  though  it  was  highly 
probable  that,  with  a  sufficient  capital,  it 
could  have  been  made  profitable.  For 
the  same  reason,  together  with  the  want 
of  protection  from  t&  government,  a  very 
rich  mine  of  coal,  which  was  opened  in 
1816,  near  Bacuranao,  was  abandoned. 
In  1827,  a  silver  mine  was  discovered, 
yielding  7.5  of  pure  silver  to  a  quintal  of 
ore.  Iron  seems  to  be  abundant,  as  it 
shows  itself  in  parts  of  the  great  Cordil- 
lera of  Sierra  Maestra.  IxMidstone  is 
found  in  the  mountains  of  Paragua  and 
on  the  northern  coast  Marbles  of  various 
kinds,  seipentine,  chalcedony  of  excellent 
qualiijr,  quartz,  mineral  bitumen,  &c.,  are 
likewise  found  in  the  island.  Our  knowl- 
edge of  the  geological  and  nineralogical 
structure  of  Cuba,  however,  is  compara- 
tively small,  on  account  of  the  thickness 
of  the  forests  and  the  asperity  of  the 
mountains,  particularly  on  the  eastern 
part  Most  that  we  know  on  this  subject 
IS  derived  fix>m  the  researches  of  Alexan- 
der yon  Humboldt  The  soil  of  Cuba  is  so 
productive  that  it  yields  two,  and  even  three 
crops  of  com  in  a  year.  The  fields,  dur- 
ing the  whole  year,  are  covered  with  aro- 
matic plants  and  trees  in  blossom.  The 
climate  is  dry  and  warm.  In  the  months 
of  July  and  August,   the  thermometer 


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nuiges  from  HSP  to  29°  Reaumur  (95®  to 
97^  Fahrenheit),  and  in  those  of  December 
and  J|^uary,  which  are  tlie  coldest,  com- 
monly between  17°  and  21°  of  Reaumm' 
(70°  and  79°  Fahrenheit.)    It  never  freez- 
es, not  even  on  the  highest  mountains. 
The  coasts  of  the  island  are  well  known 
to  be  unhealthy ;  but  this  is  not  the  case 
with  the  mountains.    Among  the  animals 
indigenous  in  tlie  island  or  3ie  surround- 
ing sea,  are  the  cayman  or  alhgator  (q.  v.), 
the   manati  or  sea  cow,  the   iguana  (a 
species  of  lizard),  the  turtle,  &c    Many 
of  the  domestic  animals  of  Europe  have 
been  introduced.    A    great  number    of 
swine,  and  also  of  bees,  are  raised.    Late- 
ly the  breeding  of  mules  has  been  carried 
on  to  a  considerable  extent.    Birds  are 
numerous  in  the  forests.    Among  them 
are  the  canary-bird,  the  linnet,  also  a  binl 
resembling  the  nightingale,  tlie  cardinal 
gross-beak,  the  bunting,  &c.    The  rivers, 
Uiough  they  have  but  a  short  courae,  and 
are  deficient  in  water,  abound,  at  certain 
seasons,  with  excellent  Ush.  -Reptiles  are 
extremely  numerous.    Among  the  insects, 
of  which  there  are  vei-y  many,  are  the 
mosquitoes,  verdadercanenU  unaplaga  que 
infesta  los  cayos,  costcts  y  terrenos  pantanO' 
«of ,  to  use  the  words  of  the  Cuadro  EstadU- 
tico  mentioned  below.    They  are  divided 
into  dififerent  species — mosquito  proper,  co- 
racif  zancudo,  rodador,iaguey  and  kmcetero. 
In  the  rainy  season,  they  follow  men  and 
beasts  into  the  interior  of  the  island.  The 
gregen,  which  is  almost  invisible,  is  ex- 
ceedingly  numerous  and    very  trouble- 
some.   Among  the  spiders,  the  pdiuia  is 
the  most  disagreeable  in  appearance,  and 
its  bite  produces  fever,  yet  without  dan- 
ger to  liie.    There  are  other  kinds  partic- 
ularly troublesome  to  particular  animals. 
The  vegetable  kingdom  of  Cuba  is  ex- 
tremely rich.    Here  are  to  be  found  the 
mahogany-tree,   the  cedar,   liguum-vitse, 
various  kinds  of  ebony,  besides  numerous 
woods  suitable  for  building  houses,  ships, 
&C.;  also  palm-trees,  among  which  tne 
palina  reed  is  remarkable  for  the  utihty 
of  every  part  to  man  and  various  ani- 
mals ;  sarsaparilla  and  many  other  plants 
useful  in  medicine ;  also  the  chestnut,  the 
pine-apple,  the  annona  or  custardrapple, 
the  medlar,  plantain,  orange,  and  various 
kinds  of  melons.    Among  the  agricultural 
plants,  maize  is  the  most  important ;  rice, 
beans,  peas,  gmifanzoa  are  also  cultivated. 
The  culture  of  wheat  is  abandoned.   The 
true  riches  of  the  coikntiy  consist  in  its 
great  articles  of  export-*-sugar,  coffee,  to- 
bacco, wax,  cacao,  molasses,,  rum,  noudze, 


&c.    According  to  a   very  recent   and 
complete  official  publication — Cuadro  Es- 
tadistico  de  la  siemprtfid  Ida  de  Cuba  oor- 
respondknte  al  aiio  de  1827,  fonnado  por 
una  ComUdoti  de  Gefes  y  OJkiales  de  wdtn 
y  h(^o  de  la  Direccion  del    Excd*^'  S^' 
Capitan  General  D.  Fr.  Dioniaio  ViveSj 
HabanOy  1829 — the  export  of  sugar,  in 
1827,  was  5,878,924i  arrobas  (an  arroba  is 
equal  to  25  pounds),  or,  including  tare, 
&c.,    6,d00,GOO    arrobas.      The    whole 
amount  produced  was  8,091,837  arrobas ; 
consumed  on  the  island,  1,791,837.    Of 
coffee,  the  export,  in  the  same  year,  was 
2,001,583i  arrobas,  and  the  amount  con- 
sumed in  the  island,  881,944|.    Of  tobac- 
co, the  amounts  have  not  been  so  well 
ascertained.    This  article  pays  a  duty  of 
six  per  cent  to  tlie  king  (ordinance  of 
Oct.  8,  1827).    In  1827,  there  were  ex- 
ported 61,898  cargas,  or  about  500,000  ar- 
robas, of  which  79,106i  were  en  ramajm 
the  leaf).    Of  wax,  the  export,  in  1827, 
was  22,4021  arrobas ;  tlie  whole  produc- 
tion, 63,160.    Of  cotton,  the  export,  in  the 
same  year,  was  23,414  arrolNis;  whole 
quantity  raised,  38,142.     Of  cacao,  the 
export  was  only  1953  arrobas,  while  the 
whole  quiantity  raised  was  23,806  arrobas. 
Indigo  began  to  be  cultivated  in  1795,  but 
little  has  as  yet  been  raised— 4n  1827,  only 
56  arrobas — and  of  wheat  only  120  arro- 
bas.   The  export  of  molasses,  in  1827, 
was  74,083  bacoyes  (hoesheads) ;  of  rum 
(a^uardienle  de  cana}i  2457  pipes.    Rice  is 
raised  in  large  quantity,  but  not  enough  to 
.supply  the  great  home  consumption.    In 
182/,  520,897  arrobas  were  produced  on 
the  island,  and  590,820i|  arrobas  imported. 
Of  maize,  1,617,806  fanegas  were  raised 
(a  fanega  is  about  100  pounds),  and  yet 
there  were  imported  70,497  arrobas  of  the 
com,  and  4,9&  barrels  of  the  meal.    Of 
beans  (frijoUesy  there  were  produced,  in 
1827,    134,185    arrobas,   and    imported, 
58,418^.    Notwithstanding  this  great  pro- 
duction, it  is  believed  that  only  a  seventh 
part  of  aU  the  land  suitable  for  cultivation 
IS  actually  brought  into  use.    The  com- 
merce of  the  countiy  has  increased  lately 
very  much.     The    island   enjoys  great 
privileges  in  comparison  with  other  coun- 
.tries  under   the  yoke  of  Spain.     The 
trade  of  Cuba  is  carried  on  chiefly  through 
Havanna,  the  capital.    There  have  been 
times  when  the  exports   of  the  island 
amounted  to  $12,000,000,  and  its  unporta 
were  over  $15,000,000.    In  the  year  1827, 
17,352,854  dollars'  worth    of  merehan- 
dise  was  imported,  and  3,561,887  dollars* 
worth  exported,  making  the  consumptiou 


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amount  to  $13,791^)67,  which,  after  the 
aubtraction  of  articles  of  food  import- 
ed for  the  slaves,  leaves  $12,291,^^ 
for  the  value  of  imported  articles  con- 
sumed bv  the  337,128  white  and  106^494 
colored  tree  persons,  which  gives  $28  as 
the  average  consumption  of  each  individ- 
ual during  the  year.  The  total  value  of 
the  produce  of  the  island  was  lately  esd- 
mated  at  $44,634,343.  In  1827,  the  com- 
merce of  Havanna  contributed  to  the  royal 
revenue  $4,383,262,  whilst,  in  1815,  it  paid 
only  $l,726,963ii.  The  interior  adminis- 
tradons  furnished  to  the  revenue,  in  1827, 
$2,^2,808.  The  whole  revenue  of  the 
island  has  been  estimated  a^  $7,500,000, 
and  the  expenses  of  the  government  at 
$6y500,000.  According  to  the  Bonanza  Jf4sr- 
cantU  of  Havanna,  for  the  year  1829,  it  ap- 
peals, that  the  imports  in  American  vessels 
from  the  U.  States  into  Havanna,  in  1829, 
amounted  to  the  sum  of .  .  $4,086,230  69 

France,         $1,048,965  63 

H^f-j        913,60100 

DenmariK,  12,962  75 

England,  1,548,779  37 

Italy,  29,773  12 

Netheriands,  289,758  88 

Portugal,  56,144  88 


$234,922 


^7,664  tons. 


6,172 


^20,133 


^^{t^W^mm 


$3,899,985  53 


Of  which  imports,  one^ 
fourth,  at  least,  was  I 
brought  in  American  | 
bottoms— say  j 

From  Spain  in  foreign 
bottoma,$3,097,d90  SS, 
of  which  two  thuidB, 
at  least,  were  under 
the  U.  States'  flag. 

Making  a  total  of  im- 
ports, in  1829,  under 
the  American  flag,  in- 
cluding the  imports 
fiom  me  U.  States  in 
Spanish  vessels,  of 

The  whole  value  of  ira-  ^ 

e>rt9   for    1829,    into> 
avanna,  ^ 

Supplied  by  the  U.  ^ 
states  and  by  Ameri-  > 
can  vessels,  ) 

Leaving,  for  all  other  ^ 
flags,  including  the  v 
Spanish,  ) 


The  tonnage  duty  paid  by  ? 

American  vessels  was,      \ 
Thus,    fiom    the 

U.  States  alone 

(American  ton 

nage)  came 
One    fourth     of 

foreign       ton 

nage  from  oth 

er  countries, 
Two    thinls    of 

tonnage  of  for- 
eign      vessels 

from  Spain, 
Total   American 

tonnage,  

From  the  above  notes,  it  seems  that  the  U. 
Suites  and  her  ships  have  supplied  more 
than  50  per  cent  of  the  entire  imports  of 
Havanna  for  the  last  year.— The  island  is 
subject  to  the  king  of^  Spain,  and,  for  the 
purposes  of  goveinment,is  divided  into  two 
political  divisiona  That  on  the  west  is 
under  tlie  immediate  control  of  the  captain- 
general  residing  in  Havanna.  The  other  is 
under  a  governor  appointed  by  the  king, 
but  subject,  in  many  respects,  to  the  cap- 
tain-generaL  It  is  also  divided  into  two  ec- 
clesiasdcal  jurisdictions,  the  one  governed 
by  an  archbishop,  who  resides  at  St.  Jago, 
the  other  one  by  a  bishop,  who  resides  at 
Havanna.  These  jurisdictions  have  their 
liniits  20  leagues  east  of  the  town  of  £s- 
piritu  Santo.  Since  the  beginnmg  of 
1826,  the  island  has  been  divided,  for  the 
purpose  of  defence,  into  three  militaiy  de- 
partments ;  these  again  into  districts,  and 
the  districts  into  .sections.  The  depart- 
ments are  commanded  by  a  general  offi- 
cer. The  eastern  department  embraces 
the  districts  of  St.  Jago,  Baracoa,  Holguin, 

2,065,060  24  Jibara,  Jiguani,  Oobre,  Tiguabos,  Manza- 
nillo  and  Bavamo ;  tho  central,  those  of 
Puerto  Princfoe,  Nuevitas,  Trinidad,  Espi- 
ritu  Saoto^  Villa  de  Santa  Clara  and  St 
Juan  de  los  Remedies ;  the-  ^n^em,  those 
of  Havanna,  St  Antonio  die  Compomela,  St 
$7,737,064  49    FeUpe,  and  St  Jago  del  Btejucafst  Anto- 

' nio  Abad  de  los  Banes,  Gtianajay,  GuaOa- 

bacoa,  Fihpina,  Janice,  Guinea.  Matanzas 
and  Guamutas.  These  same  divisions  serve 
as  Umits  for  the  jurisdictions  of  the  three 
intendencies  which  are  established  for 
the  collection  and  administration  of  the 
public  revenue,  and  the  heads  of  which 
reside  at  Havanna,  Puerto  Principe  and 
St  Jago,  the  capital  cities  of  the  three 
departments.    Education  is  in  a  very  low 

.^.««cww.  «      *^^®'  **"*»  accoidJng  to  Abbot's  Letters 

7,188^330  01    on  Cuba  (Boston,  1829),  it  is  improving. 

The  monus  of  the  people  are  loose ;  the 


974,996  44 


14,925^414  50 

7,737,084  49 


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police  is  weak  or  inactive :  murders  are 
frequent  The  laws  are  very  numerous 
and  contradictory,  and  much  bribery  and 
corruption  prevail  in  the  administration 
of  justice.  In  1821,  the  importation  of 
slaves  was  prohibited  by  law ;  and,  though 
it  is  yet  carried  on,  and  tolerated  by  the 
authorities  of  Cuba,  in  spite  of  the  laws 
a^^inst  it,  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  has 
diminished  a  great  deal,  in  consequence 
of  the  efibrtsand  vigilance  of  the  English 
cruisers.  The  emancipation  of  Colom- 
bia, Mexico,  and  the  Spanish  part  of  St. 
Domingo,  has  brought  to  Cuba  almost  all 
the  Spaniards  who  were  settled  in  those 
countries,  together  with  many  of  the  Cre- 
oles. The  number  of  the  aboriginal  popu- 
lation cannot  now  be  ascertained.  The 
European  and  African  population,  in  1511, 
did  not  include  more  than  300  persons. 
Within  the  last  52  years,  the  population 
has  more  than  quadrupled :  the  colored 
population  has  increased  fiister  than  the 
white.  According  to  the  census  of  1^7, 
given  in  the  Spanish  report  mentioned 
above,  the  population  then  stood  thus : 

Males.       Females.      Total. 

Whites, 168,653  142,398  311,051 

Free  Mulattoes,  28,058  29,456  57,514 
Free  Negroes,  .   23,904     250,76     48,980 

''NSSsla^llS3^  103,652^6^ 

Grand  total,  704,487 
of  which  311,051  are  white,  and  393,436 
are  colored. 

It  is  generally  believed,  that  the  inhabi- 
tants are  not  desirous  of  separating  fiom 
the  Spanish  government,  pieutly  l^cause 
Spain  treats  them  tolerably  welL|  and  part- 
ly because  of  the  distracted  condition  in 
which  they  behold  those  parts  of  Span- 
ish America  which  have  shaken  off  the 
Spanish  yoke.  A  conspiracy  was  discov- 
ered, however,  in  1830,  the  object  of 
which  was  the  independence  of  the 
island.  A  ridiculous  expedition  was  sent 
fiom  Cuba,  in  1829,  against  Mexico,  under 
geneml  Barradas,  who  was  forced  to  ca- 
pitulate at  Tampico,  on  September  11  of 
that  year.  The  principal  cities  of  the 
island  are  the  capital,  Havanna  (siemprefi' 
ddisima  ciudad  de  S.  Cristobal  de  lit  Ha- 
haiui)y  with  237,828  uihabitants,  St.  Jago 
de  Cuba,  St  Salvador,  St  Carlos  de  Am- 
tanzas,  St  Maria  de  Puerto  Princi[)e,  &c 
(See  these  articles.)— For  further  informa- 
tion respecting  the  island,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  Humboldt's  Personal  Mtrra- 
tivey  and  the  Cuadro  Estadisiico  already 
mentioned. 

Cuba  was  discovered,  in  1492,  by 
Christopher  Columbusi     In  1511,   don 


Diego  Velasquez  sailed  from  9L  Domingo, 
with  four  vessels  and  about  300  men,  for 
the  oonauest  of  the  island.  He  landed, 
on  the  25ch  of  July,  near  the  bay  of  St 
Jago,  to  which  be  gave  its  name.  The 
natives,  commanded  by  the  cacique  Hat- 
uey,  who  had  fled  fix>m  St.  Domingo,  his 
native  country,  on  account  of  the  cruel- 
ties of  the  Spaniards,  in  vain  endeavored , 
to  oppose  the  progress  bf  the  invaders.' 
The  noise  of  the  me-atms  was  sufficient 
to' disperse  the  poor  Indians.  Hatuey 
was  taiken  prisoner  and  condemned  to  bo 
burned  alive,  which  sentence  was  execut- 
ed after  he  had  refused  to  be  baptized. 
This  diabolical  act  filled  all  the  oth^ 
caciques  with  terror,  and  they  hastened 
to  pay  homage  to  Velasquez,  who  met 
with  no  more  opposition.  The  conquest 
of  Cuba  did  not  cost  the  Spaniards  a  sin- 
gle man.  The  conquerors,  not  finding 
the  mines  sufficiently  rich  to  induce  them 
to  worit  them,  mdually  exterminated  the 
natives,  whom  wey  could  not  employ.  Af- 
ter the  conquest  of  Cuba,  more  than  two 
centuries  elapsed  without  the  occunence 
of  any  memorable  incident  In  1741,  the 
E^^ish  admiral  Vernon  sailed,  in  July, 
from  Jamaica,  and  entered  the  bay  of  Gu- 
antanamo,  which  he  named  CSanberiand. 
He  landed  his  troops  20  miles  up  the  river, 
where  they  remained  in  perfect  inaction 
until  November,  when  they  went  back  to 
Jamaica.  Notwithstanding  the  disastrous 
termination  of  this  expedition,  the  English 
government  did  not  relinquish  the  idea  of 
taking  possession  of  Cuba.  In  1762, 
they  sent  from  England  a  formidable  ex- 
pedition, which,  after  its  junction  witli  the 
naval  force  which  had  been  already  serv- 
ing in  the  West  Indies,  consisted  of  19 
ships  of  the  line,  18  small  vessels  of  war, 
and  150  transpoits,  which  conveyed  12,000 
troops.  The  whole  of  the  fleet  appeared 
off  Havanna  June  6.  4000  more  troops 
went  from  North  America,  in  July,  to 
reinforce  them.  The  Spaniards  used 
every  effort  to  defend  the  city.  The 
English  were  several  times  repelled,  but 
at  last  the  Spaniards  surrendered,  Augiist 
13.  The  booty  obtained  by  the  English 
was  ^at  About  three  millions  of  dol- 
lars in  specie,  and  a  large  quantity  of 
goods,  fblt  into  their  hands,  besides  a  great 
quantity  of  munitions  of  war,  9  ships  of 
the  line,  and  4  fiigates.  In  1763,  the  con- 
querors, notwithstanding  the  high  opinion 
that  they  had  of  the  importance  of  Cuba, 
restored  it  to  Spain,  in  exchange  for  the 
Floridas.  Since  then,  Cuba  has  been  a 
Spanish  island,  and  has  been  so  well  forti- 
fied, that  it  is  now  not  in  much  danger  fix>m 


Digitized  by 


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CUBA— CUCKOO. 


09 


any  attack  ftat  can  be  made  upon  it  The 
forces  of  the  island  consist  of  9886  regulai- 
troop6»  and  14,560  militia.  The  navy 
contains  2  seventy-fours^  3  frigates  of  50 
guns,  1  of  40,  1  sloop  of  war,  and  2  brigs 
of  22  guns  each,  1  brig  of  ^,  one  of  16, 
and  6  schooners  mounting  13  guns. 

CuBATURE  OF  A  SoLiD,  In  geometry; 
the  measuring  of  the  space  contained  in 
it,  or  finding  the  solid  content  of  it 

Cube,  in  geometry ;  a  solid  body,  con- 
sisting of  six  equal  square  sides.  The 
solidity  of  any  cube  is  found  by  multiply- 
ing the  supei^cial  area  of  one  of  the  sides 
by  the  height.  Cubies  are  to  one  another 
in  the  triplicate  ratio  of  their  diagonals ; 
and  a  cube  is  supposed  to  be  generated  by 
the  motion  of  a  square  plane  along  a  line 
equal  to  one  of  its  sides,  and  at  rieht 
angles  thereto;  whence  it  follows,  that 
the  planes  of  all  sections,  parallel  to  the 
base,  are  squares  equal  thereto,  and,  con^ 
sequently,  to  one  another. 

Cube,  or  Cubic  Number,  in  aritlimetic; 
that  which  is  produced  by  the  multiplica- 
tion of  a  square  number  by  its  root ;  thus 
64  is  a  cube  number,  and  arises  by  multi- 
plying 16,  the  square  of  4,  by  the  root, 
4. 

Cube,  of  Cubic  Quantitt,  in  algebra ; 
the  third  power  in  a  series  of  geometrical 
propoitionals  coadnued ;  as,  a  is  the  root, 
a  a  the  square,  and  a  a  a  the  cube. 

Cube  Root  of  any  number  or  quantity  is 
a  number  or  quantity,  which,  if  multiplied 
into  ilbdf,  and  tlien  again  by  the  product 
thence  arising,  gives  a  product  equal  to 
the  number  or  quantity  whereof  it  is  the 
cube  root ;  as,  2  is  the  cube  root  of  8,  be- 
cause twice  2  are  4,  and  twice  4  are  8. 

Cubic  Foot  of  any  substance ;  so  much 
of  it  as  is  contained  in  a  cube  whose  side 
is  one  foot,    (See  Cube,) 

Cubit,  in  the  mensuration  of  the  an- 
cients ;  a  long  measure,  equal  to  the  length 
of  a  man's  arm,  fix)m  the  elbow  to  the  tip 
of  the  fingers.  Doctor  Arbuthnot  makes 
the  English  cubit  equal  to  18  inches,  the 
Roman  cubit  equal  to  1  foot,  5.406  inches, 
and  the  cubit  of  scripture  equal  to  1  foot, 
9.888  inches. 

Cuckingstool  ;  an  ancient  instrument 
of  punishment,  described,  in  Doomsday 
Book,  as  cathedra  Hercoris.  Scolds,  cheat- 
ing bakers  or  brewers,  and  other  petty 
of&nders,  were  led  to  this  stool,  ana  im- 
merged  over  head  and  ears  in  siercon^  or 
stinking  water. 

Cuckoo  J^cucvhu,  Lin.) ;  a  genus  of 
btnls,  characterized  by  a  bill  of  moderate 
size,  short  tarsi,  and  tail  composed  of  10 
feathers.     The  bill  is  compressed,  and 


slightly  arched.  The  greater  number  of 
species  belonging  to  this  genus  are  found 
on  the  ancient  continent  Only  one  spe- 
cies is  a  native  of  Great  Britain,  and  very 
few  belong  to  Europe.  In  America,  no 
true  cuckoos  aie  found,  for  the  genus  coc- 
cyzuB  differs  very  essentially  from  them  in 
its  habits.  The  cuckoos  are  especially 
distinguished  by  their  habit  of  laying  their 
e^p  in  the  nests  of  other,  and,  generally, 
much  smaller  birds.  What  is  still  more 
singular,  it  has  been  found,  by  very  care- 
ful observations,  that  the  yoimg  cuckoo. 
Shortly  afler  l)eing  hatched,  throws  out  of 
the  nest  all  the  other  young  or  eggs,  and 
thus  engrosses  to  itself  the  whole  parental 
care  of  the  bird  in  whose  nest  it  has  been 
lodged.  The  manner  in  which  this  eject- 
ment is  efiected  is  thus  described  by  Jen- 
ner,  in  the  second  part  of  the  Philosoph- 
ical Transactions  for  1788,  article  14: — 
"  The  litde  animal,  with  the  assistance  of 
its  rump  and  wings,  contrived  to  get  the 
bird  on  its  back,  and,  making  a  lodg- 
ment for  the  burden  by  elevating  its 
elbows,  clambered  backwards  vnth  it  up 
the  idde  of  the  nest,  till  it  reached  the  top, 
where,  resting  for  a  moment,  it  threw  on 
its  load  i/iith  a  jerk,  and  c|nite  disengaged 
it  from  the  nest  It  remained  in  this  situ- 
ation a  short  time;  feeling  about  vrith  the 
extremity  of  its  wings,  as  if  to  be  convinc- 
ed whether  the  business  was  property  ex- 
ecuted, and  then  dropped  into  the  nest 
again.  With  these  (the  extremities  of  its 
wings)  I  have  oflen  seen  it  examine^  as  it 
were,  an  e^^  or  nestling  before  ft  beean 
its  operations ;  and  the  nice  sensibiuty 
which  these  parts  appeared  to  possess 
seemed  sufficient  to  compensate  the  want 
of  sight,  which,  as  yet,  it  was  destiUitc  of. 
I  afterwards  put  in  an  e^^^  and  this,  by  a 
similar  process,  was  conveyed  to  the  edge 
of  the  nest,  and  thrown  out  These  exper- 
iments I  have  since  repeated  sevend  times 
in  different  nests,  and  have  always  found 
the  young  cuckoo  disposed  to  act  in  the 
same  manner.  In  climbing  up  the  nest, 
it  sometimes  drops  its  burden,  and  thus 
is  foiled  in  its  endeavors ;  but,  after  a  llttie 
respite,  the  worit  is  resumed,  and  goes  on 
almost  incessantly  till  it  id  effected.  It  is 
wonderful  to  see  the  extraordinary  exer- 
tion of  the  young  cuckoo,  when  it  is  only 
two  or  three  days  old,  if  a  bird  be  put  in 
the  nest  with  it,  that  is  too  weighty  for  it 
to  lift  out  In  this  state,  it  seems  ever 
restless  and  uneasy.  But  this  disposition 
for  turning  out  its  companions  begins  to 
decline  firom  the  time  it  is  two  or  three 
till  it  is  twelve  days  old ;  when,  as  far  as  1 
have  seen,  it  ceases.    Indeed,  the  dispoai- 


Digitized  by 


Lioogle 


70 


CUCKOO— CUCUMBER. 


tion  for  throwing  out  the  egg  appears  to 
cease  a  few  days  sooner;  for  I  have  fre- 
quently seen  the  young  cuckoo,  afler  it  has 
been  hatched  9  or  10  days,  remove  a  nest- 
ling that  had  been  placed  in  the  nest  with 
it,  when  it  suffered  an  egg,  put  there  at 
the  same  time,  to  remain  unmolested. 
The  singularity  of  its  shape  is  well  adapt- 
ed to  these  purposes;  for,  different  from 
other  newly-hatched  birds,  its  back,  from 
the  scapulse  downwards,  is  very  broad, 
with  a  considerable  depression  in  the 
middle.  This  depression  seems  formed 
by  nature  for  the  purpose  of  giving  a 
more  secure  lodgment  to  the  egg  of  the 
hedge-sparrow  or  its  young  one,  when  the 
young  cuckoo  is  employ^  in  removing 
either  of  them  from  the  nest  When  it  is 
about  12  days  old,  this  cavity  is  quite  filled 
up,  and  then  the  back  assumes  the  shape 
of  nestling  birds  in  general.  A  young 
cuckoo,  that  had  been  hatched  by  a  hedge- 
sparrow  about  four  hours,  was  confined 
in  the  nest  in  such  a  manner,  that  it  could 
not  possibly  turn  out  t^ie  young  hedge- 
sparrows,  which  were  hatched  at  the  same 
time,  though  it  was  almost  incessantly 
making  attempts  to  effect  it  The  conse- 
quence was,  the  old  birds  fed  the  whole 
alike,  and  appeared,  in  every  respect,  to  pay 
the  same  attention  to  the  young  cuckoo 
as  to  their  own  young,  until  the  13th  day, 
when  the  nest  was  unfortunately  plunder- 
ed. The  smallness  of  the  cuckoo's  egg, 
in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  bird^  is  a 
circumstance  that  hitherto,  I  believe,  has 
escaped  thcTiGtiee'of  the  ornithologist  So 
great  is  the  disproportion,  that  it  is,  in  gen- 
eral, smaller  than  that  of  the  house-spar- 
row ;  whereas,  the  difference  in  the  size 
of  the  birds  is  nearly  as  five  to  one.  I 
have  used  the  term  in  general,  because 
eggs  produced  at  different  times  by  the 
same  bird,  vary  very  much  in  size.  I 
have  found  a  cuckooes  egg  so  light,  that  it 
weighed  only  43  grains,  and  one  so  heavy, 
that  it  weighed  5§  grains.  The  color  of 
the  cuckoo's  eggs  is  extremely  variable. 
Some,  both  in  ground  and  penciling,  very 
much  resemble  the  house-sparrow's;  some 
are  indistinctly  covered  with  bran-colored 
spots ;  and  others  are  marked  with  lines 
of  black,  resembling,  in  some  measure, 
the  eggs  of  the  yellow-hammer."  The 
cause  of  this  singular  habit  of  the  common 
cuckoo  of  Europe  (cuculus  cano/nis)  has 
been  long  a  subject  of  discussion,  without 
having  been  very  satisfactorily  determined. 
The  opinion  of  the  observer  above  cited 
appears  to  be  as  near  the  tnith  as  we  may 
hope  to  arrive.  He  attributes  it  to  the 
short  stay  made  by  the  bird  in  the  coun- 


tiy  where  it  is  under  the  necessity  of 
propagating  its  species.  Were  it  not  to 
resort  to  some  such  expedient,  it  would 
be  impossible  that  the  species  could  be 
continued.  The  cuckoo  first  appears  in 
England  about  the  17th  of  April  Its  egg 
is  not  ready  for  incubation  sooner  tlian 
the  middle  of  May.  A  fbnni^ht  is  taken 
up  by  the  sitting  bird  in  hatching  the  egg. 
The  bird  generally  continues  three  weeks 
in  the  nest  before  it  flies.  The  foster 
parents  feed  it  for  more  than  five  weeks 
after  this  period ;  so  that,  if  the  cuckoo 
took  care  of  its  own  egcs  and  young,  the 
newly-hatched  bird  would  not  be  fit  to  pro- 
vide for  itself  before  its  parent  would  be 
instinctively  directed  to  seek  a  new  resi- 
dence, and  be  thus  compelled  to  abandon 
its  young  one ;  for  the  old  cuckoos  take 
tlieir  final  leave  before  the  first  week  in 
July.  The  young  cuckoos  forsake  the 
nest  as  soon  as  fufiy  fledged,  and  capable 
of  providing  for  themselves.  Their  mi- 
grations from  Europe  are  thought  to  be 
chiefly  directed  towards  Africa ;  thence 
they  regularly  return  with  the  sprint,  and, 
from  some  dead  tree  or  bare  bough,  tiie 
male  pours  forth  his  monotonous  song, 
cuckoo  !  cuckoo ! — ^In  America,  there  is 
a  bird  of  a  very  different  genus,  which 
resembles  the  cuckoo  in  depositing  its 
egg  in  the  nests  of  other  birds,  to  be  fos- 
tered by  them.  Comprehended  under 
the  term  Etnberiza. 

Cucumber.  The  genus  cucumUf  to 
which  the  common  cucumber  belongs.  ' 
contains  17'8pef!ie6,  several  of  which  are 
of  considerable  importance.  Cucumis  co- 
loiwMsy  producing  the  medicine  called 
cowqumtukiy  is  a  native  of  Africa.  CVou- 
mis  angyriOf  the  round,  prickly  cucumber, 
is  a  native  of  the  West  Indies,  where  it  is 
used,  with  other  vegetables,  in  soups.  CSi- 
curnis  mdo,  the  common  melon,  is  supposed 
to  be  a  native  of  Persia:  it  was  cultivated 
in  Europe  m  the  16tli  century.  Cucwnis 
sativus,  the  common  cucumber,  is  a  native 
of  the  East  Indies.  The  varieties  of  this,  as 
well  as  of  the  melon,  are  eaaly  produced. 
Those  with  the  smoothest  rind  and  fewest 
seeds  are  most  esteemed.  Cucumis  angui- 
nus,  the  snake  cucumber,  bears  fruit  some- 
times from  three  to  four  feet  long.  It  is 
only  raised  as  a  curiosity,  the  flavor  being 
bitter.  Several  other  species  produce 
fruits  that  are  eaten  by  the  inhabitants  of 
the  countries  of  which  they  are  natives. 
The  cucumber  was  one  of  the  luxuries  of 
which  Tiberius  was  particularly  fond ;  and, 
by  the  dexterous  management  of  his  beds, 
he  procured ,  one  every  day^at  all  seasons 
of  tjieyear. — ^The  common  cucumber  (ci«- 


Digitized  by 


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CUCUMBEIU-CUEVA, 


71 


ns  saHmu)  is  an  oblong,  rough  and 
coo)in|^  fiuit,  supposed  to  have  been  orig- 
inally unpolled  iuto  Europe  from  some  part 
of  the  Levant.  It  belongs  to  the  22d  class 
of  Linnieus,  and  is  a  tFaiunff  and  climbing 
planL  The  fruit  is  generally  eaten  cut  in 
slices,  with  vinegar,  pepper,  &.c.  Some 
people  think  it  unwholesome.  Sometimes 
cucumbers  are  eaten  stewed.  When 
young,  they  are  pickled  (in  England  under 
the  name  of  gerkxMy  which  is  connected 
with  the  Grerman  gurhm)y  with  vinegar 
and  spices,  or  preserved  in  sirup  as  a 
sweetmeat  It  is  better  to  lay  the  fruit  on 
slate  or  tiles  than  upon  the  bare  ground.' 
Cucumbers  are  raised  in  England  in  very 
fireat  quantity.  The  village  of  Sandy,  in 
Bedfordshire,  has  been  known  to  furnish 
10,000  bushels  of  pickling  cucumbers  in 
one  week.  In  March,  cucumbers  have 
been  known  to  fetch,  in  the  London  mar- 
ket, a  guinea  a  dozen;  in  August  and 
September,  one  pennv  a  dozen. 

CuctrrA  (Basaria  de  CwvJth\  a  toviT)  in 
Colombia,  40  miles  north  of  Pamplona, 
known  by  the  congress  which  assembled 
liere  May  1st,  1821,  and  finished  its  sit- 
tings in  October  of  the  same  year.  It 
was  this  body  which  framed  the  constitu- 
tion of  Colombia ;  and  it  is  considered  as 
the  first  Colombian  congress,  being  the  first 
convened  under  the  fundamental  law  for 
uniting  Venezuela  and  New  Grenada  into 
a  single  republic. 

CuDwoRTH,  Ralph,  a  learned  English 
divine  and  philosopher,  was  bom  at  AUer, 
in  Someisetshire,  of  which  parish  his  fa- 
ther was  rector,  in  1617.  He  was  admit- 
ted a  pensioner  of  Emanuel  college,  Cam- 
bridge, at  the  age  of  13.  His  diligence  as 
an  academical  student  was  very  great; 
and,  in  16^,  he  took  the  degree  of  M.  A., 
and  was  elected  fellow  of  his  college.  He 
became  so  eminent  as  a  tutor,  that  the 
number  of  his  pupils  exceeded  all  prece- 
dent, and  in  due  time  he  was  presented, 
by  bis  college,  to  the  rectory  of  North 
<jadbuiy,  in  Somersetshire.  In  the  year 
1642,  he  published  a  Discourse  concerning 
the  true  Nature  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  and 
The  Union  of  Christ  and  the  Chureh  shad- 
owed, or  in  a  Shadow.  The  first  of  those 
productions,  which  maintained  that  the 
Loid's  supper  is  a  feast  upon  a  sacrifice, 
product  considerable  controversy  long 
after  the  author's  death.  In  1644,  he  took 
the  degree  of  B.  D.,  and  was  chosen  mas- 
ter of  Clare-hall,  and,  in  the  following 
year,  was  made  regius  professor  of-  He- 
brew. In  1651,  he  was  made  D.  D.,  and 
in  1654,  chosen  master  of  Christ's  college, 
Cambridge;  where,  having  taken  a  wife, 


he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  days.  In 
1678,  he  published  his  grand  work,  en- 
titled The  true  Intellectual  System  of  the 
Universe ;  the  First  Part,  wherein  all  tlie 
Reason  and  Philosophy  of  Atheism  is 
confuted,  and  its  Impossibility  demon- 
strated (folio).  This  work,  which  is  an 
immense  storehouse  of  ancient  learning, 
was  intended,  in  the  first  instance,  to  he 
an  essav  against  the  doctrine  of  necessity 
only ;  but  perceiving  that  this  doctrine 
was  maintained  by  several  persons  upon 
different  principles,  he  distribuud  their 
opinions  under  three  different  heads, 
which  lie  intended  to  treat  of  in  three 
books ;  but  his  Intellectual  System  relates 
only  to  the  first,  viz.  "The  material  Ne- 
cessity of  all  Things  without  a  God,  or 
absolute  Atheism."  It  is  a  work  of  great 
power  and  erudition,  although  the  attach- 
ment of  the  author  to  the  Platonism  of 
the  Alexandrian  school  has  led  him  to 
advance  some  opinions  which  border  on 
incomprehensibility  and  mysticism.  The 
moral  as  well  as  intellectual  character  of 
this  eminent  scholar  stood  very  high ;  and 
he  died  universally  respected,  in  1688,  in 
the  7l6t  year  of  his  age. 

CcENZA  (anciently  Canca) ;  a  city  of 
Spain,  in  New  Casdle,  capital  of  a  prov- 
ince ;  28  leagues  E.  S.  E.  Madrid ;  Ion. 
2°  16^  W. ;  lat.  40^  lO'  N. ;  population, 
6000.  It  is  a  bishop's  see.  It  contains  a 
cathedral,  13  parishes,  6  monasteries,  an 
hospital,  a  seminary,  and  3  colleges.  It 
was  built  by  the  Moors,  on  a  high  and 
craggy  hill,  between  the  rivers  Xucar  and 
Huescar,  which  makes  it  naturallv  strong. 
Here  the  painter  Salmeron,  and  the  fii- 
mous  Jesuit  Molina,  were  bom.  The 
north  and  east  part  of  the  province  is 
mountainous,  and  fit  only  for  sheep  pas- 
ture ;  the  other  parts  are  fertile,  producing 
com,  hemp,  fruit,  &c.  Population  of  the 
province,  296,650;  square  miles,  11,884. 

CuENZA,  or  Bamba  ;  a  town  of  Colom- 
bia, in  Quito,  capital  of  a  province  ;  150 
miles  S.  Quito ;  Ion.  79P  \9  W. ;  lat. 
2°  Sy  S. ;  population,  15  or  20,000.  The 
streets  are  straight  and  broad,  and  the 
houses  mostly  of  adoheB,  or  unbumt  bricks. 
The  environs  are  very  fertile  and  pleasant. 
The  town  contains  3  churches,  4  con- 
vents, 2  nunneries,  an  hospital,  a  chamber 
of  finance,  &c. 

CuENZA,  Sierra  de ;  a  chain  of  moun- 
tains which  mns  through  the  province  of 
the  same  name.    (See  Cumzcu) 

CuEVA,  John  de  la ;  a  poet,  bom  in  Se- 
ville, about  the  middle  of  the  16th  centuiy. 
A  great  facility  in  the  composition  of 
verses,  in  which  Ovid  was  his  model, 


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CUEVA-CUFIC  WRITING  AND  CUFIC  COINS. 


detemimed  him  to .  apply  himself  to  the 
dramatic  art,  in  which  Torres  Naharro 
had  successfully  resisted  the  attempts  of 
some  learned  theatrical  amateurs  to  force 
the  Greek  and  Latin  drama  upon  the 
people.  In  connexion  with  Naharro, 
Lope  de  Ruedra,  and  Christopher  de  Cas- 
tillejo,  he  confirmed  the  old  division  into 
comei&as  divvnas  y  kumanas,  while  he 
made  his  pieces  more  interesting  than 
those  of  his  predecessors,  b^  introducing 
greater  variety  in  the  dramaha  ptrwn^  by 
more  finished  verses,  and  by  the  division 
into  three  jomadasy  or  act&  His  works, 
which  ale  now  rare  in  Spain,  may  be 
found  in  the  Pamaso  Eapahol  (vol.  8. 16). 
The  earliest  of  his  compositions  are  Poe- 
stas  lAfricas  (Seville,  1582),  of  the  same 
character  with  the  Corofebeo  de  Ron^aneea 
histariaUM  (Seville,  1588).  His  heroic  po- 
em. La  Conquista  de  la  Belica,  in  20  can- 
tos (Seville,  1602,  also  in  Fernandez's 
collection,  vols.  14 — 15),  has  beauties 
enough  io  the  execution  to  make  amends 
for  the  defects  of  the  plan.  The  Come- 
dias  y  Tragediaa,  published  at  Seville,  in 
1588|  were  received  with  applause,  in  their 
tiiae,  in  this  poetical  city,  but  offended, 
even  then,  by  the  introduction  of  alle- 
gorical personages  in  tlie  action.  In  the 
Ptamaso  Espahol  there  is  a  work  of  Cue- 
va's,  written  in  terzets,  on  the  art  of  poetry, 
which  contains  many  interesting  facts 
with  regard  to  the  old  Spanish  drama. 
Cueva  died  at  the  conunencement  of  the 
17th  cenmry. 

CuFic  Writing  and  Cufic  Coins. 
The  written  characters  of  which  the  Ara- 
bians now  make  use,  and  with  which  we 
meet  in  printed  works,  viz.,  the  Neskhi 
characten,  are  an  invention  of  the  4th 
century  of  the  Hegira.  Before  this  time, 
the  Cktfie  characters,  so  called  from  the 
town  of  Cufa,  where  they  are  said  to  have 
been  invented,  were  in  use.  These  old 
characters  have  so  much  resemblance  to 
the  ancient  Syriac  writing,  the  Estrongel, 
that  it  hardly  admits  of  a  doubt,  that  the 
Arabians  borrowed  them  from  the  inhdb- 
itants  of  Syria.  Historical  traditions  con- 
firm this  supposition.  The  Cufic  charac- 
ters, and,  perhaps,  others  at  an  earlier  date, 
which  essentially  fesembled  them,  were 
probably  first  introduced  among  tiie  Ara- 
bians a  short  time  before  Mohammed. 
Although  we  are,  at  present,  ignorant  of 
the  charactere  which  were  previously  in 
use  among  them,  and  although  the  imper- 
fect accounts  of  the  Mussulman  wnters 
throw  very  little  light  upon  the  subject, 
yet  it  is  scarcely  credible  that  the  Arabians 
remained  destitute  of  a  written  character 


until  the  6th  century  of  the  Christian  eta. 
Perhaps  traces  of  the  earlier  character  are 
to  be  found  in  the  Palmyrene  and  Phce- 
nician  inscriptions,  and  also  on  the  coins 
of  the  Sassanides.  We  find  the  transition 
of  the  Cufic  to  the  Neskhi  on  the  ruins  of 
Chilminar.  The  influence  which  the 
school  of  Cufa  exerted  on  Islamism 
caused  the  use  of  the  character  which 
proceeded  from  it  ^  and  when  the  otlien 
nad  fiillen  into  oblivion,  Cufic  tmiting  was 
the  name  commonly  applied  to  all  Kinds 
of  Arabic  writing,  previous  to  the  change 
made  by  £bn  Mokla.  A  knowledge  of  it  is 
important  on  account  of  the  many  monu- 
ments in  which  it  is  preserved ;  especially 
the  coins  inscribed  vnth  Cufic  charactera 
and  made  in  the  finit  centuries  of  the  He- 
gira. Under  the  name  of  Cufic  coins  are 
comprehended  the  ancient  coins  of  the 
Mohammedan  princes,  generally  without 
emblems,  inscnbed  and  circumscribed  on 
both  sides,  which  have  been  found,  in 
modem  times,  to  be  important  documents 
fbr  illustrating  the  history,  languages  and 
religions  of  tiie  East.  The  little  art  dis- 
played in  the  impression  of  these  coins, 
IS  the  reason  why  the  earlier  travellera 
through  the  E^ast  too  often  overlooked 
them.  These  coins  are  some  of  sold  (di^ 
nar)y  others  of  silver  (dirhem),  ana  othera 
of  brass  {Jvk).  The  sil  ver  coins,  however, 
are  the  most  frequent,  and  die  discoveiy 
of  large  treasures  of  them  on  the  shores 
of  the  Baltic  has  particulariy  attracted  to 
them  the  attention  of  learned  men.  Their 
form  was  borrowed  by  the  Arabian  ca- 
liphs from  that  of  the  Byzantine  and 
Chosroean  silver  and  copper  coins.  They 
are  to  be  considered  as  the  earliest  of 
this  class  of  coins,  now  daily  increasing. 
Agreeably  to  Adlei^s  suggestion,  who  first 
accurately  investij^ted  tiiese  coins  (Must' 
urn  Ct^^cumBorgumum),  they  are  divided, 
aceormng  to  the  dynasties  under  which 
they  were  made,  into  12  classes,  in  which, 
without  any  reference  to  the  countiy  to 
which  they  belong,  eveiy  thing  which 
ought  to  be  connected  with  them  is  com- 
bined. In  the  countries  around  the  Baltic, 
as  well  as  in  the  central  provinces  of  Eu- 
ropean Russia,  the  silver  coins  most  fre- 
quently found  are  those  of  the  caliphs, 
the  Ommiades  as  well  as  the  Abbassides ; 
then  those  of  the  emirs  of  the  Sofiarides, 
the  Buwaihides,  &c,  but  especially  of 
the  dynasty  of  the  Samanides,  which  were 
struck  between  the  middle  of  the  7th  cen- 
tury of  the  Christian  era,  and  the  begin- 
ning of  the  11th.  Those  of  the  10th  cen- 
tury are  the  most  conunon.  This  &ct 
has    not   been    aatisfiictorily   explained. 


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73 


Amber,  girls  for  the  haram,  as  well  as 
costly  furs,  which  the  Russians  at  that 
time"  brotight  for  sale  to  the  Wolga,  ac- 
cording to  Fosslan's  account  of  a  journey 
at  the  beginning  of  the  10th  century  of  the 
Christian  era,  appear  to  have  been  most 
frequently  exchanged  for  them.  Gold,  in 
this  commerce,  was  used  only  in  bare; 
and,  in  order  to  make  payments,  in  their 
transactions,  with  CTeater  facility,  or  in 
order  to  have  a  medium  of  exchange  for 
things  of  little  value,  tlie  coins  were 
broken,  of  which  we  have  abtmdant  evi- 
dence. By  accurate  investigations  in  the 
countries  where  this  money  is  found,  the 
diligence  and  leanting  of  the  Orientalists 
Adier,  Reiske,  Ol.  Tychsen,  Silv.  de  Sa- 
cy,  Hallenberg,  Malmstrom,  Rasmusson, 
FriLhn,  Castiglioni  (who  has  published  a 
▼aluable  work  upon  the  Cufic  coins  of  the 
imperial  museum  at  Milan],  Miinter  and 
Th-  Tychsen,  have  succeeaed  in  arrang- 
ing a  tolerably  perfect  series  of  the  several 
dynasties.  Th.  Tychsen's  treatise  Dt  Jh- 
ftctSbvs  Rn  ATumarict  Muhammedanor.  (in 
the  5th  volume  of  the  CommeTiL  Soc,  GotL 
receniior.),  will  enable  the  student  to  un- 
derstand the  deficiences  of  this  science. 
Fr&hn,  of  Petersburg,  now  counsellor  of 
state  (author  of  a  commentary  upon  the 
cabinet  of  the  Mohammedan  coins  in  the 
Asiatic  museum  at  Petersburg],  has  been 
reputed  to  be  the  most  thorough  judge  of 
this  department,  having  had  at  his  disposal 
the  collections  of  tlie  imperial  academy,  as 
well  as  tlioflc  of  private  individuals,  much 
exceeding  in  richness  any  to  be  found 
ebewhere.  In  connexion  "with  these 
coins  ape  to  be  considered  the  small  pieces 
of  glass,  which  were  introduced,  particu- 
lariy  in  Sicily,  under  the  dominion  of  the 
Mohammedans,  instead  of  money,  or,  per- 
haps, under  the  sanction  of  public  author- 
ity, obtained  currency  as  standards  of  the 
weight  of  coins.  Among  Cufic  coins, 
ttkoee  are  particulariy  sought  for  which 
bear  images,  because  the  forms  repre- 
sented upon  them  appear  to  be  opposed 
to  the  precepts  of  the  Koran.  But  their 
commerce  with  the  Greeks  may,  at  first, 
have  made  the  engravers  of  the  Moham- 
medan coins  less  strict ;  and,  in  the  course 
of  time,  they  ventured  to  give  them  figures 
agreeable  to  the  peculiarities  of  the  Ori- 
ental taste;  in  doin?  which,  they  were 
aided  by  the  armorial  bearings  (tamghas) 
of  the  princes  of  the  Turkish  fkSiily. 
Finally,  they  marked  them  with  zodiacal 
and  planetary  figures,  to  which  they  at- 
tributed the  power  of  amulets.  (This 
reminds  us  of  the  renowned  Nurmahal- 
rupees.)  The  original  use  of  these  coins  is 
vox-  IV.  7 


made  still  more  manifest  from  inscriptions 
in  many  languages ;  even  Russian- Arabic 
coins  are  found  in  rich  cabinets.  Every 
day  adds  to  our  information  in  this  de- 
partment Ol.  Tychsen's  fntroduetio  in 
Item  Alcmor.  Mvhammedanor.  (Rest.,  1794), 
has,  therefore,  ceased  to  be  complete. 
The  abbe  Reinaud,  in  the  Journal  Mai- 
ique  (1823),  has  communicated  many  ex- 
cellent observations  concerning  the  study 
of  Arabic  coins.  A  work  by  him,  con- 
cerning this  branch  of  numismatics,  with 
a  historical  explanation  of  the  coins  in  the 
cabinet  of  the  duke  of  Blacas,  and  in  the 
royal  French  collections,  has  also  appeared. 
Cuirass  ;  an  article  of  defensive  armor, 
protecting  the  body  both  before  and  be- 
hind. Meyrick,  in  his  dissertation  on  an- 
cient armor,  has  thus  distinguished  the 
cuirasses  of  different  nations : — 1.  Leath- 
ern, with  a  belt  of  the  same  material,  worn 
by  the  Medes  and  Persians,  before  the 
reign  of  Cyrus  the  Great  2.  Plumated 
or  scaled  loric<E  of  steel,  of  which  the  fore- 
part covered  the  breaat,  the  front  of  the 
thighs,  and  foreparts  of  the  hands  and 
legs;  the  posterior  part,  the  back,  necJi, 
and  whole  of  the  head ;  both  parts  being 
united  by  fibvl(B  on  the  sides :  these  be- 
longed to  tne  Parthian  cavalr}'.  3.  Scales 
made  of  horses'  hoofs,  sewed  together  with 
the  sinew^  of  oxen,  were  worn  by  the 
Sarmatians.  4.  The  /iirpa,  padded  with 
wool,  covered  with  flat  rings  or  square 
pieces  of  bras?,  fastened  at  the  sides,  and 
cot  round  at  tlie  loins ;  the  Owpa(,  or  gor- 
get; the  iamip,  or  girdle,  to  which  was 
appended  the  ^w/io,  a  kind  of  petticoat, — 
belonged  to  the  Homeric  chiefs.  5.  The 
Etruscans  wore  plain,  scaled,  laminated, 
ringed  or  quilted  cuishes,  with  straps  de- 
pending from  them,  either  of  leather  sole- 
ly, or  plated  with  metal ;  and  these  straps^ 
as  well  as  the  cuirasses,  were  adopted  by 
die  Romans,  who  termed  them  lorictt^ 
On  the  Trajan  colunon,  the  Unvaz  of  the 
hasiati  and  jnrndves  (the  two  first  ranks) 
consist  of  several  metal  bands  wrapped 
half  round  die  body,  and  fastened  before 
and  behind,  over  a  leathern  or  quilted 
tunic.  Sometimes  the  Roman  cuirass  was 
enriched  with  embossed  fibres.  The  fo- 
ric<E  of  the  triani  (the  third  rank)  wore 
of  leather  only.  Domitian,  according  to 
Martial,  adopted  the  Sarmatian  cuirass, 
which  he  made  of  the  hoofs  of  boars. 
The  Roman  cavaby  of  the  early  period 
did  not  wear  hric<B ;  but  even  before  the 
cataphrades  of  Constantine  (who  wore 
flexible  armor  of  scales  and  plates  and 
rings,  held  together  by  hooks  and  chains, 
the  lorica  hamata  of  Virgil— Loriccwii  con- 


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CUIRASS— CULLEN. 


sertam  hamis  auroque  trilicem^  Mn.  iii. 
467),  we  read  of  horsemen  who  were 
loricatu  Among  the  modems,  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  wore  leathern  cuirasses  (corieUt\ 
which,  towards  the  end  of  the  9th  century, 
were  formed  of  hides  fitted  close  to  the 
body,  and  jagged  or  cut  into  the  shape  of 
leaves  helow.  The  leathern  cuirass,  cov- 
ered with  rings,  was  aripropriated  to  the 
blood  royal,  or  chiefs  of  high  rank :  it  was 
borrowed  from  the  Gauls,  and  called  nuzd, 
whence  our  coat  of  meal.  The  cuirass 
appears  to  have  been  disused  in  England 
in  the  time  of  Charles  II,  when  bullet- 
proof silk  was  introd'uceii  The  lance 
navin^,  of  late  years,  again  become  an 
offensive  weapon,  the  cuirass  has  been 
revived  among  the  European  cavalry. 
The  finest  part  of  Napoleon's  cavalry 
were  cuirassiers ;  and  the  weight  of  these 
heavily-armed  soldiers  gave  great  mo- 
mentum to  their  charge.  The  cuirass 
leaves  many  vulnerable  parts  exposed,  but, 
as  it  protects  almost  all  the  trunk,  it  mate- 
rially diminishes  the  chance  of  wounds, 
and  gives  confidence  to  the  soldier. 

CujAs,  Jacques,  or  Cujacius;  son  of 
Cujaus,  a  tanner  in  Toulouse  ;  l)om  in 
15^0.  While  yet  a  student  of  law  under 
Amould  Ferrier,  he  attracted  attention  by 
his  industry  and  talents.  After  having 
delivered  private  lectures  at  Toulouse,  he 
received  an  invitation  to  be  professor  of 
law  at  Cahors  in  1554 ;  but  he  had  been 
there  only  a  year,  wlien  Margaret  de  Va- 
lois  invited  him,  through  her  chancellor 
PHopital,  to  Bourges,  where  he  lectured 
till  1567.  He  then  went  to  Valence,  and 
cave  great  reputation  to  the  university  of 
mat  place  by  his  instructions.  On  ac- 
count of  tlie  civil  commotions  in  France, 
be  returned  to  Bourges  in  1575,  fl*d  re- 
mained tliere,  afler  a  short  stay  at  Paris, 
as  teacher  of  the  law,  notwithstanding  the 
most  advantageous  invitations  to  Bologna. 
Cujas  o\ved  his  creat  re])Utation  to  his 
profound  study  of  the  original  works  on 
the  Roman  law,  of  which  he  had  collected 
more  than  500  manuscripts.  The  correc- 
tions which  he  m(ide  in  ancient  works  on 
the  law  (to  say  hotliing  of  a  great  many 
Greek  and  Latin  works  on  other  subjects) 
were  remarkable  for  number  and  acute- 
ness.  In  fact,  he  may  be  considered  as 
the  founder  of  scientific  jurisprudence. 
He  made  himself  popular,  also,  by  the 
interest  wliich  he  took  in  the  personal  for- 
tunes of  his  disciples,  by  his  prudence  in 
regard  to  the  theological  quarrels  of  his 
time  [MtkU  hoc  ad  edidum  prcdoria  was 
his  maxim),  and  his  faithfiil  adherence  to 
the  cause  of  Henry  IV.    His  grief  for  the 


afflictions  of  his  country  is  said,  to  have 
accelerated  his  death  (Oct  4, 1590).  He 
was  in  tlie  habit  of  studying  and  writing 
Iving  on  the  ground.  The  booksellers  at 
Lyons  purchased  his  manuscripts  for 
waste  paper.  The  edition  of  his  works, 
which  he  published  himself  in  1577,  is 
correct,  but  incomplete;  that  by  Fabrot 
(Paris,  1658,  10  vols,  folio)  is  complete. 
The  Prvmfititah^mi  Operum  lac  Cujaeix, 
audore  Dam.  ^Ibuntnsi  (Naples,  1763,  2 
vols,  folio),  is  of  great  assistance  in  the 
study  of  this  collection.  His  children  by 
two  marriages  acquired  a  sort  of  celebrity 
by  their  immorality.  (See  Cujas  and  his 
Contemporaries^  by  E.  spangenberg.) 

CuLDEEs ;  a  religious  order,  which^  at 
one  period,  had  considerable  establish- 
ments in  almost  evmr  part  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland.  The  name  is  of 
uncertain  etymology ;  some  derive  it  from 
the  Latin  cuUor  Dei  (a  worshipper  of 
God),  while  others  think  they  discover 
its  origin  in  the  Gaelic  kyldee  (from  cyUtj 
a  cell,  and  dee,  a  house),  a  building  com- 
posed of  cells.  The  history  of  the  Cul- 
dees  has  acquired  a  factitious  importance 
in  the  quarrels  of  the  Episcopalians  and 
Presbyterians  ;  the  latter  asserting  t^at 
tliey  were  of  veiy  great  antiquity,  and 
were  Presbyterians  in  their  ecclesiastical 
policy ;  the  former  maintaining  that  nei- 
ther of  these  positions  is  correct,  that  there 
is  no  menticHi  of  them  in  the  early  British 
writers,  but  that  they  are  first  spoken  of 
subsequent  to  the  year  854,  and  that  they 
then  ap[)car  in  the  attitude  of  maintaining 
their  right  to  confirm  the  election  of  the 
bishoDs  of  the  several  sees  where  they  had 
establishments.  Their  ori^  is,  by  some, 
attributed  to  St  Columlia,  in  the  middle 
of  the  6th  century.  After  having  exer- 
cised a  great  influence  throughout  the 
country,  uiey  are  said  to  hare  Men  over- 
thrown by  the  increase  of  the  papal 
power,  and  thiB  institution  of  monasteries 
more  congenial  to  the  aspiring  views  of 
the  see  of  Rome. 

CuLLEir  (William),  a  celebrated  physi- 
cian and  medical  writer,  was  bom  in  the 
county  of  Lanark,  in  Scotland,  in  1712. 
He  was  apprenticed  to  a  surgeon  and 
apothecary  at  Glasgow,  after  which  he 
made  some  voyages  to  the  West  Indies  as 
surgeon  to  a  merchant  vessel.  He  subse- 
quently settled  as  a  medical  practitioner  at 
Hamilton,  where  he  formed  a  partnership 
with  William  Hunter,  who  afterwards  be- 
came so  distinguished.  The  object  of 
their  connexion  was  not  so  much  present 
emolument  as  professional  improvement. 
Each,  therefore,  in  turn,  was  allowed  to 


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75 


attend  metropolitan  lectures,  whilst  the 
other  prosecuted  the  business  for  their 
joint  benefit  In  1740,  Cullen  took  the 
degree  of  M.  D.,  and,  settling  at  Glasgow, 
he  was,  in  1746,  appointed  lecturer  on 
chemistry  at  the  university  there.  In 
1751,  he  was  chosen  regius  professor  of 
medicine.  In  1756,  he  was  invited  to  take 
Che  chemical  professorship  in  the  univer- 
sity of  Edinburgh.  In  1760.  he  was  made 
lecturer  on  the  materia  meaica  there,  and 
subsequently  resigned  tlie  chemical  chair 
to  his  pupil,  doctor  Black.  From  1766  to 
1773,  he  gave,  alternately  with  doctor 
Gregory,  anoual  courses  of  lectures  on 
the  theory  and  practice  of  physic^^an  ar- 
langement  which  continued  till  the  death 
of  doctor  Gregoiy,  in  1773,  left  liis  rival 
in  complete  possession  of  the  medical 
chair.  As  a  lecturer  on  medicine,  doctor 
CuUen  exercised  a  great  influence  over 
the  state  of  opinion  relative  to  the  mystery 
of  that  science.  He  successfully  combated 
tlie  specious  doctrines  of  Boerhaave,  de- 
pending on  the  humoral  pathology ;  though 
lie  has  not  been  equally  successful  in  es- 
tablishing his  own  system,  which  is  found- 
ed on  an  enlarged  view  of  the  principles 
of  Frederic  Hoffmann.  His  death  took 
place  Feb.  5, 1790.  His  principal  works 
are  Lectures  on  the  Materia  Medica ; 
S^nqtais  Maologia  PraeHca ;  and  First 
Lmes  of  the  Practice  of  Physic,  which 
must  be  considered  as  his  magman  opus, 
and  which,  amidst  aU  the  recent  fluctua- 
tions of  opinion  on  medical  theory,  has 
retained  its  value. 

CcLLODEN  MuiR ;  a  heath  in  Scotland, 
4  miles  east  of  Inverness.  It  is  celebrated 
for  a  victory  obtained  in  the  year  1746,  by 
the  duke  of  Cumberland,  over  the  pam- 
sans  of  the  house  of  Stuart  The  batde 
of  CuUoden  was  the  last  batde  fought  on 
Britiab  soil,  and  the  termination  of  the  at- 
tempts of  the  Stuart  family  to  recover  the 
throne  of  England.  [SeeEtkoardiChmiea, 
Great  Britaiiij  and  James  IIL)  The  son 
of  James  III,  ChaHcs  Ekiward,  in  his 
daring  expedition  in  1745,  had  contended, 
with  various  success,  against  the  English, 
and,  indeed,  was  at  one  time  only  about 
100  miles  ftom  London,  where  terror  and 
consternation  prevailed.  But,  by  a  com- 
bination of  unmvorable  circumstances,  he 
was  compelled  to  retreat  to  Scotland, 
where  fortune  again  seemed  to  smile  on 
him  at  the  batde  of  Falkirk.  But  the 
duke  of  Cumberland,  marchmg  against 
him,  baffled  the  whole  enterprise  by  the 
decisive  victory  of  Culloden,  April  ?7 
(16th,  O.  S.),  1746.  Edward's  anny  was 
defident  in  subordination.    Though  his 


troops  were  faint  with  &dgue  and  hunger 
when  the  batde  began,  they  fought  with 
spirit  The  impetuoua  bravery  of  the 
Highlanders,  however,  at  length  yielded 
to  the  well-served  artillery  of  the  English. 
The  victors  massacred  the  wounded  Scots 
on  tlie  field  of  batde.  Charles  Edward 
was  exposed,  in  his  flight,^to  a  diousand 
dangers,  but  at  length  escaped.  His  fol- 
lowers suffered  the  vengeance  of  the  vic- 
tors. The  most  distinguished  of  them 
died  on  the  scaflbld,  and  the  districts 
which  had  been  the  theatre  of  the  rebel- 
lion were  laid  waste.  The  English  gov- 
enimeat  henceforward  took  measures  to 
prevent  the  recurrence  of  similar  attempts. 
Finduig  that  the  attachment  of  the  High- 
landers to  the  old  royal  line  arose  princi- 
pally from  the  peculiarity  of  their  customs 
and  mode  of  life,  they  resolved  to  abolish 
their  institutions.  Since  that  period,  the 
primitive  Scottish  manners  and  usages 
have  been  continually  dwindling  away  and 
disappearing. 

Culm  ;  a  village  in  Bohemia,  3  leagues 
east  of  the  well-known  watering-place  of 
Tepljtz,  and  near  the  finontier  of  Saxony; 
famous  on  account  of  the  battle  of  Aug. 
30,  1813,  in  which  the  French,  under 
Vandamme,  were  beaten  by  the  Prussians 
and  Russians.  Vandamme  was  taken 
i^soner,  with  3  generals  and  10,000  men. 
The  battle  was  one  of  the  bloodiest  in  the 
whole  war.  The  allies  had,  a  few  days 
previous  (Aug.  26),  hi«n, repulsed  by  Na- 
poleon in  their  attack  on  Dresden.  Dn 
tlie  2S>th,  a  bloody  batde  took  place  be- 
tween Vandamme  and  the  allies,  who  de- 
fended the  fiontiers  of  Bohemia,  to  cover 
the  retreat  of  the  Russians.  The  night 
put  an  end  to  the  batde.  On  the  30th,  it 
was  linewed  with  fury,  and  ended  with 
the  victory  of  Culm.  This  victory  was 
decisive ;  for  the  allies  were  enabled  to 
save  Bohemia,  on  which  Napoleon  was 
pressing  with  all  his  might  A  few  days 
before  (Aug.  26),  on  the  same  day  with  the 
batde  at  Dresden,  the  French  had  been 
beaten  by  Blucher  on  the  Katzbach ;  and 
from  diis  time,  the  series  of  disasters  is  to 
be  dated,  which  ended  with  tlie  dethrone- 
ment of  die  French  emperor. 

C(7LMiNATioN,  in  astronomv ;  the  pass- 
ing of  a  star  through  the  meridian,  liecause 
it  has  at  that  moment  reached  the  highest 
point  (culmen)  of  its  path,  with  reference 
to  the  observer.  Hence  culminaiion  is 
used,  metaphorically,  for  the  condition  of 
any  person  or  thing  arrived  at  the  most 
brilliant  or  important  point  of  its  progress. 

CuMA,  or  Cyme  ;  die  largest  and  most 
important  city  of  JSohs  (Asia  Minor),  and, 


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76 


CUMA— CUIilBERLAND. 


at  the  same  time,  one  of  the  most  ancient 
places  on  the  Mgeean  sea.  From  this 
place  the  Cumsean  Sibyl  took  her  name. 
Hesiod  was  bom  here.  According  to 
Strabo,  the  inhabitants  of  Cuma  were  con- 
sidered OS  somewhat  deficient  in  talent 

CuM£,  a  veiy  ancient  city  in  Campa- 
nia, and  the  oldest  colony  of  the  Greeks 
in  Italy,  was  founded  about  1030  B.  C.  by 
Chalcis  of  £uboea,and  peopled  by  Asiatic 
Cumseans  and  by  Phocians.  The  com- 
mon belief  of  the  inhabitants  made  it  the 
residence  of  the  Cumsean  sibyl,  though 
her  home  was  really  in  Asia,  (See  ^ 
preceding  article.)  The  Grotto  of  Truth 
was  situated  in  the  wood  sacred  to  the 
goddess  Trivia,  and  in  its  neighborhood 
was  the  Acherusian  lake.  In  this  region 
Cicero  had  a  country-seat  Cumae  had  a 
considerable  territory,  and  a  naval  force  in 
her  port,  Puteoll  She  founded  Naples 
(NeapoKs),  and,  in  Sicily,  Zancle  or  Mes- 
Kina.  In  430  B.  C,  Cumee  was  taken  by 
the  Oampanians,  and  came  with  them 
imder  the  power  of  Rome  (345  B.  C).  It 
was  destroyed  A.  D.  1207. 

CuMAifA ;  a  provmce  of  Colombia, 
hounded  N.  and  £.  by  the  Caribbean  sea, 
S.  by  the  Orinoco.  In  the  westera  part, 
towards  the  coast,  the  soil  is  tolerably  fer- 
tile. The  eastern  part  is  diy  and  sandy, 
affording  nothing  out  an  inexhaustible 
mine  of  marine  and  mineral  salt  On  the 
Orinoco,  the  countiy  is  fit  only  for  pas- 
turage :  other  parts  are  exceedingly  fertile. 
In  tne  mtenor  is  a  range  of  mountains,  of 
which  Tumeriquisi,  the  most  elevated,  is 
5900  feet  high. 

CuMANA,  or  New  Cordova  ;  a  town  of 
Colombia,  and  capital  of  a  province  of  the 
same  name;  Ion.  64°  lO'  W.;  lat  10° 28^ 
N. :  population,  estimated  by  Hum^ldt  at 
18  or  19,000 ;  by  Depons,  at  24,000.  It  is 
situated  near  the  moudi  of  the  gulf  of 
Cariaco,  about  a  mile  from  the  sea,  on  an 
arid,  sandy  plain.  The  climate  is  hot, 
earthqufikes  are  frequent,  and  the  houses 
low,  and  lightly  built  On  the  14th  Dec, 
1797,  more  than  tliree  fourths  of  them 
were  destroyed  by  an  earthquake.  The 
inhabitants  cany  on  a  considerable  trade 
in  cacao,  and  other  productions  of  the 
country.  The  road  is  commodious  for  its 
depth,  and  of  a  semicur^ular  form,  which 
defends  it  from  the  violence  of  the  vnnds. 

Cumberland,  duke  of;  second  son  of 
George  II  of  England;  bom  in  1721,  and 
died  Oct  30, 1765.  At  the  battle  of  Det- 
tingeu,  he  was  wounded,  when  fighting  at 
the  side  of  his  father.  At  Fontenoy,  he 
was  compelled  to  yield  to  the  superior 
experience  of  marshal  Saxe ;  but  rose  in 


reputadon  by  subduing  the  insurrection 
in  Scotland,  caused  by  the  landing  of 
Charles  Edward  Stuart  (see  CuUoden  and 
Urfuwrf),  1745 ;  which,  however,  was  more 
in  consequence  of  the  discord  and  irreso- 
lution prevailing  in  the  camp  of  his  brave 
antagonists,  than  from  any  disdnguished 
talent  exhibited  by  him.  Charles  Edwand, 
when  only  two  days'  march  from  London, 
commenced  his  retreat  into  Scotland  from 
Carlisle  (January,  1746),  and  was  com- 
pletely defeated  (April,  1746)  at  Cnlloden. 
(q.  v.)  The  duke  obsciued  his  famie  by 
the  cruel  abuse  which  ^he  made,  or  suf- 
fered his  soldiers  to  make,  of  the  victory ; 
which  was  tlie  more  dishonorable,  as  the 
followera  of  the  pretender,  on  their  march 
through  the  Scotch  Lowlands  and  in  Eng- 
land, had  evinced  the  greatest  humanity 
and  forbearance.  In  1747,  Cumberland 
was  defeated  by  marshal  Saxe,  at  Lafeld. 
In  1757,  he  lost  the  battle  of  Hastenbeck, 
against  D'Esti^^es,  and,  Sept  8,  concluded 
the  convention  at  Closter-Seven,  upon 
which  he  was  recalled,  and  Ferdinand, 
duke  of  Brunswick,  received  the  com^ 
mand  of  the  allied  army. 

Cumberland  (Ernest  Augustus),  duke 
of,  brother  to  George  IV,  king  of  Eng- 
land, fbuith  son  of  George  III,  was  bom 
June  5,  1771.  The  duke  has  almost 
always  lived  abroad,  and  is  little  known  in 
England,  except  for  his  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt to  obtain  an  addition  to  his  sdpend, 
after  he  had  married  Frederica  Sophia 
Carolina,  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Meck- 
lenburg-Strelitz,  and  widow  of  the  prince 
of  Solms.  He  generally  resides  at  Beriin, 
where  he  leads  a  dissipated  life.  His 
son,  George  Frederic  Alexander  Charles 
Ernest  Augustus,  waa  bom  May  27, 1819. 
When  the  duke  was  in  England,*  in  1815| 
'his  wife  was  not  admitted  at  court 

Cumberland,  Richard,  a  dramatic  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  son  of  the  reverend 
Denison  Cumberland,  bishop  of  Cionfert, 
by  the  daughter  of  doctor  Bentle^,  was 
bom  in  the  master's  lodge,  in  Trinity  col- 
le^,  Cambridge,  Feb.  19,  1732.  He  re- 
ceived his  early  education  at  Westminster, 
and,  in  his  14th  year,  was  admitted  of 
Trinity  college,  where  he  studied  veiy 
closely,  and  obtained  his  bachelor's  degree 
at  the  age  of  18,  and  soon  after  was  elect- 
ed fellow.  He  liecame  private  secretary 
to  lord  Hatifrx,  and  made  his  first  offering 
to  the  press  in  a  small  poem,  entitled  an 
Elegy  written  on  St  Mark's  Eve,  which 
obtained  but  little  notice.  His  tragedy 
eptitied  the  Banishment  of  Cicero  was 
rejected  by  Garrick,  and  printed  by  tlie 
author  in  1761.    In  1769,  he  was  married, 


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CUMBERLAND— CUNDINAMARCA. 


77 


and,  his  patron  being  made  lord-Ueutenant 
of  Ireland,  be  accompanied  him  to  that 
kingdom.  When  lord  Halifax  became 
secretary  of  state,  he  procured  nothing 
better  for  Cumberland  tnan  the  clerkship 
of  reports  in  the  office  of  trade  and  plan- 
tations. In  tlie  course  of  the  next  twp  or 
three  years,  he  wrote  an  opera,  entided 
the  SummeF's  Tale,  and  his  comedy  of 
the  Brothers.  His  West  Indian,  which 
was  brought  out  by  Ganick  in  1771,  prov- 
ed eminently  successful.  The  Fashiona- 
ble Lover  not  obtaining  the  success  of 
the  West  Indian,  he  exhibited  tiiat  sore- 
ness of  character  which  exposed  him  to 
the  satire  of  Sheridan,  in  his  sketch  of 
Sir  Fretful  Plagiary,  and  which  induced 
Garrick  to  call  him  tlie  man  wUhoutaskin. 
The  Choleric  Man,  the  Note  of  Hand, 
and  the  Battle  of  Hastings,  were  his  next 
productions.  On  the  accession  of  lord 
George  Gennaine  to  office,  he  was  made 
secretary  to  the  board  of  trade.  In  1780, 
he  was  employed  on  a  confidential  mis- 
aon  to  the  courts  of  Lisbon  and  Madrid, 
which,  owing  to  some  dissatisfaction  on 
the  part  of  the  ministry,  involved  him  in 
great  distress,  as  they  withheld  the  reim- 
bursement of  his  expenses  to  the  amount 
of  £5000,  which  rendered  it  necessary  for 
him  to  dispose  of  the  whole  of  his  hered- 
itary property.  To  add  to  his  misfortune, 
the  boara  of  trade  was  broken  up,  and  he 
retired  with  a  very  inadequate  pension, 
and  devoted  himself  enturely  to  literature. 
The  first  works  which  he  published^  after 
his  return  fiom  Spain,  were  his  entertain- 
ing Anecdotes  or  Spanish  Painters,  and 
the  most  distinguished  of  his  collection  of 
essays,  entitled  the  Observer.  To  these 
may  be  added  tlie  novels  of  Arundel, 
Henry,  and  John  de  Lancaster,  the  poem 
of  Calvary^  the  Exodiad  (in  conjunction 
with  sir  James  Bland  Burgess),  and,  lastly, 
a  poem  called  Retrospection,  and  the  Me- 
moirs of  his  own  Life.  He  also  edited 
the  London  Review,  in  which  the  critics 
gave  their  names^  and  which  soon  expir- 
ed. His  latter  days  were  chiefly  spent  in 
London,  where  he  died.  May  7, 1811.  The 
comic  drama  was  liis  forte :  and,  although 
he  wrote  much,  even  of  comedy,  that  was 
very  iodififerent,  the  merit  of  the  West 
Indian,  the  Fashionable  Lover,  the  Jew, 
and  the  Wheel  of  Fortune,  is  of  no  com- 
mon deemption.  His  Observer,  since  his 
acknowledcment  of  his  obligations  to  doc- 
tor Bentley^s  manuscripts,  no  longer  sup- 
ports his  reputation  as  a  Greek  critic ;  and 
as  a  poet^  he  was  never  more  than  a  ver- 
sifier. 
CuvberIiANd;  a  post-town,  and  capital 
7* 


of  Alleghany  county,  Maryland,  on  the 
Potomac,  at  the  Junction  of  Will's  creek, 
70  miles  W.  Hagerstown,  130  E.  S.  E. 
Wheeling,  150  W.  by  N.  Baltimore.  It  is 
a  considerable  town,  and  contains  a  court- 
house, a  jail,  a  market-house,  a  bank,  and 
four  houses  of  public  worship— one  for 
Lutherans,  one  for  Roman  Catholics,  one 
for  Methodists,  and  one  built  jointly  by 
the  Presbyterians  and  Episcopalians.  The 
mountains  in  the  vicinity  alx>und  in  stone- 
coal,  great  quantities  of  which  are  trans- 
ported down  the  Potomac  in  flat  and  keel 
i)oat&  The  Cumberland  or  Grreat  Western 
road  extends  from  this  town  to  the  banks 
of  the  Ohio  at  Wheeling.  It  was  made 
by  the  government  of  the  U.  States,  at  the 
expense  of  $1,800,000;  and  a  sufvey  hat 
been  made  from  dience  to  the  Mississippi, 
600  miles  farther. 

CuMBERLAirn  MouNTAiifs,  in  Tennes- 
see. The  range  commences  in  the  S.  W. 
part  of  Pennsylvania,  and,  in  Virginia,  it 
takes  the  name  of  Laurel  numwtainf  passes 
through  the  S.  E.  part  of  Kentucky,  and 
terminates  in  Teimessee,  80  miles  S.  E, 
Nashville.  A  considerable  jrardon  of  this 
mountain  in  Tennessee  is  composed  of 
stupendous  piles  of  craggy  rocks.  It  is 
thinly  covered  with  trees,  and  has  springs 
impregnated  with  alum.  Lime-stone  m 
found  on  both  sides  of  it 

Cumberlaitd;  a  river  which  rises  in 
the  Cumberland  mountains,  ViiTpnia,  and 
runs  through  Kentuckv  and  Tennessee 
into  the  Ohio,  60  miles  froi^  the  Mississip* 
pi.  It  is  navigable  for  steam-boats  to 
Nashville,  near  SdO  miles,  and  for  boats  of 
15  tons,  300  miles  farther.  At  certain 
seasons,  vessels  of  400  tons  may  descend 
400  miles,  to  the  Ohio. 

CuMMASSE,  or  CooMASsiE ;  a  tovm  of 
Afiica,  capital  of  Ashantee  ;  130  miles 
N.  N.  W.  Cape  Coast  Casde ;  Ion.  2°  6^  W. ; 
lat  6°  SO'  N. :  population  estimated  by  Mr. 
Bowdich,  in  1818,  at  15,000 ;  suited  by  the 
inhabitants  at  100,000.  It  is  situated  in  a 
vale,  surrounded  by  an  unbroken  mass 
of  the  deepest  verdure.  Four  of  the  prin- 
cipal streets  are  half  a  mile  long,  and  from 
50  to  100  yards  broad.  The  houses  are 
low  and  small,  •fa  square  or  oblong  form, 
coi^pc^dp^f  caues  wattled  together,  and 
plastered  with  clay  and  sand.  The  town 
nas  considerable  trade.  The  king's  harem 
is  said  to  contain  3333  women ! 

CuNDiNAMARCA ;  the  northern  part  of 
New  Grenada.  It  forms  a  department 
of  the  republic  of  Colombia,  and  compre* 
bends  the  provinces  of  Bogota,  Antioquia, 
Mariquita  and  Neiva,  with  371,000  inhabit- 
ants. The  chiefplace  is  Santa  FedeBogotA. 


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78 


CUNERSDORF--CUPOLA. 


CuNERSDORF ;  a  village  near  Frankfoit 
on  the  Oder,  known  on  account  of  the 
bk>odv  battle  in  which  Frederic  the  Great 
was  defeated,  Aug.  12, 1759.  It  is  only 
about  50  miles  distant  from  Berlin,  his  ca|>- 
ital.  Opposed  to  him  were  the  Rossians 
imder  Soltikoff,  and  the  Auslrians  under 
Laudon.  Victory  seemed,  at  first,  likely 
to  declare  in  favor  of  Frederic,  but,  event- 
ually, he  lost  all  his  artillery  and  20,000 
men.  (See  Seven  Years' 9Far,)  The  king 
at  first  gave  up  all  hopc^  but  soon  recov- 
ered his  spirits,  when  SoltikoflT,  with  in- 
conceivable tai^diness,  neglected  to  folk>w 
up  his  victory. 

CtjpEL ;  a  shallow  earthen  vessel,  some- 
what resembling  a  cup,  from  which  it 
derives  its  name.  It  is  formed  of  bone- 
aabes,  and  is  extremely  porous.  It  is  used 
in  assays,  to  separate  the  precious  metals 
from  their  alloys..  The  process  of  cvpel- 
lation  consists  in  fusing  an  alloy  of  a  pre- 
cious metal,  along  with  a  quantity  of  lead, 
in  a  cupel.  The  le^  is  exti^eraely  sus- 
ceptible of  oxidation,  aiid,  at  the  same 
time,  it  promotes  the  oxidation  of  other 
metals,  and  vitrifies  with  their  oxides. 
The  foreign  metal^  are  tlius  removed; 
the  vitrified  matter  is  absorbed  by  the 
cupel,  or  is  driven  off  by  the  blast  of  the 
l)eilow8,  as  it  collects  on  the  surface; 
and  the  precious  metal  at  length  remams 
nearly  pure. 

CuPELLATioN.    (See  Cupd,) 

CupicA ;  a  Beaix>rc  and  bay  of  Colombia, 
on  tlie  S.  £.  aiae  of  Panama,  following 
the  coast  of  tlie  Pacific  ocean,  from  cape 
St  Miguel  to  cape  Corrientes.  This  is 
thought  by  Humboldt  the  most  fiivorable 
point  for  connecting  the  Atlantic  and  Pa- 
cific oceans  by  a  canal.  From  the  bay  of 
Cupica,  there  is  a  passage  of  only  15  or  18 
miles,  over  a  country  quite  level,  and 
suited  to  a  canal,  to  the  head  of  naviga- 
tion of  the  river  Naipi,  a  branch  of  the 
river  Atrato,  which  flows  into  the  Atlan- 
tic. Gogueneche,  a  Biscayan  pilot,  is  said 
to  have  first  pohited  out  this  spot  as  almost 
the  only  place  where  the  chain  of  the 
Andes  is  completely  interrupted,  and  a 
eanal  tlius  made  practicable. 

Cupid  ;  a  celebrated  deity  among  the 
ancients ;  the  god  of  lovfe,  and  love  iteelf. 
There  are  difrerent  traditions  coiiceniing 
his  parents.  Cicero  mentions  three  Cu- 
inds;  one,  son  of  Mercury  and  Diana; 
another,  son  of  Mercury  and  Venus;  and 
the  third,  son  of  Mars  and  Venus.  Plato 
mentions  two*  Hesiod,  the  most  ancient 
theogonist,  epeaks  only  of  one,  who,  as  he 
says,  was  produced  at  the  same  time  as 
Chaoe  and  the  Earth.  There  are,  accord- 


ing to  the  more  received  opinions,  two 
Cupids,  one  of  whom  is  a  hvely,  ingen- 
ious youth,  son  of  Jupiter  and  Venus, 
whilst  tlie  other,  son  of  Nox  and  Erebus, 
is  distinguished  by  his  debauchery  and 
riotous  disposition.  Cupid  is  represented 
as  a  winged  infant,  naked,  armed  with  a 
bow,  and  a  quiver  full  of  arrows.  On 
gems  and  all  other  antiques,  he  is  rep- 
resented as  amusing  himself  with  some 
childish  diversion.  Sometimes  he  appean 
driving  a  hoop,  throwing  a  quoit,  playing 
with  a  nymph,  catching  a  butterfly,  or 
with  a  lighted  torch  in  his  hand.  At  other 
times,  he  plays  upon  a  horn  before  his 
mother,  or  closely  embraces  a  swan,  or, 
with  one  foot  raised  in  the  air,  he,  in  a 
musing  posture,  seems  to  meditate  some 
trick.  Sometimes,  like  a  conqueror,  he 
marches  triumphantly,  with  a  helmet  on 
his  head,  a  spear  on  his  shoulder,  and 
a  buckler  on  his  arm,  intimating  that 
even  Mars  himself  owns  the  superiority 
of  love.  His  power  was  generally  shown 
by  his  riding  on  the  back  of  a  lion,  or  oo 
a  dolphin,  or  breaking  to  pieces  the  thun- 
der-bolts of  Jupiter.  Among  the  ancients, 
he  was  worshipfied  with  the  same  solem- 
nity as  his  mother,  Venus,  and  his  influ- 
ence WQS  extended  over  the  heavens,  the 
sea,  and  the  earth,  and  even  the  empire 
of  the  dead.  His  divinity  was  univetfially 
acknowledged,  and  vows,  prayers  and 
sacrifices  were  daily  ofifered  to  him.  Ac- 
cording to  some  accounts,  the  union  of 
Cupid  with  C%aoe  gave  birth  to  men, 
and  all  the  animals  which  inhabit  the 
earth ;  and  even  the  gods  themselves  were 
the  offspring  of  love,  befi>re  the  founda- 
tion of  the  world.    (See  Amor,) 

Cupola  (BaL),  in  architecture ;  a  hem- 
ispherical roof,  often  used  as  the  summit 
of  a  building.  The  Italian  word  cupola 
signifies  a  hemispherical  roof,  which  cov- 
ers a  circular  building,  like  tlie  Pantheon 
at  Rome,  and  the  round  templa  at  Tivoli. 
Many  of  the  ancient  Roman  temples  were 
circular;  and  the  most  natural  form  for  a 
roof  for  such  a  building  was  that  of  a  half 
globe,  or  a  cup  reversed.  The  inventwn, 
or  at  least  the  first  usC)  of  the  cupola  be- 
longs to  the  Romans;  and  it  has  never 
been  used  with  greater  effect  than  by 
them.  The  greater  part  of  modem  cupo- 
las (unlike  those  of  the  ancients,  which 
are  mostly  hemispherical)  are  semi-ellipti- 
cal, cut  through  their  shortest  diameter. 
The  ancients  seldom  had  any  other  open- 
ing than  a  large  cucle  m  the  centre,  called 
the  eye  of  the  cupola ;  while  the  modems 
elevate  lanterns  on  their  top^  and  perfo- 
rate them  with  lutiiem  and  dormant  win- 


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^WB,  and  other  disfigurements.  The  9n* 
cientB  constructed  their  cupolas  of  stone ; 
the  ofiodems,  of  timber,  covered  with  lead 
or  copper.  Of  cupolas,  the  finest,  without 
any  comparison,  ancient  or  modem,  is  that 
of  the  Kotundo  or  Pantheon  at  Rome. 
Of  modem  constructions,  some  of  the 
handsomest  are  the  cupola  on  the  bank 
of  England,  that  of  St  Peter's  at  Rome, 
tltoee  of  St.  Paul's,  London,  the  Hotel  des 
Invalides,  and  the  church  of  St.  Genevieve 
at  Pans,  Santa  Maria  da  Fieri  at  Flor- 
ence, and  St  Sophia  at  Constantinople. 

CtiftAQAO ;  an  island  in  the  Caribbean 
sea,  about  75  miles  fiK>m  the  continent  of 
South  America,  belonging  to  the  Nether- 
lauds  ;  30  mUes  long,  and  10  broad ;  pro- 
ducing sugar  and  tobacco,  also  lai^e  and 
small  cattle ;  but  not  generaU^  ferule.  It 
has  several  good  ports»  paruculariy  one 
on  the  southern  coast,  called  iSLBeniorfi, 
where  a  great  trade  was  formerly  carried 
on  by  the  Dutch  in  Afirican  slaves.  Lon. 
(2^a(y  W.;  latl2?N.;  population, 850a 
The  principal  towns  are  Curasao  and 
Williamstadt  The  city  of  Curasao  is 
well  situated,  and  elegantly  built  It  is 
full  of  storehouses,  and  provided  with 
eveiy  species  of  merchandise.  William- 
stadt is  considered  the  capitaL 

CuRASSOA  Oranoes  (ourttfvtia  ctmiMO- 
vedia),  or  small  onoges  fiillen  from  the 
tree  lonjg  before  their  maturity,  have  prop- 
erties mmilar  to  those  of  the  orange-peel : 
they  are,  however,  more  bitter  and  acrid. 
They  are  used  in  the  U.  States  and  in 
England  for  the  same  purposes  as  the 
onnge-peel,  and  also  as  issue  peas. 

CuBDs;  a  wandering  people,  divided 
mto  many  tribes,  and  dwelling  in  the 
country  which  lies  between  the  foot  of 
mount  Caucasus  and  the  Black  sea,  and 
stretches  to  the  sources  of  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates.  Their  incursions  into  the 
Russian  territories  have  been  checked  by 
the  trooDS  <m  the  firontier,  and  thev  have 
preferred  to  leave  Persia  rather  than  to 
oecome  settled  and  tributary  to  the  shah. 
'Diey  are  Mohammedans,  but  neither  of  the 
Turkish  nor  Persian  sect  The  most  un- 
principled part  of  the  Curds  are  the  Yezides, 
who  esteem  the  plunder  of  caravans,  mur- 
der, theft  and  incest  lawfiiL  There  are 
no  Armenian  Christians  among  thistpeo- 
pfe,  who,  in  spite  of  the  repeataa  demands 
of  the  pacha,  have  never  paid  to  the 
Porte  either  poll-tax  or  taxes  on  their 
property  (mtn).  They,  however,  aome- 
times  propose  to  the  Porte  the  persons 
whom  they  wish  as  pachas  and  beys,  and 
the  Porte  has  never  ftdled  to  comply  with 
*heir  request.    It  is  said  that  the  Curds 


are  descended  from  the  Usbeck  Turtam 
or  from  the  Mongols ;  but  their  external 
appearance  is  veiy  unlike  that  of  tlie  Tar- 
tars. The  Curds  wear  a  ck>ak  of  black 
goatskin,  and,  instead  of  a  turban,  a  high, 
red  cap.  The  Turkish  dress  is  never 
worn,  because  they  consider  that  it  would 
mark  them  as  vassals  of  the  sulun.  The 
young  men  wear  mustachios ;  the  old 
men  eaSer  their  beards  to  grow.  Tlie 
Curd  is  a  eood  rider,  and  uses  his  lance 
with  skill  He  is  fond  of  mtisic,  and  sings 
in  ballads  the  exploits  of  his  nation.  There 
are  some  of  this  people  settled  in  the  plains 
of  Armenia,  but  no  branch  acknowledges 
itself  tributary  to  the  Porte.  If  the  winter 
among  the  highlands  proves  too  cold  for 
the  wild  mountain  Curd,  he  descends  to 
these  plains,  and  lives  in  low  tents  of  dark, 
coane  Uiien.  An  enclosure  made  of  reeds, 
near  his  tent,  surrounds  the  place  where 
he  keeps  his  cattle,  which  he  has  brought 
finom  the  mountains.  This  people,  who 
live  by  plunder,  reepect  the  rights  of  hos- 
pitality, and  usually  make  their  guest 
some  present  when  be  departs.  The  pa- 
triarehalauthoriiy  of  parents  is  very  great 
A  son  never  marries  without  their  con- 
sent Although  otherwise  so  deficient  in 
moral  princiole,  they  believe  that  no  one 
can  refuse  the  request  of  an  unfortunate 
man  without  being  punished  by  God* 
Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus,  took  admn- 
tage  of  this  belief  to  supply  the  losses  of 
his  army  in  his  wan  with  the  Romans* 
The  more  wonderful  the  escapes  of  the 
unfortunate  individual,  the  more  cmifident 
are  they  that  he  will  experience  a  change 
of  foitune.  On  this  account,  these  moun- 
tains are  the  refuge  of  the  enemies  of  the 
Turkish  pachas;  and  they  oflen  return 
from  them  more  formidable  than  they 
were  before.  Pottase,  milk  and  honey 
form  the  principal  food  of  the  Curds. 
They  drive  annually  to  Constantinople 
alone  1,500,000  slieep,  and  goats  in  flocks 
of  1500—2000,  the  shepherds  being  from 
15  to  18  months  on  the  road,  in  going  and 
returning.  Northern  Cuidistan  produces 
graui,  sulf^ur  and  altmi:  the  southern 
and  warmer  parts  of  the  country  produce 
com,  rice,  sesaasum,  fruits,  cotton,  tobacco, 
hotkeys  wtx,  manna  and  gall-nuts,  exported 
by  the  way  of  Smyrna.  Curdistan  has 
sannacks  at  Bayazid,  Mouch,  Van,  Jula- 
men,  Amadia,  Soleihmanieh,  Kara-Djio- 
lan  and  Zahou.  Of  all  these  sanffiacks, 
the  Porte  appoints  only  that  or  Van. 
Each  sangiack  ^verns  a  number  of  the 
tribes  of  his  nation,  who  obey  his  com- 
mands in  war,  but  are  wholly  indepep- 
dent  of  him  in  time  of  peace.    The  Chris- 


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CURDS— CURIA. 


tiaps,  who  constitute  the  principal  popu- 
lation of  the  plains  of  Annenia,  suffer 
eveiy  year  from  the  incuFsions  of  the 
Curds,  and,  the  Porte  being  unable  to  pro- 
tect them,  they  are  compelled  continually 
to  remove  fiuiher  to  the  south,  where  they 
are  also  liable  to  be  plundered  by  the 
Bedouins  or  Wechabites.  Their  only 
hope  is  in  the  increasing  power  of  the 
Russian  amr^  on  the  Tuixish,  Curdish 
and  Persian  nontiers,  and  in  the  expecta- 
tion that  tlie  Russians  will  at  last  put  an 
end  to  the  robberies  of  the  Turks  and  the 
oppression  of  the  pachas. 
CuRETES.  (See  CorubanUs.) 
Curia,  Papal,  is  a  collective  appellation 
of  aU  the  authorities  in  Rome,  which  exer- 
cise the  rights  and  privileges  which  the 
pope  enjoys  as  first  bishop,  superintendent 
and  pastor  of  Roman  Catholic  Christen- 
dom. The  right  to  grant  or  confirm 
ecclesiastical  appointments  is  exercised 
by  tlie  dakaitu  (q.  v.)  This  body  receives 
petitions,  draws  up  answers,  and  collects 
the  revenues  of  the  pope  for  the  paUioj 
spoUa,  benefices,  annatea^  &c  It  is  a  lu- 
cradve  branch  of  the  papal  government, 
and  part  of  the  receipts  go  to  die  apostoUc 
chamber.  There  is  more  difficulty  at- 
tending the  business  of  the  rata  (q.  v.^,  the 
high  court,  of  appeal  In  former  times, 
the  cardinal  grand  penitentiary,  as  presi- 
dent of  the  Defwfenzima,  had  a  very  great 
influence.  He  issues  all  dispensations 
and  absolutions  in  respect  to  vows,  pen- 
ances, fasts,  &C.,  in  rejjputl  to  which  the 
pope  has  reserved  to  himself  the  dispens- 
ing power;  also  with  respect  to  marriages 
witmn  the  degrees  prohibited  to  Cathohcs. 
Besides  these  authorities^  whose  powers 
extend  over  all  Catholic  Christendom,  there 
are,  in  Rome,  several  others,  occupied 
only  with  the  government  of  the  Roman 
state ;  as  the  sagra  coMuUoy  the  chief 
criminal  court,  in  which  the  cardinal  sec- 
retary of  state  presides ;  the  signatura  di 
gku&siay  a  court  for  civil  cases,  consisting 
of  12  prelates,  over  which  the  cardatc£' 
prowediton^  or  minister  of  justice  of  the 
pope,  presides,  and  with  which  the  sig' 
natura  di  graxia  coneurs;  the  apostouc 
chamber,  in  whioh  13  prelates  are  em- 
ployed, under  the  cardinale  camerUngo, 
administering  the  property  of  the  church 
and  the  papiu  domains,  and  receiving  the 
revenue  which  belongs  to  the  pope  as 
temporal  and  spirituiu  sovereign  of  the 
Roman  state ;  also  that  which  he  derives 
firom  other  countries  which  stand  imme- 
diately under  him,  and  are  his  fie&.  Be- 
sides these,  there  is  a  number  of  governors, 
prefects,  procuratori^  6cc^  in  the  diiferent 


branches  of  the  administration.  The 
drawing  up  of  bullsy  answers  and  decrees, 
which  are  issued  by  the  pope  himself^  or 
by  these  authorities,  is  done  by  the  papal 
chancery,  consisting  of  a  vice-chancellor 
and  12  abbreviatori  (q.  v.),  aansted  by  sev- 
eral hundred  secretaries :  the  brevea  only 
are  excepted,  and  are  drawn  up  by  a  par- 
ticular cardinal.  AU  these  offices  are, 
filled  by  clergymen ;  and  many  of  them ' 
are  so  lucrative,  that  considerable  sums 
are  paid  for  them,  somewhat  in  the  same 
manner  as  commisaons  are  purchased  in 
the  English  army.  At  the  death  of  Six- 
tus  V,  there  existed  4000  venal  offices  of 
this  kind ;  but  this  number  has  since  been 
diminisheid,  and  many  abuses  have  been 
abolished.  The  highest  council  of  the 
pope,  corresponding,  in  some  measure,  to 
the  privy  council  of  a  monarch,  is  the  col- 
lege of  the  cardinals,  convened  whenever 
the  pope  thinks  fit.  The  sessions  of  this 
senate,  which  presides  over  all  the  other 
authorities  in  Rome,  are  called  con8iti4irU8, 
They  are  of  three  different  kinda  The 
secret  consistory  is  held,  generally,  twice  a 
month,  after  the  pope  has  given  private 
audience  to  every  cardinal  In  these  ses- 
sions, bishops  are  elected,  paBia  grant- 
ed, ecclesiastical  and  political  afiairs  of 
importance  transacted,  and  resolutions 
adopted  on  the  reports  of  the  congre^- 
tions  delegated  by  the  consistory :  testifi- 
cations and  canonizations  also  originate  in 
this  body.  DiflTerent  fi:om  the  secret  con- 
sistories are  the  semi-secret  ones,  whose 
deliberations  relate  principally  to  political 
afi[airB,  and  the  results  of  them  are  com- 
mimicated  to  the  ambassadors  of  foreign 
powers.  The  public  consistories  are  sel- 
dom held,  and  are,  principally,  ceremo- 
nial assemblies :  in  these  the  pope  receives 
ambassadors,  and  makes  known  important 
resolutions,  canonizations,  establishments 
of  orders,  &c.  According  to  rule,  all  car- 
dinals residing  in  Rome  should  take  part 
in  the  consistories ;  but,  in  point  of  met, 
no  one  appears  without  being  especially 
summoned  by  the  )>ope.  The  pope,  if 
able  to  do  so,  always  presides  in  persmi, 
and-the  cardinal  secretary  of  state  (who  is 
minister  of  the  interior  and  of  foreign 
affiurs)  is  always  present,  as  are  likewise 
the  cardinals  presidents  of  the  authorities. 
At  presenti  diere  are  22  congregations  of 
cardinals  at  Rome:  1.  the  holy  Roman 
and  general  inquisition,  or  holy  office  (m»- 
to  cmcio) ;  2.  vuiia  cgpostoUca ;  3.  contUkh- 
rime;  4.  vescovi  reg€lari;  5.  de  €onciUo 
(tridetitino) ;  d  rtaidataa  di  MMoot ;  7.  tm- 
mumtaecmsiaiUca;  ^.propaganda;  9.m- 
did  (of  prohibited  booKs) ;  10.  Bogri  riH 


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CURIA-r-CUBRAN. 


81 


(ofthe  holy  rites);  11.  ceremomole ;  VLdig- 
c^tUna  regoUtrt  (orders  of  monks) ;  13.  tn- 
dulgenzt  e  soffre  rekufuie;  14.  t$ame  dei 
veteom ;  15.  eorrezUmx  dti  libri  deila  ddesa 
OnentaU ;  16.  fabbrica  di  S.  Pidro  (who 
have  charge  of  the  repairs  of  St  Pe- 
ter's) ;  17.  cofutdta ;  18.  Bwmgovemo^ ; 
19.  horttto ;  20.  hydraulic  woiks  and  the 
Pontine  marshes ;  21.  eamomica ;  22.  ex- 
traordinary ecclesiastical  affiurs.  Few, 
however,  of  these  congregations,  are  fully 
supplied  with  officers. 

Cuaix ;  certain  divisions  of  the  Roman 
people,  which  Romulus  is  said  to  have 
established.  According  to  Liv.  i.  13,  he 
divided  Rome  into  30  cunts,  and  assigned 
to  each  a  separate  place,  where  they  might 
celebrate  their  fbasts,  under  their  particu- 
lar priest  (curio).  At  the  condtiaj  ue  peo- 
ple assemUed  in  curue,  to  vote  on  impoiv 
tant  matters.  The  whole  Roman  people 
were  divided  by  Romulus  (IHonys,  Hdic. 
ii.  c  €2)  into  three  tribes,  each  tribe  into 
10  curuBy  each  curia  into  10  dtcwrut.  To 
vote  ewrialimy  therefore,  is  to  vote  by  curue. 
The  division  into  curue  was  founded  on 
locality,  and  therefore  contradistinguished 
from  the  division  according  to  tribes  (a 
number  of  fiimilies  of  the  same  descent). 
Niebuhr,  in  his  Roman  History,  treats  this 
subject  with  uncommon  erudition  and 
perspicuity  in  vol.  i,  chapter  Tht  Patridan 
Hotue^  and  the  CuritB, — Curia  also  si^i- 
fied  a  puUic  building ;  as,  curia  fmmictpar 
lis,  &C. 

CuRiATii.    (See  HoraHL) 

CuRf us  Dentatus,  Marcus  Annius ;  an 
illustrious  Roman,  who  was  three  times 
consul,  and  twice  obtained  the  honors  of  a 
triumph.  He  vanquished  the  Samnites, 
Sabines  and  Lucanians,  and  defeated 
Pyrrhus,  near  Tarentum,  B.  C.  272.  When 
the  deputies  of  the  Samnites  appeared 
before  him  for  the  purpose  of  concluding 
a  peace,  thev  found  him  on  his  farm,  boil- 
ing vegetables  in  an  earthen  pot  They 
attempted  to  purchase  his  &vor  by  offering 
him  vessels  of  gold,  but  the  noble  Roman 
dbdainiuUv  re&ed  their  offers.  <*  I  pre- 
fer," said  he,  **  my  earthen  pot»  to  your 
vases  of  gold.  1  have  no  desire  for  wealth, 
and  am  satisfied  to  live  in  poverty,  and 
rule  over  the  rich." 

Curlew  (numemus,  Briss.) ;  a  genus 
of  birds  belonging  to  the  order  grotfice,  or 
waden,  and  family  KmicoUty  wlK)se  most 
remarkable  characteristic  is,  that  the  bill 
is  wholly  or  partially  covered  by  a  sofl, 
sensitive  skin,  which  enables  them  to  ob- 
tain their  food  fix>m  the  mud  with  facility, 
though  unable  to  discover  it  by  sight 
The  genus  is  characterized  by  a  very  long, 


slender,  almost  cylindrical,  compressed 
and  arcuated  bill,  having  the  upper  man- 
dible longer  than  the  lower,  furrowed  for 
three  fourths  of  its  length,  vad  dilated  and 
rounded  towards  the  tip.  The  nostrils 
are  situated  in  the  furrow,  at  the  base,  and 
are  lateral,  longitudinal  and  oblong.  The 
tongue  is  very  short  and  acuto.  The  f^t 
are  rather  long,  slender,  and  fmu^loed; 
the  taisus  is  one  half  longer  than  the  mid- 
dle toe.  The  fore  toes  are  connected,  at 
the  base,  by  a  short  membrane,  to  the  first 
joint  The  nails  are  compressed,  curved, 
acute,  and  the  cutting  edge  of  the  middle 
one  is  entire.  The  first  primary  is  ^e 
longest;  the  tail,  which  is  somewhat 
rounded,  consists  of  12  feathere.  The 
plumage  of  the  curlew  is  generally  dull, 
being  grayish-brown,  rusty-whito  and 
blackish,  in  both  sexes,  which  are  similar 
in  size.  The  young  bird  also  difftrs  veir 
little  fit>m  the  parents,  except  that  the  bill 
is  much  shorter  and  straighter.  Their 
favorite  resorts  are  marshy  and  muddy 
places,  in  the  vicinity  of  water,  over  which 
they  run  with  great  quickness.  They  feed 
on  various  worms,  small  fishes,  insects 
and  molluscous  animals,  and  are  very  shy, 
wary  and  vigilant  of  the  approach  of  man. 
They  are  mcHiogamous,  and  pass  most  of 
their  time  separate  from  the  rest  of  their 
species.  Their  nests  are  built  on  tufbs  or 
tussocks  in  the  marshes,  and,  during  incu- 
bation, both  parents  assiduously  devote 
themselves  to  th^r  charge.  The  eggs  are 
usually  four,  being  much  larger  at  one 
end  than  the  other,  or  pyriform  in  shape. 
The  young,  as  soon  as  hatched,  leave  the 
nest  to  seek  their  own  subsistence.  At 
the  oeriod  of  migration,  the  curiews  mute 
to  form  large  flocks,  and  their  flight  is 
high,  rapid  and  protracted.  They  utter  a 
loud,  whistling  noto,  easily  recognised 
when  once  heutl,  but  not  easy  to  be  char- 
acterized by  description.  Three  species 
of  curlew  are  inhabitants  of  this  continent 
— the  long-billed  curlew  (JV*.  Umgirostrify 
Wils.),  the  Esquimaux  curlew  (A*.  Hud- 
sctneuSf  Lath.)  and  the  boreal  curlew  (JV*. 
hcre4di$.  Lath.).  The  two  first  are  com- 
mon in  spring  and  autumn,  in  the  Middle 
States  of  the  iFnion :  the  last  is  lare  in  the 
U.  States. 

CuRRAN,  John  Philpot,  a  celebrated 
Irish  advocate,  of  humble  ori^,  was  bom 
at  Newmaricet,  near  Cork,  in  1750.  He 
was  educated  at  Trinity  college,  Dublin, 
afler  which  he  repaired  to  London,  and 
studied  at  one  of  the  inns  of  court  In 
due  time,  he  was  called  to  the  bar ;  shortly 
after  which  he  married  Miss  0*Dell,  an 
Irish  lady  of  a  very  respectable  family 


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By  the  influence  of  bis  talents,  he  gradual- 
ly rose  to  great  reputation ;  and,  during 
the  administration  of  the  duke  of  Portland, 
he  obtained  a  silk  gown.  In  1784,  he  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  Irish  house  of 
commons.  His  abilities  now  displayed 
themselves  to  advantage,  and  he  became 
the  most  popular  advocate  of  his  age  and 
countiy.  During  the  distracted  state  of 
Ireland,  towards  the  close  of  the  last  cen- 
tiuy,  it  was  often  his  lot  to  defend  persons 
accused  of  political  offenc^  when  Mr. 
Fitzgibbon  (afterwards  lord  Clare),  then 
attorney-general,  was  his  opponent  The 
professional  rivahy  of  tliese  gendemen 
degenerated  into  personal  rancor,  which 
at  length  occasioned  a  duel^  the  result  of 
which  was  not  fatal  to  eitlaer  party.  On 
a  cliange  of  ministiy  durinff  die  vice-roy- 
alty of  the  duke  of  Bedford,  Mr.  Curran's 
patriodsm  was  rewarded  with  the  office 
of  master  of  the  rolls.  This  situadon  he 
held  till  1814,  when  he  resigned  it,  and 
obtained  a  pension  of  £3000  a  year.  With 
this  he  retired  to  England,  apd  resided 
chiefly  in  tlie  neighborhood  of  London. 
He  died  in  consequence  of  a  paralytic 
attack,  at  Brompton,  Nov.  1^  1817,  at  the 
age  of  67. — Curran  possessed  talents  of 
the  highest  order :  his  wit,  his  drollery,  his 
eloquence,  his  pathos,  were  irresistible; 
and  the  splendid  and  daring  style  of  his 
onitoiy  formed  a  striking  contrast  widi  his 
personal  appearance,  wliich  was  mean 
and  diminutive.  As  a  companion,  he 
could  be  extremely  asreeable;  and  his 
conversation  was  often  nighly  fiiscinating. 
In  his  domestic  relations,  he  was  very 
unfortunate;  and  he  seems  to  have  laid 
himself  open  to  censure.  The  infidelity 
of  his  wife,  which  was  establislied  by  a 
legal  verdict,  is  said  to  have  been  a  subiect 
on  which  he  chose  to  display  his  w'it,  m  a 
manner  that  betrayed  a  strange  insensi- 
bility to  one  of  the  sharpest  miseries  which 
k  man  can  suffer.  Mr.  Curran  appears 
never  to  have  committed  any  thing  to  the 
press,  but  he  is  said  to  have  produced 
some  poetical  pieces  of  considerable  merit. 
A  collection  of  his  forensic  speeches  was 
published  in  1805  (1  vol.  8vo.).  Memoirs . 
of  his  life  have  been  published  Iw  his  son, 
by  Mr.  Charles  Phillips,  and  by  Mr.  O'Re- 
gan. 

CuRRAivTS.  Red  currants,  black  cur- 
rants and  gooseberries  are  the  fruit  of 
well  known  shrubs,  which  are  cultivated 
in  gardens,  and  which  also  grow  wild,  in 
woods  or  tiiickets,  in  various  parts  of  Eu- 
rope and  America.  The  utility  of  all  these 
ihiits  in  domestic  economy  has  long  Yteen 
astablisbed.    The  juice  of'^the  red  species, 


if  boiled  with  an  equal  weight  of  loaf 
sugar,  forms  an  agreeable  substance, 
called  currant  jelbfy  which  is  much  em- 
ployed in  sauces  and  for  other  culinary 
purposes,  and  also  in  the  cure  of  sore 
throats  and  colda  The  French  frequent- 
ly mix  it  with  suw  and  water,  and  thus 
Ibrm  an  agreeable  beverage.  The  juice 
of  currants  is  a  valuable  remedy  in  ob- 
structions of  the  bowels ;  and,  in  febrile 
complaints,  it  is  useful,  on  account  of  its 
readily  quenching  thirst,  and  for  hs  cool- 
ing eflfect  on  the  stomach.  This  juice, 
fermented  with  a  proper  quantity  of  sugar, 
becomes  a  jpalatable  wine,  which  is  much 
improved  by  keeping,  and  which,  with 
care,  may  be  kept  for  20  years.  The  in- 
ner bark  of  all  the  species,  boiled  with 
water,  is  a  popular  remedy  in  jaundice, 
and,  by  some  medical  men,  has  been  ad- 
ministered in  dropsical  complaints.  White 
and  flesh-colored  currants  have,  in  evety 
respect,  the  same  qualities  as  tiie  red  spe- 
cies. The  berries  of  the  black  currant 
are  lai^r  than  those  of  the  red,  and,  in 
some  parts  of  Siberia,  are  even  said  to 
attain  the  size  of  a  hazel-nut  They  are 
occasionally  made  into  wine,  jelly,  rob,  or 
sirup.  The  two  latter  are  frequently  em- 
ployed in  the  cure  of  sore  diroats ;  and, 
horn  the  sreat  use  of  black  currants  in 
quinsies,  they  have  sometimes  been  de- 
nominated squtnanciff  or  quinsy  berries. 
The  leaves  are  fragrant,  and  have  been 
recommended  for  their  medicmal  virtues* 
An  infusion  of  them  in  the  manner  of  tea 
is  very  erateful,  and,  by  many  persons,  is 
prefeirea  to  tea.  The  tender  leaves  tinge 
common  spirits  so  as  to  resemble  brandy ; 
and  an  infusion  of  the  young  roots  is  use- 
ful in  fevers  of  the  eruptive  kind.  The 
dried  currants  of  the  shops  do  not  belonc 
to  this  family,  but  are  a  small  kind  of 
grape.  None  of  these  fruits  are  so  much 
esteemed  for  the  table  as  gooseberries. 
For  culinaiy  purposes,  gooseberries  are 
ffeneraliy  employed  before  they  are  ripe ; 
but  this  is  founded  on  erroneous  notions 
of  their  chemical  properties,  since,  either 
for  sauces  or  wine,  tiiough  they  are  more 
cool  and  refreshing,  Uiey  do  not  possess 
the  delicate  flavor  and  rich  saccharine 
qualities  which  belong  to  the  ripe  fruit. 
Wine  made  of  gooseberries  has  great 
resemblance  to  Champagne.  The  skins 
of  the  fruit,  after  the  juice  has  been 
expressed,  afibrd,  by  distillation,  a  spirit 
somewhat  resembling  brandy.  Vinegar 
may  be  made  from  gooseberries.  Some 
of  the  kinds  are  bottled  while  green,  and 
kept  for  whiter  use ;  and  others  are,  for 
the  same  purpose,  preserved  with  sugar. 


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CURRANTS-CURRENTS. 


83 


Gooseberries  vaiy  much  in  color,  size  and 
quality.  Some  are  smooth,  and  others 
hairy.  Some  are  red,  others  green,  and 
others  yeUow  or  amber-colored.  Wild 
IFooscberries  are  greatly  inferior  in  size  to 
Uiose  which  are  cultivated  in  gardens. 
CuRREifCT.  (See  Ciradtding  Medium,) 
Currents,  in  the  ocean,  are  continual 
movements  of  its  waters  in  a  particular 
direction.  In  laL  39°  N.,  Ion.  13°  AQf  W., 
we  begin  to  feel  the  effects  of  the  current 
which  flows  from  the  Azores  to  the  straits 
of  Gibraltar  and  the  Canaries.  Between 
the  tropics,  from  Senegal  to  the  Caribbean 
sea,  the  general  current,  and  that  longest 
known,  flows  from  east  to  west  Its 
average  rapidity  is  from  9  to  10  nautical 
miles  in  42  houis.  It  is  tliis  current 
which  is  known  by  the  name  of  equatorial 
current  It  appears  to  be  caused  by  the 
impulse  which  the  trade- winds  give  to  the 
surface  of  the  water.  In  tlie  channel 
which  the  Atlantic  has  hollowed  between 
Guiana  and  Guinea,  under  the  meridian 
of  18°  or  21°  W.,  from  8°  or  9°  to  2°  or 
3°  N.  laL,  where  the  trade- winds  are  often 
interrupted  by  winds  which  blow  from 
the  south  and  soutli-west,  the  equatorial 
current  is  less  uniform  in  its  direction. 
Near  the  coast  of  Africa,  vessels  are  often 
drawn  to  the  south-east,  whilst,  near  the 
bay  of  All  Saints  and  cape  St.  Augus- 
tine, upon  the  coast  of  America,  the  gen- 
eral direction  of  the  waters  is  interrupted 
by  a  particular  current,  the  effects  of 
which  extend  from  cape  St  Roche  to 
Trinity  island.  It  ftows  towards  the  north- 
west, at  the  rate  of  one  foot,  or  one  foot 
five  inches,  a  second.  The  eauatorial  cur- 
rent is  felt,  although  slightly,  even  be- 
yond the  tropic,  in  latitude  28°  north.  In 
the  basin  of  the  Adantic  ocean,  6  or  700 
leagues  from  the  coast  of  Africa,  vessels, 
whose  course  is  from  Europe  to  the  West 
Indies,  find  their  progress  accelerated  be- 
fore they  arrive  at  the  torrid  zone.  Far- 
ther north,  between  the  parallels  of  Tene- 
rifife  and  Ceuta,  in  longitude  44°  to  46°  W., 
no  unifonn  motion  is  observed.  A  zone 
of  140  leagues  separates  the  equatorial 
current  from  that  great  mass  of  water 
flowing  to  the  east,  which  is  distinguished 
by  its  elevated  temperature,  and  oi  which 
we  shall  now  speak  particularly.  The 
equatorial  current  impels  the  waters  of 
the  Atlantic  ocean  towards  the  Musquito 
shore  and  the  coast  of  Honduras,  in  tho 
Caribbean  sea.  The  new  continent  op- 
poses this  current ;  tlie  waters  flow  to  tlie 
north-west,  and,  passing  into  the  gulf  of 
Mexico,  by  the  strait  which  is  formed  by 
cape  Catoche  (Yucatan)  and  cape  Su  An- 


toine  (Cuba),  they  follow  the  windings  of 
the  American  coast  to  the  shallows  west  of 
the  southern  extremity  of  Florida.  Then 
the  current  turns  again  to  the  north,  flow- 
ing into  the  Bahama  channel.  In  the 
month  of  May,  1804,  A.  von  Humboldt 
observed  in  it  a  rapidity  of  5  feet  a  second, 
although  the  nortn  wind  blew  violently. 
Under  the  parallel  of  cape  Canaveral,  the 
current  flows  to  the  north-east  Its  rapid- 
ity is  then  sometimes  five  nautical  miles  on 
hour.  This  current,  called  the  gutfitreaan^ 
is  knoiKH  by  the  elevated  temperamre  of 
its  waters,  by  their  great  salmess,  by  their 
indigo-blue  color,  by  the  train  of  sea-weed 
which  covers  their  surface,  and  by  the 
heat  of  the  surrounding  atmosphere,  which 
is  very  perceptible  in  winter.  Its  rapidity 
diminishes  towards  the  north,  at  the  same 
time  that  its  breadth  increases.  Near  the 
Bahama  bank,  the  breadth  is  15  leagues ; 
in  lat  28°  30^  N.  it  is  17  leagues,  and,  under 
the  parallel  of  Charleston,  from  40  to  50 
leagues.  To  the  east  of  the  port  of  Boston, 
and  under  the  meridian  of  Halifiut,  the  cur- 
rent is  almost  80  marine  leagues  in  breadth. 
There  it  turns  suddenly  to  the  east,  and 
crazes  the  southern  extremitv  of  the  great 
bank  of  Newfoundland.  The  waters  of 
this  bank  have  a  temperature  of  from 
8°  7  to  10^  centigrade  (7°  to  8°  IL,  16°  to 
18°  Fahr.),  which  offers  a  striking  contrast 
to  the  waters  of  the  torrid  zone,  impelled 
to  the  north  Iw  the  gulf  stream,  and  tho 
temperature  of'^which  is  from  21°  to  22°  5 
(17°  to  18°  it,  38°  to  40i°  Fahr.).  The 
waters  of  the  bank  are  16°  9^  Fahr.  colder 
than  those  of  the  neighboring  ocean,  and 
these  are  5°  4'  Fahr.  colder  than  those  of 
the  current  They  cannot  be  equalised, 
because  each  has  a  cause  of  heat  or  cold 
which  is  peculiar  to  it,  and  of  which  the 
influence  is  permanent.  From  the  bank 
of  Newfoundland  to  the  Azores,  the  gulf 
stiream  flows  to  the  E.  or  £.  S.  £. 
The  waters  still  preserve  there  a  part  of 
the  impulse  received  in  the  strait  ot  Flori- 
da. Under  the  meridian  of  the  islands 
of  Corvo  and  Flores,  the  current  has  a 
breadth  of  160  leagues.  In  lat  33°,  the 
equatorial  current  approaches  very  near 
the  gulf  stream.  From  the  Azores,  the 
current  flows  towards  Gibraltar,  the  island 
of  Madeira  and  the  Canaries.  South  of 
that  island,  the  current  flows  to  the  S.  E. 
and  S.  S.  E.,  towards  the  coast  of  Afiica. 
In  kt  25°  and  26°,  tlie  current  flows  first 
S.,  then  S.  W.  Cape  Blanc  appears  to 
influence  this  direction,  and  in  its  latitude 
the  waters  mingle  with  the  great  current 
of  tlie  tropics.  Blagden,  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin and   Jonathan  Williams  fiitft  made 


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CURRENTS— CUEHYING. 


known  the  elevated  temperature  of  the 
gulf  stream,  and  the  eoldness  of  the  shal- 
E>ws,  where  the  lower  strata  unite  with 
the  upper,  upon  the  borders  or  edges  of 
the  bank.    A.  Ton  Humboldt   coUected 
much  information,  to  enable  him  to  trace, 
upon  his  chart  of  the  Atlantic  ocean,  the 
course  of  this  current    The  gulf  stream 
changes  its  place  and  direction  according 
to  the  season.    Its  force  and  its  direction 
are  modified,  in  high  latitudes,  by  the 
variable  winds  of  the  temperate  zone,  and 
the  collection  of  ice  at  die  north  pole.    A 
drop  of  water  of  the  current  would  take 
2  years  and  10  months,  to  return  to  the 
place  fix>m  which  it  should  depart    A 
txMit,  not  acted  on  by  the  wind,  would  go 
from  the  Canaries  to  the  coast  of  Caracas 
in  13  months ;  in  10  months,  would  make 
tlie  tour  of  the  gulf  of  Mexico ;  and,  in  40 
or  50  days,  would  go  from  Florida  to  the 
bank  of  Newfoundland.    The  gulf  stream 
furnished  to  Christopher  Columbus  indi- 
cations of  the  existence  of  land  to  the 
west    This  current  had  carried  upon  the 
Azores  the  bodies  of  two  men  of  an 
unknown  race,  and  pieces  of  bamboo  of 
enormous  size.    In  lat  45°  or  50°,  near 
Bonnet  Flamand,  an  arm  of  the  gulf 
stream  flows  from  the  S.  W.  to  tlie  N.  E., 
towards  the  coast  of  Europe.    It  deposits 
upon  the  coasts  of  Ireland  and  Norway 
trees  and  fruits  belonging  to  die  torrid 
zone.    Remains  of  a  vessel  (the  Tilbury), 
burnt  at  Jamaica,  were  found  on  the  coast 
of  Scotland.    It  is  likewise  this  river  of 
the  Adantic,  which  annually  throws  the 
fruits  of  the  West  Indies  upon  the  shore 
of  Norway* — ^The  causes  of  currents  are 
very  numerous.    The  waters  may  be  put 
in  motion  Iw  an  external  impulse,  by  a 
difference  of  heat  and  salmess,  by  the  in- 
equality of  evaporation  in  diflTerent  lati- 
tudes, and  by  the  change  in  the  pressure 
at  different  points  of  the  surface  of  the 
ocean.   The  existence  of  cold  strata,  which 
have  been  met  with  at  ^at  depths  in  low 
latitudes,  proves  the  existence  of  a  lower 
current,  which  runs  fh)m  the  pole  to  the 
equator.    It  proves,  Ukewise,  that  saline 
substances  are  distributed  in  the  ocean,  in 
a  manner  not  to  destroy  die  effect  pro- 
duced by  different  temfieratures.     The 
polar  currents,  in  the  two  hemispheres, 
tend  to  the  east,  probably  on  account  of 
the  uniformity  of  west  winds  in  high  lati- 
tudes.   It  is  very  probable  that  tiiere  may 
be,  in  some  places,  a  double  local  current ; 
the  one  above,  near  the  surface  of  the 
water,  the  other  at  the  bottom.    Several 
facts  seem  to  confirm    diis  hypothesis, 
which  was  first  proved  by  the  celebrated 


Halley.  In  the  West  Indian  seds,  there 
are  some  places  where  a  vessel  may  moor 
herself  in  the  midst  of  a  cuirent  by  drop- 
ping a  cable,  with  a  sounding  lead  at* 
tached,  to  a  certain  known  depth.  At 
that  depth,  there  must,  unquestionably,  be 
a  current  contriuy  to  the  one  at  the  surface 
of  the  water.  Similar  circumstances  have 
been  observed  in  the  Sound.  There  is 
reason  to  beUeve,  tiiat  the  Mediterranean 
discharges  its  waters  by  an  inferior  or 
concealed  current  Such  a  mass  of  ocean 
water,  flowing  constandy  from  the  torrid 
zoiie  towards  the  northern  pole,  and,  at 
any  given  latitude,  heated  many  degrees 
above  the  temperamre  of  the  adjacent 
ocean,  must  exert  great  influence  on  the 
atmo4)here.  An  interesting  table,  in  Dar- 
by^ View  of  die  U.  States,  Philadelphia, 
1828  (page  964),  slio^vs  this  influence  in  a 
striking  way.  (See  Malte-Bnm's  Gcogp- 
rapky^  vol.  i,  and  Humboldt's  Personal 
JvarraHve,) 

CuRRYiwo  is  the  art  of  dressing  cow- 
hides, calves'-skins,  seal-skins,  &c.,  princi- 
pally for  shoes ;  and  this  is  done  either 
upon  die  flesh  or  the  grain.  In  dressing 
leather  for  shoes  upon  the  flesh,  die  first 
operation  is  soaking  the  leather  in  water 
until  it  is  thorough] v  wet ;  then  the  flesh 
side  is  shaved  on  a  beam  about  seven  or 
eight  inches  broad,  with  a  knife  of  a  pe- 
culiar construction,  to  a  proper  substance, 
according  to  the  custom  of  the  country 
and  the  uses  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  curious  and  labo- 
rious operations  in  the  whole  business  of 
currying.  The  knife  used  for  this  pur- 
pose is  of  a  rectangular  fonn,  with  two 
nandles,  one  at  each  end,  and  a  double 
ed^.  After  the  leather  is  properly  shaved, 
it  IS  thrown  into  the  water  again,  and 
scoured  upon  a  board  or  stone  commonly 
appropriated  to  that  use.  Scouring  is  per- 
formed by  rubbing  the  grain  or  hair  side 
with  a  piece  of  pumice  stone,  or  with 
some  other  stone  of  a  good  grit  These 
stones  force  out  of  the  leadier  a  white 
substance,  called  (he  bloom,  produced  by 
the  oak  bark  in  tanning.  The  hide  or 
skin  is  dien  conveyed  to  die  shade  or  dry- 
ing place,  where  the  oily  substances  are 
applied,  termed  stuffing  or  dubhing.  When 
it  is  tlioroughly  dry,  an  instrument,  with 
teeth  on  the  under  side,  called  agraining- 
board,  is  first  appUed  to  the  flesh-side, 
which  is  called  graining;  then  to  the 
grain-side,  called  brtdsing.  The  whole 
of  this  operation  is  intended  to  soften  the 
leather  to  which  it  is  applied.  Whiten- 
ing, or  paring,  succeeds,  which  is  {)er- 
formed  with  a  fine  edge  to  the  knife 


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CURRYING--CUSCO. 


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aliready  described,  and  used  in  taking  off 
the  ffrease  fix>m  the  flesh.  It  is  then 
boarded  up,  or  grained  again,  by  applyins 
the  graining-booid  first  to  the  grain,  and 
then  to  the  flesh.  It  is  now  fit  for  wax- 
ing, which  is  performed  first  by  coloring. 
This  is  effected  by  rubbing,  with  a  bruui 
dipped  in  a  composition  of  oil  and  lamp^ 
black,  on  the  flesh,  till  it  be  thoroughly 
black :  it  is  then  sized,  called  Uacksixivg, 
with  a  brush  or  sponge,  dried  and  tallow- 
ed ;  and,  when  dry,  this  sort  of  leather, 
called  vfcaed,  or  hUu:k  on  the  flesh,  is  cur- 
ried. The  currying  leather  on  the  hair  or 
grain  side,  called  Uack  on  Ihe  grain,  is  the 
same  with  currying  on  the  fleSh,  until  we 
come  to  the  operation  of  scouring.  Then 
the  first  black  is  applied  to  it  while  wet ; 
which  black  is  a  solution  of  the  sulphate 
of  iron  called  copperas,  in  fidr  water,  or  in 
the  water  in  whicn  the  skins,  as  they  come 
from  the  tanner,  have  been  soaked.  This 
18  first  put  upon  the  grain  after  it  has  been 
rubbed  with  a  stone ;  then  rubbed  over 
with  a  brush  dipped  in  Stale  urine;  tlie 
skin  is  then  stuned,  and,  when  dry,  it  is 
seasoned,  that  is,  rubbed  over  with  a  brush 
dipped  in  copperas  water,  on  the  grain, 
till  it  is  perfectly  black.  After  this,  tlie 
|irain  is  raised  with  a  fine  graining-board. 
When  it  is  thoroughly  dry,  it  is  whitened, 
bruised  again,  and  grained  in  two  or  three 
different  ways,  and,  when  oiled  upon  the 
^in,  with  a  mixture  of  oil  and  tallow,  it 
IS  finished. 

CcRRT-PowDER.    (See  Thirmeric,) 

CuRTius,  Marcus ;  a  noble  Roman 
youth,  known  by  the  heroic  manner  in 
which,  according  to  ti-adition,  he  sacrificed 
himself  for  the  good  of  his  country.  In 
the  year  of  Rome  392  (B.  C.  362),  it  is 
said,  a  chasm  opened  m  the  Roman  fo- 
rum, from  which  issued  pestilential  vapors. 
The  oracle  declared  tliat  the  chasm  would 
close  whenever  that  which  constituted  the 
dory  of  Rome  should  be  thro>\Ti  into  it 
Curdus  asked  if  any  thing  in  Rome  was 
more  precious  than*arms  and  valor;  and, 
being  answered  in  the  negative,  he  arrayed 
himself  in  armor,  mounted  a  horse  splen- 
didly equipped,  solemnly  devoted  himself 
to  death,  in  presence  of  the  Roman  peo- 
ple, and  sprang  into  the  abyss,  which  in- 
stantly closed  over  him. 

CuRTius  RuFUS,  Quintus,  the  author 
of  a  History  of  Alexander  the  Great,  in 
ten  books,  the  two  first  of  which  are  lost, 
has  been  supposed  to  be  the  son  of  a 
ffladiator.  He  recommended  himself  by 
his  knowledge  to  Tiberius,  and,  during  his 
reign,  received  the  pretorsbip ;  under  Clau- 
dius, tlie  consulship,  also  the  emperor's 

yoL,  IT.  8 


consent  to  celebrate  a  triumph,  and  finally 
the  proconsulship  of  Africa.  He  died  in 
Africa,  A.  D.  69,  at  an  advanced  age.  We 
should  have  had  more  complete  accounts 
concerning  him,  if  the  first  books  of  his 
work  had  been  preserved.  Curtius  de- 
serves no  great  praise  as  a  historian.  His 
style  is  florid,  and  his  narratives  have 
more  of  romance  than  of  historical  cer- 
tainty. The  lost  parts  have  been  supplied 
by  Cfhristopher  Bruno,  a  Bavarian  monk, 
in  a  short  and  dry  manner ;  by  Freinshe- 
mius,  in  a  difiuse  style ;  and  by  Christopher 
Cellarius,  in  a  style  which  forms  a  medi- 
um between  the  two.  The  best  edidon 
is  by  Snakenburg  (Leyden,  1724,  4to.)k 
Among  the  new  editions  are  that  by 
8chmieder  (Gottingen,  1814).  Buttmann, 
Hilt,  and  Niebuhr  (the  Roman  historian^ 
have  written  treatises  on  his  life.  The 
last  named  gentleman  read,  in  1821,  be- 
fore the  academy  of  Berlin,  a  disquisition 
on  the  period  of  Curtius — a  performance 
distingmshed  for  critical  acumen  and  eru- 
dition. Niebuhr  thinks  that  the  work  was 
written  under  Severus,  and  not  under 
Vespasian.  The  essay  is  to  be  found  in 
his  Kkine  kistariscne  und  pkUohsische 
SchriJUn,  erste  Samndun^  (Bonn,  18^). 

Curves  (from  the  Latm  curvus,  crooKed, 
bent),  in  geometry.  The  simplest  objects 
are  die  most  difficult  to  be  defined,  and 
mathematicians  have  never  succeeded  in 
gi\nng  a  definition,  satisfactory  to  them- 
selves, of  a  line.  It  is  equally  difficult  to 
give  a  satisfactory  definition  of  a  curve^ 
rcrhaps  the  simplest  explanation  of  it  is, 
aline  which  is  not  a  straight  line,  nor  mctde 
vp  of  straight  lines.  This  definition,  how- 
ever, is  deficient  in  mathematical  precis- 
ion. Since  Descartes'  application  of  al- 
gebra to  geometry,  the  theory  of  the  curves 
has  received  a  considerable  extension. 
The  study  of  the  curves  known  to  the 
ancients  has  become  much  easier,  and 
new  ones  have  been  investigated.  Curves 
form,  at  present,  one  of  the  most  interest- 
ing and  most  important  subjects  of  ge- 
ometry. Such  as  have  not  all  their  parts 
in  the  same  plane,  are  called  curves  of  a 
dovhle  curvature.  The  simplest  of  all 
curves  is  the  circle.  The  spiral  of  Ar- 
chimedes, the  conchoid  of  Nicomedcs, 
the  cissoid  of  Diodes,  the  quadratrix  of 
Dinostratus,  &c.,  are  celebrated  curves. 

Cusco,  or  Cuzco ;  a  city  of  Peru,  capi- 
tal of  an  intendency  of  the  same  name, 
the  ancient  capital  of  the  Peruvian  em- 
pire ;  550  miles  E.  S.  E.  Lima;  Ion,  71® 
4'  W. ;  lat.  13^  42^  S. ;  population  stated 
from  20  to  32,000.  It  is  a  bishop's  see. 
It  was  founded,  according  to  tradition,  in 


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86 


CUSC<>-CUSTOS  ROTULORUM. 


1043,  by  MaDco  Capac,  the  flm  inca  of 
Peru,  on  a  rough  and  unequ^il  plain, 
formed  by  the  skirts  of  various  inountaina, 
which  are  washed  by  the  small  river  Gua- 
tanav.  The  wall  was  of  an  extraordinary 
height,  and  built  of  stone,  with  astonishing 
neatness.  The  Spaniards,  in  1534,  fouBd 
the  houses  built  of  stone;  among  diem 
a  temple  of  the  sun,  and  .a  great  number 
of  magnificent  palaces,  whose  principal 
ornaments  were  of  gold  and  silver,  which 
glittered  on  the  walls.  Cusco  is,  at  present, 
a  large  city :  the  houses  are  built  of  stone, 
and  covered  with  red  tiles;  the  apart- 
ments are  weU  distributed  ;  the  mould- 
ings of  the  doors  are  gilt,  and  the  furni- 
ture not  less  magnificent.  The  cathedral 
church  is  large,  built  of  stone,  and  of  an 
elegant  and  noble  architecture.  About 
three  fourths  of  the  inhabitants  are  Indians. 
CusHiNo,  Thomas,  was  bom  at  Boston, 
in  1725,  and  finished  his  education  at  the 
college  of  Cambridge  (New  England),  in 
1744.  Both  his  grandfather  and  father 
had  i^ent  a  considerable  portion  of  tlieir 
lives  in  the  public  service,  the  latter  hav- 
ing been,  for  several  years  previous  to  his 
death,  speaker  of  the  house  of  representa- 
tives in  Massachusetts.  He  engaged  early 
in  political  hfe,  and  was  sent,  by  the  city 
of  Boston,  as  its  representative  to  the  gen- 
eral court,  where  he  displayed  such  quali- 
fications for  the  despatch  of  business,  that, 
when  governor  Bernard^  in  1763,  nega- 
tived James  Otis,  tlie  father,  as  speaker, 
he  was  chosen  in  his  place,  and  continued 
in  the  station  for  many  consecutive  years. 
Whilst  he  was  in  the  chair,  he  had  Se- 
quent opportunities  of  evincing  his  patri- 
otism and  aversion  to  the  arbitfaiy  course 
of  the  English  eovemmc^t ;  and,  as  his 
name  was  signed  to  all  the  public  docu- 
ments, in  consequence  of  his  office,  he 
acquired  great  celebrity,  and  was  generally 
supposed  to  exert  a  much  greater  influ- 
ence in  affiiirs  than  he  actually  did.  This 
circumstance  led  doctor  Johnson,  in  his 
pamphlet  Taxation  no  Tyranny,  to  make 
this  foolish  remark — **  One  object  of  the 
Americans  is  said  to  be,  to  adorn  the 
brows  of  Mr.  Gushing  with  a  diadem." 
Though  dfscidedly  patriotic  in  his  princi- 
ples, Mr.  Gushing  was  moderate  and  con- 
ciliatory in  his  conduct,  by  which  he  was 
enabled  to  efifect  a  great  deal  of  good  as 
a  mediator  between  the  two  contending 
parties.  He  was  an  active  and  efficient 
member  of  the  two  first  continental  con- 
gresses, and,  on  his  return  to  his  state, 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  council. 
He  was  also  appointed  judge  of  the  courts 
<Kf  common  pleas  and  of  probate  in  the 


county  of  SufiS>lk,  which  stations  he  oe- 
cupied  until  the  present  constitution  was 
adopted,  when  he  was  elected  lieutenant- 
governor  of  the  state,  and  continued  so 
until  his  death,  which  took  place  Feb.  19, 
1788,  in  the  63d  year  of  his  age,  in  conse- 
quence of  gout. 

GusTiPfE,  Adam  Philip,  count  of,  bom 
at  Metz,  174P,  served  as  captain  in  the 
seven  years'  war.  (q.  v.)  Through  the  in^ 
fiuence  of  the  duke  of  Choiseul,  he  oj)- 
tained,  in  1762,  a  reipment  of  dragoons, 
which  was  called  by  his  name.  In  178(h 
ho  exchanged  this  for  the  regiment  of 
Saintonge,  which  was  on  the  point  of 
going  to  America,  to  the  aid  of  the  North 
American  colonies.  On  his  return,  he 
was  appointed  marichd  de  camp.  In  1789, 
he  was  deputy  of  the  nobihty  of  Metz, 
and  was  one  of  the  first  who  declared  for 
the  popular  party.  He  subsequeptly  en- 
terea  the  army  of  the  North,  and,  in  May, 
1793,  made  himself  master  of  the  pass 
of  Porentruy.  In  June,  he  received  the 
command  of  the  army  of  the  Lower  Rhine, 
and  opened  the  campaini  by  taking  pos- 
session of  Spire,  Sept  JS.  Meeting  with 
feeble  opposition,  he  took  Worms,  and, 
Oct  21,  the  fortress  of  Mentz  capitulated. 
On  the  23d,  he  took  possession  of  Frank- 
fort on  the  Maine,  on  which  he  laid  heavy 
contribqtions.  Thence,  escaping  the  pur- 
suit of  the  Prussians,  he  threw  himself 
into  Mentz,  which  he  caused  to  be  forti- 
fied. With  the  opening  of  the  campaign 
of  1793,  he  left  Mentz,  which  the  allies 
were  besieging,  and  retired  to  Alsace. 
He  was  now  denounced,  and,  in  April, 
received  his  dismission ;  but  the  conven- 
tion, in  May,  invested  him  with  the  com- 
mand of  the  northern  army.  But  he  had 
hardly  time  to  visit  the  posts.  Marat  and 
Varennes  were  unceasing  in  their  accu- 
sations against  him,  and  at  last  prevailed 
on  tlie  committee  of  safety  to  recall  him 
to  Paris.  The  revolutionary  tribunal  be- 
gan his  trial  Au^.  15.  He  made  a  spirited 
defence;  but  his  death  was  determined 
upon.  He  wm  condemned  Aug.  27,  ^d 
guillotined  on  the  28th. 

GusTOMS.    (See  Revembe,) 

Gustos  Rotulorum  ;  an  ofiicer,  in 
England,  who  has  the  custody  of  the  rolls 
and  records  of  the  sessions  of  the  peace, 
and  also  of  the  commission  of  the  peace 
itself.  He  is  usually  a  nobleman,  and  al- 
ways a  justice  of  the  peace,  of  the  quorum 
in  ue  county  where  he  is  appointed.  He 
may  execute  his  office  by  a  deputy,  and 
is  empowered  to  appoint  the  clerk  of  the 
peace ;  but  he  is  prohibited  from  selling 
his  office  under  divers  penalties. 


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CUSTRIN— CUTLERY. 


87 


CusTUN  (m  Grennan,  K&strin) ;  a  fbr- 
tresB  in  the  province  of  Brandenbui^, 
PnisBia,  at  the  coiifluence  of  the  Warte 
and  Oder,  containing  460  houses  and  6000 
inhabitants.  In  18&,  it  was  disgracefully 
surrendered  to  the  French,  and  garrisoned 
by  them  Hntil  1814,  when  it  surrendered 
to  the  Prussians. 

Cuticle  (from  cutiada^  the  Latin  di- 
minudve  of  cutiSf  skin)  is  a  thin,  pellucid, 
insensible  membrane,  of  a  white  color, 
that  covers  and  defends  the  true  skin,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  the  hairs,  ex- 
haling and  inhaling  vessels,  and  the  rete 
mucoswtL 

CuTuiss;  a  short  sword  used  by  sea- 
men. The  art  of  fencing  with  it  is  differ- 
ent from  that  with  the  small  sword  or 
broad  sword.  A  guard  over  the  hand  is 
an  advantage.  It  is,  if  well  understood,  a 
very  effectual  weapon  in  close  contest :  on 
account  of  its  shortness,  it  can  be  handled 
easily,  and  yet  is  long  enough  to  protect  a 
skilful  swonisman. 

Cutler,  Timothy,  president  of  Yale 
coUece,  was  the  son  of  major  John  Cutler, 
of  Cnarlestown,  Massachusetts.  He  was 
graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1701,  and 
in  Januaiy,  1709,  was  ordained  minister 
of  Stratford,  Conn.,  where  he  acquired 
the  reputation  of  being  the  most  eloquent 
preacher  of  the  province.  After  remain- 
ing in  that  situation  during  ten  yeivrs,  he 
was  elected,  in  1719,  successor  to  Mr. 
PieiBon,  as  president  of  Yale  college.  In 
the  interval  between  the  death  of  his 
predecessor  and  his  own  accession,  the 
college  had  been  removed  to  New  Haven. 
For  3na  station  he  was  eminently  qualified 
by  his  profound  and  extensive  learning, 
Ins  dignified  ajipearance,  and  the  hign 
respect  which  his  character  was  calculated 
to  iaspire.  In  1722,  having  renounced 
the  communion  of  the  Congregational 
churches,  the  trustees  of  the  college  passed 
a  resolve  dispensing  vnth  his  services,  and 
requiring  of  future  rectors  satisfactory  ev- 
idence of  ibeir  faith  in  opposition  to  Ar- 
minian  and  prelatical  corruptions.  A 
short  time  subsequently,  he  went  to  Eng- 
land, where  he  was  ordained  priest,  and 
received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  divinity 
from  Oxford.  In  July,  1763,  he  returned 
to  Boston,  where  he  soon  after  became 
rector  of  Christ  church,  and  in  that  sta- 
tion died,  Aug.  17, 1765,  in  the  82d  year 
of  his  age.  Doctor  Cutler  was  particularly 
distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of  the 
Oriental  languages  and  literature.  He 
abo  spoke  I^dn  with  great  fluency,  and 
was  well  versed  in  mond  philosophy  and 
theology.    He  published  two  sermons. 


Cutlery.  Though  cutlery,  in  the  ^n- 
eral  sense,  comprises  all  those  articles 
denominated  edge  tools,  it  is  more  partic- 
ularly confined  to  the  manufacture  of 
knives,  forks,  scissois,  penknives,  razors 
and  swords.  Damascus  was  anciently 
famed  for  its  razors,  sabres  and  swords. 
The  latter  are  said  to  possess  all  the  ad- 
vantages of  flexibility,  elasticity  and  hard- 
ness. These  united  distinctions  are  said 
to  have  been  efiected  by  blending  alter- 
nate portions  of  iron  and  steel  in  such  a 
manner,  that  the  softness  and  tenacity  of 
the  former  could  prevent  the  breaking  of 
the  latter.  AU  tiiose  articles  of  cuuexy 
which  do  not  require  a  fine  polish,  and 
are  of  low  price,  are  made  fit>m  blistered 
steel.  Those  articles  which  require  the 
edge  to  possess  great  tenacity,  at  the  same 
time  that  superior  hardness  is  not  re- 
quired, are  made  from  sheer  steel.  The 
finer  kinds  of  cudery  are  made  frvm  steel 
which  has  been  in  a  state  of  fusion,  and 
which  is  termed  ccui  sled,  no  other  kinds 
being  susceptible  of  a  fine  polish.  (See 
the  article  SteeL)  Table  knives  are 
mostly  made  of  sheer  steel;  forks  are 
made  almost  altogether  by  the  aid  of  the 
stamp  and  appropriate  dies ;  the  prongs 
only  are  hardened  and  tempered.  Almost 
all  razors  are  made  of  cast  steel,  the  qual- 
ity of  which  should  be  very  good,  the 
edge  of  a'  razor  requiring  the  combined 
advantages  of  great  hardness  and  tenacity. 
After  the  razor  blade  is  forged,  it  is  hard- 
ened, by  gradually  heating  it  to  bright  red 
heat,  and  plunging  it  into  cold  water.  It 
18  tempered  by  heatinl^  it  afterwards  till  a 
brightened  part  appears  of  a  straw  color. 
Though  this  is  generally  performed  by 
placing  them  upon  the  open  fire,  it  would 
be  more  equally  effected  by  sand,  or,  what 
is  still  better,  in  hot  oil,  or  fusible  mixture, 
consisting  of  8  parts  of  bismuth,  5  of  lead 
and  3  of  tin ;  a  thermometer  being  placed 
in  the  liquid  at  the  time  the  razors  are 
immersed,  for  the  purpose  of  indicating 
the  proper  temperatm^,  which  is  about 
500^  of  Fahrenheit.  Razors  are  ground 
crosswise,  upon  stones  from  4  to  7  inciies 
in  diameter,  a  small  stone  being  necessary 
to  make  the  sides  concave.  They  are 
afterwards  smoothed  and  polished.  The 
handles  of  high-priced  razors  are  made  of 
ivory  and  tortoise-shell,  but  in  general 
they  are  of  polished  horn,  which  is  pre- 
ferred on  account  of  its  cheapness  and 
durability.  The  horn  is  cut  into  pieces, 
and  placed  between  two  corresponding 
dies,  having  a  recess  of  die  shape  of  the 
handle.  The  dies  are  previously  heated 
to  about  500^  of  Fahrenheit,  and  placed. 


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88 


CUTLERY— CUVIER. 


with  the  hom,  in  a  press  of  such  pow- 
er, that,  allowing  a  man's  strength  to  be 
200  pounds,  it  will  be  equal  to  43,000 
pounds.  By  this  process,  the  hom  re- 
ceives considerable  extension.  If  the  hom 
is  not  previously  black,  the  handles  are 
dyed  black  by  nie^s  of  a  bath  of  logwood 
and  green  vitriol.  The  clear  hom  handles 
are  sometimes  stained  so  as  to  imitate  the 
tortoise-shell — ^The  manufacture  of  pen- 
knives is  divided  into  three  departments : 
the  first  is  the  forging  of  the  blades,  the 
spring  and  the  iron  scales;  the  second, 
the  grinding  and  polishing  of  tlie  blades ; 
and  the  thinl,  the  handling,  which  consists 
in  fittingup  all  the  parts,  and  finishing  the 
knife.  The  blades  are  made  of  the  best 
cast  steel,  and  hardened  and  tempered  to 
about  the  same  degree  with  that  of  razors. 
In  grinding,  tliey  are  made  a  little  more 
concave  on  one  side  than  the  other:  in 
oth^r  respects,  they  are  treated  in  a  amilar 
way  to  razors.  The  handles  are  covered 
with  hom,  ivory,  and  sometimes  wood ; 
but  the  most  durable  covering  is  stag-hom. 
The  most  general  fault  in  penknives  is 
that  of  being  too  soft  The  temper  ought 
to  be  not  h^her  than  a  straw  color,  as  it 
seldom  hap|iena  that  a  penknife  is  so  hard 
as  to  snap  on  the  edge. — The  beauty  and 
elegance  of  polished  steel  is  nowhere  dis- 
played to  more  advantage  than  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  finer  kinds  of  scissors. 
The  steel  employed  for  the  more  valuable 
scissors  should  be  cast  steel  of  the  choicest 
qualities:  it  must  possess  hardness  and 
uniformity  of  texture,  for  the  sake  of  as- 
suming a  fine  polish ;  and  great  tenacity 
when  hot,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  the 
bow  or  ring  of  the  scissors,  which  requires 
to  be  extended  fh)m  a  solid  piece,  having 
a  hole  previously  .punched  through  it 
It  ought  also  to  be  veij  tenacious  when 
cold,  to  allow  that  debcacy  of  form  ob- 
served in  those  scissors  termed  Uu&ea^ 
scisaors,  Afler  the  scissors  are  forged  as 
near  to  the  same  size  as  the  eye  of  the 
workman  can  ascertain,  they  are  paired, 
and  the  two  sides  fitted  together.  The 
bov^  and  some  other  parts  are  filed  to 
their  intended  form ;  the  blades  are  also 
roughly  ground,  and  the  two  sides  prop- 
erly adjusted  to  each  other,  afler  being 
bound  together  with  wire,  and  hardened 
up  to  the  bows.  They  are  aflei-wards 
hea'^d  till  they  become  of  a  purple  color, 
which  indicates  their  proper  temper.  Al- 
most all  the  reoiauiing  part  of  the  woric  is 
performed  at  the  grinding  mill,  with  the 
stone,  the  lap,  the  polisher  and  the  bmsh. 
The  very  large  scwsors  are  partly  of  iron 
and  partly  of  steel,  the  shanks  and  bows 


being  of  the  former.  These,  as  well  as 
those  all  of  steel,  which  are  not  hardened 
all  over,  cannot  be  polished:  an  inferior 
sort  of  lustre,  however,  is  given  to  them 
hy  means  of  a  burnish  of  hardened,  pol- 
ished steel,  which  is  very  easily  distin- 
guished from  the  real  polish  by  the  irregu- 
larity  of  the  surface.  (For  swords,  see 
SworcL) 

Cutter  ;  a  small  vessel,  fumijshed  with 
one  mast,  and  ringed  as  a  sloop.  Many 
of  these  fast-sailmg  vessels  are  used  by 
smugglers,  and  are  also  employed  for  the 
purpose  of  apprehending  them.  lo  the 
latter  case,  they  are  called  reoetme  cuiUn, 
The  dipperit — a  kind  of  vessels  built  at 
Baltimore — are  particularl)r  adapted  for  fast 
sailing,  but  recjuire  great  skill  in  navigating 
them,  to  avoid  bemg  upset.    (See  Boat^ 

Cuttt-Stoox*  ;  a  low  stool ;  the  stool 
of  repentance  ;  a  sn^l  gallery  in  the 
Scottish  kirks,  placed  near  the  roof,  and 
painted  black,  in  which  ofienders  against 
chastity  sit  during  service,  professing  re- 
pentance, and  listening  to  the  minister's 
rebukes. 

Cut- Water  ;  the  sharp  part  of  the  head 
of  a  ship  below  the  beak,  so  called  because 
it  cuts  or  divides  the  water  before  it  comes 
to  the  bow,  that  it  may  not  come  too  sud- 
denly to  the  breadth  of  the  ship,  which 
would  retard  it 

CuviER,  George  Leopold  Christian 
Frederic  Dagobert,  baron  of|  bom  Aug. 
25, 1769,  at  Montb^liard,  then  betonging 
to  the  duchy  of  Wfirtemburg.  His  bril- 
liant talents  very  early  excited  great  ex- 
pectations. His  father  was  an  officer.  As 
the  son's  health  was  too  foeble  to  allow 
him  to  become  a  soldier,  he  resolved  to 
be  a  clergyman.  He  was  obliged  to  pass 
an  examination  for  the  stipend,  by  the 
help  of  which  he  expected  to  study  at 
T&bingen.  A  malicious  examiner  rejected 
hun.  The  afilair,  however,  was  madked 
by  6o  much  injustice,  that  prince  Frederic, 
brother  of  the  duke,  and  governor  of  the 
district,  thought  it  his  du^  to  compensate 
Cuvier  by  a  place  in  the  Charles  academy 
at  Stuttgart  Here  he  gave  up  his  inten- 
tion of  becoming  a  dergyman*  In  Stutt- 
gart, he  studied  at  first  die  science  of  law^ 
though  he  was  particulariy  fond  of  natural 
history.  To  this  period  of  his  life  he  is 
indebted  for  his  accurate  knowledge  of 
the  German  language  and  hteiature.  The 
narrow  circumstances  of  his  parents  com- 
pelled him  to  accept  the  ofiSce  of  private 
mstructer  in  the  family  of  count  D'Hericy, 
in  Normandy.  Here  he  was  at  liberty  to 
devote  his  leisure  to  natural  science.    Cu- 


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yier  soon  perceived  that  zodlogy  was  fiir 
from  that  perfection  to  which  Lannseus 
had  carried  botany,  and  to  which  miner- 
alogy had  been  carried  by  the.  united 
labors  of  the  [^ilosopheis  of  Germany  and 
France.  The  first  desideratum  was  a 
careful  observation  of  all  the  organs  of 
animals,  in  order  to  ascertain  their  mutual 
dependence,  and  thar  influence  on  animal 
life  ;  then  a  confutation  of  the  fanciful 
systems  which  had  obscured  rather  than 
iUustnited  the  study.  Examinations  of 
the  marine  productions,  with  Which  the 
neighboring  ocean  abundantly  supplied 
him,  served  him  as  a  suitable  preparation. 
A  natural  classification  of  the  numerous 
classes  of  vtrmes  (Unn.)  was  his  first  labor, 
and  the  clearness  with  which  he  gave  an 
account  of  his  observations  and  ingenious 
views,  procured  him  an  acquaintance  wiUi 
all  the  naniralists  of  Paris.  Geoffiy  St 
Hilaire  invited  him  to  Paris,  opened  to 
him  the  collections  of  natural  history,  over 
which  he  presided,  took  part  with  him  in 
the  publication  of  several  works  on  the 
claasification  of  the  mammdUoj  and  placed 
him  at  the  central  school  in  Paris,  May, 
1795.  The  institute,  being  reestablished 
the  sanie  year,  received  him  as  a  member 
of  the  firat  class.  For  the  use  of  the  cen- 
tral school,  he  wrote  his  Tableau  Mimtn- 
taxrt  dt  rSSatoire  J^atureUe  des  Animaux 
(1796),  by  which  he  laid  the  foundation 
of  his  future  fame.  From  this  time,  he 
was  coQAdered  one  of  the  first  zodlogists 
of  Europe.  He  soon  afler  displayed  his 
brilliant  talents  as  professor  of  comparative 
anatomy.  Ilis  profound  knowledge  was 
not  less  remarkable  than  his  elevated 
views,  and  the  elegance  with  which  he 
HlustFBted  them  before  a  mixed  audience. 
In  the  lecture-room  of  the  Z>yc^e,  where 
be  lectured  several  yean  on  natural  his- 
tory, was  assembled  all  the  accomplished 
society  of  Paris,  attracted  by  the  ingenu- 
ity erf*  his  dassifications,  and  by  his  exten-* 
sive  surveys  of  all  the  kingdoms  of  nature. 
In  January,  1800,  be  justly  received  the 
place  formerly  occupied  by  D'Aubenton, 
in  the  cdl^e  de  France.  His  merits  did 
not  escape  Uie  sagacity  of  Napoleon.  In 
the  department  of  public  instruction,  in 
which,  one  afier  another,  he  filled  the 
most  important  offices,  he  exercised  much 
influence  bv  bis  useful  improvements  and 
indefatigable  activitv.  lie  delivered  a 
report  very  honorable  to  Grermany,  in 
1811,  when  he  returned  from  a  joumev  in 
Holland  and  Germany,  as  superintendent 
of  instruction.  He  was  accompanied,  in 
this  journey,  by  No<!l.  In  1813,  the  emperor 
appoinUMi  him  maUredes  requites  to  the 
8  * 


council  of  state,  and  committed  to  his 
care  the  most  important  affairs  in  Mentz. 
Louis  XVIII  confirmed  him  in  his  former 
offices,  and  raised  him  to  the  rank  of 
counsellor.  As  such,  he  belonged  at  first 
to  the  committee  of  legislation,  and  after- 
wards to  that  of  the  interior.  As  a  poli- 
tician, he  drew  upon  himself  the  re- 
proaches of  the  liberals.  In  general,  the 
political  courae  of  Cuvier  forms  such  a  con- 
trast witii  his  scientific  one,  and  is,  besides, 
of  so  littie  importance,  that  we  are  veiy 
willing  to  pass  it  by  in  silence.  The  meas- 
ures of  the  abb6  Frayssinous,  then  chan- 
cellor of  the  university  of  Paris,  determin- 
ed him  to  resign  the  ofiSce  of  universitv- 
counsellor,  in  December,  1822.  Notwith- 
standing his  political  engagements,  Cuvier 
devotea  himself  continually  to  the  studv 
of  natural  history,  i^ich  he  has  extend- 
ed by  his  discoveries.  We  mention  only 
bis  Recherches  wur  les  Ossemens  Fbssiles^ 
1821—24;  3d  edition,  1826,  5  vols.,  4to., 
with  plates  (the  classical  introduction 
to  this  work  is  printed  separately) ;  IHs- 
cours  mr  les  lUvohdions  de  la  Surface  du 
dobe,^  ei  8ur  lea  Changefnena  an^dles  onl 
produU  dans  le  lUgne  ammcH  (m  editioiif, 
Paris,  1825) ;  also,  Le  Rkgne  animal 
(1817,  4  vols.] ;  Lepms  d*Ani3omie  Com- 
parity  recvteUhes  par  DtmUrU  et  Duvemoy 
(1805,5  vols.);  Rechetckes anafoTniques  sx/r 
les  RepiUes  riffardis  encore  comme  dtniieux 
(1807,  4to.) ;  Mhunrespour  servir  h  PHis^ 
toire  de  PJlnaiomie  des  MoUustmes  (1816^ 
4to.).  As  perpetual  secretary,  &c.,  of  the 
academy,  in  tiie  class  of  physical  sciences, 
he  has  pronounced  dofes  on  the  deceased 
members  of  the  institute.  The  RecueU 
d*Mo^  Historiques  (Paris,  1819,  2  vols.) 
contains  models  worthy  of  imitation.  The 
French  academy  received  him,  in  conse- 
quence, among  their  40  members.  Almost 
all  the  learned  societies  of  the  worid  have 
sent  him  honorary  diplomas.  France  is 
indebted  to  him  for  the  eetaUishment  of  a 
cabinet  of  comparative  anaton^,  which  is 
the  finept  osteological  collection  in  £u« 
rope. 

CuxHAVEN ;  a  village  in  RCitzebflttel,  a 
bailiwick  of  Hamburg,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river  Elbe.  It  is  important  for  all 
navigatore  going  to  Bremen  or  Hambutv. 
Its  lighthouse  is  8°  43^  1"  E.  Ion.,  and  SS^ 
53^  51"  N.  lat.,  61  miles  W.N.  W.  of  Ham- 
burg. The  harbor  is  huge  and  commodi- 
ous, one  of  the  safest  on  the  coast,  and  is 
resorted  to  in  cases  of  danger.  Here  ves- 
sels generally  take  pilots  to  go  up  the 
river  to  Hamburg,  &c.  These  pilots  are 
privileged,  and,  by  their  stamtes,  are  com- 
pelled always  to  keep  a  yacht  out  at  sea, 


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CUXHAVEN-€YCLE. 


near  the  outermost  buoy,  called  the  red 
hucnfy  with  men  ready  to  conduct  any 
vessel  which  may  demand  assistance. 
These  pilots  very  often  go  as  far  as  the 
channel,  and  even  through  it,  to  meet 
vessels.  From  this  village,  there  is  a  reg- 
ular packet  line,  maintained  by  the  Eng- 
lish government,  to  Harwich.  Here  is 
also  a  quarantine,  where  vessels  are  often 
subjected  to  much  unnecessaiy  delay  ; 
sent  to  Norway,  for  instance,  to  take  an 
airing,  when  they  are  bound  to  Hamburg. 
A  bathing-house  has  been  established  here, 
with  many  other  improvements,  by  the  sen- 
ator Abendroth.  In  the  middle  ages,  a 
fiunily  named  Lappen  were  in  the  habit 
of  sailing  ftom  this  place  for  the  commis- 
sion of  piracy.  Hamburg  con^ered  it  in 
the  14tli  century.  With  this  city,  it  came 
under  the  French  dominion,  and,  in  1814, 
was  again  declared  a  province  of  Ham- 
bui^.  The  whole  bailiwick  of  R(itzeb(it- 
tel  is  subject  to,  not  a  component  part  of^ 
Hamburg. 

City  ABA,  or  Jesus  de  Cuyaba  ;  a  town 
of  Brazil,  capital  of  M atto  Grosso,  on  the 
river  Cuyaba,  nearly  300  miles  above  its 
entrance  into  the  Paraguay ;  280  miles  W. 
Villa  Rica  ;  population,  30,000.  In  the 
neighborhood  of  this  town  are  the  most 
western  mining  stations  in  Brazil,  long 
celebrated  for  the  quantity  of  gold  they 
produce.  The  town  is  well  provided  with 
meat,  fruits  and  vegetables,  and  the  sur- 
rounding countiT  is  fruitful. 
Ctanooen.  (See  Pruasic  Acid,\ 
Ctbele  was  originally  a  particular  god- 
dess of  the  Phrygians,  like  Isis,  the  sym- 
bol of  the  moon,  and,  what  is  nearly  con- 
nected with  this,  of  the  fruitfulness  of  the 
earth ;  for  which  reason  she  is  confounded 
with  Rhea,  whose  worship  originated  in 
Crete,  and  in  whom  personified  nature 
was  revered.  When  the  worship  of  Cy- 
bele  was  introduced  among  the  Greeks, 
the  goddess  was  already  surrounded  with 
a  cloud  of  mythological  traditions.  Ac- 
cording to  Diodorus,  Cybele  was  the 
daughter  of  the  Phrygian  king  Mseon,  and 
his  wife  Dindyma.  At  her  birth,  her 
father,  vexed  that  the  child  was  not  a  boy, 
exposed  her  upon  mount  Cybelus,  where 
she  was  nursed  by  lions  and  panthers,  and 
afterwards  found  and  brought  up  by  the 
wives  of  the  herdsmen.  She  invented 
fifes  and  drums,  with  which  she  cured 
the  diseases  of  beasts  and  children,  be- 
caipe  intimate  with  Marsyas,  and  fell  vio- 
lently in  love  with  Atys.  (See  Aiys.)  She 
was  afterwards  recognised  and  received 
byther  parents.  Her  father,  discovering 
lieriorB  for  Atys,  had  him  seized  and  ex- 


ecuted, and  left  his  body  unburied.  The 
grief  of  Cybele,  on  this  occasion,  deranged 
her  understanding.  She  wandered  about, 
in  search  of  Atys,  with  dishevelled  hair, 
escorted)  by  the  sound  of  the  drums  and 
fifes  which  she  had  invented,  through 
various  countries,  even  to  the  Hyperbore- 
ans, the  most  distant  inhabitants  of  the 
North.  During  her  absence,  a  famine 
arose  in  Phrygia,  which  did  not  cease 
until  divine  honors  were  paid  to  Cybele, 
by  the  command  of  the  oracle,  and  the 
statue  of  Atys  interred,  as  his  body  could 
not  be  found.  Some  traditions  sav  that 
Atya»  in  a  fit  of  insanity,  emasculatecf  him- 
self. Other  traditions  give  a  different 
account  of  the  cause  of  his  misfortune. 
In  memory  of  him,  the  priests  of  Cybele 
were  eunuchs.  Her  worship  was  cele- 
brated with  a  violent  noise  of  instruments, 
and  rambling  tlirough  fields  and  woods. 
In  Crete,  she  was  confounded  with  Rhea. 
She  was  also  blended  with  the  old  Latin 
goddess  Ops.  Hex  original  statue  was 
nothing  but  a  dark,  quadrangular  stone. 
Afterwards  she  was  represented  as  a 
matron,  with  a  mural  crown  on  her  head, 
in  reference  to  the  improved  condition  of 
men,  arising  firom  agriculture,  and  their 
union  into  cities.  A  common  attribute  of 
the  goddess  is  the  veil  about  her  head, 
which  refers  to  the  mysterious  and  incom- 
prehensible in  nature.  In  her  right  hand 
she  often  holds  a  stafiT,  as  an  einblem  of 
her  power,  and,  in  her  left,  a  Phrygian 
drum.  Sometimes  a  iew  ears  of  com 
stand  near  her.  The  sun,  also,  is  some- 
times represented  in  her  right  hand,  and 
the  crescent  of  the  moon  in  her  left  We 
sometimes  see  her  in  a  chariot,  drawn  by 
lions ;  or  else  she  sits  upon  a  lion,  and,  as 
omnipotent  nature,  she  holds  a  thunder- 
bolt ;  or  a  lion  lies  near  her.  (See  Atc^ 
Uanifu)  These  symbols  are  all  representa- 
tions of  her  dominion,  and  of  the  intro- 
duction of  civilization,  by  her  means,  ju 
the  period  of  barbarism. 

CrcLADES,  in  ancient  eeography ;  a 
group  of  islands  in  the  Archipelago,  S.  £. 
of  EubcBa  and  Attica,  inhabited  mosdy  by 
Greeka  Nearly  in  the  middle  lies  the 
largest  island,  Naxos.  (q.  v.)  The  most 
southerly  is  Melos.  (q.  v.)  Paros  (q.  v.) 
also  is  one  of  tliis  fertile  and  charming 
group. 

Cycle  (Greek  kvicXo;,  a  drdt)  is  used 
for  every  uniformly  returning  succession 
of  the  same  events.  On  such  successions 
or  cycles  of  years  rests  all  chronology, 
particularly  the  calendar.  Our  common 
solar  year,  determined  by  the  periodical 
return  of  the  sun  to  the  same  point  in  the 


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ecliptic,  eveiy  body  knows,  contains  52 
weeks  and  1  day,  and  leap-year  a  day 
more.  Consequently,  in  different  years, 
the  same  day  of  the  year  cannot  fall  upon 
the  same  day  of  the  week ;  but,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, the  year  1814  began  with  Saturday, 
1815  with  Sunday,  1816  with  Monday; 
but  1817,  because  preceded  by  a  leap- 
year,  began,  not  with  Tuesday,  but  with 
Wedne^y.  If  we  count  only  common 
years,  it  is  manifest  that,  from  seven  Years 
to  seven  years,  every  year  would  begin 
again  with  the  same  day  of  the  week  as 
tlie  seventh  year  before ;  or,  to  express  the 
same  in  other  words,  after  seven  years, 
the  dominical  letter  (q.  v.)  would  return 
in  the  same  order.  But  as  every  fourth 
year,  instead  of  a  common  year,  is  a  leap- 
year,  this  can  only  take  i)lace  after  4X7, 
or  28  years.  Such  a  period  c^28  years  is 
called  a  solar  cycle,  and  serves  to  show 
the  day  of  tlie  week  falling  on  the  first  day 
of  January  in  every  year.  For  this  pur- 
pose, it  is  only  requisite  to  know,  with 
what  day  of  the  week  a  particular  year 
began,  and  then  to  prepare  a  table  fi)r  tbe 
first  days  of  tb«  27  mllowing  years,  Jt  is 
the  custom  now  to  fix  the  beginning  of 
the  solar  cycle  at  the  ninth  year  B.  C, 
which  was  a  leap-year,  and  began  with 
Monday.  If  you  wish  to  know  what  day 
of  the  week  the  new-year's  day  of  any 
year  of  our  reckoning  is,  you  have  only  to 
add  nine  to  the  number  of  the  year,  and 
then,  after  dividing  this  sum  by  28,  the 
quotient  gives,  of  course,  the  number  of 
complete  cycles,  and  the  remainder  shows 
what  year  of  the  solar  period  tbe  given 
year  is,  of  which  the  table  above-mention- 
ed gives  the  day  of  the  week  witii  which 
it  logins.  But  this  reckoning  is  only 
adapted  to  the  Julian  calendar.  In  the 
Gregorian,  it  is  interrupted  by  the  circum- 
stance that,  in  400  years,  the  last  year  of 
the  century  is  three  times  a  common  year. 
Hence  this  reckoning  will  not  give  the 
day  of  the  week  for  the  first  day  of  the 
year ;  but,  from  1582  (the  commencement 
of  the  Gregorian  calendar)  to  1700,  for  the- 
llth,  from  1700  to  1800  for  tiie  12th,  in 
the  19th  century  for  the  13th  day  of  the 
year,  and  so  on,  fixHn  which  we  must  then 
reckon  back  to  the  new-year's  day.  Hence 
it  is  far  more  convenient  to  prepare  a 
table  for  the  bennning  of  a  century  (for 
xample,  for  1801,  which 'began  with 
rhursdayl  and  divide  by  28  the  number 
of  years  mm  that  to  the  ^ven  year,  and, 
with  the  remainder,  seek  m  the  table  the 
day  of  the  week  for  the  first  day  of  the 
year.  Besides  this,  another  circle  is  neces- 
sary for  the  detttminatioQ  of'^festival  days, 


by  the  aid  of  which  tbe  feast  of  Easter,  by 
which  all  tiie  movable  feasts  are  regulated, 
is  to  be  reckoned.  Easter  depends  on  the 
first  full  moon  after  the  vernal  equinox. 
(See  Calendar,)  The  lunar  cycle  is  a  pe- 
riod of  19  years,  after  which  the  new 
moon  foils  again  on  the  same  day  of  the 
month.  January  2, 1813,  there  was  a  new 
moon ;  January  2, 1832,  there  will  be  a  new 
moon  again.  As  die  time  from  one  new 
moon  to  another,  as  astronomy. teaches,  is 
about  29^  days,  a  table  of  the  new  moons 
for  19  years  may  be  very  easily  prepared. 
It  is  only  necessary  to  observe  that  this 
lunar  cycle  always  begins  with  a  year,  of 
wliich  the  first  new  moon  falls  on  the  first 
of  January,  and  that  this  was  the  case  the 
first  year  B.  C.  Divide  by  19  die  num- 
ber of  the  year  plus  1,  and  the  remainder 
will  show  what  year  in  the  lunar  period 
the  given  year  is.  The  number  of  the 
year  is  called  the  golden  number,  (See 
Calendar,  and  Epad.)  Besides  these  two 
cycles,  which  are  indispensable  for  the 
calculations  of  the  calendar,  there  are 
some  others,  several  of  them  known  by 
the  name  oi  periods,  ^ee  the  accounts 
given  under  the  heads  Calendar  and  Ercu) 
— ^The  Germans  make  much  use  of  the 
word  CydvLS  in  science,  meaning  by  it 
any  series  of  events,  works,  observations, 
&C.,  which  forms  a  whole  in  itself^  and 
reminds  us  of  a  circle ;  thus  they  speak 
of  the  Cuclus  of  works  in  a  certain  science, 
and  Cyaus  of  discoveries  by  a  philosopher, 
&C.,,  wherever  the  series  forms  a  well-con- 
nected whole. 

CrcLtc  Poets.  (See  Greek  LUeratureJ) 
Cycloid  ;  the  line  described  by  a  mov- 
ing wheel.  Imagine  a  circle  which  is 
rolled  perpendicularly  along  a  straight  line, 
till  the  point  first  at  rest  is  brought  to  rest 
again,  afler  an  entire  revolution.  The 
curve,  thus  described  by  this  point,  is  call- 
ed a  cydoidj  because  every  point  in  the 
circumference  of^a  revolvmg  wheel  de- 
scribes a  similar  curve.  The  circle  is  called 
the  genero^ng-  circle ;  the  line  on  which  it 
is  described,  the  base  of  the  cydoid.  The 
length  of  the  cycloid  is  always  four  times 
the  diameter  of  the  generatinir  circle,  and 
its  area  three  times  £e  area  of  this  circle. 
This  line  is  very  important  in  the  higher 
branches  of  mechanics.  Imagine  a  pen- 
dulum suspended  by  a  thread,  in  such  a 
way  that,  in  the  swinging  of  die  pendulum 
between  two  plates,  each  of  which  is  bent 
in  th^  form  or  a  cycloid,  the  thread  rolls 
and  unrolls  itself.  Then  the  longest  vibra- 
tions will  be  performed  in  the  same  time 
as  the  shortest,  producing  an  isochronism, 
and  the  cycloid  is  hence  called  an  iio- 


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CYCLOID— CYMBALS. 


chrone  or  taniockrone.  The  name-  df 
hrachystockrone  has  also  been  given  to  the 
cycloid,  because  it  is  tlie  line  in  which  a 
heavy  body,  falling  in  a  direction  oblique 
to  the  horizon,  would  pass  in  the  ahortest 
time  between  two  ]K>iuts. 

CrcLOPiEDiA.  (See  Encydopadia.) 
CrcLOPEAN  Works,  in  ancient  archi- 
tecture ;  masonry  performed  with  huge 
blocks  of  stone,  much  of  which  is  to  be 
seen  in  Sicily,  said,  by  the  ignorant,  to  be 
the  works  of  an  ancient  and  fabulous 
gigantic  race  of  people ;  as  Stonehenge  is 
said  by  the  country  people  to  have  been 
built  by  the  devil.  Some  of  these  works, 
called  Cyclopeeuij  were  the  walls  of  Argos 
and  Sicyone.  Near  to  Nauplea,  in  Argo- 
lis,  there  were  caverns  which,  according 
to  Strabo,  were  called  Cydopean.  As.ser- 
vants  of  Vulcan,  the  Cyclops  were  cele- 
brated in  mythology  and  fabulous  history 
for  their  marvellous  works.  (See  Cvdops,) 
Cyclops  ;  the  name  of  celebrated  giants 
in  the  mythology  of  Greece.  They  are 
of  two  kinds :  the  former  are  the  sons  of 
Neptune,  and  the  latter  the  sons  of  Ura- 
nus and  6aia  (Heaven  and  Earth).  The 
latter,  tliree  in  number,  Arges,  Brontes, 
Steropes  (Thunder  and  Liglttning),  were 
those  powerful  giants  who  forged  thun- 
derbolts for  Jupiter,  in  the  workshop  of 
Vulcan,  for  which  Apollo  killed  them. 
Wholly  different  from  these  are  the  sons 
of  Neptune,  of  whom  some  enumerate  7 ; 
others,  near  100.  The  most  distinguished 
of  them  is  Polyphemus.  With  him  is 
connected  the  whole  nation  of  the  Cyclops, 
who  are  described  in  the  Odyssey  (ix,  106 
et  seq.)  as  wandering  savages,  uncoutlr 
giants,  without  agriculture  or  civil  union, 
dwelling  in  mountain  caves,  and  support- 
ing themselves  by  the  breeding  of  cattle. 
According  to  Homer,  they  resided  on  the 
west  side  of  Sicily,  near  the  dark  Cim- 
meria.  As  geo^phical  knowledge  in- 
creased, the  region  of  Cimmerian  dark- 
ness was  placed  at  a  greater  distance,  and 
this  nation  was  described  as  dwelling  on 
the  Riphcean  mountains,  rich  in  be£  of 
metal.  The  one-eyed  people,  sometimes 
called  Cydops^  sometimes  •^rimaspians, 
dug  up  the  Ttiphaean  ores,  and  wrouffht 
them,  though  disturbed  by  the  grifhns 
which  watched  the  gold.  From  this  time, 
the  two  classes  of  Cyclops  are  confounded. 
A  part  of  these  Cyclops  forged  Jupiter's 
thunderbolts ;  another  |>art  went  on  an  ad- 
venture to  Grpece,  where  they  left  several 
buildings,  as  monuments  of  Cyclopean 
art.  (O.  Muller  understands,  by  the  Cy- 
clops, whole  nations,  united  under  an  ec- 
clesiastical govemmenL    This  wall-build- 


ing people  might  have  been  humble  peas- 
ants in  the  Pelasgian  plains  of  Argos 
(which  is  esfiecially  called  the  Cydomcm 
region),  tributary  to  the  Achieans.)  When 
men's  acquaintance  with  the  surfiice  of 
the  earth  became  still  more  increased,  the 
fabled  Ripheean  hills  were  carried  still 
farther  into  the  undiscovered  nij?ht  of  the 
North ;  and  here  the  history  of  the  one- 
eyed  nation  is  wrapped  in  confusion.^ 
Some  authors  place  them  still  on  the 
Ripheean  hills  to  the  North :  most  writers, 
however,  treat  tliem  as  dwelling  again  in 
Sicily,  engaged  in  the  service  of  Vulcan, 
but  workmg  under  iEtna,  or  among  the 
flaming  crags  of  the  Lipari  islands.  The 
mountains  emitting  fire  were  their  forces ; 
and  the  roaring  within  them,  the  sound  of 
their  hammers.  How  they  acquired  the 
character  of  being  one-eyed  is  unknown, 
as  their  name  only  attributes  to  them 
round  eyesi  Polyphemus,  in  many  fig- 
wres,  is  represented  vrith  two  eyes. 
Among  the  Greek  |>astoral  poets,  we  find 
the  Cyclops  exhibited  in  a  rustic  and 
natural  character. — Cydo^s  is  likewise  a 
nama  which  zoologists  give  to  a  certain 
minute  aquatic  animal. 

Ctder.    (See  Cider,) 

Cylinder  ;  the  name  of  a  geometrical 
solid,  formed  by  twa  parallel  circular  sur- 
faces, called  the  superior  base  and  the  in- 
ferior base,  and  a  convex  surface  terminat- 
ed by  them.  There  is  a  distinction  be> 
tween  rectangular  cylinders  and  oblique 
cylinders.  In  the  first  case,  the  axis,  tnat 
is,  the  straight  line  joining  the  centre  of 
the  two  opposite  bases,  must  be  perpen- 
dicular; in  the  second,  the  axis  must 
form  an  angle  with  the  inferior  base.  Tlie 
solidity  of  a  cylinder  is  equal  to  the  pro- 
duct of  the  base  by  the  altitude.  Aitdii- 
medes  found  that  tne  solidity  of  a  sphere 
inscribed  in  an  equilateral  cytinder,  that 
is,  of  a  sphere  whose  diameter  is  equal  to 
the  heieht,  and  also  to  the  diameter  of  the 
base  of  the  cylinder,  is  equal  to  two 
thirds  of  the  soUdity  of  the  cylinder.  The 
cylinder  is  one  of  those  figures  which  are 
constantly  in  use  for  the  most  various  pur- 
poses. 

Cylinder  Glass*    (See  Glass). 

Cymbals,  among  the  ancients ;  musical 
instruments  consisting  of  two  hollow  ba- 
sins of  brass,  which  emitted  a  ringing 
sound  when  sljuck  together.  The  brazen 
instruments  which  are  now  used  in  mili- 
tary music,  and  have  been  borrowed  by 
Europeans  from  the  East,  seem  to  have 
taken  their  rise  from  these.  The  inven- 
tion of  them,  according  to  some  writers, 
must  be  referred  to  the  worship  of  C^bele. 


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CYNICS-CYPRIANS. 


Ctnics.  After  the  Greeks  had  explored, 
with  unparalleled  rapidity,  all  the  regions 
of  philosophy,  and  sects  of  the  most  va- 
lious  kinds  had  formed  themselves,  it  was 
not  unnatural  that  a  school  should  arise 
which  condemned  speculation,  and  de- 
voted itself  to  the  moral  reformation  of 
society.  The  Cynics  were  founded  hy 
Antisthenes,  a  scholar  of  Socrates,  at 
Athens,  about  380  B.  C.  The  character 
of  this  philosophy  lor  the  most  part  re- 
mained true  to  the  Socratic,  particularly 
in  making  practical  morals  its  chief,  or 
rather  its  omy  object,  and  in  despising  all 
speculation.  There  were  some  noble  fea- 
tures in  the  doctrines  of  the  Cynics.  They 
made  virtue  to  consist  in  self-denial  and 
independence  of  external  circunistances, 
b^  which,  asthev  thought,  man  assimilates 
hunaelf  to  God.  This  simplicity  of  life, 
however,  was  soon,  carried  so  fiir  by  the 
Cynics,  that  it  degenerated  into  careless- 
ness, and  even  neslect  of  decency.  In 
their  attempts  at  uving  conformably  to 
nature,  they  brought  themselves  down  to 
the  level  of  savages,  and  even  of  brutes. 
No  wonder,  then,  that  the  Cynics  soon 
became  objects  of  contempt.  The  most 
famous  of  their  number  were,  besides 
their  founder,  the  ingenious  zealot  IMoffe- 
nes  of  Sinope,  Crates  of  Thebes,  with  his 
wife  Hipparchia,  and  Menippus,  who  was 
the  last  of  them.  Aiier  him,  this  philoso- 
phy merged  in  the  Stoic,  a  more  worthy 
and  honorable  sect — ^The  word  cynicism 
is  s^U  used  to  mark  an  uncommon  con- 
tempt or  neglect  of  all  external  things. 

Ctnosura;  a  nymph  of  mount  Ida, 
who  educated  Jupiter,  and  was  afterwards 
placed  in  the  constellation  of  the  Litde 
Bear.  By  this  star,  the  Phcsnicians  direct- 
ed their  couzse  in  their  voyages. — Cyno- 
narc,  in  a  figurative  sense,  is  hence  used  as 
synonymous  with  paUstar,  or  guide. 

Ctnthius  ;  a  surname  of  Apollo,  from 
mount  Cynthua^  on  the  island  of  Delos, 
at  the  foot  of  which  he  had  a  temple, 
and  on  which  he  was  bom.  Diana,  his 
sister,  is  called  Cynthia,  from  the  same 
mountain,  because  it  was  also  her  birth- 
place. 

CrpHESS.  The  cypress-tree  (cvprtssua 
sempervirens)  is  a  dark-colored  eveiigreen, 
a  native  of  the  Levant,  the  leaves  of  which 
are  extremely  small,  and  entirely  cover 
the  dender  branches,  lying  close  upon 
them,  so  as  to  give  them  a  somewhat 
quadrangular  shape.  In  some  of  the 
trees,  tlie  branches  diminish  gradually  in 
length,  from  the  bottom  to  the  top,  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  form  a  neariy  pyramidal 
In  many  of  the  old  gardens  in 


Europe,  cypress-trees  are  stil!  to  be  found ; 
but  their  generally  sombre  and  gloomy 
appearance  has  caused  them,  of  late  years, 
to  be  much  neglected.  They  are,  how- 
ever, very  valuable,  on  account  of  tlieir 
wood,  which  is  hard,  compact  and  dura- 
ble, of  a  pale  or  reddish  color,  with  deep 
veins  and  a  pleasant  smell.  We  are  in- 
fonned  by  Pliny,  that  the  doors  of  th« 
famous  temple  of  Diana,  at  Ephesus, 
were  of  cypress-wood,  and,  though  400 
yeais  old  at  the  time  that  he  wrote,  ap- 
peared to  be  neariy  as  fresh  as  when  new. 
Indeed,  this  wood  was  so  much  esteemed 
by  the  ancients,  that  the  image  of  Jupiter, 
in  the  capitol,  was  made  of  it  The 
gates  of  St  Peter's  church,  at  Rome,  are 
stated  to  have  been  of  cypress,  and  to 
have  lasted  more  than  1000  years,  fit>m 
the  time  of  the  emperor  Constaatine  until 
that  of  pope  Eugenius  IV,  when  gates  of 
brass  were  erected  in  their  stead.  As  this 
wood,  in  addition  to  its  other  Qualities, 
takes  a  fine  polish,  and  is  not  liable  to  the 
attacks  of  insects,  it  was  formerly  much 
esteemed  for  cabinet  furniture.  By  the 
Greeks,  in  the  time  of  Thucydides,  it  was 
used  for  the  coffins  of  eminent  warriore ; 
and  many  of  the  chests  which  enclose 
Egyptian  mummies  are  made  of  it  The 
latter  afford  very  decisive  proof  of  its 
almost  incorruptible  nature.  The  name 
of  this  tree  is  derived  from  the  island 
of  Cvprus,  in  the  Mediterranean,  where 
it  still  grows  in  Kreat  luxuriance.  Its 
eloomy  hue  caused  it  to  be  consecrated, 
by  the  ancients,  to  Pluto,  and  to  be  used 
at  the  funerals  of  people  of  eminence. 
Pliny  states  tliat,  in  his  time,  it  was  cus- 
tomary to  place  branches  of  cypress-tree 
before  those  houses  in  which  any  person 
lay  dead.  Its  perpetual  verdure  served 
the  poets  as  the  image  of  eternity,  as  its 
dark  and  silent  leaf,  unmoved  by  gehde 
breezes,  is,  perhaps,  a  proper  symbol  of 
melancholy.  Large  collections  of  cypress- 
es, as  they  are  often  seen  surrounding 
Turkish  minarets,  have  a  gloomy  and  in- 
teresting ap|)earance.  In  the  western 
parts  of  the  U.  States,  upon  the  Mississip- 
pi and  other  rivers,  the  cypress  consdtutes 
lar^  forests  of  a  most  sombre  and  pe- 
culiar character.  The  dark,  dense  na- 
ture of  their  foliage,  the  shad^  impenetra- 
ble to  the  sun,  which  they  form,  render 
them  the  fit  abode  of  wild  beasts  and 
reptiles,  and  almost  inaccessible  to  man. 
They  cover  tracts  hundreds  of  miles  in 
extent,  and  are  visited  only  by  the  travel- 
ler and  the  wood-cutter. 

CrpRiANS ;  a  term  used  for  courtesans, 
like  that  of  Corinthians  (q.  v.),  because 


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9i 


CYPRIANS-ST.  CYR 


Venufl,  the  Cyprian  goddess,  was  particu- 
larly worabipped  on  the  island  of  Cy- 
prus. 

CrpRiAir,  St,  bom  A.  D.  200,  at  Car- 
thage, was  descended  from  a  respectable 
fanuiy,  and  was  a  teacher  of  rhetoric 
there.  In  246,  he  was  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity, distributed  his  property  among  the 
poor,  and  hved  in  the  greatest  abstinence. 
The  church,  in  Carthaee,  soon  chose  him 
presbyter,  and,  in  248,  he  was  made  bish- 
op. He  was  the  light  of  the  cler^,  and 
the  comfort  of  the  people.  Dunng  the 
persecution  under  the  emperor  Decius,  he 
fled,  but  constantly  exhorted  his  church 
to  continue  firm  in  the  Christian  faith. 
In  251,  he  summoned  a  council,  at  Car- 
thage, to  decide  concerning  those  who 
had  abandoned  their  faith  during  the  per- 
secution, but  desired  to  be  readmitted 
through  penance.  When  the  persecution 
of  the  Christians  was  renewed,  A.  D.  257, 
he  was  banished  to  Curubis,  12  leagues 
from  Carthage.  Sept  14,  258,  he  was 
beheaded,  at  Carthage,  because,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  orders  of  the  government,  he 
had  preaehed  the  gospel  in  his  gardens, 
near  Carthage.  Lactantius  calls  him 
one  of  the  first  eloquent  Christian  authors. 
His  style,  however,  retained  something  of 
the  hardness  of  his  teacher,  Tertulhan. 
We  have  from  him  an  explanation  of  the 
Lord^  pmver,  and  81  letters,  affordm^ 
valuable  illustrations  of  the  ecclesiastics 
history  of  his  time.  Baluze  published  his 
works  complete  (Paris,  1726,  fol.). 

Cypris  (Cifpria);  a  surname  of  Venus, 
from  the  island  of  Cyprus,  where  was  her 
first  temple. 

Cyprus;  an  island  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean, between  Asia  Minor  and  Syria,  fii- 
mous,  in  antiquity,  for  its  uncommon  fer- 
tility and  its  mild  chmate.  It  contains- 
7264  square  miles,  and  120,000  inhabi- 
tants, of  whom  40,000  are  Greeks.  Cy- 
prus is  the  native  place  of  the  cauliflow- 
er. Wine,  oil,  honey,  wool,  &c.,  are  still, 
as  formerly,  the  principal  productions. 
The  country  is  distinguished  by  re- 
markable places  and  mountains;  as  Pa- 
phos,  Amathusia,  Salamis  and  Olympus, 
once  adorned  with  a  rich  temple  of  Venus. ' 
Venus  was  particularly  venerated  here, 
because,  according  to  tradition,  the  de- 
lightful shores  of  Cyprus  received  her 
when  she  emerged  fh>m  the  foam  of  the 
sea.  The  oldest  history  of  this  island  is 
lost  in  the  darkness  of  antiquity.  When 
Amasis  brought  it  under  the  Egyptian 
yoke,  550  B.  C,  Ionian  and  Phoenician 
'  colonists  had  formed  several  small  states 
in  the  island.    It  remained  an  Egyptian 


province  till  58  B.  C,  when  it  was  con- 
quered by  the  Romans.  After  the  division 
of  the  Roman  territories,  Cyprus  continu- 
ed subject  to  the  Eastern  empire,  and  was 
ruled  by  its  own  governors  of  ro^al  blood, 
of  whom  Comnenus  I  made  himself  in- 
dependent, and  his  fimiily  sat  upon  the 
tlirone  till  1191,  whra  Richard  of  England 
rewarded  the  family  of  Lusignan  wiui  the 
sceptre.  After  the  extinction  of  the  le^d- 
mate  male  line  of  Lusignan,  James^  an  ille- 
gitimate descendant,  came  to  the  govern- 
ment His  wifb  was  a  Venetian  (Catha- 
rine Comaro,  q.  v.),  and,  as  she  had  no 
children  at  his  death,  the  Venetians  took 
advantage  of  tliis  circumstance  to  make 
themselves  masters  of  the  island  (1473). 
They  enjoyed  tlie  undisturbed  possession 
of  it  till  1571,  when  Amurath  III,  not- 
^vithstanding  the  bravest  resistance  on  the 
part  of  Marco  Antonio  Bragadino,  who 
defended  Famagusta  1 1  months,  conquer- 
ed Cyprus,  and  joined  it  to  the  empire  of 
Turkey.  Nicosia,  the  chief  city,  is  the 
seat  of  the  Turkish  governor,  a  Greek 
archbishop  and  an  Armenian  bishop. 
The  wines  of  Cyprus  are  red  when  they 
first  come  from  the  press ;  but  after  five 
or  six  years,  they  grow  pale.  Only  the 
Muscatel  wine  is  white  at  first ;  and  even 
this,  as  it  grows  okler,  becomes  redder, 
till,  after  a  tew  years,  it  attains  the  thick- 
ness of  sirup.  It  is  very  sweet  The 
wines  of  Cyprus  are  not  equally  agreeable 
at  all  seasons  of  the  year :  they  are  best 
in  spring  and  sunmier.  Excessive  cold 
injures  them,  and  destroys  their  flavor  and 
color.  They  are  put  up  at  first  in  leather 
ba^  covered  witli  pitch,  whence  they  ac- 
quire a  strong  pitchy  flavor  which  is  sev- 
eral years  in  escaping.  They  are  brought 
to  the  continent  in  casks,  but  cannot  be 
kept  unless  drawn  off  after  some  time  into 
bottles.  The  best  is  distinguished  by  the 
name  of  Cmnmandtry.    (See  Fcmtfj. 

Ctr,  St ;  a  French  villa^  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Seine-and-Oise,one  league 
west  of  Versailles  (population,  1000),  fa- 
mous for  the  seminary  which  Louis  XIV 
founded  here,  at  tlie  perSiiasioii  of  mad- 
anie  Maintenon,  in  168G.  Here  250  noble 
ladies  wero  educated,  free  of  expense, 
until  their  20th  year.  Forty  females  of 
the  order  of  St  Augustine  instructed  the 
scholars.  Madame  Maintenon  gave  all 
her  attention  to  this  establishment  She 
is  buried  at  St  Cyr.  During  the  revo^ 
lution,  this  institution  was  overturned,  and 
a  military  preparatory  school  was  founded 
by  Na|>oleon,  which  survived  his  fall,  and 
educates  300  pupils.  Na|K>leon  estab- 
lished la  maiton  impiriaU  cP^kxmen,  on  in- 


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ST.CYR-CYRIL 


96 


adtiition  similar  to  the  one  at  St  Cyr,  and 
placed  madame  Campan  at  the  head 
of  it 

Cyrenaica  (originally  a  Phosnician  col- 
ony), once  a  powerful  Greek  state  in  the 
noftfa  of  Africa,  west  of  Egypt,  comprising 
five  cities  (Pentapolisl  among  which  was 
Cyrene,  a  Spartan  colony,  is  at  present  a 
vast,  but  unexplored  field  of  antiquities. 
The  ancient  site  of  Cyrene  is  now  called 
Grtmu  or  Ccynn^  in  the  countiy  of  Bar- 
ca,  in  the  dominion  of  TripolL  Till  the 
fifth  century,  Cyrenaica  was  the  seat  of 
the  Giiosdcs.  fq.  v.)  The  antiquities 
there  are  described  by  the  physician  P. 
Delia  Cella,  in  his  work  Viagpo  da  Tri- 
poli di  Barbarie  alU  Drontien  OcciderUali 
ddP  EgiUo,  fatto  nd  1817  (Genoa,  1819, 
8vo.).  J.  R.  Pacho,  who  has  travelled 
over  Africa  since  1819,  made  many  obser- 
vations, likewise,  in  Cyrenaica,  for  which 
he  received  the  geographical  prize  of  3000 
francs,  on  his  return  to  Paris,  in  1826. 
( Voyage  de  ML  Padu>  dans  la  Cyrenciique,) 
Of  the  famous  inscription  found  among 
the  ruins  of  Cyrene,  and  brought  to  Malta, 
some  account  has  been  given  by  Gesenius 
(Halle,  1825,  4to.),  and  Hamacker,  pro- 
fessor at  Leyden  (Leyden,  1825,  4to.). 
At  present,  the  country  is  called,  by  the 
Arabians,  Bjebd  Mhdaar^  or  Grun  nishr 
land.  Surrounded  by  sterile  and  dry 
countries,  Cyrenaica  itself  is  very  fertile 
and  well  watered.  Its  hills  are  covered 
with  wood,  and  exhibit  many  melancholy 
traces  of  former  cultivation.  In  ancient 
times,  the  inhabitants  suffered  much  from 
the  attacks  of  the  people  of  the  interior 
and  the  Carthaginians.  The  ruins  of  Cy- 
rene have  given  rise  among  the  present 
inhabitants,  to  a  belief  in  a  petrified  city. 
There  are  at  present  about  40,000  people 
in  Djebel  Akhdar. 

Ctrenaics  ,*  a  philosophical  sect,  whose 
founder  was  Aristippus  (q.  v.),  bom  in 
Cyrene,  a  pupil  of  Socrates.  (See  Aris- 
imw.)  The  most  distinguished  of  his 
followers  were  Hegesias,  i^niceris,  Theo- 
dore the  Atheist,  who,  for  his  denial  of 
the  existence  of  virtue  and  the  Deity,  was 
banished  fix>m  Athens. 
Ctrens.  (See  CyrencAca.) 
Ctril.  Ecclesiastical  history  mentions 
three  saints  of  this  name : — 1.  Cyril  of  Je- 
rusalem, bom  there  about  the  year  315, 
was  ortlained  presbyter  in  345,  and,  afler 
the  death  of  St  Maximus,  in  350,  became 
patriarch  of  Jerusalem.  Being  a  zealous 
Catliolic,  he  engaged  in  a  warm  contro- 
versy with  Acacius,  the  Arian  bishop  of 
Ceenirea.  In  addition  to  their  dispute 
upon  doctrinal  points,  Acacius  accused 


him  of  having  sold  some  valuable  church 
ornaments,  which  he  had  indeed  done, 
but  for  the  laudable  purpose  of  supporting 
the  needy  during  a  famine.  A  councu 
assembled  at  Csesarea,  by  Acacius,  in  357, 
deposed  Cyril ;  but  the  council  of  Seleueia, 
in  359,  restored  him  and  deposed  his  per- 
secutor. Acacius,  by  his  artifices,  suc- 
ceeded in  depriving  him  again  of  his  dig- 
nity the  next  year,  and,  afler  the  emperor 
Constantius,  on  his  accession  to  the  throne, 
had  once  more  recalled  him,  he  was  a 
third  time  deposed  by  the  emperor  Valens, 
afler  whose  death  he  finally  returned  to 
Jerusalem.  In  381,  the  council  of  Con- 
stantinople confirmed  him.  He  died  in 
386.  We  have  23  catecheses  composed 
by  him,  in  a  clear  and  simple  style,  which 
are  esteemed  the  oldest  and  liest  outiine 
of  the  Christian  dogmas  (Paris,  1720,  folio.) 
— 2.  Cyril  of  Alexandria  was  educated  by 
his  uncle  Theophilus,  patriarch  of  Alex- 
andria ;  spent  five  years  in  the  monaste- 
ries of  Nitria,  where  he  was  instructed  by 
die  abbot  Serapion.  He  then  went  to 
Alexandria,  where  his  graceful  form  and 
pleasing  delivery  gained  him  so  many 
adherents,  that,  afler  his  uncle's  death,  in 
4.12,  he  succeeded  him  in  the  patriarohal 
dignity.  Full  of  zeal  and  ambition,  he 
was  not  satisfied  witii  ecclesiastical  honor 
alone,  but  exeroised  secular  dominion  alsa 
To  punish  the  Jews,  by  whom  Christian 
blood  had  been  shed,  during  an  insurrec- 
tion, he  assailed  them,  at  tlie  head  of  the 
]K)pulace,  destroyed  their  houses  and  their 
furniture,  and  drove  tbcm  out  of  the  city. 
Orestes,  the  prefect  of  Egypt,  who  com- 
plained of  such  lawless  violence,  so  incon- 
sistent with  the  character  of  a  bishop,  was 
soon  afler  attacked  in  die  streets  by  500 
furious  monks,  one  of  whom,  having 
wounded  Orestes,  was  apprehended,  con- 
demned to  death,  and  expired  under  the 
blows  of  the  Uctors.  Cyril  caused  his 
body  to  be  carried  in  a  solemn  procession 
to  tne  cathedral,  gave  him  the  name  of 
Thaumaaiu3f  and  extolled  him  as  a  mai^ 
tyr  and  a  saint  The  assassination  of 
Hypatia,  the  leamed  daughter  of  Theon, 
the  mathematician,  who  had  excited  the 
envy  of  Cyril,  by  the  applause  which  slie 
had  gained  by  her  knowledge  of  geome- 
try and  philosophy,  took  place  at  his  insti- 
gation. In  the  notorious  synod  of  403,  in 
concuirence  with  his  uncle,  he  had  plan- 
ned the  condenmation  of  St  Chrysostom, 
and  it  was  only  afler  an  obstinate  resist- 
ance, tiiat  he  was  persuaded  to  submit  to 
the  decrees  of  the  Catholic  church,  in 
respect  to  that  prelate.  Still  more  fierce 
were  his  disputes  with  Nestorius,  the  sue 


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CYRII^-CYRUS. 


cessor  of  Chiysostom,  who  disdnguiBfaed 
between  the  divine  and  human  nature  of 
Christ,  acknowledging  Maiy  as  the  mother 
of  Christ,  but  refusmg  to  her  the  appellation 
of  mother  of  God,  Cyril  contended  long 
and  violently  against  these  doctrines,  and 
appointed  pope  Celestine  umpire,  who 
immediately  condemned  them.  He  drew 
up  12  anathemas,  directed  against  John, 
patriarch  of  Antioch,  which,  in  the  opin- 
ion even  of  theologians,  are  not  wholly 
fiiee  from  heresy,  and  called  upon  Nesto- 
rius  to  subscribe  them.  To  settle  the  dis- 
pute between  these  two  prelates,  the  coun- 
cil of  Ephesus  was  summoned.  Both 
pardes  appeared  with  a  great  number  of 
adherents  and  servants,  between  whom 
innumerable  disputes  arose.  Cyril  opened 
the  council  before  the  arrival  of  tlie  patri- 
arch of  Antioch ;  and,  although  Nestorius 
refused  to  recognise  his  enemies  as  judges ; 
although  68  bishops  were  in  his  &vor,  and 
a  magistrate,  in  the  name  of  the  emperor, 
demanded  a  delay  of  four  days;  yet,  in  a 
single  day,  Nestorius  was  condemned, 
.  deposed,  and  declared  to  be  a  second  Ju- 
das. Soon  after,  the  patriarch  of  Antioch 
arrived,  and  held  a  fiynod  of  50  bisliops, 
who,  with  equal  haste,  condemned  Cyril 
as  guilty  of  heresy,  and  declared  him  a 
monster  born  for  the  ruin  of  the  church. 
Both  parties  rush^  to  arms :  the  streets 
of  the  city,  and  the  cathedral  itself,  became 
the  theatre  of  their  fury,  and  were  polluted 
with  blood.  The  emperor  Theodosius 
sent  troops  to  Ephesus,  to  disperse  this 
pugnacious  council.  This  measure,  how- 
ever, only  changed  the  theatre  of  the  war; 
for  it  was  continued  three  years  longer, 
between  John  of  Antioch  and  Cyril. 
Soon  after,  Nestorius,  not  less  violent  than 
C3rril,  obtained  from  the  emperor  a  com- 
mand for  Cyril  to  appear  again  before  a 
council  at  Ephesus.  Both  parties  appear- 
ed, with  their  adherents,  in  arms.  Cyril 
was  maltreated,  and  even  imprisoned.  He 
escaped  from  his  keepers,  however,  and 
fled  to  Alexandria.  From  that  place,  he 
contrived,  by  distributing  bribes,  to  excite 
an  insuraection  in  Constantinople,  which 
stnick  terror  into  the  timid  emperor.  Ne- 
gotiations were  begun :  Cyril  was  prevail- 
ed upon  to  mitigate  his  anathema^  and, 
against  his  will,  to  acknowledge  a  two- 
fold nature  in  Christ.  But  Nestorius,  as 
he  was  determined  never  to  renounce  his 
opinions,  was  compelled  to  lay  down  bis 
offices,  and  to  retire  to  a  monastery.  He 
was  afterwards  banished  to  Thebais.  In 
839  or  340,  he  died.  Cyril  closed  his 
restless  career  in  344.  His  opinions  pre- 
vailed both  in  tlie  Eastern  and  Western 


empire,  and  the  church  gave  him  a  p<ace 
among  the  saints.  The  best  edition  «of 
his  wortei,  in  which  there  is  neither  clear- 
ness nor  accuracy  of  style,  is  that  of  1638, 
in  folioi — 3.  St.  C^l,  a  native  of  Thessa- 
lonica,  b^  way  of*^  distinction,  was  called 
ConsUmtviity  and,  at  Constantinople,  where 
he  studied,  received  the  name  of  tlie  Phir 
losopher.  At  the  recommendation  of  St 
Ignatius,  the  emperor  Michael  III  sent 
bim  to  the  Chazars— ^  people  of  the  stock 
of  the  Huns.  He  conv^ted  the  khan, 
after  whose  example  the  whole  nation 
were  baptized.  He  then  preached  the 
gospel,  with  Methodius,  to  the  Bulgari- 
ans, and  baptized  then  king  Bojaris,  A.  D. 
860.  They  had  the  same  success  in  Mo- 
ravia and  Bohemia.  Still  later,  they  went 
to  Rome,  where  they  both  died.  Accord- 
ing to  Dohrowskv,  Cjrril  died  in  868 :  ac- 
cording to  Xav.  iUchter,  he  died  in  871  or 
872.  The  two  apostles  were  both  declar- 
ed saints.  The  Greeks  and  Russians  cele- 
brate the  festival  of  St.  Cyril  on  Feb.  14. 
He  was  the  inventor  of  the  Cyrillian 
Letters  (q.  v.),  which  took  their  name  fix)m 
him,  and  is  probably  the  author  of  the 
Apologies  which  bear  his  name. 

Ctrillian  Letters  ;  characters  called, 
In  Sclavonic,  Czuraliza;  one  of  the  modes 
of  vniting  the  Scjavonic  language,  of 
which  tliere  are  three : — 1.  Roman  or  Ger- 
man letters,  used  by  the  people  of  Poland, 
Bohemia  and  Lusatia ;  2.  CmUianj  so 
caUed  from  their  inventor,  Cy  rill  us.  They 
are  much  used  by  the  Russians.  3.  From 
these  Cyrillian  characters,  probably 
through  the  artifices  of  calligraphy,  a  pe- 
culiar alphabet  was  formed,  which  is 
sometimes  used  in  printed  books,  but  no 
where  in  common  life. 

Ctrus  ;  a  celebrated  conqueror.  The 
only  two  original  authorities  concerning 
him — ^Herodotus  and  Xenophon— difier  so 
greatly,  that  they  cannot  be  reconciled. 
According  to  Herodotus,  he  was  the  son 
of  Cambyses,  a  distinguished  Persian,  and 
of  Mandane,  daughter  of  the  Median  king 
Astyages.  He  founded  the  Persian  mon- 
aichy.  (See  ./JMryriflu)  A  short  time  be- 
fore his  birdi,  the  soothsayers  at  the  court 
of  Astyaffes  divined  from  a  dream  of  his, 
that  his  nituro  grandson  was  to  dethrone 
him.  Upon  this,  he  gave  orders  that  Cy- 
rus should  be  destroyed  immediately  after 
his  birth.  For  this  purpose,  he  was  deliv- 
ered to  a  herdsman,  who,  moved  with 
compassion,  brought  him  up,  and  named 
him  Cyrus.  His  courage  and  spirit  be- 
trayed his  descent  to  the  king.  On  ooe 
occasion,  playing  with  other  boys,  being 
chosen  king  by  lii3  companions,  he  caused 


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CYRUS— CZAR. 


97 


the  son  of  one  of  the  fitBt  men  in  the  na- 
tion to  be  beaten.  The  father  of  the  boy 
complained  to  Ast^-ages,  who  reprimanded 
young  Cyrus.  But  he  appeaJed  to  his 
right  as  king  of  his  conipanions,  and 
replied  with  so  much  boldness  and  good 
sense,  diat  Astyages  became  interested  in 
him,  and  instituted  inquiries,  which  led  to 
the  discovery  of  his  birth.  The  majji 
having  succeeded  in  quieting  the  uneasi- 
ness which  the  discovery  occasioned  him, 
he  eent  Cynxs  to  his  parents  in  Persia, 
with  marks  of  his  &vor.  But  the  young 
man  soon  drew  together  a  formidable 
army  of  Persians,  and  conquered  his 
grandfather,  B.  C.  560.  A  similar  fate 
befell  Cnssus,  the  rich  and  powerfiil  king 
of  Lydia,  and  Nabonadius,  king  of  Baby- 
k>n,  whose  capital  he  took,  after  a  sie^ 
of  two  years.  He  also  subdued  Phcenicia 
and  Palestine,  to  which  he  caused  the 
Jews  to  return  from  the  Babylonish  cap- 
tivity. While  Asia,  from  the  Hellespont 
to  the  Indies,  was  under  his  dominion,  he 
engaged  in  an  unjust  war  against  the  Mas- 
sagetse — a  people  of  Scythia,  north-east  of 
the  Caspian  sea,  beyond  the  Amxes,  then 
ruled  by  a  queen  named  Tormfris.  In 
the  fir^t  hattie,  he  conquered  by  stratagem ; 
but,  in  the  second,  he  experienced  a  total 
defeat,  and  was  himself  dain,  B.  C.  529, 
after  a  reifn  of  29  years.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Cambyses.  The  stories 
related  by  Xenophon  (q.  v.),  in  the  Cyro- 
P^dia  ( Accowit  of  the  Life  and  remarkable 
Traits  in  the  Character  of  Cyrus),  that  he 
received  a  splendid  education  at  tiie  court 
of  Astyages,  inherited  his  kingdom,  and 
ruled  like  a  genuine  philosopher,  are 
either  mere  romance,  deserving  not  the 
least  historical  credit  (Xenophon's  design 
being  to  represent  the  model  of  a  king, 
without  regard  to  liistorical  truth,  and,  in 
this  way,  perhaps,  to  exhibit  to  his  coun- 
tiymen  the  advantages  of  a  monarchy),  or 
etee  the  two  accounts  are  founded  on  dif- 
lerent  traditions,  perhaps  of  two  diferent 
persons  named  C]yn«.-»-'Another  Cyrus 
was  the  youngest  son  of  Darius  Nothus,  or 
Ochus,  who  hved  nearly  150  years  later 
than  the  former.    In  the  l6ih  year  of  his 

J 5,  he  obtained  the  supreme  power  over 
tiie  provinces  of  Asia  Minor.  Hisam- 
bitioD  early  displayed  itself;  and  when, 
after  his  father's  death,  his  eldest  brother, 
Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  ascended  the  throne, 
Cyrus  formed  a  conspiracy  against  him, 
which  was,  however,  discovert  before  it 
came  to  maturity.  Instead  of  causing  the 
sentence  of  death  to  be  executed  upon 
him,  his  brother  kindly  released  him,  and 
*nade  him  governor  of  Asia  Minolr.  Here 
▼01*.  IV.  9 


Cyrus  assembled  a  numerous  army,  to 
make  war  upon  Artaxerxes,  and  detiirone 
him.  Among  his  forces  were  13,000 
Greek  auxiliaries,  who  were  ignorant, 
however,  of  the  object  of  the  expedition. 
Being  informed  of  his  brother's  design, 
Artaxerxes  marched  against  him  with  a 
much  larger  army.  In  the  plains  of  Cy- 
naxa,  in  the  province  of  Babylon,  tiie  two 
armies  encountered  each  other.  After  a 
brave  resistance,  especiaUy  on  the  part  of 
the  Greeks,  the  army  of  Cyrus  was  over- 
come, and  he  himself  slain  by  the  hand  of 
Artaxerxes. 

Ctthera  (now  Cerigo ;  population, 
8000),  one  of  the  seven  Ionian  islands,  sep- 
arated by  a  narrow  strait  from  the  south 
shore  of  Laconia,  was  particularly  celebrat- 
ed for  the  worship  of  Venus  Urania,  whose 
temple  in  Cythera,  the  chief  city,  was  the 
oldest  and  most  splendid  of  her  temples  in 
Greece.  The  ancient  Cythera  is  now  de- 
molished, and  exhibits  nothing  but  a  few 
ruins.  On  the  shore  of  this  island,  accord- 
ing to  one  tradition,  Venus  first  ascended 
from  the  sea,  and  took  poss^ession  of  tlje 
land ;  i.  e.,  Phoenician  navigators  here  first 
introduced  the  worship  of  Venus  into 
Greece.  The  island  is  rocky  and  unfruit- 
fhl.  From  tiiis  place,  Venus  has  her 
name  Cythena. 

Czar,  Zar,  or  Zaar;  a  tide  of  the  au- 
tocrat of  Russia.  The  word  is  of  old 
Sclavonic  origin,  and  is  nearly  equivalent 
to  king.  The  emperor  is  called,  in  the 
same  language,  ketsar.  Until  the  16th 
centuiy,  the  rulers  of  tlie  several  Russian 
provinces  were  called  grand-princes  (toe- 
wfci  knaes).  Thus  there  were  grand- 
princes  of^  Wladimir,  Kiev,  Moscow,  &c 
The  grand-prince  Wasilie  first  received, 
in  1505,  the  tide  of  samodersheta,  which  is 
equivalent  to  die  Greek  word  autocrat. 
(q.  V.)  The  son  of  Wasilie,  Ivan  II, 
adopted,  in  1579,  the  title  of  Czar  of 
Moscow,  which  his  descendants  l)ore  for  a 
long  time.  In  1721,  the  senate  and  clergy 
conferred  on  Peter  I,  in  the  name  of  the 
nation,  the  tide  of  emperor  of  Russia,  for 
which,  in  Russia,  the  Latin  word  imperch 
tor  is  used.  Several  European  powers 
declined  to  acknowledge  this  title,  until 
the  middle  of  the  last  century.  The  eld- 
est son  and  presumptive  heir  of  the  czar 
was  called  czareviz  (czar's  son);  but,  with 
the  unfortunate  Alexis,  son  of  Peter  I,  this 
tide  ceased,  and  dll  the  princes  of  the  im- 
perial house  have  been  since  called  grand- 
prinees.  The  emperor  Paul  I  renewed 
the  title  czareviz,  or  czcarewitch,  in  1799,  fbr 
his  second  son,  Constantino,  (q.  v.)  The 
rulers  of  Georgia  and  Imiretta,  now  under 


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96 


CZAR-DACH. 


the  RuflBUUK  sceptre,  called  themselves 
czars, 

CZENSTOCHOW,  OF  CZENSTOCHOWA ;    a 

fortified  roonastery,  belonging  to  tlie  order 
of  St  Paul  the  Hermit,  in  roland,  province 
of  Kalisch,  near  the  Wanha  and  the  fron- 
tiens  of  Silesia.  In  this  fortification,  wrell 
provided  with  artillery,  the  monks  former- 
ly had  their  own  ganison,  and  chose  com- 
mandants from  their  own  nmnber.  In 
the  diet  of  1765,  however,  it  was  deter- 
mined to  occupy  this  place  with  a  secular 


force.  Frequent  pilgrimages  are  made  to 
the  miraculous  image  of  the  Virgin,  in  the 
church  of  the  monasteir.  At  tlie  foot  of 
the  mountain  lies  New  Czenstochow,  with 
a  population  of  1300,  and,  a  few  miles 
di^ant,  Old  Czenstochow,  with  a  popula- 
tion of  1700.  In  1812,  Czenstochow  was 
occupied  by  a  garrison  of  French  soldiers, 
who  were  compelled  to  surrender  to  the 
Russians  in  January,  1813. 

CzERMT  George.    (See  Seroia,) 

CziEKHiTz.    (See  ZirknUz,) 


D. 


mJ  ;  the  fourth  letter  in  our  alphabet,  of 
the  order  of  mutea  (See  Consorumt,)  Ac- 
cording to  M.  Champo]lion's  recent  dis- 
coveries, the  (4  in  the  hieroglyphic  writing 
of  the  old  Egyptians,  corresponding  to  the 
dau  of  the  Copts,  is  a  segment  of  a  circle, 
similar  to  a  O .  The  Greek  delta  was  a 
triangle,  A,  from  which  the  Roman  D 
has  l^en  borrowed.  D,  as  an  initial  letter 
on  medals,  indicates  the  names  of  coun- 
tries, cities  and  persons,  as  Deciu$ ;  also 
the  words  devotus,  degignatus,  divusy  domi- 
nu8,  &c ;  D.  M.,  dits  mambus ;  D.  O.  M., 
Deo  opHmo  maxmo.  The  Greek  A  repre- 
sented the  number  four.  Among  Roman 
numerals,  D  si^ifies  500,  but  was  not 
used  as  a  numerical  designation  until  1500 
years  after  Christ.  The  Romans  desig- 
nated a  thousand  in  this  way, — ^C 1 3.  The 
early  printers,  it  is  said,  thought  it  best  to 
express  500  by  half  the  character  of  1000, 
and  therefore  introduced  13,  which  soon 
grew  into  D.  If  a  line  was  marked  over 
it,  it  signified  5000.  In  inscriptions  and 
manuscripts,  D  is  veiy  often  found  in  tlie 
place  of  JB  and  h\dt8  for  hes,  dacknmuz  for 
lackraiiuB.  In  dedications,  D.,  thrice  re- 
peated, signifies  Doty  Danaty  Dicatj  or  Dot, 
Dicatf  Dedicat.    As  an  abbreviation  of  the 

Srists,  D  signifies  the  pandects  (Dieesta), 
stands  for  dodor  in  M.  D. ;  m  D.  T., 
doctor  of  thujiflgy ;  LL.  D.,  dodor  of  laws, 
&c.  D.,  on  French  coins,  signifies  Lwms  f 
on  Prussian,  Aurich;  on  Austrian,  Uratz, 
In  music,  D  designiOes  the  second  note  in 
the  natural  diatonic  scale  of  C,  to  which 
Guide  applied  the  monosvUable  re. 

Da  Capo  (Bal, ;  frodi  the  bead  or  begin- 
ning) ;  an  expression  written  at  the  end  of 
a  movement,  to  acquaint  the  performer 


that  he  is  to  return  to,  and  end  with,  the 
first  strain.  It  is  also  a  call  or  acclamation 
to  the  singer  or  musician,  in  theatres  or 
concerts,  to  repeat  a  piece  which  he  has 
just  finished — a  request  vexy  often  made 
mercilessly  by  the  public,  vrithout  regard 
to  the  fatigue  caused  by  a  performance. 

Dacca  Jelai,pore;  an  extensive  and 
rich  district  of  Bengal,  situated  principaUj 
between  23^  and  24°  of  N.  lat  It  is 
intersected  by  the  Ganges  and  Brahma- 
pootra, two  of  the  largest  rivers  in  In- 
dia, which,  with  their  various  branches, 
form  a  complete  inland  navigation,  extend- 
ing to  eveiy  part  of  the  countiy ;  so  that, 
eveiy  town  having  its  river  or  canal,  the 
general  mode  of  travelling  or  conveying 
goods  is  by  water. 

Dacca  ;  a  large  city,  capital  of  the  above- 
named  district,  and,  for  80  years,  the  cap- 
ital of  BengoL  It  is  situated  on  the  north- 
ern bonk  of  a  deep  and  broad  river,  called 
tlie  Boor  Gunga  (Old  Granges),  at  the  d^ 
tance  of  100  irAes  fix>m  the  sea.  In  this 
city,  or  its  vicinity,  are  manufactured 
beautiful  musUn%  which  are  exported  to 
every  part  of  the  civilized  world.  It  has 
also  an  extensive  manu&cture  of  shell 
bracelets,  much  worn  by  the  Hindoo 
women.  The  neighborhood  of  the  city 
abounds  with  game  of  all  sorts,  from  the 
tiger  to  the  quail,  and  is,  on  this  account, 
a  great  resort  of  Europeans,  during  die 
three  cold  months.  180  miles  from  Cal- 
cutta by  land;  Ion.  90^  17'  £.;  lot  23^ 
42'N. 

Dach,  Simon,  a  German  poet  of  tho 
17th  centuijr,  bom  at  Memel,  July  29, 
1605,  lived  m  an  humble  condition,  until 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  poetiy  in 


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DACH'-DACIER. 


the  umveraitv  of  K6nig8berg.  He  remain- 
ed in  this  omce  until  his  death,  April  15, 
1659.  His  secular  songs  are  lively  and 
natural.  His  sacred  songs  are  distinguish- 
ed for  deep  and  quiet  feeling. 

Dacia.  The  country  wluch  anciendy 
bore  this  name,  according  to  Ptolemy's 
description,  comprised  the  present  Banat, 
a  part  of  Lower  Hungary,  as  fiir  as  the 
Carpathian  mountains  on  the  west,  Tran- 
sylvania, Moldavia,  Walachia  and  Bessa- 
rabia. Some  include  Bulgaria  and  Servia, 
vrith  Bosnia,  or  tlie  ancient  Upper  and 
Lower  Mcesia.  The  inhabitants  of  this 
country,  called  Daci,  also  Davij  made 
themselves,  for  a  lon^  time,  terrible  to  the 
Romans.  When  Trajan  conquered  Dacia, 
in  the  second  century,  he  divided  it  into, 

1.  Dacid  Biparia  or  Rmenaia  (the  present 
Banat,  and  a  part  of  Hungary),  so  called 
because  it  was  bounded  on  the  west  by 
the  TheisB,  and  on  the  east  bythe  Danube ; 

2.  Dacia  Mediterranea  (now  Transvlvania), 
so  called,  because  it  was  situated  between 
the  two  others ;  and,  3.  Dacia  Tywualpina 
(now  Walachia,  Moldavia  and  Bessarabia), 
or  that  part  of  Dacia  lying  beyond  the 
Carpathian  mountains.  He  governed  each 
of  these  three  provinces  by  a  prefect,  es- 
tablished colonies  in  them,  and  sent  colo- 
nists fixmi  other  parts  of  the  Roman  em- 
}Nie,  to  people  them,  and  supply  cultiva- 
tors of  the  BoiL  When  Constantine  the 
Great  divided  the  Roman  empire  anew, 
Dacia  became  a  pturt  of  the  Ulyrian  pre- 
fecture, and  was  divided  into  five  prov- 
inces or  districts.  Upon  the  fall  of  the 
Roman  empire,  it  was  gradually  overrun 
l^  the  Goths,  Huns,  Gepide  and  Avars. 
Since  that  time,  the  history  of  this  coun- 
try, which  then  lost  the  name  of  Dacia,  is 
to  be  sought  for  in  that  of  the  provinces 
of  which  it  formerly  consisted. 

Dacier,  Andr^,  bom  at  Castres,  in 
Upper  Lan^edoc,  1651,  of  Protestant 
parents,  studied  at  Saumiir,  under  Tanilb- 
guy-Lef^vre,  whose  daughter  Anna  was 
associated  in  his  studies.:  After  the  death 
of  Lefevre,  in  1672,  he  went  to  Paris. 
The  duke  of  Montausier,  to  whom  his 
learning  was  known,  intrusted  him  with 
the  editing  of  Pompeius  Festus  (in  usum 
ddphiaiy  The  intimacy  growing  out  of 
their  mutual  love  of  literature  led  to  a 
marriage  between  him  and  Anna  Lefe- 
vre, in  1683,  and,  two  years  afler,  they 
both  embraced  the  Catholic  religion. 
lliey  received  fit>m  the  king  considerable 
pensions.  In  1695,  Dacier  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  academy  of  inscriptions, 
and  of  the  French  academy:  of  the  latter 
he  was  afterwards  perpetual  secretary. 


The  care  of  the  cabinet  in  the  Louvre  was 
intrusted  to  him.  He  died  in  1722.  Da- 
cier wrote  several  indifierent  translations 
of  the  Greek  and  Latin  authora.  Besides 
the  edition  of  Pompeius  Festus,  and  the 
(Euvres  d'Horace,  en  Latin  et  en  Fran- 
pais,  with  the  ji/ouveaux  Adaireissemens 
svr  ks  Giuvres  d^Horact,  and  tlie  Abuve^Ze 
Traduction  d*Horace,  with  critical  annota- 
tions, he  prepared  an  edition  of  Valerius 
Flaccus,  a  translation  of  Marcus  Antoni- 
nus, of  £pictetus,  of  Aristotle^  Art  of  Po- 
etry, with  annotations,,  of  the  Lives  of 
Plutarch,  of  the  CEklipus  and  Electra  of 
Sophocles,  of  the  works  of  Hippocrates^ 
and  of  several  dialogues  of  Plato. 

Dacier,  Anna  Lefl^vre;  wife  of  the 
preceding;  bom  at  Saumur,  in  1651.  Af- 
ter the  deatli  of  her  learned  father,  who 
had  instructed  her,  and  cultivated  her  tal- 
ents, she  went  to  Paris,  where  she  dis- 
played her  learning  by  an  edition  of  Calli- 
machus  (1675),  which  she  inscribed  to 
Huet,  the  under  tutor  of  the  dauphin. 
The  duke  of  Montausier,  in  consequence, 
intrusted  her  with  the  care  of  several  edi- 
tions of  the  classics  (in  usum  delphini). 
She  first  edited  Florus  (q.  v.),  with  a  com- 
mentary. Her  learned  works  were  not 
interrupted  by  her  marriage.  Her  feeble 
translation  of  Homer  attracted  a  good  deal 
of  attention,  and  led  to  a  dispute  between 
her  and  Lamotte,  in  which  it  appeared 
that  madame  Dacier  understood  much 
less  of  logic,  than  Lamotte  of  the  Greek 
language.  In  her  Considerations  swr  Us 
Causes  de  la  Corruption  du  Chut,  she  de- 
fended Homer  with  the  acuteness  of  a 
profound  commentator,  and  Lamotte  re- 
pUed  with  a  great  deal  oi  wit  and  elegance  $ 
on  wliich  account  it  was  said,  Lamotte 
wrote  like  an  inffenious  woman,  madame 
Dacier  like  a  learned  man.  Lamotte 
introduced  her  to  the  notice  of  queen 
Christina,  who  persuaded  her  to  embrace 
the  Catholic  reheion.  In  her  Homtre  de- 
Jfendu,  she  showed  little  mercy  to  Hardouin, 
who  had  written  a  satirical  eulogy  of  this 
poet.  On  this  occasion,  she  was  said  to 
have  uttered  more  invectives  against  the 
reviler  of  Homer,  than  the  poet  himself 
had  placed  in  the  mouths  of  all  his  heix>es. 
She  translated  Terence,  and  three  pieces 
of  Plautus,  in  the  prologue  of  which  she 
treats  of  the  origin,  the  cultivation  and 
changes  of  dramatic  poetry  with  acuteness. 
Her  translation  of  the  Plutusand  the  Clouds 
of  Aristophanes,  deserves  indulgence,  as 
the  first  translation  of  the  Greek  comic 
poet  Her  translation  of  Anacreon  and 
Sappho,  wiUi  a  defence  of  the  latter,  met 
with  success.   She  flso  wrote  annotations 


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100 


DACBGR— DACTYUOTHECA. 


on  the  Bible,  but  did  not  publish  them. 
Her  life  was  entirely  devoted  to  literaturei 
and  her  domestic  duties.  She  died  in 
]72D.  Equally  estimable  for  her  charac- 
ter and  her  talents,  she  gained  as  many 
admirers  by  her  virtue,  her  constancy  and 
lier  equanimity,  as  by  her  works.  She 
was  chosen  member  of  several  academies, 

Dacttle.    (See  Rhythm.) 

Dacttliotheca  (Greek);  a  collection 
of  engraved  gem&  Tlie  art  of  engraving 
gems  was  no  where  carried  to  greater 
]ierfection  than  in  Greece,  where  they 
were  worn  not  only  in  rings  (from  which 
the  name  of  iaxTtXioi,  ring|,  but  in  seals, 
and  were  much  used  for  otlier  ornamental 
purposes.  The  Romans  were  far  behind 
the  Greeks  in  tliis  art ;  but  tliey  were  tlie 
first  who  made  collections  of  {)recious 
stones.  Scaurus,  the  son-in-law  of  Sylla, 
introduced  the  custom  (Pliny,  Hist  JVerf., 
37,  5).  Pompey  tlic  Great  transferred  the 
collection  of  Mitliridates  to  Rome,  and 
placed  it  in  the  capitol.  A  much  larger 
collection  was  exhibited  by  CsBsar  in  the 
temple  of  Venus  Genitiix,  and,  ailer- 
waids,  under  Augustus,  by  M.  Marcellus, 
in  the  temple  of  Apollo  Palatinus.  In 
modem  times,  the  princes  of  Italy  vied 
with  each  other  in  collecting  these  treas- 
ures of  art  The  family  of  Gonzaga  es- 
tabhshed  the  first  dactylioOieci^  and  was 
followed  by  the  fiunily  of  Este  at  Modena, 
that  of  Famese,  and  by  Lorenzo  de'  Me- 
dici in  Florence.  The  gems  collected  by 
him  are  marked  with  iZr.,  or  Lor,  cEe*  M^ 
or  with  M.  alone.  His  collection  was  di- 
vided and  scattered,  but  the  Medici  estab- 
lished a  new  one,  the  foundation  of  the 
present  D.  Florentina^  the  most  important 
existing,  as  it  contains  about  4000  gems. 
Li  Rome,  collections  of  no  great  value 
were  made  under  Julius  II  and  Leo  X. 
Maria  Piccolomini,  a  Roman  prelate,  had 
the  best  in  that  city ;  and  Lucio  Odescal- 
chi,  afterwards  duke  of  Bragiani,  inherited 
that  of  Christina  queen  of  Sweden.  Rome 
afterwards  received  the  collections  of  the 
Vatican  (formed  more  at  random  than  on 
any  connected  plan),  of  the  Baiberini,  and 
of  the  Strozzi  (containing  some  master- 
pieces of  the  art,  now  in  St.  Petersburg). 
The  D,  Ludovma^  belonging  to  the  prince 
of  Piombino,  and  that  of  the  cardinal  Borgia 
at  Velletri,  famous  for  its  Egyptian  gems 
and  sccarabiti,  are  still  celebrated.  Naples 
has  beautiful  gems  in  the  cabinet  at  Por- 
tici  and  at  Capo  di  Monte.  The  prince 
Piscari  formed  a  collection  at  Catanea,  in 
Sicily,  consisting  entirely  of  gems  found 
in  Sicily.  In  France,  the  first  collection 
was  begun  by  Francis  I,  but  was  dispersed 


in  the  civil  war.  In  the  ^ign  of  Louis 
XIV,  Louvois  kiid  the  foundation  of  tho 
present  fine  collection  of  antiques  in  the 
royal  library.  The  collection  of  the  duko 
of  Orleans,  which  he  inherited  from  the 
Palatinate,  was  celebrated.  Besides  these, 
there  were  several  private  collections  of 
value.  The  most  celebrated  in  England 
arc  those  of  tlie  dukes  of  Devonshire, 
Bedfoni  and  Marlborough,  and  tlie  earls 
of  Carlisle  and  Desborougb.  Geimany 
also  has  collections.  In  the  palace  of 
Sans  Souci,  at  Potsdam,  near  Berlin,  sev- 
eral are  united,  among  which  is  that  of 
Muzel  Stosch,  rendered  famous  by  the 
description  of  Winckelmann.  Vienna  has 
a  separate  cabinet  of  gems.  The  collec- 
tion of  Dresden  is  good.  The  city  library 
of  Leipsic  possesses  some  good  gems. 
The  collection  at  Cassel  is  extensive,  but 
not  very  valuable.  Munich  has  some 
beautiful  pieces.  There  are  also  many 
private  collections.  In  the  Netherlands, 
the  cabinet  of  the  king  is  valuable.  In 
the  royal  palace  at  Copenhagen,  there  are 
some  vases  inlaid  with  gems ;  and  Peters- 
burg has,  besides  the  imperud  collection, 
the  foundation  of  which  was  that  of  the 
engraver  Natter,  the  rich  collection  of 
count  Poniatowski.  To  multiply  elegant 
and  ingenious  or  remarkable  designs  oa 
gems,  engravings  or  casts  are  taken.  Thus 
not  only  sLugle  designs,  but  all  those  of 
the  same  class,  or  those  of  a  whole  cabi- 
net, are  represented  by  engravings.  The 
impressions  of  various  classes  of  gems 
have  been  collected.  Beliori  collected 
the  Dortraits  of  philosophers  and  others ; 
Chimet,  abraxas  stones  (see  JlhraxaSy  and 
Gnosis) ;  Gori,  gems  engraved  with  stars ; 
Ficoroni,  gems  with  inscriptions ;  Stosch, 
gems  beanng  the  names  of  the  artists. 
Representations  of  whole  collections  have 
lieen  given ;  as,  by  Gori,  of  those  contained 
in  the  Museum  Floreniiman ;  by  Wicar  and 
Mongez,  of  those  in  the  gallery  of  Flor- 
ence ;  by  Mariette,  of  the  former  French 
collections ;  by  i<eblond  and  Lachaux,  of 
that  of  the  duke  of  Orleans ;  by  Eckhel, 
of  that  of  Vienna.  We  might  also  men- 
tion the  copies  of  the  Museum  (TOdescal- 
ckif  of  the  cabinets  of  Gravelle,  Stosch, 
Bossi,  and  the  duke  of  Marlborough.  But, 
although  some  of  these  impressions  are 
very  beautiful,  the  preference  ought  to  be 
given  to  die  casts.  The  collections  of 
such  casts  are  also  called  dach^ioiheca ; 
for  instance,  tlie  deuiyliMeca  of  Lippert, 
consisting  of  3000  pieces.  Tassie,  in  Lon- 
don, has  executed  the  largest  collection  of 
casts  yet  known,  amountmg  to  15,000. 
These  are  important  aids  in  the  study  of 


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DACTYLIOTHECA— DAENDELS. 


101 


the  branch  of  antiquities  with  which  they 
are  connected. 

DAGTTI.IOHANCT  (from  &Mcrtf>fo(,  a  ring, 
and  lumta,  divination) ;  the  pretended  art 
of  divining  by  means  of  rings. 

DACTTLOI.OOT,  OF  Dacttlonomt  (fit>m 
jtfcTvX0(,the  finger),  is  the  art  (^  numbering 
with  the  fingers ;  or,  in  a  wider  sense,  of 
expressing  one's  thoughts  in  general  with 
the  fingers.  It  is  usually  taught  in  insd- 
tutions  for  the  education  of  the  deaf  and 
dumbu 

DAnncHtrs  (Latin ;  AaOx^,  Greek) ;  lit- 
cmUy  a  torch-bearer,  but  applied  as  an 
epithet  to  many  of  the  ancient  divinides, 
who  were  always  represented  as  bearing 
a  tench  or  fiambeau.  Daduchi  were  also 
those  persons,  who,  in  certain  ceremo- 
nies anid  religious  processions,  carried  the 
fhunbeaus  or  sacred  torches.  The  Dadu- 
chic  duties  are  Ceres,  when  represented 
as  searching  for  her  lost  daughter  Proser- 
pine ;  IMana,  Luna,  Hecate  and  Sol,  when 
in  their  cars,  employed  in  the  business  of 
lighting  the  earth ;  Venus,  Cupid  and  Hy- 
men, when  bearing  the  torch  of  love; 
Rhea  or  Cybele,  and  Vesta,  in  the  temples 
where  the  vestals  guarded  the  sacred  fire 
of  those  ^[oddesses;  Vulcan,  in  whose 
hiHior,  conjointly  with  Prometheus  and 
Pallas  as  Daduchi,  the  Athenians  instituted 
a  festival,  which  they  called  Lampadq^horia, 
Aa^aiif^yla  (sce  Jjomatodephoria);  IfeUona, 
the  Furies,  Aurora,  Hymen,  Peace  (on  a 
medal  of  Vespasian] ;  Comus  (in  an  an- 
cient painting  described  by  Philostratus) ; 
Night,  Sleep,  and  Death,  or  Thanatus, 

D^DALUS  {AatSaXoi).  The  uamo  of 
Bttdali  is  given  to  fiill-length  figures  or 
images,  with  the  feet  in  an  advancing  pos- 
ture. But  whence  this  appellation  is  de- 
rived, is  a  contested  point.  Winckel- 
mann,  following  Pahephatus  and  Diodorus, 
says,  **  Daedalus  began  to  separate  the 
lower  part  of  the  Hermes  into  legs ;  and 
the  fii^  statues  are  said  to  have  received 
fiom  him  the  name  of  D<BdaHJ*  The 
common  opinion  is,  tliat  Dtedalus  first 
aeparated  tne  legs  of  the  statues  in  an 
advancing  posture,  which  explains  the 
saying  t^t  his  stames  moved,  since  all 
previous  sculptors  formed  their  statues 
with  the  arms  hanging  down»  not*  di- 
vided from  the  Ixxfy,  and  the  less  not 
aroaiBted,  like  the  mummy-shaped  figures 
of  the  Egyptians.  According  to  Pausa- 
nias,  Daedalus  received  his  name  fimn  the 
statoes  (the  name  of  which  is  said  to  have 
been  derived  fi^otn  i^aiaXXtiv,  to  work  vrith 
skiUJL  B6ttiger  (m  his  Lectures  on  Ar- 
chaeokigy,  Dresden,  1806)  supposes  that 


DiBdahu  is  not  a  proper  name,  but  the 
common  appellation  or  all  the  first  archi- 
tects, metallurgists  and  sculptors  in  Gre- 
cian antiquity ;  alsoy  in  general,  an  artist,  as 
datdalic  signifies  arfifieialf  skUfvL  In  early 
periods,  every  art  is  confined  to  the  family 
and  fiiends  of  the  inventor,  and  the  disci- 
ples are  called  »on».  Thus  the  ancients 
speak  of  the  Dcedalian  fiimily  of  artists, 
including  Talos,  Perdix,  Diopoenos,  Scyilis 
and  others.  According  to  the  common 
opmion,  Daedalus  lived  three  generadons 
before  the  Trojan  war,  was  distinguished  for 
his  talents  in  architecture,  sculptuiie  and 
engraving,  and  the  inventor  of  many  in- 
struments ;  for  instance,  the  axe,  the  saw, 
the  plummet,  the  auger ;  also  of  glue,  and 
masts  and  yards  for  ships.  As  a  sculptor, 
he  wrought  mostly  in  wood,  and  was  the 
first  who  made  the  eyes  of  his  statues 
open.  This  he  did  in  Athens,  which  he 
was  compelled  to  leave  on  account  of  the 
murder  of  his  disciple  Talos,  of  whose 
skill  he  was  jealous.  He  built  the  fiunous 
labyrinth  in  Crete ;  executed  for  Ariadne  a 
group  of  male  and  female  dancers,  of 
white  stone,  and  for  Pasiphae  the  notorious 
wooden  cow.  Being  imprisoned  with  his 
son  Icarus,  he  inventea  instruments  for 
flying.  The  wings  were  composed  of 
hnen,  or,  according  to  Ovid,  of  feathers, 
and  fastened  with  wax,  which  caused  tlie 
death  of  Icarus ;  whence  the  Icarian  sea  is 
said  to  have  received  its  name.  Daedalus 
himself  reached  Sicily,  on  the  southern 
coast  of  which  a  place  was  called,  after 
him,  Dculalium,  A  festival  called  Dado- 
la  (image-festival)  was  celebrated  in  Boeo- 
tia,  mostly  at  Platsea.  We  must  not  con^ 
fi>und  this  Daedalus  with  a  later  sculp- 
tor, Daedalus  of  Sicyon.  Many  stories 
of  different  artists  have,  probably,  been 
blended  to  ferm  the  character  of  Daeda- 
lus. 
Daenoels,  Hermann  William,  a  Dutch 

general,  bom  in  1762,  at  Hattem,  in  Guei- 
erland,  took  an  important  part  in  the 
troubles  which  ^jegan  in  Holland,  in  1787, 
on  the  side  of  tbe  patriots,  and,  with  many 
of  his  countrymen  of  the  same  party,  was 
compelled  Vj  take  refuge  in  France,  where 
he  engaged  in  commercial  speculations, 
in  Dunkirk.  In  17!^  Be  was  appointed 
colonel  in  the  new  legion  of  volunteers, 
lY'ffie  itranfer^  and  viras  of  great  service 
to  Dumounez,  in  his  expedition  against 
Holland.  He  rendered  still  greater  services 
to  Pichegru,  in  the  campaign  of  1794, 
which  maide  the  French  commander  mas- 
ter of  all  Holland.  Daendels  now  became 
lieutenant-general  in  the  service  of  the 
Batavian  r^ublic,  and  took  an  important 


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DAENDELS-DAISY. 


part  in  the  change  of  the  govenunent. 
When  Louia  Bonaparte  ascended  the 
throne,  he  loaded  him  with  honors,  and 
appointed  him  govemor-general  of  Bata- 
via.  AAer  tlie  union  of  Holland  with 
France,  Napoleon  recalled  him.  Daen- 
dels  arrived  in  Europe  in  the  summer  of 
18152.  He  employed  his  leisure  time  in 
publishinir  a  CompU  rendu  of  his  govern- 
ment ill  Java  (4  vols.,  folio),  in  which  he 
tlirows  much  light  on  tlie  statistics  and 
general  condition  of  that  country.  He 
was  afterwards  appointed,  by  the  king  of 
the  Netherlands,  to  organize  the  restored 
colonies  on  the  coast  of  Africa.  Here  he 
displayed  his  usual  energy ;  he  promoted 
peace  between  tlie  neighboring  Negro 
states,  encouraged  the  establbhment  of 
new  plantations  on  the  West  India  plan, 
and  checked  the  slave-trade,  until  the 
time  of  his  death.  » 

Daffodil.  (See  JSTctrcisstts.) 
Daoh;  a  Persian  word,  signifying 
mountain — ^Daghistan,  land  of  mountains, 
Daoobert  I  (called  the  Great  on  ac- 
count of  his  military  successes),  king  of  the 
Franks,  of  the  Merovingian  race,  in  628 
succeeded  his  &ther,  Ck>tliaire  II,  who 
had  reOnited  the  divided  members  of  the 
French  empire.  He  waged  war  with 
success  against  the  Sclavonians,  Saxons, 
Gascons  and  Bretons ;  but  he  stained  the 
splendor  of  his  victories  by  cruelty,  vio- 
lence and  licentiousness.  After  he  had 
conquered  the  Saxons,  it  is  said  that  he 
caused  all  tliose  whose  stature  exceeded 
the  lengtli  of  his  sword  to  be  put  to  death. 
He  deserves  praise  for  his  improvement 
of  the  laws  of  the  Franks.  He  died  at 
Epinay,  638,  at  the  age  of  32  years,  and 
was  buried  in  St  Denis,  which  he  had 
founded  six  years  before. 
D'AouEssEAU.  (See  Jlgueaaeau,) 
Dahl,  John  Christian,  landscape  paint- 
er, since  1820  member  of  the  academy  of 
Dresden,  bom  Feb.  24, 1788,  at  Bergen, 
in  Norway,  was  first  destined  for  theology ; 
but,  liaving  neither  the  inclination  nor  the 
means  to  pursue  that  study,  he  was  bound 
apprentice  to  a  painter  in  his  native 
town.  He  soon  diistin^ished  himself  by 
his  sea-views,  and  enjoys,  at  preaent,  the 
reputation  of  one*bf  the  first,  if  not  the 
firat,  of  living  painters  in  this  department 
Some  of  his  paintings  are  truly  gnmd. 
He  lives  at  present  in  Dresden. 

Dahlia  ;  the  name  of  a  genus  of  plants 
behmging  to  the  natural  order  compomttB^  or 
compound  flowers.  The  D.;m»uito,  within 
a  few  years,  has  become  common  in  the 
gardens  of  the  Northern  and  Middle  States, 
where  it  is  cultivated  aa  an  ornament,  and 


is  very  conspicuous  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
season.  The  root  is  perennial,  composed  of 
fascicles  of  tubers,  which  are  oblong  and 
tapering  at  each  end,  and  about  6  inches 
m  length.  The  stem  is  straight,  branch- 
ing, thick,  and  reaches  the  height  of  7 
feet  and  upwards.  The  leaves  are  oppo- 
site, connate,  and  simply  or  doubly  pin- 
nated. The  flowers  are  solitary,  at  tlie 
extremity  of  long,  simple  branches,  deep 
purple,  with  a  yellow  centre :  by  cultiva- 
tion, however,  they  have  Ijeen  doubled, 
and  made  to  assume  a  variety  of  colors. 
The  roots  are  a  wholesome  article  of  food, 
much  eaten  by  the  Mexicans,  ttiough  the 
taste  is  not  very  agreeable.  It  is  repro- 
duced from  the  seed,  or  by  the  division  of 
the  roots,  which  is  the  most  approved 
mode.  It  requires  fiiequent  watering.  In 
autumn,  the  roots  should  be  taken  out 
of  the  ground,  covered  with  dry  sand,  and 
kept  out  of  the  reach  of  frost  during  the 
winter.  All  the  species  are  natives  of 
Mexico. 

Dahomet;  a  kingdom  in  the  interior  of 
Western  Africa,  behind  the  Slave  Coast 
The  country  is  very  little  known  to  Euro- 
peans. The  parts  which  have  been  visited 
are  very  beautifiil  and  fertile,  and  rise,  for 
about  150  miles,  with  a  gradual  slope,  but 
without  any  great  elevation.  The  soil  is 
a  deep,  rich  clay,  yielding  maize,  millet 
and  Guinea  com  in  abundance.  The 
inhabitants  are  warlike  and  ferocious. 
The  government  is  an  absolute  despotism. 
The  ferocity  which  prevails  among  this 
nation  almost  surpasses  belief.  Human 
skulls  form  the  favorite  ornament  in  the 
construction  of  the  palaces  and  temples. 
The  kxn^s  sleeping-chamber  has  the  floor 
paved  with  the  skuUs,  and  the  roof  orna- 
mented with  the  jaw-bones,  of  diiefs  whom 
he  has  overcome  in  batde. 

Dairs,  or  Dairo.    (See  Jcapan,) 

Dairt  (fit>ra  dy,  an  old  English  word 
for  m3k)\  a  builmng  appropriated  to  the 
purpose  of  preserving  and  managing  milk, 
skimming  cream,  making  butter,  cheese, 
&C.,  with  sometimes  the  addition  of  pleas- 
ure rooms  for  partaking  the  luxunes  of 
the  dairy,  as  syllabubs,  cream  with  ihiit, 
iced  creams,  &c 

Daist  ;  the  name  of  a  plant  which  is 
very  familiar,  and  a  great  favorite  in  Eu- 
rope (bdiis  peremtu,  L.).  It  is  one  of  the 
earfiest  in  spring,  and  its  elegant  ftowers, 
appearing  at  intervals  in  the  green  sward, 
have  been  compared  to  pearls.  During 
cknidy  weather,  and  at  nig^t,  they  doee. 
It  continues  flowering  dnring  the  whole 
season,  and  is  not  vSed  for  rood  by  any 
It  belongs  to  the  natural  order 


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DAISY— DALBERG. 


108 


conqtaaiUB.  The  leaves  are  all  radical, 
spatliulate,  obtuse,  more  or  less  dentate, 
Slightly  hairy,  and  spread  upon  the  ground. 
Its  naked  stem  is  a  few  inches  high,  and 
terminated  by  a  white  flower,  having  a 
tinge  of  red,  and  a  yellow  centre.  In  the 
U.  States,  it  is  only  seen  cultivated  in  gar- 
dens. One  species  of  bdlis  (B.  inJtegrifo' 
Uoy  Mx.)  inhabits  the  U.  States,  but  is  a 
rare  plant,  and  only  found  in  the  South- 
western States,  in  Tennessee  and  Arkan- 
sas. 

Dal  ;  a  Swedish  word,  si^ifying,  like 
the  German  Thal,  vaUey^  as  m  Uaieciuiia, 

Dalai  Lama.    (See  Lama.) 

Dalbbeo,  fiunily  of  the  barons  of;  also 
Dalburo.  *  Is  there  no  Dalberg  present  ?' 
the  imperial  herald  was  formerly  obliged 
to  demand,  at  every  coronation  of  the  Ger- 
man emperors  \  and  the  Dalberg  present 
bent  his  knee  before  the  new  sovereign, 
and  received  the  accolade  as  the  m«t 
knight  of  the  empire.  So  illustrious  were 
the  ancestors  of  the  present  Dalbergs,  the 
ancient  chamberiains  of  Worms!  The 
fiunily  obtained  the  rank  of  barons  of  the 
empire  in  the  I7th  century.  Many  Dai- 
bergs  have  distinguished  themselves  as 
patrons  of  German  literature. 

Dalberq,  Charles  Theodore  Anthony 
Maria,  of  the  noble  family  of  Dalberg, 
barons  of  the  German  empire,  was  cham- 
berlain of  Worms,  elector  of  Mentz,  arch- 
cfaanceUor,  and  subsequently  prince-pri- 
mate of  the  confederation  of  the  Rhine,  and 
grand-duke  of  Frankfort ;  finally  archbish- 
op of  Ratisbon  and  bishop  of  Worms  and 
ConstaBce ;  bom  Feb.  8, 1744,  at  Hems- 
heim,  near  Worms.  In  1772,  he  became 
mivy-counsellor  and  governor  at  Erfurt 
During  many  years'  residence  in  that 
place,  he  was  distinguished  for  industry, 
regulari^  and  punctuality  in  the  discharge 
of  his  dudes.  An  incorruptible  love  of 
justice,  and  inflexible  firmness  in  main- 
taining what  he  considered  just  and  pol- 
itic, animated  him.  He  encouraged  sci- 
ence and  the  arts  by  his  patronage  of 
learned  men  and  artists,  and  wrote  sever- 
al learned  treatises  and  ingenious  woriLS. 
In  1802,  after  the  death  of  the  elector  of 
Mentz,  he  was  made  elector  and  arch- 
chancellor  of  the  German  empire.  By 
the  new  political  changes  in  Germany  in 
1803,  he  came  into  possession  of  Ratis- 
bon, Aschafienburg  and  Wetzlar.  In  1806, 
he  was  made  prince-primate  of  the  con- 
gelation of  the  Rhine.  At  Ratisbon,  he 
erected  the  first  monument  to  the  fanious 
Kepler.  In  1810,  he  resigned  the  prind- 
pahty  of  Ratisbon  to  Bavaria,  and  obtain- 
ed, as  coiopenBBtion,  a  coDttderabAe  part 


of  the  principalities  of  Fulda  and  Hanau, 
and  was  made  grand-duke.  In  1813,  he 
voluntarily  resigned  all  his  possesBions 
as  a  sovereign  prince,  and  returned  to 
private  hfe,  retaining  only  his  ecclesias- 
tical dignity  of  archbishop.  He  retired  to 
Ratisbon.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
French  national  institute.  His  works  are 
mostly  philosophical.  Among  tliem  are 
the  Reflections  on  the  Universe  (5th  edi- 
tion, 1805),  the  Principles  of  iEsthetica 
(Eriangen,  1791),  and  Fericles,  or  the  In- 
fluence of  the  Liberal  Arts  on  Public  Hap- 
piness (Erfiirt,  1806).  He  wrote  several 
of  his  works  in  French.  He  is  also  the 
author  of  several  legal  treatises.  Although 
he  was  fond  of  theoretical  speculationa, 

J  ret  he  devoted  his  attention  more  particu- 
ariy  to  practical  studies,  such  as  the  phi- 
losophy of  the  arts,  mathematics,  physics, 
chemistry,  botany,  mineralo^,  scientific 
agriculture,  &c.  Dalberg  died  Feb.  10, 
1817. 

Dalberg,  Emmerich  Joseph,  duke  of; 
peer  of  France,  nephew  of  the  prince-pri- 
mate, and  son  of  the  well-knovm  autnor 
Wol&ang  Heribert,  baron  of  Dalberg ;  bom 
May  Si,  1773,  at  Mentz.  He  began  his 
career  in  pubUc  life  under  the  eyes  of  his 
uncle,  at  Erfurt,  and  was  also  for  a  time  in 
the  diplomatic  service  of  Bavaria,  until  he 
was  appointed,  in  1803,  envoy  of  the  maiv- 
grave  of  Baden  at  Paris.  He  funned  an 
intimacy  with  the  prince  of  Benevento 
(see  TaBewrand'Pengmii)j  who  married 
him,  in  1807,  to  mUe.  de  BrignoUes,  of  a 
distinguished  Genoese  &mily.  During  the 
campaign  of  1809,  he  received  the  port- 
fdio  of  foreign  affairs  in  Baden,  vrithout 
resigning  his  ofiice  of  ambassador  in  Paris. 
After  the  peace,  he  returned  to  France, 
where  he  became  a  citizen  of  France,  and 
was  subsequently  created  duke  and  coun- 
seUor  of  state.  After  the  marriage  of  Na* 
poleon  with  the  archduchess  Maria  Louisa, 
on  which  occasion  Dalberg  is  said  to  have 
opened  the  preliminary  negotiations  with 
prince  Schvrarzenbeig,  he  received  a  do- 
nation of  4,000,000  nancs  on  the  princi- 
pality of  Baireuth,  of  which  Franee  had 
the  disposal  by  the  trea^  of  Vienna,  and 
the  king  of  Bavaria  paid  him  almost  the 
whole  sum.  When  the  prince  of  Bene- 
vento fell  into  disgrace,  Dalberg  retired 
vrith  his  patron.  In  April,  1814,  Talley- 
rand, at  the  head  of  the  provisional  gov- 
ernment, nrade  the  duke  one  of  the  five 
members  of  that  government,  who  pro* 
moted  the  reatoiation  of  the  Bourbons. 
Dalberg  was  present  at  the  congress  of 
Vienna,  as  French  minister  plenipoten- 
tiary, and  signed,  1815,  the  declaratioa 


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104 


DALBERGf— DALLAS. 


against  his  former  master  and  bene&c- 
tor.  Napoleon,  on  this  account^  includ- 
ed him,  afler  his  return,  among  the 
twelve  whom  he  banished,  and  whose  es- 
tates were  confiscated.  After  the  second 
restoration  of  the  royal  government,  Dal- 
berg  recovered  his  property,  was  appoint- 
ed minister  of  state  and  peer,  received  an 
embassy  to  the  court  of  Turin,  and  lives 
now  in  Paris. 

Dale,  Richard,  an  American  naval  com- 
mander, vras  bom  in  Virginia,  Nov.  6, 
1756.  At  12  years  of  age,  he  was  sent  to 
sea,  and,  in  1775,  he  took  the  command 
of  a  merchant  vessel.  In  1776,  he  enter- 
ed, as  a  midshipman,  on  board  of  the 
American  brig  of  war  Lexington,  com- 
manded by  captain  John  Barry.  In  her 
he  cruised  on  the  British  coast  the  follow- 
ing year,  and  was  taken  by  a  British  cut- 
ter. After  a  confinement  of  more  than  a 
^ear  in  Mill  prison,  he  effected  his  escape 
mto  France,  where  he  joined,  in  the  char- 
acter of  master's  mate,  the  celebrated  Paul 
Jones,  then  commanding  the  American 
ship  Bon  Homme  Richard.  Jones  soon 
raised  Dale  to  the  rank  of  his  first  lieuten- 
ant, in  which  character  he  signalized  him- 
self in  the  sanguinary  and  desperate 
engagement  between  the  Bon  Homme 
Richard  and  the  English  frigate  Serapis. 
He  was  the  first  man  who  reached  the 
deck  of  the  latter  when  she  was  boarded 
and  taken.  In  1781,  he  returned  to  Amer- 
ica, and,  in  June  of  that  year,  was  appoint- 
ed to  the  Trumbull  fiigate,  commanded 
by  captain  James  Nicholson,  and  soon  af- 
terwards captured.  From  1790  to  1794, 
he  served  as  captain  in  the  East  India 
trade.  At  the  end  of  this  period,  die  gov- 
ernment of  the  U.  States  made  him  a  cap- 
tain in  the  navy.  In  1801,  he  took  the 
command  of  die  American  squadron  of 
observation,  which  sailed,  in  June  of  that 
year,  from  Hampton  roads  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean. His  broad  pendant  was  hoisted 
on  board  the  frigate  President  Efficient 
protection  was  given  by  Dale  to  the 
American  trade  and  other  interests  in  the 
Mediterranean.  In  April,  1808,  he  reach- 
ed Hampton  roads  again.  He  passed  the 
remainder  of  his  life  in  Philadelphia,  in 
the  enjoyment  of  a  competent  estate,  and 
of  the  esteem  of  all  his  feDow-citizens. 
He  died  Feb.  24, 1826.  Captain  Dale  was 
a  thorough,  brave  and  intelligent  seaman. 
He  was  several  times  severely  wounded 
in  battle.  The  adventures  of  hia  early 
years  were  of  the  most  romantic  and 
perilous  cast.  No  man  could  lay  claim 
to  a  more  honorable  and  honest  char- 
acter. 


Dalecarlia  ;  a  province  of  Sweden. 
(See  Sweden,) 

Dalin,  Olof  or  Olaus  of;  the  father  of 
modem  Swedish  literature,  in  the  18th 
century.  He  exerted  much  influence  by 
his  periodical  paper,  The  Swedish  Ai^gus 
(1733—34),  and  still  more  by  his  spirited 
poems,  paiticularly  Satires  (1729),  an  ex- 
cellent poem  on  the  liber^  of  Sweden 
(1742),  many  songs,  epigrams  and  fables. ' 
The  best  edidon  of  his  poetical  works  ap- 
peared at  Stockholm,  1782-— 83,  in  2  vols. 
He  acquired  equal  reputation  by  his  able 
histoiy  of  Sweden  (Stockhobn  1777,  3 
vols.  Jto.,  translated  into  German  by  Ben- 
zelstiema  and  Ddlmert,  Greifswalde,  4 
vols.,  4to.),  on  which  account  he  was  ap- 
pointed historiographer  of  the  kingdom 
(1756).  He  also  pardcipated  in  the  foun- 
dation of  the  academy  of  belles-lettres  by 
Ulrica  Eleonora  (1753).  He  was  bom  in 
the  district  of  Winberga  m.Halland  (1708^ 
and  died  chancellor  of  the  court  of  Swe- 
den, in  1763. 

Dallas,  Alexander  James,  waa  bom, 
June  1,  1759,  in  the  island  of  Jamaica. 
When  quite  young,  he  vnis  sent  to  school 
at  Edinburgh,  and  afterwards  at  West- 
minster. His  father  was  an  eminent  and 
wealthy  physician  in  the  island  of  Jamai- 
ca. In  1781,  afler  the  deatli  of  his  father, 
he  left  England  for  Jamaica.  It  was 
found  that  the  whole  of  Mr.  Dallas's  pro- 
perty was  lefl  at  the  disposal  of  his  widow, 
who  married  again,  and  no  part  of  it  ever 
came  to  the  rest  of  the  &miJy.  The  sub- 
ject of  this  article  lefl  Jamaica  in  April, 
1783,  and  arrived  at  New  York  June  7, 
and  at  Philadelphia  a  week  afler.  June 
17,  he  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the 
state  of  Pennsylvania.  In  July,  1785, 
he  was  admitted  to  practise  in  the  su- 
preme court  of  Penn^lvania,  and,  in  the 
course  of  four  or  five  years,  became  a 
practitioner  in  the  courts  of  the  U.  States. 
During  this  period,  his  practice  not  being 
extensive,  he  prepared  his  Reports  for  the 

EresB,  and  occuped  hunselt  in  various 
teraiy  undertakings.  He  wrote  much  in. 
the  magazines  of  the  day.  Of  the  Co- 
lumbian Magazine  he  was  at  one  time  ed- 
itor. His  essays  will  bear  a  comparison 
with  those  of  his  contemporaries;  and 
this  is  no  small  praise,  for  Franklin,  Rush 
and  Hopkinson  were  of  the  number. 
Jan.  19, 1791,  he  was  appointed  secretary 
of  Pennsylvania  by  governor  Mifflin.  In 
December,  1793,  his  commission  was  re- 
newed. Not  long  after,  he  was  appoint- 
ed paymaster-general  of  the  forces  that 
marched  to  the  west,  and  he  accompanied 
the  expedition  to  Pittsburg.    In  Decern- 


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105 


ber,  1796,  the  office  of  secietarj  was  again 
confided  to  him.  While  he  held  this  of- 
fice, he  inibljshed  an  edition  of  the  laws 
of  the  commonwealth,  with  notes.  Upon 
the  election  of  Mr.  Jefiezson,  in  1601,  he 
was  appointed  attomej  of  the  U.  States 
for  the  eastern  district  of  Penni^lvania, 
and  he  continued  in  this  office  until. his 
removal  to  Washington.  October  6,  he 
was  appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury 
of  the  U.  States.  The  circumstances  un- 
der which  he  entered  this  difficult  situa- 
tion, the  boldness  with  which  he  assumed 
its  responsibtlities,  his  energy  of  character, 
and  the  general  confidence  and  ap{m>baR 
tion  with  which  his  career  was  accompa- 
nied, belong  to  the  history  of  the  times. 
March  13,  1815,  he  undertook  the  addi- 
tional trust  of  secretary  of  war,  and  per- 
formed witli  success  the  delicate  task  of 
reducing  the  army  of  the  U.  States.  In 
November,  1816,  peace  being  restored,  the 
finances  arranged,  the  embarrassment  of 
the  circulating  medium  daily  diminishing, 
and  soon  to  disappear  under  the  influence 
of  the  national  bank,  which  it  bad  so  long 
been  his  effort  to  establish,  Mr.  Dallas  re* 
signed  his  honorable  station,  and  returned 
to  the  practice  of  the  law  in  Philadel- 
phia. His  business  was  considerable,  and 
his  talents  as  an  advocate  were  employed, 
not  only  at  home,  but  fit)m  almost  eveiy 
quarter  of  the  Union.  In  the  midst  of  his 
brilliant  prospects,  exposure  to  cold,  and 
great  professional  exertions  in  a  veiy  im- 
poitant  cause,  brought  on  an  attack  of  the 
gout  in  his  stomach,  at  Trenton,  of  which 
he  died,  Jan.  16, 1817. 

Dau^as,  Robert  Charles,  bom  in  Ja- 
maica, studied  law  in  the  Inner  Temple. 
W^hen  he  came  of  age,  he  married,  and 
went  to  Jamaica,  where  he  had  received 
a  lucrative  appointment,  but  was  obliged 
to  leave  the  island  on  account  of  the  ill 
health  of  his  wife.  He  went  to  France, 
then  to  America,  with  a  view  to  settle 
there,  but,  being  disappointed,  returned, 
and  devoted  himself  to  literature.  His 
productions,  including  translations,  are  nu- 
merous. His  novels  have  been  collected 
and  published  in  7  volumes,  12mo.  Lord 
Byron,  as  appears  firom  Moore's  life  of  the 
poet,  vms  in  the  habit  of  consulting  him, 
and  made  him  a  present  of  the  copyright 
of  Childe  Harold  and  some  other  of  his 
early  works,  which  afforded  him  much 
pecuniary  advantage. 

Dai*matia;  an  Austrian  kingdom,  in- 
cluding four  circles — Zara,  Spalatro  and 
Macarsca,  Raffusa,  Cattaro— lying  on  the 
Adriatic  sea,  bounded  by  Croatia,  Bosnia 
and  Albania,  and  having  several  islands 


belonging  to  it.    Since  1814,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Turkish  part,  it  has  been 
entirely  subject  to  the  emperor  of  Aus- 
tria,  and   contains   5800    square    miles, 
320,000  inhabitants,  in  23  towns,  S3  bor- 
oughs and  914  viUages.    Dalmatia,  for^* 
meriy  an  important  kingdom,  was,  after 
many  unsuccessful  attempts,  subjected  by 
the  Romans  under  Augustus.    After  the 
decline  of  the  Western  Empire,  it  was  first 
under  the  dominion  of  the  Goths,  then 
under  that  of  the  Eastern  emperors.    In 
the  first  half  of  the  7th  century,  it  was 
conquered  by  the  Sclavonians,  who  erect- 
ed it  into  a  kingdom,  which  lasted  till 
1030,  when  it  was,  in  part,  united  with 
Hungary,  under  king  St.  Ladislaus;  an- 
other part  placed  itself  imder  the  protec- 
tion of  the  then  powerful  republic  of 
Venice,  for  security  against  the  attacks  of 
the    Tudcs,    who,    however,  afterwards, 
took  a  part  fiom  the  Venetians.    By  the 
peace  of  Campo-Formio  (Oct  17, 1797]^ 
the  Venetian  part  of  Dalmatia,  as  well  as 
Venice  itselfj  was  made  over  to  Austria ; 
but,  by  the  treaty  of  Presburg,  in  1805, 
Austria  ceded  it  to  the  French  emperor, 
who  first  united  it  with  the  kingdom  of 
Italy,  and  in  1810,  with  Ulyria,  although 
be  caused  it  to  be  governed  bv  a  general'- 
prowedUere* — ^The  causes  of  the   small 
peculation  of  this  fertile  but  poorly  culti- 
vated country,  are  the  excessive  use  of 
spirituous  liquors,  the  noxious  exhalations 
of  the  marshes  in  various  districts,  the 
finequent  emigrations,  and  the  habit  of 
private  revenge,  which  extends  even  to 
the  third  and  fourth  generations.    It  con- 
tains   impenetrable    forests,  and  regions 
covered  with  marshes.    The  Dalmatians 
are  a  handsome  race,  bold  seamen,  and 
good  soldiers  if  they  are  well  commanded. 
The  former  military  power  of  Venice  rest- 
ed entirely  upon  this  province.    The  Dal- 
matians, in  general,  are  accused,  and  prob- 
ably not  unjustly,  of  deceitfulness  and  ra- 
pacity :  the  desire  of  independence  is  al- 
most universal.    A  peculiar  feature  of  their 
character  is,  that  many  of  them  prefer  the 
heroic  death  (as  they  term  it)  by  the  spear, 
to  a  natural  and  peaceful  death  in  the 
midst  of  their  fiunily.     They  speak  a 
Sclavonic  dialect.    The  Moriachians,  who 
dwell  in  the  interior  of  the  country,  and 
among  tiie  mountains,  and  in  the  Turicish 
government  of  Heneck,  constitute  but  a 
part  of  the  nation.    They  are  excellent 
soldiers,  but  have  a  strong  inclination  for 
robbery  and  drinldng ;  yet  they  are  hos- 
pitable, benevolent  and  faithful  in  their 
promises.     Averse  to  every  kind  of  re- 
straint, they  live  in  a  sort  of  natural  con- 


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106 


DALMATIA— DAMASCENUS. 


dition.  They  have  always  been  a  good 
waJl  against  tbe  attacks  of  the  Tuiics. — 
The  inhabitants  of  the  islands  are  princi- 
pally employed  in  fishing,  and  are  ser- 
vants on  the  continent,  or  sailoxs  in  mer- 
chant-ships. The  islands  are  not  very 
productive.  Several  have  good  haibors, 
and  afibrd  much  timber  for  ship-building. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  continent  are  em* 
ployed  in  agriculture  and  the  breeding  of 
catde.  They  have  some  commerce,  and 
devote  themselves  chiefly  to  the  sea.  As 
long  as  theur  soil  produces  no  more  than 
it  does  at  present,  their  trade  and  industry 
cannot  be  important,  more  particularly 
since  the  great  commons,  according  to  the 
ancient  Dalmatian  custom,  are  not  sepa- 
rated, and  the  overgrown  landed  estates 
of  individuals  are  not  divided  on  their 
decease.  The  Dalmatians  export  tallow, 
hare-skins  (which  latter  are  brought  from 
Bosnia),  some  oil,  figs,  wuie,  brandy,  wax, 
and  salt  fish,  fit)m  different  ports ;  and  re- 
ceive, in  exchange,  linen,  cloth,  coffee  and 
sugar,  but  onlv  in  small  quantities,  so  that 
the  money-b^ance  is  on  their  side.  There 
are  gold,  uon  and  coal  mines  in  the  coun- 
try, but  they  remain  unwroughL  Zara, 
the  capital,  and  the  seat  of  the  governor, 
has  50(X),SpaIatro  6800,  inhabitants.  The 
district  of  Uattaro,  which  is  under  the  do- 
minion of  Austria,  is  sometimes  comprised 
in  Daimatiaj  but  properly  belones  to  Al- 
bania, and  hes,  in  a  semicircukr  form, 
round  the  gulf.  The  13  &mous  inlets 
(Bocche  di  €aUaro)  form  the  safest  harbors 
on  the  Adriatic  sea,  and  present  some  fine 
prospects.  The  inhabitants  of  the  dis- 
trict are  estimated  at  30,000.  They  are 
excellent  seamen,  and  were  inclineo,  un- 
der the  lax  government  of  the  Venetians, 
to  robbery,  particularly  by  sea.  By  land, 
their  resolution  and  boldness  render  them 
the  most  formidable  enemies  of  tlie  Turks 
in  that  quarter.  The  steep,  rough  and 
barren  heights  of  Montenegro  surround 
this  province  in  a  semicurcular  form. — 
The  Turkish  part  of  Dalmatia,  which  ex- 
tends from  Bosnia  to  Albania,  and  belongs 
to  Bosnia,  contains  the  province  of  Herze- 
govina, with  the  town  of  that  name,  and 
the  towns  of  Scardona  and  Trevigno. 
See  the  Travds  to  Dalmatia  mid  RaptsOy 
by  E.  F.  Germar  (Leipsic,  1817),  winch  is 
particularly  rich  in  natural  histoiy.  The 
splendid  work  on  Dalmatia  by  general 
Dejearo  (Paris,  1825)  exhibits  the  ento- 
mological wealth  of  Dalmatia. 

Dalhatica  ;  a  long,  white  gown,  with 
white  sleeves,  fonnerly  worn  by  the  Dal- 
matians, and,  since  the  time  of  pope  Syl- 
vester I,  by  the  Roinaq  CathoMp  deacons, 


over  the  dSba  and  jtolo. — ^Also,  a  put  of 
die  ornamental  dress  formerly  worn  by 
the  Crerman  emperor  at  the  time  of  his 
coronation.  It  was  kqit  in  Ntirembeig, 
and  pat  on  in  Frankfort. 

Dal  segno  (Ralian)  meansyhMit  (ht  sign. 
In  music,  this  expression  denotes,  that  the 
singer  or  player  ought  to  recommence  at 
the  former  place,  where  the  same  mari^ 
is  put. 

Dajlziel,  Thomas;  a  Scotch  officer, 
taken  prisoner  at  the  bottle  of  Worcester, 
and  confined  in  the  Tower,  from  which  he 
escaped  to  Russia,  where  the  czar  made 
him  a  general.  At  the  restoration,  he  re- 
turned to  England,  and  Charles  II  made 
him  commander-in-chief  of  his  forces  in 
Scotland.  He  was  singular  in  his  dress 
and  appearance.  After  the  death  of 
Charles  I,  he  never  shaved  his  beard, 
which  grew  white  and  bushy,  and  de- 
scended to  his  middle.  He  generally  went 
to  London  once  or  twice  a  year  to  kiss  the 
king's  hand,  and  the  singularity  of  his  ap- 
pearance diew  crowds  of  boys  after  him. 
He  is  mentioned  by  Scott  in  his  descrip- 
tion of  the  defeat  of  the  Covenanters  in 
Old  Mortahty. 

Dam,  Damm;  the  end  of  many  Qer- 
man  and  Dutch  geographical  words,  ag- 
nifying  a  dam  or  dvict ;  as  in  AmgUrdaSij 
the  sluices  of  the  Amstel. 

Damaoe-feasamt.  Beasts  are  said  to 
be  damage-feasaiit,  or  doirw  damage^  when 
those  of  one  person  aro  found  upon  the 
land  of  another  without  his  peitnission  and 
without  his  fault ;  for  if  the  o^ner  of  a 
field  or  enclosure  adjoining  upon  another 
enclosure  neglects  to  repair  his  fences,  and 
the  beasts  pass  through,  he  cannot  seize 
them  as  damage- feasant.  But  if  the  beasts 
break  into  a  close  from  the  highway, 
where  they  were  wrongfully  lefl  to  run  at 
large,  the  owner  of  the  close  may  take 
them  up,  or  distrain  them  as  dainage- 
feasant,  though  the  fence  of  the  close  on 
die  side  next  the  liighway  was  defective ; 
for  the  owner  is  not  obliged  to  make  a 
fence  against  beasts  where  they  cannot  be 
lawfully  lefl  at  large.  The  owner  of  land 
has  a  right  to  sue  the  owner  of  the  beasts 
in  trespass  for  the  damage  done  by  them 
to  his  crops,  &c.,  but  the  law  gives  him 
also  the  means  of  stopping  the  damaee, 
for  he  may  distrain  and  impound  Uie 


Damascenus,  John ;  John  of  Damas- 
cus, aflerwards  called  also  John  Ckruaor" 
rhoas ;  author  of  the  first  system  of  Chris- 
tian theology  in  the  Eastern  churoh,  or 
the  founder  of  scientific  dogmatics.  He 
first  endeavored  to  give  a  full  system  of 


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DAMASC£NUS->OAMASKfiENING. 


107 


dogmatics,  founded  on  reason  and  the  Bi- 
ble, which  had  hitherto  been  elaborated  in 
the  Grreek  church  only  in  parts,  as  eccle- 
siasdcal  oontroversies  arose.  His  explana- 
tion of  the  orthodox  faith,  in  four  volumes, 
enjoyed,  in  the  Greek  church,  a  great  rep- 
utation. He  also  wrote  Dialectics,  a  sys- 
tem of  k)gic  on  the  principles  of  Anistotle, 
and  prepajned  a  collection  of  philosophical 
paaaages,  extracted  finom  ancient  works,  in 
alpJiaSetioil  order,  &c  The  best  edition 
or  bis  Greek  worits  is  that  by  P.  Mich. 
Lequien  (Paris,  1712,  2  vols.,  foiy  Afier 
being  in  the  service  of  a  caliph,  he  became 
a  monk  in  the  convent  of  Saba,  near  Je- 
nmalem,  and  died  about  760.  He  must 
not  be  confounded  with  Nicholas  of  Da- 


Damascus  ;  a  city  of  Syria,  the  capital 
of  the  pochalic  of  the  same  name,  situated 
in  a  fertile  plain  amidst  extensive  gardens, 
forming  a  circuit  of  between  25  and  30 
miles.  The  streets  are  in  general  narrow, 
of  regular  width,  though  not  in  sdmight 
lines :  they  are  well  paved,  and  have  de- 
vated  footpaths  on  each  side.  Damascus 
contains  aliove  500  large  and  magnificent 
houses,  which  are  entitled  to  the  name  of 
palaces :  each  house  has  a  canal  or  foun- 
tain. Tbe  mosques  and  chi^pels  are  also 
numerous,  and  the  grand  mosque  is  of 
great  extent  and  magnificence.  An  hos- 
pital for  the  indigent  sick  is  attached  to 
tbe  edifice.  This  mosque  is  said  to  have 
been,  originally,  a  Christian  church,  and  the 
cathedral  of  Damascus.  The  mosques  are 
mostly  fix)nted  by  a  court  One  mosque 
IS  beautifully  adorned  with  all  kinds  of 
fine  marble,  like  mosaic  pavement ;  and 
the  tower  or  minaret  of  another  is  entire- 
ly cased  with  pantiles.  There  are  several 
.  hospitals  here,  of  which  the  finest  is  that 
constructed  by  the  sultan  Selim,  consisting 
of  a  spacious  quadrangle,  lined  by  an  in- 
terior colonnade,  which  is  entirely  roofed 
by  40  small  domes,  covered  with  lead. 
On  the  south  side  of  the  court  is  a  mosque, 
with  a  magnificent  portico  and  two  fine 
minarets,  which  is  surmounted  by  a  spa- 
cious cupola.  There  is  a  Greek,  Maron- 
ite,  Syrian  and  Armenian  church.  There 
are  eight  synagogues  of  the  Jews.  The 
castle,  situated  towards  the  south-west 
part  of  the  city,  and  about  three  quarters 
of  a  mile  in  circuit,  is  a  fine  rustic  edifice, 
with  three  square  towers  in  front,  and  ^ve 
on  each  side.  This  city  is  the  seat  of  a 
considerable  trade.  It  was  celebrated  for 
the  manufacture  of  sabres,  of  such  pecu- 
liar qualitv  as  to  be  perfisctly  elastic  and 
very  hard.  Extensive  manufactures  are 
caiiied  on  in  silk  and  cotton  Btu&   Leath- 


er 18  likewise  an  article  of  manufacture 
here,  but  no  linen  is  made.  A  great 
quantity  of  soap  is  fiibricated,  and  export- 
ed to  Egypt  Dried  fruits  and  sweet- 
meats are  sent  to  Turkey.  Cotton  cloths, 
handkerchiefs,  elippenv  copper  ketdes, 
horae-shoe  nails,  tobacco-pipes,  and  spice- 
ries,  shawls,  and  the  rich  fitbrics  of  Surat, 
are  brought  through  Bagdad ;  iron,  lead, 
tin,  cochineal,  broadcloth,  sugar,  and  such 
other  European  articles  as  are  required  in 
die  city,  come  through  Saida,  Bairout  and 
Tripoh*  Commerce  is  carried  on  chiefly 
by  caravans,  of  which  the  principal  is  that 
in  which  the  [nlgrims  annually  proceed  to 
Mecca.  Three  caravans  besides,  each  ac- 
companied by  above  2500  armed  men,  go 
thrice  a  vear  to  Bagdad,  the  journey  oc- 
cupying 90  days;  those  to  Aleppo  travel 
twice  or  thrice  a  month ;  besides  which, 
there  are  many  to  different  parts  of  Syria. 
Damascus  is  a  place  of  great  antiquity, 
and  is  alluded  to  m  tlie  account  of  the  time 
of  Abraham.  The  population  amounts, 
according  to  Burckhardt,  in  his  Travels 
through  Arabia,  to  250,000,  including  ma- 
ny Catholics  and  Jews  ;  the  remainmg 
inhabitants  are  Mohanmiedans.  136  miles 
N.  Jerusalem.  Lon.  36°  30^  £. ;  lat  38° 
30'N. 

Damask  ;  an  ingeniouslv  manufactured 
stufi^  the  ground  of  which  is  bright  and 
flossy,  with  vines,  flowers,  and  figures 
mterwoven.  At  firat,  it  was  made  onlv  of 
silk,  but  afterwards  of  linen  and  woollen, 
as,  for  example,  damask  table-cloth.  Ac- 
cording to  the  opinion  of  some,  this  kind 
of  weaving  was  derived  fifom  the  Bab^ 
lonians ;  according  to  others,  invented  at  a 
later  period,  b^the  inhabitants  of  Damas- 
cus, from  which  latter  place  it  is  thought 
to  have  derived  its  name.  The  true 
damasks  are  of  a  single  color.  If  they 
consist  of  variegated  colors,  they  are 
called  ras  de  SicSe.  The  gauze  damask 
also  belongs  to  the  silk  damask.  In  mod- 
em times,  the  Italians  and  Dutch  first 
made  damask ;  and  Egrope  was  supplied, 
as  late  as  the  17th  century,  from  Italy 
alone,  chiefly  from  Genoa.  But  the 
French  soon  miitated  it,  and  now  surpass 
the  Italiana  Damask  is  also  brought 
from  India  and  China,  which  is  very  well 
imitated  by  the  English.  At  present, 
damask  is  made  in  great  quantities  in 
Germany,  of  three  diflerent  kinds,  Dutch, 
French  and  Italian. 

DAHASKEEiriifG,  or  Damaskino,  tiie  art 
of  inlaying  iron  or  steel  with  other  metals, 
especially  gold  and  silver,  is  of  great  an- 
tiquity. It  is  principally  used  *at  present 
for  sword-blades,  guards,  gripes,  cocks  of 


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106 


DAMASKEENING— DAMPIER. 


jnstols,  &C.  Herodotus  mentions  a  saucer 
so  onuuneDted :  so  also  were  the  shields 
of  some  of  the  forces  of  the  Samnites 
which  fought  against  Rome.  It  was  a 
favorite  manufacture  with  the  ancients. 
We  know  not  at  what  time  it  so  flourished 
at  Damascus  as  to  have  derived  its  name 
from  this  city. 

Damiens,  Robert  Francis ;  notorious  for 
Yob  attempt  to  assassinate  Louis  XV ;  bom 
in  1715,  in  the  village  of  TieuUoy,  in  the 
former  province  of  Artois ;  the  son  of  a 
poor  fiurmer.  His  vicious  inclinations 
earlT  obtained  him  the  name  of  Bobert-le-' 
diaue.  He  twice  enlisted  as  a  soldier, 
and  was  afterwards  a  servant  {cuistn)  in 
the  college  of  the  Jesuits  at  Paris,  but,  in 
1738,  left  tfiis  service  in  oider  to  many. 
He  then  served  in  different  houses  of  the 
capital,  poisoned  one  of  his  masters,  stoie 
240  louB-d'or  firom  another,  and  saved 
himself  by  flight.  He  then  lived  five 
months  at  St  Omer,  Dunkirk  and  Brus- 
sels, and  expressed  himself  in  the  most 
violent  manner  concerning  the  dissensions 
between  the  king  and  the  pariiament 
At  Poperingue,  a  litde  village  near  Ypres, 
he  was  heard  to  say,  **!?  I  retium  to 
France,  I  shall  die ;  but  the  flm  of  the 
land  will  die  also,  and  you  will  liear  of 
me."  His  mind  was  disordered  when  he 
returned  to  Paris,  at  the  end  of  1756.  In 
the  beginning  of  the  next  year,  he  went 
to  Versailles,  took  opium  for  two  or  three 
days,  and  prepared  for  the  crime,  which 
he  attempted  January  5.  As  Louis  XV 
was  en  the  point  of  getting  into  his  car- 
riage, to  return  from  Versailles  to  Tria- 
non, Damiens  stabbed  him,  although  he 
was  surrounded  by  his  tnun,  in  the  right 
side,  with  a  knife.  The  assassin  was 
seized.  The  most  cruel  tortures  he  bore 
with  resolution,  and  could  not  be  induced 
to  confess  that  he  had  any  accomplices. 
He  asserted  that  he  should  not  have  com- 
mitted the  act  had  he  been  bled,  as  he  re- 
^[uested,  and  that  he  thought  it  merito- 
noua  He  was  condemned  to  be  torn  in 
quarters  by  horses,  and  the  sentence  was 
executed  March  28,  1757,  on  the  Place 
de  Grhfe  at  Paris. 

Dahiettjl,  or  Damtat  ;  a  large  city  of 
Lower  B^gypt,  first  built  at  the  east  mouth 
of  the  Nue,  and  called  Thamiatis,  under 
the  government  of  the  Lower  Empire ;  85 
miks  N.  N.  E.  Cairo ;  k>n.  31^  45"  E.; 
lat  3P  25^  N.:  population,  according  to 
Binosy  30,000 ;  according  to  Savary,  80,000. 
Damietta  daily  increased  as  Pelusium  de- 
clined. The  chief  disadvan(|ige  of  Da- 
mietta is  tlie  want  of  a  harbor ;  yet  it  is 
the   empcmum  of   commerce   between 


Egypt  and  Syria,  situated  on  the  Pfaat- 
metic  branch  of  the  Nile.  The  city  is 
without  walls,  built  in  the  foim  of  a  cres- 
cent, on  the  winding  bank  of  the  river, 
six  miles  from  the  sea.  It  is  laiger  and 
not  less  agreeable  than  Rosetta,  and  has 
several  squares.  Bazais  filled  with  mer- 
chandise, okals,  or  khans,  under  the  por- 
ticoes of  which  are  Indian  stuf%,  ralks 
from  mount  Lebanon,  sal  ammoniac,  and 
quantities  of  rice,  bespeak  it  a  ccnnmer- 
cial  place.  The  houses,  e^roeciallv  near 
the  river,  are  very  high.  Most  of  them 
have  pleasuit  saloons  built  on  the  terra- 
ces; fiom  which  charmmg  places,  open 
to  eveiy  wind,  there  is  a  view  of  the 
grand  lake  lying  on  the  other  side,  amd 
of  the  Nile,  which  tmverses  a  rich  coun- 
try between  them  botli.  Various  grand 
mosques,  with  high  minarets,  ornament 
the  city.  The  public  baths,  faced  with 
maible,  are  similar  to  those  of  Cairo. 
Multitudes  of  boats  and  small  vessels  in- 
cessantly fill  the  port  of  Damietta.  Some, 
named  tharm^  serve  to  k>ad  and  unload 
the  ships  that  anchor  in  the  road ;  others 
are  coasting  pilot-boats.  There  is  a  great 
trade  between  this  city  and  Syria,  Cyprus 
and  Turkey. 

Damoh  and  Ptthias  ;  two  illustrious 
Syracusans,  celebrated  as  models  of  c<m- 
stant  fiiendship.  Pytliias  had  been  un« 
justly  condemned  to  death  bv  Dionysius, 
tyrant  of  Sicily,  but  obtained  permission 
to  arrange  his  affiure  in  a  nein^boring 
place,  on  condition  that  his  firiend  should 
remain  as  a  pledge  of  his  return.  Damon 
surrendered  himself  at  the  prison,  ready 
to  sufler  death  instead  of  P^ias,  if  he 
did  not  return  at  a  fixed  time.  Unex- 
pected impediments  detained  him.  Da- 
mon, still  fully  convinced  of  the  faithful- 
ness of  his  friend,  is  already  on  Uie  way 
to  the  place  of  execution;  already  the 
people  begin  to  murmur,  and  to  pity  his 
credulity,  when  Pythias  suddenly  nishes 
through  die  crowd  into  the  arms  of  his 
friend.  While  they  demand  each  to  die 
for  the  other,  the  spectators  melt  into 
teara,  and  Dionysius  himself  approaches, 
pardons  them,  and  entreats  them  to  admit 
him  a  third  in  then-  friendship.  Schiller 
has  described  this  adventure  in  an  excel- 
lent balhul  (DU  BUr^ichaftX,  and  it  is  die 
subject  of  a  popular  JSngbsn  tragedy. 

Dampers;  certain  movable  parts  in 
the  internal  frame  of  a  piano-forte,  which 
are  covered  with  clotli,  and,  by  means  of 
a  pedal,  are  brought  into  contact  with  the 
wires,  in  order  to  deaden  the  vibration. 

Dautpier,  William,  a  celebrated  f^ff- 
lish  navigator,   was  bom  in  1653.    He 


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DAMPIER— DAMPS. 


109 


was  descended  from  a  good  family  in 
Someraetshire ;  but,  losing  his  father  when 
young,  he  was  sent  to  sea,  and  soon  distin- 
guished himself  as  an  able  mariner.  In 
1G73,  he  served  in  the  Dutch  war,  and  was 
subsequently  an  overseer  to  a  plantation 
in  Jamaica.  He  next  visited  the  bay 
of  Campeachy  as  a  logwood-cutter,  and, 
after  once  more  visiting  England,  engaged 
in  a  band  of  privateers,  as  they  called 
themselves, ^although  in  reality  pirates, 
with  whom  he  roved  on  the  Peruvian 
coasts.  He  next  engaged,  in  Virginia,  in 
an  expedition  against  the  Spanish  settle- 
ments in  the  South  seas.  They  accord- 
ingly sailed  in  August,  1683^  and,  after 
taking  several  prizes  on  the  coasts  of  Pe- 
ru and  Chili,  the  party  experienced  va- 
rious fortune,  but  no  veiy  signal  success. 
Dampier,  wishing  to  obtain  some  knowl- 
edge of  the  northern  coast  of  Mexico, 
joined  the  crew  of  a  captain  Swan,  who 
cruised  in  the  hopes  of  meeting  the  an- 
nual royal  Manilla  ship,  which,  however, 
escaped  them.  Swan  and  Dampier  were 
resolved  to  steer  for  the  East  Indies,  and 
they  accordingly  sailed  to  the  Piscadores, 
to  Bouton  island,  to  New  HoUand  and  to 
Nicobar,  where  Dampier  and  others  were 
left  ashore  to  recover  their  health.  Their 
numbers  gave  them  hopes  of  being  able 
to  navigate  a  canoe  to  Achin,  in  which 
they  succeeded,  after  encountering  a 
storm,  which  Dampier  has  described  with 
great  force  and  nature.*  After  making 
several  trading  voyages  with  a  captain 
Weldon,  he  entered,  as  a  gunner,  the 
English  factoiy  at  Bencoolen.  Upon  this 
coast  he  remained  until  1G91,  when  he 
found  means  to  return  home,  and,  being 
in  want  of  money,  sold  his  property  in 
a  curiously  painted  or  tattooed  Indian 
prince,  who  was  shown  as  a  curiosity, 
and  who  ultimately  died  of  the  small- 
pox at  Oxford.  He  is  next  heard  of  as  a 
commander,  in  the  king's  service,  of  a 
sloop  of  war  of  12  guns  and  50  men, 
probably  fttted  out  for  a  voyage  of  dis- 
covery. After  experiencing  a  variety  of 
adventures  with  a  discontented  crew,  this 
vessel  foundered  oft*  the  Isl6  of  Asoen- 
aon,  his  men  with  difticulty  reaching 
land.  They  were  released  from  this 
island  by  an  East  India  ship,  in  which 
Dampier  came  to  England.  Here  ends 
his  own  account  of  his  extraordinary  ad- 
ventures ;  but  it  seems  that  he  afterwards 
oommanded  a  ship  in  the  South  seas,  as 
also  that  he  accompanied  the  well-known 
expedition  of  captain  Woodes  Rogers  as 
pilot.  Dampier's  Voyages,  in  three  vol- 
umes, have  oeen  many  times  reprinted. 

VOL,  IV,  10 


They  are  written  by  himself  in  a  strongly 
descriptive  style,  bearing  all  the  marks  of 
fidelity ;  and  the  nautical  remarks  display 
much  professional  and  even  philosophical 
knowledge.  His  observations  on  natural 
objects  are  also  extremely  clear  and  par- 
ticular ;  and  he  writes  like  a  man  of  good 
principles,  although  he  kept  so  much  ij2- 
difterent  company. 

Damps  are  certain  deleterious  gases 
which  are  extricated  in  nunes.  They  are 
distinguished  by  miners  under  the  names 
of  ckoke-damp  and  fire-damp.  The  former 
is  found  in  tne  deepest  parts  of  mines.  It 
extinguishes  candles,  and  often  proves 
fatal  when  it  has  been  suffered  to  accumu- 
late in  large  quantities.  It  consists  for  the 
most  part  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  The  fire- 
damp, which  prevails  ahnost  exclusively 
in  coal  mines,  is  a  mixture  of  light  car- 
bureted hydrogen  and  atmospheric  air, 
which  explodes  with  tremendous  violence 
whenever  it  comes  in  contact  with  flame. 
The  injuries  which  formerly  occurred  so 
irequentljr,  both  to  the  machinery  and  the 
lives  of  miners,  arising  ftom  the  fire-damp, 
are  now  almast  completely  obviated  by 
the  fine  invention  of  sir  Humphrey  Davy, 
the  safety-lamp.  It  condsts  of  a  cylin- 
der of  wire  gauze,  about  four  inches  in 
diameter  and  a  foot  in  length,  having  a 
double  top,  securely  fastened  by  doublmg 
over  to  a  brass  rim,  which  screws  on  to 
the  lamp  itself  below.  The  whole  of  the 
wire  gauze  is  protected,  and  rendered  con- 
venient for  carrying,  by  a  triangular  wire 
ftnme  and  a  ring  at  the  top.  Thciwire 
gauze  is  made  either  of  iron  or  copper, 
the  vtdre  being  at  least  one  thirtieth  ot  an 
inch  in  diameter,  and  woven  togetlier  so 
as  to  leave  625  apertures  in  a  square  inch. 
The  body  of  the  lamp  is  of  riveted  cop- 
per, or  of  massy  cast  brass  or  cast  iron, 
the  screws  fitting  so  completely  as  to 
leave  no  aperture  into  the  body  of  the 
lamp.  When  the  lamp  is  lighted,  it  afibrds 
the  miner  all  the  light  which  he  requires, 
and  renders  liim  perfectly  secure,  even 
though  entirely  enveloped  with  the  ex- 
plosive mixture,  which,  with  an  ordinary 
light,  would  immediately  prove  fatal.  The 
first  cfiect  of  the  fire-damp  atmosphere  is 
to  increase  the  length  and  size  of  the 
fiame.  When  the  carbureted  hydrogen 
fonns  as  iDUch  as  one  twelfth  of  the  vol- 
ume of  the  air,  the  gauze  cylinder  be- 
comes filled  with  a  feeble  blue  fiarae,  but 
the  flame  of  the  wick  appears  burning 
brightly  within  the  blue  flame,  and  the 
light  of  the  wick  augments  until  the  in- 
flammable gas  increases  to  one  sixth  or  one 
fifth,  when  it  is  lost  in  the  flame  of  the 


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110 


DAMPS— DANCING. 


lire -damp,  which  now  fills  the  cylinder 
with  a  pretty  strong  light.  As  long  as 
this  explosive  mixture  of  gas  exists  in 
contact  with  the  lamp,  so  long  it  will 
give  light ;  and  when  it  is  extinguished, 
which  happens  when  the  foul  air  consti- 
tutes as  much  as  one  third  of  the  volume 
of  the  atmosphere,  the  air  is  no  longer 
proper  for  respiration ;  for  though  animal 
life  wiU  continue  when  flame  is  extin- 
guished, yet  it  is  always  witli  suffering. 
A  coil  of  platinum  wire  being  fixed  above 
the  wick  of  the  lamp,  within  the  gauze 
cylinder,  tlie  metal  continues  to  glow 
long  after  the  lamp  is  extinguished,  and 
affords  a^  sufficient  light  to  enable  the  mi- 
ner tojD^e  Ilia  escape.  The  effect  of 
the  8a^Hk|ip  is  supposed  to  depend  on 
the  cotj^^^ency  of  the  wire  ^uze,  ex- 
erted oJHpfportionof  gas  bummg  within 
the  cylin3fer.  Hence  a  lamp  may  be  se- 
cure where  there  is  no  current  of  an  ex- 
plosive mixture  to  occasion  its  being 
strongly  heated,  and  yet  not  safe  when 
the  current  passes  through  it  with  great 
rapidity.  But  any  atmosphere,  however 
explosive,  may  be  rendered  harmless  by 
increasing  the  cooling  surface,  which  may 
be  done  either  by  diminisliing  the  size 
of  the  apertures,  or  by  increasing  their 
depth,  both  of  which  are  perfecdy  within 
the  |K)wer  of  the  manufacturer  of  the 
wire  gauze. 

Dan  (perhaps  from  dommu8,  like  the 
Spanish  don,  and  the  Italian  efonna,  from 
damina) ;  the  old  term  of  honor  for  men, 
as  we  now  say  master.  It  is  used  by 
Shakspeare,  Prior,  Spenser.   . 

Dan  (Hebrew ;  inesmng  judgment);  one 
of  the  12  patriarchs,  the  5tli  son  of  Jacob. 
The  Danites  were  one  of  the  12  tribes  of 
Israel. 

Danae;  daughter  of  Acrisius,  king  of 
Argos.  She  was  shut  up  by  her  father  in 
ti  brazen  tower,  because  an  oracle  had 
declared  that  a  son  of  his  daughter  should 
put  him  to  death.  But  Jupiter,  inflamed 
with  passion  for  tlie  charming  virgin, 
transformed  himself  into  a  goldenshower, 
and  descended  through  the  apertures  of 
the  roof  into  her  embraces.  When  Acri- 
sius discovered  that  his  daughter  had  be- 
come a  mother,  he  exposed  ner,  with  her 
child,  in  a  fi^l  boat,  to  the  violence  of  the 
waves.  But  the  sea-soddesses,  anxious 
for  the  preservation  of  the  son  of  Jove, 
commanded  the  bDlows  to  wafl  the  skiff 
safety  to  Seriphoe,  one  of  the  Cyclades. 
Polydectes,  or  rather  Dictys,  the  governor 
of  the  island,  received  her,  and  educated 
the  child,  which  he  named  Perseus,  (q.v.) 

DanaIdes  ;  the  50  daughteisof  Danatis, 


who  was  a  son  of  Belus,  aod,  at  first,  lived 
in  Libya,  with  his  brother  iEgyptus,  who 
had  50  sons.  In  conseouence  of  a  quar- 
rel with  his  brother,  Danaiis,  with  his 
daughters,  fled  to  Ar^os.  The  50  sons  of 
iCgyptus  followed  him  thither,  expressed 
a  desire  for  a  reconciliation,  ana  asked 
the  dauffhters  of  Danaiis  in  marriage.  He 
was  obfiged  to  consent  to  the  proposal; 
but,  as  be  put  no  confidence  in  bis  neph- 
ews, and  had,  moreover,  been  inform^ 
by  an  oracle,  that  one  of  his  sons-in-law 
should  slay  him,  he  bound  his  daughters, 
by  a  solemn  oath,  to  murder  their  hus- 
bands on  their  bridal  night.  They  all 
kept  their  promise  except  H}'permnestra, 
who  saved  the  life  of  her  husband  Lyn- 
ceus.  As  a  punishment  for  their  crime, 
the  daughters  of  Danaiis,  in  the  infernal 
world,  were  condenmed  perpetually  to 
draw  water  in  sieves.  Of^this  tradition 
the  ancients  gave  the  following  historical 
explanation : — The  daughters  of  Danaiis 
were  said  to  have  discovered  fountains  in 
the  dry  country  of  Argolis,  and  constructed 
cisterns  there. 

Dancinq.  The  disposition  to  ihythm 
and  measured  motion,  is  deeply  implanted 
in  human  nature.  As  soon  as  man,  in  a 
rude  state,  wishes  to  express  elevated  feel- 
ings, whatever  be  their  cause — joy,  devo- 
tion, patriotism — ^he  makes  use  of  rhythm, 
or  measured  language,  and  tlie  dance,  or 
measured  movements.  This  is  the  origin 
of  the  symbolical  dance,  which,  among  all 
nations,  in  die  first  stages  of  civilization, 
is  used  as  an  expression  of  excited  feeling. 
The  operation  of  the  principle  of  imita- 
tion, which  led  to  the  invention  of  the 
drama,  gave  birth  also  to  the  imitative 
dance — the  pantomime.  Dancing,  in  the 
course  of  time,  took  the  character  of  an 
art  Grace  became  one  of  its  chief  ob- 
jects, and  it  was  much  cultivated  as  an 
elegant  amusement  in  the  intercourse  of 
society,  and  an  elegant  spectacle  in  pubhc 
entertainments.  Its  ancient  character,  how- 
ever, of  an  expression  of  religious  or  patri- 
otic feeling,  gradually  declined,  as  the  prog- 
ress of  refmementand  civilization  produc- 
ed its  invariable  eflect  of  restraimng  the 
full  expression  of  the  feelinss  and  emotions. 
This  circumstance,  added  to  the  chas- 
tened and  didactic  character  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion, probably  prevented  the  dance 
from  bemg  admitted  among  the  rites  of  the 
Christian  reli^on ;  but  it  1^  always  been 
cultivated  among  Christians,  as  an  a^e- 
able  amusement  and  elegant  exhibition. 
As  an  amusement  of  social  assemblages, 
the  dance  has  sunk  much  below  the  charac- 
ter of  an  art    The  polite  assemblies  of  the 


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DANCING-DANDOLO. 


lU 


uiwunt  day  are  too  much  crowded  to 
teftTe  room  for  graceful  dancing,  and,  in 
England  and  the  U.  States,  one  kind  of 
dance,  being  kept  up  during  a  whole  eve- 
ning,  of  course  tends  to  produce  tedious- 
neaa.  But  national  dances,  as  thoae  of 
the  Bohemian,  Polish,  Hungarian,  Italian, 
Spanish  peasanny,  still  retain  the  expres- 
sion of  joyous  feeling,  and  often  exhibit 
much  imitative  power. 

There  is  reason  to  8UfqM)ee  that  the 
dance  bad  a  place  among  the  religious 
rites  of  the  Jews;  to  what  extent,  however, 
is  not  known,  and  some  persons  deny  the 
6ct  altogether;  but  it  appears  pretty  evi- 
dent that  this  doubt  is  unfounded,  and  its 
admission  may  be  easily  explained  by  the 
origin  which  we  have  ascribed  to  dancing 
in  general.  With  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans, regulated  movements,  quick  or  slow, 
L  e.,  dancing,  were  introduced  in  most 
religious  celeorations.  The  Greeks,  de- 
veloping the  element  of  the  beautiful  in 
every  branch  of  art,  were  also  masters  in 
the  leligious  dance.  In  the  exhibidons  of 
the  th^ure,  thev  united  the  dance  with 
many  other  performances,  and  the  dances 
of  the  ancients  which  commemorated  the 
adventures  of  Achilles,  Alexander,  the 
loves  of  Venus  and  Mars,  &.C.,  are  to  be 
understood  as  pantomimic  perfbrmances, 
the  word  aattare,  with  the  Romans,  hav- 
ing a  veiy  extensive  meaning,  and  ^x^/trcc, 
with  the  Greeks,  including  the  mimic  art 
in  general.  From  the  Romans,  the  dance 
was  transmitted  to  the  national  theatre  of 
the  Italians.  As  early  as  the  16th  centu- 
rv,  several  Italians  (Rinaldo  Corso,  Fabric 
daroso,  &c.)  wrote  on  dancing.  They 
and  the  French  have  cultivated  the  mod- 
em art  of  dancing  to  the  degree  of  perfec- 
tion in  which  we  find  it;  so  that  the  ballet 
of  the  Parisian  opera  was  long  considered 
the  highest  perfection  of  the  art  of  danc- 
ing, and,  in  some  respects,  still  is.  There 
exist,  at  present,  two  difterent  schools — 
the  Italian  and  French.  That  of  the  lat- 
ter, who  may  be  called,  by  way  of  emi- 
nence, the  graceful  nation,  is  the  more 
perfect  Much  is  said  against  the  modem 
French  ballet,  and,' no  doubt,  it  sometimes 
degenerates  to  a  mere  display  of  skill  and 
agUitv,  at  the  expense  of  grace  and  beauty, 
which  ought  always  to  remain  the  chief 
oljject  of  dancing ;  yet  we  consider  the 
French  ballet,  as  it  exists  at  present,  in  a 
very  perfect  state,  and  no  country  has 
probably  ever  had  a  more  finished  theat- 
rical dance,  the  foundation  of  which  was 
laid  by  Beauchamp,  under  Louis  XIY. 
This  art  owes  still  more  to  the  famous 
Noverre  (q.  v.),  whose  writings  on  this  sub- 


ject much  surpaflB  thoae  of  D'Aibeau  and 
Kameau.  A  general  woric  on  danoingv 
treating  the  religioua  and  secular  dances 
of  the  different  nations,  would  be  interest^ 
ing.  As  regards  the  European  dances^ 
ancient  and  modem,  and  that  of  the  Jews, 
the  following  woriu  are  some  of  the  best: 
Bourdelot's  HisUnrt  dt  la  Dante  taeree  d 
jnrofaney  tes  Progris  el  «ef  Rivoluiiong  de- 
pms  son  Origine^  &c.  (Paris,  1724, 12mo.), 
and  Cahusac's  TVaiU  de  la  Dan$e  one.  ei 
iiuMieme  (Paris,  1753,  3  vols.,  12mo.).  For 
the  dances  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  see 
also  Potter's  Arehaologta  Graea ;  Zelmer 
De  Chortxi  vet,  Judaorum  Diss.  (Ahori^ 
1726,  4to.]^  and  Renz*s  work,  De  Ediguh- 
sis  SaUationibus  veL  Jud<Borvm  (Leipsic, 
1738, 4to.) ;  Memoires  sur  Us  Danses  Chi- 
noises,  in  the  Variitts  litUraires  (vol.  1  and 
2) ;  Lafiteau's  Moturs  des  Sauvages  (vol.  1). 
Since  Noverre,  few  good  treatises  have 
been  wrinen,  sivinginstmcdons  on  the  art 
of  dancing.  We  mention  only  the  Essai 
sur  la  Danse  cmUqu/e  et  modeme  (Paris, 
1823,  by  mad.  Elise  \oiaxi\  and  i|Mm>n'8 
Entretiens  sur  la  Danse  ancienno^in»demej 
religituse,  civile  et  thdatraU  (Paris,  1825). 
The  only  Christian  sect,  that  has  admitted 
dancing  among  its  religious  ceremonies, 
are  the  Shakers,  so  called. 

Daivcocrt,  Florent  Carton;  a  French 
actor  and  comic  ooet;  bom  in  1661,  at 
Fontainebleau,  of^  a  respectable  fiunily. 
At  the  age  of  23>  he  became  enamored  of 
an  actress,  and  lefl  every  other  employ- 
ment for  the  stage.  Although  he  person- 
ated the  first  charactera  in  high  comedy, 
he  succeeded  best,  as  an  author,  in  low 
comedy.  He  displaved  much  ingenuity 
and  wit  in  introducmg  upon  the  stage 
amusing  subjects  of  real  occurrence  in  his 
time.  Louis  XIV  was  very  fond  of  hu- 
morous pieces,  and  Dancourt  oflen  used 
to  read  his  productions  to  the  king  before 
they  were  played.  He  lefl  the  tlieatre  in 
1718,  and  died  in  1726.  A  good  edition 
of  his  complete  works  app^ired  in  12 
volumes,  12mo.,  1760. 

Daitdelion.  (See  Leontodon,) 
Dandolo,  Henry,  one  of  the  most  il- 
lustrious of  the  doges  of  Venice,  was 
chosen  to  that  office,  in  1192,  at  the  ad- 
vanced age  of  84.  He  had  a  defect  of 
sight,  approaching  nearly  to  blindness; 
but  neither  that  circumstance  nor  his  age 
impaired  the  vigor  of  his  administration, 
the  events  of  his  government  being  among 
tlie  principal  causes  of  the  Venetian  great- 
ness. On  the  formation  of  the  league  for 
the  fourth  crusade,  under  Baldwin,  earl 
of  Flandera,  Dandolo  induced  the  senate 
to  join  in  it,  and  by  his  poUcy  the  finst  hos- 


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lis 


DANDOLO— DANIEL. 


tilities  of  the  armament  were  directed 
against  Zara,  which  had  revolted  from 
Venice.  On  the  storming  of  Constantino- 
ple, the  afed  doge,  stanmng  on  the  prow 
of  his  giuley,  with  the  great  standard  of 
St  Mark  borne  before  nim,  commanded 
his  men  to  run  up  to  the  walls,  and  was 
the  first  who  leaped  on  shore.  After  va- 
rious changes  in  the  imperial  throne,  suc- 
ceeded by  a  second  siege,  in  which  Con- 
stantinople was  stormed  and  pillaged  by 
the  crusaders,  the  latter  proceeded  to  the 
election  of  an  emperor,  and  Dandolo  was 
£iist  nominated,  although,  in  consequence 
of  his  age,  and  the  incompatible  character 
of  dose,  the  choice  ultimately  fell  on 
Baldwm.  In  the  sharing  of  the  imperial 
dominions,  Venice  obtained  a  full  moiety, 
and  Dandolo  was  solemnly  invested  with 
the  title  of  despot  of  Romania,  He  ended 
his  eventful  lire  at  Constantinople,  in  1205 
(if  the  records  are  to  be  trusted),  at  the 
advanced  age  of  97. 

Dandolo,  Andrew,  doge  of  Venice,  and 
one  of  the  earliest  Italian  historians,  was 
bom  about  1310,  and  made  doge  in  1343. 
He  carried  on  a  war  against  the  Turks  with 
various  success,  and  greatly  extended  Vene- 
tian commerce,  by  opening  a  trading  con- 
nexion with  Egypt  The  jealousy  enter- 
tained by  the  Genoese  of  this  new  trade 
produced  a  war  between  the  two  states^ 
which  gave  rise  to  a  correspondence  be- 
tween the  doge  and  Petrarch,  who  exhorted 
him  to  peace.  He  died  in  September,  1354. 
To  Andrew  Dandolo  is  ascribed  the  compi- 
lation of  the  sixth  book  of  Venetian  stat- 
utes ;  but  he  is  most  distinguished  for  his 
Chronicle  of  Venice,  whicii  is  written  in 
Latin,  and  comprehends  the  history  of  the 
republic  from  its  commencement  to  1342. 
It  is  praised  for  its  impartiality,  and  for  its 
judicious  use  of  authentic  documents,  and 
was  first  publLshed  bv  Muratori  in  his  col- 
lection of^original  Ittmau  writers  of  history. 

Daneoelt  (from  the  Saxon  eeU,  mon- 
ey), an  ancient  aimual  tax  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,  to  maintain  forces  to  resist  the 
Danes. 

Danforth's  Speeder,  in  cotton  ma- 
chinery; a  roving  frame,  in  which  the 
bobbins  are  not  turned  by  the  rotation  of 
their  axis,  but  by  friction  applied  to  their 
surface  by  small  wooden  cylinders,  which 
revolve  in  contact  with  them.  By  tliis 
contrivance,  the  velocity  of  the  surface  of 
the  bobbin  will  always  be  the  same,  what- 
ever mav  be  its  growth  from  the  accumu- 
lation of  roiing,  so  that  the  winding  goes 
on  at  an  equable  rate.  The  s])eeder  re- 
ceived its  name  from  Mr.  Danforth,  of 
Massachusetts,  the  inventor. 


Daniel,  the  p^phet,  a  contemponiy 
of  Ezekiel,  was  bom  of  a  distinguished 
Hebrew  family.  In  his  youth,  B.  C.  600, 
he  was  carried  captive  to  Babylon,  and 
educated  in  the  Babylonish  court,  for  the 
service  of  king  Nebuchadnezzar.  Ailer 
tliree  years,  he  entered  into  the  service  of 
this  monarch,  and  discharged  liis  employ- 
ments with  much  credit  to  himself*,  and 
without  violating  his  conscience.  A  de- 
cree of  the  king,  which  he  could  not  con- 
scientiously ooev,  occasioned  his  being 
thrown  into  the  lions'  den.  Preserved  by 
a  miraculous  Providence,  he  lived  after- 
wards in  happiness  and  honor.  He  was 
elevated  to  the  office  of  governor  and 
prime-minister  in  the  court  of  the  Persian 
king  Darius.  Cyrus  finally  gave  him  per- 
mission to  return,  with  his  people,  to  Pal- 
estine. Daniel  was  a  man  of  high  mental 
cultivation  and  strict  virtue.  IQ^ing  well 
acquainted  with  the  government  and  con- 
dition of  all  the  great  kingdoms  then  known 
in  the  world,  and  particularly  favored  by 
the  Deity,  he  could  foresee  coming  events 
with  the  greatest  accuracy,  and,  for  this 
reason,  deservedlv  received  the  name  of 
JSTabi  (prophet),  although  most  of  the  Jews 
exclude  him  from  the  number  of  the 
prophets.  His  prophecv  has  come  down 
to  posterity,  and  is  included  in  the  He- 
brew canon.  Probably  onlv  the  second 
part  of  it  is  by  him.  It  is  wholly  s^inbol- 
ical,  full  of  dreams  and  visions.  The 
hand-writing  on  the  wall  of  Belshazzar's 
palace  was  interpreted  by  Daniel 

Daniel,  Gabriel ;  one  of  the  French 
historians,  bom  at  Rouen,  in  1649.  At  the 
age  of  18,  he  entered  the  Jesuits'  college, 
instructed  in  severalplaces  with  much  suc- 
cess, and  died  in  1728.  **  He  sought,"  as 
the  German  Bouterwek  says  of  him,  **  in 
his  history  of  his  own  country,  which  has 
earned  him  his  reputation''" (HutotT^  de 
France,  of  which  many  editions  have  ap- 
peared since  1713,  particularly  that  of 
Paris,  1755 — 1757,  in  17  vols.,  4to. ;  also 
numerous  abridgments,  and  a  German 
translation,  Nuremberg,  1756 — 65, 16  vols., 
4to.),  "to  connect  tlie  flatteiy  of  the  court, 
the  nobility  and  the  clergy  with  the  dudes 
of  a  histonan."  We  often  feel  tlie  want  of 
profound  research  and  historical  fidelity  m 
his  work.  He  seems  to  have  been  destitute 
of  the  ait  of  historical  description.  His 
thoughts  on  the  proper  mode  of  writing 
history,  he  has  ^ven  to  the  world  in 
the  somewhat  tedious  introduction  to  his 
TOolix  narrative.  His  Histoire  de  la  MUice 
Jhmfoise  is  still  known :  less  so  is  his  Re- 
cueil  des  Ouvrages  PhUosopkiques,  TTUo- 
logiques,  ^pologiiigues,  &c  (1724,  4to.)^ 


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DANIEL— DANNECKER. 


113 


which  contains  his  Voyage  da  Monde  de 
Descariea  (fifst  published  separately,  and 
tnmslated  into  English  and  Italian) — a 
causdc  satire  on  the  opinions  of  this  phi- 
ksopher. 

Dahiel,  Samuel,  an  Enslish  historian 
and  poet,  contempoFBiy  wiin  Shakspeare, 
was  bom  15G2.  lie  had  an  appointment 
at  the  court  of  queen  Elizabeth,  and 
also  of  Anne  (wife  of  James  I) ;  but  he 
commonly  lived  in  the  counoy,  employed 
in  literary  pursuits.  As  a  historical  poet, 
he  seems  to  have  taken  Liican  for  his 
pattern.  He  employed  his  brilliant  tal- 
ents in  writing  an  epic  on  the  most  re- 
mailEable  occurrences  in  the  histonr  of  his 
countxy.  He  bestowed  much  labor  on 
the  poem  which  describes,  in  eight  books, 
the  civil  wars  between  the  houses  of  York 
and  Lancaster  (Histoiy  of  the  Civil  Wars 
between  the  Houses  of  YoriL  and  Lancas- 
ter, reprinted  with  the  Rest  of  the  poetical 
Works  of  this  Author,  and  some  Account 
of  his  Life,  in  Anderson's  British  Poets,  vol. 
4).  The  poetical  value  of  this  work^  as 
of  Lucan's,  consists  in  a  beautiful  style. 
Daniel  contributed  much  to  the  improve- 
ment of  the  poetical  diction  of  Eng- 
land His  stanzas,  formed  with  a  careful 
attention  to  the  Italian  octave,  have  more 
dignity  and  euphony  than  most  versesof  this 
sort  in  English  fitemture,  in  the  first  half  of 
the  17th  century.  He  is  not  wanting  in  rhe- 
torical beauty  and  force.  He  was  also  the 
audior  of  some  poetical  epistles,  pastorals, 
57  sonnets,  and  a  few  tragedies.  The 
first  seem  to  bave  excited  much  attention. 
During  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabefli,  he 
wrote  a  sketch  of  the  histoiy  of  England, 
till  the  time  of  Edward  III — a  work  Team- 
ed and  clear,  without  ostentation,  and  con- 
taining useful  and  acute  views.  Daniel 
died  in  1619. 

DAinsH  Lahouaoe,  Litebature  aivd 
Aat.    (See  Denmark,) 

DAinsHMEND ;  a  Turkish  ecclesiBstic  of 
low  rank ;  also  a  talionan. 

Dahitegksb,  John  Henry  von  ;  pro- 
fessor of  sculpture  at  Stuttgard ;  one  or  the 
most  enunent  of  modem  sculptors.  He 
was  bora  at  Stutteard,  Oct  15, 1756,  of 
poor  parents :  his  rather  was  a  groom  of 
the  duke  of  Wlrtemberg,  and  the  son 
grew  up  wHhout  any  other  education  than 
the  condition  of  his  parents  would  allow. 
He  eariy  exhibited  a  strong  inclination  for 
drawing,  which  he  seoetly  indulged,  and, 
beioff^stitttte  of  paper,  covered  the  ma- 
terial of  a  neighbomig  stone-cutter  with 
his  designs,  rrovidence,  however,  unex- 
pectedly afiR>rded  this  remarkable  genius 
an  opportunity  fi>r  rising  firom  obscurity. 


On  Easter-day,  1771,  DanneckePs  father 
came  home,  and  mentioned  that  the  duke 
would  receive  the  chiklren  of  his  servants 
into  his  military  school,  and  added,  angri- 
ly, that  he  had  cast  his  eyes  on  the  lx>y. 
The  child  declared  tliat  he  would  go  to 
the  duke  that  very  day ;  and,  to  prevent 
him,  his  &ther  shut  him  up  in  a  closet. 
Having  collected  the  boys  m  the  street 
before  the  apartment  in  which  he  was 
confined,  he  jumped  out  of  the  window, 
and,  without  hesitation,  went  with  them 
straightway  to  the  castie,  where  the  £ter- 
les€7ir-a  national  feast  of  the  people — ^had 
assembled  the  court  They  addressed 
themselves  to  the  servants  with  this  re- 
ouest — *^  We  shouM  like  to  be  received  into 
the  Charies's  school.''  The  duke  was  in- 
formed of  their  petition,  and  came  imme- 
diately forth  to  examine  the  little  baud. 
He  looked  at  them  keenly,  and,  at  length, 
took  one  after  the  other  fix>m  the  crowd, 
and  placed  him  to  the  right  of  himself; 
finally,  there  remained  only  Dannecker 
with  two  others  on  the  left.  The  poor 
boys  believed  themselves  rejected,  and 
Dannecker  wonki  willinglv  have  sunk 
into  the  earth.  But  these  three  were,  in 
fact,  the  selected  ones,  and  the  others 
were  dismissed.  After  an  examination  of 
his  talents,  young  Dannecker  was  des- 
tined to  be  an  artist  In  hb  16th  year,  he 
obtained  a  prize  for  his  Milo  of  Crotona, 
The  composition  of  this  Milo  would  not 
disgrace  bis  ripened  ability.  In  this  acad- 
emy, Dannecker  formed  an  intimate  fiiend- 
ship  with  Schiller,  then  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  scholars  at  that  place,  and 
to  whom,  in  later  days,  he  erected  a  mon- 
ument He  left  the  academy  at  the  same 
time  with  him  in  1780,  and  was  appointed 
statuary  to  the  court,  by  the  duke,  with  a 
yearly  salary  of  300  florina  Three  years 
afterwards,  he  obtained  permission  to 
travel  to  Paris,  yet  without  any  further 
assistance  tiian  an  increase  of  100  florins  to 
his  salaiy  during  his  second  year  in  Paris, 
With  this  small  provision,  Dannecker,  in 
1783,  travelled  on  foot  to  Paris.  Love  for 
his  art  enabled  the  young  man  to  bear  with 
content  the  severest  privations,  and  the 
contemplation  of  splendid  woriss  of  genius 
often  caused  him  to  fo^t  his  hunger. 
Dannecker  found  here,  in  the  celebrated 
and  honest  Pajou,  a  valuable  master.  In 
1785,  he  left  Paris,  and  proceeded  on  foot 
to  Rome.  Here  he  became  acqftainted 
with  Canova  (bom  in  1757),  who,  at  that 
time,  was  beginning  to  obtain  distinc- 
tion, and  was  employed  on  Ganganel- 
li^s  monument  Canova  soon  conceived 
an  affection  for  the  German  artist,  was 


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DANNECKERr— DANTE. 


serviceable  to  him  in  liis  studies,  visited 
him  often  in  liis  labors,  and  improved 
him  by  his  remaiks.  Dannecker  com- 
menced his  labors  in  marble  at  Rome, 
where  he  made  a  Ceres  and  a  Bacchus. 
These  statues  procured  his  admission  into 
the  academies  of  Bologna  and  Milan.  He 
returned  to  his  country  in  1790,  after  an 
abode  of  five  years  in  Rome,  and  duke 
Charles  made  him  professor  of  the  fine 
arts  in  his  academy.  The  first  work 
which  he  completed  for  the  patron  of  his 
Youth,  was  a  maiden  mourning  over  a 
bird.  He  now  labored  principally  upon 
sketches  and  designs  for  the  duke.  In 
1796,  he  began  again  to  work  in  marble, 
and,  among  other  things,  produced  a  Sap- 
pho (now  in  Monrepos);  in  1797,  two 
priestesses  of  plaster  (at  present  in  the  Fa- 
vorite, at  Louisberg);  and  many  studies. 
The  elector  Frederic  H  (afterwards  king] 
now  employed  him  upon  a  greater  work — 
Weeping  Friendship  leaning  upon  a  Cof- 
fin— ^for  the  monument  of  his  noble  friend, 
the  count  Zeppelin.  This  he  finished  in 
marble,  in  1804,  and  it  was  long  the  object 
of  admiration,  in  the  mausoleum  of  the 
count,  in  the  pork  at  Louisberg.  MThile 
ho  was  modelling  this  figure,  the  idea  of 
his  Ariadne  suggested  itself  to  his  mind. 
He  had,  in  1797,  executed  a  bust  after 
nature,  and  as  large  as  life,  of  his  fiiend 
Schiller,  during  his  residence  in  Stuttgard. 
He  now  prepared  a  second,  of  colossal 
size,  of  Carrara  marble — an  offering  of  love 
and  grief  to  his  deceased  fiiend.  Tiiis  bust 
adorns  the  artist's  study,  and  only  casts  in 
plaster  have  been  given  to  the  world,  of 
which  one  adorns  the  library  of  the  univer- 
sity of  G6ttiugen.  After  many  other  works, 
he  at  length  began,  in  marble,  in  1809, 
his  Ariadne  riding  upon  a  panther,  as  the 
bride  of  Bacchus ;  and,  in  1816,  this  was 
sent  to  Mr.  de  Biethmann,  at  Frankfort 
It  is  one  of  the  most  beautifiil  works  of 
modem  times.  In  1812,  the  artist  was 
again  employed  by  king  Frederic  upon  a 
new  work.  This  was  a  Cupid,  the  aesign 
of  which  was  furnished  by  the  monarch. 
The  head  of  the  little  sod  was  to  be  in- 
clined towards  the  eartn,  in  a  meditating 
embarrassment,  vrith  an  empty  quiver  and 
an  unstrunff  bow.  But  the  artist  threw 
into  the  piece  a  more  ideal  character. 
Under  liis  chisel,  it  became  a  heavenly 
Cupid,  represented  at  die  moment  when 
Psyche  has  let  fall  the  heated  oil  upon 
his  shoulder.  General  Murmy,  an  Eng- 
lishman, saw  this  exquisite  specimen  of 
sculpture,  finished  in  marble,  in  1814,  and 
wished  it  to  be  repeated  for  himself.  In- 
1  of  complying  with  this  wish,  Dan- 


necker offered  to  complete  for  him  a  pen* 
dant,  and  executed  bis  Psyche,  a  pure 
being,  intended  to  represent  heavenly  in- 
nocence. But  the  &vorite  subject  of  the 
artist,  which  for  8  years  occupied  his 
thoughts,  is  his  Christ,  for  the  idea  of 
which  he  is  indebted  to  an  inspiring  dream. 
This  colossal  statue  was  finished  in  1824, 
and  sent  to  St  Petersburg,  to  the  empress- 
mother  of  Russia,  who  made  a  present  of 
it  to  the  emperor  Alexander.  Dannecker 
wished,  in  this  piece  of  art,  to  represent 
the  Mediator  between  God  and  man.  He 
was  afterwards  employed,  in  1825,  upon  a 
stame  of  the  evangelist  John,  seven  feet  in 
height,  for  the  royal  chapel  at  Rothen- 
berg.  Dannecker  labors,  unweariedly, 
from  mominff  to  evening,  with  the  activity 
of  youth.  The  openness  and  nmphcity 
of  his  character  have  gained  him  the  love 
of  all  who  know  him,  and  his  life  has 
been  so  undisturbed,  that  Canova  sur- 
named  him  U  beato. 

DArrTE  (properly,  Diarante  AUghieri), 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  men  oi 
whom  histoiy  makes  mention,  was  bom 
in  Florence,  m  1265.  Of  the  first  years  of 
this  greatest  and  earliest  of  the  modern 
poets  of  Ital^,  we  know  little  more  than 
that  (as  he  himself  tells  us,  in  his  htfemo, 
XV,  8th)  he  was  a  scholar  of  Brunetto  La- 
tini,  a  Florentine,  distinguished  as  a  poet, 
a  scholar,  and  a  poUtician.  His  very  early 
love  for  Beatrice  Portinari  (who  died  in 
1290)  aroused  his  spirit,  and  afiforded  im- 
ages and  figures  to  his  poetical  mind,  as  long 
as  it  created.  He  studied  philosophy  at 
Florence,  Bologna  and  Padua,  and  after- 
wards theok)^  at  Paris.  He  was  also 
familiar  with  Latin  literature,  and  wrote 
the  lanj^age  well  for  that  time.  While 
he  cultivated  his  mind,  he,  at  the  same 
time,  served  his  country  as  a  soldier  and 
a  statesman.  In  1289,  he  fought  in  the 
memorable  battie  at  Campaldino  against 
the  Ghibelines  of  Arezzo,  and,  in  1290, 
at  Caprona,  against  the  Pisans.  He  went 
on  several  embassies  fi^m  the  Florentine 
republic  to  Rome,  and  to  the  courts  of 
different  sovereigns.  In  1291,  he  married 
Gemma,  the  daughter  of  Manetto  Donati, 
by  whom  he  had  several  children.  This 
marriage  was  not  happy,  and  a  separation 
finally  ensued.  In  190O,  Dante  was,  unfor- 
mnately  for  himself,  made  one  of  the  pri- 
ors, or  superior  magistrates,  of  his  native 
city.  Florence  was,  at  that  time,  divided 
between  two  parties — the  Bianchi  and 
Neri  (tiie  White  and  Black)L  The  fonner, 
being  the  weaker,  sought  assistance  fiix»n 
pope  Boni&oe  VIII ;  and  the  pope  deter- 
mined to  send  Charles  of  Vak>iB,  brother 


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115 


of  Philip  IV  of  France,  who  was  at  that 
time  in  Rome,  to  quiet  the  troubles  in 
Florence.    Dante,  aa  prior  of  the  city,  re- 
msted  this  interference,  apprehending  dan- 
gerous conseijuences  to  the  state,  and  was 
Sierefore  banished,  in  1302,  tosether  with 
the  leaders  of  tlie  Bianchi,  and  his  prop- 
erty confiscated,  because  he  was  unable 
to  pay  a  fine  of  8000  lire,  which  was  im- 
posed upon  him.    His  life  was  now  an 
almost  uninterrupted  series  of  misfortunes. 
He  and  his  companions  in  adversity,  ac- 
coixling  to  some  writers,  joined  the  jMuty 
of  the  Ghibelines,  or  adlierents  of  the 
emperor,  through  whose  assistance  alone 
they  could  hope  to  rotum  to  their  country. 
The  proofe  or  this  are  found  in  numerous 
passages  in  his  poems,  which  contain  the 
bitterest  invectives  against  Boniface,  the 
head  of  the  church,  whom  he  places  in 
heU.  Dante  then  lived  some  time  in  Arez- 
zo  ;  but,  the  attempt  of  the  Bianchi,  in 
1304,  to  force  their  way  back  to  Florence, 
having  failed,  he  left  Tuscany,  and  took 
refuge  in  Verona,  with  Alboin  delia  Scala, 
who  had  gained  among  his  contempora- 
ries the  name  of  the  Great,  firom  the  sup- 
port which  talent  and  merit  always  found 
ID  him.    But  Dante,  constantly  in  a  state 
of  inquietude,  and  in  expectation  of  his 
recall,  could  not,  as  Petrarch  relates,  con- 
ceal his  dejection  and  bitterness  from  his 
benefiictors ;  and  this  seems  to  be  the  rea- 
son why  he  nowhere  found  a  permanent 
residence.    He  speaks  in  a  very  touching 
manner,  in  his  huamo,  of  the  pain  of  hav- 
ing to  **  ascend  the  stairs  of  other  men," 
as  he  describes  his  state  of  dependence. 
On  this  account,  several  cities  could  pre- 
tend to  the  honor  of  having  had  the  Dm- 
na  Commedia  composed  wiUiin  their  walls. 
Beodes  visiting  many  places  of  Italy,  Dante 
likewise  went  to  Paris.    He  endeavored, 
at  length,  to  eflfect  his  restoration  to  Flor- 
ence, by  means  of  the  emperor  Henry 
VU,  then  in  Italy,  on  which  occasion,  he 
wrote  a  work  on  monarchy,  De  Monorchia, 
about  the  year  1309  (Ba^il,  1559 ;  also  con- 
tained in  4  vols.,  in  the  Venetian  edition 
of  his  works) ;  but  this  hope  was  disap- 
pointed.   During  the  last  years  of  his  life, 
Le  resided  at  Ravenna,  with  Guido  Novel* 
lo  da  Polenta,  the  lord  of  that  city,  who, 
as  a  friend  of  the  muses,  willingly  afforded 
h\m  protection.    His  death  took  place  in 
this  city,  Sept  14, 1321,  and  he  was  buried 
in  the  church  of  the  Minorites,  where,  in 
1483,    a   Venetian   nobleman,  Bernardo 
Bembo,  father  of  the  celebrated  cardinal 
of  that  name,  erected  a  splendid  monu- 
ment to  his  memory.    The  Florentines, 
who  had  banished  and  persecuted  their 


great  countryman,  now,  like  the  Athenians 
after  the  execution  of  Socrates,  endeavored 
to  expiate  their  injustice,  by  paying  that 
honor  to  his  memorv  which  they  hiui  de- 
nied to  him  during  his  life.    They  caused 
his  portrait,  paint^  by  Giotto,  to  be  hung 
up  in  a  public  place  in  the  city,  demand- 
ed, although  in  vain,  his  remains  from  the 
inhabitants  of  Ravenna,  and  appointed 
distinguished  scholars  to  lecture  on  his 
poem.    Boccaccio,  in  his  Vita  di  Danie^ 
describes  him  as  a  man  of  firm,  but  vet 
gentle  and  engaging  character,  altogether 
diflerent  from  the  account  of  Giovanni 
VillaiiL     His  face,  of  which  many  por- 
traits exist,  is  characterized  by  the  sharp- 
ness and  extenuation  of  the  features,  and 
the  stem  melancholy  of  the  expression. 
Of  the   six   children  whom  Dante  left, 
his  two  eldest  sons,  Pietro  and  Jacopo, 
made  themselves  known  as  scholars,  and, 
among  other  works,  wrote  a  commentary 
upon  the  poem  of  their  father,  which  has 
not,  however,  been  published.  This  great 
poem,  since  the  year  1472,  has  p^sed 
through  nearly  60  editions,  and  has  had  a 
greater  number  of  commentaton  than  any 
other  work  since  the  revival  of  letters. 
Early  in  the  17th  century,  an  edition  was 
projected,  in  a  hundred  volumes,  by  Cio- 
nacci,  a  Florentine  noble,  wherein  he  pur- 
posed, by  appropriating  a  volume  to  each 
canto,  to  comprise,  in  chronological  or- 
der, all  the  commentaries  then  existing, 
together  with  a  Latin  translation  in  the 
Strozzi  library.    Since  that  period,  new 
editions  have  repeatedly  made  their  ap- 
pearance.   The  last  is  that  of  Gabriele 
Kosetti,  to  be  completed  in  six  volumes, 
two  of  which  (London,  1826,  compriaong 
VInftmo)  are  published.     In  many  re- 
spects, this  last  must  be  considered  a  sin- 
^nilar  commentary.     The   greatness  of 
Dante  is  very  oflen  measured  by  the  im- 
mense variety  of  commentators  on  his 
work,  and  their  declaration  that  they  be- 
lieve Dante  yet  imperfectly  understood.' 
We  do  not  Uiink  so,  nor  conceive  that 
the  passages  which  are  most  unintelligible 
shed  the  greatest  lustre  on  the  author.    A 
passage  which  has  beem  differendy  under- 
stood by  every  interpreter  for  centuries, 
and  allows  every  one  to  assign  a  new 
meaning  to  it,  naturally  induces  a  doubt 
whether  the  writer  himself  attached  to  it 
any  clear  idea,  or  whether  the  idea  was 
not  so  distorted  as  not  to  admit  of  being 
traced.    Should  we  consider  the  SibyUine 
books  as  containing  profound  treasures  of 
wisdom,  because  their  obscure  prophecies 
admitted  of  any  interpretation?  or  the  Ko- 
ran, because  it  has  had  thousands  of  comr- 


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116 


DANTE. 


mentators  ?  or  do  we  think  that  law  in  a 
code  the  wii«Bt,  about  the  meaning  of 
which  there  has  been  most  dispute  ?  The 
poem  of  Dante,  like  so  many  productions 
of  antiquity,  is,  on  the  whole,  a  grand  ex- 
hibition of  genius;  and,  therefore,  commen- 
tators have  felt  themselves  obliged  to  seek 
perBeveringly  for  a  meaning  to  every  pas- 
sage ;  and  a  commentary,  once  made,  was 
a  fruitful  source  of  more,  by  stimulating 
men's  vanity  to  discover  new  interpreta- 
tions, the  human  mind,  as  we  all  know, 
being  often  much  more  busily  employed 
in  displaying  its  ingenuity  than  \n  sin- 
cerely seeking  for  truth.  Dante  describes, 
in  his  Hell,  the  sufferings  of  the  damned 
with  an  inexhaustible  ingenuity  and  a  tru- 
ly poetical  penetration  into  human  life  and 
character.  In  the  Purgatory,  he  portrays 
the  state  of  souls  between  heaven  and  hell, 
and  in  his  Heaven,  tlie  state  of  the  happy. 
The  Doem,  like  every  great  poetic  produc- 
tion, bears  a  decisive  stamp  of  the  most 
characteristic  features  of  the  time  when  it 
was  composed.  It  is  essentially  allegori- 
cal :  it  displays  an  ardent  love  for  the  learn- 
ing of  the  ancients,  and  treats  the  Romans 
as  forefathers,  with  whom  the  Italians  of 
the  authoi^s  age  were  in  views  and  senti- 
ments still  intimately  connected.  Hence 
arises  the  fiequent  refer^ice  to  the  ancient 
mythology,  and  the  constant  blending  of 
it  with  the  sacred  writings.  Why  he 
chose  Viigil  as  his  guide  through  hell  and 
purgatory,  is  easy  to  explain.  It  was  be- 
cause he  was  a  Roman,  and  the  greatest 
epic  poet  then  known  (Homer  being  com- 
paratively Kttle  read,  and  it  being  not  then 
undeistood  how  much  Vurgil  copied  from 
Homer),  and  because  Virgil  manifests  a 
constant  reverence  for  the  emperor — an 
impoitant  point  in  Dante's  view,  who,  as 
an  inveterate  Ghibeline,  wi^ed  all  power 
and  splendor  to  centre  in  the  emperor,  and 
hated  the  Oaelphs  and  the  po{w.  Not  a 
single  pope  or  cardinal  has  been  admitted 
into  his  heaven,  whilst  hosts  of  them  are 
to  be  found  in  the  helL  Viitue  and  vice 
are  the  basis  upon  which  reward  and  pun- 
ishment are  distributed  in  the  poem ;  but 
the  standard  by  which  Dante  measures 
these,  the  forms  in  which  he  clothes  them, 
the  images  under  which  the  poet  repre- 
sents his  abstract  ideas,  are  taken  from  the 
character  of  his  time,  w  his  personal  char- 
acter and  'theological  views.  Dante  show- 
ed immense  power  in  the  compoation  of 
an  epic  on  an  entirely  imaginfory  subject, 
and  filled  widi  learning,  which  yet  keeps 
the  interest  of  the  reader  awake  through- 
out Other  great  epics  are  founded  on 
tales  or  historical  inQt%  prtserved  in  ihe 


memoiy  of  the  poet's  countrymen ;  but, 
with  him,  the  whole  was  fiction,  at  least 
every  thing  beyond  the  common  dogma 
of  hell,  purgatoiy  and  heaven.  At  the 
same  time,  it  cannot  be  denied,  that  his 
learning  sometimes,  though  seldom,  ren- 
ders him  unpoetical ;  for  instance,  when 
he  gives  long  astronomical  descriptions. 
It  has  often  been  said,  and  often  denied, 
that,  in  his  Heaven,  the  interest  diminishes.  * 
We  must  assent  to  the  first  opinion,  which 
is  founded,  indeed,  on  human  nature ;  for 
evil  and  sufiTering  are  far  more  exciting, 
and,  on  this  account,  more  interesting  than 
tranquil  happiness.  Does  not  every  com- 
edy close  as  soon  as  the  couple  are  united, 
and  the  tragedy,  when  the  wicked  are 
punished  ?— ^he  name  CommetHa  is  deriv- 
ed from  Dante's  idea  concerning  the  forma 
of  eloquence,  which  were,  in  lus  opinion, 
tragic,  comic  and  elegiac,  as  he  relates  in 
liis  work  De  vulgari  EtoquenitOf  which 
was  probably  first  written  in  Latin.  What 
he  called  tragethf  was  a  piece  commencing 
with  happy  and  peaceful  scenes,  and  end- 
ing vrith  events  of  a  painful  and  terrible 
clmracter ;  and  what  he  called  comedy  was 
a  piece  which,  beginning  unpleasantly, 
terminated  happily.  The  qualifying  word 
dwtna  was,  however,  added  by  others; 
but,  in  the  oldest  editions,  the  poet  himself 
veas  called  by  the  appellations  of  U  Dvomo 
and  R  TeoU^,  The  poem  of  Dante  has 
been  considered,  by  some  persons,  but,  in 
our  opinion,  unworthily,  to  have  taken  its 
rise  from  the  author's  circumstances.  We 
may  also  mention  the  opinion  maintained 
in  1753,  by  Bottari,  that  Dante  made  use 
of  the  Vision  of  Alberico,  a  monk  who 
Uved  in  the  first  part  of  the  1^  century, 
in  a  monastery  on  Monte  Cassino,  in 
Naples.  There  have  been  manv  such 
visions,  fixim  the  earliest  ages  of'^  Chris- 
tianity ;  as,  for  instance,  the  vision  of  an 
English  monk,  which  Matthew  Paris  men- 
tions, in  his  history  of  England  (in  the  year 
lldGJ,  and  which  resembled  Dante's  poem 
much  more  than  the  vision  of  Alberico,  pub- 
Bshed  by  OancelHeri,  in  1814,  at  Rome, 
vrith  observations  ( Osiervctzxoni  intomo  aUa 
^hitgtione  sopra  la  OrigirudiUh  deUa  Dmna 
Vommedia  m  DanU) ;  and,  moreover,  the 
vision  of  a  gentleman  named  Tundafl,  in 
Ireland,  which  also  falls  in  the  first  part  of 
the  12th  century.  It  is,  therefore,  v«y  pos- 
sible that  Dante  here  and  there  may  have 
borrowed  a  tfaou^t  or  image  fit>m  those 
visions;  but  this  is  no  fiiuh:  the  recollec- 
tions of  great  men  are  sparks  which  serve 
to  kindle  mighty  fiames. — ^There  is  no  iioet 
who  ben*  so  distinctly  the  impress  of  his 
age,  and  yet  rises  so  high  alx>ve  it,  as 


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DANTE— DANTON. 


117 


Dante.  The  Italians  jusdy  regaid  him  as 
the  creator  of  their  poetical  language,  and 
the  &tber  of  tlieir  poetry,  which,  regulated 
and  controlled  by  hia  genius,  at  once  as- 
sumed a  purer  and  &r  nobler  form  than  it 
had  previously  worn.  The  terzina  first 
reached  its  perfection  in  the  time  of  Dante, 
on  which  account  he  has  been  erroneous- 
ly regarded  as  the  inventor  of  it — ^The  best 
editions  of  the  LHvina  Commedia  are  those 
of  Lombardi  (Rome,  1791,  3  vols^  4toX 
and  the  edition  of  Milan  (in  1804,  in  3 
vols.).  Of  the  former,  a  second  and  much 
improved  edition  appeared  in  1815 — 17, 
at  Rome,  published  by  Romano  de'  Ro- 
inani,  in  wiiich  the  Vision  of  Alberico  is 
also  contained.  In  1821,  Luigi  Fantoni 
published  an  edition  of  the  Divma  Comme- 
dioj  stated  to  have  been  printed  from  a 
manuscript  in  the  hand-writing  of  Boccac- 
cio. An  Italian  professor  at  Paris,  Biagio- 
li,  also  published  an  edition  of  this  poem, 
from  the  text  of  the  Crusca  edition,  in 
1818,  together  with  a  eood  commentary, 
in  3  volumes.  Dante^  complete  works 
appeared  in  Venice  in  1757 — 58,  published 
by  Zatta  (in  5  vols.,  4to.).  His  lyric  po- 
ems, sonnets  and  canzonets,  of  which 
some  are  beautiful,  others  dull  and  heavy, 
were  written  at  (Afferent  periods  of  his 
life.  We  have  yet  to  mention  his  Banquet 
{11  Comnto)—a  prose  work,  worthy,  says 
Bouterwek,  to  stand  by  the  mde  of  the 
best  worics  of  antiquity.  It  contains  the 
substance  of  all  his  knowled^  and  expe- 
rience, and  thus  illustrates  his  poetiy  and 
his  life.  The  marquis  Trivulzio  edited  a 
new  edition  of'  it,  in  1826,  in  Milan.  A 
woriK  containing  much  valuable  matter  to 
elucidate  Dante  is  Dd  VeUro  Megorico  tU 
JkmU  (Florence,  1826, 8vo.,  with  an  inter- 
esting ap})endix),  extracted  from  a  very 
old  Codex  Mediceus^  belonging,  at  present, 
to  the  BiblioUca  LaurenzUtnOy  marked  No. 
vui,  bench  xxix.  Among  the  best  modem 
commentaries  on  Dante  are  the  treatises 
of  doctor  Witte  in  the  Hermes,  and  also  in 
the  Silesian  Prowanal^BlalUerny  in  1825. 
There  is  a  good  English  translation  of  the 
Dimna  Commedia,  by  Mr.  Carey  (London, 
1819, 3  vols.,  8vo.). — ^In  one  respect,  Dante 
stands  unrivalled  by  any  man,  as  he,  we 
might  almost  say,  created  the  language, 
which  he  elevated  at  once  to  its  highest 
perfection.  Before  him,  very  little  was 
written  in  Italian,  Latin  being  the  literary 
language ;  but  no  one  attempted  to  use  the 
Itngua  voljgan  for  the  purposes  of  dignified 
compoation.  The  poet,  indeed,  thought 
it  neceaaary  to  excuse  himself  for  having 
<vritten  in  Italian,  after  hav^g  attempted 
to  compose  his  poem  in  Latin.    Thus  ho 


is  to  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  Italian 
literature.  One  of  the  strangest  produc- 
tions of  Dante  is  his  Z^  Monorchia,  ahieady 
mentioned.  He  labors,  in  this  woric,  to 
prove  that  the  emperor  ought  to  have 
universal  authority,  and  draws  his  argu- 
ments from  the  Sacred  Scriptures  and  from 
profane  writers,  which,  in  this  book,  appear 
very  often  with  equal  authority.  The 
dialectics  of  the  schoolmen  are  here  ex- 
hibited in  a  most  characteristic  way.  The 
De  Monorchia  is  valuable  as  a  source  of 
information  respecting  tiie  great  stniegle 
of  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibelines,  and  its 
influence  upon  the  Christian  world  at  that 
time.  This  strug^e  was  a  part  of  the 
great  convulsion  attending  the  separation 
of  the  civil  power  from  the  ecclesiastical, 
with  which,  in  the  earliest  ages,  it  ia  al- 
ways united.  On  the  whole,  Dante's 
works  are  important  chiefly  in  three  re- 
spects— as  the  productions  of  one  of  the 
greatest  men  that  ever  lived,  as  one  of  the 
keys  to  the  history  of  his  time,  and  as  ex- 
hibiting the  state  of  learning,  theology  and 
politics  in  that  age.  To  understand  Dante, 
It  is  necessary  to  be  acquainted  with  the 
history  and  spirit  of  his  time,  particularly 
with  tiie  struggle  of  the  Guelphs  and  Ghi- 
belines, the  state  of  the  noith  of  Italy,  and 
the  excitement  caused  by  tlie  beginmng  of 
the  study  of  the  ancients ;  also  to  have  stud- 
ied the  Catholic  theology  and  die  history 
of  the  court  of  Rome,  and  to  keep  always 
in  mind  that  Dante  was  an  exile,  deprived 
of  home  and  happiness.  The  Gennans, 
at  present,  pay  much  attention  to  Dante. 
They  have  some  excellent  translations,  by 
Kannegiesser  and  Streckfuss,  and  valuable 
works  on  the  poet  by  Abeken,  in  Berlin, 
and  others.  Mr.  Uhde,  a  few  yeara  ago, 
delivered  lectures  on  Dante  in  the  univer- 
sity of  Berlin,  which  showed  great  study 
of  the  poet  and  his  time. 

Pietro  Vincenzio,  of  the  family  of  Rai- 
naldi,  was  sumamed  Dante,  because  he 
endeavored  to  imitate  this  great  poet  Ho 
and  his  whole  family  were  celebrated  for 
their  knowledge  of  mathematical  science. 
—Giovanni  Battista  Dante,  of  Perugia, 
probably  belonging  to  the  same  family,  is 
well  known  by  die  suraame  of  Dtedalus, 
which  he  obtained  on  account  of  his  me- 
chanical ingenuity.  In  the  15th  century, 
he  made  an  attempt  to  fly.  and  is  said  to 
have  succeeded  in'  passing  tlie  lake  of 
Penigia. 

Daivton,  George  James,  an  advocate 
by  profession,  was  bom  at  Arcis-sur- Aube 
Oct  26,  1759,  and  beheaded  April  5, 
1794.  He  played  a  very  important  part 
during  the  nrst  yeara  of  the  French  revo- 


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DANTON— DANTZIC. 


lutkniy  of  which  he  was  an  active  and 
zealous  promoter.  His  external  appear* 
ance  was  striking ;  his  stature  was  colos- 
sal ;  his  frame  athletic ;  his  features  harsh, 
large  and  disagreeable;  bis  voice  shook 
the  dome  of  the  chamber  of  the  assembly ; 
his  eloquence  was  vehement;  and  his 
imagination  was  as  gigantic  as  his  person, 
which  made  every  one  recoil,  and  **at 
which,*'  says  St  Just,  "  Freedom  herself 
trembled.''  These  qualities  contributed 
to  extend  his  influence,  and  he  became 
one  of  the  finmders  of  the  club  of  the 
Cordetiers.  (q.  v.)  After  the  imprison- 
ment of  Jjouis  at  Yarennes,  he  took  the 
lead  in  the  meeting  of  the  Champ-de-Mars, 
which  demanded  the  dethronement  of  the 
kic^.  In  November,  he  was  appointed 
assistant  to  the  procurator  of  tne  com- 
mune of 'Paris.  His  importance  in  the 
capital  increased  in  1792,  where  lie  be- 
came one  of  the  instigators  of  the  events 
of  Jime  20th,  and  a  l^uler  on  the  10th  of 
August.  After  the  fall  of  Louis  XVI, 
Danton  was  a  member  of  the  provisional 
executive  council,  was  made  minister  of 
justice,  and  usurped  the  appointment  of 
officers  in  the  army  and  departments.  He 
thus  raised  up  a  great  number  of  creatures 
entirely  devoted  to  his  views.  Money 
^wed  from  all  sides  into  the  hands  of 
the  minister,  and  was  as  profusely  squan- 
dered on  Ills  tools  and  partisana  His 
violent  measures  led  to  the  bloody  scenes 
of  September*  He  endeavored,  by  the 
terrors  of  proscription,  to  annihilate  all 
hope  of  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  roy- 
alists. Tlie  invasion  of  Champagne  by 
the  Prusaans,  Sept.  3d,  spread  consterna- 
tion through  the  capital,  and  among  the 
members  of  the  government  The  minis- 
ters,  the  most  distinguished  deputies,  and 
even  Robespierre  himself,  who  was,  at 
that  time,  in  fear  of  Brissot,  now  assem- 
bled around  Danton,  who  alone  preserved 
his  courage.  He  assumed  the  adminis- 
tration of  Uie  state,  and  prepared  measures 
of  defence :  he  called  on  all  Frenchmen, 
capable  of  bearing  arras,  to  march  against 
the  enemy,  and  prevented  the  removal 
of  the  assembly  beyond  the  Loire.  Dan- 
ton showed,  on  this  occasion,  undaunted 
courage.  From  this  time  forward,  he  was 
hated  by  Robespierre,  who  could  never 
pardon  the  supmority  which  Danton  had 
shown  on  that  occasion.  Being  called  on 
to  render  an  account  of  tlie  secret  ex- 
penditures during  his  ministry,  Danton 
maintained  that  the  ministers  should  give 
in  their  reports  collectively ;  and  this  view 
vns  adopted.  He  voted  for  the  capital 
punSshment   of  all  returoing  emigrants, 


and  undertook  the  defence  of  rel^ious 
worship.  The  contest  between  the  Gi- 
rondists and  the  Mountain  daily  assiuned 
a  more  serious  aspect,  and  Danton  ap- 
peared to  fear  the  consequences  of  these 
dissensions.  The  26th  of  November,  on 
the  occasion  of  the  festival  of  reason,  in 
which  the  adherents  of  Hubert  acted  a 
conspicuous  part,  he  declared  himself 
anew  against  the  attack  on  the  ministers 
of  religion,  and  subsequendy  united  with 
Robespierre  to  bring  H6bert  and  his  parti- 
sans to  the  scaffold.  But  their  connexion 
was  not  of  long  duration,  and  the  secret 
hate  which  had  long  existed  between 
them  soon  became  pubhc.  Danton  wished 
to  overthrow  the  despotism  of  Robespierre,, 
and  the  crafty  Robespieire  endeavored  to 
undermine  him,  in  order  to  get  rid  of  a 
dangerous  rival.  St.  Just  denounced  him 
to  the  committee  of  safety,  and  Danton 
was  arrested  on  the  night  of  March  31, 
together  with  those  who  were  called  his 
accomphces.  Being  thrown  into  prison 
in  the  Luxembourg,  he  maintained  the 
appearance  of  serenity.  When  he  was 
transferred  into  the  Concierfferie,  his  coun- 
tenance became  dark,  and  he  appeared 
mortified  at  having  been  the  dupe  of 
Robespierre.  All  his  discourses  were  a 
Strang  mixture  of  sorrow  and  pride.  At 
his  tnal,  he  answered,  with  peHect  compo- 
sure, ''I  am  Danton,  sufficiently  known 
in  the  revolution;  I  shall  soon  pass  to 
nothingness,  but  my  name  will  live  in  the 
Pantheon  of  history."  April  5,  the  rev- 
olutionary tribunal  condemned  him  to 
death,  as  on  accomplice  in  a  conspiracy 
lor  the  restoration  or  monarchv,  and  eoa^ 
iiscated  his  large  property.  He  mounted 
the  fatal  car  witn  courage,  and  withoat 
resistance;  his  head  was  elevated;  his 
lode  commanding  and  full  of  pride.  Be- 
fore ascending  the  scaffi^ld,  he  was,  for  a 
moment,  softened  :  *^  O  my  wife,  my  dear 
vrife,  lEdiall  I  never  see  you  again?"  ha 
exclaimed ;  but  checked  himself  hastily, 
and,  calluig  out,  "  Danton,  no  weakness," 
ascended  Uie  scaffi)ld. — ^Danton  was  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  characters  of  the 
French  revolution — a  strange  mixture  of 
magnanimity,  ability  and  courage,  with 
cruelty,  avarice  and  weakness.  He  was 
35  years  t)ld  at  the  time  of  his  death. 

Dantzic  (Danzig)]  a  commercial  city 
and  fortress  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Vis- 
tula, about  five  miles  fi-om  the  Baltic,  in  the 
government  of  the  same  name,  in  the 
Prussian  province  of  West  Prussia,  and 
300  miles  fieom  Berlin.  It  has  a  very 
agreeable  sit^tion,  in  the  midst  of  a  beau- 
tiful country.    Exclusive  of  the  suburban 


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it  is  about  2i  miles  in  circuit,  and  is  net- 
ther  regularly  nor  handsomely  built  In- 
cluding the  suburbs,  it  contains  5172 
houses,  and  54,75G  inhabitants,  of  whom 
2148  are  Jews.  Its  fine  harbor  and  ad- 
vantageous situation  have  procured  it  an 
extensive  commerce  by  land  and  sea.  It 
was  an  important  member  of  the  Hanse- 
atic  lesgue,  and  was  oflen  called  the 
grananf  of  the  Mnih,  As  early  as  the  10th 
century,  it  was  called  Gedance  ( Gedanak). 
For  a  long  period,  it  continued  to  change 
masteiB,  with  the  territoiy  in  which  it 
lies.  The  Danes,  Swedes,  Pomeranians 
and  Teutonic  knights  contended  for  its 
possession.  In  1310,  it  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  last.  The  industry  of  the  inhab- 
itants soon  restored  its  importance  and 
prosperity,  which  had  been  diminished 
Dv  me  frequent  wars,  and  inspired  the 
citizens  with  such  eneigy,  that,  in  1454, 
Dantzic  declar^  itself  independent,  and 
was  soon  afier  recognised  as  such  by  the 
republic  of  Poland.  The  city  then  struck 
Its  own  coins,  with  the  image  of  the  king 
of  Poland,  maintained  a  secretary  at  War- 
saw, and  voted  in  the  diets  of  the  king- 
dom, and  at  the  election  of  king,  by  a 
deputy.  In  1772,  the  city  was  almost 
sunounded  by  the  Prussian  dominions; 
its  trade,  industiy  and  population  continu- 
ally declined,  and  the  last  king  c^  Poland 
declared  that  he  must  leave  Dantzic  to  its 
file.  May  28,  1703,  the  PmssianB  took 
possession  of  the  outworks:  the  people 
immediately  flew  to  arms,  and  a  short 
struggle  ensued,  which,  after  a  few  days, 
terminated  with  the  surrender  of  the  city. 
It  soon  afier  regained  its  former  proflperity 
under  the  Prussian  government,  and  con- 
tinued to  flourish  till  the  breaking  out  of  the 
war  between  France  and  Prussia.  March 
7,  1807,  Dantzic  was  besieged  by  marahal 
JLeft  vre,  and  surrendered  on  the  24th  of 
May.  The  marshal  was  afterwards  re- 
warded with  the  title  of  duke  of  Dantac 
A  military  contribution  of  20,000,000  of 
fianc^  to  be  paid  by  iasuUments,  was 
levied  on  the  city.  By  the  peace  of  Tilsit, 
however,  Dantzic  was  recognised,  as  a 
free  dty,  with  a  jurisdiction  of  2  leagues 
In  extent,  which  was  afterwards  enlaiged 
to  10  miles  by  Napoleon,  under  the  pro- 
tection of  France,  Prussia  and  Saxony; 
but,  being  occupied  by  a  French  gairison, 
it  was  not  allowed  to  enjoy  its  indepen- 
dence. A  French  governor,  general  Rapp, 
continued  in  the  garrison.  In  1808,  the 
Code  N'apMmr  was  introduced ;  and,  by 
the  continental  system,  its  most  important 
branch  of  support,  the  commerce  with 
Pffgly^j  was  cut  off.    Under  such  un&- 


vorable  circumstances,  the  vearl812  drew 
nigh,  bringing  the  heavy  burdens  of  the 
Russian  war.  December  31,  the  city  was 
declared  in  a  state  of  bk>ckade.  After  a 
very  obstinate  defence  of  neariy  a  year's 
continuance,  a  capitulation  was  entered 
into,  Jan.  1, 1814.  On  this  day,  all  the 
Poles  and  Germans  were  dismissed,  and, 
<m  the  2d,  the  French  marched  out,  to  be 
conducted,  as  prisonen  of  war,  to  the  in- 
terior of  Russia.  During  this  blockade 
and  siege,  309  houses  uid  warehouses 
were  burnt,  1115  buildings  damaged,  and 
90  men  perished  by  hunger.  Feb.  3, 
1814,  Dantzic  fell  again  under  the  domin- 
ion of  Prussia.  Dm.  6, 1815,  great  dam- 
age was  done  by  the  e^iloeion  of  a  pow- 
der magazine. — ^There  are,  in  this  city, 
important  manufactures  of  gold  and  silver 
hice,  doth,  woollen  stufis  and  Cordovan 
leather :  the  dye-houses,  sugar-refineries, 
brandy  and  other  distilleries,  vitriol,  pot- 
ash, &c.  manufactories,  are  likewise  con- 
siderable. An  important  article  of  com- 
merce in  Dantzic  is  com,  which  is  brought 
down  the  Vistula  from  Poland,  and  ex- 
ported to  England,  Holland  and  the  ILmse 
towns.  Other  articles  of  export  are  tim- 
ber, leather,  wool,  furs,  butter,  tallow,  wax, 
honey,  potash,  hemp  and  flax.  The  prin- 
cipal edifices  worthy  of  mention  are,  the 
high  church  of  St.  Mark  (in  which  is  the 
Judgment  Day,  by  Van  Eyck),  the  syna- 
gogue, the  academical  gymnasium,  the 
marine  institute,  the  buildings  of  the 
aociety  of  natural  history,  including  thear 
obscTvatory.  This  society  celebrated  its 
^th  anniversary  Jan.  2,  1826.  It  has 
published  memoirs.  In  1823>  there  were 
747  ships  entered,  and  758  cleared,  at  this 

C  On  the  side  of  the  city  between  the 
da  and  Nogat,  is  the  fertile  island  of 
Werder,  which  supports  numerous  herds 
of  cattle ;  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  fiuiner 
lies  the  fort  of  MOnde,  which  defends  the 
roads  of  Dantzic,  called  J^oMmooioer. 
April  9, 1829,  the  Vistula,  swollen  by  die 
melting  of  the  snow  in  the  interior,  and 
choked  by  masses  of  kse,  broke  throuck 
the  dyke,  which  extends  25  miles  up  the 
river,  overwhehnini;  50  villages.  The 
k> wer  town  of  Dantzic  was  inundated,  and 
the  houses  filled  to  the  roofs.  The  torrent 
swept  over  the  city,  carrying  away  many 
houses,  and  whatever  diey  contained.  On 
die  12th,  the  waten  began  to  abate ;  but, 
as  late  as  the  14th,  many  suffierere  were 
still  remaining  on  the  roofs  of  the  houses, 
unable  to  obtain  relief  and  destitute  of 
food.  (For  an  accountofthe  last  siege  of 
tliis  city,  see  the  RMiion  dt  la  DHam 
de  Jkmbae  m  1813,  Paris,  1820;  andak^ 


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DANTZIC— DAPHNIS. 


the  MUkay  Annals  of  Aiutria^  1825,  8th 
aDd  9th  editions. ) 

Danube  (in  Gerroan,  DonaUf  i.  e.  de^ 
water);  a  river,  which  was  caJled  by  the 
Romans,  from  its  sources  to  Vienna,  Dor- 
nubia,  and  lower  down»  bter.  It  has  three 
sources,  the  Brege,  Brigaeh,  and  a  little 
fountain  in  the  yard  of  the  castle  of  prince 
Bonaueschingin,  in  Baden,  2050  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea  (Ion.  10°  90^  15^'  £.,  lat 
47°  58^  N.),  near  which  the  united  watera 
receive  the  name  of  Danube,  After  its 
junction  with  the  Uler,  above  Ulm,  it  be- 
comes navigable,  being  from  8  to  12  feet 
deep,  runs  diroueh  the  kingdom  of  Bava- 
ria, then  fiom  £ngelhartszeli  to  Orsowa 
(644  milesi,  through  Austria,  and  finally 
through  xui^ey,  until  it  fiills  into  the 
Black  sea,  after  a  course  of  1547  miles, 
and  after  having  received  30  navigable 
rivers  and  90  other  streams.  It  discharges 
itself  through  five  mouths,  called  Aut, 
Salxnty  Kedrilio,  Poriesaa  and  Mawa  Bo- 
gasL  The  first  is  the  chief  and  the  deep- 
est outlet,  and  is  now  within  the  domin- 
ions of  Russia,  since  Bessarabia  (q.  v.) 
was  ceded  to  this  power  by  the  Turks. 
The  finurth  and  fifth  mouths  are  likewise 
navigable.  The  Danube  discharges  so 
much  water  into  the  Black  sea,  that  the 
addition  is  perceptible  in  the  latter,  even 
at  the  distance  of  46  miles.  Its  current 
embraces  the  vvraters  of  the  Schwarzwald 
(the  Black  forest),  the  Bohmerwald  (the 
Bohemian  forest),  the  Alps  of  Tyrol,  Sti- 
ria,  Carinthia  and  Camiola,  and  the  Mor- 
lachian,  Carpathian  and  Bulgarian  moun- 
taina  The  whiripools  have  been  render- 
ed less  dangerous  by  the  labor  of  man  in 
Germany  and  Hungary,  but  the  shallows  of 
Orsowa,  and  the  tyrannical  restrictions  of 
the  Turkish  government,  obstruct  the  sub- 
sequent navigation.  Many  qiecies .  of  fish 
are  taken  in  the  river.  The  most  known 
is  the  sturgeon.  From  the  times  of  the 
Romans,  through  the  period  of  the  middle 
ages,  down  to  the  time  of  Napoleon,  the 
shores  of  the  Danube  have  been  the  scene 
of  momentous  conflicts.  At  Ulm,  the 
navigation  of  this  river  begins,  and  is 
continued  to  its  mouth  in  me  divisions, 
occasioned  by  political  separations — ^fiiom 
Ulm  to  Ratisbon,  thence  to  Vienna,  thence 
to  Pest,  thence  to  Belgrade,  thence  to 
Galacz  and  Kilianova,  where  the  river 
empties  itself.  The  navigation  is  almost 
entirely  downwards,  without  the  aid  of 
sails  or  oars.  Such  vessels  as  move 
against  the  stream  are  drawn  by  horses, 
five  tons  being  allowed  for  each  horae,  if 
the  river  is  not  swollen.  As  the  greater 
part  of  the  vessels  are  cnily  calculated  to 


float  down,  and  then  to  be  sold  as  wood, 
they  are,  of  coune,  little  better  than  rafts. 
The  congress  of  Vienna,  in  1815,  declared 
the  navigation  of  all  the  German  rivers 
^e;  but  this  fiieedom  does  not  as  yet  ex- 
ist, and  the  custom  lines  of  Wfirtemberg 
Bavaria  and  Austria  prevent  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  Danube  m>m  attaining  the  ex- 
tent which  it  would  easily  reach  if  left 
firee.  From  France,  many  goods  are  sent 
to  Ulm,  and  fit)m  thence  to  Turiiey.  At 
Pest,  about  8000  vessels  and  rafts  arrive 
annually.  Austria  subjects  the  navigation 
of  the  nver  to  very  oppressive  restrictions. 
Thus  the  boatmen  mm  Ratisbon  are  on- 
ly allowed  to  go  to  Vienna ;  and  they  are 
only  allowed  to  take  from  thence  wine. 
In  Vienna,  these  boatmen  are  incorporated. 
Charlemagne  entertained  the  grand  idea 
of  uniting  the  Rhine  and  Danube,  by  a  ca- 
nal between  the  Altmtihl  and  the  Maine, 
near  Nuremberg.  If  the«navigation  were 
fi'ee,  the  introduction  of  steam-boats  would 
make  it  increase  with  a  rapidity  equal  to 
that  of  the  Mississippi.    (See  DmTa  ffall,) 

Daphne  ;  a  daughter  of  the  river-goa 
Peneus,  beloved  by  Apollo,  by  whose  con- 
trivance her  lover,  Leucippus,  was  slain. 
The  nymph,  deaf  to  the  suit  of  the  god, 
and  flying  firom  hin^,  besought  the  earth 
to  swallow  her  up.  According  to  some, 
she  besought  her  ftither  or  Jupiter  to  pro- 
tect her.  Her  prayer  was  heard ;  for,  at 
the  moment  when  Apollo  was  about  to 
encircle  her  in  his  arms,  her  flight  was 
suddenly  arrested,  her  feet  took  root  in  the 
earth,  her  arms  became  branches,  and,  in- 
stead of  the  nymph,  Apollo  embraced  a 
laurel,  which  was  thenceforth  consecrated 
to  him. — D<mhnt  was  also  the  name  of  a 
daughter  of  Tiresias.  She  was  priestess 
in  the  temple  of  Delphi. — A  grove  near 
Antioch  was  likewise  so  called. 

Daphnin  ;  the  bitter  principle  ofDaphr 
nt  Mpina,  From  the  alcoholic  infusion 
of  the  bark  of  this  plant,  the  resin  was 
separated  b^  partial  evaporation,  and  the 
remaining  tmcture,  on  being  diluted  with 
water  and  filtered,  aftbrded,  on  the  addi- 
tion of  acetate  of  lead,  a  yellow  precipi- 
tate, fit>m  which  sulphureted  hydrogen 
disunited  the  lead,  and  left  the  daphnin  in 
small  trani^rent  ciystals.  They  are  hard, 
of  a  grayish  color,  a  bitter  taste;  when 
heated,  evaporate  in  acrid  acid  vapora ; 
and  are  sparingly  soluble  in  cold,  and 
but  moderately  so  in  boiling  water. 

Daphnis  ;  the  son  of  Mercury  by  a 
nymph,  educated  among  the  nymphs,  and 
celebrated  in  tlie  Sicilian  traditions  as  the 
author  of  Bucolic  poetir,  and  also  as  a 
performer  on  the  shepherd's  pipe.    He 


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121 


pastured  his  kiiie  upon  mount  iGuieu 
The  nymph  Echenaia,  who  Joved  the 
youth,  threatened  him  with  blindness  if 
he  should  love  anotJier ;  but,  being  intox- 
icated with  wine  by  the  daughter  of  a  Si- 
cilian prince,  he  forgot  her  warnings,  and 
thus  brought  upon  himself  the  threatened 
punishment.  Some  say  that  he  died  of 
ffiief ;  others,  that  the  nyinph  transformed 
faim  into  a  stone.  All  the  nymphs  be- 
wailed his  death,  and  Mercuiy  raised  him 
to  the  heaven&  On  the  spot  where  he 
died  flowed  a  fountain,  at  which  the  Si- 
cilians afterwards  performed  yearly  sacri- 


Darcet,  John  ;  an  eminent  French 
physician  and  chemist,  Ixhh,  in  1725,  at 
Douazit,  in  Guienne.  He  preferred  the 
study  of  mediciue  to  that  of  the  law ;  in 
consequence  of  which,  having  been  dis- 
carded by  his  fadier,  he  was  obliged  to 
teach  Latin  for  his  support,  while  pursu- 
ing his  studies  at  Bordeaux.  He  accom- 
panied the  celebrated  Montesquieu  to 
Paris  in  1742,  and  remained  with  him  till 
his  death  as  a  literary  assistant  He  afler- 
wards  devoted  himself  to  chemistry,  and 
went  to  Gennany,  in  1757,  with  the  comit 
de  Lauraguais,  and  visited  the  mines  of  the 
Hartz,  in  Hanover.  On  the  restoration 
of  peace,  they  applied  themselves  to  tech- 
nical chemistry,  especially  to  the  improve- 
ment of  the  manufacture  of  porcelain. 
Darcet  made  many  experiments  with  this 
view,  of  which  he  drew  up  an  account  in 
several  memoirs  presented  to  the  academy 
of  sciences,  in  1766  and  1768.  He  tried 
the  efiect  of  fire  on  the  various  kinds  of 
earths,  and  demonstrated  the  combustibil- 
i^  of  the  diamond ;  on  which  subjects  he 
presented  memoirs  to  the  academy  in 
1770.  In  1774,  he  travelled  over  the  ryr- 
enees,  to  study  the  geology  of  those 
mountains,  on  which  he  delivered  a  dis- 
course at  the  college  of  France,  which 
was  published  in  1776.  On  the  death  of 
Macquer,  be  succeeded  him  as  a  member 
of  the  academy  of  sciences,  and  director 
of  the  manu&ctory  of  S«^vres.'  He  was 
afterwards  appointed  inspector-general  of 
the  assay  of  coin,  and  inspector  of  the 
Gobelin  manu&ctory.  He  made  several 
important  chemical  discoveries,  and  con- 
tributed much  to  the  present  improved 
state  of  the  sdence.  During  the  reign  of 
terror,  his  life  was  preserved  by  Fourcroy, 
who  procured  the  obliteration  of  his  name 
from  a  list  of  persons  destined  by  Robes- 
pierre to  destruction.  He  died  in  1801,  at 
which  period  he  was  a  member  of  the  in- 
sdtute,  and  of  the  conservative  senate. 

Dakcet,  John  Peter  Joseph,  an  exoel- 

VOL.  IV.  11 


lent  practical  chemist,  bom  at  Paris  in 
1787,  has  very  successfully  applied  the 
discoveries  in  his  science  to  the  promo- 
tion of  French  industry.  His  fadier,  -who 
died  in  1601,  in  the  office  of  director-gen- 
eral of  the  porcelain  manufactory  at  Sevres, 
also  ^stinguisbed  himself  as  a  practi- 
cal chemist ;  and  his  grandfather  was  the 
celebrated  Bouelle,  the  restorer  of  chem- 
istry in  France.  Darcet  entered  early 
upon  his  career,  after  having  laid  tlie 
foundation  of  his  eminence  by  the  study 
of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy. 
In  his  24th  year,  he  was  made  assayer  of 
the  mint ;  and,  after  introducing,  among 
other  discoveries,  a  new  process  for  the 
preparation  of  powder  on  a  lar^  scale,  he 
made  experiments  on  the  addition  of  sea- 
salt  in  the  manufacture,  and  essentially 
improved  the  preparation  of  the  hydrate 
of  the  protoxide  of^barytes.  These  exper- 
iments led  to  new  discoveries  respectins 
elective  affinity ;  but  the  decomposition  of 
sea-salt  was  of  the  greatest  importance, 
and  eventually  led  to  the  establishment 
of  the  manumcture  of  artificial  natron 
(soda).  Among  his  other  discoveries,  we 
may  notice  the  extraction  of  alkali  from 
chestnuts,  and  the  preparation  of  su^ 
from  the  same  matenal,  and  the  extraction 
of  jelly  firom  bones  by  means  of  an  acid. 
The  hospital  of  Louis  at  Paris  is  indebt- 
ed to  him  for  the  excellent  footing  on 
which  he  put  its  baths  and  chimneys,  and 
for  the  process  which  he  introduced  for 
bleaching  the  linen  of  the  hospitals.  He 
also  made  anotiier  discoveiy  of  great  im- 
portance, whereby  he  obtained  tne  prize 
of  3000  francs,  wliich  Ravrio  had  provid- 
ed for  the  discovery  of  the  means  of  pro- 
tection against  the  fine  dust  of  quicksilver, 
which  had  been  so  unhealthy  to  the  gild- 
ere.  Darcet's  discovery  completely  attain- 
ed the  object,  and  this  branch  of  French 
industry  has  since  increased  greatiy  in 
importance.  He  has  also  offered  a  plan 
for  preserving  the  health  of  those  con- 
cerned in  tl]^  manufacture  of  Prussian 
blue. 

Daroanelles  are  the  four  strong  cas- 
tles built  on  the  European  and  Asiatic 
coasts  of  the  Hellespont,  opposite  to  each 
other,  and  commanding  that  strait,  which 
is  about  12  leajgues  long,  and  called,  fiiom 
them,  the  i^rmt  of  Me  DardandUe,  so  that 
they  are  looked  upon  as  the  key  of  Con- 
stantinople. Their  name  is  probably  de- 
rived mm  the  old  city  of  Dardanum. 
The  entrance  to  the  Hellespont  is  defend- 
ed by  two  castles,  which  are  called  the 
new  autUiy  because  they  were  buik  (sub- 
sequenUy  to  the  two  othera,  called  thesM 


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123 


DARDANELLES. 


easUu),  in  tlie  middle  of  the  17th  century, 
under  Mohaiumed  IV,  to  aObrd  protection 
to  the  Turkisli  fleets  against  the  Vene- 
tians. The  distance  of  one  from  tlie  oth- 
er is  about  two  miles  and  a  quarter.  Four 
hours'  sail  farther  to  the  nortJi  lie  the  old 
castles,  built  by  Mohammed  II,  immedi- 
ately after  the  conquest  of  Constantinople, 
which  are  not  more  than  1500  yards  apart 
Farther  on  still,  the  channel  becomes  nar- 
rower, and,  at  an  hour  and  a  holPs  sail 
from  the  old  castles,  two  promontories  ap- 
pear suddenly,  about  750  yards  distant  one 
from  the  otlier,  and  form  that  strait  ren- 
dered famous  by  Leander's  nightly  visit  to 
Hero,  by  Xerxes'  bridge,  and  by  Soly- 
man's  passage  upon  a  bare  raft.  This  is 
not  provided  with  fortifications.  It  leads 
into  the  sea  of  Mannora,  at  the  north- 
eastern end  of  which  hes  Constantinople, 
the  capital  of  the  Ottoman  empire,  u|>- 
on  another  chamiel,  which  connects  tlie 
Black  sea  witli  the  sea  of  Marmora.  The 
late  lord  Byron,  in  the  moutli  of  March, 
1810,  swam  from  the  castle  of  Sestos,  in 
Europe,  to  tlie  fort  of  Abydos,  in  Asia,  in 
company  Avith  lieutenant  Ekenhead,  an 
Euglisli  naval  officer,  and  mentions  the  feat 
in  his  works  with  evident  satisfaction.  The 
same  feat  has  been  repeatedly  performed 
in  modem  times.  The  negligent  Turks, 
confiding  in  the  celebrity  of  tlie  casdes  of 
tlie  Dardanelles,  have  taken  so  liale  care 
to  keep  tliem  in  a  state  of  defence^  that  in 
1770  they  were  completely  in  ruuis,  and 
upon  the  Asiatic  side  there  was  but  a  sin- 
gle battery  standing,  and  tliat  half  fUled 
with  rubbish.  On  the  20th  of  July  of  that 
year,  when  the  squadron  of  die  Russian 
admiral  Elphinstone,  consisting  of  three 
ships  of  the  line  and  four  frigates,  in  pur- 
suit of  two  Turieish  ships  of  the  line,  ap- 
peared before  the  first  casdes,  tlie  Turkish 
batteries,  from  want  of  ammunition,  were 
oblised  to  cease  firing,  after  one  genend 
discharge  of  their  ordnance,  and  Elphin- 
stone sailed  by  without  receiving  more 
than  a  single  shot*  But,  the  other  ships 
not  following  him,  he  contented  liimself 
with  continuing  his  course,  not  minding 
the  Tuiicish  batteries,  and  cast  anchor  in 
the  channel.  From  hence  he  returned  to 
his  fleet,  notwithstanding  a  contrary  wind, 
with  drums  and  trumpets  sounding,  as 
much  to  conceal  his  own  fear  as  to  deride 
the  weakness  of  the  Ottomans.  Warned 
by  this  unexpected  circumstance,  the 
Porte  accepted  the  offer  of  baron  De  Tott 
(q.  V.)  to  restore  the  castles  to  their  former 
condition ;  and  he  rendered  them,  in  a 
short  time,  impregnable.  But  the  Turks 
were  too  indoleat  to  preserve  them  long  in 


this  condition ;  for,  in  1796,  Eton,  an  Eng- 
lishman, who  was  for  a  considerable  time 
resident  in  Turkey,  in  a  description  of  this 
empire,  declared  that,  at  that  time,  a  fleet 
might  easily  pass  the  Dardanelles.  *^  These 
castles,"  he  says,  **  may  be  beaten  down  by 
batteries  erected  on  shore,  or  by  see,  firom 
situations  where  the  great  artillery  cannot 
bear  on  sliips.  There  are,  on  each  side 
of  the  water,  14  great  guns,  which  fire 
granite  balls.  These  guns  are  of  brass, 
with  chamben,  like  mortars,  22  English 
feet  long,  and  28  inches  diameter  of  the 
bore.  A  gentleman  who  has  measured 
them  smce  I  did,  says  they  are  only  23 
inches  in  diameter:  one  of  us  must  have 
made  a  mistake.  They  are  very  near  the 
level  of  the  surfiice  of  the  water,  in  arched 
port-holes  or  embrasures,  with  iron  doors, 
which  are  omned  only  when  they  are  to 
be  fired.  Tne  balls  cross  the  water  fix>ni 
side  to  side,  as  they  are  a  Utde  elevated. 
These  monstrous  cannon  are  not  mount- 
ed, but  lie  on  the  paved  floor,  with  their 
breech  against  a  wall.  They  cannot  be 
pouited,  and  the  gunner  must  wait  till  the 
vessel  he  intends  to  fire  at  is  opposite  the 
mouth ;  and  they  are  at  least  half  an  hour 
in  loading  one  of  these  guns."  That  this 
account  is  accurate  there  is  no  doubt,  for 
it  is  confirmed  by  admiral  Duckworth,  an 
Englishman,  who,  on  the  19th  of  Febru- 
aiy,  1807,  with  eight  ships  of  the  line  and 
four  frigates,  together  with  fire-ships  and 
gun-boats,  effected  a  passage  through  the 
Dardanelles  without  loss,  and  appeared, 
on  the  next  day,  before  Constantinople, 
which,  till  then,  had  never  seen  an  ene- 
my's fleet  Then:  presence  was  intended 
to  influence  the  negotiations  then  inprog- 
ress,  but  was  of  litUe  avail,  for  the  Turlu, 
during  the  course  of  the  discussions,  under 
the  du^ction  of  the  French  ambassador 
Sebastiani,  were  zealously  employed  in 
fortifying  Constantinople  and  repairing  the 
castles  of  the  Dardanelles;  so  that  Duck- 
worth, on  the  2d  of  March,  could  not  re- 
turn without  loss,  &«.,  according  to  his 
own  confession.  If  he  had  remained  eight 
days  later,  his  return  would  have  been  al- 
together impossible. — ^The  new  casdes  are 
much  less  strong  than  the  old  ones,  which 
are  generally  understood  when  the  Dar- 
danelles simply  are  spoken  of  The  latter 
are  called  Chana  KaUgn  (said  to  mean 
pottery  castles,  fit>m  a  pottery  near  thera), 
or,  more  elegandy,  Su&anei  KalissL  The 
new  casde  on  the  Asiatic  side  is  called 
Kbuai  Kali,  or  casUe  in  the  sand^  from  the 
character  of  the  shore  in  that  place.  In 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  Koum  Kal^ 
the  ruins  of  the  Troad  are,  by  the  common 


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DARDANELLES— DARIEN. 


1S3 


opinion  of  travellerB  at  tlie  present  day, 
flupposed  to  be  found.  The  old  castle,  on 
the  Asiatic  side,  is  the  residence  of  the 
governor  of  the  four  castles,  and  at  this 
place  there  is  an  ill-built  but  considerable 
Turkish  city,  called  Chana  Kalissu  The 
environs  of  this  town  are  beautiful,  partic- 
ularly a  fine  promenade  of  plane-trees  on 
the  banks  of  the  Rhodius^  supposed  to  be 
one  of  the  nine  Homeric  rivers  which  de- 
scend firom  mount  Ida.  The  old  castle  on 
the  Asiatic  side  is  poorly  defended  on  the 
land  quarter,  and  mi^ht  easily  be  surpris- 
ed by  a  small  force  disembarked  above  or 
below.  Large  quantities  of  marble  balls, 
made  from  the  ruins  of  the  city  of  the 
Troad,  are  piled  up  for  use  in  the  couits 
of  the  fortress.  A  ponderous  shot  of  this 
kind,  which  struck  one  of  the  masts  of 
admiral  Duckworth's  ship,  was  brought 
home  by  that  officer,  and  made  the  pedes- 
tal of  a  table.  So  firmly  ]3ersuaded  are 
the  Turks  that  these  castles  are  impregna- 
ble, that  they  believed  the  governor  was 
bribed  by  admiral  Duckworth,  and  be- 
headed him  accordingly.  Commodore 
Bainbridge,  m  the  Amencan  frigate  George 
Washington,  passed  the  Dardanelles,  under 
cover  of  the  smoke  of  a  salute,  in  Febnia- 
ly,  180L  This  is  the  only  American  ship 
of  war  that  ever  passed  thib  strait 

DARnANUs,  the  progenitor  of  the  Tro- 
jan kings,  and  tlie  son  of  Jupiter  and 
Electra,  tlie  daughter  of  Atlas,  emigrated 
from  Samothrace  (according  to  otliers, 
from  Arcadia,  Crete,  &c.),  and  settled  in 
Phrygia,  in  the  country  which  was  after- 
wards called  Troas.  Here  he  built  a 
city,  which,  from  him,  was  called  Darda- 
num  or  Dardanus,  By  Bateia,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Teucer,  who  had  previously  emi- 
grated hither  from  Attica,  he  had  a  son, 
called  ErickthomuB,  His  descendants  are 
called,  by  tlie  poets,  Dardamans,  It  has 
been  lately  supposed,  that  this  is  the  name 
of  an  Arcadian  tribe,  whose  history  is 
related  in  the  fiible  of  Dardanus. 

Darfur,  or  Darfoor  (Country  ofFoor) ; 
a  considerable  kingdom  of  Central  Africa, 
occupying  a  large  portion  of  the  wide  inter- 
val between  Abyssinia  and  Bomou,  the  most 
eastern  part  of  Nigritia.  It  is  difficult  to  fix 
its  limits,  as  it  is  known  to  us  almost  solely 
by  the  journey  of  Mr.  Browne,  one  of  the 
niost  enterprisuig  of  modem  travellers. 
On  the  east,  it  has  Kordofan,  and  the 
country  of  the  Shillux,  which  separate  it 
from  Sennaar  and  Abyssinia ;  on  the  west, 
Bergoo,  which  divides  it  from  Begherme 
and  Bomou;  while  the  regions  to  the 
south  are  occupied  by  barbarous  nations, 
extending  to  and  inhabiting  the  Mountains 


of  the  Moon.  With  respect  to  its  climate, 
productions,  tlie  animan  it  contains,  and 
also  tlie  manners  of  its  inhabitants,  and 
its  government,  it  nearly  resembles  other 
countries  in  Africa.  The  people  are  semi- 
barbarous  ;  their  government  is  a  des|)ot- 
ism,  and  their  occupation  chiefly  agricul- 
ture. The  mechanical  arts  are  at  a  low 
ebb,  and  their  houses  are  rudely  con- 
structed of  clay,  with  a  coating  of  plaster, 
and  with  proportionably  scanty  accommo- 
dations. Its  commerce  is  extensive.  The 
grand  intercourse  is  with  E^pt,  and  is 
carried  on  entirely  by  tlie  Afncan  system 
of  caravans.  There  is  no  regular  caravan, 
as  between  Fezzan  and  Cairo.  The  mo- 
tions of  that  from  Fur  are  extremely  un- 
certain, and  two,  or  even  three  years 
sometimes  elapse  without  one.  The  cara- 
van gohig  to  Egypt  consists  often  of  3000 
camels  and  ICOO  men.  Among  the  ex- 
ports, the  most  important  are  slaves,  male 
and  female,  taken  in  tlie  Negro  countries 
to  the  south ;  camels,  ivory,  the  boras, 
teeth  and  hide  of  the  rhinoceros  and  hip- 
popotamus, ostrich  featliers,  gum,  pimen- 
to, parroquets  in  abundance,  and  a  small 
quantity  of  white  copper.  The  imports 
are  extremely  various,  comprising  beads 
of  all  sorts,  toys,  glass,  arms,  light  cloths 
of  different  kinds,  chiefly  made  in  Egypt, 
with  some  of  French  manufacture,  red 
Barbary  caps,  small  carpets,  silks,  wrought 
and  uuwrought  shoes,  and  a  considerable 
quantity  of  writing  paper.  The  Darfoor 
people  submit  their  daughters  to  excision. 
They  are  Mohammedans,  but,  in  spite  of 
the  prophet,  much  given  to  intoxicate 
tliemselves  with  a  certain  beverage  called 
merissak.  Unlimited  polygainy  is  allowed, 
and  the  nearest  relationship  is  no  obstacle 
to  marriage.  Fathera  often  marry  their 
daughters,  and  brotliers  their  sisters.  The 
amiy  is  calculated  at  70,000  men.  The 
soldiers  endure  thirst  and  fetigue  with  un- 
common patience. 

Daria,  or  Deria,  signifies  river,  in  the 
Tartar  languages ;  as  Kizil-Daria,  red- 
river. 

Darien  ;  a  post-town  of  Georgia,  capi- 
tal of  Mlntosh  county,  on  the  north  and 
principal  channel  of  the  Alatamaha,  near 
its  entrance  into  St  Simon's  sound,  12 
miles  from  the  bar,  62  S.  S.  W.  Savannah, 
185  S.  E.  Milledgeville ;  Ion.  81°  37'  W. ; 
lat.  31°  23^  N. ;  population  in  1827,  ac- 
cording to  Sherwood,  only  500.  It  stands 
on  a  high,  sandy  blufl|  and  contains  a 
court-house,  a  jail,  an  academy,  a  Presby- 
terian meeting-house,  a  bank  and  a  print- 
ing-office. It  is  a  place  of  considerable 
trade  in  cotton.    At  the  bar,  there  are  but 


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124 


0ABIEN— DARIUS. 


14  feet  of  watac»  so  that  large  vessels  can- 
not come  up  to  the  town ;  but  the  obstruc- 
tions to  the  navigation  are  expected,  before 
long,  to  be  removed,  that  Darien  may  be 
accessible  to  large  ships,  and  become  tlie 
emporium  of  the  fertile  country  watered 
by  the  Oakmulgee  and  Oconee,  branches 
of  the  AlatamaluL 

Darien,  Gulf  of  ;  on  the  coast  of  tlie 
province  of  Darien ;  26  leagues  from  N.  to 
S.,  and  9  from  E.  to  W.  Several  rivers 
flow  into  it,  the  lar^t  of  which  is  the 
Atrato.  The  coast  is  full  of  sharp  and 
inaccessible  shoals,  and  only  towanls  the 
west  and  south  are  there  fit  places  for  dis- 
embarking. The  timita  of  the  gulf  are 
sometimes  extended  to  the  sea  that  washes 
the  shores  of  the  provinces  of  Panama  and 
Darien. 

Darien,  Isthmus  of  ;  a  neck  of  land, 
which  unites  North  and  South  Ailierica, 
composed  of  the  provinces  of  Panama  and 
Veragua,  which  belong  to  the  republic  of 
Colombia.  It  Hes  in  3ie  form  of  a  cres- 
cent, about  the  great  bay  of  Panama  on 
the  south,  and  having  the  gulf  of  Mexico 
on  the  north.  It  is  900  miles  long,  and 
gmerally  about  60  wide,  but,  where  nar- 
rowest, between  the  ports  of  Porto  Bello 
and  Panama,  only  37.  This  part  is  some- 
times called  the  lathmua  of  Panama.  The 
countiy  here  is  made  up  of  sickly  vaJleys 
and  stupendous  mountains,  which  seem 
to  be  placed  as  eternal  barriers  between 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans,  which 
can  be  distinctly  seen  at  the  same  time 
fix>m  the  summits.  These  mountains 
here  forbid  the  idea  of  a  canal ;  but,  by  go- 
ing to  latitude  12°  N.,  and  joming  the  Lead 
of  the  lake  Nicaragua  to  a  small  river 
which  runs  into  the  Pacific  ocean,  and 
forming  a  canal  30  miles  long,  through  a 
low,  level  countiy,  a  communication  be- 
tween the  two  seas  becomes  practicable. 

Darius  ;  the  name  of  several  Persian 
kings,  or,  according  to  some  writers,  the 
royal  title  itself.  Among  the  most  distin- 
guished individuals  of  this  name,  are— 1. 
Darius,  the  fourth  king  of  Persia,  the  son 
of  Hystaspes,  satrap  of  Persis.  He  joined 
the  conspiracy  against  the  Pseudo-Smer- 
dis,  who  had  possessed  himself  of  the  Per- 
sian throne.  After  the  conspirators  had 
succeeded  in  getting  rid  of  the  usurper, 
they  agreed  to  meet  eariy  the  next  morn- 
ing, on  horseback,  and  to  appoint  him 
king,  whose  horse  should  nei^h  first  after 
sunrise.  The  groom  of  Danus,  apprized 
of  this  project,  led  his  master's  horse,  in 
the  night,  with  a  mare,  to  the  appointed 
place,  and,  in  consequence  of  this  strata- 
gem, the  horse  of  Darius  neighed  first  the 


next  morning.  Darius  was,  therefore, 
saluted  king,  and  the  nation  approved  the 
choice.  Ins  reign  was  marked  by  many 
important  events.  The  city  of  Babylon 
revolted,  partlv  on  account  of  burdensome 
impositions  of  tribute,  and  partly  because 
the  royal  residence,  under  Cyrus,  had  been 
transferred  from  thence  to  Susa.  Darius 
besieged  the  city  nearly  two  years  with- 
out success,  and  was  on  the  point  of  aban- 
doning the  siege,  when  Zopyrus,  one  of 
his  generals,  by  a  heroic  sacrifice,  placed 
the  city  in  his  possession.  The  mode  was 
this:  he  mutilated  himself  in  the  most 
shocking  manner,  and  fled  to  the  Babylo- 
nians, pretending  to  them  that  he  had 
suflered  this  cruel  treatment  from  Darius, 
and  that  he  wished  for  vengeance.  The 
Babylonians  gave  him  a  command ;  and, 
after  many  successfiil  sallies,  by  which  he 
gained  their  confidence,  tliey  intrusted 
to  him  tlie  charge  of  the  whole  city,  wliich 
he  immediately  surrendered  to  Dariusii 
After  the  subjection  of  Babylon,  Darius 
undertook  an  expedition,  vrith  an  army  of 
700,000  men,  against  the  Scythians  on  the 
Danube  (513  B.  C),  who  enticed  him  so 
far  into  their  inhospitable  countiy,  by  theur 
prMended  flight,  that  he  succeeded  with 
difliculty  in  extricating  himself  and  his 
army,  edUer  sufifering  great  losses.  Leav- 
ing a  part  of  his  forces,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Megabyzus,  in  Thrace,  to  conquer 
that  countiy  and  Macedonia,  he  retunied 
vrith  the  remainder  to  Asia,  to  recruit  at 
Sardis.  He  next  turned  his  arms  against 
the  Indians,  part  of  whom  he  subjected 
(508  B.  C).  In  the  year  501  B.  C,  a  dis- 
turbance at  Naxos,  in  which  the  Persians 
had  taken  part,  occ^oned  a  revolt  of  the 
Ionian  cities,  which  the  Athenians  en- 
deavored to  promote,  but  which  was  sup- 
pressed by  the  capture  and  punishment  of 
Miletus,  m  496.  To  revenge  himself 
upon  the  Athenians,  Darius  sent  Maido- 
nius  with  an  army,  by  the  way  of  Thiace 
and  Macedonia,  against  Greece,  and  pre- 
pared a  fleet  to  make  a  descent  upon  its 
coasts.  But  his  ships  were  scattered  and 
destroyed  by  a  storm,  in  doubling  mount 
Athos,  and  the  army  was  almost  entirelj 
cut  to  pieces  by  the  Thraciana.  Darius, 
however,  collected  another  army  of  500,000 
men,  and  fitted  out  a  second  fleet  of  GOO 
ships.  Naxos  was  conquered,  and  Eretria, 
in  Euboea,  sacked.  Thence  the  army, 
under  Datis  and  Artaphemes,  proceeded 
to  Attica,  and  was  led,  by  Hippiea,  to  the 
plains  of  Marathon.  The  Athenians  had, 
m  vain,  besought  assistance  fix)m  their 
neighbons,  and  were  obliged  to  depend 
upon  theu*  own  resources  alone.     They 


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125 


marched  forth,  10,000  strong,  under  the 
command  of  Miltiades,  to  meet  the  Per- 
«an  army,  and,  animated  hy  the  reflectioD 
tliat  they  were  fighting  for  fireedom  and 
their  country,  obtamed  a  complete  victory 
(B.  C.  490).  Darius  now  determined  to 
take  the  command  of  a  new  army  in 
person,  but  was  prevented  by  domestic 
troubles,  and  died  B.  C.  485.  This  prince 
did  much  to  improve  tlie  internal  admin- 
istration of  his  kingdom.  In  the  year 
506  Bw  C,  he  sent  his  admiral  Scylax  to 
explore  the  river  Indus,  and  he  encour- 
aged oonmierce  and  arts  by  useful  institu- 
tions and  laws.  His  successor  was  Xerxes, 
(q.  V.) — 2.  Darius  III,  sumamed  Codom- 
a9UUy  son  of  Arsanes  and  Sysigambis,  and 
great-grandson  of  Darius  II,  or  Ochus 
(who  reigned  firom  424  to  404  B.  C),  was 
the  12th  and  last  king  of  Persia.  He 
ascended  the  throne  B.  C.  336,  when  the 
kingdom  had  been  weakened  by  luxury, 
and  the  tyranny  of  the  satraps  under  Jus 
predecessors,  and  could  not  resist  tlie  at- 
tacks of  a  powerful  invader.  Such  was  Al- 
exander of  Macedon ;  and  the  army,  which 
was  sent  against  him  by  Darius,  was  totally 
routed,  on  the  bonks  of  the  Granicus,  in 
Asia  Minor.  Darius  then  advanced,  with 
400,000  soldiers,  to  the  plains  of  Mesopo- 
tamia. The  Grecian  mercenaries  advised 
him  to  await  the  enemy  here,  as  the  level 
country  would  enable  him  to  draw  out  his 
forces  to  advantage ;  but  Darius  hastened 
forward  to  meet  Alexander  in  the  moun- 
tainous CiUcia.  Curtjus  describes  the 
splendor  of  his  march.  Darius  was  a 
second  time  totally  routed,  near  the  Issus, 
R  O.  3^  He  himself  escaped,  under 
cover  of  the  night,  to  the  mountains.  His 
mother,  liis  wi^  and  three  of  his  children, 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conqueror,  who 
treated  them  with  great  generosity.  Alex- 
ander loaded  7000  camels  with  the  spoil 
taken  here  and  at  Damoscua  Darius  was 
so  far  from  bemg  discouraged  by  these  de- 
feats, that  he  wrote  a  haughtv  letter  to  Al- 
exander, in  which  he  offei«d  him  a  ransom 
for  the  prisoners,  and  invited  him  to  a  new 
engagement,  or,  if  he  did  not  choose  that, 
granted  him  pennission  to  retire  into  Ma- 
cedonia. Alexander  then  laid  siege  to 
Tyre,  on  which  Darius  wrote  him  another 
letter,  offering  him  not  only  the  title  of 
kiigf  whichne  had  before  refused  to  do, 
bat  also  10,000  talents  ransom,  and  all  the 
countries  of  Asia  as  far  as  the  Euphrates, 
together  with  his  daughter  Soitira  in  mar- 
riage. These  propositions,  however,  were 
unavailing.  Alexander  subjected  Egypt, 
and  Darius  found  himself  once  more  obhg- 
ed  to  cdlect  an  anny,  which  most  writeis 
11* 


estimate  at  1,000,000  men.  He  led  his 
forces  from  Babylon  to  Nineveh,  while 
Alexander  was  encamped  on  tlio  banks  of 
the  Tigris.  The  two  armies  met  between 
Arbela  and  Gaugamela,  and,  after  a  Uoodv 
engagement,  Darius  was  compelled  to  seek 
safety  in  flight  (331  B.  C).  Alexander 
took  possession  of  his  capital,  Susa,  cap- 
tured Persepolis,  and  reduced  all  Persia. 
Darius  meanwhile  arrived  at  Ecbatana,  iu 
Media,  where  he  had  another  army  of 
30,000  men,  among  whom  were  4000 
Greeks,  who  remained  true  to  the  end* 
besides  4000  slingers  and  3000  hojrse, 
commanded  by  Bessus,  the  governor  of 
Bactrio.  With  these  he  wislied  to  march 
against  the  conqueror,  but  a  conspiracy 
oi  Nabazanes  and  Bessus  frustrated  his 
plan.  The  magnanimous  prince  would 
not  credit  tlie  rejiort  of  tlie  conspiracy, 
wliich  reached  his  ears,  and,  at  tlie  same 
time,  observed  tliat  his  death  could  not  be 
premature,  if  liis  subiects  considered  him 
unworthy  of  life.  The  traitors  soon  afler 
took  possession  of  his  person,  and  carried 
h im,  m  obains,  to  Bactria.  Here  he  refused 
to  accompany  them  any  farther,  and  they 
transfixed  him  witli  their  javelins,  and  left 
him  to  his  fate.  A  Macedonian,  named 
Polystratus,  saw  the  chariot  of  Darius,  and, 
as  he  was  drinking  at  a  neighboring  foun- 
tain, hoard  the  groans  of  a  dying  person. 
He  approached  the  chariot,  and  found  the 
king  in  the  agonies  of  death.  Darius  beg- 
ged for  some  water,  on  receiving  which 
he  requested  Polystratus  to  thank  Alexan- 
der, in  his  name,  for  the  generosity  vrith 
which  he  had  treated  the  captive  prin- 
cesses. Scarcely  had  Darius  expired, 
when  Alexander  came  up.  He  melted  into 
teara  at  the  sight  of  the  corpse,  caused  it 
to  be  embalmed,  and  sent  it  to  Sysigam- 
bis, that  it  mifdit  be  depoated  by  the  side 
of  the  other  Persian  monarchs.  Darius 
died  (330  B.  C.)  in  the  50th  year  of  his 
age,  with  the  reputation  of  a  humane, 
peaceful  and  just  sovereign. 

Darmstadt,  capital  and  residence  of 
the  grand-duke  of^  Hesse-Darmstadt,  has 
1279  houses  (amone  which  are  53  public 
buildings)  and  20,000  inhabitants,  mostly 
Lutherans,  exclusive  of  the  garrison.  It  is, 
of  course,  the  seat  of  the  highest  authori- 
ties, and  of  a  court  of  appeal ;  has  a  muse- 
um, Hbrary  (with  90,0(X)  volumes),  drawing- 
school,  gymnasium,  an  opera-house,  the- 
atre, &C.  The  house  in  which  the  sol- 
diers are  drilled  is  319  feet  long,  157  feet 
wide,  and  83  feet  high ;  so  that  a  travel- 
ler renuuked  that  the  drilling-house  was 
larger  than  the  duchy.  LaL49°5G'24''N.; 
km.  8°  34'  49"  E. 


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126 


DARMSTAI>T--DA]tWIN. 


Darmstadt,    or    Hssse-Darmstadt. 

(See  Hesae.) 

Dartmoor;  an  extensive,  nigged, 
mountainous  tract  in  England,  in  the 
western  part  of  Devonshire,  usually  called 
the /ore**  of  Dartmoor,  but  at  present  hav- 
ing no  appearance  of  a  forest,  except  what 
is  afforded  by  an  assemblage  of  dwarf 
oaks,  intennixed  with  ash  and  willow; 
reaching  fi-om  Brent  S.,  to  Oakhampton 
N^  20  miles,  and  5  to  15  wide,  and  occu- 
pying 53,644  acres ;  in  all  wliich  space  is 
no  town,  and  only  2  villages.  Here  is  a 
large  prison,  where  many  prisoners  of  war 
are  frequently  confined. 

Dartmouth  ;  a  seaport  town  of  Eng- 
land, county  of  Devon,  situated  near  the 
confluence  of  the  river  Dart  with  the  Brit- 
ish channel.  It  has  a  good  harbor,  with 
deep  water,  defended  by  a  castle  and  two 
placforms  of  cannon.  The  chief  occupa- 
tion of  the  inhabitants  consists  in  the 
Newfoundland  and  other  fislieries,  where- 
in about  350  vessels  are  engaged.  Dart- 
mouth is  a  boroiigh,  sending  two  members 
to  parliament.  The  entrance  to  the  har- 
bor is  defended  by  a  casde.  Population, 
4485.    30  miles  S.  Exeter. 

Dartmouth  College.  (See  Hwnonar, 
M  K) 

Daru,  Pierre  Antoine  Noel  Bruno, 
count,  a  peer  of  France,  and  one  of  the 
ablest  French  statesmen  of  the  school  of  the 
revolution  and  Napoleon,  was  bom  in  the 
Year  1767,  at  Montpellier.  He  commenced 
his  military  career  in  his  16tli  year,  after 
having  received  an  excellent  education. 
At  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution,  he 
adopted  its  principles,  like  other  young 
men  of  talent  He  never  relinquished  his 
poetical  and  literary  pursuits,  even  in  the 
camp,  amidst  the  most  uncongenial  labors. 
His  reputation  as  a  poet  was  established 
by  his  masterly  translation  of  Horace. 
The  first  edition  appeared  in  1800.  About 
the  same  time  appeared  his  CHapidUj  or 
Theory  of  Literary  Reputation — a  poem 
fiill  of  elegance  and  animation.  The 
penetrating  eye  of  Napoleon  soon  distin- 
guished him  fix>m  the  multimde,  and 
showed  him  peculiar  favor,  while  Daru 
attached  himself^  with  unbounded  zeal,  to 
that  extraordinary  man.  He  was  intrust- 
ed ^th  the  most  important  affiurs,  and 
executed  these  trusts  witli  fidelity  to  the 
interest  of  France  and  the  emperor,  by 
which  he  drew  upon  himself  tlie  hatred 
of  the  opposite  party.  This  is  particularly 
evident  in  his  administration  as  jeeneru 
intendant,  in  1805,  1806  and  lS09,  in 
Austria  and  Prussia.  While  in  the  coun- 
cil of  state,  Daru  was  considered  the  most 


diligent  and  laborious  member  of  that 
body  except  the  emperor.  There  vrore  few 
important  posts  in  the  higher  departments 
of  the  administration  wiiich  he  did  not 
fill;  and  the  first  restoration  found  him 
in  possession  of  the  port-folio  of  the  de- 
partment of  war.  Bldcher  displayed  his 
enmity  to  him  by  sequestering  his  estate 
at  Meulan ;  but  this  measure  was  imme- 
diately reversed  by  the  allied  monarcha. 
In  1818,  Daru  was  called  to  the  chamber 
of  peers  by  Louis  XVIH.  In  1805,  he 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  national  in- 
stitute. Not  having  been  called  to  any 
other  public  poet  after  the  restoration,  Daru 
devoted  himself  particularly  to  historical 
studies ;  and  we  are  indebted  to  him  for 
two  important  woiics — the  Life  of  Sully 
and  the  History  of  Venice.  The  last  of 
these  is  one  of  the  most  important  pro- 
ductions of  modem  literature  in  the  de- 
partment of  history.  It  appeared,  in 
1819,  m  seven  volumes;  second  edition, 
in  1821,  in  eight  volumes,  and  the  third 
edition  in  18&.  As  a  member  of  the 
chamber  of  peers,  Daru  was  one  of  the 
most  zealous  defenders  of  the  principles 
introduced  by  the  revolution.  He  died 
near  the  end  of  1829. 

Darwiit,  Erasmus,  a  physician  and 
poet,  was  bom  at  Elton,  near  Newaiic, 
Nottinghamshire,  Dec.  12, 1721.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge,  took  his  doctor's 
degree  at  Edinburgh,  and  commenced 
his  practice  as  a  physician  at  Litchfield. 
Li  1781,  he  made  himself  known  as  a 
poet  by  the  publication  of  his  Botanic 
GardeiL  This  poem  consists  of  two 
parts,  in  the  first  of  which  the  author 
treats  of  the  economy  of  vegetables,  and 
in  the  second  of  what  he  calls  7%e  Idmes 
q/*  the  Plants,  being  a  sort  of  allegorical 
exposition  of  the  sexual  system  of  Lin- 
nfeus.  The  ingenuity  and  novelty  of 
much  of  the  personmcation,  and  still 
more  the  brilliant  and  figurative  diction  in 
which  it  is  conveyed,  rendered  this  pro- 
duction very  popular  for  a  time ;  but  its 
unvarying  polish,  want  of  light  and  shade, 
and  of  human  interest,  rapidly  reduced  its 
reputation.  To  this  result,  the  pleasant 
ridicule  of  Mr.  Frere's  Loves  of  the  Tri- 
angles,, also,  in  no  small  degree,  contribu- 
ted. In  1793,  doctor  Darwin  published  the 
first  volume  of  his  2jodnamiia,  or  the  Laws 
of  Organic  Life,  4to.,  which  work  excited 
great  expectation  from  the  known  origi- 
nality of  the  author.  It  teaches  that  all 
animated  nature,  as  men,  beasts,  and 
ve^tables,  takes  its  origin  from  single 
hvmg  filaments,  susceptible  of  irritatiooy 
which  is  the  agent  that  sets  them  in  mo- 


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DARWIN—DATE. 


137 


tion.  This  doctzine  was  refSited  by  Brcrnn 
and  several  other  writen,  and,  being  fbtind- 
ed  on  a  mere  assumption,  rapidly  fol- 
lowed the  fate  of  all  such  systems.  The 
second  volume,  which  completed  the 
author's  plan,  was  printed  in  1796.    In 

1801,  he  published  his  Phytologia,  or  Phi- 
kwojphy  of  A^culture  and  Gardening. 
Various  papers  in  the  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions are  likewise  fix>m  the  pen  of  doc- 
tor Darwin,  who  died  suddenly,  April  18, 

1802,  leaving  behind  him  the  character  of 
an  able  man,  of  considerable  eccentricity, 
both  in  opinion  and  conduct  The  bias 
of  his  politics,  and  the  tendency  of  his  the- 
ories to  materialism,  excited  a  powerful 
feeling  a^inst  him,  which  much  exag- 
gerated his  peculiarities.    His  son, 

Darwin,  Charles,  deserves  to  be  noticed 
for  discovering,  while  studying  at  Edin- 
burgh, a  test  for  distinguishing  pus  fitmi 
mucus,  for  which  the  gold  medal  was 
assigned  him  by  the  university.  This 
promising  young  man  died  during  his 
studies,  at  Edinburgh,  in  May,  1778. 

DAScHKOFr,  Catharine  Komanowna, 
princess  of.  This  celebrated  lady,  de- 
scended from  the  noble  family  of  Woron- 
zoS;  and  the  early  friend  and  confidant  of 
the  empress  Catharine,  was  bom  in  1744, 
and  became  a  vridow  at  18  years  of  age. 
She  endeavored  to  effect  the  accession  of 
Catharine  to  the  throng  but,  at  the  same 
time,  was  in  favor  of  a  constitutional 
limitation  of  the  imperial  power.  In  a 
military  dress,  and  on  horseback,  she 
led  a  body  of  troops  to  the  presence  of 
Catharine,  who  placed  herself  at  their 
head,  and  precipitated  her  husband  from 
the  throne.  The  request  of  the  princess 
Daschkoflf  to  receive  the  command  of  the 
imperial  regiment  of  guards,  was  refused. 
She  did  not  long  remain  about  the  person 
of  Catharine.  Study  became  her  nvorite 
employment  From  the  Greek  and  Ro- 
man authors  she  had  acquired  the  high 
spirit  of  antiquity.  After  her  return  from 
atnoad,  in  1782.  she  was  made  director  of 
the  academy  of  sciences,  and  president  of 
the  newly  estabUsbed  Russian  academy. 
She  wrote  much  in  the  Russian  languafpe ; 
among  other  jproductions,  some  comedie& 
She  also  actively  promoted  the  miblica- 
tion  of  the  dictionaiy  of  the  Russian 
academy.  Her  death  to<^  place  in  1810, 
at  Moscow. 

Data&ia  ;  the  papal  chancery  at  Rome, 
from  whidi  all  bulls  (q.  v.)  are  issued.  It 
has  its  name  from  the  common  subscrip- 
tion,  DaJtum  apud  Sanctum  Petrvmj  that  is 
in  the  Vatican.    (See  Curjoj  PcqHd,) 

Date  (Latin,  dahan,  given) ;  that  ad- 


dition to  a  writing,  which  specifies  the 
time  when  it  was  executed.  Under  the 
Roman  emperors,  this  word  was  used  to 
signify  the  day  on  which  the  bearers  of 
the  imperial  despatches  to  the  provinces 
received  them,  or  that  on  which  thev  de- 
livered them.  It  was  also  used  in  docu- 
ments in  the  time  of  the  French  Mero- 
vingian kings. 

Date  ;  the  fruit  of  the  date  palm,  a  tree 
of  the  natural  order  palnMy  inhabiting 
the  north  of  Africa,  from  Morocco  to 
Egypt,  Syria,  Persia,  the  Levant  and  In- 
dia, and  which  is  also  cultivated  in  Italy 
and  Spain.  Dates  fcnrm  the  principal 
nutriment  of  the  inhabitants  of  some  of 
the  above  countries,  and  are  an  important 
article  of  commerce.  This  fruit  is  an 
oval,  soft,  fleshy  drupe,  having  a  very 
hard  stone,  vrith  a  longitudinal  mrrow  on 
one  side,  and,  when  fi^h,  possesses  a  de- 
licious perfume  and  taste.  Dates  are  su- 
gary, very  nourishing,  wholesome,  and 
require  no  preparation  ;  but  when  dried, 
and  a  little  old,  as  they  usually  are  when 
imported  into  Europe  and  the  U.  States, 
they  are  not  much  esteemed,  and  are  little 
used  in  the  countries  where  they  grow. 
The  best  fruits  have  firm  flesh  of  a  yellow 
color.  They  are  varied,  however,  by  cul- 
ture, in  size  and  shape :  some  varieties  are 
very  large,  succulent,  and  without  stones. 
The  inhabitants  of  Tunis  and  several 
other  countries,  every  year,  journey  in 
crowds,  into  Biledulgerid  to  procure  dates. 
The  bunches,  weighing  from  30  to  25 
pounds,  when  of  gixnl  quality,  are  sold  af 
fix)m  60  to  80  cents  each.  Cattle  and 
grain  are  received  in  exchange.  Almost 
every  part  of  this  valuable  tree  is  convert- 
ed to  some  use.  The  wood  is  very  hard, 
almost  incorruptible,  and  is  used  for  build- 
ing. The  Jeaves,  after  beinff  macerated 
in  water,  become  supple,  and  are  mani>- 
factured  into  hats,  mats  and  basketa  The 
pedoles  afibrd  fibres  from  which  cordage 
is  made.  The  nutSy  after  being  burnt,  are 
used  by  the  Chinese,  in  the  composition 
of  India  ink.  Palm  wine  is  made  from 
the  trunk.  For  this  purpose,  the  leaves 
are  cut  oflT,  and  a  circular  incision  made  a 
little  below  the  summit  of  the  tree,  then  a 
deep  vertical  fissure,  and  a  vase  is  placed 
below  to  receive  the  juice,  which  is  pro- 
tected firom  evaporation.  The  date  palm 
is  a  majestic  tree,  rising  60  feet  and  up- 
wards ;  the  trunk  is  straight,  simple,  scaly, 
elegantly  divided  by  rings,  and  crowned 
at  me  summit  bv  a  tuft  of  very  long  pen* 
dent  leaves.  The  leaves  are  10  or  12  fret 
long,  composed  of  alternate  narrow  foli- 
oles,  fokled  kmgitndinally.    The  male  ecod 


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198 


DATE— DAUN. 


female  flowers  are  upon  differeot  trees. 
The  fruit  is  disposed  in  10  or  12  veiy  long 
pendent  bunches.  The  date  palm  is  re- 
produced from  the  roots,  or  from  shoots, 
or  by  planting  the  axil  of  the  leaves  in 
the  earth,  which  is  the  most  approved 
mode,  as  female  plants  may  be  selected, 
while  a  few  males,  scattered  here  and 
there,  are  sufficient  Care  is  taken  to 
water  them  frequendy,  and  to  protect 
them  from  the  rays  of  the  sun  till  they 
have  taken  root  Plants  raised  by  this 
method  will  bear  finit  in  five  or  six 
years,  while  for  those  raised  from  the  seed, 
15  or  20  years  are  required.  When  the 
male  plant  is  in  bloom,  the  pollen  is  col- 
lecteci  and  scattered  over  the  female 
flowers.  Each  female  produces  10  or  12 
bunches  every  yeai*,  which,  when  gathered, 
are  hung  up  m  a  dry  place  until  so  much 
of  their  moisture  is  evaporated  as  to  allow 
of  their  being  packed.  Dates,  in  general, 
are  of  a  yellowish  color ;  but  some  are  black, 
some  white,  and  others  brown ;  some,  also, 
are  sweet,  and  others  bitter.  The  time  of 
{)lanting  is  early  in  the  spring.  Situa- 
tions aTOunding  m  springs  are  selected,  the 
trees  are  plac^  15  or  20  feet  apart,  and 
a  little  trench  is  dug  at  the  root  of  each, 
'  which  is  filled  with  water  at  pleasure,  by 
means  of  channels  excavated  m  the  sand. 
The  Arabs  pretend  that  they  attain  the 
age  of  200  or  300  years.  This  valuable 
tree  would  undoubtedly  succeed  in  the 
southern  parts  of  the  U.  States.  The 
wood,  though  of  spongy  texture,  is  em- 
ployed for  the  beams  and  raflers  of  houses, 
and  for  implements  of  husbandry,  which 
are  said  to  be  very  durable.  The  pith  of 
the  young  trees  is  eaten,  as  well  as  the 
young  and  tender  leaves.  A  considera- 
ble tiafic  is  carried  on  in  these  leaves, 
which,  under  the  name  of  palmsj  are  sent 
to  Italy,  to  be  used  in  the  grand  religious 
ceremonies  of  Palm  Sunday.  In  Persia, 
an  ardent  spirit  is  distilled  from  the  fruit ; 
and,  in  many  places,  the  stones  are  ground 
to  make  oil,  and  the  paste  that  is  left  is 
fpyen  as  food  to  cattle  and  sheep. 

Datholite;  a  species  in  mineralogy 
found  massive  and  crystallized  in  the 
form  of  oblique  rhombic  prisms,  which 
are  often  much  modified  oy  secondaiy 
planes.  It  has  a  shining,  resinous  lustre ; 
M  of  a  white,  greenish  or  yellowish-white 
color,  and  translucent  ^fore  the  blow- 
pipe, it  melts  with  intumescence.  It  con- 
sists, according  to  Klaproth,  of  96.5  of  si- 
lex,  35  of  lime,  24  of  boracic  acid,  and  4 
of  water ;  and  hence  is  sometimes  denomi- 
nated a  nlicious  borate  of  lime.  It  is 
found  in  small  quantity  in  the  trap  rocks 


of  Patterson,  New  Jersey ;  also  in  Nor- 
way, where,  besides  the  other  varieties, 
one  is  found  in  botiyoidal  masses,  and 
therefore  called  hotryoltte, 

Daubenton,  or  D'Aubenton,  Louis 
Jean  Marie ;  a  naturalist  and  physician, 
bom  at  Montbar,  in  1716 ;  celebrated  for 
his  participation  in  the  Natural  History  of 
Quadrupeds  by  his  early  friend  and  compan- 
ion, Bunbn  ;  tne  anatomical  part  of  which  ^ 
was  prepared  by  Daubenton  with  great, 
accuracy,  clearness  and  sagacity.  He  re- 
fused his  assistance  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  work,  offended  at  the  publication  of 
an  edition  of  the  first  part  by  Buffi>n,  iu 
which  the  anatomical  portion  was  omit- 
ted. The  cabinet  of  natural  history,  in 
Paris,  of  which  he  was  made  keeper,  in 
1745,  was,  by  the  united  exertions  of 
Daubenton  and  BufiTon,  rendered  one  of 
the  most  valuable  institutions  in  the  capi- 
taL  In  1744,  he  was  chosen  member  of 
the  academy  of  sciences,  and  enriched  its 
publications  by  a  number  of  anatomical 
discoveries,  and  also  by  researches  con- 
cerning the  species  of  animals  and  their 
varieties,  the  improvement  of  wool,  and 
the  treatment  of^the  diseases  of  animals. 
He  threw  much  light  upon  mineralogy, 
botany  and  agriculture,  and  proposed 
a  new  method  for  the  classification  of 
minerals.  He  contributed  to  the  depart- 
inent  of  natural  history  in  the  Encydopt' 
die.  He  is,  besides,  the  author  of  nume- 
rous works  of  general  utility ;  for  exam- 
ple, hutrudion  pour  les  Bergers^  third 
edition,  1796  (translated  into  German  by  A. 
Wichmann),  Mhnmre  sur  ks  huUgeskong 
(new  edition,  1798),  and  many  others. 
Unseduced  by  Bufion's  hypotheses,  he 
was  a  most  fiuthful  observer  of  nature. 
During  the  reign  of  terror,  when  every 
one  was  requir^  to  give  some  evidence 
of  patriotic  spirit,  he  was  represented  to 
his  section  as  employed  in  introducing 
the  Spanish  flocks  into  France.  He  a£ 
terwards  continued  to  apply  himself  quiet- 
ly to  his  studies;  and,  though  liis  con- 
stitution was  naturally  weak,  the  temper- 
ance and  tranquillity  of  his  life  enabled 
him  to  reach  the  age  of  84  years.  Decem- 
ber 81, 1799,  he  was  present,  for  the  first 
time,  at  the  sitting  of  the  senate,  and  fell 
senseless  into  tlie  arms  of  his  fiiends,  fiom 
a  stroke  of  the  apoplexy. 

Daun,  Leopold  Joseph  Maria,  count, 
an  Austrian  general,  was  bom  in  1705, 
and  died  in  1766.  His  grandfather  and 
fa^er  had  served  with  distinction  in 
the  Austrian  army.  He  gain&d  his  first 
laurels  in  the  Turkish  war,  1737  to 
1739,  in  which  be   was   major-genenily 


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DAUN-DAVENANT. 


m 


and  disdnguished  himself  also  in  the  war 
of  the  Austrian  succession.  His  skilful 
passage  of  the  Rhine,  and  his  marriage 
with  the  countess  of  Fux,  a  favorite  of 
Maria  Theresa,  procured  for  him  the  post 
of  master-general  of  the  ordnance,  and,  in 
1757,  that  of  general  field-marshal.  In 
this  capacity,  he  commanded  the  Austrian 
army  during  the  seven  years'  war.  He 
advanced  to  Kolin  against  the  king  of 
Prussia,  who  was  at  that  time  besieeing 
Prague  (q.  v.),  and  gave  him  battle,  June 

18. 1757,  compelling  the  king  to  raise  the 
siege,  and  evacuate  Bohemia.  Although 
he  conducted  with  the  greatest  prudence 
and  precaution,  he  was  defeated  at  Leu- 
then,  Torgau,  and  several  other  places. 
Except  the  battle  of  Kolin,  his  most 
memorable  achievement  was  the  surprise 
at  Hochkirchen,  on  the  niffht  of  October 

14. 1758.  Here  he  would  nave  destroyed 
the  whole  Prussian  army,  had  not  the 
prince  of  Duriach  come  up  too  late  with 
his  column.  At  Torgau,  Nov.  3,  1760, 
the  victory,  which  seemed  to  be  within  his 
grasp,  was  snatched  from  him  in  conse- 
quence of  his  wounds  and  the  resolution 
of  Ziethen.  He  compelled  the  Prussian 
general  Fink  to  surrender,  with  11,000 
men,  Nov.  21, 1759.  Daun's  plan  of  de- 
lay, and  of  venturing  on  decisive  steps 
rarely,  and  only  on  great  occasions,  has 
been  unjusdy  censured.  He  could  not  bet- 
ter resist  a  general  like  Frederic  the  Great, 
who  was  not  accountable  to  a  superior, 
and  who,  surrounded  by  enemies  whom 
he  could  oppose  successfully  only  by  a 
rapid  succession  of  victories  over  the  sepa- 
rate armies,  was  obliged  to  adopt  the  boldest 
expedients.  Frederic  himself  knew  what 
a  dangerous  antagonist  he  had  in  Daun. 
Daun  is  more  open  to  the  charge  of  not 
having  sufficiently  followed  up  his  advan- 
tages. Many  improvements  in  the  Aus- 
trian infantry  are  ascribed  to  him. 

Dauphin  ;  the  title  of  the  eldest  son  of 
the  king  of  France.  In  1349,  Humbert 
II,  dauphin  of  Viennois,  being  childless, 
transferred  his  estate,  called  the  Dmxphxnyy 
to  Philip  of  Valois,  on  condition  that  the 
eldest  son  of  the  king  of  France  should, 
in  future,  be  styled  the  dauphin^  and  gov- 
ern this  teiritoiy.  The  dauphin,  however, 
retains  only  the  title,  the  estates  having 
been  united  with  the  crown  lands.  On 
the  death  of  the  dauphin,  his  eldest  son 
inherits  this  title ;  if  he  has  no  son,  his 
eldest  brother  succeeds  him.  If  the  king 
has  no  son,  then  the  title  o^  dauphin  is  not 
bestowed  on  any  one,  as  was  the  case  in 
the  reign  of  Louis  XVIII ;  for  it  is  never 
bestowed  upon  the  next  prince  of  the 


bk>od,  and  presumptive  heir,  even  if  he 
is  the  king's  brother.  The  wife  of  the 
dauphin  is  called  daujfivmtSM  Utavpkmt), 
The  editions  of  the  classics  which  were 
made  for  the  use  of  the  dauphin  are 
entitled  m  iimm  de^j^nnL 

DAt7PHiEfT ;  one  of  the  principal  prov- 
inces of  France  befbre  the  revolution,  was 
divided  into  Upper  and  Lower  Dauphin^. 
It  forms,  at  present,  the  departments  of 
the  Dr6me,  the  High  Alps  and  the  Isere. 
Grenoble  was  the  capital  (See  Dauphin^ 
and  DqHtrtment,) 

DAVEifANT,  sir  William,  an  English 
poet  of  the  17th  century,  was  the  son  dT 
an  innkeeper  at  Oxford,  where  he  was 
bom,  in  1005.  After  some  previous  edu- 
cation at  a  gnimmar  school,  he  became  a 
student  at  Lincoln  college ;  but  he  soon 
lefl  the  university,  and  obtained  the  office 
of  page  to  the  duchess  of  Richmond,  fiom 
whose  household  he  removed  into  that  of 
GreviDe,  lord  Brooke,  a  nobleman  emi- 
nent for  his  literary  attainmentSw  He  was 
employed  in  preparing  several  masques 
for  the  entertainment  of  the  court ;  and, 
on  the  death  of  Ben  Jonson,  in  1637,  he 
succeeded  to  the  vacant  laurel.  On  hos- 
tilities iMpeaking  oat  between  Charles  I 
and  the  parliament,  Davenant  displayed 
his  attachment  to  the  royal  cause.  Being 
suspected  of  a  conspiracy  against  the  au- 
thority of  the  parliament,  in  1641,  he  was 
arrested,  but,  making  his  escape,  went  to 
France.  Thence  he  returned,  with  mili- 
tary stores  sent  by  the  queen,  and  was 
made  lieutenant-general  of  ordnance,  un- 
der the  duke  of  Newcastle— a  post  for 
which  he  does  not  appear  to  have  been 

Suahfied  by  any  previous  service.  At 
le  siege  of  Gloucester,  in  1643,  he  was 
knighted  by  the  king ;  and,  on  tlie  subse- 
quent dechne  of  the  royal  cause,  he  again 
retired  to  France,  where  he  became  a  Ro- 
man Catholic  In  1646,  he  was  sent  to 
Eneland  on  a  mission  from  the  queen ; 
and,  on  his  return  to  Paris,  he  began  the 
composition  of  his  principal  work,  a 
heroic  poem,  entitled  Gondibeft.  An  at- 
tempt which  he  aflerwards  made  to  lead 
a  French  colony  to  Virgiiua,  had  nearly 

Gved  fiital  to  him.  The  ship,  in  which  he 
[  sailed  from  Normandy,  was  captured 
by  a  cruiser  in  the  service  of  the  English 
parliament,  and  caiiied  into  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  where  Davenant  was  imprisoned 
in  Cowes  castle.  In  this  foriom  captivity, 
from  which  he  had  but  little  hope  of 
escapinff  alive,  he  composed  the  3d  book 
of  Gondibert  In  October,  1650,  he  was 
removed  to  London  for  trial  before  the 
high  commisBiGn  court    Uis  life  is  said 


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DAVENANT— DAVID. 


to  have  been  preseired  by  the  interposi- 
tion  of  Milton.  There  is  a  correspoudinff 
tradition,  that  Davenant  repaid  the  good 
offices  of  Milton,  by  protecting  the  repub- 
lican poet  after  the  restoration.  After  two 
years'  imprisonment,  sir  William  was  set 
at  liberty,  when,  witli  the  connivance  of 
those  in  power,  he  set  on  ftx>t,  in  the 
metropolis,  a  species  of  dramatic  enter- 
tainments. On  the  return  of  Charles  II 
to  England,  the  stage  was  reestablished 
with  renewed  splendor,  and  Davenant  be- 
came patentee  of  a  theatre  in  Lincoln's- 
Inn-Fields.  He  continued  to  employ  his 
pen  and  his  talents  as  a  tlieatrical  writer 
and  manager  till  his  death,  which  took 
place  April  17,  1668.  Gondibert,  the 
principal  production  of  this  writer,  was 
never  finished.  It  contains  some  truly 
poetical  passages,  but  is,  upon  tlie  whole, 
possessed  of  too  little  interest  to  require 
any  paiticular  notice.  • 

David,  king  of  Israel,  the  youngest  son 
of  Jesse,  an  inhabitant  of  ^thlehem,  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah,  distinguished  himself 
by  his  prudence,  courage  and  exploits, 
particularly  bv  his  combat  with  Goliath, 
the  gigantic  Philistine ;  so  that  Samuel,  the 
high  priest,  anointed  and  consecrated  him 
as  king,  during  the  li fe  of  SauL  At  home, 
he  tended  his  father's  flocks,  and  was 
instructed  in  the  knowledge  of  that  period, 
and  in  music.  Saul,  who  regarded  him  as 
his  enemy,  persecuted  hina ;.  and  thus  arose 
a  civil  war,  which  continued  till  the  death 
of  SauL  David  then  ascended  the  throne  of 
Judah,  but  the  remaining  tribes  had  chosen 
Saul's  son  Ishboshetli  ror  their  king,  after 
whose  death  David  came  into  possession 
of  the  whole  kingdom,  which  he  governed 
from  1055  till  1015  years  B.  C.  His  first 
expedition  was  against  the  Jebusites,  who 
dwelt  in  the  centre  of  Palestine.  He  con- 
quered the  citadel  Zion,  and  made  Jerusa- 
lem his  residence,  and  the  citadel  the 
abode  of  the  Most  High.  He  then  re- 
duced the  Philistines,  Amalekites,  Edom- 
ites,  Moabites,  Ammonites,  and  especially 
the  Syrians.  His  kingdom  now  extended 
f]X)m  the  Euphrates  to  the  Mediterranean, 
and  from  Phoenicia  to  the  Arabian  gulf, 
and  contained  more  than  5,000,000  inhab- 
itants. He  promoted  navigation  and  com- 
merce, and  endeavored  to  refine  his  people 
by  the  cultivation  of  the  arts,  especially 
that  of  architecture.  He  built  at  Jerusa- 
lem a  palace  for  himself,  and  made  the 
worship  of  God  more  splendid,  by  the 
appointment  of  sacred  poets  and  singers. 
The  magnificent  temple  which  he  had 
projected  was  completed  by  his  son  and 
successor.    He  hinoaelf  carried  lyric  po- 


etry to  the  highest  perfection,  which  it  had 
ever  reached  smone  the  Israelites,  by  his 
Psalms,  (q.  v.)  He  also  improved  the 
mihtaiy,  judicial  and  financial  systems. 
The  ardor  of  his  temperament  led  him, 
however,  to  the  commission  of  several 
cruelties,  for  which  his  repentance  was  not 
able  to  atone;  and  jealousy  among  his 
sons  by  different  mothers,  at  lencth  gave 
rise  to  rebellion  in  his  own  family.  His 
son  Absalom  sought  to  dethrone  him,  and 
made  war  upon  him  with  tliis  design,  but 
unsuccessfully.  He  left  the  flourishing 
kingdom  of  Israel  to  his  son  Solomon. 
The  crimes  of  David  the  Scriptures  do  not 
extenuate,  but  they  represent  him  as  hav- 
ing endeavored  to  atone  for  them  by  nv 
pentance.  His  advice  to  his  son,  on  his 
death-bed,  seems  to  leave  a  dark  stain 
upon  his  memory,  tliough  commentators 
have  endeavored  to  put  a  favorable  con- 
struction upon  it. 

David,  Jacques  Louis,  the  founder  and 
greatest  painter  of  the  modem  French 
school,  which  he  brought  back  to  the 
study  of  nature.  David  was  bom  at  Paris 
in  1750,  and  went,  in  1774,  to  Rome, 
where  he  devoted  himself  particularly  to 
historical  painting.  His  talents  for  this 
species  of  painting  soon  displayed  them- 
selves. He  visited  Rome  a  second  time 
in  1784,  and  finished  his  masteroiece, 
the  Oath  of  the  Horatii,  which  Louis 
XVI  had  commissioned  him  to  design 
fix>m  a  scene  in  the  Horaces  of  CoraeilTe. 
Connoisseurs  declared  that  this  piece  was 
unequalled,  and  breathed  the  spirit  of 
a  Raphael.  In  the  same  year,  he  painted 
his  Belisarius;  in  1787,  the  Death  of  Soc- 
rates; and,  in  1788,  Paris  and  Helen. 
His  Imputation  was  now  veiy  great  in 
Paris;  and,  having  begun  to  be  distin- 
guished as  a  portrait  painter  also,  he 
might  have  enioyed  a  tranquil  and  bril- 
liant career,  if  he  had  not  taken  an  active 
part  in  the  revolution.  Seized  with  an 
ardent  zeal  for  liberty,  he  finished,  in 
1789,  a  large  painting,  representing  Brutus 
condemning  his  sons  to  death.  He  also 
furnished  Uie  designs  of  the  numerous 
monuments  and  repubPican  festivals  of 
that  time.  In  1792,  he  was  chosen  an 
elector  in  Paris ;  afterwards  a  deputy  in 
the  national  convention ;  and,  during  the 
reign  of  terror,  he  was  one  of  tlie  most 
zealous  Jacobins,  and  wholly  devoted  to 
Robesfuerre.  He  proposed  to  erect  a 
colossal  monument  of  the  nation,  on  the 
Pont-Neuf^  from  the  materials  of  the 
king's  statue.  At  the  trial  of  Louis  XVI, 
he  voted  for  his  death.  In  January,  1794, 
he  presided  in  the  convention.    After  tlie 


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131 


ftfl  of  Robespierre,  he  ivas  in  ^reat 
danger,  and  his  reputation  as  a  painter 
alone  preserved  him  fix)m  the  guillotine. 
Among  the  scenes  of  the  revolution  which 
David  strove  to  immortalize  by  his  pencil, 
are  the  murders  of  Marat  and  Lepelletier, 
and  particularly  the  oath  in  the  tennis- 
court,  and  the  entrance  of  Louis  into  tlie 
national  assembly,  February  4,  whidi, 
in  1790,  he  presented  to  the  legislative 
assembly.  In  1799,  he  executed  the  Rape 
of  the  Sijbine  Women  (the  masterpiece 
of  his  genius),  from  the  exliibition  of 
which  he  received,  as  it  is  said,  100,000 
fiancs.  In  1804,  the  emperor  appointed 
him  his  first  painter,  and  directed  him  to 
execute  four  pieces,  among  which  the  Coro- 
nation of  Napoleon  was  particularly  dis- 
tinguished. Among  his  finest  works  of 
this  period  were  many  representations  of 
the  emperor;  particularly  that  in  which 
the  first  consul  was  represented  on  horse- 
back, on  mount  Bemtird,  pointing  out  to 
his  troops  the  path  to  glory.  This  piece 
is  now  in  Beriin.  In  1814,  David  painted 
Leonidas,  his  last  paintingin  Pans.  When 
Napoleon  returned  fiiom  Elba,  he  appoint- 
ed David  a  commander  of  the  legion  of 
honor.  After  die  second  restoration  of 
Louis  XVIII,  he  was  included  in  the 
decree  which  banished  all  regicides  fiiom 
France.  He  then  established  himself  at 
Brussels ;  and,  upon  the  new  organization 
of  the  institute,  he  was  excluded  fix>m 
this  body,  in  April,  1816.  In  Brussels,  he 
painted  Cupid  leaving  the  arms  of  Psy- 
che. The  latest  of  his  productions — Ve- 
nus, Cupid  and  the  Graces  disarming 
Mars— which  he  finished  at  Brussels  in 
1S24,  was  much  admired  at  Paris.  David 
died  in  exile,  at  Brussels,  Dec.  29, 1825. 
The  opinions  of  the  merits  of  this  artist 
are  various;  but  the  praise  of  correct 
delineation  and  happy  coloring  is  univer- 
sally conceded  to  him.  He  found,  in  the 
history  of  his  time,  in  the  commotions  of 
which  he  took  an  active  part,  the  materi- 
als of  his  representations.  The  engraver 
Moreau  has  immortalized  the  best  of  his 
works,  by  his  excellent  engravings.  The 
most  celebrated  of  his  paintings,  as  the 
Oath  of  tlie  Homtii  and  the  Rape  of  the 
Sabine  Women,  have  been  purchased  by 
the  French  government,  and  placed  in 
the  gallery  of  the  Luxembourg. 

Davidson,  Lucretia  Maria,  a  remark- 
able instance  of  eariy  genius,  was  bom  at 
Plattsburg,  on  lake  Champlain,  Sept.  27, 
1808.  When  she  was  only  4  years  old,  a 
number  of  her  litUe  books  were  found 
filled  with  rude  drawings,  and  accompa- 
nied by  a  number  of  verses  in  explanation 


of  them,  written  in  the  characters  of  the 
printed  alphabet  As  her  parents  were  in 
straitened  circumstances,  she  was,  fix)m  an 
early  age,  much  employed  in  domestic 
services;  but  every  moment  of  leisure 
was  devoted  to  reading.  A  tender  heart, 
a  warm  sensibility,  an  ardent  and  vivid 
imagination,  an  eager  denre  for  knowl- 
edge, characterize  her  eariier  effusions; 
the  later  are  marked  with  the  melancholy 
traces  of  a  wasting  firame,  and  a  dejected 

Spirit  feeling  the  fatal  approaches  of 
eath.  We  know  of  no  instance  of  so 
earlv,  so  ardent,  and  so  fatal  a  pursuit  of 
intellectual  advancement,  except  in  the 
cases  of  Chatterton  and  Kirke  Wliite. 
In  October,  1824,  a  gentieman,  who  was 
informed  of  her  ardent  desire  for  educa- 
tion, placed  her  at  a  female  seminary, 
where  her  incessant  application  soon  de- 
stroyed her  constitution,  already  debilitated 
by  previous  disease.  Her  letters  at  this 
period  exhibit,  in  a  striking  manner,  the 
extremes  of  despondency  and  hope. 
Gradually  sinking  under  her  malady,  she 
died  August  27, 1825,  before  completing 
her  17th  year.  Her  person  was  singularly 
beautifiil ;  her  prevailing  expression,  mel- 
ancholy. Her  poetical  writings,  which 
have  been  collected,  amount  to  S^8  pieces, 
some  written  at  the  age  of  nine  years ;  be- 
sides which,  she  destroved  a  great  number 
of  her  pieces.  (See  Amir  Juian  and  other 
Poems,  wUh  a  Biographical  SkdcK,  New 
Yorit,  1829.) 

Davie,  William  Richardson,  who  held 
a  high  rank  among  the  revolutionary 
worthies  of  South  Carolina,  vras  bom  in 
England,  June  20, 1756w  He  was  brought 
to  America  at  the  a^  of  six  years,  received 
the  rudiments  of  his  education  in  North 
Carolina,  and  was  graduated  at  the  college 
of  Nassau  Hall,  New  Jersey,  in  the  year 
1776.  He  returned  to  North  Carolina, 
and  commenced  the  study  of  the  law ;  but 
he  soon  yielded  to  the  military  spirit 
which  was  excited  by  the  war  of  inde- 
pendence. He  obtained  the  command  of 
a  company  attached  to  count  Pulaski's 
legion,  quicklv  rose  in  rank,  and  greatly 
distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal,  courage 
and  tuents  as  an  officer.  During  the  ar- 
duous and  sanguinary  war  in  the  South, 
he  was  constantly  useful  and  energetic, 
and  a  principal  favorite  of  generals  Sump- 
ter  and  Greene.  At  the  end  of  the  revo- 
lutionary struggle,  he  devoted  himself^ 
with  signal  success,  to  the  profession  of 
the  law.  In  1787,  he  was  chosen,  by  the 
legislature  of  South  Carolina,  to  represent 
that  state  in  the  convention  tiiat  met  in 
Philadelphia  to  fimme  a  federal  constitu- 


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DAVlE— DAVOUST. 


uon.  SicknesB  in  his  familv  required  his 
presence  at  home  before  the  work  was 
completed,  and,  dierefore,  his  name  is  not 
in  the  list  of  the  signers.  In  the  state 
convention  in  North  Carolina,  assembled 
to  accept  or  reject  the  instrument,  he  was 
the  ablest  and  most  ardent  of  its  advocatea 
The  establishment  of  the  university  of 
North  Carolina  is  ascribed  to  his  enuffht- 
ened  zeal  for  learning:  In  the  year  1799, 
he  was  elected  ^vemor<^that  state,  and, 
soon  after,  appomted  by  president  Adams 
envoy  to  France,  along  with  chief-justice 
Ellsworth  and  Mr.  Murray.  On  his  re- 
turn, he  fixed  bis  residence  at  Tivoli — a 
beautiful  estate  on  the  Catawba  river. 
South  Carolina.  He  died  at  Camden,  in 
the  year  1820.  General  Davie  possessed 
a  commanding  figure,  a  noble,  patriotic 
spirit,  masculme,  ready  eloquence,  and 
rendered  a  variety  of  valuable  services  to 
his  country. 

Da  VIES,  Samuel,  president  of  Nassau 
hall,  was  bom  in  Delaware,  Nov.  3, 1724, 
and  educated  in  Pennsylvania  for  the 
Presbyterian  ministiy.  He  labored  for 
some  years  as  a  pastor  in  Virginia,  where 
Episcopacy  was  the  religion  established 
and  supported  by  law,  and  the  ^act  of 
uniformity"  was  enforced  with  great  rigor. 
The  ^act  of  toleration'^  had  been  passed 
in  England  especially  for  the  relief  of  the 
Protestant  dissenters ;  but  it  was  disputed 
in  Virginia,  whether  it  was  intended  to 
extend  to  the  colonies.  Mr.  Davies  main- 
tained that  it  did,  in  opposition  to  tlie 
king's  attorney-general,  Peyton  Randolph, 
afterwards  the  president  or  the  first  conti- 
nental congress,  and  in  opposition  to  the 
general  court  of  the  colony.  When  he 
went  to  England,  to  solicit  benefactions 
for  Nassau  hall,  he  obtained  a  declara- 
ti(»],  under  authority,  that  the  provisions 
of  the  act  of  toleration  did  extend  to  the 
colony  of  Virginia.  Mr.  Davies  is  to  be 
regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  first  pres- 
bytery in  Virginia.  In  1759,  he  was  ap- 
S>inted  president  of  Nassau  hall,  but  he 
ed  Feb.  4, 1762,  in  the  36th  year  of  his 
age,  after  holding  the  ofSce  only  18  months. 
Doctor  Green  has  written  an  account  of 
his  life.  His  3  volumes  of  posthumous  ser- 
mons have  passed  throuf^  many  editions, 
both  in  Great  Britain  and  the  U.  States. 

Davila,  Arrigo  Caterino,  an  Italian 
statesman  and  historian,  was  bom  in  1576. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  Cypriot  of  distin- 
guished family.  His  fiither,  who  fled  to 
Venice  after  the  conquest  of  Cyprus  by 
the  Turks,  in  1571,  introduced  hun  to  the 
French  court,  where  he  was  made  page ; 
he  afterwards  entered  the  French  service, 


in  which  he  highly  dsflttngnished  himseUI 
At  the  desire  of  his  father,  he  returned 
to  Italy,  in  1599,  entered  the  Venetian 
service,  gradually  rose  to  the  post  of  atar- 
emor  of^Dalmatia,  Friuli,  and  the  isumd 
of  Candia,  and  was  esteemed  at  Venice 
the  first  man  in  the  republic  after  the 
doge.  While  travelling,  in  1631,  on  pub- 
Uc  business,  he  wbs  shot  by  a  man  from 
whom  he  demanded  carriages  to  continue 
his  journey.  He  is  princiiMdly  celebrated 
for  his  History  of  the  Civil  Wars  of  France, 
fi^m  1559  to  1598  (Sloria  ddle  Guerrt 
CwiU  di  IVanda,  Venice,  1630).  This  has 
been  translated  into  several  languages,  and 
deserves  a  place  near  the  worics  of  Guicci- 
ardini  and  Machiavelli. 

Davis,  John  ;  an  English  navigator, 
bom  at  Sandridge,  in  Devonshire.  He 
went  to  sea  when  young,  and,  in  1585, 
was  sent  vritii  two  vessels  to  discover  a 
north-west  passage.  He  was  unable  to 
land  on  the  southerly  cape  of  Greenland, 
on  account  of  the  ice,  and,  steering  a 
north-west  course,  discovered  a  counti^'^ 
surrounded  with  green  islands,  laL  64^  15^, 
the  inhabitants  of  which  informed  him 
that  there  was  a  great  sea  to  the  north  and 
west  Under  lat.  66°  4(y,  he  reached  a 
coast  entirely  fi«e  from  ice,  tlie  most 
southerly  point  of  which  he  called  cope 
^  God's  Mercy,  Sailing  west,  he  entered 
a  strait,  from  20  to  30  leagues  wide, 
where  he  expected  to  find  the  passage; 
but,  the  weather  being  unfavorable,  and 
the  wind  contrary,  after  six  days  of  unsuc- 
cessful efiTort,  he  set  sail  for  England. 
The  strait  has  since  received  and  retained 
bis  name.  Davis  made  two  more  voyages 
for  the  same  purpose,  Imt  was  prevented 
by  the  ice  m>m  attaining  his  object,  in 
the  prosecution  of  whidi  BafSn  aftei^ 
wards  distinguished  himself.  In  1605,  Da- 
vis was  killed  by  Japanese  pirates  in  the 
Indian  seas. 

Davis's  Straits  ;  a  narrow  sea  which 
divides  Greenland  from  New  Britain,  and 
unites  BafiSn's  bay  with  the  Atiantic 
ocean ;  lat  63^ — 7(r  N.  In  the  narrowest 
part,  between  cape  Dyer  and  the  island 
called  Ifkite-Back,  it  is  80  leagues  wide. 
(See  Dfwis,) 

Davit,  in  a  ship ;  a  long  beam  of  tim- 
ber, used  as  a  crane,  whereby  to  hoist  the 
flukes  of  the  anchor  to  the  top  of  the  bow, 
without  injuring  the  sides  of  the  vessel  as 
it  ascends — an  operation  which  is  called, 
by  mariners, /bAu^rt^  anchor, 

DAvousT,LouisNicolas;  dukeof  Auer- 
m&dt  and  prince  of  Eckmiihl,  marshal 
and  peer  or  France ;  bom  in  1770,  at  An- 
noux,  in  the  former  province  of  Burgundy. 


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DAVOUST— DAVY. 


133 


He  was  of  a  noble  family,  and  studied  nt 
the  same  time  with  Bonaparte,  in  the 
military  school  at  Brienne.  He  distin- 
guished himself  under  Dumouriez,  in  the 
battles  of  Jemappe  and  Ncerwinden. 
When  Dumouriez,  after  tlie  battle  of 
Neerwinden,  treated  with  Coburg,  Da- 
voust  conceived  the  bold  desicn  of  seizing 
tlie  former  in  the  midst  of  his  army,  and 
nearly  succeeded  in  tlie  attempt  In  June, 
1793,' he  was  made  general;  but  the  de- 
cree, which  removed  the  ex-nobles  from 
the  service,  deprived  him  of  his  command. 
The  9th  Thermidor  restored  liim  to  the 
army.  He  was  present  at  the  siege  of 
Luxembourg,  and  afterwards  on  the 
Rhine,  under  Pichegru.  He  was  taken 
prisoner  in  Manheim,  but  was  soon  ex- 
changed, and  distinguished  himself  hi 
1797,  at  the  passage  of  the  Rliine,  by  his 
prudence  and  courage.  In  the  Italian 
campaigns,  under  Bonaparte,  be  became 
zealously  attached  to  that  general.  He 
accompanied  him  to  EgjT)t,  where  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  intrepidity.  It 
was  he  who,  after  the  battle  of  Aboukir, 
attacked  and  conquered  the  village.  He 
embarked  for  France  from  Alexandria, 
with  Desaix,  after  the  convention  of  El- 
Arish.  They  were  captured  by  an  Eng- 
lish frigate,  near  the  iliercs.  Bonaparte 
afterwardd  gave  him  the  chief  coimnand 
of  the  cavalry  in  the  army  of  Italy.  After 
the  l)attle  of  Marengo,  he  was  made  chief 
of  the  grenadiers  of  the  consular  guard, 
which,  from  this  battle,  was  called  the 
gramie  columns.  When  Napoleon  ascend- 
ed the  throne  (1804)^  he  created  Davoust 
marshal  of  the  empire,  grand  cross  of  the 
legion  of  honor,  and  colonel-general  of 
the  imperial  fuard  of  grenadiers.  In  the 
campaign  of  1805,  he  showed  himself 
worthy  of  his  appointment,  paiticularly  at 
the  battle  of  Austerlitz,  where  he  com- 
manded tlie  right  wing  of  the  army.  In 
1806,  he  marched  at  the  head  of  liis  corps 
into  Saxony,  and,  at  Auerst&dt,  where  he 
commanded  the  right  wing,  contributed 
so  much  to  the  success  of  the  day,  by  his 
skilftil  manoBuvpea,  tliat  Napoleon  created 
hun  duke  of  Aueret&dt  After  the  peace 
of  Tilsit,  he  was  made  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine.  In  the 
war  of  1809  against  Austria,  his  marches 
through  the  Upper  Palatinate,  and  tlie  en- 
gagement at  Katisbon,  were  hazardous 
enterprises.  He  had  an  important  share 
in  the  victory  at  Eckmuhl.  In  the  battle 
of  Aspem,  only  one  of  his  four  divisions 
■was  engaged,  die  greatest  part  of  which, 
with  its  general,  St.  Hilaire,  perished  on 
the  left  bank  of  die  Danube.    In  the  batde 

VOL.  IT.  12 


of  Wa^ram,  Davoust  commanded  the 
right  wmg,  to  the  manoeuvres  of  which 
the  retreat  of  die  Austrians  was  mainly 
owing.  After  the  peace.  Napoleon  cre- 
ated him  prince  of  Eckmuhl,  and,  in 
1811,  appointed  him  governor-general  of 
the  Hanseadc  departments.  In  Russia 
(1812),  his  division  was  defeated  on  the 
retreat  from  Moscow.  In  1813,  he  com- 
manded 50,000  men,  French  and  Danes, 
in  Mecklenbure ;  but  was  soon  besieged 
in  Hamburg,  which  sufiered,  at  diat  time, 
veiy  severely.  Davoust  was  in  a  cridcal 
situadon,  and  could  support  his  army  only 
at  die  expense  of  the  cidzens.  He  lost, 
during  the  siege,  as  many  as  11,000  men. 
In  1814,  he  pubUshed,  at  Paris,  a  defence 
of  himself  irom  the  cliarge  of  cruelty 
towards  Hamburg.  On  die  refum  of  Na- 
poleon to  Paris,  in  March,  1815,  he  was 
made  minister  of  war.  When  the  allies 
advanced  to  Paris,  after  the  batde  of  Wa- 
terloo, Davoust,  as  cx>mmander-in-chief, 
concluded  a  military  convendon  with 
Bliicher  and  Wellington,  in  compliance 
with  which  he  led  the  French  army  be- 
yond the  Loire.  He  submitted  to  Louis 
aVIII,  exhortuig  the  army  to  follow  his 
example,  and,  in  obedience  to  an  onler  of 
die  king,  surrendered  the  command  to 
marshal  Macdonald.  For  this  service, 
he  was  afterwards  employed  by  die  court 
Davoust  died  June  1, 18^.  Firmness  of 
character,  personal  bravery,  and  a  military 
ri^or  often  approaching  to  cruelty,  were 
his  characteristics.  Davoust  left  two 
daughtei^  and  a  son  of  30  years  of  age, 
who  inherited  the  rank  of  a  peer. 

Davt,  sir  Humphrey,  barL,  one  of  th« 
n^ost  disdnguished  cliemists  of  the  age, 
was  bom  at  Penzance  (Cornwall),  Dec. 
17, 1779.  After  having  received  the  rudi- 
ments of  a  classical  educadon,  he  was 
placed  with  a  surgeon  and  ajiothecary, 
who  pronounced  him  an  ^  idle  and  incor- 
rigible boy."  He  had,  however,  already 
disdnguished  himself  at  school,  and  a 
taste  ior  chemistry,  which  he  displayed  in 
some  experiments  on  the  air  contahied  in 
sea-weed,  attracted  the  attendon  of  Mr. 
Gilbert  (now  president  of  the  royal  soci- 
ety), and  doctor  Beddoes.  The  latter 
who  had  just  establislied  a  pneuinatical  in- 
sdtution  at  Bristol,  oftered  him  the  place  of 
assistant  in  his  laboratory.  Here  Davy  dis- 
covered the  respiraliifity  and  exhilanidns 
eftect  of  the  nitrous  oxide.  He  published 
the  results  of  his  experiments,  under  the 
dtle  of  Chemical  and  Philosophical  Re- 
searches, &c.  (London,  1800).  This  work 
immediately  obtained  him  the  place  of 
professor  of  chemistry  in  the  royal  insdtu 


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104 


DAVY— DAY, 


tioD,  at  the  age  of  22.  In  1803^  lie  was 
choeen  a  tnember  of  the  ro^al  society, 
liis  lectures  at  the  royal  uistitutioii  were 
attended  by  crowded  and  brilliant  audi- 
cDcefl,  attracted  by  the  novelty  and  variety 
of  his  eicperiments,  tlie  eloquence  of  his 
manner,  and  the  clearness  of  his  exposi- 
tion. His  discoveries  with  the  galvanic 
battery,  his  decomposition  of  die  earths 
and  aikalies,  and  ascertaining  their  metallic 
bases,  his  deraonsti-ation  of  the  simple  na- 
ture of  the  oxymuriatic  acid  (to  which 
he  gave  the  name  of  chlorine),  &c.,  obtain- 
ed him  an  extensive  reputation  ;  and,  in 
1810,  he  received  the  prize  of  the  French 
institute.  In  1814,  he  was  elected  a  cor- 
responding member  of  that  body.  Hav- 
ing been  elected  professor  of  chemistry  to 
the  board  of  agriculture,  he  delivered  lec- 
tures on  agricultural  chemistry  during  10 
successive  years,  and,  in  1813,  published 
his  valuable  Elements  of  AgricuUural 
Chemistry.  His  next  discovery  was  of  no 
less  importance  to  humanity  than  his  for- 
mer researches  had  been  valuable  to  sci- 
ence. The  numerous  accidents  arising 
from  fire-damp  in  mines  led  him  to  enter 
upon  a  series  of  experiments  on  tlie  nature 
of  tlie  explosive  gas,  the  result  of  which 
was  the  invention  of  his  safety-lamp. 
(See  Damps,)  In  1818  and  1819,  he  visit- 
ed Ital}',  and  made  some  unsuccessful 
attempts  to  unrol  the  Herculanean  man- 
uscripts. In  1820,  ho  succeeded  sir  J. 
Banks  as  president  of  the  royal  society. 
In  1824,  he  visited  Norway  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  some  scientific  investi- 
gations. On  tliis  voyage,  he  proved  the 
efficacy  of  his  plan  for  preserving  the 
copper  of  ships,  by  covering  it  in  part  with 
a  certain  quantity  of  iron.  At  the  same 
time,  tlie  trigonometrical  measurements  of 
Denmark  and  Hanover  were  connected, 
under  his  direction,  by  chronometrical  ob- 
servations, with  the  measurements  in 
England.  This  distinguished  philosopher 
died  May  29, 1829,  at  Geneva,  whither  he 
had  gone  for  the  benefit  of  his  health.  Be- 
sides the  works  already  mentioned,  the  most 
important  are  Electro-Chemical  Research- 
es ;  Elements  of  Chemical  Philosophy  (vol. 
1, 1802) ;  Bakerian  Lectures  (1807—1811) ; 
Researches  on  the  Oxj'muriatic  Acid 
(1810);  On  the  Fire-Damp  (I8I6).  He 
also  contributed  some  valuable  papers  to 
the  Philosophical  Transactions,  and  the 
journals  of  Nicholson  and  Tilloch. 

Day,  properly  speaking,  is  the  time  of  a 
revolution  orthe  earth  round  its  axis  (si- 
dereal day,  see  Sidereal  Time\  or  the  time 
between  two  pessagea  of  the  centre  of  the 
sun  through  the  same  meridian  (solar  day, 


see  Solar  JSmey—B.  time  a  little  dififering 
firom  the  one  first  mentioned.  In  common 
parlance,  day  is  opposed  to  nighty  and  sig- 
nifies the  time  between  sunrise  and  sun- 
set, or  the  time  during  which  the  sun 
remains  above  the  horizon.  This  is  caUed 
the  natural  dav.  Thus  we  have  three  dif- 
ferent days — ^tne  natural,  the  astronomical 
(reckoned  fix>m  one  culmination  to  anoth- 
er, or  from  one  noon  to  another),  and  the 
civil  day  (which  is  reckoned  from  mid- 
night to  midnight).  The  24  houn  of  the 
astronomical  day  are  numbered  in  succes- 
sion fix>m  1  to  iiy  whilst  the  civil  day,  in 
most  countries,  is  divided  into  two  por- 
tions, of  12  hours  each.*  The  first  hour, 
therefore,  after  midnight,  which  is  one 
o'clock  A.  M.  of  the  civil  day,  makes  the 
13th  hour  of  the  astropomlcal  day,  and 
the  fir^  hour  of  the  astronomical  day  is 
one  o'clock,  P.  M.  of  the  civil  day.  The 
abbreviations  P.  M.  and  A.  M.  hhe  first 
signifying  post  meruMem,  Latin  ror  ctfUr^ 
noon ;  the  latter,  ante  meridiem,forenoon)  are 
requisite,  in  consequence  of  our  division 
of  the  day  into  two  periods  of  12  hours 
each.  In  tills  respec^  the  mode  of  num- 
bering the  hours  from  1  to  24  consecutive- 
ly has  an  advantage.  If  we  take  a  day  ac- 
cording to  the  first  definition  given  of  it,  its 
length,  of  course,  is  the  same  tiiroughout 
the  year.  According  to  the  second  igni- 
tion, however,  the  day,  in  consequence  of 
the  difSsrent  rapidity  of  the  earth  in  its 
orbit,  is  difi[erent  at  dififerent  times,  and  tliis 
difiference  is  uniform  throughout  the  earth ; 
but  the  time  of  the  natural  day  is  dififerent 
at  die  different  points  of  the  earth,  accord- 
ing to  their  distance  fix)m  the  equator.  The 
daily  apparent  revolution  of  the  sun  takes 
place  in  circles  parallel  to  the  equator. 
If  the  equator  and  ecliptic  coincided,  tlie 
circle  bounding  light  and  darkness  would 
alwa3^s  divide,  not  merely  the  equator,  but 
all  its  parallels,  into  two  eoual  parts,  and 
the  days  and  nights  would  be  equal  in  all 
the  parallels  through  the  year ;  but  at  the 
pole^  there  would  be  no  night  Owing  to 
the  inclination  of  the  earth's  axis  to  tiie 
plane  of  its  orbit  (the  ecliptic),  the  parallel 
of  latitude  in  which  the  sun  appears  to 
move  is  continually  changing;  and,  there- 
fore, the  equator  alone  (teing  a  great  cir- 
cle) always  remains  bisected  by  the  circle 

*  In  Italy,  Ihe  latter  division  is  called  the 
French  mode^hecause  the  French  introdaced  it 
into  that  country  during  the  wars  of  the  revolu- 
tion ;  but  the  people  in  we  south  of  Italy  still  ad- 
here to  the  old  division  of  the  day  into  24  hours, 
beginning  always  at  sunset ;  so  that  one  o'clock  is 
one  hour  after  sunset,  or,  as  the  bells  are  tolled  at 
sunset,  to  summon  the  people  to  prayer,  one  hour 
after  Ave  Maria,    (q.  v.) 


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DAY— DEACON. 


135 


dividing  light  from  darkoesB ;  so  that  the 
days  and  nights  here  are  always  equal; 
white  the  parallels  of  latitude,  not  being 
great  circles,  are  not  equally  divided  by 
me  circle  separating  light  from  dark- 
nessy  except  at  the  time  of  the  equinox, 
when  the  sun  is  moving  in  the  equa- 
tor; and,  of  course,  at  this  time  only  are 
the  days  and  nights  equal  in  those  par- 
allels. As  you  approach  tlie  poles,  the 
inequality  between  the  days  and  nights 
becomes  continually  greater,  till,  at  the 
poles  themselves,  a  (ky  of  six  months 
alternates  with  a  night  of  equal  duration. 
The  most  distant  parallel  circles  which 
the  sun  describes  north  and  south  from 
the  equator  are,  as  is  well  known,  only 
23^^  from  it.  The  distance  between  the 
polar  circles  and  the  poles  is  tlie  same. 
Therefore,  as  a  Tittle  reflection  will  show, 
when  the  sun  is  in  one  of  the  tropics,  all 
the  polar  circle  in  tlie  same  hemisphere 
will  be  within  the  illuminated  region  (be- 
cause it  will  be  witliin  90°  of  the  sun) 
during  the  whole  of  a  diurnal  revolution, 
while  the  other  polar  circle  will  be  in 
the  region  of  darkness.  These  circles, 
therefore,  have  one  day  of  24  hours,  and 
one  ni^t  of  the  same  length,  in  each 
year.  From  the  polar  ciicles  to  the  poles, 
the  time  of  the  longest  day  increases  fast, 
and,  in  the  same  measure,  the  length  of 
the  longest  niglit.  ■Notwithstanding  the 
inequality  of  the  periods  of  light  and 
darkneffi  in  the  different  parts  of  tlie  earth, 
each  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  has  the 
sun  above  its  horizon,  every  year,  precisely 
ax  months,  and  below  it  the  same  length 
of  time.  (For  information  on  the  common 
way  of  computing  time,  see  Solar  Time ; 
see  also  Sidereal  Time)     * 

Day,  Thomas,  an  ingenious  writer,  of  a 
benevolent,  independent,  but  eccentric 
spirit,  was  bom  at  London,  in  1748.  His 
father,  who  was  a  collector  of  the  cus- 
toms, died  whilst  he  was  an  infant,  leav- 
ing him  a  considerable  fortune.  He  was 
educated  at  the  charter-house  and  at  Ox- 
ford. In  1765,  he  was  called  to  the  bar. 
With  a  view  to. study  mankind,  he  resid- 
ed in  various  parts  of  the  continent,  and, 
having  been  disappointed  in  an  eany  af- 
fection, took  under  his  protection  two 
^ndling  girls,  with  a  view  of  educating 
them  on  a  principle  of  his  own,  in  order 
to  make  one  of  them  his  wife.  His  plan, 
which  was  kindred  in  spirit  to  some  of 
the  reveries  of  Rousseau,  utterly  failed,  al- 
though both  of  the  females  turned  out  de- 
serving women.  He  gave  them  small 
portions,  and  eligibly  united  them  to  re- 
spectiJble  tFodesmen.    In  1778,  he  mar- 


ried miss  Esther  Milnes,  a  lady  of  a  hip^hly 
cultivated  understanding.  His  principles 
led  him  to  renounce  most  of  tne  indul- 
gences of  a  man  of  fortune,  that  he  might 
bestow  his  superfluities  upon  those  who 
wanted  necessaries ;  and  he  also  express- 
ed a  great  contempt  for  forms  and  artifi- 
cial restraint  of  all  kinds.  He  wrote  sev- 
eral pieces,  in  prose  and  verse,  on  the 
struggle  with  America,  also  other  political 
pami)hlets  of  temporary  interest,  but  final- 
ly dedicated  himself  to  tlie  composition  of 
books  for  youth,  of  which  the  well-known 
work  entitled  Sandford  and  Merton  is  an 
able  specimen,  although  it  [mrtakes  too 
much  of  the  tiieorctical  spirit  of  Rousseau 
for  general  application.  Mr.  Day  at  length 
became  a  victim  to  his  enthusiastic  benev- 
olence, beins  killed  by  a  fall  from  a  young 
horse,  wliicn  he  would  not  allow  to  be 
trained  in  the  usual  manner.  Sept  28, 
X789. 

Days  of  Grace  are  days  allowed  for 
tlie  payment  of  a  promissory  note  or  bill 
of  exchange  after  it  becomes  due.  The 
time  varies  in  different  countries.  (See 
BUI  of  Elxchange.) 

Deacon  (diaconus^  from  the  Greek  Bia- 
Ko»9i) ;  a  pei«on  who  belongs  to  the  infe- 
rior order  of  ministers  in  the  Christian 
church.  Seven  were  first  instituted  by 
the  apostles  (jids^  chap,  vi),  which  num- 
ber was  retained  a  long  time  in  several 
churches.  Their  duty  waa  to  serve  in  the 
agapa  (q.  v.),  to  distribute  the  bread  and 
wine  to  the  communicants,  and  to  dis- 
pense alms.  The  office  of  the  deacons, 
at  first,  merely  concerned  things  temporal. 
Soon  after  the  apostohc  age,  or  perhaps 
sooner,  the  deacons  were  admitted  to  as- 
sist in  the  inferior  parts  of  the  church 
service.-*I>eac(m,  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
church,  is  an  inferior  ecclesiastic,  the  sec- 
ond of  the  sacred  orders.  He  serves  at 
the  altar,  in  the  celebration  of  the  holy 
mysteries.  He  is  also  allowed  to  baptize 
and  to  preaoh  vrith  the  permission  of  the 
bishop.  .  Formerly,  deacons  were  allowed 
to  many,  hut  this  was  prohibited  to  them 
very  early ;  and  at  present  the  pope  dis- 
penses with  this  prohibition  only  for  very 
important  reasons.  In  such  cases,  they 
re-enter  the  condition  of  laymen.  There 
are  18  cardimdrdtaeons^  so  called,  in  Itome, 
who  have  the  charge  of  the  temporal  in- 
terests and  the  revenues  of  the  church. 
A  person,  to  be  consecrated  deacon,  must 
be  23  years  old. — ^Iii  the  English  church, 
deacons  are  also  ecclesiastics,  who  can 
perform  all  the  offices  of  a  priest,  except 
the  consecration  of  the  elements  of  the 
Lord's  supper,  and  tiie  pronouncing  of  ab* 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


136 


DEACON— DEAD  SEA. 


solution.  In  this  church,  also,  no  person 
can  be  ordained  deacon  before  he  is  23 
years  old,  except  by  dispensation  from  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury. — The  office  of 
deacons,  ui  Presbyterian  and  Independ- 
ent churches,  is  to  distribute  the  bread 
and  wine  to  communicants.  In  the  latter, 
they  are  elected  by  the  members  of  the 
church.  In  Scotland,  this  name  is  given 
to  overseers  of  the  poor  and  masters  of  in- 
corporated companies.  In  German  Prot- 
estant churches,  the  assistant  ministers  are 
generally  called  deacojis.  If  there  are  two 
assistant  ministers,  the  first  of  tliem  is 
called  archikfKon, 

Deaconess.  This  name  was  given  to 
women,  in  the  early  church,  wbo  conse- 
crated themselves  to  the  service  of  the 
church,  and  rendered  those  offices  to  fe- 
males which  could  not  be  decently  per- 
fonned  by  men.  They  also  had  tlie  care 
of  the  poor,  the  sick,  &c. 

Dead-Ete,  or  Dead  Man's  Ete  ;  a  sort 
of  round,  flattish,  wooden  block,  encircled 
with  a  rope,  or  with  an  iron  band,  and 
pierced  whh  three  holes  through  the  flat 
part,  in  order  to  receive  a  rope  called  the 
tamard,  wjiich,  corresponding  with  three 
holes  in  another  deaa-eye,  creates  a  pur- 
chase, employed  for  various  uses,  but 
chiefly  to  extend  the  shix)uds  and  stays, 
otherwise  called  the  standing  rigging. 

Dead  Reckoning  ;  the  judgment  or  es- 
timation which  is  made  of  the  place 
where  a  ship  is  situated,  without  any  ob- 
servation of  the  heavenly  bqdies.  It  is 
obtained  by  keeping  an  account  of  tlie 
distance  which  the  ship  has  run  by  the 
log,  and  of  her  course  steered  by  the  com- 
pass, and  by  rectifying  these  data  by  the 
usual  allowances  for  drift,  lee-way,  &c., 
according  to  the  ship's  known  trim.  This 
reckoning  is,  however,  always  to  be  cor- 
rected as  oflen  as  any  good  observation 
of  the  sun  can  be  obtained. 

Dead  Ropes  are  tlioee  which  do  not 
run  in  any  block. 

Dead  Sea,  or  Asphaltites,  i.  e.  the 
lake  of  Bitumen ;  anciently  called,  also,  the 
sea  of  Sodom,  Salt  sea,  and  lake  Sirbon, 
and  now,  by  the  Arabs,  Bahheret-LiU,  i.  e. 
tlie  sea  of  Lai',  a  lake  in  Palestine,  about 
60  or  70  miles  long  from  N.  to  S.,  and  10 
or  15  wide ;  according  to  Mariti,  180  miles 
in  circuit ;  but  its  dimensions  are  stated 
with  considerable  diversity.  It  is  border- 
ed on  the  E.  by  lofty  hills,  having  rugged 
and  frightful  precipices ;  on  the  N.  by  the 
plain  of  Jencho,  through  which  it  re- 
ceives the  river  Jordan.  Other  streams 
flow  into  it ;  but  it  has  no  visible  outlet. 
Copious  evaporation,  caused  by  the  sub- 


terraneous heat,  supplies  the  place  of  one. 
The  water  is  clear  and  limpid,  unconv- 
monly  salt,  and  even  bitter,  and  of  greater 
speciSc  gravity  than  any  other  hitherto 
discovered.  The  proportion  of  the  weight 
of  the  salts  held  in  solution  to  tlie  whole 
weight  of  the  water  varies,  according  to 
different  experiments  bv  chemical  aimlj^> 
sis, &om  25  to  neajly  50  per  cent,  llus 
very  great  portion  of  saline  matter 
explains  the  difficulty  of  diving  in  this 
lake,  and  the  sluggish  motion  of  the 
waves,  comparatively  undisturbed  by  the 
wind.  From  the  depths  of  the  lake  rises 
asphaltum  or  mineral  pitch,  or,  as  the 
Germans  call  it,  JewpUch,  which  is  melt- 
ed by  the  heat  of  the  bottom  of  the  lake, 
and  again  condensed  by  the  water,  and 
of  which  Seetz^n  tells  us  that  there  are 
pieces  large  enough  for  camel  loads.  Ac- 
cording to  the  same  traveller,  it  is  porous, 
and  is  thrown  out  only  in  stormy  weather. 
There  is  also  another  kind  of  pitch,  dug 
on  the  shore,  where  it  is  found  mixed 
with  small  pieces  of  salt,  pebbles  and 
earth.  It  is  used,  puri£ed»  for  the  anti- 
dote called  theriaca.  The  whole  northern 
shore  of  the  lake  appears  to  be  covered 
with  this  substance,  called  anotanon,  As- 
phaltum is  used  for  theriaca,  for  embalm- 
mg,  calking,  sculpture,  and  the  coloring 
of  wool  and  therefore  is  an  important  ar- 
ticle of^  commerce.  The  limestone  im- 
pregnated with  bitumen,  and  in  which  the 
inflammable  substance  is  so  concealed, 
that  it  can  be  brought  out  only  by  rubbing, 
can  be  heated  so  as  to  glow  like  a  coal 
without  being  consumed,  and  has  been 
used  for  amulets  since  ancient  times*  A 
gi-eat  part  of  those  found  in  the  catacombs 
at  Sakkarah  are  made  of  this  substance  ; 
and  large  quantities  of  rosaries  are  yearly 
prepared  from  it  in  Jerusalem.  Accord- 
mg  to  the  Scriptures,  the  beautiful  valley 
of  Siddim,  with  Sodom,  Gomorrah,  and 
otlier  places,  were  buried  here  by  a  vol- 
canic eruption.  The  immediate  vicinity 
is  destitute  of  vegetation,  dull,  cheerless, 
and  inanimate ;  hence,  pi-obably,  its  name 
of  Dead  secu  Among  the  absurd  fables 
formerly  circulated  respecting  this  sea,  it 
was  affirmed,  that  the  pestiferous  vapors 
hovering  over  it  were  fatal  to  birds  at- 
temptmff  to  fiy  across.  But  this  is  con- 
tradicted by  various  recent  travellers. 
Clarke  says,  "  the  lake  swarms  with 
fishes,  shells  abound  on  its  shores,  and 
its  exhalations  are  most  insalubrious." 
Madden,  however,  who  visited  it  in  1827, 
says,  "the  waters  appeared  to  him  to 
contain  no  fish."  He  also  says,  **  the  sa- 
line matter  in  the  lake  is  19.&  per  ceat" 


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DEAF  AND  DUMB— DEATH. 


137 


DcAT  AND  DuBTB.    (See  Dumb.) 
Deal.    (See  Pine,) 

Dean  ;  a  corruption  from  deccmua^  Latin, 
fit>in  decejn^  ten,  because  a  deeanus  com- 
manded ten  men,  as  the  cerUurio  did   a 
hundred.    This  word,  however,  has  ac- 
quired a  much  more  extended  meaning. 
Dean  is,  in  England,  a  dignitary  in  most 
cathedral  and  collegiate  cnurches,  being 
usually  the  president  of  the  chapter.    He 
is  called  so  because  supposed  to  preside 
over  ten  canons  or  prebendaries  at  least 
Dean  is  also  a  title  given  in  England  to 
several  heads   of  peculiar  churches   or 
chapters,  as,  the  dean  of  the  king's  chapel. 
Deans  of  colleges  are,  in  English  univer- 
sities, officers  appointed  to  superintend 
the  behavior  of  tne  members,  and  to  en- 
force discipline^ — Rural  deansy  or  urban 
dumSy  were,  in  the  early  ages   of  the 
church,  ecclesiastics  who  presided  over  ten 
churches  or  parishes,  either  in  the  coun- 
try or  city  within  wliich  they  exercised 
jurisdiction. — The  French  corruption  of 
deeanus  is  drnfen^  and  has  no  ecclesiastical 
meaning.    Dwfcn  d'dge  is  the  eldest  of  a 
society.     In  the  chamber  of  deputies, 
the  d(»fen  d^dee  presides  until  the  cham- 
ber is  regulany  organized.    In  the  acade- 
my of  sciences,  there  are  doyens  in  the 
different  divisions. — In  Germany,  the  head 
of  each  of  the  faculties  of  law,  theology, 
medicine  and  philosophy,  in  the  univer- 
aties,  is  called  deeanus,  and  is  changed, 
like  the  rector  of  the  university,  annually. 
Death,  in  common  language,  is  oppos- 
ed to  Mfe^  and  considered  as  me  cessation 
of  it.    It  is  only,  however,  the  organic  Ufe 
of  the  individual  which  becomes  extinct ; 
for  nather  the  mind  nor  the  matter  which 
constituted  that    individual    can  perish. 
That  view  of  nature  which  considers  the 
whole    as  pervaded  throughout  by  the 
breath  of  hfe,  admits  only  of  changes 
from  one  mode  of  existence  to  another. 
This  change,  which  is  called  death,  does 
not  take  place  so  quickly  as  is  generally 
believed.     It   is   usually   preceded   and 
caused  by  disease  or  thq  natural  decay  of 
old  age.     The  state  called  death  takes 
place  suddenly  only  when  the  heart  or  the 
braia  is  injured  in  certain  parta    Prob- 
ably the  brain  and  the  heart  are  the  parts 
from  which,  properiy  speaking,  death  pro- 
ceeds ;  but,  as  the  cessation  of  their  func- 
tions 18  not  so  obvious  as  the  cessation  of 
the  breath,  which  depends  on  them,  the 
latter  event  is  generally  considered   as 
indicatiiig  the  moment  when  death  takes 
place.    &  the  organs  of  sense  and  mo- 
tion, the  consequences  of  death  first  be- 
come   apparent;    the   muscles   become 
12* 


stiff;  coldness  and  paleness  spread  over 
the  whole  body ;  tlie  eye  loses  its  bright- 
ness, the  flesh  its  elasticity ;  yet  it  is  not 
perfectly  safe  to  conclude,  from  these  cir- 
cumstances, that  death  has  taken  place,  in 
any  given  case,  because  experience  shows 
that  there  may  be  a  state  of  the  body  hi 
which  all  these  circumstances  may  con- 
cur, without  the  extinction  of  life.  This 
state  is  called  asphyxia,  (q.  v.)  The  com- 
mencement of  putre&ction,  in  ordinary 
cases,  affords  the  first  certain  evidence  of 
death.  This  begins  in  the  bowels  and 
genitals,  which  swell,  become  soft  and 
looBBj  and  change  color;  the  skin,  also, 
begins  to  change,  and  becomes  red  in 
various  places ;  blisters  show  themselves ; 
the  Mood  becomes  more  fluid,  and  dis- 
charges itself  from  the  mouth,  nose,  eyes, 
ears  and  anus.  By  degrees,  also,  the 
other  parts  are  decomposed,  and,  last  of 
all,  the  teeth  and  bones.  In  the  begin- 
ning of  decomposition,  azote  and  ammo- 
nia are  produced:  in  the  progress  of  it, 
hydrogen,  compounded  with  carbon,  sul- 
phur and  phosphorus,  is  the  prevailing 
product,  which  causes  an  offensi^^  smell, 
and  the  light  which  is  sometimes  ob- 
served about  putrefying  bodies.  At  last, 
only  carbonic  acid  gas  is  produced,  and 
the  putrefying  body  llien  smells  like  earth 
newly  dug.  A  fat,  greasy  earth  remains, 
and  a  slimy,  soap-like  substance,  which 
mixes  with  the  ground,  and  contributes, 
vrith  the  preceding  decompositions,  to  the 
fertility  of  it  Even  in  these  remains  of 
organized  existence,  organic  life  is  not 
entirely  extinct;  and  they  contribute  to 
produce  new  ve^table  and  animal  struc- 
tures. Putre&ction  is  much  influenced 
by  external  circumstances,  particularly  air, 
heat,  and  vrater.  When  the  body  is  pro- 
tected from  the  action  of  such  agents,  it 
changes  into  adqfocire  (q.  v.) ;  but  this 
process  requires  a  much  longer  time  than 
common  putrefaction.  In  veiy  dry  situa- 
tions, the  oody  is  converted  into  a  mum- 
my, in  which  state  bodies  are  found  in  the 
arid  deserts  of  Africa,  and  on  the  moun- 
tains in  Peru.  Some  vaults  are  remark- 
able for  preserving  corpses  from  putrefac- 
tion. It  is  well  known  to  eveiy  reader, 
that  particular  substances  counteract  pu- 
trefaction ;  for  instance,  those  used  in  tan- 
ning, and  in  embalming  munmiies. 

Death,  Agony  of,  is  me  state  which  im- 
mediately precedes  death,  and  in  which 
life  and  death  are  considered  as  strug- 
gling v^th  each  other.  This  state  dififers 
according  to  the  cause  producing  it 
Sometimes  it  is  a  complete  exhaustion ; 
sometimes  a  violent  struggle,  and  very  ir- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


138 


DEATH— DEATH,  CIVIL. 


regular  activitj,  which,  at  last,  after  a 
short  pause,  terminates  in  death.  In 
same  cases,  consciousness  is  extinguished 
long  before  death  arrives ;  in  other  cases, 
it  continues  during  tlie  whole  period,  and 
terminates  only  with  life.  The  person  in 
this  condition  has  already  somewhat  the 
appearance  of  a  corpse ;  the  face  is  pale 
and  sallow,  the  eyes  are  sunken,  the  skin 
of  the  forehead  is  tense,  the  nose  pointed 
and  white,  the  ears  are  relaxed,  and  the 
temples  fallen  in ;  a  clanmiy  sweat  cov- 
ers the  forehead  and  the  extremities,  the 
alvine  discharges  and  that  of  the  urine 
take  place  involuntarily,  tlie  respiration 
becomes  rattling,  interrupted,  and,  at 
length,  ceases  entirely.  At  this  moment, 
death  is  considered  to  take  place.  This 
state  is  of  veiy  different  length;  some- 
times continuing  for  minutes  only,  some- 
times for  days.  When  the  patient  is  in 
this  condition,  nothing  should  be  attempt- 
ed but  to  comfort  and  soothe  him  by 
prayer,  by  consoling  assurances,  by  direct- 
ing his  attention  to  his  speedy  union  with 
departed  friends,  by  presenting  him  the 
crucifix,  if  he  be  a  Catholic,  or  allowing 
him  to  put  on  the  gown  of  a  religious  or- 
der, if  he  thinks  it  will  contribute  to  his 
salvation;  but  a  dying  fellow  creature 
Hhould  not  be  disturbed  in  relation  to  his 
particular  mode  of  belief,  at  a  moment 
when  he  has  hardly  sufficient  strength  to 
collect  all  the  ideas  which  have  been  long 
famihar  to  him.  The  writer  once  saw  a 
dyinff  Mohammedan  (an  Albanian)  suffer- 
ing from  the  mistimed  zeal  of  a  Greek 
priest,  who  was  near  him,  holding  a  cruci- 
fix to  his  mouth,  and  conjuring  him  to 
kiss  it  The  Mohammedan  was  evidently 
tormented,  particularly  as  he  was  unaMe 
to  resist  The  writer  begged  the  priest  to 
leave  him,  and  then  tried  to  comfort  the 
dying  roan,  by  presenting  ideas  and  con- 
ceptions with  which  he  was  familiar,  and 
a  smile  from  his  pale  lips  showed  that  the 
words  were  not  entirely  in  vain.  Re- 
markable statements  are  sometimes  made 
by  dying  persons,  in  the  intervals  of  the 
final  struggle,  that  they  have  heard  heav- 
enly music,  or  seen  departed  friends,  and 
can  now  die  auietly.  As  long  tos  the  dying 
person  is  able  to  swallow,  wine  or  other 
cordials  may  be  given  from  time  to  time. 
It  is  a  grateful  duty  to  minister  to  the 
sufferings  of  those  we  love  ;  and,  where 
there  is  no  hope,  these  offices  have  the  ad- 
ditional interest  that  Haey  are  the  latest^ 
we  can  pay.  We  have  described  how 
the  violent  struggle  oreceding  deaih  mani- 
fests itself,  particulariy  on  the  human 
face,  that  taUet  of  all  expression.    Aiier 


death,  however,  it  not  unfrequently  hap- 
pens that  the  countenance  regains  its  most 
natural  expression,  and  the  saying  is  com- 
mon— "  How  natural,  how  like  himself!" 
The  mind  seems  for  a  moment  to  have 
regained  its  influence  over  what  it  has 
so  long  informed,  and  to  shed  over  the 
countenance  its  most  beautiful  light,  to 
cheer  the  hearts  of  the  friends  who  have 
wimessed  the  distortion  of  death,  and  af- 
ford an  earnest  of  its  own  immortality. 

Death,  civil,  is  the  entire  loss  of  civil 
rights.  If  a  i)erHon  is  civilly  dead,  his 
marriage  is  considered  dissolved ;  he  can- 
not inherit  nor  bequeath;  his  testament 
is  opened,  and  his  property  distributed 
among  his  heirs ;  be  cannot  bear  witness, 
&c.  If  he  is  required  to  do  certain  legal 
acts,  he  must  do  them  through  a  guardian. 
Formeriy,  when  the  German  empire  was 
still  in  existence,  a  person  put  und»  the 
ban  of  the  empire  {AchiserkUirung)  became 
civilly  dead,  and  was  declared  out  of  the 
protection  of  the  law  (corresponding,  in  a 
civil  point  of  view,  to  Catholic  excommu- 
nication, in  regard  to  a  man^s  reUgious 
rights).  The  ban  went  so  far  as  to  de- 
clare the  outlaw  vogdfrei  (free  as  a  bird), 
which  meant  that  any  body  might  even 
kill  him,  without  notice  being  taken  of  it 
by  law.  But  civil  death  was  not  received 
into  the  German  law  in  other  respects,  and 
therefore,  has  not  existed  since  the  abo- 
lition of  the  empire.  Most  countries  allow 
a  person  sentenced  to  death  to  make  a  will, 
except  in  particular  cases,  in  which  confis- 
cation is  part  of  the  punishment  In  France, 
however,  the  institution  of  civil  death  still 
exists  {Co(k  NapoUtm,  a.  22 ;  Codt  P4rudj 
a.  18),  and  takes  effect  in  the  case  of  every 
one  who  is  sentenced  to  death,  to  tlie  ^- 
leys  for  life  (irawmxforcSg),  or  to  deporta- 
tion, even  if  the  person  is  convicted  m 
contumaciam  that  is,  m  default  of  appear- 
ance on  a  legal  summons.  In  England,  a 
Serson  outlawed  (see  (hMawry)  on  an  in- 
ictment  fi>r  treason  or  ielonj^,  is  consid- 
ered'to  be  civilly  dead  (cwUtUr  mortu)ua\ 
being,  in  such  case,  considered  to  be 
guilty  of  the  offence  with  which  he  is 
charged,  as  much  as  if  a  verdict  had  been 
found  against  him.  Anciently,  an  out- 
lawed felon  was  said  to  have  a  wolf^ 
head  (awut  l%qnnum\  and  might  be  knock- 
ed on  the  h^  by  any  one  that  should 
meet  him.  The  outlawry  was  decreed, 
in  case  the  accused  did  not  appear,  on 
being  summoned  with  certain  forms,  a 
certain  number  of  times,  and  in  difierent 
counties,  to  appear  and  answer  to  the 
indictment ;  so  that  the  case  is  the  same 
as  the  French  laws  denominate  eonhtmaey. 


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DEATH,  CIVIL-.DEATH,  TS  MYTHOLOGY. 


13D 


In  such  case^  under  an  indictment  for 
crimes  of  either  of  these  descriptions,  he 
was  considered  as  having  renounced  all 
laW)  and  was  to  be  dealt  with  as  in  a  state 
of  nature,  when  eveiy  one  who  found 
him  might  slay  him.  But,  in  modem 
times,  it  has  been  held  that  no  man  is 
entitled  to  kill  him  wantonly  and  wilfully, 
but  in  so  doing  is  guil^  of  murder,  unless 
it  be  in  endesYonng  to  apprehend  him; 
for  any  one  may  arrest  him,  on  a  criminal 
prosecution,  **  either  of  his  own  head,"  or 
on  writ  or  warrant,  in  order  to  bring  hun 
to  execution.  So  a  peison  banished  the 
realm  or  transported  for  life,  as  a  punish- 
ment for  crime,  forfeits  all  his  civd  rights 
as  much  as  if  he  were  dead.  His  wife 
may  marry  again,  and  his  estate  will  be 
administered  upon  as  if  he  were  deceased. 
A  will  made  by  such  a  person,  afler  incur- 
ring this  civil  disability,  is  void ;  and  so  are 
all  acts  done  by  him  m  the  exercise  of  any 
civil  rightd — ^The  stamtes  of  New  York 
provide  that  a  convict  sentenced  to  the 
state's  prison  for  Ufe  shall  be  considered 
as  thereby  becoming  civilly  dead.  AH 
suits  to  which  he  is  a  party  will,  accord- 
ingly, abate,  as  in  case  of  his  natural 
decease  (2  Jokiu.  Co.  408),  and  his  wifo 
may  marry  again,  his  estate  be  adminis- 
teied  upon,  and  his  heirs  will  succeed  to 
the  inhmtance ;  and,  though  he  may  be 
afterwaids  pardoned,  this  will  not  defeat 
the  proceeoingB  which  took  place  during 
his  civil  disability  (4  John$on^a  Bepmis^ 
232).  The  statutes  passed  in  some  of  the 
United  States  against  conspirators  and 
afasantees,  at  the  commencement  of  the 
revolution,  stripped  them  of  all  civil  rights, 
and  provided  that  their  estates  should  be 
confiscated,  or  partly  confiscated,  to  tlie 
state,  and  in  part  appUed  to  the  support 
of  dependent  relatives,  or  assigned  to  the 
wife  as  dower.  These  statutes  were  of  a 
temporary  and  occasional  character,  and 
their  operation  has  ceased  with  the  occa- 
sion which  gave  rise  to  them. 

Death,  in  mythology.  The  representa- 
tion of  death,  among  nations  in  tneir  ear- 
lier stages,  depends  upon  the  ideas  which 
they  form  of  the  state  of  man  after  this 
life,  and  of  the  disposition  of  their  gods 
towards  mankind.  In  this  respect,  the 
smdy  of  these  representations  is  very  in- 
terasdng.  Of  later  ages  the  same  cannot 
be  said,  because  imitations  of  representa- 
tions previously  adopted  are  very  often 
the  suqects  of  the  plastic  arts  in  sueh  pe- 
riods. However^  these  representations  do 
not  altogether  depend  on  the  causes  above 
mentioned,  as  the  general  disposition  of  a 
nation  (for  instance,  that  of  the  Greeks, 


who  beautified  every  object)  has  also  a 
great  influence  upon  them ;  and  it  is  re- 
markable that  the  Greeks,  whose  concep- 
tions of  on  after-life  were  so  gloomy,  rep- 
resented death  as  a  pleasing,  gentle  being, 
a  beautiful  youth,  whilst  the  Christians, 
whose  religion  teaches  them  to  consider 
death  as  a  release  fiY>m  bondage,  a  change 
from  misery  to  happiness,  give  him  the 
most  frightml,  and  even  disgusting  shape. 
One  reason  of  this  may  be,  that  the  call 
to  repentance  is  a  prominent  feamre  in 
the  Christian  religion ;  and  to  arm  death 
with  terrors  may  have  been  supposed  to 
give  weight  to  the  summons. 

The  Greeks  had  many  gods  of  death, 
the  KtipK  and  Oavarvc;  the  former  wero  the 
ffoddesses  of  fiite,  Uke  the  Valkyrise  in  the 
Northern  mythology.  Untimely  deaths^ 
in  particular,  were  ascribed  to  them ;  the 
latter,  aavaroc,  represented  namral  death. 
Accordinff  to  Homer,  Sleep  and  Death  are 
twins,  ana  Hesiod  calls  them  the  mms  of 
JVighL  They  are  often  portrayed  together 
on  cameos^  &;c.  During  the  most  flour- 
ishing period  of  the  arts.  Death  was  ropro- 
sented  on  tombs  as  a  firiendly  genius,  with 
an  inverted  torch,  and  hokunf^  a  wreath 
in  his  hand ;  or  as  a  sleeping  child,  winged, 
with  an  inverted  torch  resting  on  his 
wreath.  Sleep  was  represented  in  the 
same  manner,  except  that  the  toroh  and 
the  wreath  were  omitted.  According  to 
an  idea  originating  in  the  East,  death  in 
the  bloom  of  youtn  was  attributed  to  the 
attachment  of  some  particular  deity,  who 
snatched  his  favorite  to  a  better  wond.  It 
was  ascribed,  for  instance,  to  Jupiter,  or  to 
his  eagle,  if  the  death  was  occasioned  by 
lightning,  as  in  the  case  of  Ganymede ; 
to  the  n3rmphs,  if  the  individiml  was 
drowned,  as  m  the  case  of  Hylas ;  to  Au- 
rora, if  the  death  happened  in  the  morn- 
ing; to  Sefene,  if  at  night  (Cephalus  and 
Endymion),  &c.  These  replantations 
were  more  adapted  to  reheve  the  minds 
of  surviving  fiiends,  than  the  pictures  of 
horror  dmwn  by  later  poets  and  artists. 
(See  the  chueical  treatises  of  Lessing, 
S&mmS,  Schrifient  vol-  10,  and  Herdei^s 
WiedkMendmTodfdMeL)  Euripides, 
in  his  Alcestis,  even  mtroduced  Death  on 
the  stage,  in  a  black  robe,  with  a  steel 
instrument  in  his  hand,  to  cut  off^  the  hair 
of  his  victims,  and  thus  devote  them  to  the 
infernal  gods.  The  later  Roman  poets  rep» 
resent  I^th  under  more  horrible  forms, 
gnashing  his  teeth,  and  marking  his  vic- 
tims with  bloody  nails,  a  monster  over- 
shadowing whole  fields  of  battle.  The 
Hebrews,  likewise,  had  a  fearful  angel  of 
death,  called  Samad^  and  prinu  of  ike 


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vwidy  and  coinciding  with  the  devil ;  but 
he  removes  with  a  kiss  those  who  die  in 
early  youth.  Enoch  was  taken  up  to 
heaven  alive.  The  disgusting  representa- 
tions of  Death  common  among  Christians, 
originated  in  the  14th  centuiy ;  for  the 
representation  of  Death  as  a  skeleton 
merely  covered  with  skin,  on  the  monu- 
ment at  Cumffi,  was  only  an  exception  to 
the  figure  conunonly  ascribed  to  him 
among  the  ancients.  In  recent  times, 
Death  has  again  been  represented  as  a 
beautiful  youto — certainly  a  more  Christian 
image  tlian  the  skeleton  with  tlie  sithe. 
The  monument  made  by  Canova,  which 
George  IV  erected  in  honor  of  die  Stuarts, 
in  St.  Peter's  church  at  Rome,  represents 
Death  as  a  beautiful  youth.  He  is  some- 
times portrayed  under  the  figure  of  a 
dying  lion. 

Death,  Dance  of  ;  an  allegorical  pic- 
ture, in  which  are  represented  the  vanous 
fibres  and  appearances  of  death  m  the 
difiTerent  relations  of  life,  as  a  dance 
where  Death  takes  the  lead.  The  idea  of 
such  a  dance  appears  to  be  originally  Ger- 
man, and  to  belong  to  poetry.  In  later 
times,  it  was  used,  also,  in  England  and 
France,  by  poets  and  artists.  The  French 
have  such  a  dance— Xia  Danst  Macabre — 
derived,  it  is  said,  fitim  a  poet  called  Mac- 
aber,  but  little  known.  A  dance  of  Death 
was  painted  on  the  walls  of  the  church- 
yard of  the  Innocents,  at  Paris,  about  the 
middle  of  the  15th  centuiy,  which  the 
chapter  of  St  Paul's,  in  London,  caused  to 
be  copied,  to  adorn  the  walls  of  its  monas- 
tery. Gabriel  Peignot,  m  the  Rechenhes 
9ttr  lei  Danses  des  Moris  et  sur  rChigine 
dee  Cixrtes  ajauer  (Dijon  and  Paris,  i»26], 
investigated  the  origin  of  the  dance  of 
Death  in  France,  and  thus  explained  the 
dancing  positions  of  the  skeletons ;  that, 
according  to  the  relations  of  old  chronicles, 
those  who  were  attacked  by  the  plague 
ran  fix>m  their  houses,  making  vio^nt 
efibrts  to  restore  their  rapidly-declining 
strength  by  all  kinds  of  morbid  move- 
ments. Odiers  derive  the  origin  of  this  rep- 
resentation fipom  the  masquerade.  These 
dances  are  often  found  painted  on  the  walls 
of  Catholic  burial-places.  The  most  re- 
markable dance  of  Death  was  painted,  in 
£"6800,  on  the  walls  of  the  church^yard,  in 
the  suburb  of  St.  John,  at  Basle,  which 
was  injured,  in  early  times,  by  being 
washed  over,  and  is  now  entirely  de- 
stroyed. This  piece  has  been  ascribed  to 
the  celebrated  Hans  Holbein;  but  it  has 
long  nnce  been  proved  that  it  existed  60 
yean  before  his  birth.  It  was  painted  at 
Basle,  in  the  year  1431,  by  an  unknown 


artist,  in  commemoration  of  the  plague, 
which  prevailed  there  at  that  time;  the 
council  was  t)^en  sitting,  and  several  of  its 
members  were  carried  off  by  it  It  repre- 
sented Death  as  summoning  to  the  dance 
persons  of  all  ranks,  from  the  pope  and 
the  emperor  down  to  the  beggar,  which 
was  explained  by  edifying  rhymes.  That 
piece  contained  about  60  figures  as  large 
as  life.  Besides  being  ascribed  to  Hol- 
bein, as  was  before  stated,  it  has  also  been 
ascribed  to  a  painter  named  Glauber^  but 
without  foundation.  Holbein  perhiqia 
conceived,  from  this  picture,  the  idea  of 
his  dance  of  Death,  the  original  drawings 
of  which  are  in  the  cabinet  of  the  empress 
of  Russia,  Catharine  II.  Some  say  that 
Holbein  himself  made  the  wood-cuts  of  it. 
The  latest  engravings  of  this  picture  of 
Holbein  are  in  33  plates,  in  the  (Euvres  de 
Jean  Holbein,  par  Chr,  de  Meckd  (1st  vol- 
ume, Basil,  1780).  Similar  representa- 
tions were  paintedf,  in  the  15th  centuiy,  in 
other  cities  of  Switzerland.  (See  Miiller's 
Geschichie  der  Schwevxr — ^Histoiy  of  Swit- 
zerland— 4  vols.)  The  dance  of  Death  in 
St.  Mary's  churcn  at  Lubeck,  was  complet- 
ed in  1463.  On  the  walls  of  the  church- 
yard of  the  Neustidt  of  Dresden,  there  is, 
even  at  the  present  time,  to  be  seen  a 
similar  dance  of  Death.  It  consists  of  27 
hoMo-relievo  figures,  worked  on  sand-stone, 
and  includes  persons  of  both  sexes,  and  of 
all, ranks.  Tne  labor  of  the  sculptor  has 
more  merit  than  the  unpoetical  rhymes 
which  were  afterwards  added.  (See  Fio- 
rillo's  Geschichie  der  zeichnejiden  KiinsU  in 
Devischland  und  den  Mcdedandeny  4  vol- 
umes.) 

Death,  Punishment  of.  The  ques- 
tions most  commonly  discussed  by  philos- 
ophers and  jurists  under  tliis  head  are, 
1.  as  to  the  nght  of  governments  to  inflict 
the  punishment  of  death ;  2.  as  to  the 
expediency  of  such  punishment;  3.  as 
to  the  crimes  to  which,  if  anv,  it  may  be 
most  properly  confined  ana  limited;  4, 
as  to  the  manner  in  which  it  should  be 
inflicted.  A  few  words  will  be  said  on 
each  of  these  points. 

1.  As  to  tlie  right  of  inflicting  the  pun- 
ishment of  death.  This  has  been  doubted 
by  some  distinguished  persons ;  and  the 
doubt  is  often  the  accompaniment  of  a 
highly  cultivated  mind,  inclined  to  the 
indulgence  of  a  romantic  sensibility,  and 
believing  in  human  perfectibility.  The 
right  of  society  to  punish  offences  against 
its  safety  and  good  order  will  scarcely  be 
doubted  by  any  considerate  peison.  In  a 
state  of  nature,  individuals  have  a  right  to 
guard   themselves  fi^m   injury,  and   to 


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repel  all  aggresaioDS  by  a  force  or  precautkm 
adequate  to  the  object.  This  results  from 
the  right  of  self-preservation.  If  a  peraon 
attempts  to  take  away  my  life,  I  have, 
doubtless,  a  right  to  protect  myself  against 
the  attempt  by  all  reasonable  means.  If  I 
cannot  secure  myself  but  by  taking  the 
lite  of  the  assailant,  I  have  a  right  to  take 
it.  It  would  otherwise  follow,  that  I 
must  submit  to  a  wron^,  and  lose  my 
life,  rather  than  preserve  it  by  the  means 
adequate  to  maintun  iL  It  cannot,  then, 
be  denied  that,  in  a  state  of  nature,  men 
may  repel  force  by  force,  and  may  even 
justly  take  away  life,  if  necessary  to  pre- 
serve their  own.  When  men  enter  socie- 
ty, the  right  to  protect  themselves  from 
injuiy  and  to  redress  wrongs  is  transfer- 
red, generally,  from  the  individuals  to  the 
community.  We  say  that  it  is  generally 
so,  because  it  must  be  olivious  that,  in 
many  cases,  the  natural  right  of  self-de- 
fence must  remain.  If  a  robber  attacks 
one  on  the  highway,  or  attempts  to  mur- 
der him,  it  is  clear  that  he  has  a  ri^t  to 
repel  the  assault,  and  to  take  the  life  of  the 
assailant,  if  necessary  for  his  safety ;  since 
society,  in  such  a  case,  could  not  afford 
him  any  adequate  and  prompt  redress. 
The  necessity  of  instant  relief,  and  of 
instant  application  of  force,  justifies  the 
act,  and  is  recognised  in  all  civilized  com- 
munities. Wben  the  right  of  society  is 
once  admitted  to  punish  for  offences,  it 
seems  difficult  to  assign  any  limits  to  tlie 
exercise  of  that  right,  short  of  what  the 
ezigenoies  of  society  require.  If  a  state 
have  a  right  to  protect  itself  and  its  citizens 
in  the  enjoyment  of  its  privileges  and  its 
peace, it  must  have  aright  to  apply  means 
adequate  to  this  object  The  object  of 
human  punishments  is,  or  may  be,  three- 
fold; first,  to  reform  the  offender;  sec- 
ondly, to  deter  others  from  offending; 
and,  lasdy,  to  secure  the  safety  of  the  com- 
munity, by  depriving  the  offender  of  the 
power  of  dcHiig  mischiefl  The  first 
consideration  rarely  enters  into  human 
legislation,  because  of  the  inadequacy  of 
our  means  to  produce  great  moral  results 
by  the  infliction  of  punishment.  The 
two  latter  considerations  enter  largely  in- 
to the  tbeoiT  and  practice  of  legislation. 
Who  is  to  be  the  judge,  in  such  cases, 
what  b  the  adequate  punishment  for  any 
ofl^nce?  Certainly,  punishments  ought 
not  to  be  inflicted,  which  are  utteriy  dis- 
proportionate to  the  offence,  and  beyond 
the  exigencies  of  society.  No  govern- 
ment has  a  right  to  punish  cruelly  and 
wantonly,  and  firom  mere  revenge ;  but, 
still,  the  discretion  must  be  vested  some- 


where, to  say  what  «ha]l  be  the  degree  of 
punishment  to  be  etm^aed  to  a  particular 
offence.  That  discretion  must  be,  fi'Om 
its  nature,  jusdy  a  part  of  the  legislative 
power,  and  to  be  exercised  according  to 
the  actual  state  of  society.  It  may,  nay,  it 
must  be  differently  exercised  in  different 
ages,  and  in  different  countries ;  for  the 
same  punishment  which,  in  one  age  or 
country,  may  be  sufficient  to  suppress  an 
offence,  or  render  it  comparatively  harm- 
less, may,  in  another  age  or  country, 
wholly  feil  of  the  effect  if  mild  punish- 
ments fail  of  effect,  more  severe  must  be 
resorted  to,  if  the  offence  be  of  a  nature 
which  affects  society  in  its  vital  principles, 
or  safety,  or  interests.  The  very  frequen- 
cy of  a  crime  must  often  furnish  a  veiy 
strong  ground  for  severe  punishment,  not 
only  as  it  furnishes  proof  tliat  the  present 
punishment  is  insufficient  to  deter  men 
from  committing  it,  but  from  the  increas- 
ed necessity  of  protecting  society  against 
dangerous  crimes.  But  it  is  oflen  said, 
that  life  is  the  gift  of  God,  and  dierefore 
it  cannot  iustly  be  taken  away,  either  by 
the  party  himself,  or  another.  If  he  can- 
not take  it  away,  he  cannot  confer  that 
I)ower  on  others.  But  the  fallacy  of  tliis 
aiTument  is  obvious.  Life  is  no  more  the 
gift  of  God  than  other  personal  endow- 
ments or  rights.  A  man  has,  by  the  gift  of 
God,  a  right  to  personal  lilierty  and  locomo- 
tion, as  well  as  to  life ;  to  eat  and  drink 
and  breathe  at  large,  as  well  as  to  exist ; 
yet  no  one  doubts  that,  by  way  of  punish- 
ment, he  may  be  confined  in  a  solitary 
cell;  that  he  may  be  perpetually  impris- 
oned or  deprived  of  freie  air,  or  compelled 
to  live  on  bread  and  water.  In  short,  no 
one  doubiB  that  he  may  ))e  restrained  in 
the  exercise  of  any  privileges  or  natural 
rights  short  of  taking  his  life.  Yet  the 
reasoning,  if  worth  any  thing,  extends  to 
all  these  cases  in  an  equal  degree.  If,  by 
his  crimes,  a  man  may  justly  forfeit  his 
personal  rights,  why  not  his  life  ?  But  we 
have  seen  that  it  is  not  true,  even  in  a 
state  of  nature,  that  a  man's  life  may  not 
be  taken  away  by  another,  if  the  necessity 
of  the  case  requires  it  Wliy,  then,  may 
not  society  do  the  same,  if  its  own  safety 
requires  it  ?  Is  die  safety  of  one  person 
more  important  tlian  the  safety  of  the 
whole  community  ?  Then,  again,  as  to  a 
man's  inability  to  confer  on  others  a  right 
which  he  does  not  liimself  possess.  Sup- 
]X)6e  it  is  so ;  tlie  consequence  which  is 
deduced  from  this  does  not,  in  fact,  arise. 
Blackstone,  indeed,  in  his  Commentaries 
(4  CommenL  8),  seems  to  deduce  the  right 
of  society  to  punish  ca|Htal  offences^  in 


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142 


DEATH,  PUNISHMENT  OF. 


certain  cases  (that  is,  in  cases  oftiudaprO' 
MbitOj  and  not  mala  in  m),  from  the  con- 
sent of  the  offendei^.  The  marquis  Bec- 
caria,  on  the  other  hand,  denies  that  any 
such  consent  can  confer  the  right,  and 
therefore  objects  to  its  existence.  But  the 
notion  of  consent  is,  in  nearly  all  cases,  a 
mere  theory,  having  no  foundation  in  fact 
If  a  foreigner  comes  into  a  country,  and 
'  commits  a  crime  at  his  first  entrance,  it  is 
a  very  forced  construction  to  say  that 
he  consents  to  be  bound  b^  its  laws.  If  a 
pirate  commits  piracy,  it  is  almost  absurd 
to  say  that  he  consents  to  tlie  rieht  of  all 
nations  to  punish  him  for  it.  The  true 
and  rational  sround  on  which  the  right 
rests,  is  not  Sie  consent  of  the  offender, 
but  the  right  of  every  society  to  protect  its 
own  peace,  and  interests,  and  property, 
and  institutions,  and  the  utter  want  of  any 
right,  in  other  persons,  to  disturb,  or  de- 
stroy, or  subtract  them.  The  riffht  flows, 
not  from  consent,  but  fix>m  the  legitimate 
institution  of  societv.  If  men  have  a  right 
to  form  a  society  for  mutual  benefit  and 
security,  they  have  a  ri^t  to  punish  other 
persons  who  would  overthrow  it  There 
are  many  cases  where  a  state  authorizes 
life  to  be  taken  away,  the  lawfulness  of 
which  is  not  doubted.  No  reasonable 
man  doubts  the  right  of  a  nation,  in  a  just 
war,  especially  of  self-defence,  to  repel 
force  by  force,  and  to  take  away  the  lives 
of  its  enemies.  And  this  right  is  not  con- 
fined to  repelling  present  force,  but  it 
extends  to  precaimonary  measures,  which 
are  necessary  for  the  ultimate  safety  of  the 
nation.  In  such  a  war,  a  nation  may 
justly  insist  upon  the  sacrifice  of  the  lives 
of  its  own  citizens,  however  innocent,  for 
the  purpose  of  ensuring  its  own  safety. 
Accordingly,  we  find  that  all  nations  enrol 
militia  and  employ  troops  for  war,  and 
require  them  to  hazard  their  lives  for  the 

{)reservation  of  the  state.  In  these  cases, 
ife  is  fieely  sacrificed  by  the  nation ;  and 
the  laws  enacted  for  such  purposes  are 
deemed  just  exercises  of  power.  If  so, 
why  may  not  life  be  taken  away  by  way 
of  punishment,  if  the  safety  of  society 
requires  it?  If  a  nation  may  authorize, 
in  war,  the  destruction  of  thousands,  why 
may  it  not  authorize  the  destruction  of  a 
single  lif^,  if  self-preservation  require  it  ? 
The  mistake,  however,  is  in  supposing  that 
Ufe  cannot  be  taken  away  without  the 
consent  of  the  party.  If  the  foregoing 
reasoning  is  correct,  such  consent  is 
neither  supposed  nor  necessaiy.  In  truth, 
the  supposition  of  an  original  compact 
between  all  the  persons  who  are  subiect 
to  the  regulations  of  a  society,  by  their 


own  free  consent,  as  the  necesauy  and 
proper  basis  on  which  all  the  rights  of 
sucn  society  depend,  is,  at  best,  a  gratu- 
itous 6up(X)8ition ;  and  it  sometimes  leads 
to  very  incorrect  results.  It  may  be  addcd^ 
that  the  Scriptures  most  clearly  recognize 
and  jusdfy  the  infliction  of  capital  pimish- 
ments  in  certain  casea 

2.  As  to  the  expediency  of  capital  pun- 
ishment This  opens  a  wide  field  for 
discussion.  Some  able  men,  who  do  not 
doubt  the  right,  do  still  deny  the  expedi- 
ency of  inflicting  it  It  may  be  admitted, 
that  a  vrise  legislature  ought  to  be  slow  in 
affixing  such  a  punishment  to  any  but 
very  enormous  and  dangerous  crimes. 
The  frequency  of  a  crime  is  not,  of  itself^ 
a  sufficient  reason  for  resorting  to  such  a 
punishment  It  should  be  a  crime  of 
great  atrocity  and  danger  to  society,  and 
which  cannot  otherwise  be  effectually 
guarded  against  In  affixing  punishments 
to  any  offence,  we  should  connder  what 
are  the  objects  and  ends  of  punishment  It 
is  clear  that  capital  punishment  can  have 
no  effect  to  reform  the  offender  himsel£ 
It  may  have,  and  ordinarily  does  have,  the 
eflect  to  deter  others  from  committing  a 
like  offence )  but,  still,  human  experience 
shows  that  even  tliis  punishment,  when 
infficted  for  small  ofrences,  which  are 
easily  perpetrated,  and  to  which  there  is 
great  temptation,  does  not  always  operate 
as  an  effectual  terror.  Men  sometimes 
are  hardened  by  the  frequent  spectacles 
of  capital  punishmente,  and  grow  indiffer- 
ent to  them.  Familiarity  deprives  them 
of  their  horror.  The  bloodiest  codes  are 
not  those  which  have  most  effectually 
suppressed  offences.  Besides,  public  opin- 
ion has  great  weight  ui  producing  the 
acquittal  or  condemnation  of  ofifenders. 
If  a  punishment  be  grossly  disproportion- 
ate to  the  offence,  if  it  shock  human 
feelings,  there  arises,  insensibly,  a  sympa- 
thy for  the  victim,  and  a  desire  to  screen 
him  from  punishment;  so  that,  as  far  as 
certainty  of  punishment  operates  to  deter 
from  crimes,  the  object  of  the  legislature 
is  often  thus  defeated.  It  may  be  added, 
that  a  reasonable  doubt  may  &iriy  be  en- 
tertained, whether  any  society  can  law- 
fully exercise  the  power  of  punishing,  be- 
yond what  the  just  exigencies  of  that  so- 
ciety require.  On  the  other  hand,  a  total 
aboution  of  capital  punishments  would,  in 
some  cases  at  least,  expose  society  to  the 
chances  of  deep  and  vital  injuries.  A  man 
who  has  committed  murder  deliberately, 
has  proved  himself  unfit  for  society,  and 
regardless  of  all  the  duties  which  belong 
to  it    In  his  case,  the  lex  tdvonis  can 


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btfdly  be  deemed  unjust.  The  safety 
of  societ;^  is  most  eflfectually  guarded  by 
cutting  him  off  from  the  power  of  doing 
ilirther  mischief.  If  his  life  be  not  taken 
aviray,  the  only  other  means  left  are,  con- 
finement for  life,  or  transportation  and 
exile  for  Hfe.  Neither  of  these  is  a  perfect 
security  against  the  commission  of  other 
crimes,  and  may  not  always  be  within  the 
power  of  a  nation  without  great  inconve- 
nience and  great  expense  ,to  itself.  It  is 
true  that  the  latter  punishments  leave  open 
the  chance  of  reform  to  the  offender, 
which  is,  indeed,  but  too  oflen  a  mere 
delusion  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  they 
gready  diminish  tlie  influence  of  another 
salutary  principle,  the  deterring  of  otliers 
from  committing  Uke  crimes.  It  seems  to 
us,  therefore,  that  it  is  difficult  to  maintain 
the  proposition  that  capital  punishments 
are,  at  all  times  and  imder  all  circum- 
stances, inexpedient  It  may  rather  be 
affirmed  that,  in  some  cases,  they  are 
absolutely  indisp^isable  to  the  safety  and 
good  order  of  society.  We  should  incline 
to  say  that,  as  a  general  rule,  every  nation, 
in  its  legislation  on  this  subject,  must  be 
governed  very  much  by  the  manners, 
customs,  habits  of  thinking,  and  state  of 
opinion,  among  the  people  upon  whom  it 
is  to  operate.  In  a  rude  and  barbarous 
state  of  society,  summary  and  almost  vin- 
dictive punishments  seem  more  necessaiy 
than  in  a  highly  polished  and  civilized 
state  of  society. 

3l  As  to  the  crimes  to  which  capital 
punishments  may,  most  properly,  be  lim- 
ited. From  what  has  been  already  said, 
this  must  depend  upon  the  particular  cir- 
cumstances of  eveiy  age  and  nation ;  and 
much  must  be  left  to  the  exercise  of  a 
sound  discretion  on  the  part  of  the  legisla- 
ture. As  a  genera]  rule,  humanity  forbids 
such  punishments  to  be  applied  to  any  hut 
crimes  of  very  great  enormity,  and  danger 
to  individuals  or  the  state.  If  any  crimes 
can  be  effectually  suppressed  by  moderate 
means,  these  ought,  certainly,  to  be  first 
resorted  to.  The  experience,  however, 
of  most  nations,  if  we  may  judge  from  the 
nature  and  extent  of  tiieir  criminal  legis- 
ktion,  seems  to  disprove  the  opinion  so 
often  indulged  by  philanthropists,  that 
moderate  punishments  are  sufficient  to 
suppress  crimes,  and  that  capital  punish- 
ments are  rarely  necessary.  The  codes 
of  most  civilized  nations  abound  with 
capita]  punishments.  That  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, a  nation  in  which  the  public  legis- 
lation has  a  deep  infusion  of  popular 
opinion,  is  thought  to  be  uncommonly 
ssnguinary.    Blackstone,  in  his  Commea- 


taries  (vol.  iv,  18),  admits  that,  in  his  time, 
not  less  than  one  hundred  and  sixty  crimes 
were,  by  the  English  law,  punishable  with 
death.  In  the  code  of  the  U.  States,  only 
nine  crimes  are  so  punishable,  viz.,  treason, 
murder,  arson,  rape,  robbeiy  of  the  mail, 
fraudulent  casting  away  ships,  rescue  of 
criminals  capitally  convicted  auring  execu- 
tion, and  piracy,  one  species  of  which  is 
the  African  slave-trade.  In  die  codes  of 
the  several  states  of  the  Union,  still  fewer 
crimes  are  generally  punishable  with 
death.  It  remains  yet  to  be  proved, 
whether  the  general  mildness  of  our  penal 
code  has  afforded  us  any  greater  security 
against  crimes  than  exists  in  other  na- 
tions. Hitherto,  the  temptations  to  com- 
mit them  have  been  less  here,  than  in 
other  countries  less  abundantly  and  cheap- 
ly supplied  with  the  necessaries  of  lire. 
It  is  still  a  question,  fit  to  exercise  the 
solicitude  and  ingenuity  of  our  statesmen 
and  philanthropists,  whether  we  can  safely 
carry  on  so  mild  a  system  in  a  more  cor- 
rupt and  dense  state  of  society.  If  we 
can,  it  must  be  by  a  very  sparing  use  of 
tlie  power  of  pardoning ;  so  tiiat  the  cer- 
tainty of  absolute,  unmitigated  punishment 
shall  follow  upon  the  onence.  Beccaria, 
with  his  characteristic  humanity  and  sa- 
gacity, has  strongly  urged  that  the  certain- 
3r  of  punishment  is  more  important  to 
eter  from  crimes  than  the  severity  of  it. 
At  present,  tiiere  is  great  danger  that  the 
pardoning  power,  in  our  fi«e  forms  of 
government,  will,  in  a  great  measure,  over- 
tiirow  this  salutary  principle.  Its  exer- 
cise, therefore,  ought  to  be  watched  with 
the  greatest  jealousy  and  care,  lest  the 
abuse  of  it  should  lead  to  tiie  introduction 
either  of  absolute  impunity  for  offences, 
or  of  more  extensive  capitid  punishments. 
It  will  probably  be  found,  from  the  expe- 
rience of  most  nations,  that  capital  punish- 
ment ought  not  wholly  to  be  dispensed 
with.  On  the  other  hand,  it  ma^  ^  safely 
affirmed,  that  there  is  no  positive  neces- 
sity to  apply  it  to  a  very  lai-ge  number  of 
crimes.  Treason,  murder,  anon,  piracy, 
highway  robbery,  burglary,  rape,  and 
some  other  offences  of  great  enormi^,  and 
of  a  kindred  character,  are  not  uncom- 
monly punished  in  this  manner ;  but 
beyond  these,  it  is  extremely  questionable 
whedier  there  is  any  necessity  or  expedi- 
ency of  applying  so  great  a  severity.  Still, 
however,  as  has  been  abready  intimated, 
much  must  dei)end  upon  the  opinion  and 
character  of  the  age,  and  the  prevailing 
habits  of  die  people,  and  upon  the  sound 
exercise  of  legislative  discretion.  What 
may  be  deemed  uselessly  severe  in  one 


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DEATH,  PUNISHMENT  OF. 


age  or  country,  maybe  positiyely  required 
by  the  circumstances  of  another  age  or 
country. 

4.  Ab  to  the  maimer  of  inflicting  the 
punishment  of  death.  This  has  been 
different  in  diflTerent  countries,  and  in  dif- 
ferent stages  of  civilization  in  the  same 
countries.  Barbarous  nations  are  general- 
ly inclined  to  severe  and  vindictive  pun- 
ishments, and,  where  they  punish  virith 
death,  to  aggravate  it  l^  prolonging  the 
sufierinijps  of  the  victim  v^ith  in^^ous 
devices  m  cruelty.  And  even  in  civUized 
countries,  in  cases  of  a  political  nature,  or 
of  very  great  atrocity,  the  punishment  has 
been  sometimes  inflicted  with  many  hor- 
rible accompaniments.  Tearing  the  crim- 
inal to  pieces,  inercing  bis  breast  with  a 
pointed  pole,  {Hnching  to  death  vrith  red- 
hot  pincers,  standing  him  to  death,  break- 
ing his  limbs  upon  the  wheel,  pressing 
him  to  death  in  a  slow  and  hngering 
manner,  burning  him  at  the  stake,  cruci- 
fixion, sawing  him  to  pieces,  quartering 
him  alive,  exposing  him  to  be  torn  to 
pieces  by  wild  ben^ts,  and  other  savage 
pimishments,  have  been  sometimes  resort- 
ed to  for  the  purposes  of  vengeance,  or 
public  example,  or  public  terror.  Com- 
pared with  these,  the  infliction  of  death 
oy  drowning,  by  strangling,  by  poisoning, 
by  bleeding,  by  beheading,  by  shooting, 
by  hanging,  is  a  moderate  punishment  In 
modem  times,  the  public  opinion  is  strong- 
ly disposed  to  idiscountenance  the  pun- 
isliment  of  death  by  any  but  simple  means ; 
and  the  infliction  of  tcHture  is  almost  uni- 
versally reprobated.  Even  in  govern- 
ments where  it  is  still  comitenanced  by 
the  laws,  it  is  rarely  resorted  to ;  and  the 
sentence  is  remitted,  by  the  policy  of  the 

Srince,  beyond  the  simple  infliction  of 
eath.  In  Prussia,  where  atrocious  crim- 
inals are  required,  by  the  penal  code,  to  be 
broken  upon  the  wheel,  the  king  always 
issues  an  order  to  the  executioner  to  stran- 
gle the  criminal  (which  is  done  by  a  small 
cord  not  easily  seen)  before  his  limbs 
are  broken.  So,  in  the  same  country, 
where  larceny,  attended  with  destruction 
of  life,  is  punished  by  burning  alive,  the 
fagots  are  so  arranged  as  to  fona  a 
kind  of  cell,  in  which  the  criminal  is  suf- 
focated by  the  fumes  of  sulphur,  or  other 
means,  before  the  flame  can  reach  him. 
In  England,  in  high  treason,  the  criminal 
is  sentenced  to  be  drawn  to  die  gallows, 
to  be  hanged  by  the  neck,  and  cut  down 
alive,  to  have  his  entrails  taken  out  and 
burned  while  he  is  yet  alive,  to  have  his 
bead  cutoff,  and  his  body  divided  into 
four  partem  and  these  to  be  at  the  king's 


disposal.  But,  generally,  all  tbe  punish' 
ment  is  remitted  by  the  crown,  except  the 
hanging  and  beheading:  and  when  it  is 
not,  by  connivance  of  the  oflicers,  the 
criminal  is  drawn  on  a  hurdle  to  the  place 
of  execution,  and  is  not  disembowelled 
until  actually  dead.  In  other  cases,  the 
punishment  is  now  simply  by  hanging,  or, 
m  the  military  and  naval  service,  by  foot- 
ing. In  France,  formeriy,  the  punishment 
of  death  was  often  inflicted  by  breaking 
the  criminal  on  the  wheel.  (Damiens  was 
torn  to  pieces  by  horses,  after  he  had  been 
tormented  with  red-hot  pincers,  and  had 
suffered  other  horrid  tortures.^  The  usual 
punishment  now  is  beheaoing  by  the 
jl^illotine.  In  cases  of  parricide,  the  crim- 
mal  is  conducted,  barafooted,  and  covered 
with  a  black  veil,  to  the  place  of  execu- 
tion, where  his  right  hand  is  cut  off  just 
before  he  is  beb^ed.  In  Austria,  the 
j^neral  mode  of  punishment  is  by  faang- 
mg.  In  Prussia,  nanging  is  rarely  inflict- 
ed ;  but  the  usual  punishment  is  behead- 
ing vrith  a  heavy  axe,  the  criminal's  head 
being  flrst  tied  to  a  block.  In  other  Ger- 
man states,  the  uncertain  mode  of  execu- 
tion by  the  sword  still  exists.  Sand  was 
executed  in  this  manner.  It  should  be 
remarked,  however,  that,  in  GSennany, 
hanging  has  always  been  deemed  the 
most  inftunous  sort  of  punishment;  and 
the  sentence  has  often  been  commuted  for 
beheading  by  the  sword,  as  a  milder  mode 
of  punishment  In  the  U.  States  of  Amer- 
ica, hanging  is  the  universal  mode  of 
capital  punishment ;  and,  indeed,  the  con- 
stitution of  the  U.  States  contains  a  pro- 
vision, declaring  that  ^  cruel  and  unusual 
punishments  shaU  not  be  inflicted.''  In 
China,  murderers  are  cut  to  pieces ;  rob- 
bers, not  In  Russia,  the  punishment  of 
death  has  been  frequendy  inflicted  by 
the  knout  In  Turkey,  strangling,  and 
sewing  the  criminal  up  in  a  bag,  and 
throwing  him  into  the  sea,  are  common 
modes  of  punishment  In  the  Roman 
code,  many  severe  and  cruel  punishments 
were  prescribed.  During  the  favored 
times  of  the  republic,  many  of  these  were 
abolished  or  mitigated.  But  again,  under 
the  emperors,  they  were  revived  with  full 
severity.  In  the  ancient  Checian  states, 
the  modes  of  punishment  were  also  se- 
vere, and  often  cruel.  But  the  most  gen* 
eral  mode  of  punishment,  in  ordinaiy 
cases,  seems,  both  in  Greece  and  Rome, 
to  have  been  by  hanging.  Whether  the 
ancient  Greek  mode  of  capital  punish- 
ment, by  taking  poison  at  such  hour  as  the 
condemned  party  should  choose,  has  ever 
been  adopteid  in  any  modem  nation,  we 


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DEATH,  PUNISHMENT  OF— DEBTOR  AND  CREDITOIL         145 


are  unable  to  say.  As  far  as  we  have 
been  able  to  leam,  it  is  not  in  use  anions 
any  Christiaii  people;  and  the  idea  of 
suicide  connected  with  it  would  probably 
prevent  any  such  nadon  from  adopting  it. 

Whether  executions  ought  to  be  in  pub- 
lic or  in  private,  has  been  a  question  much 
discussed,  and  upon  which  a  great  diver- 
sity of  opinion  exists  among  intelligent 
etatesmen.  On  the  one  hand,  it  is  said 
that  public  spectacles  of  this  sort  have  a 
tendency  to  bnitaUze  and  harden  the  peo- 
ple, or  to  make  them  indifferent  to  the 
punishment ;  and  the  conraffe  and  firm- 
neffi,  with  which  the  criminu  oflen  meets 
death,  have  a  tendency  to  awaken  feelings 
of  syii^mtfay,  and  even  of  admiration,  and 
to  teke  away  much  of  tlie  horror  of  the 
ofience,  as  well  as  of  the  punishment.  On 
the  nther  hand,  it  is  said  that  the  great 
influence  of  punishment,  in  deterring 
others  from  the  like  offence,  cannot  be 
obtained  in  any  other  way.  It  is  die  only 
means  to  bring  home  to  the  mass  of  the 
people  a  salutaiy  dread  and  warning; 
and  it  is  a  public  admonition  of  the  cer- 
tainty of  punishment  following  upon 
crimes.  It  is  also  added,  that  all  punish- 
ments ought  to  be  subjected  to  the  public 
scrutiny,  so  that  it  may  be  known  diat  all 
the  law  requires,  and  no  more,  has  been 
done.  If  punishments  were  inflicted  in 
private,  it  could  never  be  known  whether 
they  were  jusdy  and  properiy  inflicted 
upon  the  penons  condemned ;  or  whether, 
indeed,  innocent  persons  might  not  be- 
come the  victims. 

In  Enffhmd,  the  court  before  which  the 
trial  is  had,  declares  the  sentence,  and 
directs  the  execution  of  it ;  and  its  war- 
ruit  is  a  sufficient  authority  to  the  proper 
officer  to  execute  it  In  the  courts  of  the 
U.  States,  there  is  a  Uke  authority  ;  but 
in  the  laws  of  many  of  the  states,  there  is 
a  provision  that  the  execution  shall  not 
take  place  except  by  a  warrant  from  the 
governor,  or  other  executive  authority. 
In  cases  of  murder  and  other  atrocious 
crimes,  the  punislmient  in  England  is 
usually  infficted  at  a  very  short  interval 
after  the  sentence.  In  America,  there  is 
usually  allowed  a  very  considerable  inter- 
val, varying  from  one  month  to  six  months. 
In  England  and  America,  there  lies  no 
appeal  from  the  verdict  of  a  jury  and  the 
sentence  of  a  court,  in  capital  cases.  In 
France,  there  may  be  a  review  of  it  in  the 
court  erf"  cassation,  (q.  v.)  In  Germanv, 
there  is,  in  criminal  as  in  civil  cases,  a  rijpt 
of  appall ;  hence,  in  that  country,  row 
innocent  persons  have  suflered  capitally 
■nee  tiie  16ih  century;  and  in  England 

vol*  IV.  13 


and  America,  the  very  fact  that  the  verdict 
and  sentence  are  flnal,  produces  peat  cau- 
tion and  deliberation  in  the  admmistration 
of  criminal  justice,  and  a  strong  leaninar 
towards  the  prisoner  on  trial.  Capittu 
punisl^ment  cannot  be  inflicted,  by  the 
general  humanity  of  the  laws  of  modem 
nations,  upon  persons  who  are  insane  or 
who  are  presnant,  until  the  latter  are 
delivered  and  the  former  become  sane. 
It  is  said  that  Frederic  the  Great  required 
all  judgments  of  his  courts,  condemning 
persons  to  death,  to  be  written  on  blue 
paper ;  thus  he  was  constandy  reminded 
of  them  as  they  lay  on  his  table  among 
other  papers,  from  which  they  were 
readily  distinguished.  He  usually  took  a 
long  time  to  consider  such  cases,  and  thus 
set  an  excellent  example  to  sovereigns  of 
their  duty. 

Death-watch;  a  species  of  tennes,  so 
called  on  account  of  an  old  snperstition 
that  its  beating  or  ticking  in  a  sick  room 
is  a  sure  sign  of  death. 
DsBEirruRE.  (See  Drawback,) 
Debt,  National.  (See  ^Tational  Debt) 
Debtor  and  Creditor,  Laws  of.  One 
of  tlie  first  steps,  in  a  community,  towards 
industry  and  wealth,  is  the  institution  of  the 
individual  riffht  to  property.  The  guaran- 
tee of  the  individual's  earnings  to  himself 
is  the  strongest  stimulus  to  his  exertions ; 
and  this  measure  is  so  obvious,  and  the  one 
in  which  every  member  of  a  community  ^as 
so  evident  an  interest,  that  it  is  of  univer- 
sal adoption  among  rude  as  well  as  civil- 
ized nations,  and  even  precedes  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  regular  government;  for 
men  will  sell,  and,  as  far  as  they  are  able, 
enforoe  their  exclusive  right  to  the  fruits 
of  their  own  labor,  before  they  are  in  a 
condition  to  establish  ^neral  laws.  But, 
though  this  principle  is  so  obviously  just, 
and  of  so  early  adoption,  its  extension 
and  application  to  complicated  affairs,  and 
various  species  of  property,  and  divisions, 
and  modifications  of  rights  to,  and  interest 
in,  possessions  of  all  sorts,  are  among  the 
most  difficult  subjects  of  legislation.  The 
right  of  property  being  once  established, 
the  conditions  on  which  the  owner  will 
port  with  and  transfer  it  are,  as  a  natural 
and  necessary  consequence,  left  to  his  o^vn 
determination,  with  some  ffew  exceptions ; 
especially  one  usually  made  in  favor  of 
the  government,  or,  rather,  of  the  whole 
collective  comraunitv,  who  reserve  tlie 
right  of  taking  individual  property  for  the 
public  use,  without  the  consent  of  the  pro- 
prietor, and  upon  such  terms  as  tlie  gov- 
ernment itself^  shall  prescribe.  But,  even 
in  this  case,  a  debt  or  obligation  on  the 


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146 


DEBTOR  AND  CREDITOR. 


part  of  the  government  or  community 
arises  in  favor  of  the  proprietor  w^hose 
property  has  been  taken.  So  that  we 
may  lay  it  down  as  a  general  doctrine, 
that,  where  one  parts  with  and  transfers 
to  another  any  property,  or  right,  of  which, 
bv  the  laws  of  the  community,  he  was  ex- 
clusively possessed,  this  transfer  is  tlie 
basis  or  meritorious  consideration  of  a 
promise  or  obligation  on  tlie  part  of  the 
person  to  whom  the  transfer  is  made,  to 
return  some  equivalent,  or  what  may  be 
agreed  on  as  an  equivalent  by  the  parties. 
Whether  this  return  be  stipulated  for  in 
money,  lands,  ffoods,  or  personal  services, 
or  any  thin^  of  which  the  value  can  be 
estimated,  is  immaterial  in  respect  to  the 
force  of  the  obligation,  which  will  be  the 
same  in  either  case.  The  validity  of  the 
obligation  thus  arising  is  recognised  by  the 
laws  of  all  civilized  states.  But,  then,  the 
question  arises — and  it  is  one  which  has 
much  perplexed  legislators — What  degree 
of  force  or  saci-edness  shall  be  assigned  to 
this  obligation,  and  by  what  sanctions  and 
penalties  shall  it  be  guarded?  The  per- 
sonal rights  of  citizens  are,  in  general, 
more  scrupulously  guarded  and  vindicated 
by  the  laws,  than  tliose  of  property,  or 
those  the  value  of  which,  in  money  or  ex- 
change, admits  of  an  exact  estimate.  The 
lives  of  men,  for  instance,  are  generally 
protected  by  inflicting  the  extreme  pen- 
alty of  death  for  the  crime  of  muixler. 
Such  a  punishment  is  only  commensurate 
with  the  crime,  and  its  justice  is  univer- 
sally acknowledged  ;  but  a  law  which 
should  inflict  the  same  punishment  for  a 
mere  assault  on  tlie  person,  attended  by 
no  serious  injury,  would  excite  the  abhor- 
rence of  all  men ;  for,  though  men  are 
under  an  undoubted  obligation  not  to 
commit  an  unprovoked  assault,  though 
not  attended  by  a  serious  wound,  yet  such 
a  penalty  would  be  at  once  pronounced 
to  be  out  of  ail  proportion  to  the  force 
and  sacredness  of  the  obligation  which 
it  would  be  designed  to  protect  The 
question  then  occurs — How  forcible,  how 
bindln|r,  how  sacred,  is  this  promise  and 
obligauon  to  pay  a  sum  of  money  or  de- 
liver an  article  of  property  ?  Is  it  so  sa- 
cred that  the  debtor  ought  to  be  put  to 
death,  sent  to  the  galleys,  put  into  the  pil- 
lory, or  the  stocks,  or  whipped,  or  impris- 
oned, in  case  of  his  failing  to  fulfll  it?  In 
one  point  aU  communities  agree,  namely, 
as  far  as  the  property  of  the  debtor  goes, 
it  ought  to  answer  to  this  obligation ;  for 
the  vuue  he  has  received  has  been  absorb- 
ed in  that  which  he  posBeases,  and  consti- 
tutes a  pan  of  its  amount,  or,  at  least,  may 


be  presumed  to  have  contributed  to  it  lo 
short,  the  property  of  the  debtor  may  be 
considered  to  belong  to  his  creditors,  to 
the  extent  of  their  demands.  The  laws 
of  different  countries,  accordingly,  a^ree  in 
the  principle  that  the  creditor  shall  have 
the  means  of  getting  possession  and  dis- 

C'ng  of  the  debtors  property  to  satisfy 
demands.  Theboundls  prescribed  for 
the  exercise  of  this  well  established  and 
universally  acknowledged  right,  vaiy  very 
considerably  in  different  countries  and 
periods.  As  long  ago  as  the  time  of  So- 
lon, the  necessaiy  implements  of  husband- 
ry were  exempted  m>m  this  right  The 
civil  law  makes  an  exemption  of  necessaiy 
implements  of  trade  and  articles  of  flirni- 
ture,  and  this  distinction  is  adopted  very 
generally,  if  not  universally,  throughout 
uie  civUized  world.  The  right  of  the 
creditor,  then,  accordmf  to  the  laws  and 
practice  of  the  whole  civilized  world,  does 
not  extend  to  the  whole  of  the  property 
and  possessions  of  the  debtor ;  and  the 
exception  affords  a  rule  for  measuring  the 
extent  and  force  of  this  obligation  of  debt, 
in  the  general  estimation  of  nations ;  since, 
in  enforcing  this  obligation,  all  the  laws  in 
this  respect  stop  at  Uie  point  where  indi- 
vidual 8ufl[ering  commences.  Though  the 
law  adopts  the  principle,  that  the  goods 
of  the  debtor,  in  effect;' belong  to  the  cred- 
itor, yet  it  makes  a  compromise,  even  of 
this  right,  between  the  creditor,  and  debtor, 
and  the  community;  for  the  community 
may  be  said  to  be  aflected  by,  and  to  feel 
the  distresses  or  good  fortune  of  eveiy  one 
of  its  membere ;  and,  accordingly,  the  cred- 
itor is  here  made  to  compromise  his  rights 
as  a  creditor,  out  of  regaird  to  his  obli|^- 
tions  as  a  member  of  the  community. 
The  law  says  to  him,  ^^  Though  you  stricUy 
have  a  right  to  the  tools  your  debtor  uses, 
the  clotlies  he  and  his  family  wear,  and 
the  beds  they  sleep  upon — ^for  they  may 
have  been  procured  by  the  very  money  or 
goods  f]x>m  which  the  debt  arose ;  yet,  on 
me  other  hand,  you  owe  some  obli|[ations 
to  the  community,  and  the  commumty  has 
some  obligations  to  your  debtor;  you  shall 
not,  therefore,  turn  him  and  his  family 
naked  into  the  streets,  even  by  reclaiming 
the  very,  articles  you  may  have  sold  him. 
Such  is  the  limit  which  the  laws  have,  by 
general  consent,  put  to  the  extent  of  the 
creditor's  right  over  the  debtor's  property ; 
and,  to  this  extent,  eveiy  code  ought  to 
give  as  easy,  cheap  and  expeditious  a 
remedy  as  can  be  allowed  consistently 
with  a  just  settlement  of  the  validity  and 
amount  of  the  creditor's  claim  ;  and  such 
a  remedy  it  is  the  object  of  legislaton 


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147 


generaDy  to  givct  Upon  the  principle 
already  stated,  namely,  that  the  debtor's 
property  belongs  to  his  creditora,  to  the 
amount  of  their  claims,  it  should  follow, 
that,  when  his  property  is  inadequate  to 
the  full  satisfiiction  of  the  debts,  all  the 
creditors  ought  to  share  it  proportionally ; 
and  this  has  been  the  practical  rule  under 
the  civil  law,  and  in  all  the  countries 
where  it  has  been  adopted  as  the  common 
law.  Such  is  the  practical  rule  in  Eng- 
land and  the  greater  part  of  tlie  U.  States ; 
and  it  is  a  rule  so  obviously  just,  and  re- 
sults BO  directly  from  the  universally  re- 
ceived principles,  in  relation  to  the  rights 
of  creditors,  that  it  is  surprising  that  any 
country,  in  the  least  advanced  in  civil  pol- 
ity, and  having  made  any  progress  in  civ- 
ihzadon,  should  form  an  exception  to  such 
a  rule,  and  permit  some  one  creditor,  or 
some  few,  no  more  deserving,  and  perhaps 
much  less  so,  than  the  rest,  to  seize  upon 
the  whole  property  of  the  debtor,  and  en- 
tirely defeat  the  claims  of  the  others ;  yet 
such  a  defect  does  exist  in  the  laws  of 
4  out  of  the  25  U.  States,  at  the  time  of 
writing  this  article' (1830),  viz.,  Maine, 
New  Hampshire,  Vermont  and  Massachu- 
setts. These  states  are  all  eminently  com- 
mercial, and  by  no  means  deficient  in 
general  intelli^nce  and  improvement, 
which  renders  it  the  more  remarkable  tliat 
they  should,  in  this  respect,  make  an  ex- 
ception to  the  practice  of  all  the  rest  of 
Christendom.  The  defect  arises  partly 
from  a  deep-rooted  prejudice  upon  this 
subject,  which  mistakes  a  regulation  and 
reformation  of  this  branch  of  law  for  a 
weakening  of  the  obligation  of  contracts, 
and  an  impairing  of  the  rights  of  creditors ; 
but  still  more  from  a  timid  spirit  of  legis- 
lation, which  feara  to  undertoice  an  impor- 
tant improvement  of  this  branch  of  law, 
although  the  justice  and  great  utility  of 
such  an  improvement,  among  a  trading 
people  especially,  are  acknowledged  by 
much  the  greater  number.  When  the 
laws  provide  for  a  proportionate  distribu- 
tion of  an  insolvent's  estate  in  general,  still 
they  reserve  some  few  preferences.  Thus, 
in  the  cessio  hanorumj  and  the  various 
laws  of  insolvency  of  different  states,  of 
which  that  has  been  the  model,  a  prefer- 
ence is  usually  ^ven  to  the  ^vernment 
as  a  creditor,  which  is  fully  satisfied  for  its 
demands  before  any  part  of  the  claims  of 
individual  creditors  is  paid.  This  prefer- 
ence is  just,  where  the  claim  of  the  gov- 
ernment can  be  viewed  in  the  li^ht  of  a 
hen  on  tiie  property ;  and,  where  this  is  the 
ease,  the  giving  it  a  priority  to  those  of 
creditors  w;ho  have  no  hen,  is,  in  fact,  only 


putting  the  govemm^it  upon  the  same 
footing  with  other  creditors ;  for  any  one, 
having  a  mortgage  or  pledge,  is  always 
preferred  to  the  extent  of  his  pledse ;  but, 
where  the  claim  cannot  be  considered  in 
that  hght,  the  preference  seems  not  to  be 
just  Some  other  claims  are  preferred, 
from  motives  of  humanity  and  general 
policy,  on  the  same  principle  <m  which 
necessary  articles  of  furniture,  implements 
of  the  debtor's  trade,  and  the  hke,  are  ex- 
empted from  seizure.  Thus  some  laws, 
notwithstanduig  the  insolvency  of  the  es- 
tate of  a  deceaseid  debtor,  still  allow  the  full 
payment  of  the  expenses  of  his  last  sick- 
ness and  funeral,  and  also  assign  some 
articles,  of  greater  or  leas  amount,  to  the 
use  of  his  widow  and  family.  Some 
codes  of  laws  Umit  the  claims  of  the  cred- 
itor to  the  debtor's  property  for  satisfac- 
tion. Others  go  beyond  Uiis  point  The 
ancient  laws  of  Rome  permitted  the  sell- 
ing of  debtors  into  servitude  for  the  bene- 
fit of  their  creditors ;  and  such  are  the  laws 
of  modem  times  among  some  of  the  Afri- 
can tribes.  Solon  remarked  upon  the 
inconsistency  of  laws  which  exempted  the 
implements  of  trade,  and  articles  of  neces- 
sity of  the  debtor,  from  the  creditor's  d«> 
mand,  and  yet  subjected  his  body  to  sale 
or  imprisonment ;  and,  considering  the 
rights  of  the  debtor,  as  a  citizen  of  Athens, 
to  be  paitunoimt  to  those  of  his  creditor 
over  his  person,  he  provided  against  the 
violation  of  a  citizen's  liberty  on  account 
of  his  debts.  But  the  imprisonment  of  the 
debtor  ought  to  be  allowed  as  a  means  of 
compelling  him  to  surrender  his  property 
for  the  benefit  of  his  creditors ;  and,  for 
this  purpose,  the  civil  law,  and  the  laws 
of  England  and  most  of  the  U.  States, 
permit  it,  but  only  until  he  has  made  a 
surrender  of  all  his  property,  unless  he  is 
proved  to  have  acted  fiuudulentiy,  in 
which  case  the  imprisonment  is  continued 
as  a  punishment  To  tiiis  rule,  however, 
the  four  of  the  U.  States  above-mentioned 
form  an  exception ;  for,  in  those  states,  the 
imprisonment  may  be  inflicted  by  the 
creditor,  although  the  debtor  has  no  means 
of  satisfying  the  debt,  and  although  his 
insolvency  may  have  been  occasioned  by 
an  unforeseen  and  inevitable  misfortune. 
It  is  true,  that,  in  such  a*  case,  not  many 
creditors  will  wantonly  avail  themselves 
of  such  a  right  to  inflict  suffering  without 
any  motive  of  interest  But  it  is  equally 
true,  that,  if  the  whole  population  were  at 
hberty  to  inflict  any  kina  ouf  suflering  upon 
otiiers  with  impunity,  not  many  persons 
would  avail  themselves  of  the  Ucense ;  but 
some  would,  and  thb  is  a  reason  for  not 


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148 


DEBTOR  AND  CREDITOR— DEOANDOLLE. 


giving  the  liceoBe.  The  laws  of  England 
and  Fiance,  and  of  most  of  tlie  U.  States, 
now  make  a  distinction  between  cases  of 
fi:aud  and  misfortune,  and  aim  at  punish- 
ment only  in  the  fonner.  This  is  a  dis- 
tinction not  difficult  to  make,  and  one 
which  does  not  require  any  extraord'mary 
legislative  skill  and  sagacity.  Its  omission 
in  any  code  of  lav^  Ujerefore,  indicates  a 
rude  and  impeifect  legislation  in  this  par- 
ticular,— In  the  article  Bankrupt,  the  in- 
terposition of  the  law  to  discharge  debtors 
absolDtely  from  all  liability  to  their  credit- 
ors, on  their  surrendering  all  tlieir  proper- 
ty, has  been  treated  of.  This  inteqiosition 
has,  however,  been  extended  only  to  cases 
of  insolvent  merchants.  The  insolvent 
laws,  as  distinguislied  from  bankrupt  laws, 
apply  to  debtors  who  are  not  merchants^ 
and  provide  for  a  ratable  distribution  of 
their  efiects  among  their  creditors,  and 
exempt  the  person  of  the  debtor  from  im- 
prisonment, on  the  surrender  of  the  whole 
of  his  property,  but  do  not  discharge  the 
debt  any  further  than  satisfaction  is  made 
by  payment  A  question  very  naturally 
arises  why  this  distinction  is  made  between 
traders  and  others.  A  cultivator  or  me- 
chanic, in  enterprising  communities,  is 
scarcely  less  hable  to  the  misfortunes  and 
disappointments  which  result  in  insolven- 
cy than  traders,  and  their  future  industry 
and  unembarrassed  enterprise  is  of  no  less 
importance  to  the  communi^.  Why  should 
the  future  earnings  of  a  farmer,  or  con- 
ductor of  any  branch  of  industiy,  whose 
insolvency  has  been  occasioned  by  a 
drought,  a  change  in  the  markets,  or  the 
bankruptcy  of  a  merchant  whom  he  had 
tnieted,  be  held  for  the  payment  of  his 
debts,  to  the  last  farthing,  any  more  than 
those  of  the  merchant  ?  Is  it  true  that,  in 
other  pursuits  than  those  of  trade,  insol- 
vency is  more  frequenUy  the  conseauence 
of  fiT&ud,  extravagance  or  imprudence.^ 
(See  Bankrupt,  Capias,  hatdven^.) 

Debure,  Guillaume  and  Uuillaume 
Francois ;  two  cousins,  distinguished  bib- 
liographers^  The  former  prepared  the  first 
division  of  the  catalogue  of  the  excellent 
library  of  the  duke  de  la  Valli^re  (17^ 
3  vols.).  The  latter,  a  bookseller,  bom 
1731,  and  died  1782,  opened  a  new  pioh 
for  bibliographers,  by  reducing  to  a  sys- 
tem what  had  before  been  left  merely  to 
tact,  in  his  BtbUofro^jkU  inaiructive,  cu 
TraiU  de  la  Cotmazaaance  dts  Lwres  rares 
et  auiguUera  (Paris,  1763—68,  7  vols.} 
Lemercier  and  others  attacked  the  worx 
severely;  yet  it  must  be  considered  of 
much  value.  (See  Ebert's  BMiograpki- 
ackea  Lexicon,  vol.  i,  p.  452.)    Among  his 


other  works  is  to  be  mentioned  Stmii- 
meM  h  la  BibHogrmhie  inatrudive,  ou  Cat- 
alogue dea  laxrea  m  Cabinet  de  M.  Gatg- 
not  (Paris,  1769,  2  vols.).  To  these  two 
works,  that  of  Nee  de  la  Rochelie,  ThJtie 
deatiiUe  hfacUiier  la  Becherche  dea  JJvres 
anomftnea,  etc.  (1782),  forms  a  lOtli  volume. 
The  sons  of  Debure,  advantageously  known 
in  the  world  of  letters  as  Debure  Frhea, 
have  distinguished  themselves  as  bibUog- 
raphere  by  the  catalogue  of  the  ricli  and 
valuable  library  of  coimt  Mac-Carthy 
Reagh  (1817). 

Decade  (LaL  deata,  from  the  Greek  6U,:) 
is  sometimes  used  for  the  number  ten,  or 
for  an  aggregate  of  ten,  and  decadea  for 
an  enumeration  by  tens.  The  books  of 
Livy  are  divided  into  decades.  In  the 
French  revolution,  decades  took  the  place 
of  weeks,  in  the  division  of  the  year.  ( See 
Calendar.)  In  the  French  system  of 
weights  and  measures,  the  Greek  word 
Hko  is  used  to  increase  the  value  of  the 
designations  ten-fold;   thus   decagramme 

1a  weight  of  10  grammes),  decaktre  (10 
itres),  decametre  (10  metres),  decare  (10 
ares). 

Decaoon  (decagonum),  in  geometry ;  a 
figure  of  10  sides  and  angles. 

Decalooue  (from  iiKOf  ten,  and  \6yvt, 
the  word) ;  the  ten  commandments,  which, 
according  to  Exod.,  chap.  xx.  and  Deut., 
chap,  v.,  were  given  on  two  tables,  by 
God  to  Moses.  The  Jews  call  them,  by 
way  of  eminence,  the  ten  worda;  hence 
their  name,  DecaioffM,  Jevre  and  Chris- 
tians have  divided  the  ten  commandments 
differently ;  and,  in  some  Catholic  cate- 
chisms, the  second  commandment  has 
been  united,  in  an  abridged  form,  with  the 
first,  and  the  tenth  has  been  divided  into 
two.  Catechisms  generally  contain  the 
ten  commandments,  not  verbally,  as  they 
stand  in  the  Bible,  but  abridged. 

Decameron  (Greek ;  from  bUa,  ten,  and 
hiU^y  day) ;  a  book  in  which  the  author 
relates  the  events,  &c.  of  ten  day&  The 
Decameron  of  Boccaccio  (q.v.)  is  the  his- 
tory of  a  gay  company  of  ten  persons,  who, 
on  ten  different  aiays,  relate  ten  tales  each 
day.  The  Decameron  of  Dibdin  treats 
of  bibUographical  curiosities. 

Decahdolle,  Augusun  Pyrame,  one  of 
the  first  botanists  in  Europe,  htmi  at  Ge- 
neva, in  1778,  was  descended  from  a  family 
distinguished,  as  early  as  the  l^h  century, 
in  the  republic  of  letters.  While  professor 
of  botany  at  Montpelher,  he  raised  the 
botanical  garden  to  its  present  flourishing 
condition.  His  enemies  availed  them- 
selves of  the  cireumstance  that  he  had 
retained  his  place  after  the  return  of  Na- 


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DECANDOLLE— DECATUR. 


149 


poleon  fiom  Elba,  to  lender  Iiim  sus- 
pected by  the  government ;  and  the  ultras 
at  length  obliged  him  to  retire  from  his 
chair.  His  native  city  established  a  bo- 
tanical garden,  in  181^  with  the  direction 
of  which  he  was  intrusted,  and  a  profes- 
sorBhip  of  botany,  which  was  bestowed  on 
him.  His  Thiorie  UhnenUdre  de  la  Battp- 
nime  (1813)  is  well  known.  Amonc  his 
other  writings  are,  Planianim  succuUnta- 
rum  lEgtoria  (1799, 4  vols.,  folio  and  4to.), 
frith  plates  by  Redout^;  ^stragalogiOf 
likewise  with  plates  (1803);  FUnrt  i^ort- 
poue  (1809 — 15,  6  vols.),  in  which  he  was 
assisted  b]^  Lanmrque ;  Cataiogus  PUmtct- 
rum  Horti  botanici  MontpeUienna  (1813). 
He  has  also  published  some  observations 
on  the  theoiy  of  light,  which  have  been 
confirmed  by  later  experiments. 

Decapitation.  (See  Death,  Punishr 
mento/,) 

D£CAin>RiA,  in  botany ;  the  tenth  class 
of  plants,  with  hermaphrodite  flowers  and 
ten  stamina,  or  male  pans,  in  each. 

Decafolis,  in  ancient  geography;  a 
country  of  Palestine,  which  contained  ten 


eun-shot  on  the  starboard  bow,  and  all  the 
batteries  on  shore  were  opened  upon  the 
assailants.  Decatur  set  nre  to  the  frigate, 
and  continued  alongside  until  her  destruc- 
tion was  certain.  For  this  exploit,  the 
American  congress  voted  him  thanks  and 
a  sword,  and  the  president  immediately 
sent  him  a  captaincy.  The  n«xt  spring. 
It  being  resolved  to  make  an  attack  on 
Tripoli,  commodore  Preble  equipped  six 
gun-boats  and  two  bombards,  formed  them 
into  two  divisions,  and  gave  the  command 
of  one  of  them  to  captain  Decatur.  The 
enemv's  ffun-boats  were  moored  along  the 
mouth  of  tiie  harbor,  under  the  batteries, 
and  within  musket  shot  Captain  Decatur 
determined  to  board  the  enemv's  eastern 
division,  consisting  of  nine,  lie  boarded 
in  his  own  boat,  and  carried  two  of  the 
enemy's  boots  in  succession.  When  he 
boarded  the  second  boat,  he  immediately 
attacked  her  commander,  who  was  his 
superior  in  size  and  strength,  and,  his 
sword  being  broken,  he  seized  the  Turk, 
when  a  violent  scuffle  ensued.  The  Turk 
threw  him,  and  drew  a  dirk  for  the  pur^ 


principal  cities,  some  on  this,  some  on  the    pose  of  stabbing  him,  when  Decatur,  hav- 

other  side  of  Jordan,  whence  its  name,    in, "  -*-*-'  --  *-*-  --*-*  — ^— *  *—*■ 

Pliny  enumerates  the  following : — Sey 


thopolis,  Philadelphia,  Raphanie,  Gadara, 
Hippos,  Dion,  PeUa,  Gerasa,  Canatha  and 
Damascus.  Others  reckon  them  difl[er- 
ently.  They  were  chiefly  inhabited  by 
Gentiles,  though  some  of  them  might  be 
within  the  region  of  Judea. 

Decatur,  Stephen,  a  celebrated  Amer- 
ican naval  officer,  was  bom,  Jan.  5, 1779, 
on  the  eastern  shore  of  Maryland,  whith- 
er his  parents  had  retired  while  the  Brit- 
ish were  in  Philadelphia.  He  entered  the 
American  navy  in  March,  1798,  and  was 
soon  promoted  to  the  rank  of  first  Ueuten- 
ant  While  at  Syracuse,  attached  to  the 
squadron  of  commodore  Preble,  he  was 
first  informed  of  the  fate  of  the  American 
frigate  Philadelphia,  which,  in  pursuing 
a  Tripolitan  corsair,  ran  on  a  rock  about 
four  and  a  half  miles  from  Tripoli,  and 
was  taken  by  the  Tripolitans,  and  towed 
into  the  harbor.  Lieutenant  Decatur  con- 
ceived the  project  of  attempting  her  re- 


g  a  small  pistol  in  his  right  pocket,  took 
hold  of  it,  and,  turning  it  as  well  as  he 


could,  so  as  to  take  effect  upon  his  antag- 
onist, cocked  it,  fired  through  his  pockot, 
and  killed  him.  When  commodore  Pre- 
ble was  superseded  in  the  command  of 
the  squadron,  he  gave  the  firigate  Consti* 
tution  to  Decanir,  who  was  afterwards 
removed  to  the  Congress,  and  retnnied 
home  in  her  when  peace  was  concluded 
with  Tripoli.  He  succeeded  commodore 
Barron  in  the  command  of  the  Chesa- 
peake, after  the  attack  made  upon  her  by 
the  British  man-of-war  Leopard.  He  was 
afterwards  transferred  to  the  frigate  United 
States.  In  the  war  between  Great  Britain 
and  the  U.  States,  while  commanding* the 
frigate  United  States,  he  fell  in,  Oct.  25, 
1812,  with  the  Macedonian,  mountitig  49 
carriage-guns,  one  of  the  finest  of  the 
British  vessels  of  her  class,  and  captured 
her  after  an  engagement  of  an  hour  and 
a  half.  When  captain  Garden,  the  com- 
mander of  the  Macedonian,  tendered  him 


capture  or  aestruction.    He  selected,  for  his  sword,  he  observed  that  he  could  not 

this  purpose,  a  ketch,  and  manned  her  think  of  taking  the  sword  of  an  officer 
with  70  volunteers.    Feb.  16,  1804,  at  7*  who  had  defended  his  ship  so  gallantly, 

o'clock  at  night,  he  entered  the  harbor  of  but  should  be  happy  to  take  him  by  the 

Tripoli,  boarded  the  frigate,  though  she  hand.    In  a  letter  written  five  days  after 

had  all  her  guns  mounted  and  charged,  the  capture,  he  says,  <*  I  need  not  tell  you 

and  was  lying  within  half-gun-shot  of  the  that  I  have  done  eveiy  thing  in  my  power 

bashaw's  casde  and  of  his  principal  bat-  to  soothe  and  console  captain  Garden ;  for. 


teiy.    Two  Tripolitan  cruisers  were  lyinsr 
within  two  cables'  length,  on  the  starboard 
quaiter,  and  several  gun-boats  within  half- 
13* 


really,  one  half  the  pleasure  of  this  little 
victory  is  destroyed  in  witnessing  the 
mortification  of  a  brave  man,  who  deserv* 


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150 


DECATUIl-D£CAZEa 


ed  success  quite  as  much  as  we  did  who 
obtained  it^  In  January,  1814,  commo- 
dore Decatur,  in  the  United  States,  with 
his  prize  the  Macedonian,  then  equipped 
as  an  American  frigate,  was  blockaded  at 
New  London  by  a  British  squadron  great- 
ly superior  in  force.  A  challenge  which 
he  sent  to  the  comnumder  of  the  British 
squadron,  sir  Thomas  Hardy,  offering  to 
meet  two  of  the  British  frigates  with  his 
two  ships,  was  declined.  In  January, 
1815,  he  attempted  to  set  sail  from  New 
York,  which  was  blockaded  by  four  Brit- 
ish ships ;  but  the  frigate  under  his  com- 
mand, the  President,  was  injured  in  pass- 
ing the  bar,  and  was  captured  by  the 
whole  squadron,  after  having  maintained 
a  running  fight  of  two  hours  and  a  half 
with  one  of  the  frigates,  the  Endvmion, 
which  was  dismantled  and  silenced.  Af- 
ter the  conclusion  of  peace,  he  was  re- 
stored to  his  country,  in  1815.  The  con- 
duct of  the  Barbary  powers,  and  of  Algiers 
in  particular,  having  been  insulting  to  the 
United  States,  on  the  ratification  of  peace 
with  Great  Britain,  war  was  declared 
against  Algiers,  and  a  squadron  was  fitted 
out,  under  the  command  of  commodore 
Decatur,  for  the  puqxjse  of  obtaining  re- 
dress. In  the  spring  of  1815,  he  set  sail, 
and,  June  17,  off  cape  de  Gatt,  captured 
an  Algerine  fri^te,  afler  a  running  fight 
of  25  minutes,  m  which  the  famous  admi- 
ral Rais  Hammida,  who  had  long  been 
the  terror  of  the  Mediterranean  sea,  fell. 
The  American  squadron  arrived  at  Al- 

S'ers  June  28.  In  less  than  48  hours, 
ecatur  terrified  the  regency  into  his  own 
terms,  which  were,  mainly,  that  no  tribute 
should  ever  be  required,  by  Algiers,  from 
the  U.  States  of  America ;  that  all  Amer- 
icans in  slaveiy  should  be  given  up  with- 
out ransom  ;  that  compensation  should  be 
made  for  American  profierty  seized ;  that 
all  cidzens  of  the  U.  States,  taken  in  war, 
should  be  treated  as  prisoners  of  war  are  by 
other  nations,  and  not  as  slaves,  but  held 
subject  to  an  exchange  without  ransom.. 
After  concluding  this  trea^,  he  proceeded 
to  Tunis,  where  he  obtamed  indemnity 
for  the  outrages  exercised  or  permitted  by 
the  bashaw.  Thence  he  went  to  Tripoli, 
where  he  made  a  mmilar  demand  with 
like  success,  and  procured  the  release  of 
10  captives,  Danes  and  Neapolitans.  He 
arrived  in  the  U.  States  Nov.  IS;  1815, 
was  subsequently  appointed  one  of  the 
board  of  navy  commissionera,  and  was  re- 
siding at  Washington,  in  that  capacity, 
when  he  was  killed  in  a  duel  vritli  com- 
modore Bairon,  March  22, 1820,  occasion- 
ed by  his  aniinadveraioDs  on  the  conduct 


of  the  latter.  Couraffo,  sagacity,  energy, 
self-possession,  and  a  nigh  sense  of  honor, 
were  the  characterisdc  traits  of  Decatur. 
From  his  boyhpod,  he  was  remarkable  for 
the  Qualities  which  presage  eminence  in 
naval  warfare.  He  enjoy^  the  sea  as  his 
element  He  possessed  an  active,  muscu- 
lar frame,  a  quick  and  penetrating  eye, 
and  a  bold,  adventurous  and  ambitious 
spirit 

Decazes,  Elie,  duke,  peer  of  France, 
duke  of  Glticksburg  in  Denmark,  was 
bom  at  St  Martin-de-Laye,  near  Liboume, 
in  1780,  of  a  family  ennobled  by  Henry 
IV,  and  studied  law  in  the  college  Ven- 
ddme.  In  1806,  he  became  judge  of  the 
tribunal  of  the  first  instance  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Seine;  in  1810,  counsellor  of 
the  court  of  appeals ;  and  afterwards  coim- 
sellor  of  Louis,  king  of  Hdkmd.  After 
the  return  of  Napoleon  from  Elba,  he 
openly  declared  himself  in  fiivor  of  Louis 
AVni,  and  was  ordered  not  to  approach 
within  40  leagues  of  Paris.  On  the  re- 
turn of  the  kii^,  he  was  appointed  prefect 
of  the  police,  dissolved  tne  chamber  of 
representatives,  and  received  a  place  in 
the  council  of  state.  In  his  connexions 
vrith  the  commanders  of  the  allied  troops 
and  the  journalists  of  Paris,  he  showed 
himself  cautious  and  prudent,  and,  in  the 
trials  of  Lab^doy^re  and  Ney,  and  after 
the  dismission  of'Fouch^,  in  the  capacity  of 
minister  of  the  police,  he  was  energetic  in  his 
measures  relating  to  the  leaders  of  the  last 
revolution,  and  the  preservation  of  public 
order.  In  1818,  he  was  made  count,  and 
married  mile,  de  St  Aulaire,  granddaugh- 
ter of  the  sister  of  the  late  duke  of  Uol- 
stein-GIficksburg,  in  consequence  of  which 
be  was  created  duke  of  GMcksburg  by 
the  king  of  Denmark.  He  had  ah^ady 
been  created  peer  of  France,  and,  in  1820, 
was  made  duke.  As  minister  of  police, 
to  which  place  the  royalists  had  recom- 
mended him,  Decazes  strengthened  his 
influence  with  the  king  by  the  diacov- 
eiy  and  destruction  of  certain  papers  of 
the  greatest  importance,  respecting  the 
king  personaUy,  so  that  the  lavor  of  the 
king  could  never  be  entirely  withdrawn 
from  him.  With  the  ultras,  he  made 
himself  unpopular  b^  advising  the  kinr  to 
\  abolish  the  chambre  tntnnwable,  (q.  v.)  His 
moderation  exposed  him  to  the  attacks  of 
the  right  and  the  left  side  at  once.  **"  Hoyor 
U§er  la  iiOtiony  noHonaliter  U  royaUamt^  he 
at  that  time  declared  to  be  the  object  of  the 
government  But  the  charter  received  no 
tegal  security,  and  the  laws  of  exception, 
violating  personal  liberty  and  the  liberty 
of  the  press,  softened  as  they  were  by  De* 


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151 


cazea,  were  a  dangerous  exercise  of  arbi- 
trary  power.  Decazes  and  the  minister 
of  war,  Gouvion  St  Cyr,  declared  them- 
selves, in  1818,  BO  warmly  against  the 
proposition  of  Richelieu  for  the  change  of 
the  laws  of  election  of  Feb.  5, 1817,  that 
the  latter  and  Lain^  retired  from  the  min- 
istry. The  king  then  appointed  Decazes 
to  the  mimstiy  of  the  interior  (Dec.  29, 
1818),  with  which  he  continued  to  hold 
the  ministry  of  the  police,  and,  at  tlie  same 
time,  the  ministry  of  public  instniction  and 
public  worship.  From  motives  of  pru- 
dence, he  left  the  presidency  of  the  min* 
isteriai  council  to  the  marquis  DesoUes. 
(q.  V.)  This  ministry  acted  against  the 
principles  of  the  ultra  opposition  as  much 
as  it  thought  requisite  to  carry  its  meas- 
ures, and  as  much,  perhaps,  as  its  situa- 
tion allowed.  See  Guizot,  Du  Gouoeme" 
ment  de  la  Fhmce  demds  la  RestauraUon  d 
du  M/dslere  adud  (Paris,  1620),  and  Des 
Moyens  dt  Chuvemement  d  de  POpponHon 
dans  Vitat  adud  dt  la  Ihmee  (Paris,  Oct 
1821).  The  oh^rchical  opposition  in  the 
chamber,  to  which  belonged  Villele,  Cor- 
bieres,  de-  la  Bourdonnaye,  Clausel  de 
Coussergues,  Lain^  &c.,  and  in  the  cham- 
ber of  peers,  particularly  Ch&teaubriand 
and  Fitz- James,  opposed  in  vain  the  in- 
fluence of  the  minister.  Decazes  effect- 
ed a  mitigation  of  the  ordinance  of  1816 
against  the  regicides,  and  frustrated  the 
attempts  of  £urth^lemy  to  change  the 
election  law,  and  introduce  the  ^stem  of 
indirect  elections,  by  the  nomination  of  70 
new  peers,  Msrch,  1819.  His  three  laws 
against  the  abuses  of  the  press  (see  De 
&ms)  established  thto  censorship  only  for 
a  short  time.  The  establishment  (August, 
1819)  of  an  exhibition  of  French  indus- 
try was  more  permanent  France  is  also 
indebted  to  him  for  the  councils  of  com- 
merce and  manu&ctures,  for  many  agri- 
ccdtural  societies,  and  for  an  institution  for 
encouraging  the  mechanical  arts,  and  ed- 
ucating young  frrmers  at  the  expense  of 
the  state.  The  hatred  of  the  court  party 
and  of  the  ultras  against  the  fiivored  min- 
ister, particulariy  since  his  discovery  of 
the  wkUe  eofuptrocy,  so  called,  the  investi- 
gation of  which  was  suppressed,  continaed 
to  increase.  His  most  irreconcilable  ene* 
my  was  baron  Vitrolles.  When  the  liber- 
als, strengthened  by  the  result  of  the  elec- 
tions of  1819,  thrnitened  to  become  too 
powerfyl  for  the  government,  Decazes 
showed  himself  alternately  inclined  to  the 
court  and  constitutional  parties,  and  en* 
deavored  to  check  the  farther  extension 
of  liberal  institutions.  This  balancing  be- 
tween coD8tituti<Mial  and  absolute  prmci- 


ples^the  bofcuZe  jyitaMy  as  it  was  called 
(see  Bascide),  not  only  threw  the  ukrar 
liberals  into  the  opposition,  but  also  alien- 
ated the  constitutional  ministers  Desolles, 
Gouvion  St  Cyr  and  Louis,  who  resigned 
then:  seats  in  the  ministry  after  the  altera- 
tion in  the  law  of  elections.  The  new 
ministnr  of  Nov.  19, 1819,  in  which  Pas- 
quier,  Latour-Maubourg  and  Roy  occupi- 
ed the  seats  thus  vac^ed,  and  Decazes 
was  named  president,  was  not  more  har- 
monious. De  Serre  prepared  the  nnjd 
of  a  new  law  of  elections,  in  whicn  De- 
cazes consented  to  the  introduction  of  the 
upper  electoral  colleges,  but  would  not  al- 
low the  double  vote.  (See  Elediony  Laws 
of.)  The  proposed  laws  respecting  the 
censorship  of  the  press,  and  the  arrest  of 
public  disturbers,  met  with  objections  in 
the  ministerial  council,  and  still  more  from 
many  members  of  the  ri^ht  side  and  of 
the  centre,  whilst  the  liberals  opposed 
them  entirely.  The  murder  <it  the  duk^ 
of  Bern  (q.  v.),  Feb.  13, 1820,  inflamed  the 
ultra-rojralists  against  Decazes,  who  favor- 
ed the  hberal  ideas  which  they  accused  as 
the  cause  of  that  murder,  and  the  deputy 
Clausel  de  Coussei^fues  openly  cbaiged 
him  with  being  an  accomplice  in  tbe  as- 
sassination. Decazes,  finding  the  propos- 
ed law  of  Feb.  15  disapproved  by  all  par- 
ties, and  the  royal  family  also  desirous  of 
his  dismission, — ^given  up  by  the  liberals, 
who  could  not  trust  him  any  longer,  at- 
tacked bv  the  ultras,  and  subjected  to  the 
basest  calumnies, — ^resigned  his  place,  Feb. 
18,  and  proposed  the  duke  of^  Richelieu 
as  his  successor.'  The  king  consented, 
Feb.  20,  but  bestowed  on  him  the  title  of 
dtiibe,  and  appointed  him  ambassador  at 
the  court  of  St  James,  and  priw-coun- 
sellor.  In  1820,  he  arrived  in  London, 
where  he  resided  in  great  splendor.  The 
new  law  of  election  had  fiUed  the  cham« 
her  witbthe  most  violent  opposets  of  the 
ministnr.  Decazes,  apprehensive  of  his 
own  &Il,  gave  in  his  resignation,  and  re- 
turned to  Paris.  On  the  occasion  of  the 
deliberations  of  the  congress  of  Laybach, 
Decazes  had  given  lord  Castlereagh  the 
most  decided  assurances  of  the  neutrality 
of  France  vrith  regard  to  Naples ;  never- 
theless, the  French  ministers  at  Laybach 
acceded  to  the  plans  of  Austria,  and,  after 
an  explanation  vrith  Castlereagh,  Decazes 
was  informed  by  Pasquier  that  the  French 
ministers  at  Laybach  had  received  secret 
instructions.  While  the  duke  was  in 
Paris,  the  liberal  party  made  an  efibrt  to 
unite  him  vrith  Talleyrand  f<x  the  over- 
throw of  the  ministry,  but  the  attempt 
was  unsuccessfiil,  <m  account  of  his  con^ 


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DECAZES— DECIPHERma 


nexion  with  Richelieu  and  De  Serre.  He 
retii^d  to  his  estates,  where  he  devoted 
himself  to  agriculture,  the  improvement 
of  which,  in  the  department  of  the  Gi- 
ronde,  is  principally  owing  to  him.  He 
also  established,  at  Liboume,  a  society  for 
the  promotion  of  agriculture,  a  museum, 
and  a  school  for  mutual  instruction.  Mean- 
while, tlie  party  of  Villele  triumphed  over 
the  friends  of  Decazes,  in  the  change  of 
the  ministry,  Dec.  4,  1821.  Chateaubri- 
and (q.  V.)  succeeded  him  as  ambassador 
in  London.  In  1822,  the  duke  returned 
to  Paris,  but  took  litde  share  in  the  debates 
of  the  chamber  of  peers.  During  the  life 
of  Louis  XVIU,  the  party  of  Decazes, 
whose  organ  was  the  Journal  dt  Paris, 
was  hated  as  much  as  it  was  feared  by  the 
loyalists,  particulariy  by  the  friends  of  the 
minister  of  finance,  Vill^Ie.  In  the  cham- 
ber of  peers,  it  consisted  of  Bastard  de 
Lestang,  Lally-Tolendal,  Barante,  Mol^, 
&fts. ;  in  the  chamber  of  deputies,  of  most 
of  the  dodrinmresy  andof  many  of  the  left 
side.  The  Uberals  entertained  anew  the 
hope  of  paining  Decazes  when  Talleyrand 
united  himself  with  the  docbrinaires ;  but 
the  union  of  Talleyrand  and  Decazes  was 

{)revented  by  the  extreme  caution  of  the 
atter.  As  a  politician,  Decazes  possesses 
neither  the  pnnofound  views  of  a  Turgot, 
nor  the  eloquence  of  a  De  Serre.  His 
speeches  always  contain  some  striking 
passages,  but  display  neither  that  talent 
for  debate,  nor  boldness  of  ideas  and  ex- 
pression, for  which  De  Serre  was  distin- 
guished. Decazes  is,  however,  a  man  of 
much  talent,  which  is  agreeably  displayed 
in  conversation,  and  of  captivating  man- 
ners. The  merit  of  honest  intentions  and 
fidelity  towards  his  king,  cannot  be  denied 
him. 

Deccan,  or  the  Count rt  of  the 
South  ;  an  extensive  countiy  of  Hindos- 
tan,  bounded  N.  by  the  Nerbuddali,  and 
S.  by  the  Kistnah,  extending  across  tlie 
peninsula  fix>m  sea  to  sea.  Diuing  tlie 
reign  of  the  sreat  mogul  Aurungzebe,  i.  e., 
in  the  latter  half  of  the  17th  centuiy,  this 
country  was  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of 
Delhi,  and  divided  into  six  governments — 
Candeish,  Amednagur,  Beeder,  CSoleonda, 
Bejapore  and  Berar.  The  capitals  were 
Biirhampour,  Aurungabad,  Hidberga,  Be- 
japore and  Hydenibu). 

Deceh  (LaHn;  ten) ;  a  word  which  is 
found  in  several  compound  and  derivative 
words  in  Enfffish ;  as  December,  to  deci- 
mate, decimal  Sactions,  &c 

December  ;  the  twelfth  month  of  our 
year,  from  the  Latin  decern,  ten,  because, 
in  the  Roman  year  instituted  by  Romulus, 


it  constituted  the  tenth  month,  tlie  year 
beginning  with  March.  In  December,  the 
sun  enters  the  tropic  of  Capricorn,  and 
passes  our  winter  solstice.  This  month 
was  under  the  protection  of  Vesta. 

Decemvirs.    (See  ^;?ptii«  Claudiiu,) 

Decimal  Arithmetic  ;  a  kind  of  cal- 
culation in  which  no  other  finctions  are 
used  than  tenths,  hundredths,  thousandths, 
&c.,  which  are  consequently  called  deci- ' 
mal  fractions.  Job.  Regiomontanus  first 
made  use  of  it  in  his  Tables  of  the  Sines. 
It  affords  great  facilities  in  calculation. 
As,  in  our  system  of  notation,  the  values 
of  figures  are  determined  bv  their  places, 
so  that  the  figure  on  the  left  is  always  of 
ten  times  more  value  than  the  next  at  the 
right  hand ;  so  in  decimal  finctions,  which 
must  be  considered  as  an  extension  of  the 
decimal  system  (described  in  the  article 
JS/otation),  the  place  of  the  numerator  de- 
termines the  value  of  the  denominator  of 
the  fraction,  which  need  not,  therefore,  be 
expressed.  The  integers  are  separated 
from  the  fractional  numbers  by  a  period, 
so  that  this  period,  placed  between  sev- 
eral numbers,  is  the  characteristic  sign  of 
a  decimal  fraction.  For  instance,  5.36  is 
5  whole  numbers,  3  tenths  and  6  hun- 
dredths, or  36  hunihredths ;  5.009  is  5  whole 
numbers  and  9  thousandths.  If  the  divis- 
ions of  money  and  measures  be  in  a 
decimal  ratio,  as  is  the  case  with  those 
adopted  durinff  the  French  revolution,  the 
ease  of  calculation  is  greatly  increased, 
almost  all  operations  being  reduced  to  ad- 
dition and  subtraction. 

Decimai.  Measure  ;  the  division  of  the 
unit  of  measure  (whatever  it  be,  as  a  foot, 
a  rod,  &c^  into  ten  equal  parts.  The 
quadrant  of^a  circle  has  also  been  divided 
into  ten  equal  parts.  In  this  case,  the 
tenth  part  of  such  a  quadrant  is  called  a 
decimal  degree.  The  French  mathemati- 
cians, however,  call  the  hundredth  part  of 
such  a  quadrant  a  decimal  degree,  and  the 
hundredth  part  of  such  a  degree  a  decimal 
mxnuU. 

Decimatt  ;  to  exact  the  tithe.  The 
collection  or  the  payment  of  the  tithe  is 
called  decimation.  In  war,  dedmaiion  sig- 
nifies the  selection  of  the  tenth  man  of  a 
corps,  by  lot,  for  punishment,  as  in  case 
of  revolt  It  was  enily  practised  by  the 
Romans.  Sometimes  every  tenth  man  is 
executed  ;  sometimes  only  one  man  of 
each  company,  the  tenth  in  order,  as  was 
tlie  case  when  the  Saxons  revolted  against 
Bhicher,  before  the  batde  of  Waterloo. 

Deciphering,  Art  of  ;  the  art  of  dis- 
covering the  contents  of  a  writing  in 
which  secret  characters  are  used  (often 


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DECIPHERING— DECOMPOSITION. 


153 


cipheis ;  faenoe  the  term 
First,  the  vowels  must  be  determine 
This  is  done  in  the  following  wav : — 1.  All 
the  words  of  two  letters  are  selected  and 
written  down  together ;  then  those  words 
are  selected  which  are  divided  at  the  end  of 
a  line,  so  that  only  two  letters  of  the  word 
remain,  one  of  which  must  necessarily  be 
a  vowel.  Then  the  five  (or  whatever  may 
be  the  number  of  the  vowels  in  a  lan- 
guage) lettera  are  taken  which  occur  the 
most  frequently.  2.  It  is  necessary  to  see 
if  some  one  of  these  five  letters  is  con- 
tained in  every  word  of  the  secret  writing. 
If  there  is  any  word  in  which  none  of 
them  is  contained,  the  signs  of  the  vowels 
are  not  yet  all  discovered,  and  it  remains 
to  make  the  attempt  again.  When  the 
vowels  are  found,  they  must,  3.  be  distin- 
guished from  each  other.  For  this  pur- 
pose, it  should  be  determined  which  vowel 
occurs  most  frequently  in  tlie  language  in 
which  the  manuscript  is  supposed  to  be 
written.  In  every  language,  particular 
rules  for  determinmg  the  vowels  may  be 
laid  down.  All  the  ordinaiy  modes  of 
deciphering  fail  in  the  case  of  those  secret 
writings  in  which  dictionaries  are  used  as 
the  ba^  and  whole  words,  and  even 
short  sentences,  are  denoted  by  single 
ciphers,  and  where,  also,  the  order  of  3ie 
ciphers,  1, 2, 3,  &c,  does  not  correspond 
to  the  alphabetical  arrangement  or  the 
words  in  the  dlctiouaiy,  but  is  made  as 
irregular  as  possible,  and  wm^oaUura^  as 
they  are  called,  are  made  use  of;  tliat  is, 
ciphers  without  signification,  which  are 
intermixed  with  tlie  vaUvra^  or  those  ci- 
phers which  supply  the  place  of  words. 
The  old  modes  of  secret  writing  have 
been  almost  entirely  superseded,  and  the 
old  modes  of  deciphering  have  been  made 
almost  entirely  useless  by  the  modem 
species  of  cryptography,  in  which,  accord- 
ing to  a  simple  rule,  which  may  be  com- 
municated verbally  and  retained  in  mem- 
ory, the  signs  for  the  letters  may  be  con- 
tinually uianged.  This  is  the  chiffre 
quarr^,  or  chifie  indichiffrabU,  used,  if  not 
universally,  yet  by  most  courts.  (See 
Crvptogra^.) 

Dec  I  us  Mus,  Publius;  a  Roman  con- 
sul, who,  in  a  war  against  the  Latins,  B. 
C.  340,  devoted  himself  to  death  for  his 
country.  His  example  was  followed  by 
his  son  and  his  grandson.  Such  acts  of 
self-devotion  ((kvotionu)  were  not  unusual 
at  that  time,  when  patriotism  and  |nety  ex- 
erted a  powerful  influence,  and  were  per^ 
formed  with  great  solemnity.  He  who 
^levoted  himself,  after  performing  certain 
religbus  rites,  rushed  into  the  midst  of  the 


enemy,  clothed  in  splendid  armor,  to  show 
his  countrymen  how  a  brave  man  ouffht 
to  die  for  his  country. — ^Decius  was  also 
the  name  of  a  Roman  emperor,  who 
reigned  fixmi  A.  D.  249  till  December, 
251.  He  persecuted  the  Christians,  and 
perished,  with  his  anny,  in  a  bloody  bat- 
tle in  Moosia  against  the  Goths. 

Deck.    (See  Ship,) 

Decker  relates  to  the  rate  of  a  ship  of 
force ;  as  a  two-decker,  a  three-decker ;  i.  e. 
carrying  two  entire  tiers  or  ranges  of  can- 
non, or  three  such  tiers. 

Declination  of  the  Sun,  of  a  Star, 
or  A  Planet,  is  its  distance  from  the  equi- 
noctial, northward  or  southward.  When 
the  sun  is  m  the  equinoctial,  he  has  no 
declination,  and  enlightens  half  the  globe 
from  pole  to  pole.  As  he  increases  iu 
north  declination,  he  gradually  shines  far- 
ther over  the  north  pole,  and  leaves  the 
south  pole  in  darkness.  In  a  similar  man- 
ner, when  he  has  south  deelination,  he 
shines  over  the  south  pole,  and  leaves  the 
north  pole  in  darknesa  23P  2d^  is  the 
sun's  greatest  declination  north  or  south. 

Decomposition,  Chemical,  is  the  reso- 
lution of  a  compound  substance  into  its 
constituent  parts,  which  are  exhibited 
either  separate,  or  in  some  new  combina- 
tion. The  compounds  which  are  sponta- 
neouslv  formed  by  organic  bodies,  both 
vegetable  and  animal,  are  of  a  different 
nature  from  those  which  exist  in  tuiorgan* 
ized  matter.  They  are  the  peculiar  re- 
sults of  vital  processes,  and  neither  their 
structure  nor  composition  can  be  imitated 
by  art  During  life,  the  elements  of  or- 
ganic bodies  are  held  together  by  vital  af- 
finities, under  the  influence  of  ^mich  they 
were  originally  combined.  But  no  soon- 
er does  life  cease,  than  these  elements  be- 
come subject  to  the  laws  of  inert  matter. 
The  original  affinities,  which  had  been 
modified  or  suspended  during  life,  are 
brought  into  operation;  the  elemental^ 
atoms  react  upon  each  other,  new  combi- 
nations are  formed,  and  the  organized 
structure  passes,  sooner  or  later,  into  de- 
cay. The  rapidity  with  which  decompo- 
sition takes  place  in  organic  bodies  de- 
pends upon  the  nature  of  the  particular 
substance,  and  upon  the  circumstances 
under  which  it  is  placed.  Temperature, 
moisture,  and  the  presence  of  decompos- 
ing agents,  gready  affect  both  the  period 
ai^  extent  of  this  process.  By  regulat- 
ing or  preventing  the  operation  of  these 
causes,  the  duration  of  most  substances 
may  be  prolonged,  and  many  materials  are 
rendered  useful,  which,  if  left  to  them- 
selves, would  be  perishid)le  and  worthless. 


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1S4 


DECOMPOSITION— DEED. 


The  preservation  of  timber,  of  fibrous  sub- 
stances, of  leather,  of  food,  and  of  various 
objects  of  art,  is  a  subject  of  the  highest 
importance,  and  has  received,  at  various 
times,  much  attention  fi^m  scientific  ex- 
perimentalists. 

Decot,  among  fowlers ;  a  place  made 
for  catching  wild-fowl.  A  decoy  is  gene- 
rally made  where  there  is  a  large  pond 
surrounded  with  wood,  and  beyond  that  a 
marshy  and  uncultivated  countiy.  If  the 
piece  of  water  is  not  thus  surrounded,  it 
will  be  subjected  to  noises  and  other  ac- 
cidents, which  may  be  expected  to  frighten 
the  wild-fowl  from  the  haunt,  where  they 
would  otherwise  sleep  in  the  day-time. 
If  these  noises  or  disturbances  are  wilful, 
it  has  been  held  that  an  action  will  lie 
against  the  disturber.  As  soon  as  the 
evening  sets  in,  the  decoy-birds  rise,  as  the 
wild-fowl  feed  during  the  night  If  the 
evening  is  still,  the  noise  of  £eir  wings, 
during  their  flight,  is  heard  at  a  very  great 
distance,  and  is  a  pleasing,  though  rather 
melancholy  sound. — Dtcoy,  in  military  af- 
fairs ;  a  stratagem  to  lure  the  enemy  into 
an  ambush,  &c. 

Decree,  in  general ;  an  order,  edict  or 
law  made  by  a  superior,  as  a  rule  to  gov- 
ern inferiors.  It  is  used  for  a  judicial 
decision  in  the  court  of  chancery ;  also  for 
the  edicts  of  ecclesiastical  councils.  In 
the  civil  law,  it  signified  a  determination 
or  judgment  of  the  emperor  on  a  suit  be- 
tween parties.  The  compilation  of  the 
older  papal  decretals  and  the  decrees  of 
the  councils,  made  by  the  monk  Gratia- 
nus  in  the  11th  century,  is  called  the  Dt- 
cretum  GratianL  (See  Canon  Late,)  In 
the  former  German  empire,  the  resolu- 
tions of  the  emperor,  declared  to  the  es- 
tates of  the  empire,  were  called  dscreea. — 
The  old  name  of  royal  ordere,  in  France, 
was  ordonnances  or  UUres.  The  national 
convention,  while  it  possessed  sovereign 
power,  used  the  expression  Im  convention 
naiimude  (Ucriie,  During  the  period  of 
the  directory,  and  under  the  consular  gov- 
ernment, the  expressions  arrit  and  arreter 
were  customary ;  but  the  imperial  govern- 
ment used  the  words  ina^erud  decree,  for 
instance,  in  the  famous  decrees  of  Berlin 
and  of  Milan. 

Decrepitation  is  the  crackling  noise, 
accompanied  by  a  violent  exfoliation  of 
their  particles,  which  is  made  by  several 
salts  and  earthy  compounds,  on  being  sud- 
denly exposed  to  heat  It  appears  to  be 
referable  to  the  same  cause  which  occa- 
sions the  cracking  of  glass  and  cast-iron 
vessels,  when  they  are  incautiously  heated ; 
viz.,  the  unequal  expansion  of  the  UmxMB 


which  compose  them,  in  cotsequence  of 
their  imperfect  power  ef  conducting  heat 

Decrescendo  ;  an  Italian  term  in  mu- 
sic, which  denotes  the  gradual  weakening 
of  the  sound. 

Decretajl  ;  a  general  name  for  the  pa- 
pal decrees,  comprehending  the  rescripts 
(answers  to  inquiries  and  petitions),  de- 
crees (judicial  decisions  by  the  rtAa  Roma- 
na\  mandates  (ofi[icial  instructions  for  ec- 
clesiastical ofiicers,  courts,  &c.),  edicts 
(papal  ordinances  in  general),  and  gen- 
eral resolutions  of  the  councils.  The  old- 
est collection  was  made  by  Isidore,  arch- 
bishop of  Seville  (who  died  636),  which 
is  yet  extant  in  manuscript  An  enlarged 
collection  was  made  in  the  9th  century, 
probably  on  the  Rhine  (perhaps  by  Ben- 
edictus  Levita).  This  contained  many 
pieces  which  have  since  been  shown  to 
be  spurious.  In  modem  times,  it  has, 
therefore,  been  called  the  pseudo-bidorian 
collection.  In  the  Corpus  Juris  Canonici^ 
the  collection  of  decretals  which  Greg- 
ory IX  fwho  died  1241)  caused  to  be 
made  by  Raimond  of  Pennafort  (ofiicially 
published  in  1234  at  Paris,  1235  at  Bo- 
logna), constitutes  the  second  division, 
succeedine  the  decretum.  It  is  divided 
into  five  books,  and  is  quoted  under  the 
name  ExtrcL,  because  it  contains  the  de- 
cretals not  in  the  decretum.  A  sixth  book 
of  later  decretals  (Zither  sexlus  Decretalium) 
was  added,  in  1298,  by  Boniface  VIIL 
(See  Canon  Law.) 

Dee  ;  a  river  of  Scotland,  county  of 
Aberdeen,  which  rises  on  the  north  side 
of  the  mountain  Caimtoul,  and  runs  into 
the  Grerman  ocean,  at  the  town  of  Aber- 
deen, after  a  direct  course  of  90  miles. 

Dee  ;  a  river  of  Scotland,  county  of 
Kirkcudbright,  which  flows  into  the  Sol- 
way  fritli. 

Dee  ;  a  river  of  Ireland,  which  trar- 
erses  the  county  of  Louth,  and  runs  into 
the  bay  of  Dundalk. 

Deed  is  a  written  contract,  sealed  and 
delivered.  It  must  be  written  before  the 
sealing  and  delivery,  otherwise  it  is  no 
deed ;  and,  after  it  is  once  formally  exe- 
cuted by  the  parties,  notliing  can  be  add- 
ed or  interlined  ;  and,  therefore,  if  a  deed 
be  sealed  and  delivered,  with  a  blank  left 
for  the  sum,  which  the  obligee  fills  up 
after  sealing  and  delivery,  this  will  make 
tlie  deed  void.  A  deed  must  be  made  by 
I)arties  capable  of  contracting,  and  upon  a 
good  consideration,  and  the  subject  mat- 
ter must  be  legally  and  formally  set  out. 
The  formal  parts  of  a  deed  are,  the  prem- 
ises, couiaining  the  number,  names,  addi- 
tions and  titles  of  the  parties;  tlie  cove- 


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DEED— DEER. 


155 


nanta,  which  are  clauses  of  agreement 
contained  in  the  deed,  whereby  the  con- 
tracting parties  stipulate  for  the  trutli  of 
certain  facts,  or  bind  tliemselves  to  the 
performance  of  some  specific  acts ;  the 
conclusion,  which  mentions  the  execution 
and  date  of  the  deed,  or  the  time  of  its 
bein^  giren  or  executed,  either  expressly, 
or  with  reference  to  some  day  and  year 
before  mentioned.  Every  deed  must  be 
founded  upon  good  and  sufhcient  consid- 
eration ;  not  upon  an  usurious  contract, 
nor  upon  fraud  or  collusion,  either  to  de- 
ceive hcna  Jidt  purchasers,  or  just  and 
lawful  credited ;  any  of  which  considera- 
tions will  vacate  the  deed,  and  subject  the 
parties  to  forfeiture,  and  in  some  cases  to 
miprisonmenL  A  deed,  also,  without  any 
consideration  is  void.  A  deed  must  be  exe- 
cuted by  the  party  himself,  or  by  another  for 
him  in  his  presence,  or  with  his  direction ; 
or,  in  his  absence,  by  an  agent  authorized 
so  to  do  by  another  deed,  also  under  seal ; 
and  in  every  such  case,  the  deed  must  be 
made  and  executed  in  the  name  of  the 
principal  A  deed  takes  eflfect  only  from 
the  day  of  delivery ;  and  therefore,  if  it 
have  no  date,  or  a  date  impossible,  the  de- 
livery will,  in  all  cases,  ascertain  the  date 
of  it;  and  if  another  party  seal  the  deed, 
yet,  if  the  party  Meliver  it  himself,  he 
thereby  adopts  the  sealing  and  signine, 
and,  by  such  deliveiy,  makes  them  bodi 
his  own.  The  delivery  of  a  deed  may  be 
alleged  at  any  time  afier  the  date ;  but,  un- 
less it  be  sealed  and  regularly  delivered, 
it  18  no  deed.  Another  requisite  of  a  deed 
is,  that  it  be  properly  witnessed  or  attest- 
ed: the  attestation  is,  however,  necessary 
rather  for  preserving  the  evidence,  than  as 
intrinsically  essential  to  the  validity  of  the 
instrument.  There  are  four  principles 
adopted  by  the  courts  of  law  for  the  expo- 
sition of  deeds,  viz.,  1.  that  they  be  bene- 
ficial to  the  grantee,  or  person  in  whose 
favor  they  are  intended  to  operate ;  2.  that 
where  the  words  may  be  employed  to 
some  intent,  they  shall  not  be  void ;  3.  that 
the  words  be  construed  according  to  the 
meaning  of  the  porties,  and  the  intent  of 
the  parties  be  carried  into  effect,  provided 
such  intent  can  possibly  stand  at  law; 
4.  that  they  are  to  be  expounded  conso- 
nantly to  the  rules  of  law,  and  reasonably, 
without  injury  to  the  ffrantor,  and  to  the 
greatest  advantage  of  Uie  grantee. 

Deer  {cervu^  These  beautiful  and 
well  known  quadrupeds  belong  to  the 
order  pecora,  or  ruminating  animals. 
They  ore  distinguished  from  the  antelopes 
(q.v.)  by  their  horns,  which  are  composed 
of  a  bcmy  substance,  caducous,  or  falling 


off  annuaDy,  and  again  renewed  of  a 
larger  size  than  in  Uie  preceding  year. 
These  boms  or  antlers  always  exist  on  the 
head  of  the  male,  and  sometimes  on  that 
of  the  female.  In  dieir  first  or  young 
state,  they  are  covered  by  a  velvet-like 
membrane,  through  which  the  blood  cir- 
culates with  great  freedom.  At  this  time, 
the  horn  is  extremely  sensitive,  the  animal 
suffering  much  pain  when  it  is  roughly 
handled  or  struck.  Afler  the  horn  has 
attained  its  full  growth,  tlie  base  becomes 
surrounded  with  an  irregular,  tuberculous 
ring,  called  the  burr,  audthe  blood-vessels 
gradually  contract  and  diminish,  until  they 
cease  to  convey  blood  to  the  velvet  mem- 
brane, which  then  dries,  loses  its  sensi- 
tiveness, and  finally  flakes  off.  The  fonn 
of  the  horns  is  various.  Sometimes  they 
spread  into  broad  palms,  which  send  out 
sharp  snags  around  their  outer  ed^ ; 
sometimes  they  divide  fiintastically  into 
branches,  some  of  which  project  over  the 
forehead,  whilst  others  are  reared  upwards 
in  the  air,  or  they  may  be  so  reclined 
backwards,  that  the  animal  seems  almost 
forced  to  carry  his  head  in  a  stifT^  erect 
posture.  Yet  they  communicate  an  air 
of  grandeur,  seeming  like  trees  planted  on 
the  head  of  a  hving  animal.  The  various 
species  of  deer,  as  well  as  the  antelopes, 
invariablv  remain  in  their  original  situa- 
tions, when  lefl  to  themselves.  Two 
species  are  common  to  the  north  of  the 
old  and  new  continents;  five  belong  to 
North  America;  four  to  America  south 
of  the  equator ;  four  to  Europe  and  the 
continent  of  Asia ;  and  fourteen  to  India, 
China  and  the  Asiatic  archipelagos.  The 
writings  of  naturalists  exhibit  much  con- 
fusion in  relation  to  the  North  American 
species.  This  has  arisen,  in  a  great  meas- 
ure, from  the  loose  manner  in  which 
species  have  been  proposed  on  the  author- 
ity of  travellers,  wholly  incompetent  to 
distinguish  between  mere  varieties  and 
those  permanent  characteristics  indicative 
of  specific  constitution.  The  following 
are  the  only  well  authenticated  species 
inhabiting  this  countiy;  all  the  others, 
named  as  distinct,  being  mere  varieties: 
moose  (C.  alcea) ;  reindeer  (C.  tarandus) ; 
American  elk  (C.  Canadmsia)',  common 
deer  (C.  Virginianus)  \  black-tailed  deer 
( C.  macrotia) ;  long-tailed  deer  ( C.  leucurus) ; 
Mexican  deer  (C.  Mexicanusy  It  should 
be  remarked,  that  few  American  quadru- 
peds have  been  found  precisely  smilar  to 
their  European  representatives,  and  that 
recent  writers  have  doubted  whether  tiie 
moose  and  reindeer  of  this  country  are 
identical  with  those  of  Scandinavia.    No 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


756 


BEER. 


satisfactory  comparisons  of  the  animals 
from  the  two  continents  have  yet  been 
made,  and  hence  the  distinguishing  char- 
acters, if  any  exist,  are  still  wiknown. — 
The  Moose,  or  Orienal  of  the  Canadians, 
is,  perhaps,  the  only  deer  whose  general 
appearance  can  be  called  ungraceful,  or 
whose  proportions,  at  first  sight,  impress 
the  beholder  unfavorably.  Its  large  head 
terminates  in  a  square  muzzle,  having  the 
nostrils  protruded  over  the  sides  of  the 
mouth;  the  neck, which  is  furnished  with 
a  short,  thick  mane,  is  not  lon^r  than  the 
head,  which,  in  the  males,  is  rendered 
still  more  cumbrous  and  unwieldy  by 
large  palmated  horns ;  under  the  throat  is 
an  excrescence,  fit>m  which  issues  a  tuft  of 
long  hair ;  the  body,  which  is  short  and 
thick,  is  mounted  on  tall  legs,  ffivin^  a 
very  ungainly  aspect  to  the  animiu,  which 
is  not  diminished  when  it  is  in  motion,  as 
its  ^t  is  a  sort  of  shambling  trot,  very 
efficient,  however,  from  the  great  length 
of  its  limbs.  The  moose  inhabits  the 
northern  parts  of  both  continents.  In 
America,  it  has  been  found  as  far  north  as 
the  country  has  been  explored ;  its  south- 
em  range,  at  former  penods,  extended  to 
the  shores  of  the  great  lakes,  and  through- 
out the  New  England  States.  Du  Pratz 
mentions  that,  in  his  time,  they  occurred 
on  the  Ohio.  At  present,  however,  they 
are  seldom  heard  of  to  the  south  of  the 
state  of  Maine,  where,  also,  they  are  be- 
coming scarce.  But  in  Nova  Scotia, 
around  the  bay  of  Fundy,  and  in  the  Hud- 
son's bay  company's  possessions,  they  are 
found  in  considerable  numbers.  Their 
flesh  is  more  relished  by  the  Indians,  and 
persons  resident  in  the  fur  countries,  than 
that  of  any  other  animal.  It  b^rs  a 
greater  resemblance,  in  its  flavor,  to  beef 
Sian  to  venison.  The  large  and  gristly 
extremity  of  the  nose  is  accounted  an 
epicurean  treat  Heame  states  that  the 
external  fat  is  soft,  like  that  of  a  breast  of 
mutton,  and,  when  put  into  a  bladder,  is 
as  fine  as  marrow.  In  this  it  differs  fi^om 
all  the  other  species  of  deer,  of  which  the 
external  fat  is  hard.  The  moose  attains  a 
large  size,  particularly  the  male,  which 
sometimes  weighs  eleven  or  twelve  hun- 
dred pounds.  Their  skins,  when  pro|)erly 
dressed,  make  a  soft,  thick,  pliable  leather, 
which  tlie  Indians  prepare  bv  scraping 
them  to  an  equal  thickness,  and  removing 
the  hair:  they  are  then  smeared  with  the 
brains  of  the  animal,  until  tliey  feel  soft 
and  spongy;  and,  lastly,  they  are  suspended 
over  a  ^n  made  of  rotten  wood,  until  they 
are  well  impregnated  with  the  smoke.— 
Reindeer.     These    animals   inhabit   the 


aretic  islands  of  Spitzbeiigen,  and  the 
northern  extremity  of  the  old  continent, 
never  having  extended,  according  to  Cu- 
vier,  to  the  southward  of  the  Baltic.  They 
have  long  been  domesticated,  and  their 
appearance  and  habits  are  well  described 
by  naturalists.  The  American  reindeer  or 
caribou,  are  much  less  perfectly  known  : 
they  have,  however,  so  strong  a  resem- 
blance, in  form  and  manners,  to  the  Lap- 
land deer,  that  they  have  always  been 
considered  to  be  the  same  species,  with- 
out the  fact  having  ever  been  completely 
established.  The  American  Indians  have 
never  profited  by  the  docilltjr  of  this  ani- 
mal, to  aid  them  in  transportmg  their  fami- 
lies and  property,  though  they  annually 
destroy  great  numbers  for  their  flesh  and 
hides.  There  appear  to  be  several  varie- 
ties of  this  useful  quadruped  {Peculiar  to 
the  high  northemregionsof  the  American 
continent,  which  are  ably  described  by 
doctor  Richardson,  one  of  the  compan- 
ions of  captain  Franklin  in  his  hazardous 
attempt  to  reach  the  north  pole  by  land. 
The  closeness  of  the  hair  of  tlie  caribou, 
and  the  lighmessof  its  skin  when  properly 
dressed,  render  it  the  most  appropriate 
article  far  winter  clothing  in  the  high  lati- 
tudes. The  hoofs  of  the  reindeer  are 
verv  large,  and  spread  greatly,  and  thus 
enable  it  to  cross  the  yielcung  snows 
without  sinking.  During  the  summer 
months,  diis  deer  feeds  upon  every  species 
of  green  herbage ;  but  in  winter,  his  whole 
food  is  the  lichen  or  moss,  which  he  in- 
stinctively seeks  under  the  snow.  It  is  a 
singular,  but  now  a  well  established  fact, 
that  the  reindeer  vrill  eat,  with  avidity,  the 
lemming  or  mountain-rat,  presenting  one 
of  the  WW  instances  of  a  ruminating  ani- 
mal being,  in  any  degree,  carnivorous. 
Reindeer  have  several  times  been  trans- 
ported to  England  and  Scodand  in  large 
numbers,  but  they  have  invariably  die^ 
although  they  were  attended  by  Laplan- 
ders, and  could  procure  plenty  of  their 
natural  food.  Whether  the  failure  arose, 
however,  fit>m  a  want  of  pn»per  atten- 
tion to  the  peculiar  habits  of  the  animal, 
or  was  the  natural  result  of  the  tenacity 
vrith  which  die  deer  tribe  adhere  to  thea- 
original  geographical  position  as  a  law  of 
nature,  is  a  question  not  easy  to  be  decid- 
ed.—»^merieanEZiL  This  stately  and  beau- 
tiful aimnal  was,  until  very  recently,  con- 
fowided  with  the  moose,  from  its  com- 
mon English  name  being  the  same  as  that 
applied  to  the  European  moose.  The 
size  and  appearance  of  the  elk  are  very 
imposing ;  bis  air  denotes  confidence  of 
gr^  strength,  wliilst  liia  towering  horns 


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BEER— DEFENDER  OF  THE  FAITH. 


157 


exhibit  weapons  capable  of  doing  much 
iiijuiy.  The  eik,  at  one  period,  ranged 
over  the  greater  part  of  this  continent,  and 
is  stili  occasionally  found  in  the  remote 
and  thinly  settled  parts  of  Pennsylvania ; 
but  the  number  is  small.  Doctor  Rich- 
ardson states  that  its  northern  range  is 
about  tlie  56th  or  57th  parallel  of  latitude. 
The  elk  has  been  sometimes  domesticat- 
ed to  a  certain  decree ;  but,  at  the  same 
time,  from  its  warlike  disposition,  it  is  not 
likely  that  it  could  be  advantageously  sub- 
stituted for  tlie  reindeer. — Common  Iker, 
This  well  known  quadruped  is  found 
throughout  the  country  between  Canada 
and  the  banks  of  the  Orinoco.  In  vari- 
ous parts  of  this  extensive  range,  it  presents 
considerable  varieties  in  size  and  color. 
Judging  by  the  quantity  of  skins  brought 
to  our  markets,  we  may  form  some  idea  of 
the  aggregate  number  and  productiveness 
of  these  animals,  which,  notwithstand- 
ing the  extensive  destruction  of  them, 
«lo  not  appear  to  be  very  rapidly  dimin- 
ishing, except  in  the  immediate  vicinities 
of  very  tliickly  peopled  districts.  The 
common  deer  is  possessed  of  keen  senses, 
especially  of  bearing  and  smelling:  the 
sight,  though  good,  does  not  appear  to 
equal  in  power  the  senses  just  named. 
It  is  necessary  for  a  hunter  to  approach  a 
deer  against  the  wind,  otherwise  he  is 
tiiscovered  by  the  scent.  The  slightest 
noise,  also,  appeara  to  excite  its  feara 
more  than  any  other  cause ;  while,  on  the 
contraiy,  the  sight  of  unaccustomed  ob- 
jects seems  rather  to  arouse  curiosity  than 
produce  terror.  The  female  commonly 
has  one  or  two,  and  sometimes  three,  fitwns 
at  a  birth,  which  are  of  a  hght  cinnamon 
color,  spotted  with  white.  In  the  latter 
part  of  the  summer,  they  lose  the  white 
spots,  and  in  winter  the  hair  grows  longer 
and  grayish:  this  '^  succeeded,  in  the 
following  June,  by  a  coat  of  a  reddish 
color,  which  changes,  in  August,  to  a 
daricish  blue,  which  agai6  gradually  as- 
sumes a  gray  tint  The  skin  is  toughest 
in  the  red,  thickest  in  the  blue,  and  tliin- 
nest  in  the  gray  state.  They  shed  their 
horns  in  February. — Btack-tatled  Deer. 
This  species  is  peculiar  to  the  countiy 
west  oi  the  Missouri.,  and  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  Rocky  mountains.  Thefiret 
information  of  this  fine  animal  was  given 
by  Lewis  and  Clarke,  and  it  was  after- 
wards fully  described  by  Mr.  Say.  Its 
ears  are  of  great  length,  equalling  that  of 
the  head ;  its  tail  is  terminated  by  a  black 
Uih,  whence  its  common  name.  From 
the  form  of  its  hoofs,  which  resemble 
those  of  the  goat,  it  is  enabled  to  Uve 
voju  IV.  14 


among  die  rocky  cliffs  of  the  mountains. 
It  does  not  run  like  the  common  deer,  but 
bounds  along,  raising  all  its  feet  from  the 
ground  at  the  same  time. — Long-iafkd 
iker.  We  owe  the  description  of  this  ani- 
mal to  Mr.  Douglass,  who  states  that  it  is 
not  found  on  the  east  side  of  the  Rockv 
mountains,  except  in  their  immediate  vi- 
cinity, but  is  the  most  common  deer  in 
the  districts  about  the  Columbia  river. 
ItB  gait  is  two  ambling  steps  and  a  bound 
exceeding  twice  the  length  of  the  st^is- 
In  nmning,  the  tail  is  erect,  waggins  from 
side  to  side,  and,  from  its  unusual  length 
(13  to  17  inches),  is  the  most  remarkable 
characteristic  about  the  animal.  It  goea 
in  herds,  from  November  to  April  and 
May,  when  the  female  secretes  herself  to 
bring  forth.  The  young  are  spotted  with 
white  until  the  middle  of  the  first  winter, 
when  they  change  to  the  same  color  as 
the  most  aged.  This  deer,  however,  ap- 
proaches very  near  to  the  conunon  sj>e- 
cies  in  all  its  characters,  and  may,  eventu- 
ally, prove  to  be  only  a  variety.-— JIfexican 
Deer.  Of  this  species  very  little  is  known, 
except  that  it  inhabits  Mexico  and  the 
adjoining  countries.  It  may  possibly  be 
ouly  a  variety  of  the  common  deer,  as 
tlie  differences  exist  principally  in  the 
disposition  of  the  antiers,  which  is  an  ex- 
tremely fiillacious  guide  in  the  discrimi- 
nation of  the  different  species  of  deer. 
The  arrangement  of  the  teeth  of  the  deer 
is,  incisora  J,  canine  ft  ft  or  ^  1  molai* 
f  t  =  total,32or34. 

De  Facto  (Ltztin ;  in  fact) ;  a  term  used 
in  contradistinction  to  de  jvre  (by  right). 
Thus,  for  instance,  it  is  said  don  Miguel  i& 
de  facto  ruler  of  PortugaL  In  some  cases, 
the  distinction  is  clear  enough,  but  very 
often  not  Napoleon's  government  waa 
called,  by  the  Englisli,  £  facto,  and  that 
of  tlie  Bourbons  de  jure ;  yet  every  Iwdy 
knows  that  Hugh  Capet  obtained  pos- 
session of  tiie  crown  of  rrance  by  violence. 
When  did  his  successora  begin  to  nde  de 
jtaref  Charles  XIV  is  called,  by  many, 
the  ruler  of  Sweden  de  factoy  yet  he  was 
chosen  king  by  the  nation ;  and  who  can 
be  more  property  a  ruler  dejtare  than  a 
king  chosen  by  the  nation  ?  This  consid- 
eration has  led  some  politicians  to  assert 
that  there  is  no  government  de  jure,  but 
only  governments  defaxio^  which  may  be 
better  or  worse.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
asserted  that  there  is  but  one  kind  of  gov- 
ernment de  jure ;  that  is,  such  as  receives 
its  sanction  and  authority  from  the  people 
who  constitute  die  state. 
Defamation.  (See  Slander^ 
Defexvpek  of  the  Faith  (Iidei  Deferir 


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DEFENDER  OF  THE  FAITH— DEFOE. 


for) ;  a  title  belonging  to  the  king  of  Eng- 
land, as  CathoUcas  to  the  king  of  Spain, 
Christiamjtsimtis  to  the  king  of  France, 
Jlpostolicu9  to  the  king  of  Hungary,  &c. 
Leo  X  bestowed  tlie  title  of  Defender  of 
jOht  Faith,  on  Henry  VIH  on  account  of 
his  memorable  book  against  Luther;  and 
the  bull  conferring  it  bears  date  quxnio 
idus  Odob.  1521.  Clement  VII  connrmecl 
the  title.  Chamberlayne  says  that  the 
title  was  only  renewed  by  Leo  X;  as 
•ApostdicuSj  for  instance,  was  renewed  in 
the  case  of  Maria  Theresa,  being,  in  &ct, 
a  very  old  title.    (See  ^postolicus,) 

Deffand,  Marie  du;  a  French  lady, 
distinguished  alike  for  her  talents  and  her 
intercourse  with  the  literati  of  the  last 
century.  She  was  bom  in  1696,  of  a  no- 
ble family,  and  received  an  education 
suitable  to  her  rank.  Her  acquirements 
were  very  considerable,  but  no  care  seems 
to  have  been  taken  to  regulate  her  tem[>er 
and  disposition,  which  were  marked  by  a 
degree  of  selfishness  which  was  conspicu- 
ous throughout  her  life.  In  1718,  she  was 
married  to  J.  B.  J.  du  Deffand,  marquis  de 
la  Lande,  colonel  of  a  regiment  of  dra- 
goons. During  the  latter  part  of  her  long 
fife,  she  became  the  centre  of  a  literary 
coterie,  which  included  some  of  the  great- 
est geniuses  of  the  age.  Among  the  fe- 
males remarkable  for  their  wit  and  talents 
in  the  18th  century,  madame  du  Def!<u)d 
claims  a  distinguished  place,  though  she 
left  no  monument  of  her  abilities  except 
her  e])istolary  correspondence,  which  has 
been  highly  praised  by  her  friend  D'Alem- 
bert,  as  affording  a  model  of  style  in  that 
species  of  composition.  She  died  in  1780, 
having  reached  the  ace  of  84,  during  the 
last  30  years  of  which  she  had  been  af- 
flicted with  blindness.  In  1810  was  pub- 
lished Correspondance  irUdite  de  Madame 
du  Dejfcmd  avec  d^Alemberty  Montesquieu, 
le  Pristdent  HhiauUy  la  Dtuhesse  du  Maine ; 
Mesdames  de  Choisevlf  de  Stail;  h  Mar- 

nd^Jtrgens,  U  Chevcdier  d^Jhfdie,  &c., 
»ls.  8vo.  Her  letteni  to  the  celebrated 
Horace  Walpole  have  likewise  been 
printed. 

Defile  ;  a  narrow  wav^  admitting  only 
a  few  persons  abreast  tlie  term  is  oflen 
erroneously  confined  to  mountain  passes. 
As  they  delay  the  march  of  troops,  and 
expose  them  to  the  fire  of  the  enemy,  they 
must  be  avoided  if  possible,  particularly  by 
artillety  and  wagons.  A  defile  is  defend- 
ed in'dififerent  ways.  When  it  is  formed 
by  heights  (paiticuJariy  if  they  are  covered 
with  wood),  it  is  advisable  to  occupy  the 
entrance,  and  station  the  troops  en  masse 
behind:  when  this  is  not  the  case,  the  b^t 


way  will  be  to  render  the  passage  as  im- 
practicable as  possible,  and  to  make  a 
stand  behind  the  outlet  of  the  defile,  so 
that  the  enemies  advancing  from  it  may 
be  checked  by  an  efifectual  fire,  and  pre- 
vented firom  developmg  themselves.  A 
position  before  the  defile,  for  the  purpose 
of  defending  it,  is  only  to  be  thought  of 
when  the  passase  of  another  division  is  to 
be  covered.  This  method  may  be  more 
or  less  varied  in  the  defence  of  bridges. 
In  passing  a  defile  in  sight  of  the  enemy, 
afler  tlie  usual  precautions  of  patrols,  &c., 
the  van-guard  must  first  mardi  rapidly 
through,  and  take  a  position  before  the 
outlet,  so  as  to  cover  the  developement 
of  the  succeeding  masses,  the  preventing 
of  which  will  be  the  object  of  Uie  enemy. 
To  defile  is,  therefore,  to  pass  through  a 
nan'ow  passage.  To  march  before  any 
one  with  a  narrow  front,  that  is,  en  cdonne^ 
or  by  files,  is  also  called  d^Hxn^. 

Definition  (from  the  Latin  definHio) 
of  a  thing  signifies,  in  lexicography,  a 
concise  account  of  its  essential  and  char- 
acteristic pointa  A  definition  should 
embrace  all  the  essential  properties  of  the 
object  intended  to  be  defined,  and  not  ad- 
mit any  which  do  not  belong  to  it,  which 
is  oflen  extremely  difficult,  on  account  of 
the  shades  and  gradations  by  which  dif- 
ferent things  are  blended.  A  strictly  ac- 
curate definition  can  be  given  of  only  a 
few  objects.  The  most  simple  things  are 
the  least  capable  of  definiuon,  from  the 
difficulty  of  finding  terms  more  simple 
and  intelligible  than  the  one  to  be  defined. 
Of  course,  every  lai^  dictionary  abounds 
with  definitions  which  explain  nothing, 
since  the  thing  defined  cannot  be  made 
clearer  by  any  definition.  A  good  defini- 
tion must  give  the  mark  of  the  genus  (nota 
genendis  seu  genus)  and  of  the  species 
(noia  specialis  seu  differenUa  specified) ;  for 
instance,  a  bam  is  a  building  (nota  gen- 
eralis)  for  the  purpose  of  preserving  com, 
&c.  (nota  specudis),  A  definition  may  be 
analytic  or  syntlietic. 

Deflagration,  and  Deflaorator. 
(See  Galvamsm.) 

Deflection  of  the  Rats  of  Light 
is  a  property  which  doctor  Hooke  ob- 
served in  1674 — 5.  He  says  he  found  it 
different  from  both  reflection  and  refrac- 
tion, and  that  it  took  place  towards  the 
sur&ce  of  the  opacous  body  perpendicu- 
larly. This  is  tne  same  property  which 
Newton  calls  {faction.  It  is  called,  by 
others,  diffraction, 

Defoe,  Daniel,  a  vmter  of  ffreat  inge- 
nui^  and  fertility,  was  bom  at  London  in 
16^    His  &thei^8  name  was  simply  Foe. 


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DEFOE-DEGRADATION. 


15» 


He  received  his  education  at  an  academy 
at  Newington  Green,  and  he  is  not  sup- 
posed to  have  attained  to  much  ciassical 
acquirement.  He  commenced  author  at 
the  age  of  21,  by  a  Treatise  a^inst  the 
Turks,  joined  the  insurrection  ot  the  duke 
of  Monmouth,  and  had  the  good  fortune 
to  escape  to  London,  where  ne  engaged, 
first  as  a  hor8e-iiictor,and  then  as  a  raalcer 
of  bricks  at  Tilbury  fort  His  commercial 
speculations,  however,  failing,  he  became 
insolvent ;  and  it  is  to  his  credit,  that,  hav- 
ing cleared  his  debts  by  a  composition,  he 
subsequently  paid  most  of  them  in  full, 
when  his  circumstances  were  amended. 
In  1697,  he  wrote  an  Essay  on  Projects. 
In  1701,  appeared  his  satire,  tlie  True- 
bom  Englishman,  the  object  of  which 
was  to  show  the  folly  of  the  popular  ob- 
jection to  king  William,  as  a  foreigner,  by 
a  people  who  were  themselves  a  mixture 
of  so  many  races.  In  1702,  when  the 
high  church  party  seemed  dis|x>sed  to 
carry  matters  stronely  against  the  Dissen- 
ters, he  published  the  Shortest  Way  with 
the  Dissenters,  being  an  ironical  recom- 
mendation of  persecution,  so  gravely  cov- 
ered that  many  persons  were  deceived  by 
it  It  was,  however,  voted  a  seditious 
libel  by  the  house  of  commons ;  and,  the 
author  avowing  himself,  to  secure  his 
printer  and  publisher,  he  was  prosecuted 
to  conviction,  and  sentenced  to  fine,  im- 
prisonment, and  the  pillory.  He  under- 
went the  latter  punishment  with  great 
equanimity,  and  was  so  far  fi^m  being 
ashamed  of  it,  that  he  wrote  a  Hymn  to 
the  Pillory,  alluding  to  this  circumstance. 
In  February,  1703,  while  in  Newpite,  he 
commenced  the  Review,  which  is  sup- 
poeed  to  have  given  Steele  the  hint  for 
his  Tatler.  He  was  at  length  liberated 
from  Newgate  by  the  interposition  of 
Harley,  and  the  queen  herself  sent  money 
to  his  wife  and  faniily.  In  1706^  he  puly- 
lished  his  largest  poem,  entitled  Jure  Dwi- 
no,  a  satire  on  the  doctrine  of  divine 
right  When  the  accession  of  the  house 
of  Hanover  became  an  interesting  topic, 
be  wrote  in  its  favor ;  but  so  obmse  waft 
the  public  to  his  irony,  that  he  was  im- 
prisoned for  his  productions  as  libels  in 
fiivor  of  the  pretender.  The  accession  of 
George  I  produced  him  no  fiirther  patron- 
age, and  he  began  another  line  of  compo- 
sition. In  1715,  he  published  the  Fami- 
ly Instructor,  a  work  inculcating  moral 
and  religious  duties  m  a  lively  manner,  by 
narration  and  dialogue.  To  this  work  his 
well-known  Religious  Courtship,  publish- 
ed in  1722,  formed  a  third  volume.  In 
1719,  appeared  the  most  popular  of  all  his 


performances— the  Liie  and  Surprising 
Adventures  of  Robinson  Crusoe,  tlie  fa- 
vorable reception  of  which  was  imme- 
diate and  universal.  It  is  unnecessary  to 
dwell  upon  a  work  which  eveiy  body  has 
read,  and  which  has  beeu  translated  into 
all  the  languages  of  Europe ;  but  it  may  be 
proper  to  mention,  that  the  imputation  of 
his  founding  it  upon  the  papers  of  Alex- 
ander Selkirk,  the  Scottish  mariner,  left 
on  the  island  of  Juan  Fernandez,  appears 
to  be  altogether  untrue.  The  success  of 
Defoe  in  tiiis  performance  induced  him  ta 
write  a  number  of  other  lives  and  adven- 
tures in  character ;  as  Moll  Flanders,  Cap- 
tain Singleton,  Roxalana,  Duncan  Camp- 
bell, and  the. Adventures  of  a  Cavalier. 
In  1722,  he  published  a  Journal  of  the 
Plague  in  1665,  in  the  person  of  a  citizen 
su|>posed  to  have  been  a  witness  of  it 
The  natural  manner  in  which  it  is  writ- 
ten deceived  the  celebrated  doctor  Mead, 
who  thought  it  genuine.  In  1724,  he 
published  the  Great  Law  of  Subordina- 
tion, and,  in  1726,  his  Political  History  of 
the  Devil,  to  which  he  afterwards  added, 
in  the  same  style  of  reasoning,  wit  and 
ridicule,  a  System  of  Magic.  He  is  also 
author  of  a  Tour  tiirough  die  Island  of 
Great  Britain,  the  Complete  English 
Tradesman,  a  Plan  of  English  Com- 
merce, and  various  other  productions. 
He  died  in  April,  1731.  A  work  has 
been  lately  published,  called  Memoirs  of 
the  Life  and  Times  of  Daniel  Defoe,  by 
Walter  Wilson,  three  volumes,  London, 
1830. 

Defterdar,  in  the  Turkish  empire; 
the  minister  of  the  finances,  and  high- 
treasurer  of  the  empire.  He  is  different 
from  the  kasnadcar-haschi,  the  treasurer  of 
the  8ultan*s  private  purse. 
Deoerando.  (See  Gercmdo,) 
Degradation.  The  ecclesiastical  cen- 
sure, by  which  a  clergyman  is  divested 
of  his  holy  orders,  is  termed  degradation. 
The  ceremony  consists  chiefly  in  stripping 
off  his  clerical  vestments.  Geliot,  in  his 
Indice  armorid,  describes  the  degradation 
of  Franget,  a  Gascon  captain,  for  surren- 
dering Fontarabia  under  Francis  I.  The 
accusation  of  treason  was  pronounced  be- 
fore 20  or  30  cavaliers.  The  culprit  was 
armed  at  alt  points,  and  his  shield,  rever- 
sed, was  suspended  on  a  stake  befbre  him. 
By  his  side,  twelve  priests  chanted  the  vig- 
ils of  the  dead.  At  the  pause  after  each 
psalm,  the  officers  stripped  the  knight  of  a 
piece  of  his  armor,  till  he  was  quite  bare. 
His  shield  was  tiien  broken  into  three 
pieces,  and  the  kin^  at  arms  poured  a  basin 
of  hot  water  on  his  head.    The  criminaJ 


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160 


DEGRADATION— D£6R£E. 


xna  afterwards  let  down  from  the  scaifold, 
by  ropes  under  his  arms,  and,  beuiff  placed 
on  a  Dier,  covered  with  grave-clothes,  and 
preceded  by  a  priest  chanting  a  mass  for 
the  dead,  was  deUvered  to  the  civil  judge 
and  the  executioner.  His  life,  however, 
eventually  was  spared,  since  life,  under 
such  circumstances,  was  considered  more 
bitter  than  deatli. 

Degree,  in  algebra,  a  term  applied  to 
equations,  to  distinguish  the  highest  pow- 
er of  the  unknown  quantity.  Thus,  if 
the  index  of  that  power  be  3  or  4,  tlie 
equation  is  respecuvely  of  the  3d  or  4th 
dec 


EGREE,  m  geometry  or  trigonometry,  is 
die  360th  part  of  the  circumference  of  any 
circle ;  eveiy  circle  being  considered  as  di- 
vided into  360  parts,  called  degrees,  which 
are  marked  by  a  small  °  near  the  top  of 
the  figure ;  thua^  45^  is  45  degrees.  The 
degree  is  subdivided  into  60  smaller  parts, 
caUed  minuUs ;  the  minute  into  60  othere, 
called  secotuh ;  the  second  mto  GO  thirds, 
&c  Thus  45«>  IS'  W  is  45  degrees, 
12  minutes,  20  seconds.  The  magnitude 
or  quantity  of  angles  is  estimated  in  de- 
grees ;  for,  because  of  the  unifcmn  curva- 
ture of  a  circle  in  all  its  parts,  equal  an- 
gles at  the  centre  are  subtended  by  equal 


arcs,  and  by  similar  arcs  in  peripheries  of 
different  diameters ;  and  an  angle  is  said 
to  be  of  so  many  degrees  as  are  contained 
in  the  arc  of  any  circle  comprehended 
between  the  legs  of  the  angle,  and  having 
the  angular  point  for  its  centre.  Thus  we 
say  "  an  ancle  of  90^,"  or  "  of  45®  24'."  It 
is  also  usual  to  say,  ''such  a  star  is  elevat- 
ed so  many  degrees  above  the  horizon," 
or  ''declines  so  many  degrees  from  the 
equator ;"  or  "  such  a  town  is  situated  in 
80  many  degrees  of  latitude  or  longitude." 
A  sign  of  the  ecliptic  or  zodiac  contains 
30  degrees. 

Degree  of  LatUude  is  the  space  or  dis- 
tance, on  the  meridian,  through  which  an 
observer  must  move  to  vary  his  latitude 
by  one  degree,  or  to  increase  or  diminish 
the  distance  of  a  star  from  the  zenith  by 
one  degree ;  and  which,  on  the  supposi- 
tion of  the  perfect  S|)hericity  of  tlie  earth, 
is  the  SGOtli  part  of  the  meridian.  The 
length  of  a  degree  of  a  meridian,  or 
other  great  circle,  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  is  variously  determined  by  different 
observers,  and  the  methods  made  use  of 
are  also  various ;  and,  therefore,  without 
entering  into  the  history  of  all  attempts 
of  this  kind,  we  shall  present  our  readeiB 
with  tlie  following 


Tabu  of  the  di^^rent  Lengths  of  a  Degru,  cls  measured  in  various  Parts  of  ih€ 
Earth,  the  Time  of  Us  Measurement,  the  LatUude  of  Us  middle  Point,  tfc. 


Extent  in  Eiig- 

Date. 

Latitude. 

Ikhroileeaiid 
decimals. 

1525 

49°  20i' 

N. 

68.763 

1620 

52 

4 

N. 

66.091 

1635 

53 

15 

N. 

69.545 

1644 

75.066 

1669) 
1718J 

49 

22 

N. 

568.945 
^69.119 

1737 

66 

20 

N. 

69.403 

49 

22 

N. 

69.121 1 
69.092  ( 

1740 

45 

00 

N. 

C  68.751 

1744 

0 

0 

^68.732 
^68.713 

1752 

33 

184 

S. 

69.076 

1755 

43 

0 

N. 

t)0.«ft70 

1764 

44 

44 

N. 

69.061 

1766 

47 

40 

N. 

69.142 

1768 

39 

12 

N. 

68.893 

1802 

51 

29  54iN. 

69.146 

1803 

66 

20i 

N. 

69.292 

12 

32 

N. 

68.743 

1808 

44 

521 

N. 

68.769 

M.  Femel 

Snellius 

Norwood 

Riccioli 

Picaid , 

Cassini 

Maupertuis,  &c.   .  . 

Cassini  and  La  Caille 

Juan  and  Ulloa .... 

Bouffuer 

Cpndamine 

La  Caille 

Boscovich . 

Beccaria 

Liesganig 

Mason  and  Dixon  .  . 
Lieut-col.  Mudge  .  . 

Swanberg,&c 

Lambton 

Biot,  Arago,  &c.  .  .  . 


CountrieiL 


France. 
Holland. 
England. 
Italy. 

France. 

Laffland. 

France. 

Peru. 

Cape  of  Good 
Hope. 

Italy. 

Germany. 

U.  States. 

England. 

Lapland. 

Mysore. 

France. 


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DEGREE— DEGREES,  MEASUREMENT  OF. 

EB^fUciiies  of  (he  Eartiij  txfrtsatd  ui  Porta  of  its  equatorial 
Duuneter. 


161 


AntbGn. 

EDipticlUei. 

Principiflfc 

Huyghens,  .  .  . 
NewtoD, 

Theory  of  gravity. 

Maupertuis,  &c 

Mensuration  of  area 

Swanbe^y  •  •  . 

TJ23?oe5 

Clairauty    .... 

"nrfry 

Rotatory  motion. 

rfr 

Vibrations  of  the  pendulum. 

Treisnsoker,   .  . 

"siv 

Occultations  of  the  fixed  stars. 

Laplace, 

Precession,    nutation,   pendu- 
lum, theory  of  tlie  moon,  &c. 

Degree  of  Loi^itude  is  the  space  be-  according  to  the  latitude.    The  following 

tween  two  meridians  that  make  an  angle  table  expresses  the  length  of  a  degree  of 

of  P  with  each  other  at  the  poles,  me  k>ngitude  in  different  latitudes,  supposing 

quantity  or  length  of  which  is  variable,  the  earth  topoasess  a  perfect  sphericity : — 


peg. 

EnCl'Hh 

Deg. 

Encltab 

DSR. 

English 

Def. 

English 

Deg. 

English 

Ltt. 

miles. 

Let 

miles. 

LSL 

mUes. 

Lat. 

miles. 

Ul. 

miles. 

0 

69.07 

20 

64.84 

40 

52.85 

60 

34.50 

80 

11.98 

1 

69.06 

21 

64.42 

41 

52.07 

61 

3a45 

81 

10.79 

2 

69.03 

22 

63.97 

42 

5L27 

62 

32.40 

82 

9.59 

3 

68i)7 

23 

63.51 

43 

50.46 

63 

31.33 

83 

8.41 

4 

68.90 

24 

63.03 

44 

49.63 

64 

30.24 

84 

7.21 

5 

68.81 

25 

6253 

45 

48.74 

65 

29.15 

85 

6.09 

6 

68.62 

26 

62.02 

46 

47.93 

66 

28.06 

86 

4.81 

7 

68.48 

27 

61.48 

47 

47.06 

67 

26.96 

87 

3.61 

8 

68.31 

28 

60.93 

48 

46.16 

68 

25.85 

88 

2.41 

9 

68.15 

29 

60.35 

49 

45J36 

69 

24.73 

89 

1.21 

10 

67.95 

30 

59.75 

50 

44.35 

70 

23.60 

90 

0.00 

11 

67.73 

31 

59.13 

51 

4a42 

71 

22.47 

12 

67.48 

32 

58.51 

52 

43.48 

72 

21.32 

13 

67.21 

33 

57.87 

53 

41.53 

73 

20.17 

14 

66.95 

34 

57i» 

54 

40.56 

74 

19.02 

15 

66.65 

35 

56.51 

55 

39.58 

75 

17.86 

16 

66.31 

36 

55.81 

56 

88.58 

76 

16.70 

17 

65.98 

37 

55.10 

57 

37.58 

77 

15.52 

18 

65.62 

38 

54.37 

58 

36.57 

78 

14.85 

19 

6554 

39 

53.62 

59 

35.54 

79 

13.17 

Degress,  MEASuREMEifr  of.  After 
the  immortal  Newton  had  taught  that  the 
earth,  on  account  of  its  motion  round  its 
axis,  must  be  highest  near  the  equator, 
and  that  the  diameter  of  the  equator  must 
be  longer,  by  one  230th  part,  than  the 
diameter  from  pole  to  pole,  the  French 
wished  to  investigate  the  subject  fiuther 
by  actual  measurement  Newton  gave 
them  warning  that  the  difference  between 
a  degree  at  Myonne  and  one  at  Dunkiris 
was  so  trifling  that  it  could  not  be  detect- 
ed at  all  wi3i  the  imperfect  instruments 
Ih^i  in  use ;  and  was,  in  fiict,  afraid  that 
14* 


they  might  come  to  a  result  directly  op- 
pioeite  to  what  he  conceived  to  be  coirect, 
and  brin^  confusion  into  science.  But 
his  wanungs  were  of  no  avail  The 
measurement  was  begun,  and  the  fear  of 
the  great  philosopher  was  realized ;  for 
the  result  was,  tliat  the  axis  of  the  poles 
was  longer  than  a  diameter  of  the  equator, 
and  that  the  earth  was,  in  form,  more  like 
a  lemon  than  an  orange.  For  40  years, 
disputes  were  maintained  on  this  point, 
without  settUng  the  question  ;  and,  at 
last,  the  academy  of  sciences  resolved,  on 
the  proposition  of  Condamine  (q.  v.),  to 


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DEGREES,  BIEASUREMENT  OF. 


have  a  degree  measured  at  tlie  equator 
(the  expedition  went  to  South  America  in 
1735),  and  one  in  Lapland  (Kittis  and 
Tomea  being  the  extreme  stations  to 
which  the  expedition  was  sent  in  1736). 
It  was  found  tnat  tlie  northern  degree  was 
ereater  than  that  under  the  equator,  and 
Uiat  Newton's  conjecture  was  right  But 
the  question  still  remained,  How  |;reat  is 
the  flattening  of  our  planet  ?  The  theory 
said,  one  230th  part,  if  the  earth  had  been, 
in  a  perfectly  hquid  state,  when  if,  began 
its  rotation.  The  calculations,  however, 
always  gave  different  results,  varying  ac- 
cording to  the  different  measurements 
adopted  as  the  basis  of  them ;  for  meas- 
urements had  been  made,  not  only  in 
America  and  Lapland,  but  also  in  France, 
England,  Hungary,  and  Italy.  It  was 
concluded,  that  the  earth  was  not  a  re^- 
lar  body,  but  had  great  local  inequalities. 
Though  this  was  possible,  yet  the  conclu- 
sion was  too  hasty,  because  these  suppos- 
ed ine(]ualities  might  be  caused  by  the 
msufSciency  of  the  instruments,  and  by 
the  smallness  of  the  arcs  measured. 
When  the  French  established  their  new 
and  admirable  system  of  measures  and 
weights  upon  the  basis  of  the  metre, 
which  was  to  be  the  ten  miUionth  put  of 
the  distance  from  the  equator  to  tiie  pole 
(^tW^t  English  leet ;  see  Measures),  it 
was  necessaiy  to  know,  with  accuracy, 
the  circumference  and  the  flattening  of 
the  earth.  A  measurement,  therefore, 
took  place  in  France,  not  of  one  degree, 
but  of  10  degrees,  from  Dunkirk  to  For- 
mentera.  (See  Dekanhre.)  In  Sweden, 
in  1802,  the  degree,  whicn,  80  years  be- 
fore, had  been  measured  by  Maupertuis, 
was  now  measured  again,  with  better  in- 
struments, and  thus  the  drcumference 
and  flattening  of  the  earth  were  pretty 
weU  ascertained.  After  the  peace,  the 
measurements  of  decrees,  which  were 
made  in  England,  under  general  Roy,  by 
lieutenant-colonel  Mudge,were  connected 
with  those  in  France ;  and  thus  an  arc  of 
SO  degrees,  from  the  Balearic  islands,  near 
the  coast  of  Spain,  over  France  and 
Ekigland,  to  the  Orcades,  has  been  meas- 
ured, and  the  flattening  of  the  earth  has 
been  determmed  as  accurately  as  it  can 
be  done  in  Europe.  The  flattening  has 
been  found  to  be  one  304th.  In  India, 
Lambton  has  begun  the  measurement  of 
a  degree.    These  measurements  of  de- 

rM  are  among  those  enterprises  which 
mankind  much  honor,  because  they 
are  not  undertaken  for  the  sake  of  imme- 
diate profit,  nor  of  bare  utifity,  but  flx)m 
an  ardent  desire  of  knowing  the  truth, 


flt>m  the  same  deep  thirst  for  knowledge, 
which  has  so  often  impelled  men  to  ex- 
plore the  icy  seas  of  the  poles  and  the 
burning  deserts  of  Africa,  The  history 
of  such  expeditions  is  better  fitted  to 
awaken  a  generous  spirit  in  youth  than 
the  oft-repeated  tale  of  conquest  and 
bloodshed. 

Measurement  of  a  Decree  of  Longitude, 
The  degrees  of  longituoe  are  largest  un- 
der tlie  equator,  and  diminish  continually 
towards  the  pole.  Under  the  equator,  a 
degree  of  longitude  contains  60  geogranhi- 
cal,  69^  statute  miles.  If  the  form  of  the 
eaith  is  not  entirely  regular,  the  degrees 
of  longitude  on  the  same  jiarallel  of  lati- 
tude cannot  all  be  of  the  same  length ; 
and  it  has  been  proposed  to  investigate 
this  by  actual  measurement  This  task  is, 
in  the  trigonometric  part,  as  easy  as  the 
measurement  of.  a  degree  of  latitude ;  but 
in  the  astronomical  part,  it  is  15  times 
more  diflicult.  The  difference  of  the  lon- 
gitude of  two  pkices  is  determined  by  the 
difference  of  the  hour  of  the  day,  at  the 
same  point  of  time  in  the  two;  as  a  place, 
situated  15  degrees  to  the  east  of  another, 
has  noon  a  whole  hour  earlier.  One  hour, 
therefore,  corresponds  to  15  degrees,  or 
1042^  statute  miles  under  the  equator,  or 
5,504,400  feet ;  a  minute  of  time,  to  91,740 
feet,  and  a  second  of  time,  to  1529  feet  A 
mistake  of  a  second  of  time,  therefore,  in 
calculating  the  longitude  of  two  places, 
makes  a  corresponding  error  in  space.  To 
determine  time,  within  two  or  three  sec- 
onds, by  means  of  rockets,  at  a  distance  of 
1042i  miles,  is  impossible ;  and,  whilst  the 
measurement  of  an  arc,  corresponding  to 
this  distance,  trigonometrically,  may  be  at- 
tended with  an  error  to  the  amount  of  200 
feet,  an  astronomical  measurement  would 
leave  an  uncertainty  of  2000  feet  The 
earlier  measurements  of  the  French  were 
directed,  in  the  North,  by  Maupertuis  -,  in 
the  South,  by  Bouguer.  Detailed  notices 
on  the  measurements  of  degrees  are  given 
by  Delambre,  in  his  ^^stnmomie,  iii,  chap. 
35.  A  pq)ular  description  is  given  in  the 
exceUent  work,  ArdeUung  zur  AOfemeinen 
Kenntnisa  d,  Erdkugd  (Introduction  to  a 
general  Knowledge  of  the  Globe,  second 
edition,  Berlm,  1803),  bjr  Bode.  The  la- 
test information  respectmff  this  subject  m 
given  by  captain  Edward  Sabine.  He 
made  observations  with  the  pendulum, 
fiDm  lat  13°  S.  to  lat  80°  N.  He  calcu- 
lates the  flattenmg  of  the  eiuth  to  be 
?iVt  1  <^^  '^  ^®  measurements  of  Sa- 
bine; Kater,  and  the  modem  French  ones 
by  Biot,  are  connected,  and  the  mean  of 
the  whole  taken,  the  flattening  will  be 


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DEGREES,  MEASUREMENT  OF-^DELAMBRK 


163 


foond  to  be  t^Vt*  (^^  Sabine's  Account 
of  ExperimenU  to  deUnmne  the  Figure  ojT 
&e  Earthy  by  Means  of  the  Pendmvm  vi- 
brating Seconds  in  difirent  Latitudes^  Lon- 
don, 1835, 4to.) 

Dkgree,  in  universities,  denotes  a  dis- 
tinction conferred  on  the  students  or 
members  thereof,  as  a  testimony  of  their 
proficiency  in  the  arts  or  sciences,  and 
entitling  tnem  to  certain  {Hirileges.  The 
degrees  are  much  the  same  in  all  univer- 
sities ;  but  the  laws  thereof,  and  the  pre- 
vious discipline  or  exercise,  differ.  The 
degrees  are,  bachelor,  master  and  doctor; 
in^ead  of  which  last,  in  some  foreign  uni- 
versities, is  licentiate. 

Deioamxa  (Deida3mda)\  daughter  of 
Lycomedes :  she  bore  Pyrrhus  and  Onites 
to  Achilles,  during  his  abode  at  Seyms. 

Dei  Gratia  (6y  the  grace  of  God) ;  a 
formula  which  sovereigns  add  to  their 
tide.  The  expression  is  taken  from  an 
Episde  of  the  apostle  Paul,  and  was  used 
firat  by  the  clei^  in  the  dme  of  Constan- 
tine  the  GreaL  In  the  umes  of  the  Carlo- 
vingian  race,  the  secular  princes  also  a»- 
sumed  it  The  high  clergy  of  the  Catho- 
lic church  used  it  with  an  addidon :  ^  By 
the  grace  of  God  and  the  apostolic  see." 

Deiotarus,  tetrarch  of  Galatia,  received 
from  the  Roman  senate  the  title  of  king 
of  that  province  and  Armenia  Minor,  on 
account  of  services  rendered  to  the  Ro- 
mans in  the  Asiatic  wars.  In  the  civil 
war,  he  joined  the  party  of  Pompey..  Coe- 
Bar  took  from  him  Armenia,  obliged  him 
to  march  with  him  against  Phamaces,  and 
left  him  nothing  but  the  tide  of  royalty. 
He  was  accused  of  having  plotted  against 
the  life  of  Cflesar,  from  which  charge 
CSoero  defended  him  in  an  oration  yet 
extant  After  the  murder  of  Csesar,  he 
returned  to  his  dominions,  joined  Brutus, 
aiid  afterwards  Augustus.  He  died,  at 
an  advanced  age,  30  B.  C. 

Deir;  an  Arabian  word  signifying  Aoitfe; 
as,  Deir-el-Kamar,  the  house  of  the  moon. 
It  often  occuiB  in  geographical  compounds. 

Deism  (from  the  Latm  deus\  as  a  philo- 
sophical system ;  that  which  ilnda  in  God 
the  cause  of  all  thinss.  It  is,  as  such, 
opposed  to  atheism.  In  a  religious  point 
of  view,  it  is  used  for  the  belief  in  natural 
religion,  contradistinguiBhed  from  the  belief 
n  revelation,  and  is  considered,  by  many 
persona,  almost  equivalent  to  atheism, 
&iough  this  opinion  can  only  be  caused 
by  ignonmce.  Theism  has  the  same  sig- 
nification, and  is  derived  fit>m  the  Greek 
$$o(  (god).  In  India,  there  is  a  sect  of 
pore  deiirts,  called  Seiks. 

DsJAifiRA;  daughter  of  OSneus,  king 


of  Calydon,  a  city  of  iGtolia ;  according 
to  others,  of  Bacchus  and  Altbcea,  who, 
with  her  sister  Gorgo,  alone  retained  her 
form,  when  her  other  sisters  were  trans- 
formed, while  mourning  for  their  brother. 
She  was  betrothed  to  Acheloiis,  the  god 
of  the  river  of  the  same  name,  who,  on  her 
account,  engaged  in  a  combat  with  Her- 
cules. Acheloiis  was  overcome,  and  the 
maiden  became  the  prize  of  the  victor, 
who,  on  his  return  to  his  countrv,  was 
stopped  in  his  way  by  the  river  J^venus, 
winch  had  overftowed  its  banks.  In  this 
emeivency,  the  Centaur  Nessus  offered  to 
take  Dejanira  across  the  river  on  his  back. 
Hercules  readily  consented,  and  passed 
over  the  river  first;  but,  when  he  had 
reached  tlie  opposite  bank,  he  saw  that  the 
Centaur  was  attempting  to  ofifer  her  vio- 
lence. Enraged  at  die  sight,  he  pierced 
him  with  an  arrow,  which  had  been  dip- 
ped in  the  blood  of  the  hydra.  Nessus, 
perceiving  his  death  approaching,  wished 
to  be  revenged,  and  gave  to  D^anin  his 
bloody  tunic,  telliiiff  her  that,  if  her  hus- 
band was  unfaithful,  she  should  persuade 
him  to  put  this  on,  and  it  would  reclaim 
hun  from  his  unlawful  passion.  The 
creduloud  Dejanira  accepted  the  present 
Hearing,  subaequendy,  that  Hercules  was 
captivated  by  the  charms  of  lole,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Eurytus  of  Euboea,  she  sent  him  the 
tunic  of  Nessus  by  a  young  slave,  named 
Lichas,  with  the  tenderest  messages.  Her- 
cules joyfully  accepted  the  ftital  present, 
and  hastened  to  make  use  of  it ;  but  was 
thrown  into  the  most  violent  agony.  In 
his  fury,  he  hurled  Lichas  into  the  sea, 
>¥here,  by  the  compassion  of  the  gods,  he 
was  changed  into  a  rock.  Then,  having 
hewed  down  some  trees  on  mount  (Eta, 
and  erected  a  funeral  pile,  he  ascended 
the  pile,  and  begffed  bis  fiiend  Phikictetes 
to  set  fire  to  it  When  Dejanira  heard  of 
the  death  of  Hercules,  she  vras  so  overcome 
by  anguish,  that  she  destroyed  herself 

Deken,  A^the ;  a  Dutch  authoress, 
bom  in  1741,  m  the  village  of  Amstelveen, 
near  Amsterdam.  She  wrote  Dutch  novels 
and  poems  of  merit ;  amonff  others,  lAede- 
renvoordenB<Brvensiand,  She  died  in  1804. 

Delambre;  one  of  the  most  distin- 
guished astronomers  of  our  time,  bora  at 
Amiens,  in  1749  'y  studied  under  the  abb^ 
DehUe,  who  always  remained  his  friend. 
He  first  applied  himself  to  the  language6, 
particularly  most  of  the  livinff  ones,  and 
made  himself  one  of  the  best  Hellenists  in 
France.  His  studies  were  not  directed  to 
astronomy  until  his  36di  year.  He  en- 
riched the  writings  of  Lalande  with  a 
commentary,  and  became  the  firiend  and 


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164 


DELAMBRE--^D£LAWAR£. 


pupil  of  the  author,  who  proudly  called 
him  his  best  xoork.  In  1790,  eight  years 
after  the  discovery  of  Herschel,  Delainbre 
published  tlie  tables  of  that  planet,  although 
ID  that  period,  it  had  performed  but  a  small 
part  of  its  80  years'  course.  He  also  con- 
structed tables  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  and 
of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  which,  with 
several  treatises,  procured  him  a  reception 
into  the  national  institute.  He  was  en- 
^ed  with  M^chain,  from  1792  till  1799, 
m  measuring  an  arc  of  the  meridian  from 
Barcelona  to  Dunkirk  for  tlie  veiiiica- 
tion  of  which  he  measured  two  bases  of 
6000  toises,  one  near  Melun,  the  other 
near  Perpignan.  (See  his  Bast  du  ^' 
Ume  Milrique  dicimal,  ou  Meswrt  de  VJtrc 
J  du  MeridUn  compris  entre  Us  ParaUiles 
de  Jhmkerqtie  et  Jaarcelorme,  Paris,  3  vols., 
4to. ;  and  RecueU  d^Observat,  Gtodisiques 
fcdsant  Suite  au  Sme  vol.  de  la  Base  du 
SysL  Mtir.  ridigi  par  Biol  et  Jirago).  He 
was  made  member  of  the  bureau  des  hm- 
gUudes,  In  1802,  Napoleon  appointed 
nim  inspecteur-girUral  des  Hvdes^  which 
post  he  resigned  when  chosen  perpetual 
secretary  of  the  class  of  mathematical  sci- 
ences (1803).  His  first  tables  of  the  sun 
were  published  in  1792 ;  in  1806,  appeared 
his  new  ones.  In  1807,  he  succeeded  La- 
lande  in  the  colUge  de  France^  and  wrote 
his  T^raiU  d^Jlstronomie  VUorique  et  prati- 
que (3  vols.,  4to.,  1814),  Histoire  de  V Astro- 
mmiedumoyen  age  (1819),  Hist,  de  PAslron. 
tnodeme  (1821, 2  vols.)  and  Hist  de  VAstron, 
du  18me.  iSt^c^  (2  vols.) ;  a  coUection  of 
works  such  as  no  other  nation  can  show. 
Delambre  also  distinguished  himself,  as 
perpetual  secretary  of  the  institute,  by 
the  justice  and  elegance  of  his  iUutes. 
He  (hed  in  1822. 

Delavigne,  Jean  Francois  Casimir ;  a 
dramatic  poet,  bom  in  1794,  at  Havre. 
He  commenced  his  poetical  career  while 
a  youth,  by  the  dithyramb  on  the  birdi 
of  the  king  of  Rome  (1811).  His  poem 
on  the  discovery  of  vaccination  received, 
in  1814,  the  first  of  tlie  secondaiy  prizes 
from  the  French  academy.  He  then  ap- 
phed  himself  to  dramatic  poetry,  and  pub- 
lished his  first  tragedy,  Les  Vepres  SicUi- 
ennes  (1821),  which  was  received  with 
general  applause ;  and  has  since  ^litten  a 
second,  Lt  Paria.  The  first  piece,  not- 
withstanding many  faults  in  the  plan  and 
the  dehneation  of  most  of  the  characters, 
displayed  remarkable  poetic  genius :  the 
vigorous  sketch  of  the  chief  character,  by 
which  the  whole  action  is  animated,  and 
his  fine  dioughts  expressed  in  brilhant 
language,  atone  for  many  feeble  passages 
and  some  &ise  splendor.     At  the  first 


representation  of  this  piece  at  the  Odion 
(1819),  some  verses  against  arbitraiy  gov- 
ernments and  the  insolence  of  ministers 
produced  so  much  disturbance,  that  the 
police  forbade  the  repetition  of  them ;  but 
they  were  still  iqiplauded,  and  this  strug- 
gle between  the  pohce  and  the  audience 
contributed  not  a  litde  to  give  popularity 
to  the  production.  In  the  second  piece, 
tlie  improvement  of  the  poet  is  visible  :i 
he  displays  a  great  brilliancy  of  coloring, 
harmony  of  versification,  and  richness  of 
ideas  and  images,  though  it  is  j  ustly  objected 
tliat  he  had  not  studied  his  subject  pro- 
foundly, nor  given  it  all  the  interest  of  which 
it  is  susceptible.  In  his  elegies,  Les  trois 
MessMenMSy  Delavigne  bewailed  the  mis- 
fortunes of  France.  In  1819,  followed 
two  elegies  Sur  la  Vie  et  la  Mori  de  Jeanne 
d*Arc.  His  comedy  Les  Comidiens^  5 
acts  in  verse,  in  the  style  of  the  Metromame^ 
is  directed  against  the  principles  of  the 
old  French  stage.  His  JVouveUes  Mes- 
shaermes  (1822)  were  produced  by  the 
Greek  revolution.  In  1823,  his  comedy 
Vjtcole  des  VteUlards  was  received  with 
general  applause.  In  a  new  Messhaenne^ 
Delavigne  expresses  the  grief  of  Europe 
at  the  death  of  lord  Byron.  It  is  in  the 
10th  edition  of  his  MessMennes  et  Poisies 
dxoerses  (Paris,  1824,  2  vols.).  In  1824, 
Delavigne  was  made  member  of  the 
French  academy,  and,  in  1825,  was  of- 
fered a  pension  of  1200  fianca  from  the 
civil  list,  which,  however,  as  well  as  the 
cross  of  the  legion  of  honor,  be  dechued, 
that  he  might  preserve  his  independence. 
(For  his  pohtical  correspondence  with 
Lamartine,  see  Lamartine.) 

Delaware  ;  one  of  the  United  States, 
bounded  N.  by  Pennsylvania,  £.  by  Dela- 
ware river  and  bay,  S.  and  W.  by  Mary- 
land; Ion.  74°  56^  to  75°  40^  W. ;  lot  38* 
29^  to  39°  47'  N.;  92  miles  long,  and  23 
broad ;  square  miles,  2120 :  population,  in 
1790,  59,094;  in  1800,  64,272;  in  1810, 
72,674;  in  1820,  72,749;  white  males, 
27,904 ;  white  females,  27,377 ;  fiiee  blacks, 
12^958;  slaves,  4509.  It  is  divided  into 
three  counties,  which  are  subdivided  into 
25  hundreds.  Dover  is  the  seat  of  gov- 
ernment Wilmington  is  the  lai^gest  town. 
The  other  most  considerable  towns  are 
Newcastle,  Georgetown,  Smyrna,  Milford 
and  Lewistown.  Presbyterians  are  the 
most  numerous  denomination  of  Chris- 
tians: there  are,  besides,  a  considenU)le 
number  of  Methodists.  The  legislature 
consists  of  a  tenate,  chosen  for  three  years, 
and  a  hoase  of  representatives,  chosen 
annually  on  the  first  Tuesday  in  October. 
The  governor  is  chosen  by  the  people  for 


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D£LAWARE--D£LAWAR£  BREAKWATER. 


165 


three  yean,  but  can  hold  die  office  only 
three  years  in  ax.  The  principal  rivers 
besides  tlie  Delaware,  which  forms  a  part 
of  the  boundary,  are  Bruidywine  creek, 
Christiana  creek,  Duck  creek,  Mispillion 
creek,  Indian  river,  Choptank  and  Nanti- 
coke.  Delaware  is,  next  to  Rhode  Island, 
the  smallest  state  in  extent  in  the  Union, 
and  the  least  diversified  in  surface.  The 
general  aspect  of  ttie  greater  part  is  that 
of  an  extended  plain,  though  the  north- 
western part  of  the  county  of  Newcasde 
is  hilly  or  uneven.  The  heiglits  of  Chris- 
tiana are  lofly  and  commanding,  and  the 
hills  of  Brandy  wine  are  rough  and  stony ; 
but  in  die  lower  ceunny,  there  is  very 
little  diversity  of  level.  The  highest  ridge 
between  Delaware  and  Chesapeake  bays 
passes  through  this  state.  On  the  sunrmiit 
of  the  ridge,  there  is  a  chain  of  swamps, 
fiom  which  a  number  of  waters  descend 
on  tlie  west  to  Chesapeake  bay,  and  on 
the  east  to  the  river  Delaware.  Along  the 
Delaware  river,  and  for  about  9  miles  into 
the  interior,  the  soil  is  generally  a  rich 
clay,  which  produces  large  timber,  and  is 
well  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  agricul- 
ture; but,  between  this  tract  and  the 
swamps,  the  soil  is  light,  sandy,  and  of  an 
inferior  quality.  In-  the  coun^  of  New- 
casde, the  soil  is  a  strong  clay ;  in  Kent,  it 
is  mixed  with  pand ;  and  in  Sussex,  the 
Band  gready  predominates.  The  principal 
articles  of  produce  are  wheat,  Indian  corn, 
rye,  bariey,  oats,  dax,  buck-wheat  and 
potatoes^  The  county  of  Sussex  contains 
some  excellent  grazing  lands ;  and  it  ex- 
ports great  quantities  of  timber,  obtained 
from  Cypress  swamp,  on  Indian  river, 
which  extends  about  6  miles  from  £.  to 
W.,  and  nearly  12  from  N.  to  S.  The 
staple  commodity  is  wheat,  which  is  of  a 
superior  quality,  and  is  highly  esteemed 
for  its  uncommon  softness  and  whiteness, 
and  is  preferred  in  foreign  markets.  Large 
establishments  have  been  erected  for  man- 
uiacturinff  wheat  into  flour.  Of  these,  the 
Brandywrae  mills,  in  the  vicinity  of  Wil- 
mington, are  the  most  important  These 
are  die  finest  collection  of  mills  in  the  U. 
States,  and  are  celebrated  both  for  the 
exceUence  and  the  quantity  of  flour  which 
they  manufacture.  Delaware  contains 
veiy  few  minerals.  In  the  county  of  Sus- 
sex, and  among  the  branches  of  the  Nan- 
ticoke,  are  laree  quantities  of  bog  iron  ore, 
well  adapted  for  casting.  Before  the  rev- 
olution, it  was  wrought  to  a  great  extent ; 
but  since  that  event,  the  business  has 
declined. — ^Delaware  was  settled  by  the 
Swedes  and  Finns  as  early  as  1627.  The 
cdony  was  formed  under  the  auspices  of 


Gustavus  Adolphus,  kingof  Sweden,  who 
named  the  country  ^YavaSuedcL  Hoai^ 
kill  (now  Lewi8toum\  was  founded  in 
1630,  but,  the  Dutch  claiming  the  country, 
it  passed  under  their  power  in  1655.  In 
1664,  the  colony  on  the  Delaware  fell, 
with  other  parts  of  New  Amsterdam,  into 
the  hands  of  the  English,  and  was  granted 
by  Charles  II  to  his  brother  James,  duke 
of  York,  who,  in  1682,  conveyed  it,  as  far 
as  cape  Henlopen,  to  William  Penn.  In 
1704,  Delaware,  though  under  the  same 
proprietor,  became  a  sefiarate  colonial 
estfiiblishment,  and  remained  such  until 
the  revolution.  Its  constitution  was 
formed  in  1776.  The  Chesapeake  and 
Delaware  canal  crosses  this  state.  As  a 
manufaoturing  state,  Delaware  holds  a 
rank  far  above  its  relative  extent  and  pop- 
ulation. The  works  near  Wilmington  are 
extensive  and  highly  valuable.  As  early 
as  1810,  the  value  of  the  various  manufac- 
tures exceeded  $1,733,000. 

Delaware  ;  a  river  of  the  U.  States, 
which  rises  in  Catskill  mountains,  in  New 
York.  In  its  course,  it  separates  Pennsyl- 
vania from  New  York  and  New  Jersey, 
and  loses  itself  in  Delaware  bay,  aliout  5 
miles  below  Newcastle.  It  is  navigable 
for  a  74  gun  ship  to  Philadelphia,  55  miles 
above  the  head  of  the  bay,  and  about  120 
from  the  ocean ;  for  sloops  to  the  head  of 
the  tide,  at  Trenton,  35  miles  above  Phila- 
delphia; and  for  boats  about  100  miles 
farther,  though  the  boat  navigation  above 
Easton  is  very  difficult.  Its  two  most 
important  tributaries  are  the  Schuylkill 
and  the  Lehigh.  The  whole  length,  from 
its  souree  to  die  bay,  is  about  300  miles. 
The  principal  towns  on  the  Delaware, 
besides  Philadelphia,  are  Easton  and  Bri»- 
tol,  Pa.,  Trenton,  Bordentown  and  Bur- 
lington, N.  J. 

Delaware  Bat;  a  large  bay  or  arm 
of  the  sea,  between  the  states  of  Delaware 
and  New  Jersey,  formed  by  the  mouth 
of  the  Delaware  river  and  several  other 
sm^er  ones.  It  is  65  miles  long,  and,  in 
the  centre,  about  30  miles  across,  and 
about  18  at  its  mouth,  from  cape  Henlo- 
pen, m  lat  38°  47'  N.,  Ion.  75°  6'  W.,  to 
cape  May,  in  lat  389  57'  N.,  kin.  74°  52^ 
W. 

Delaware  Breakwater.  The  Dela- 
ware breakwater  is  situated  at  the  en- 
trance into  the  bay  of  Delaware,  near  cape 
Henlopen.  The  anchorage  ground,  or 
roadstead,  is  formed  by  a  cove  in  the 
BOtithem  shore,  direcdy  west  of  the  pitch 
of  the  cape  and  the  seaward  end  of  an 
extensive  shoal  called  the  shears ;  the  tail 
of  which  makes  out  firom  the  shore  about 


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166 


DELAWARE  BREAKWATERr-DELFT. 


fire  miles  up  the  bay,  near  the  mouth  of 
Broadkill  creek,  fix>m  wheoce  it  extends 
eastward,  and  terminates  at  a  point  about 
two  miles  to  die  northward  of  the  shore  at 
the  cape.  The  breakwater  consists  of  an 
insulated  dike  or  wall  of  stone,  the  trans- 
versal section  of  wliich  is  a  trapezium,  tlie 
base  resting  on  the  bottom,  whilst  the 
sununit  line  forms  die  top  of  the  woric 
The  other  sides  represent  die  inner  and 
outer  slopes  of  the  work,  tliat  to  the  sea- 
ward being  much  greater  than  the  other. 
The  inwand  slope  is  45  degrees ;  the  top 
is  horizontal,  22  feet  in  breadth,  and  raised 
5k  feet  above  the  highest  spring  tide ;  the 
outward  or  sea  slope  is  39  feet  ui  altitude, 
upon  a  base  of  1051  feet ;  both  these  di- 
mensions being  measiu«d  in  relation  to  a 
horizontal  plane  passing  by  a  point  27  feet 
below  the  lowest  spring  tide.  The  base 
bears  to  the  altitude  nearly  the  same  ratio 
as  similar  lines  in  the  profiles  of  the 
Cherbourg  and  Plymoutli  breakwaters. 
The  openmg  or  entrance  from  the  ocean 
is  650  yards  in  width  between  tlie  north 

Eoint  of  the  cape  and  the  east  end  of  the 
reakwater.  At  this  entrance,  the  harbor 
will  be  accessible  during  all  winds  coming 
from  the  sea.  The  dike  is  formed  in  a 
straight  line  from  E.  S.  E.  to  W.  N.  W.: 
1200  yards  is  the  leneth  of  this  portion  of 
the  work,  which  is  destined  to  ser\'e  the 
purposes  of  a  breakwater.  At  the  distance 
of  350  yards  from  the  upper  or  western 
end  of  the  breakwater  (which  space  forms 
the  upper  entranT^e),  a  similar  clike,  of  500 
yards  in  length,  is  projected  in  a  direct 
Lne,  W.  by  S.  ^  S.,  forming  an  angle  of 
146®  15^  with  the  breakwater.  This  work 
is  designed  more  particularly  as  an  ice- 
breaker. The  whole  lengUi  of  the  two 
dikes  above  described,  which  are  now 
partly  commenced,  will  be  1700  yards: 
they  will  contain,  when  finished,  900,000 
cubic  yards  of  stone,  composed  of  pieces 
of  basaltic  rock  and  granite,  weicliing  from 
a  quarter  of  a  ton  to  three  tons  and  upwaitls. 
The  depth  of  water,  at  low  tide,  is  from 
four  to  six  fadioms  throughout  the  harbor, 
which  will  be  formed  by  these  works  and 
die  cove  of  the  southern  shore,  and  which 
is  calculated  to  afford  a  perfect  shelter 
over  a  space  or  water  surface  of  seven 
tenths  of^  a  square  mile.  The  great  ob- 
jects to  he  gained  by  the  construction  of 
an  anificial  harbor  in  this  roadstead  are, 
to  shelter  vesseb  from  the  action  of  waves 
caused  by  the  winds  blowing  from  the 
E.  to  the  N.  W.,  round  by  die  N.,  and 
also  to  protect  diem  against  injuries  arising 
from  floating  ice  descendmg  the  bay  from 
the  N.  W. 


Deleoatk.  (See  Ddegaiwn.) 
Delegates,  Court  of,  is  so  called  be- 
cause the  judges  thereof  are  delegated,  by 
the  king's  commission  under  the  great 
seal,  to  near  and  determine  appeals  in  the 
three  following  cases : — 1.  Where  a  sen- 
tence is  given  in  any  ecclesiastical  cause, 
by  the  archbishop,  or  his  official ;  2. 
when  any  sentence  is  given  in  any  eccle- 
siasdcal  cause,  in  the  places  exempt;  3. 
when  a  sentence  is  given  in  the  admind's 
court,  in  suits  civil  and  marine,  by  order 
of  die  civil  law.  This  commission  is 
usually  filled  with  lords  spiritual  and  tem- 
poral, judges  of  the  courts  at  Westminster, 
and  doctors  of  the  civil  law. 

Delegation  ;  the  investuig  with  au- 
thority to  act  for  another.  Hence  the 
name  has  been  ffiven  to  a  body  Of  persons 
thus  deputed.  Before  the  present  consti- 
tution of  the  United  States  was  adopted, 
the  persons  constituting  the  congress  at 
Philadelphia  were  called  ddegatesj  and  the 
body  of  representadves  of  a  state  in  con- 
gress are  sdll  called  the  deU^ation  of  a 
state.  In  Maryland  and  Virginia,  the  most 
numerous  branch  of  the  state  legislatures, 
which,  in  most  of  the  other  states,  is 
called  house  of  rtprtscnUjiiveSy  has  the 
name  of  houit  of  ddegates.  (See  Con- 
stUvtion.)  The  name  of  dekgale  is  also 
given  to  the  representative^  sent  to  the  con- 
gress of  the  U.  States  from  territories  not 
yet  formed  into  states.  In  Italy,  branches 
of  government  are  often  called  ddegazione^ 
and  their  members  dd^(Ui,  Thus  daere 
exist  in  the  Lombardo- Venetian  kingdom 
nine  ddercaiom  for  Lombardy,  and  eight 
for  the  Venetian  part  of  the  government, 
consisting  of  one  ddeeaioj  a  vict-ddeeato^ 
and  an  adjunct — In  me  civil  law,  ddeea- 
tion  is  that  act  by  which  a  debtor  trausfera 
to  another  person  the  duty  to  pay,  or  a 
creditor  transfers  to  another  person  the 
right  to  receive  payment 

Delft  ;  the  name  of  some  celebrated 
Dutch  painters,  particularly  of  James  (bom 
1619,  died  1661)  and  WilUam  Delfl  (to- 
wards the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century). 
Both  were  bom  at  Delfl,  were  portrait 
pcdnters,  and  relations  to  the  celebrated 
Mirevelt,  also  a  native  of  this  town. 

Delft  ;  a  considerable  town  of  South 
Holland,  between  Rotterdam  and  Leyden, 
traversed  by  a  canal  wliich  communicates 
with  the  Maese.  Delft  is  tolerably  well 
built,  but  dark ;  most  of  the  streets  are 
divided  by  narrow,  stagnant  canals,  except 
in  the  centre  of  the  town,  where  diere  are 
two  spacious  streets,  with  broad  canals 
bordered  witii  trees.  The  fh>nt  of  tlie 
stadthouse  is  extensive  and  curious,  and 


Digitized  by 


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DELFT— DELHI. 


167 


the  interior  contains  some  valuable  paint- 
ings. In  the  old  church  are  the  monu- 
ments of  the  admirals  Van  Tromp  and 
Pieter  Heyn.  Not  far  from  it  is  the  build- 
ing where  William  I  of  Orange  was  mur- 
dered, in  1584.  In  the  new  church,  which 
has  a  celebrated  set  of  chiming  bells,  is 
the  splendid  monument  erected  in  his  hon- 
or, and,  also,  the  monument  of  Hugo 
Grotius,  who  was  bom  in  Delft.  The 
town  has  13,000  inhabitants,  and  contains 
an  aitiliery  and  en^neer  school.  The 
manufiicture  of  a  kmd  of  earthen  ware 
called  Ddft'tDore,  in  this  place,  is  import- 
ant Here  likewise  are  made  several  kinds 
of  fine  cloth  and  carpets.  Butter,  and, 
next  to  it,  beer,  are  the  principal  objects 
of  the  wholesale  trade ;  tobacco-pipes, 
also,  are  made  in  great  (quantities.  9  miles 
N.  W.  Rotterdam. 

Delftshaven;  a  small,  fortified  town 
of  Holland,  on  tlie  Maese  ;  population, 
2700;  2  miles  S.  W.  Rotterdam. 

Delft- Ware  is  a  kind  of  pottery  cov- 
ered with  an  enamel  or  white  glazing, 
which  gives  it  the  appearance  and  neat- 
BeSB  of  porcelain.  Some  kinds  of  tliis 
enamelled  pottery  differ  much  from  others, 
either  in  sustaining  sudden  heat  witiiout 
breaking,  or  in  tlie  beauty  and  regularity 
of  their  forms,  of  their  enamel,  and  of  the 
painting  with  which  they  are  ornamented, 
in  general,  the  fine  and  beautiful  enamel- 
led ware,  which  approaches  the  nearest 
to  porcelain  in  external  appearance,  is  that 
which  least  resists  a  brisk  fire.  Again, 
those  which  sustain  a  sudden  heat  are 
coarse,  and  resemble  common  pottery. 
This  lund  of  ware  has  its  name  finom  Delft, 
in  Holland,  where  it  is  made  in  large 
quantities. 

Delhi  ;  a  province  of  Hindostan  ; 
bounded  N.  W.  by  Lahore,  N.  by  the 
Himaleh  mountains,  which  separate  it 
fiiom  Thibet,  E.  by  Kemaoon  and  Oude, 
S.  bv  Agra,  and  W.  by  Agimere  and 
Moultan ;  lying  chieflv  between  lat  28^ 
and  3P  N. ;  about  250  miles  long,  and 
180  broad ;  population  estimated  at  about 
5,000,000— Hindoos,  Mohammedans,  and 
Seiks.  The  chief  towns  are  Delhi,  Se- 
haurunpour,  Sirhind,  Tanaser,  and  Anop- 
riieer.  The  principal  rivere  are  the  Gan- 
ges and  Jumnab.  A  great  part  of  it  is 
sterile  for  want  of  water.  It  was  formeriy 
much  more  wealthy  and  populous  than 
at  present  Having  been  the  seat  of 
various  wars,  it  has  been  miserably  laid 
waste,  and  in  some  parts  almost  depopu- 
lated. The  most  fertile  parts  yield  good 
Cire,  wheat,  barley,  and  sugar-cane, 
poit  east  of  the  Jumnah,  with  a  con- 


siderable district  rotmd  the  city  of  Delhi, 
belongs,  in  fact,  to  the  British ;  but  its  rev- 
enues are  allotted  to  support  the  family 
and  establishments  of  tlie  emperor,  or 
great  mogul,  now  reduced  to  the  huniili- 
ating  state  of  dependence  on  a  foreign 
power.  The  southern  part  is  posseased 
by  native  chiefs  in  alliance  with  the  Brit- 
ish. The  coiintiy  north-west  of  tiie  Jum- 
nah, and  south  of  the  Setiedge,  is  occupied 
by  a  number  of  petty  Seik  chiefs. 

Delhi  ;  a  city  of  Hindostan ;  capital  of 
the  province  of  DeUii,  and  for  many  yeare 
of  Hindostan ;  on  the  Jumnah ;  92  N.  N.  W. 
Agra,  300  N.  W.  Allahabad;  Ion.  77« ^ 
E. ;  lat.  28°  4!3f  N. ;  population  variously 
estimated,  fiiom  100  to  200,000.  The  an- 
cient name  was  hubraput,  Inderput,  or  M- 
dtrprest ;  tiie  Mohammedan  name  is  Shah' 
JehanabcuL  It  was  for  a  long  time  the 
capital  of  Hindostan,  the  seat  of  the  great 
mogul,  the  boast  of  India ;  and,  during  the 
era  of  its  splendor,  is  said  to  have  occupied 
a  site  20  miles  in  lengtli,  and  the  ruins 
now  cover  nearly  as  great  a  space.  It 
was  taken,  in  1193,  by  the  Mohammedans, 
under  Cuttubaddeen  Khan,  who  fixed  his 
residence  here ;  and,  on  his  succeeding  to 
the  throne,  it  became  the  capital  of  Hin- 
dostan. In  1398,  it  was  taken,  pillaged, 
and  reduced  to  a  heap  of  ruins,  by  Tamer- 
lane. It  afterwards  partially  recovered, 
till  towards  the  end  or  the  16th  century, 
when  Akbar  transferred  die  seat  of  royalty 
to  Agra.  In  1631,  the  emperor  Shah  Jehan 
founded  the  new  city  of  Delhi,  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Jumnah,  near  the  ruins  of  the 
old  city,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  Shahje- 
hanabad.  During  the  reign  of  Aureng- 
zebe,  the  third  son  of  Shall  Jehan,  the  rev- 
enue of  the  city  amounted  to  £3,813,594, 
and  its  population  was  computed  at 
2,000,000— probably  an  exaggeration.  It 
continued  to  increase  in  splendor  and  im- 
portance till  the  invasion  of  Nadir  Shah, 
m  1739,  when  100,000  inhabitants  were 
massacred,  and  £62,000,000  steriing  of 
plunder  are  said  to  have  been  collected. 
It  was  again  pillage<l  and  depopulated  in 
1756,  1759,  and  1760,  by  Ahmed  Ab- 
dallah.  Since  1803,  it  has  been  in  re- 
ality subject  to  the  British  government, 
though  still  the  residence  of  the  emperor 
or  great  mogul,  who  has  a  nominal  author- 
ity, but  is  virtually  dependent  on  the  Brit- 
ish. Modem  Delhi  contains  die  remains 
of  many  splendid  palaces,  and  is  adorned 
witii  many  beautiful  mosques,  still  in  good 
repair,  die  most  remarkable  of  which  is 
called  JuTmuEh  Mu^etd,  This  mosque  is 
261  feet  long,  the  whole  firont  faced  with 
white  marble,  surrounded  at  top  with  three 


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168 


DELHI—DELILLIL 


magnificent  domes  of  white  maible,  flank- 
ed by  two  minarets.  The  city  has  two 
spacious  streets,  leading  from  die  palace 
to  the  principal  gates,  and  many  good 
houses  built  of  brick.  ^The  inhabited 
part  of  Delhi,"  says  bishop  Ueber,  in 
his  Narrative,  ^is  about  seven  miles  in 
circuit,  seated  on  a  rocky  range  of  hiDs, 
and  surrounded  by  an  embatded  wail, 
which  the  En^ish  eovemment  have  put 
into  repair.  The  houses  are  many  of 
them  large  and  high.  There  are  a  great 
number  of  mosques,  witii  high  minarets 
and  gilded  domes,  and  above  all  are 
seen  the  palace,  a  veiy  high  and  exten- 
sive cluster  of*  Gothic  towers  and  bat- 
tlements, and  the  Junmah  Musjeed,  the 
largest  and  handsomest  place  of  Mussul- 
man worship  in  India.  Tlie  chief  material 
of  all  these  fine  buildings  is  red  ffianite, 
inlaid,  in  some  of  the  ornamental  parts, 
with  white  marble ;  and  the  general  style 
of  building  is  of  a  simple  and  impressive 
character.''  Most  of  the  streets  are  narrow 
and  irregular,  and  the  houses  built  with- 
out order,  of  brick,  mud,  bamboos  and 
mats,  geneFolly  covered  with  thatch,  re- 
sembling a  motley  group  of  villages,  rather 
than  an  extensive  town.  The  baMrs  are 
but  indifferently  furnished.  Cotton  clollis 
and  indigo  are  manufactured  in  the  town 
and  neighborhood.  In  the  vicinity,  on 
the  banl^of  the  Jumnah,com,  rice,  millet 
and  indigo  are  principally  cultivated.  The 
Baptists  have  a  missionaiy  here. 

Delille,  Jacques  (also  Ddiak,  de 
LiUe) ;  the  most  distinguished  of  the 
French  didactic  poets  of  modem  times; 
bom  in  1738,  at  Aigueperse,  in  Auvergne. 
His  name  after  the  revolution  was  Monta- 
nier-Delille.  He  resembled  Pope  (who 
was  his  model)  in  personal  deformi^,  as 
well  as  in  exquisite  versificaUon.  In  the 
college  of  Lisieux,  at  Paris,  he  distinguished 
himself  by  his  precocious  talents ;  and  in 
the  colleoe  of  Amiens,  he  began  liis  metri- 
cal translation  of  Virgil's  Georgics.  He 
had  translated  this  work  by  the  end  of  his 
23d  year,  but  spent  many  years  in  re- 
touching it  It  was  published  in  1770, 
with  a  Discours  pr^fu7imatre,'and  nume- 
rous annotations,  which  gave  him  also  an 
honacable  place  among  the  French  prose 
writers.  NotwithstanmnjB^  the  jealousy  of 
his  rivals,  Delilie  was  invited  to  Paris,  and 
was  made  professor  at  the  colUge  de  la 
Marchej  and  afterwards  at  the  colligt  de 
Ihmce ;  and  his  translations  were  ranked 
by  the  French  among  their  clasmcs.  De- 
lilie translated,  also,  the  iEneid  of  Virgil 
(1803V  and  was  received,  in  his  37tb  year, 
into  tne  academy.    Befbre  this  time,  he 


had  produced  his  didactic  poem,  Les  JcoT' 
dins,  <m  VArt  d^embeUirks  Paysages (^ans^ 
17862),  in  four  cantos.  This  was  consid- 
ered the  best  didactic  poem  in  the  French 
language,  though  inferior  to  his  translation 
of  Virgil.  Delilie  received  the  lower  or- 
dinations, to  be  enabled  to  hold  a  benefice, 
from  which,  together  with  his  salaries  as 
professor,  and  member  of  the  academy, 
and  his  own  foitune,  he  derived,  before 
the  revolution,  an  annual  income  of  30,000 
livres,  of  which  he  preserved,  at  a  later 
period,  only  600.  He  was  also  made  a 
member  of  die  national  institute.  Though 
an  adherent  of  the  old  system,  Roliespieire 
spared  him  on  ever^  occasion.  At  his 
request,  Delilie  wrote,  in  twenty-four  hours, 
the  Diihframbe  sur  Vhrnmortaliit  de  VAme^ 
to  be  sung  on  the  occasion  of  the  public 
acknowledgment  of  the  Deity.  This  per- 
formance made  an  impression  even  on  the 
members  of  the  committee  of  safety,  but 
was  not  sung.  In  1794,  he  withdrew  from 
Paris,  and  gave  himself  up  to  the  sublime 
scenery  of  the  Vosges,  to  meditations  on 
the  destiny  of  man,  and  on  the  laws  of 
poetry.  In  Switzerland,  he  finished  his 
jHomnte  dea  Champs^  a  didactic  poem  on 
the  charms  of  ru^  life,  called  also  G^- 
gifpus  FVanfCMes,  which  may  be  consid- 
ered as  a  moral  sequel  to  Viigil's  Georgicsi 
Delilie  labored  on  it  for  twenty  years, 
principally  during  the  reign  of  terror,  in 
the  vales  of  die  Vosges,  in  1794  and  1795 ; 
hence  the  deep  melancholy  of  many  pas- 
sages. The  sufferings  of  bis  country 
produced  Le  Malheur  et  la  PitU,  four 
cantos  (Lond.  1803),  full  of  lovely  and 
touching  pictures,  in  harmonious  verse. 
At  London,  he  married  (1802)  mademoi- 
selle Vaudchamps,  for  a  long  time  the 
companion  of  his  travels.  Here  he  trans- 
lated, in  15  months,  Milton's  Paradise  Lose, 
perhaps  the  most  poetical  of  all  his  works ; 
but  the  exertion  brought  on  a  stroke  of 
the  apoplexy.  Afler  his  return  to  France, 
he  wrote  his  Jhns  Bkgnea  de  la  Aoturr, 
and  the  admired  poem  La  Conversatiim, 
a  subject  of  which  he  was  master.  Its 
poetical  character  is  the  same  as  that  of 
his  other  works.  Lively  feeling,  richncBs 
of  conception,  animated  descriptions,  puri- 
ty and  ^eat  elegance  of  expression,  har- 
monious and  easy  versification,  are  its 
chief  excellences.  Bouterwek  jusdy  re- 
marics,  ^A  didactic  work,  like  DeliUe's 
elegant  Homme  de^  Champs^  may  have 
many  charms  of  diction,  without  being  a 
poem."  Delilie  composed  in  his  head, 
without  writing,  even  the  30,000  verses  of 
his  translation  of  the  iEneid,  and,  like 
Tasso,  trusted  them  with  more  confidence 


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DELILLE-4)ELOLMl!. 


109 


to  bia  memory  than  to  his  tablets.  But  his 
bodily  vigor  dmiinished,  as  his  mental  pow- 
ers increased.  He  grew  blind,  and  died 
the  first  of  May,  1813.  In  a  poem  not 
committed  to  paper,  he  bad  sung  of  old 
age,  and  his  approaching  death ;  of  the 
vanities  of  the  j)re6ent,  and  the  happiness 
of  the  future  life.  He  was  universally  la- 
mented, on  account  of  his  amiable  charac- 
ter, as  well  as  of  his  talents.  After  his  deadi 
appeared  Le  D^art  iPEden  (I*aris). 

Delisle,  or  De  L'Isle,  Guillaume ;  a 
geo^pher,  bom  at  Paris,  in  1675.  He 
-woA  instructed  by  Cassini,  and  soon  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  reforming  the  whole 
system  of  geography.  He  published,  in 
hb  25th  year,  a  map  of  the  world,  maps 
of  Europe,  Asia  and  Africa,  a  celestial 
and  terrestrial  globe  of  a  foot  in  diameter. 
By  rejecting  Ptolemy's  statements  of  lon- 
gitude, or  rather  by  comparing  them  with 
the  astronomical  observations  and  die 
statements  of  modem  travellers,  he  found- 
ed the  modern  system  of  geography.  The 
number  of  his  geographical  maps  of  the 
old  and  new  world  amounts  to  100.  His 
last  edition  of  his  map  of  the  world  was 
published  in  1724  These  maps  are  valu- 
able even  at  the  present  day.  His  brother 
Joseph  ,Nicdas,  bom,  in  1688,  at  Paris, 
devoted  himself  in  his  earliest  youth  to 
astronomy,  under  tlie  direction  of  Lieu- 
taud  and  Cassini,  and  was  admitted  into 
the  academy  of  sciences.  His  obsen^a- 
tions  on  the  transit  of  Mercury  over  the 
sun,  in  1723,  and  of  the  eclipse  of  die 
sun,  in  1724,  increased  his  reputation. 
The  empress  Catharine  I  invited  him  to 
Petersburg,  to  establish  a  school  for  astron- 
omy, to  which  the  fame  of  Delisle  soon 
gave  celebrity.  His  leisure  time  was  em- 
ployed in  travelling,  for  the  purpose  of 
making  interesting  collections  in  natural 
science  and  geography.  On  his  return, 
his  collections  were  purchased  by  the 
king,  and  Delisle  himself  was  appointed 
inspector  of  them.  He  continued  his  ob- 
servations till  his  death,  in  1768.  Among 
his  pupils  were  Lalande  and  Messier. 
His  most  important  geographical  work, 
Mimoires  star  lea  rumveUes  D^counjertes  au 
Mn-d  de  la  Mer  du  Sud  (1752),  contains  the 
results  of  the  Russian  voyages  to  discover 
a  passage  from  the  Pacific  ocean  into  the 
waters  north  of  America.  His  Mhrunrts 
wntr  sermr  h  VHxgtoirt  d  cntx  Progrh  de 
V^^strononde,  de  la  Giographie  et  de  la 
Pkysi^  (1738)  remain  unfinished.  His 
•^eriissement  aux  Jbitronomies  sur  Vidipse 
annrdaire  du  SoleS  que  Von  attend  le  25 
Mn,  1748,  gives  a  comi^ete  history  of  all 
annular  eclipses  of  the  8un« 

vou  IV.  15 


Della  Maria,  Dominique,  a  French 
composer,  descended  fiom  an  Italian 
family,  was  bom  at  Marseilles,  in  1778, 
composed,  in  his  18th  year,  an  opera 
which  was  performed,  with  applause,  in 
his  native  city,  and  went  afterwards  to 
Italy,  where  he  enjoyed  the  instmction  of 
se^reral  great  masters,  particularly  of  Pae- 
siello,  and  composed  six  comic  operas,  of 
which  B  Maestro  di  Cappdla  is  the  most 
distinguished.  After  his  retum  to  Paris, 
his  opera  Le  Prisormier  increased  his  rep- 
utation, and  the  airs  of  his  Oph-a  Comique 
became  national  favorites.  In  his  works, 
the  song  is  easy  and  agreeable,  die  ^le 
pure  and  elegant,  the  expression  natural, 
the  accompaniment  eas^,  original,  and 
pleasing.  He  played  with  extraordinary 
skill  on  the  piano  and  the  violoncello.  He 
di^d  in  his  29ih  year  (1806). 

Delolme,  John  Louis,  bom  at  Geneva, 
1740  (according  to  some,  in  1745J,  was  a 
lawyer  in  his  native  city,  and  the  part 
which  he  took  in  its  internal  commotions 
by  a  work  entitled  Examen  des  trois  Points 
de  Droit,  obliged  him  to  repair  to  England, 
where  he  oassed  some  years  in  great  indi- 
gence. He  wrote  for  journals,  frequented 
low  tavems,  was  devoted  to  gaming  and 
pleasure,  and  lived  in  such  obscurity,  that, 
when  he  became  known  by  his  worik  on 
the  English  Constitution,  and  some  people 
of  distinction  were  desirous  of  relieving 
him,  it  was  impossible  to  discover  his 

Elace  of  residence.  His  pride  was  gratified 
y  tills  kind  of  low  independence,  and  he 
rejected  all  assistance,  excepting  some  aid 
from  the  literary  fund,  to  enable  him  to 
retum  to  his  country.  This  was  probably 
in  1775,  since,  firom  that  time,  he  calls 
himself  member  of  the  council  of  the 
two  hundred  in  Geneva.  Among  his  pe- 
culiarities was  this,  that,  altliough  princi- 
pally occupied  with  political  law,  he  was 
never  present  at  a  session  of  parliament 
At  the  time  of  his  arrival  in  England, 
aristocratical  arro^nce  and  turbulence 
had  reached  its  highest  pitch  in  Sweden 
and  Poland,  and  it  was  reared,  not  with- 
out reason,  in  England,  that  the  same 
evils  threatened  that  country.  Delolme 
entered  into  an  investigation  of  this  sub- 
ject Hence  bjiginated  bis  famous  work. 
Constitution  de  PAn^eterre,  ou  ikd  du 
Gouvemement  ,^nglais  compart  avec*  la 
Forme  r^publicaine  et  avec  les  autres  Mo- 
narchies de  V Europe  (Amsterdam,  1771); 
and  a  work  in  English,  called  A  Parallel 
between  the  Engfish  Govemment  and 
the  former  Govemment  of  Sweden  (Lon- 
don, 1772\.  In  both,  his  principal  object 
was  to  illustrate  the  excellence  and  sta- 


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DELOLME— DELOS. 


bility  of  the  English  constitution.  Its 
character  of  a  spirited  eulogiura  is  un- 
doubtedly the  reason  that  the  first  politi- 
cians of  England,  lord  Chatham,  the 
marquis  of  Camden,  and  the  author  of  the 
celebrated  Letters  of  Junius,  spoke  so 
highly  of  this  work  of  a  foreigner.  It  is 
not  a  coiilplete  8}'stem  of  tlie  political 
law  of  England,  and  has  been  reproached 
as  being  superficial ;  but  it  contains  much 
ingenious  reflection  on  die  EngUsh  con- 
stitution, on  the  energy  arising  from  a 
happy  union  of  royal  power  wiUi  popular 
liberty,  and  particularly  on  the  value  of 
an  independent  judiciary  and  the  freedom 
of  the  press,  subjected  to  penal  laws,  but  not 
to  a  censorship.  This  work,  translated  by 
the  author  himself  into  English,  in  1772 
(fourth  English  edition,  1784,  with  obser- 
vations by  doctor  Charles  Coote),  is  still 
considered,  in  England,  one  of  the  most 
ingenious  works  on  the  English  constitu- 
tion. Delolme  also  published,  in  Englisli, 
hrj  Histoiy  of  the  Flagellants,  or  Me- 
morials of  human  Superstition  (1783,  in 
quarto);  An  Essay  on  the  Union  with 
Scotland  (London,  1796,  4t6.).  On  the 
occasion  of  tlie  will  of  Mr.  Thellusson,  he 
wrote  his  Olisen^ations  on  the  Power  of 
Individuals  to  prescribe,  by  testamentary 
Dispositions,  the  particular  future  Uses  to 
be  made  of  their  Property  (London,  1798, 
4to.).  He  died  in  July,  1^  at  a  village 
in  Switzerland. 

Delorme,  Marion,  bom  in  1612,  at 
Chalons,  in  Champagne,  was  the  mistress 
of  the  seditious  Cinq-Mars.  (See  Riche- 
lieu.  Cardinal.)  Even  before  the  death 
of  her  lover,  she  formed  new  connexions, 
and  her  house  was  the  rendezvous  of  the 
young  courtiers.  She  permitted  herself, 
m  1650,  to  be  involved  in  the  affair  of 
the  discontented  princes.  She  escaped 
arrest  only  by  a  real  or  pretended  sick- 
ness, and  soon  afterwards  spread  a  report 
of  her  own  death.  She  is  said  to  have 
seen  her  own  funeral  from  a  window. 
She  tlien  went  to  England,  married  a  rich 
lord,  and,  while  returning,  a  widow,  with  a 
large  fortune,  was  attacked  by  robbers, 
and  forced  to  many  tiieir  captain.  After 
becoming  a  widow  a  second  time,  she 
married  a  man  named  Lebrun,  in  the 
Franche-Comt6,  with  whom  she  after- 
wards went  to  Paris,  where,  afler  the  death 
of  her  friend,  the  famous  Ninon  de  l^Bn- 
clos,  she  died  in  1706,  in  great  mdigence. 
La  Borde,  hi  the  appendix  to  the  Letters 
of  Ninon,  which  he  published  (Paris,  1816, 
3  vols.],  has  related  the  adventurous  life 
of  Manon. 

DfiLOs ;  the  central  island  of  the  Cycla- 


des,  in  the  ^gean  sea,  the  birth-place  of 
Apollo,  and  of  Diana.  Delos,  according 
to  tlie  poets,  was  once  a  naked  rock,  float- 
ing about  in  the  ocean,  and  was  accident- 
ally driven  by  the  waves  into  the  centre  of 
the  Cyclades.  The  earth  had  promised 
Juno^  with  an  oath,  not  to  grant  a  resting- 
place  to  the  fugitive  Latona  (q.  v.),  where 
she  might  be  delivered.  The  unhappy 
woman  wandered  restlessly  over  tlie  earth, 
until  she  perceived  the  floating  island.  As 
this  was  not  stationary,  it  wos  not  com- 
prehended in  tlie  oath  of  the  earth,  and 
oftered  her  on  asylum.  She  vowed  to 
build  a  temple  on  its  rocks,  to  which  all 
nations  should  bring  ofierings.  On  the 
rude  cliffs,  under  a  shadowing  tree,  Latona 
bore  the  infant  gods  Apollo  (who  waa 
hence  called  Ddios)  and  Diana  (who  was 
called  Ddia\  Botn  were,  in  after  times, 
particularly  worshipped  on  tlie  island. 
Delos  was  thenceforward  no  longer  the 
sport  of  tlie  winds ;  from  the  foundation 
of  the  earth  arose  columns  which  support- 
ed it,  and  the  fame  of  the  isle  spread  over 
the  world.  Thus  far  mvthological  tradi- 
tion.— ^At  first,  the  island  had  lungs  of  its 
own,  who  also  held  the  sacerdot^  oflSce. 
In  the  course  of  time,  it  came  under  the 
dominion  of  Athens.  Nothing  was  tole- 
rated upon  it,  which  bore  the  traces  of 
death  or  war.  The  dead  were  buried  in 
the  adjacent  island  Rhenea.  After  the 
destruction  of  Corinth,  the  rich  Corinthi- 
ans fled  hither,  and  made  Delos  the  seat 
of  a  flourishing  commerce.  The  greatest 
curiosity  of  the  island  was  the  temple  and 
oracle  of  Apollo.  The  temple,  founded 
by  ErisichUion,  son  of  Cecn™,  and  em- 
bellished successively  by  dinerent  states 
of  Greece,  was  built  of  Parian  marble,  and 
contained,  besides  the  beautiful  statue  of 
the  god,  a  remaricable  altar,  from  which 
the  Delian  prohlemy  as  it  is  called,  had  its 
name.  The  inhabitants,  having  consulted 
the  oracle  concerning  the  remedy  of  a 
plague  which  raged  in  Delos,  were  order- 
ed to  double  the  altar  of  Apollo,  which 
was  a  cube.  This  famous  geometrical 
problem  of  the  duphcation  of  the  cube 
was  solved  in  different  ways,  by  several 
of  the  ancient  mathematicians  and  philos- 
ophers. The  oracles  which  Apollo  ut- 
tered here  were  thought  the  most  intelli- 
gible and  sure.  They  were  delivered  only 
in  summer;  in  vrinter,  Apollo  gave  hjs 
responses  in  Patara,  m  Lprcia.  The  Gre- 
cians celebrated  the  Dehan  festival  here 
eveiy  five  years ;  and  the  Athenians  per- 
formed annually  the  beautiful  pilgrimage, 
called  theoria,  with  processions  and  dances. 
Delos  was  held  to  be  a  place  of  so  great  a 


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m 


sanctity,  that  the  Pereians,  when  they  made 
war  agauist  Greece,  and  had  sent  to  Delos 
a  navy  of  a  thousand  saiJ,  out  of  rever- 
ence to  the  patron  deities,  forbore  attack- 
ing the  island.  Delos  was  celebrated,  in 
ancient  times,  for  the  number  and  the  ex- 
cellence of  its  artists,  and  the  school  which 
it  founded.  Pliny  says  that  its  bronze 
was  excellent,  and  much  esteemed.  It 
was  also  celebrated  for  tlie  fineness  of  its 
silver,  which  the  Delians  used  with  great 
skill  and  taste,  in  the  formation  of  various 
utensils,  vessels,  statues  of  their  gods,  of 
heroes,  animals.  The  statue  of  Jupiter 
Tonans,  in  the  Capitol,  was  of  Delian 
bronze.  Cicero,  in  his  oration  for  Roscius, 
has  many  eulogiums  upon  the  fine  vases 
of  Delos  and  Corinth.  The  temple  of* 
Apollo,  at  Delos,  was  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  of  its  time  in  all  Greece.  Delos, 
now  called  lUgi,  is  uninhabited,  or  is  only 
the  haunt  of  pirates ;  but  splendid  ruins  of 
its  former  magnificence  yet  exist 

Delphi,  the  seat  of  the  most  &mous 
oracle  of  ancient  Greece,  was  situated  in 
Pbocis,  on  the  southern  side  of  Parnassus. 
Apollo,  according  to  fable,  having  killed 
the  serpent  Python  (some  call  it  Ddphine)^ 
and  determining  to  build  his  sanctuary 
herey  perceived  a  merchant-vessel  fit)m 
Crete  sailing  by.  He  immediately  leaped 
into  the  sea,  in  the  form  of  an  immense 
dolphin  (hence  he  is  called  Dehfhin\  took 
possession  of  the  vessel,  and  forced  it  to 
pass  by  Pylos,  and  to  enter  the  harbor  of 
Crissa.  After  the  Cretans  had  landed,  he 
assumed  the  figure  of  a  beautiful  youth, 
and  told  them  that  they  must  not  return 
to  their  country,  but  should  serve  as 
priests  in  his  temple.  Inspired,  and  sing- 
mg  hymns,  the  Cretans  followed  the  god 
to  his  sanctuary,  on  the  rocky  declivity  of 
Parnassus ;  but,  discouraged  by  the  steril- 
ity of  the  country,  they  implored  Apollo 
to  save  them  from  famine  and  poverty. 
The  god,  smiling,  declared  to  them  the  ad- 
vantage which  they  would  derive  from 
serving  as  his  priests.  They  then  built 
Delphi,  calling  the  city  at  first  Piflho\ 
from  the  serpent  which  Apollo  had  killed 
at  this  place.  The  oracles  were  delivered 
from  a  cave,  called  Pythium.  Tradidon 
ascribes  its  discovery  to  a  shepherd,  who 
pastured  his  flocks  at  the  foot  of  Parnas- 
sus, and  was  filled  with  prophetic  inspi- 
ration by  the  intoxicating  vapor  which 
arose  from  it  Over  the  cave,  which 
was  contained  in  a  temple,  was  placed 
the  holy  tripod,  upon  which  the  priestess, 
called  PyUwu,  by  whose  mouth  Apollo 
was  to  speak,  received  the  vapors  as- 
cending from  beneath,  and  with  them  the 


inspiration  of  the  Delphian  god,  and  pro- 
claimed the  oracles*  (hence  the  proverb, 
to  speak  ex  tripoikj  used  of  obscure  sen- 
tences, dogmatically  pronounced).  After 
having  first  bathed  heraelf,  and  particularly 
her  hair,  in  tlie  neighboring  fountain  of 
Castalia,  and  crowned  her  bead  with  laurel, 
she  seated  herself  on  tlie  tripod,  which 
was  also  crowned  with  a  wreath  of  tlie 
same;  then,  shaking  the  laurel  tree,  and 
eating  perhaps  some  leaves  of  it,  she  was 
seized  with  a  fit  of  enthusiasm.  Her  face 
changed  color,  a  shudder  ran  through  her 
limbs,  and  cries  and  long  protracted  groans 
issued  from  her  mouth.  This  excite- 
ment soon  increased  to  fury.  Her  eyes 
sparkled,  her  mouth  foamed,  her  hair 
stood  on  end,  and,  almost  suffocated  by 
the  ascending  vapor,  the  priests  were 
obliged  to  retain  the  struggling  priestess 
on  her  seat  by  force ;  when  uie  began, 
with  dreadful  bowlings,  to  pour  forth  de- 
tached words,  which  the  priests  collected 
with  care,  arranged  them,  and  delivered 
them  in  writing  to  the  inquirer.  At  first, 
the  answers  were  given  in  verse,  but  in 
later  times,  the  authority  of  the  oracle 
being  diminished,  they  contented  them- 
selves with  delivering  them  in  prose. 
This  oracle  was  always  obscure  and  am- 
biguous ;  yet  it  served,  in  earlier  times,  in 
the  hands  of  the  priests,  to  regulate  and 
uphold  the  political,  civil  and  religious 
relations  of  Gfreece.  It  enjoyed  the  repu- 
tation of  infallibility  for  a  long  time ;  for 
the  Dorians,  the  first  inhabitants  of  the 
place,  who  soon  setded  in  all  parts  of 
Greece,  spread  an  unbounded  reverence 
for  it  At  first,  only  one  month  in  the 
year  was  assigned  for  the  delivery  of  or- 
acles ;  afterwards,  one  day  in  each  month  ; 
but  none  who  asked  the  god  for  counsel 
dared  approach  him  without  gifts.  Hence 
the  splendid  temple  possessed  immense 
treasures,  and  the  city  was  adofaed  with 
numerous  statues  and  other  works  of  art, 
the  offerings  of  gratitude.  Del])h)  was 
at  the  samd  time  the  bank,  in  which  the 
rich  deposited  their  treasures,  under  the 
protection  of  Apollo,  though  this  did  not 

Erevcnt  it  from  being  repeatedly  plundered 
y  the  Greeks  and  barbarians.  The  an- 
cients believed  Delphi  to  be  the  centre  of 
the  earth :  this,  they  said,  was  determined 
by  Jupiter,  who  let  loose  two  eagles,  tlie 
one  fi:om  the  east  and  the  other  m>m  the 
west,  which  met  here.  The  tomb  of 
Neoptolemus  (or  Pyrrhus),  tlie  son  of 
Achilles,  who  was  killed  here  by  Orestes, 
was  also  at  Delphi.  Not  far  fixim  the 
tomb  was  the  famous  Lesche,  adorned  by 
Polygnotus  with  the  history  of  the  Trojan 


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172 


DELPHI— DEMARARA. 


war.  (See  Pafygnoius,)  In  the  plain  be- 
tween Delphi  and  Cirrha,  the  Pythian 
mm€s{q.  v.)  were  celebrated,  in  the  month 
Targelion.  These  nadonal  games,  and 
the  protection  of  the  Amphictyons,  gave 
Delptu  a  lasting  splendor.  It  is  now  a  vil- 
lage called  Castn, 

Delphini,  Iff  UsuM.    (See  Dauphin,) 

Delta  ;  A*  a  Greek  letter,  answering  to 
D.  The  resemblance  of  the  island  formed 
by  the  alluvion,  between  the  two  mouths 
or  the  Nile,  to  a  A,  is  the  reason  why  it 
was  called  by  the  Greeks  Ddia.  It  con- 
tained Sais,  Pelusium,  and  Alexandria. 
It  was  divided  into  the  great  and  small 
Delta.  Islands  at  tlie  mouths  of  other 
rivers,  shaped  like  a  A,  have  the  same 
name :  thus  we  speak  of  tlie  Delta  of  the 
Mississippi. 

Deluc,  Jean  Andr6,  a  geologist  and  me- 
teorologist, bom  in  1726,  at  Geneva,  where 
bis  father  was  a  watch-Aiaker,  passed  his 
whole  life  in  geological  investigations,  for 
the  sake  of  which  he  made  numerous  jour- 
neys. He  enriched  science  with  very  im- 
portant discoveries.  His  theories  and  hy- 
potheses, which  he  endeavored  to  accom- 
modate to  the  historical  accounts  con- 
tained in  the  Holy  Scripmres,  have  met 
with  violent  opponents.  (See  Geology.) 
He  passed  some  time  in  England,  as  read- 
er to  the  queen,  and  died  in  1817,  at 
WindK>r.  Among  his  numerous  writings 
are  his  Ruherches  8ur  les  Modificationa  dt 
V^momhhre  (Geneva^  1772,  2  vols.  4to.); 
Mntveues  Idiea  sur  la  MSt^orotoeie  (Lon- 
don, 1786,  2  vols.) ;  and  his  TraM^  ^nm- 
tairede  G^o^o^  (Paris,  1810,  8 vo.). 

Deluge  (from  the  Latin  diluvies^  dUu- 
viuro,  from  dUuere^  to  wash  awayh  the 
universal  inundation,  which,  accoraing  to 
the  3f osaic  history,  took  place  to  punish 
the  great  iniquity  of  mankind.  It  was 
produced,  according  to  Genesis,  by  a  rain 
of  forty  days,  and  a  breaking  up  of  <^the 
fountains  of  the  great  deep,"  and  covered 
the  earth  fifteen  cubits  above  the  tops  of  the 
highest  mountains,  and  killed  every  living 
creature,  except  Noah,  with  his  family,' 
and  the  animals  which  entered  the  ark, 
by  tbe  command  of  God.  Afler  the  flood 
had  prevailed  upon  the  earth  a  hundred 
and  ^fly  days,  and  had  decreased  for  an 
equal  time^  making  its  whole  duration 
somewhat  less  than  a  year,  Noah  became 
convinced  that  the  land  had  spun  emerg- 
ed, by  the  return  of  a  dove  w%  an  olive- 
branch,  and  landed  on  mount  Ararat,  in 
Armenia.  The  time  v^en  this  chastise- 
ment took  place  was,  accoiding  to  die 
common  computation,  in  tlie  16S>tli  year 
cf  the  world ;  according  to  Pettivius,  2327 


B.  C;  accoitling  to  Mfiller,  3547  R  C 
Many  other  nations  mention,  in  the  myth- 
olo^cal  part  of  their  history,  inundations, 
which,  in  their  essential  particulars,  agree 
with  the  scriptural  account  of  NcMih's 
preservation.  Hence  many  persons  have 
inferred  the  universality  of  this  inundation. 
Fohi  in  the  Chinese  mythology,  Sottivrata 
or  Satya\Tata  in  the  Indian,  Xisuthnis 
in  the  Chaldeean,  Ogyges  and  Deucalion 
in  tlie  Greek,  have  each  been  recognised 
by  many  as  the  Noah  of  the  Sacred 
Scriptures,  under  a  different  name.  Even 
the  American  Indians  have  a  tradition  of 
a  similar  deluge,  and  a  renewal  of  tbe 
human  race  from  the  family  of  one  indi- 
vidual. All  these  individuals  are  said  by 
their  respective  nations  to  have  been  saved, 
and  to  have  become  a  second  father  of 
mankind.  The  many  skeletons,  also, 
found  petrified  on  tlie  tope,  or  in  the  inte- 
rior of  mountains,  the  remains  of  animals 
of  hot  climates  in  countries  now  cold,  have 
been  alleged  as  confirmadons  of  a  uni- 
versal revolution  on  our  planet,  occasioned 
by  the  violent  action  of  water,  as  the 
Mosaic  relation  states  it  to  have  been. 
On  the  other  hand,  raiionaHits  and  deists 
have  objected,  that  such  a  general  destruc- 
tion of  mankind,  by  which  the  innocent 
must  have  been  punished  like  the  guilty, 
is  unworthy  of  the  justice  of  God,  the 
Fadier  of  his  creatures ;  that  the  great  ad- 
vancement of  civilization,  and  large  popu- 
lation which  history  shows  to  have  existed 
a  few  yeare  afler  Noah,  is  inconsistent 
with  such  a  general  inundation ;  and  that 
aH  the  information  which  we  have  of  it 
was  written  down  at  least  1000  years  afler 
it  took  place,  so  as  to  leave  the  uni  venality 
of  the  flood  a  matter  of  great  doubt — ^An 
interestiiif  work  on  this  subject  has  l>een 
latelv  published,  entided  Veber  dtn  Mvtkos 
der  SundfltOh  (2d  edition,  Berim,  1819,  by 
Buttmanii).  This  subject  is  of  gieat  in- 
terest, whether  considered  in  connexion 
with  sacred  history  and  theology,  with 
civil  history,  or  with  natural  history.  The 
works  treating  of  it  are  far  too  numerous 
to  be  mendoned  here. 

Deharara,  orDEMERART;  a  province 
of  English  Guiana,  which  derives  its  name 
from  tJie  river  Demarara  or  Deineraiy. 
(q.  V.)  It  originally  belonged  to  the  Dutch, 
and  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain  in  1814. 
It  extends  about  100  miles  along  the  coast, 
lying  on  the  eastof  Essequibo,  and  on  the 
west  of  fierbice.  The  soil  is  very  fertile, 
producing  abundant  crops  of  sugar,  coffee, 
cotton,  rice,  &c.  The  climate  resembles 
that  of  South  Carolina.  For  20  miles  up 
the  river,  the  country  consists  of  extensive 


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DEllARAltA— DEMIGODS. 


173 


meadows,  and  is  pRrfeetly  level;  then 
appear  some  sand-hills;  afterwaids  the 
country  becomes  mountainous  and  broken. 
Chiertown,  Stabroek.  (For  further  in- 
formation, see  Guiofio.) 

Demarcation,  Line  or;  every  line 
drawn  for  determining  a  bonier,  which  is 
not  to  be  passed  by  foreign  powers,  or  by 
such  as  are  at  war  with  each  other.  Thus 
the  pope  drew  a  line  of  demarcation  through 
the  ocean,  to  settle  the  disputes  between 
the  Spanish  and  Portuguese,  after  the  first 
discoveries  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Ac- 
cording to  a  treaty  between  the  French 
republic  and  the  king  of  Prussia,  con- 
cluded at  Basle,  May  17,  1795,  a  line  of 
neutrality  was  established,  which  removed 
the  theatre  of  war  from  northern  Grerma- 
ny.  Also  in  the  armistice  of  Pleswitz 
(1813),  such  an  ardiicial  limit  was  fixed 
between  the  French  and  the  allied  troops 
of  Russia  and  Prussia. 

Dehbea  ;  a  large  lake  of  Abyssinia,  in  a 
province  of  the  same  name,  in  the  west 
part  of  that  country.  It  is  supposed  to  be 
450  miles  in  circumference,  and  contains 
many  islands,  one  of  which  is  a  place  of 
confinement  for  state  prisoners.  The 
Bahr-el-Azrek,  the  Abyssinian  Nile,  flows 
through  it. 

Demebakt,  or  Demarara  ;  a  liver  of 
South  AmeiicBLf  in  English  Guiana,  which, 
after  a  course  of  about  200  miles,  flows 
mto  the  Atlantic,  Ion.  58°  25^  W.,  lat 
6°  40^  N.  It  is  two  miles  wide  at  its 
mouth,  and  is  navigable  for  ships  of  con- 
Hderable  burden  nearly  100  miles.  It 
afibrds  an  excellent  harbor,  but  the  bar 
will  not  admit  vessels  drawing  more  than 
18  feet 

Debcesne.    fSee  Domatru) 

Demeter  ;  tne  Greek  name  of  the  god- 
dess called  by  the  Romans  Ceres,  (q.  v.) 

Demetrhts  ;  the  name  of  several  kings 
of  Macedonia  and  Syria.  Demetrius  I, 
sumamed  Poliorcetes  (the  conqueror  of 
cities),  kiiu;  of  Macedonia,  son  of  Antigo- 
Dus,  waged  several  wars,  in  particular  vnth 
Ptolemy  Lagus.  He  appeared  before 
Athens  with  a  fleet,  expelled  Demetrius 
Phalereus,  who  had  been  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  the  place  by  Cassander,  and 
testored  to  the  people  their  ancient  form 
of  govenmient  Having  lost  the  battle  of 
Ipsus,  against  Seleucus,  Cassander  and 
Lysimachus  (301  B<  C),  he  fled  to  Ephe- 
Bus,  and  thence  to  Athens,  where  he  was 
not  permitted  to  enter.  Passing  over  to 
Corinth,  he  embarked  on  an  expedition 
against  the  Thracian  dominions  of  Ly- 
simachus. He  then  went  to  Asia,  to  lie- 
stow  his  daughter,  Stratonice,  in  marriage 
15* 


on  Seleucus,  and  on  his  wav  took  posses- 
sion '  of  Cilicia,  by  which  his  friendship 
with  Seleucus  was  broken  off*.  He  con- 
quered Macedonia  (294  B.  C),  and  reigned 
seven  years,  but  lost  this  country  by  his 
arbitrary  conduct  Deserted  by  his  sol- 
diers, he  surrendered  himself,  at  length,  to 
his  son-in-law,  who  exiled  him  to  Pelia,  in 
Svria,  where  he  died  (284  B.  C.)  at  the  age 
of  54  years.  The  above-mentioned  Deme- 
trius Phalereus,  a  celebrated  Greek  orator, 
disciple  of  Theophrastus,  devoted  his  first 
years  to  rhetoric  and  pliilosophy,  but,  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  reign  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  entered  into  the  career  of  politics. 
He  was  made  Macedonian  governor  of 
Adiens,  and  archon  (309  B.  C.),  and  em- 
bellished the  city  by  magnificent  edifices. 
The  gratitude  of  the  Athenians,  over  whom 
he  ruled,  ei^ected  him  as  many  statues  as 
there  are  days  in  the  year.  But  the  envy 
of  his  enemies  produced  an  excitement 
against  him,  and  he  was  condemned  to 
death,  and  his  statues  destit>yed.  He  fled 
to  Egypt,  to  the  court  of  the  Ptolemies, 
where  he  is  swd  to  have  promoted  the  es- 
tablishment of  tiie  library,  and  of  the  muse- 
um, the  superintendence  of  wliich  Ptolemy 
Lagus  intrusted  to  him.  Under  the  follow- 
ing king,  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  he  fell  into 
dii^grace,  and  was  banished  to  a  remote 
fortress,  where  he  died  from  the  bite  of 
an  asp.  Demetrius  was  among  the  most 
learned  of  the  Peripatetics,  and  wrote  on 
several  subjects  of  philosophical  and  polit- 
ical science.  But  the  woric  on  rhetoric, 
which  has  come  to  us  under  his  name, 
belongs  to  a  later  age. 

Dehidoff,  Nicolaus,  count  of,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  ancient  family  of  Demidofi^ 
which  discovered  and  wrought  the  iron, 
copper,  gold  and  silver  mines  in  Siberia, 
and  thus  first  introduced  civilization  into 
that  country,  was  bom  in  1774,  at  Pe- 
tersburg, was  made  privy-counsellor  and 
chamberlain  of  the  emperor  Alexander, 
entered  the  mihtaiy  service  at  an  early 
age,  and  retired  with  the  rank  of  colonel 
He  visited  all  parts  of  Europe,  for  the 
purpose  of  introducing  the  arts  of  civili- 
zation into  Russia,  and  established  many 
manu&ctories  with  this  view.  In  1812, 
he  levied  a  regiment  at  his  own  expense, 
with  which  he  acted  against  the  French, 
till  thev  were  entirely  expelled  from  Rus- 
sia. He  then  devoted  himself  to  study, 
and  to  the  improvement  of  his  manufiic- 
tories.  The  university  of  Moscow  having 
lost  all  its  collections  of  natural  history  by 
fire,  he  jMresented  to  it  his  own  rich  cab- 
inet 

Demiqods.    (See  Heroes.) 


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DEBfME--D£MOCRITUS. 


Demme,  Hermann  Christoph  Gottfried, 
WQS  born  at  Miihlhausen,  in  1760,  and 
died  at  Altenburg,  in  Saxony,  in  1822. 
He  waa  one  of  the  most  practical  Gierman 
theologians,  and  his  sermons  are  much 
esteemed.  He  also  wrote  many  other 
works,  of  a  practical  moral  tendency. 

Demochact.    (See  Crovemmeni,  Forma 


)emocritus,  a  philosopher  of  the  new 
Eleatic  school,  a  native  of  Abdera,  flour- 
ished in  the  72d  Olympiad,  and  was  bom 
about  494  B.  C.  Some  Magi  and  Chal- 
deans, whom  Xerxes  left  on  his  return 
from  his  Grecian  expedition,  are  said  to 
have  excited  in  Democritus  tlie  first  incli- 
nation for  philosophy.  After  the  death  of 
his  fatlier,  he  travelled  to  Eg>'pt,  where  he 
studied  geometry,  and  probably  visited 
other  countries,  to  extend  his  knowledge 
of  nature.  Among  the  Greek  philoso- 
phers, he  enjoyed  the  instruction  of  Leu- 
cippus.  He  afterwards  returned  to  his 
native  city,  where  he  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  public  affiurs.  Indignant  at  the 
follies  of^  the  Abderites,  he  resigned  his 
office,  and  retired  to  solitude,  to  devote 
himself  exclusively  to  philosophical  stu- 
dies. We  pass  over  the  fables  which 
have  been  related  of  Democritus,,  such  as 
that  he  laughed  continually  at  the  follies 
of  mankind  (in  contrast  to  the  weeping 
Heraclitus),  and  give  a  short  summary 
of  his  phikjsophical  opinions.  In  his  sys- 
tem, he  developed  still  further  the  me- 
chanical or  atomical  theory  of  his  master, 
Leucippus.  Thus  he  explained  the  origin 
of  the  world  by  the  eternal  motion  of  an 
infinite  number  of  invisible  and  indivisible 
bodies,  atoms,  which  differ  from  one  an- 
other in  form,  position  and  arrangement, 
and  are  alternately  separated  and  com- 
bined by  their  motions  in  inftnite  space. 
In  this  way  the  universe  was  formed,  for- 
tuitously, vnthout  the  interposition  of  a 
First  Cause.  The  eternal  existence  of 
atoms  (of  matter  in  general)  he  inferred 
from  the  consideration,  that  time  could  be 
conceived  only  as  eternal,  and  without 
beginning.  Their  indivisibility  he  attempt- 
ed to  prove  in  the  following  manner:  If 
bodies  are  infinitely  divisible,  it  must  be 
allowed  that  their  division  must  be  per- 
ceptible. After  the  division  has  been 
made,  there  remains  either  something  ex- 
tended, or  points  without  any  extent,  or 
nothing.  In  the  first  case,  division  would 
not  be  finished ;  in  the  second  case,  the 
combination  of  points  without  extension 
could  never  produce  something  extended, 
and  if  there  remained  nothing,  me  material 
world  wotdd  also  be  nothing ;  consequent- 


ly, there    muH  exist  simple,  indivisiUe 
bodies  (atoms).    From  his  {josition  of  the 
etenial  change  of  tlie  separating  and  com- 
bining atoms,  follows  also  the  other,  that 
there  are  numberless  worlds  continually 
arising  and  perishing.    In  the  atoms  he 
distinguished  figure,  size,  gravity,  and  im- 
penetrability.   All  things  have  the  same 
elementary  parts,  and  dieir  difference  de- 
pends only  oi\  the  different  figure,  order 
and  situation  of  the  atoms,  of  which  every 
thing  is  composed.     This  difference  of 
the  atoms  is  mfinite,  hke  their  number: 
hence  the  variety  of  things  is  infinitely 
great    Fire  consists,  according  to  him,  of 
active  globules,  and  spreads,  like  a  light 
envelope,  round  the  earth.     The  air  is 
moved  by  the  continual  rising  of  the  atoms 
from  the  lower  regions,  and  becomes  a 
rapid  stream,  which  caiTies  along  with  it 
the  stars  formed  in  its  bosom.     The  fbl- 
lowinff  doctrines  of  his,  concerning  the 
soul,  deserve  to  be  mentioned :    The  soul 
consists,  in  as  far  as  it  is  a  moving  power, 
of  igneous  atoms;    but,  since  it  is  ac- 
quainted with  the  other  elements,  and  any 
tning  can  be  known  only  by  its  equal,  it 
must  be  composed  in  part,  also,  from  the 
other  elements.    The  sense  of  feeling  is 
the  fundamental  sense,  and  the  least  de- 
ceitful of  all ;  for  that  alone  can  be  tine 
and  real  in  the  objects,  which  belonss  to 
the  atoms  themselves,  and  this  we  Team 
with  the  greatest  certainty  by  our  feeling. 
The  other  senses  show  more  the  acci- 
dental qualities  of  things,  and  are  conse- 
quently less  to  be  relied  upon.    The  im- 
pressions produced  on  the  five  senses  are 
effected,  pardy  by  the  different  compofii- 
tion  of  tlie  atoms  in  the  organs  of  sense, 
pardy  by  the  difierent  influence- exerted 
by  external  bodies,  which  varies  with  the 
arrangement  of  the  atoms  of  which  they 
consist.    In  the  act  of  vision,  images  sep- 
arate from  the  external  bodv,  and  enter 
the  eye.     The  motion  of  a  body  (for  in- 
stance, of  the  lips  in  speaking)  divides  the 
air,  and  gives  it  a  motion,  varying  accord- 
ing to  tlie  direction  of  the  moving  body. 
The  parts  of  air  thus  put  in  motion  arrive 
at  the  ear,  and  produce  hearing.     In  a 
similar  way  arise  tlie  sensations  of  tasting 
and  smelling.    The  images  of  the  objects 
received  by  the  eye  amve  through  it  to 
the  soul,  and  produce  within  us  notions. 
If,  therefore,  no  notions  come  to  the  soul 
by  means  of  the  eye,  its  activity  ceases,  as 
is  the  case  in  sleep.    The  knowledge  con- 
vened by  the  senses  is  obscure  and  de- 
ceitful, and  represents  mere  motions  of 
the  exterior  bodies.     What  we  know  by 
the  way  of  reason  has  a  higher  degree  of 


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175 


eettunty,  yet  it  is  not  beyond  doubt  The 
continuation  of  the  soul  after  deatli  was 
denied  by  Democritus,  who  believed  it  to 
be  composed  of  aftoms.  He  divided  it 
into  two  parts ;  into  the  rational  port, 
which  has  its  seat  in  the  breast,  and  the 
sensual  part,  which  is  diifused  tlm)Uffh 
the  whole  body.  Both  constitute  oiily 
one  substance.  The  freaXesL  good,  ac- 
cording to  Deraocritus,  is  a  tranquil  mind. 
He  applied  his  atomical  theory,  also,  to 
natural  philosophy  and  astronomy.  The 
popular  notious  of  the  gods  he  connected 
with  his  system,  perhaps  merely  to  ac- 
commodate himself  to  the  prevailing  creed. 
Even  the  gods  he  considered  to  have 
arisen  from  atoms,  and  to  be  perishable 
like  the  rest  of  things  existing.  Democri- 
tus  is  said  to  have  written  a  great  deal,  of 
which,  however,  nodiing  has  come  to  us. 
He  died  370  B.  C,  at  an  advanced  age. 
His  school  was  supplanted  by  that  of 
Epicurus. 

Demoiv&e,  Abraham ;  a  inathematioian 
of  tlie  last  century.  He  was  a  native  of 
Yitri,  in  Champagne,  and  was  driven  ilrom 
his  nadve  country  by  the  revocation  of 
the  edict  of  Nantes.  He  settled  in  Lon- 
don, and  gained  a  livelihood  by  becoming 
a  teacher  of  mathematics.  He  was  par- 
ticularly celebrated  for  his  skill  and  accu- 
racy as  a  calculator,  whence  he  is  thus 
referred  to  by  Pope : — 

"  Sure  as  Demoivre,  without  rule  or  line." 

He  died  in  1754,  at  die  age  of  ei^h^-ax. 
His  works  are,  MsceUanea  Arudyttca,  4to. ; 
The  Doctrine  of  Chances,  or  a  Method 
of  calculating  die  Probabilities  of  Events 
at  Play,  4ta;  and  a  work  on  annuities; 
besides  papers  in  the  Transactioua  of  the 
royal  society,  of  which  he  was  a  fellow. 
Demon,  Deuoniac,  Demonoloot, 
(Greek  and  Oriental).  Good  and  evil, 
wisdom  and  folly,  piety  and  superstition, 
have  been  connected  with  the  behef  in 
spirits.  The  name  demons  (Saindna,  iai- 
futvK,  genii),  by  which  diose  spirits  which 
are  sud  to  have  some  influence  upon  the 
destiny  of  men  are  generally  called,  directs 
us  to  Greece.  We  find  demons  spoken  of 
by  Homer.  He.  called  his  gods  demons  : 
they  address  each  other  by  this  tide,  and 
iutitirtos  is  SO  often  synonymous  with  go<l- 
Wx^  that  the  derivation  of  the  word  dmon 
from  iai^uv,  inteUigent,  wise,  is  highly 
probable.  Hesiod  uses  it  in  a  different 
sense.  Plutarch  says,  that  Hesiod  admit- 
ted four  classes  of  rational  beings— -gods, 
demons,  heroes  and  men.  (Hes.  (^.  €t 
Dies.  121—126.)  A  strict  classification 
was  not  made  until  the  popular  bdief 


had  been  introduced  into  the  schools  of 
die  philosophers.  Aristode  divides  the 
immortals  into  gods  and  demons;  the 
mortals  into  heroes  and  men.  In  the 
Greek  philosophy,  these  demons  early 
played  an  important  part  Thales  and 
Pythagoras,  Socrates  and  Xenophon,  £m- 
pedocles  and  the  Stoics,  invented  many 
fictions  concerning  diem,  each  in  his  own 
way.  The  poetic  Plato,  however,  goes 
further  dian  any  of  the  others.  In  the 
Banquet,  the  character  of  die  demons  is 
thus  explained:  ** Demons  are  intenne- 
diate  between  God  and  mortals;  their 
function  is  to  interpret  and  convey  to  the 
gods  what  comes  from  men,  and  to  men 
what  conies  from  the  gods ;  the  prayers 
and  offerings  of  die  one,  and  the  com- 
mands of  the  odieis.  These  demons  are 
the  source  of  all  prophecy,  and  of  die  art 
of  the  priests,  in  relation  to  sacrifices, 
consecrations,  conjurations^  &c. ;  for  God 
has  no  immediate  intercourae  with  men, 
but  all  the  intercourse  and  conversation 
between  the  gods  and  mortals  is  carried 
on  by  means  of  the  demons,  both  in 
waking  and  in  sleepuig.  There  are  many 
kinds  of  such  demons,  or  spirits."  In 
other  places,  he  says  of  them,  they  are 
clothed  vrith  air,  wander  over  heaven, 
hover  over  the  stars,  and  abide  on  the 
earth ;  they  behold  unveiled  the  secrets  of 
the  time  to  come,  and  regulate^events  ac- 
cording to  theu-  pleasure:  every  nK>rtal 
receives  at  birth  a  particular  demon,  who 
accompanies  him  until  his  end,  and  con- 
ducts his  soul  to  the  place  of  purification 
and  punishment  The  people  generally 
understood  by  them  the  godhead,  as  &r  as 
it  guides  the  destinies  of  men,  and  divided 
diem,  in  reference  to  the  eflfects  ascribed 
to  diem,  into  good  and  bad  spirits-^Aga- 
thodemons  and  Cacodemons.  The  Ro- 
mans stiU  further  developed  the  Greek 
demonology,  with  less,  however,  of  a  poet- 
ical character,  and  mixed  with  Etruscan 
notions.  We  perceive  in  all  this  die  ori- 
ginal idea :  wherever  an  inexplicable 
power  operates  in  nature,  there  exists  some 
demon.  This  idea  was  developed  by  the 
philosophers,  who  endeavored  to  regulate 
the  popular  beUefJ  and  to  reconcile  reason 
with  this  belief.  In  order  to  represent  the 
idea  of  deity  in  its  purity,  they  were  com- 
pelled to  displace,  by  degrees,  the  mytho- 
logical notions  of  the  people ;  and  this 
could  not  be  done  in  a  less  perceptible  and 
obnoxious  way,  than  by  the  introduction 
of  demon&  But,  although  Greek  philos- 
ophers did  this  for  Greece,  we  must  not 
believe  that  these  ideas,  like  the  word 
demoUf  are  of  Greek  origin :  it  ia  much 


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DEMON. 


more  credible,  that  the  whole  doctrine  of 
demons  was  only  transplanted  into  Greece. 
We  ought  to  look  for  their  real  origin  in 
tlie  East  The  Hindoos  reckon,  besides 
the  highest  being,  Parama,  33,000  gods, 
to  which  they  add  an  infinite  number  of 
8erva]its  of  the  gods.  The  highest  rank 
among  these  gods  was  ascribed  to  the 
trinity,  Brama,  Vishnu,  and  Seeva,  who, 
in  eternal  change,  create,  preserve  and 
destroy.  When  the  adorers  of  tlie  de- 
stroyer die,  he  sends  his  seiTants  to  con> 
vey  them  to  his  presence,  that  he  may 
make  them  participators  in  his  happiness. 
The  demons  diere  are  the  Devetas.  We 
iind  tl)is  doctrine  systematically  set  forth 
in  the  religion  of  Zoroaster,  or  tlie  Chal- 
daic-Persian  magic,  or  doctrine  of  the 
ina^,  which  is  to  be  looked  upon  as  a 
chief  source  of  denionology.  In  order 
to  explain  the  origin  of  evil,  Zoroaster 
adopted,  besides  a  good  principle,  a  bad 
one  also,  and  made  tlie  two  tlie  sources 
of  all  good  and  evil,  explaining  his  ideas 
thus :  There  is  a  kingdom  of  Ught,  and  a 
kingdom  of  darkness.  Ormuzd,  the  author 
of  all  good,  resides  in  tlie  first ;  in  the 
other,  Ahriman,  the  source  of  all  evil,  moral 
as  well  as  physical.  Around  tlie  throne 
of  Ormuzd  stand  the  seven  Amshaspands 

i archangels),  the  princes  of  light.  The 
zeds,  the  genii  of  all  tliat  is  good,  of 
whateve^  kind,  are  subordinate  to  them  ; 
and  to  these  the  Feruers.  In  the  same 
way  tlie  kingdom  of  darkness  under  Ahri- 
man is  arranged.  His  throne  is  surround- 
ed by  the  seven  superior  Dives,  die  princes 
of  evil,  and  an  innumerable  multitude  of 
inferior  Dives  stand  under  them,  like  the 
Izeds  under  the  Amshaspands.  The  two 
kingdoms  carry  on  an  everlasting  war ;  but 
Ahriman  will  eventually  be  conquered,  and 
the  kingdom  of  darkness  will  be  entirely 
destroyed.  Heeren  endeavored  to  show, 
that  these  systems  are  formed  according  to 
the  constitutions  of  the  Asiatic  monar- 
chies, but  all  evidently  modified  according 
to  die  place  where,  and  the  circumstances 
of  the  time  at  which,  the  lawgiver  and  foun- 
der of  religion  appeared.  Zoroaster  carried 
his  general  idea  of  the  division  between 
the  kingdoms  of  good  and  evil  into  detail 
All  rational  and  irrational,  hving  and  dead 
beings,  he  classed  under  one  or  tlie  other 
of  these  kingdoms ;  the  pure  men,  ani- 
mals and  plants  belonged  to  Orrouzd's, 
the  impure  (poisonous,  pernicious),  to  Ah- 
riman's  kingdom.  In  ti  i  is  manner  demon- 
ology,  in  the  Parsee  system,  had  attained 
an  extent,  and  a  systematical  connexion, 
such  as  it  had  not  elsewhere.  The  opin- 
ba  of  Horn  (BiUische  Gnosis^  that  the 


Egyptians  borrowed  their  notion  of  de- 
mons fitim  the  Parsees,  deserves  a  closer 
investigation.    We  find,  indeed,  with  the 
Egyptians,  the  moon,  water,  earth  and 
an*  filled  with  demons,  superintending  the 
elements  and  bodies.    Stones,  metals  and 
plants  are  under  dieir  influence,  and  hu- 
man souls  in  their  power — surely  a  very 
extensive   kingdom  of  demons,  but  not 
presenting  the  striking  dualism  and  par-< 
allelism  of  the  system  of  Zoroaster.    But 
supposing  that  die  Egyptian  and  Persico- 
Chaldee  demonologies  are  not  derived  from 
the  same  source ;  they  afterwards  combined 
to  form  togedier  a  new  one.    Though  the 
doctrine    of  demons  came  in  dincrent 
ways  through  Western  Asia  into  Greece, 
yet  Egypt  was  the  chief  source  of  the 
higher  demonology  of  the  Greeks,  among 
whom  it  was  spread  by  die  Orphic  hymns 
and  the  mysteries,  and  was  cultivated  by 
the  philosophere  until  die  birdi  of  Christ 
The  rcUionalistSy  as  they  are  called,  who 
explain  every  thing  in  the  Sacred  Scrip- 
tures in  a  historical  or  natiual  way,  say  that, 
while  it  came  in  this  way  to  the  Greeks, 
the  Hebrews  received  it  in  two  other  ways. 
At  the  time  of  the  Babylonish  captivity, 
diey  derived  it  firom  the  source  of  the 
Chaldaic-Persian  magic ;  and,  even  sup- 
posing that  they  were  previously  acquaint- 
ed with  the  Elohim,  or  angete  (it  is  re- 
markable diat  the  latter  are  first  mentioned 
in  the  history  of  the  Chaldce  Abraham, 
and  that  die  earUer  prophets  do  not  speak 
at  all  of  them,  while  Daniel,  on  the  con- 
trary, mentions  them  frequendy),  yet  the 
doctrine  of  these  was  first  systeniaticaUv 
developed  during  and  aflcr  die  Babylonish 
captivity.    The  same  dualism,  which  we 
find  in  the  system  of  Zoroaster,  is  here, 
also,  perceived:  there  are  good  and  bad 
demons :  they  are  classified,  and  receive 
proper  names.    There  are  also  seven  good 
demons,  composing  the  council  of  Jeho- 
vah, and  standing  continually  before  his 
throne.    (Job  xii.  15.)    As  for  the  second 
source  of  the  demonology  of  the  Hebrews, 
diis  nation  had,  during  the  reigns  of  die 
Seleucides  and  Ptolemies,  a  more  active 
intercourse  with  Eprpt  and  the  Greeks, 
chiefly  in  Alexandria ;  and  to  the  notions 
adopted  firom  the  system  of  the  magi,  or 
the  Parsees,  they  united  Eg3rptico-Greek 
ones;  which  connexion  is  chiefly  per- 
ceivable in  the  New  Testament    It  was 
impossible  to  prevent  die  intermingling  of 
Greek  speculations.     The  voice  of  the 
prophets  was  already  silent  under  Ezra 
and    Nehemiah.      Study    and    inquiries 
commenced;  the  popular  belief  and  phi- 
losophy separated,  and  even  the  philofio- 


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DEMON— DEMOSTHENES. 


in 


pbers  divided  themselves  into  several 
sects.  Opposed  to  the  ancient  Pharisees 
we  perceive  the  Sadduceesand  Essens,  and 
no  high  priest  nor  sanhedrim  could  pre- 
vent the  nation  (which  was  already  op- 
posed by  the  Samaritans)  from  dividing 
itself  into  parties.  This  was  the  state  of 
things  when  Christ  appeared.  Pythago- 
rean and  Platonic  notions,  intermingled 
with  Oriental  doctrines,  had  already  un- 
folded the  germ  which  produced  the 
Hellenistic  philosophy  of  the  Jews,  and  a 
cabalism  existed  (cherished  by  the  finest 
minds  of  the  nation),  in  addition  to  the 
philosophy  of  the  nilibins. — ^It  may  be 
observed,  in  reference  to  the  doctrine  of 
niirits,  that  the  expressions  of  cfemon  and 
demofnaad  are  more  especially  used  to 
indicate  bad,  tormenting  spirits.  This  is 
the  origin  of  those  ideas  of  demons  as 
spirits  which  enter  mto  the  bodies  of 
wicked  men,  and  torment  them,  and  of 
the  means  to  be  used  against  them,  for 
instance,  miraculous  herbs,  by  means  of 
which  we  are  able  to  expel  the  demons. 
Thus  the  demons  appear  as  inferior  spirits 
of  a  ( Persian )  Satan,  a  passionate,  malicious, 
tormenting  spirit.  The  Christian  authors 
made  this  bad  meaning  of  demons  the 
ruling  one,  so  that  the  £nuyns  were  oppo- 
site to  the  angds.  By  this  opposition,  the 
doctrine  of  spirits  was  transformed  into 
angelology,  that  is,  the  doctrine  of  good 
angels,  and  demonology,  the  doctrine  of 
bad  angels;  and  the  Jewish  and  Greek 
notions  on  the  subject  have  been  often 
blended  together  in  Christianity.  As  Pla- 
to's mythology  was  an  inexhaustible  source 
of  doctrines  for  the  new  Platonist,  so  demo- 
nology became  an  endless  source  of  ingen- 
ious s|)eculation  among  many  of  the  early 
sects.*  (See  Swtdamrg^  Angdj  Genit, 
and  Gabaiia,) 

Demona,  Val  di  ;  a  province  of  Sicily, 
occupying  the  N.  E.  part  of  the  country, 
extending  from  the  straits  of  Messina  to 
Catania ;  about  112  miles  long,  and  fiiom 
60  to  70  broad  in  its  widest  part;  pop- 
ulation, as  lately  stated,  531,000.  The 
LJparian  islands  are  considered  to  belong 
to  this  part  of  the  country.  Silk  is  one  of 
the  chief  productions  of  this  valley,  which 
yields,  likewise,  hemp,  fiax,  olives,  lemons, 
oranges,  figs,  currants  and  pistachio  nuts. 
Sulphur  is  found  in  considerable  quantity 
towards  mount  iEtna.  Messina,  the  capi- 
tal of  Sicily,  is  situated  in  this  province. 

*  A  book  of  much  interest,  as  showing  the  firm 
belief  in  demons  at  a  comparatively  recent  peri- 
od, is  doctor  Cotton  Mather's  Magnolia  Christi 
Americana  (London .  1 702 ) .  Doctor  Mather  was  a 
minister  of  Boston,  Mass. 


The  other  prmcipal  towns  on  the  coast 
are  Melazzo,  Cefcuu  and  Taormina. 

Demonstratioxt,  in  military  language; 
a  movement  towards  any  place  tor  ikte 
purpose  of  deceiving  the  enemy,  and  con- 
cealing the  true  design. 

Demosthenes,  the  most  fiunotis  orator 
of  antiquity,  was  the  son  of  a  sword-cuUer 
at  Athens,  where  he  was  bom  in  381  (ac- 
cording to  some,  in  375)  B.  C.  His  fatlier 
left  him  a  considerable  fortune,  of  which 
his  guardians  attempted  to  defraud  him: 
Demosthenes,  at  the  age  of  17  years,  con- 
ducted a  suit  against  them  himself,  and 
gained  his  cause.  He  studied  rhetoric 
and  philosophy  in  the  schools  of  Callistra- 
tus,  beeus,  Isocmtes  and  Plato.  But  nature 
had  placed  great  obstacles  in  his  wa^, 
and  bis  first  attempts  to  speak  in  pubhc 
were  attended  with  derision.  He  not  only 
had  veiy  weak  limgs  and  a  shrill  voice, 
but  was  unable  to  pronounce  the  letter  r. 
These  natural  defects  he  endeavored  to 
remedy  by  die  greatest  exertions.  He 
succeeded  by  the  advice  of  the  actor  Setv- 
rus,  who  advised  him  to  recite  with  peb- 
bles in  his  mouth,  on  the  roughest  and 
steepest  places.  To  strengthen  his  voice, 
he  exercised  himself  in  speaking  aloud  on 
the  sea-shore,  •  amidst  the  noise  of  the 
waves.  At  other  times,  he  shut  himself 
up  for  months  in  a  subterranean  room, 
with  his  head  half  shaved,  that  he  might 
not  be  tempted  to  go  out,  and  endeavored 
to  acquire  dignity  of  manner  by  practising 
before  a  mirror,  and  transcribed  the  liistoiy 
of  Thucydides  eight  times,  for  the  purpose 
of  forming  his  style.  After  such  a  labo- 
rious preparation,  he  composed  and  de- 
Uvered  his  masterly  speeches,  of  which  his 
enemies  said  that  they  smelt  of  the  lamp, 
but  to  which  posterity  has  assigned  the 
firat  rank  among  the  models  of  eloquence — 
speeches  in  which  he  openly  opposed  the 
foolish  wishes  of  tiie  multitude,  censured 
their  fiiults,  and  inflamed  their  courage, 
their  sense  of  honor,  and  their  patriotism. 
He  thundered  against  Philip  of  Macedon, 
and  instilled  into  his  fellow-citizens  the 
hatred  which  animated  his  own  bosom. 
The  first  of  those  orations,  so  fiunous  un- 
der the  name  of  Philippics,  was  delivered 
when  Philip  took  possession  of  the  pass  of 
Thermopyte.  The  orator  insisted  on  the 
necessity  of  immediately  preparing  a  fleet 
and  an  army;  urging  the  Athenians  to 
begin  the  war  themselves ;  to  make  Mace- 
donia the  theatre,  and  to  terminate  it  only 
by  an  advantageous  treaty  or  a  decisive 
battie.  They  admired  and  approved  his 
plans,  but  did  not  execute  them.  The 
celebrated  Phocion,  who  knew  the  wedc- 


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178 


DEMOSTHENES— DEMURRAGE. 


ness  of  Athens,  unceasingly  advised  peace, 
Demosthenes  went  twice  to  the  court  of 
Philip  to  negotiate,  but  without  success. 
On  his  return,  he  recommended  war,  and 
endeavored  to  ann  not  only  Athens,  but 
all  Greece.  When  Philip  had  finally 
penetrated  into  Phocis,  through  the  pass 
of  Thennopylce,aud  had  talc  en  possession 
of  the  city  of  Elatea,  to  tlie  terror  of  Ath- 
ens, Demostlienes  obtained  a  decree  of  the 
people  for  fitting  out  a  fleet  of  300  vessels, 
marching  an  army  to  Eleusis,  and  sending 
amlwssadors  to  all  the  cities  of  Greece, 
for  the  purpose  of  formuig  a  universal 
confederacy  against  Philip.  He  was 
himself  among  the  ambassadors,  and  pre- 
vailed on  the  Thebans  to  receive  an 
Athenian  anny  within  their  walls.  He 
also  exerted  himself  actively  throughout 
Bceotia^  and,  by  his  efforts,  a  numerous 
army  was  collected  to  act  against  Philip. 
A  battle  was  fought  near  Cherouea,  and 
tlie  Greeks  were  vanquished.  Demos- 
thenes was  among  tlie  first  who  fled. 
Nevertheless,  he  was  desirous  of  deliver- 
ing a  funeral  oration  over  tliose  who  had 
fallen  in  battle.  iEscliines,  his  rival,  did 
not  &il  to  attack  hun  on  tliis  account. 
The  hostility  between  the  two  orators  was 
the  occasion  of  the  spee«h  pro  corona  (for 
the  crown),  which  resulted  m  the  triumph 
of  Demosthenes  and  the  exile  of  his  ad- 
versary. Philip  having  been,  soon  after, 
assassinated,  Demosthenes  thought  that 
Athens  would  be  better  able  to  maintain  its 
liberty ;  but  Alexander's  dreadful  chastise- 
ment of  Thebes  fiUed  the  Athenians  with 
such  terror  that  they  sued  for  mercy.  It 
was  with  difficulty  that  Alexander  could 
be  persuaded  to  desist  from  his  demand 
of  the  surrender  of  Demosthenes  and  some 
other  orators ;  for  the  Macedonians  feared 
Demosthenes  more  than  they  did  the  ar- 
mies of  Athens.  He  was  atlerward  fined 
50  talents  for  bribery,  and,  neglecting  the 
payment  of  it,  was  thrown  into  prison, 
from  which  he  escaped,  and  fled  to  Mg\n&, 
where  he  remained  till  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander. Then  followed  the  war  with  An- 
tipater.  Demosthenes  ^gain  appeared  in 
public,  and  endeavored  to  persuade  tlie 
small  Grecian  states  to  unite  against  Mace- 
donia. The  Athenians  received  him  witli 
honor ;  but  the  war  was  unsuccessful,  and 
Antipater  insisted  upon  his  being  surren- 
dered to  him.  Demosthenes  fled  to  tlie 
temple  of  Neptune,  in  the  island  of  Calau- 
ria,  on  the  coast  of  Argolis  ;  but  finding 
himself  not  secure,  he  took  poison,  which 
he  always  carried  about  with  him.  He 
died  319  B.  C.  (according  to  some,  322 
B.  C),  at  the  age  of  60  or  62  years.    His 


character  was  not  entirely  fiee  fixim  vani- 
ty, ambition  and  avarice.  Cicero  pro- 
nounces him  to  be  tlie  most  perfect  of  all 
orators.  He  always  spoke  as  circum- 
stances required,  and  was,  by  turns,  calm, 
vehement  or  elevated.  He  carried  the 
Greek  language  to  a  decree  of  perfection 
which  it  never  before  had  reached.  In 
energy  and  power  of  persuasion,  in  pene- 
tration and  power  of  reasoning,  in  the 
adaptation  of  the  parts  to  tlie  whole,  in 
beauty  and  vigor  of  expression,  in  strong 
and  melodious  language,  he  surpassed  all 
his  predecessors.  Every  thing  in  his 
speeches  is  natural,  vigorous,  concise, 
symmetrical.  This  alone  can  explain  his 
great  influence  over  his  contemporaries. 
We  have  under  his' name  61  orations,  65 
exordiums,  and  6  lettei^  some  of  which 
are  not  genuine.  Among  the  oldest  edi- 
tions of  the  orations,  tlie  best  is  that  of 
Paris,  1570,  in  folio,  with  the  commenta- 
ries of  Ulpian.  The  first  edition  of  liis 
complete  works,  Greek  and  Latin,  was 
edited  by  Hieronyraus  Wolf  (liasil,  1549 ; 
reprinted  1572 ;  and  Frankfort,  1604,  in 
foUo).  His  orations  are  also  contained 
in  Reiake's  edition  of  the  Greek  ora- 
tors. 

Demotic  or  Enchoriai.  Alphabet, 
from  iriitos  (the  people),  is  tlie  name  given 
by  antiquarians  to  tliat  alphabet  which  is 
used  by  the  {leople,  in  contradistinction  to 
an  alphabet  used  by  a  certain  class  or  caste ; 
as,  for  instance,  among  the  Egyptians. 
Thus  we  And  on  the  famous  Rosetta  stone, 
which  seems  to  have  become,  by  the 
exertions  of  Young,  Ackerblad,  Zoega,  De 
Sacy  and  Champdlion,  the  key  to  ml  the 
hieroglyphical  documents  handed  down 
to  us  by  the  Egyptians,  a  Greek  and  two 
Egyptian  inscriptions,  one  of  which  is 
written  in  the  hieroglyphical,  the  other  in 
the  demotic  alphaliet 

Demoustier,  Charles  Albert,  a  French 
poet,  bom  at  Villers-Cotterets,  in  1760, 
was,  at  first,  a  successful  lawyer.  He 
wrote  comedies,  0{)er&s  and  poems.  They 
are  full  of  affected  wit  and  false  brilliancy. 
His  Lettera  to  Emilie  on  mythology  have 
made  him  known  in  Europe.  It  may  be 
justly  objected  to  them,  that  they  are 
superficial,  affected,  and  written  in  what 
the  French  call  style  de  madrigal;  yet 
they  are,  at  the  same  time,  distinguished 
for  spirit,  delicacy  and  ease.  Of  his  plays, 
Le  Conciliateur^  Lea  Ftmmts  and  Lt  ToU- 
rant  have  maintained  a  place  on  the 
stage.    He  died  March  2, 1801. 

Demurrage,  in  law,  is  tlie  detention  of 
a  ship ;  and  is  also,  and  more  frequently, 
used  to  signify  the  amount  to  be  paid. 


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DEMURRAGE—ZODIAC  OF  DENDERAH. 


179 


by  the  charterer  to  the  owner  of  a  ship^  for 
voluntary  delay  beyond  a  specified  time. 
If  the  captain  chooses  to  wait  a  longer 
time  than  that  a^eed  upon  for  a  cargo, 
the  owner  can  claim  demurrage  only  un- 
til the  cargo  is  taken  on  board  and  the 
ship  ready  to  sail,  and  not  for  th^  subse- 
quent detention  from  other  causes,  al- 
though this  would  not  have  happened  but 
for  the  detention  for  a  cargo.  Thus  when 
a  vessel  was  to  he  loaded  at  St.  Peters- 
burg for  Leith,  by  the  1st  of  September, 
but  tlie  master  waited  until  October  29  for 
a  caiigo,  when  he  sailed  from  Cronstadt, 
but  was  soon  driven  back  by  unfavorable 
winds,  and  the  frost,  setting  in,  detained 
him  there  until  the  11th  of  Mav  following ; 
after  much  litigation  in  Scotland,  it  was 
decided  by  tlie  house  of  lords  of  Great 
Britain,  that  demurrage  could  be  claimed 
only  to  October  29.  It  is  to  be  observed, 
however,  in  this  case,  that  the  captain  was 
at  liberty  to  sail  on  tlie  1st  of  September, 
the  time  limited  in  the  charter-party.  The 
time  of  delay  in  port  for  a  cargo,  for  con- 
voy, &C.,  is  usuaHy  stipulated  m  tlie  char- 
ter-party, and  also  tlie  allowance  to  be 
maae  in  case  of  longer  delay  for  those 
objects ;  and  this  time  is  sometimes  speci- 
fied in  working-days  or  lay-days,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  hofydays,  when  no  cargo 
can  be  put  on  board.  When  a  charter- 
party,  made  in  England,  relates  to  a  delay 
in  the  river  Thames,  for  a  certain  number 
of  days,  it  will,  in  pursuance  of  a  particu- 
lar custom,  be  construed  to  mean  working- 
days.  But  if  the  charter-party  be  made 
elsewhere,  or,  if  made  in  England,  relating 
to  demurrage  at  any  other  place,  if  the 
intention  is  that  it  should  allow  a  certain 
number  of  working-days,  it  ought  to  be 
80  expressed. 

Demurrer  ;  a  pause  or  stop  put  to  the 
proceedings  of  an  action  upon  a  point  of 
difficulty,  which  must  be  determined  by 
the  court  before  any  further  proceedings 
can  be  had  therein.  He  that  demurs  in 
law  confesses  the  facts  to  be  true,  as 
stated  by  the  opposite  party,  but  denies 
that,  by  the  law  arising  upon  those  facts, 
any  injury'  is.  done  to  the  party,  or  that 
he  has  made  out  a  lawful  excuse. 

Dew  (Souum,  valley,  or  woody  ground), 
when  added  to  the  names  of  places,  de- 
notes that  tiiey  are  in  a  v€dley,  or  near 
woods.  « 

Denarius  ;  1.  a  Roman  silver  coin, 
equal,  at  first,  to  10  asses,  whence  its  name ; 
2.  a  weight  The  librOj  or  Roman  pound, 
contained  96,  the  ounce  8,  denarii;  and 
the  denarius  3  scruples.  In  modem  gov- 
^nments,  the  denarius  has  also  been  intro- 


duced as  a  weight    A  French  denare  con- 
tained 63  grains.* 

Dende RAH, Zodiac  OF.  NearDenderah, 
a  village  of  tiie  Tliebai's,  surrounded  with 
palms,  and  lying  about  a  league  west  of 
the  Nile,  die  traveller  from  Cairo  to 
Upper  Egypt  first  acquires  a  distinct  no- 
tion of  an  architecture  such  as  no  other 
country  can  show.  Denderah  hes  under 
the  26th  degree  of  norUi  latitude,  on  the 
borders  of  Uie  desert,  upon  the  last  tal>le- 
land  of  the  Lybian  mountains,  to  which 
the  inundation  of  the  Nile  extends.  Its 
name  is  derived  from  the  ancient  Tentyni 
or  Tentyris,  the  magnificent  remains  of 
which,  called  by  die  Arabians  Berbi  (the 
ruhis),  are  a  mile  or  two  distant  from  it 
We  are  indebted,  for  our  knowledge  of 
them,  to  die  memorable  campaign  of  the 
French  in  Egypt,  whose  enthusiastic  de- 
scriptions and  accurate  investigations  ]\fi,ye 
drawn  general  attention  to  them.  Throu gh 
a  portal  half  buried  by  rubbish,  covered 
with  hieroglyphics,  and  constructed  of 

*  The  value  of  the  denarius  is  g[iven  incor- 
rectly by  several  modem  German  writers,  as  by 
Schleusner,  in  his  Lexicon  of  the  New  Testament ; 
by  RosenmQiler,  in  his  Scholia  on  the  New  Tes- 
tament;  and  by  Kuinol,  in  his  Commentary  on 
the  Historical  fiooks  of  the  New  Testament.  It 
is  reckoned  by  them  as  equal  to  the  eighth  part 
of  a  reichsthaler  (rix  dollar)  or  3  groschcn,  that  is, 
about  9  cents,  American  money .  The  mistake  f 
may  be  thus  accounted  for:  The  writers  men- 
tioned refer  to  Eisenschmidius,  De  Ponderibus  et 
Mensuru  veterum  necnon  de  Valore  Pecunim 
veteris,  published  in  1708,  reprinted  1737.  The 
author  of  this  work  (p.  136)  estimates  7^  denarii 
as  equal  to  an  imperial  or  rix  dollar,  meaning  the 
old  rix  dollar  of  the  empire,  a  coin  which,  by 
proclamation  of  queen  Anne,  in  1704,  was  de- 
clared equal  to  is.  6d.  sterling.  He  thus  makes  the 
value  of  the  denarius  13^  cents — as  near  an  ap- 

Eroximation  as,  perhaps,  was  to  be  expected  from 
is  imperfect  modes  of  computation.  But  the 
writers  above  referred  to,  in  following  him,  have 
substituted  the  present  rix  dollar  of  account,  eaual 
to  about  72  cents,  for  the  coin  intended,  and  tJien 
reckoning  the  denarius  loosely  as  the  eighth  part 
of  a  rix  dollar,  have  thus  estimated  its  value  at 
about  9  cents.  Winer,  in  his  Biblisches  Real" 
10 nrterbuch,  and  Wahl,  in  his  Lexicon  of  the 
New  Testament,  estimate  its  vtdue  at  about  4 
groschen.  or  12  cents  j  Jahn,  in  his  Archceologia 
Biblicaj  at  24^  creutzers,  of  which  90  make  a  rix 
dollar,  consequently  at  about  19<|  cents.  For 
these  mistakes  it  is  not  easy  to  account.  There 
being  uo  considerable  difference  in  the  estimate 
of  the  average  weight  of  silver  in  the  consu- 
lar denarius,  all  these  different  estimates  of  its 
value  are  unfounded.  That  given  in  Arbutb- 
net's  Tables,  namely,  l\d.  steriinff,  about  14^ 
cents,  is  sufficiently  correct,  and  commonlv 
adopted  by  Endisn  i\Titers.  In  Robin8on[s 
translation  of  Wanl's  Lexicon,  the  erroneous  esti- 
mate of  9|  cents  is  given,  in  addition  to  the  cor- 
rect, or  nearly  correct  one  of  14  ceiiU.  Both 
estimates  are  also  given  in  the  valuable  Greek 
Lexicon  of  Mr.  Pickering. 


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180 


ZODIAC  OF  DENDERAH. 


huge  blocks  of  eandstoDe,  you  come  in 
sight  of  a  temple,  which  forms  the  back 
ground  of  this  splendid  picture.  All  tliat 
you  see  here,  say  the  French  writers,  from 
the  colossal  figures  of  Isis,  which  sup* 
port  the  entablature  of  the  vestibule,  to 
the  smallest  hieroglyphic,  appears  to  have 
come  from  faiiy  land.  Neitlier  Greece 
nor  Rome,  nor  the  rest  of  Europe,  has 
produced  any  thing  similar.  So  universal 
was  this  impression,  that  the  meanest  sol- 
diers of  the  anny  paused  to  examine  these 
sacred  relics,  and  declared  with  one  voice, 
that  this  si^ht  alone  was  enough  to  indem- 
nify tliem  tor  the  fatigues  of  the  campaign. 
The  monuments  of  Thebes,  witli  which 
they  afterward  became  acquainted,  could 
not  efiace  tliis  first  impression;  and  the 
magnificent  temple  of  Isis  still  appeared 
to  tbem  the  most  perfect  monument  of 
Eey4)tian  art.  Of  tlie  ancient  Tentyrah, 
which  may  have  existed  in  the  times 
of  Strabo  and  Theodosius,  a  TSfphaumj 
similar  to  that  of  Edfuh,  but  larger,  is  yet 
standing.  It  is  west  of  the  nortliem  gate, 
so  buried  under  rubbish  that  the  dif- 
ferent sides  are  scarcely  to  be  distin- 
guished. But  the  admiration  of  the 
French  was  chiefly  excited  by  the  great 
temple,  the  whole  of  which  is  nearly  in 
the  shape  of  a  T.  The  view  is  obstructed 
by  ruins  only  on  the  eastern  side.  On 
account  of  the  figures  of  Isis,  of  every  size, 
which  it  contains,  it  is  thought  to  have 
been  an  hatum.  Without  the  aid  of 
drawings,  anv  description  of  its  vestibules, 
halls  and  cells,  which  are  all  covered  with 
hieroglyphics,  would  be  unintelligible. 
On  the  ceiling  of  the  portico  of  this  btE- 
urn,  astronomical  figures  and  emblems 
were  found  nailed  on  the  soffits :  on  the 
two  extreme  soffits  were  the  12  signs  of 
the  zodiac.  This  representation  was 
repeated  on  the  ceiling  of  an  apartment  in 
the  upper  story,  on  the  left  side  of  the  ves- 
tibule. Like  the  others,  this  room  was 
covered  with  hieroglvphics,  and  the  plani- 
sphere, on  the  left  side  as  you  enter,  occu- 
pied onlv  half  of  the  ceiling.  It  was  first 
observed  by  general  Desaix,  who  directed 
the  attention  of  his  companions  to  it. 
This  is  the  planisphere  of  which  so  much 
has  been  written.  Behind  this  large 
building,  towards  the  south,  is  another 
temple,  which  was,  perhaps,  dedicated  to 
Isis  and  Honis.  Its  exterior  reminds  us 
less  forcibly  than  the  banan^  how  many 
generations  must  have  existed,  before  a 
nation  could  flourish  possessed  of  suffi- 
cient courage,  knowledge  and  elevation 
of  mind  for  the  invention  of  such  works ; 
and    how   many   centuries   must  have 


elapsed,  before  all  this  could  have  been 
forgotten,  and  men  have  sunk  back  to  the 
rudeness  of  the  present  Arab  inhabitants  of 
these  ruins.  But  the  figures  on  tlie  plani- 
spheres particularly  attracted  the  attention 
of  tlie  learned  Europeans,  on  account  of 
theur  supposed  connexion  with  the  pre- 
cession of  tlie  equinoxes.  (See  Preces- 
sion,) In  both,  it  was  observed  that  the 
lion  was  represented  as  the  first  sign.  This 
order  it  was  supposed  must  have  been 
adopted  by  design ;  for  in  the  larger  plani- 
sphere, on  the  ceiling  of  the  portico,  the 
signs  are  represented  on  two  stripes,  one 
of  which  runs  in  a  direction  toward  the 
interior  of  the  temple,  the  other  toward 
the  exterior ;  on  the  smaller  (that  of  the 
upper  apartment,  now  in  Paris),  the  signs 
are  represented  in  a  spiral  line,  in  the 
order  m  which  we  now  place  them  r  Vir- 
go, Libra,  Scorpio,  Sagittarius,  Capricorn, 
Aquarius,  Pisces,  Aries,  Taurus,  Gemini, 
Cancer.  Leo  appeared,  consequently,  to 
be  placed,  intentionally,  afler  the  point 
of  intersection  of  the  ecliptic  and  equator. 
On  the  situation  of  those  points  of  inter- 
section, however,  depends  the  place  of  the 
solstice,  which  must  be  half  way  lictween 
them.  In  tlie  planisphere  of  benderah, 
it  is  drawn  in  Cancer.  If  this  is  the  win- 
ter solstice,  as  some  suppose,  the  vernal 
equinox  was  then  in  Libra.  At  present, 
however,  it  is  in  Pisces,  and  consequently 
7  signs,  or  210°,  farther  back.  As  it  is 
known  that  2152  years  of  uniform  motion 
are  necessaiy  for  the  recession  of  one  sign, 
it  follows  tliat,  to  recede  from  Libra  to 
Pisces,  7  times  2152,  or  about  15,000  years 
are  necessary.  This  would  be,  accord- 
ingly, the  minimum  of  tlie  a^  of  this 
zc^ac,  if  we  suppose  tliat  it  is  founded  on 
real  astronomical  observations,  and  is  not 
to  be  considered  a  mere  astronomical 
problem.  (See  Rhode,  Ferswh  uber  das 
Mer  des  TTderkreises  und  den  Ursprung  der 
StembUdar,  Berlin,  1809,  4to.)  Other  as- 
tronomers, in  particular  Littrow  (Wientr 
Zeiischrijl,  1822,  No.  53,  54),  and,  yet  ear- 
lier, tlie  autliors  of  the  great  description 
of  Egypt,  thought  the  solstice  on  tlie  zo- 
diac of  Tentyra  to  be  the  summer  solstice. 
The  vernal  equinox  would  then  fall  be- 
tween Taurus  and  Aries,  consequently 
45°  farther  forward  than  at  present. 
From  this  it  would  follow,  that  the  zodiac 
would  be  as  old  as  45  times  71 1  years,  or 
3228  years.  This  last  supposition  would 
bejustified  if  the  constellation  which  is  the 
first  in  the  zodiac  were  that  which  the  sun 
must  enter  first  afler  the  heliacal  rise  of 
Siriua  There  are  many  reasons  which 
induce  us  to  beUeve  this.    The  appear* 


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ZODIAC  OF  DENDERAH. 


181 


ance  of  Sirius  followed  a  few  days  after 
tlie  summer  solstice :  it  was  a  sign  of  the 
rising  of  the  Nile,  and  of  the  beginning 
of  the  agricultural  year  in  Egypt.  This 
reference  to  the  beginning  of  the  agricul- 
tural year  adds  great  force  to  this  suppo- 
sition. The  accompanying  hieroglyphics, 
as  the  child  on  the  lotus  flower  near  Aries, 
the  rising  sun,  tlie  point  of  the  vernal 
equinox,  are  additional  arguments.  Con- 
fflderations  drawn  from  astronomy  and  the 
progress  of  the  arts,  induced  E.  G.  Vis- 
conti  to  believe  this  planisphere  and  the 
whole  temple,  wliich  undoubtedly  were 
executed  at  the  same  time,  to  be  of  a  far 
more  recent  origin.  He  assigned  this 
building  to  the  time  when  the  uncertaui 
ThoOi,  the  commencement  of  the  uncer- 
tain Egvptian  year,  coincided  with  the 
sign  of  Leo,  which  was  the  case  from  tlie 
year  12  to  the  ^ear  132  of  our  era.  (See 
Notice  8ommatre  des  deux  Zodiaques  de 
Teniyra,  in  the  2d  volume  of  Larcher's 
Herodote,  page  567  et  seq.)  To  this  date, 
belonging  to  the  first  years  of  the  Roman 
dominion,  the  authors  of  the  great  descrip- 
tion of  Egypt  have  opposed  strong  reasons. 
In  case  this  hypotliesis  should  not  be 
approved,  Visconti  had  another  ready. 
Proceeding  on  the  theory  of  De  la  Nauze, 
who  took  an  Egyptian  Normal  year  as  the 
basis  of  his  calculation,  he  assigned  these 
monuments  to  the  period  of  the  Ptolemies. 
A  single  Greek  inscription,  in  an  obscure 
place  in  the  baum,  was  not  a  very  con- 
clusive arginnent  in  favor  of  this  hypothe- 
sis^ which,  besides,  is  exposed  to  strong 
objections,  if  we  comjiare  the  architecture 
of  these  buildings  with  other  monuments 
of  that  period.  They  are  executed  in  so 
pure  an  Egyptian  style,  that  they  exclude 
every  idea  of  foreign  influence  hostile  to 
the  religion  of  the  country.  No  one, 
therefore,  can  think  of  ascribing  them  to 
the  old  enemies  of  the  Egy[)tian  worship, 
the  Persians,  those  destroyers  of  temi)les. 
There  is,  then,  no  alternative  but  to  refer 
their  origin  to  a  period  when  the  country 
vras  under  its  native  kings.  Putting  out 
of  view  the  astronomical  reprcsentations, 
the  authors  of  the  description  of  Egypt 
are  inclined  to  assign  the  building  of^the 
temple,  whose  execution  hai-mouizes  bo 
accurately  with  the  original  plan  as  to  be 
evidently  the  creation  of  the  same  time, 
to  that  period  when  the  E^ptian  art 
appears  to  have  reached  its  highest  per* 
fection,  the  period  between  Necho  and 
Amasis,  when  magnificent  edifices  were 
erected  in  the  Delta,  and  Memphis  was  in 
its  8|>Iendor.  The  dispute  concerning  the 
antiquity  of  this  monument  is  not  yet  fin- 

VOL.  IV,  16 


ished,  and  was  by  no  means  brought 
nearer  to  a  decision  bjK  mutilating  the 
whole,  and  carrying  a  piece  of  it  to  Europe. 
Preconceived  opinions  have  affected  the 
discussion  of  this  subject  Thus  an  essay 
of  Dupuy  on  this  zodiac  was  suppressed 
by  the  police  of  Paris,  as  tending  to  pro- 
mote inndelity  (August,  1822).  A  young 
Frenchman,  S.  Saulnier,  whose  ambition 
was  excited  by  the  rich  spoils  carried  off 
by  the  English,  conceived  the  idea  of  pro- 
curing this  zodiac  for  his  native  country. 
As  he  was  prevented  fix)m  going  to  Egypt 
{lersonally,  he  left  the  transportation  of  it 
to  his  friend  H.  Lelorrain,  who  embariced, 
in  1820,  for  Alexandria,  provided  with  the 
necessary  instruments.  Mohammed  All 
showed  a  deplorable  readiness  to  permit 
the  sacred  monuments  of  Tentyra  to  be 
mutilated.  Upon  the  roof  of  the  temple 
Arabians  had,  in  earlier  times,  flxed  their 
abodes ;  it  was  necessary  to  remove  their 
deserted  huts ;  and  their  rubbish,  together 
witii  that  already  ac4:;umulated,  formed 
a  plane  upon  which  the  blocks  of  sand- 
stone could  slide  down  to  the  banks  of  the 
Nile.  A  vehicle  of  the  invention  of  M. 
Lelorrain  was  used  for  this  purpose.  Le* 
lorrain  selected  the  small  circular  zodiac 
in  the  upper  apartment.  As  the  whole 
stone  on  which  the  zodiac  was  repre- 
sented was  too  large  to  be  carried  oflj 
extending,  as  it  did,  the  whole  width  or 
the  ceiling,  and  i^estiiig  on  the  walls  on 
each  side,  M.  Lelorrain  contented  himself 
with  the  portion  covered  by  the  zodiac,  a 
small  part  of  which,  projecting  over  the 
main  stone,  and  contained  on  a  contigu- 
ous one,  he  lefl,  not  thinking  it  worth  the 
trouble  of  removing.  The  removal  was 
effected  by  means  of  chisels,  saws  and 
gunpowder.  The  stone  was  exceedingly 
well  preserved,  only  blackened  by  soot, 
perliaps  of  the  time  when  the  mysteries 
and  the  worship  of  animals  were  solem- 
nized in  these  sanctuaries.  This  smoke 
may  also  have  destroyed  the  colors  by 
which,  it  is  probable,  the  hieroglyphics 
were  formerly  distinguished.  The  stone 
is  of  tiie  same  kind  of  sand-stone  of  which 
all  the  monuments  lietween  Phyte  and 
Denderah  are  composed.  Scarcely  was 
this  work  of  destruction  finished,  when 
another  explorer,  Mr.  Salt,  the  English 
consul,  laid  claims  to  the  booty,  assert- 
ing prior  rights  to  eveiy  thing  "dug  up 
at  Tentyra.  The  bafiliaw  of  Egypt 
decided  for  the  Frenchman,  because  tlie 
zodiac  was  taken  from  the  roof  Le- 
lorrain at  length  arrived  safe  with  his 
booty  at  Marseilles.  Here  a  compari- 
son with  the  plates  in  the  great  woik  on 


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182 


ZODIAC  OF  DENDERAH— DENINA. 


Eg3rpt  showed  that  every  tiling  was  in  its 
right  place,  but  that  tlie  drawing  hod  been 
embeUished  in  a  way  which  was  not  con- 
firmed by  the  monument.  In  January, 
1822,  he  arrived  at  Paris,  where  tlie  pro- 
prietors caused  a  drawing  to  be  taken  by 
Oau,  containing  all  the  discernible  figures. 
The  French  government  purchased  tlie 
planisphere  for  150,000  francs.  The  dis- 
putes relative  to  tlie  epoch  of  its  origin 
were  renewed  with  fresli  ardor.  St.  Mar- 
tin, in  his  NUice  avar  le  Zodiaque  de  Den- 
derah,  etc.,  maintains  that  the  monument 
was  erected  as  early  as  569,  and  not  ear- 
lier than  900  B.  C. ;  but  his  opinion  is  not 
satisfactorily  proved;  nor  is  that  of  Mr. 
Biot,  wliich  Jomard  has  controverted  in 
the  Rev.  EncycL  (1822).  On  the  odier 
hand,  Letronne,  in  his  Critical  and  Archae- 
olomcal  Observations  on  the  Signs  of  the 
Zodiac  (Paris,  1823),  maintains  that  there 
is  no  monument  among  the  signs  of  the 
Egypdan,  Greek  and  Roman  zodiacs  older 
than  the  common  era.  With  this  opinion 
^ntses  also  that  of  the  abb^  Halma,  in  his 
Sxamen  et  Explication  du  Zodiaqivt  de 
Dendtrah,  etc.  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1822,  with 
copper-plates).  Letronne  considers  the 
zodiacs  of  Esn^.  and  Denderah  as  astro- 
logical curiosities  of  tlie  times  of  the  Ro- 
man emperors.  The  weight  of  opinion 
at  present  is,  that  these  figures  are  inscrip- 
tions of  about  tlie  same  antiquity  as  the 
Christian  era. 

Dendrites,  or  ARB0RIZATI02VS ;  an  ap- 
pellation given  to  figures  of  vegetables 
observed  in  fossil  substances,  and  which 
are  of  two  kinds,  the  one  superficial,  the 
other  internal  The  first  are  chiefly  found 
on  the  surface  of  stones,  and  between  tlie 
strata  and  the  fissures  of  those  of  a  calca- 
reous nature.  They  are  mostly  brown, 
changing  gradually  to  reddish-yellow. 
The  internal  dendrites  are  of  a  deep  black. 
The  most  esteemed  sorts  are  those  found 
in  agates,  and  particularly  in  the  sardo- 
nyx, cornelian,  and  other  precious  stones 
brought  from  the  East,  and  which  are 
commonly  denominated  Moka  stones. 
Dengue  Fever.  (See  Fever,) 
Denham,  Dixon,  lieutenant-colonel, 
well  known  by  his  expedition  into  Central 
Africa,  was  bom  at  London,  in  1786,  and^ 
after  fmishing  his  studies  at  school,  was 
placed  with  a  solicitor,  but,  in  1811,  en- 
tered the  army  as  a  volunteer,  and  served 
in  the  peninsular  eampaigna  After  the 
general  peace,  he  was  reduced  to  half  pay 
on  the  pNeace  establishment,  and,  in  lold, 
was  admitted  into  the  senior  department 
of  the  royal  military  college  at  FainhanfL 
In  1823 — 4,  he  was  engaged,  in  com- 


pany with  captain  Clapperton  and  doctor 
Oudney,  in  exploring  the  central  regions 
of  Africa.  fFor  an  account  of  tlieir  expe 
ditions,  see  Clappetion,)  His  courage,  ad 
di'ess,  ftnnness,  perseverance  and  modera- 
tion, his  bold,  fi^k,  energeuc  dis})ositiQn, 
and  his  conciliating  manners,  peculiarly  fit- 
ted him  for  such  an  undertaking.  The  nar- 
rative of  tlie  discoveries  of  the  travellers 
was  prepared  by  Denham.  In  1826,  he 
went  to  Sierra  Leone,  as  superintendent 
of  the  liberated  Africans,  and,  m  1828,  was 
appointed  heutenant-govemor  of  the  colo- 
ny ;  but,  on  the  9th  of  June  of  the  same 
year,  he  died  of  a  fever,  after  an  illness  of 
a  few  days. 

Denham,  sir  John,  a  poet,  was  bom  at 
Dubhn,  in  1615,  the  son  of  sir  John  Den- 
ham, chief  baron  of  the  exchequer  m  Ire- 
land. He  was  educated  in  London  and 
at  Oxford.  Although  dissipated  and  ir- 
regular at  the  university,  he  passed  his 
exammation  for  a  bachelor's  degree,  and 
then  removed  to  Lincoln's  Inn  to  study 
law.  In  1641,  he  first  became  known  by 
his  tragedy  of  tlie  Sophy.  This  piece  was 
so  much  admired,  that  Waller  observed, 
*' Denham  had  broken  out  like  the  Irish 
rebellion,  60,000  strong,  when  no  person 
suspected  it."  At  the  commencement  of 
the  civil  war,  he  received  a  military  com- 
mand ;  but,  not  liking  a  soldier's  life,  he 
give'  it  ui),  and  attended  the  court  at 
xford,  where,  in  1643,  he  published  the 
first  edition  of  his  most  celebrated  poem, 
called  Cooper^s  ESJL  He  was  subsequent- 
ly intrusted  with  several  confidential  com- 
missions by  the  king's  party,  one  of  which 
was  to  collect  pecuniary  aid  from  the 
Scottish  residents  in  Poland.  He  returned 
to  England  in  15*52 ;  but  how  he  employed 
himself  until  the  restoration,  does  not  ap- 
pear. Upon  that  event,  he  obtained  tlie 
office  of  surveyor  of  the  king's  buildings, 
and  was  created  a  knight  of  the  Bath,  and 
a  fellow  of  the  newly-formed  royal  society. 
A  second  marriage,  at  an  advanced  age, 
caused  him  much  disquiet,  and  a  tempo- 
rary derangement ;  but  he  recovered,  and 
retained  the  esteem  of  the  lettered  and  the 
courtly  undl  his  deatli,  in  1688,  when  his  re- 
mains were  interred  m  Westminster  abbey. 

Denina,  Giacomo  Carlo,  a  historian, 
bom  in  1731,  at  Revel,  in  Piedmont,  stud- 
ied belles-lettres  at  Turin,  and  received 
the  professorship  of  himaanity  at  the  royal 
school  at  Pignerol.  When  the  chair  of 
rhetoric  at  the  superior  college  of  Turin 
was  vacant,  Denina  was  made  professor  in 
the  college  and  university.  He  now  pub- 
)l3hed  the  three  first  volumes  of  his  His- 
tory of  the  Italian  Revolutions  (Turin, 


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DENINA— DENMARK. 


183 


1769, 3  vols.,  quarto]),  containing  a  general 
history  of  Italy,  which  subjected  him  to 
some  inconveniences,  by  exciting  the  ill 
will  of  the  defenders  of  the  privileges  of 
the  clergy.  In  1777,  he  travelled,  on 
account  of  his  health,  to  Rome,  made  a 
stay  at  Florence,  received  an  invitation  to 
Prussia,  went  to  Berlin  in  September, 
1782,  was  presented  to  the  king  by  the 
marquis  Luccbesini,  and  appointed  a 
member  of  the  academy,  with  a  salary  of 
1200  Prussian  dollars.  He  had  several 
conversations  with  Frederic  tlie  Great,  an 
account  of  whose  hfe  and  reign  he  after- 
wards wrote.  He  also  published  Xio  Prua- 
M  UtUraxn  sous  Fredaric  II  (3  volumes). 
In  1791,  he  made  a  journey  to  Piedmont, 
and  published,  on  his  return  to  Berlin,  the 
Guide  litUraire.  As  early  as  1760,  his 
Discorso  sopra  It  Vicende  della  Litteratttra 
appeared  in  Berlin.  It  is  a  valuable  con- 
tribution to  the  history  of  literature,  and 
has  been  translated  into  German  and 
French.  Most  of  his  works  were  written 
at  Berlin ;  as,  for  instance,  his  Histoiy  of 
Piedmont  and  of  the  other  Sardinian 
States ;  Polidcal  and  Literarv  History  of 
Greece;  and  Letters  from  Brandenburg. 
After  the  battle  of  Marengo,  the  council 
of  administration  appointed  him  librarian 
at  the  university  of  Turin.  Before  he 
entered  upon  this  office,  he  wrote  his 
CUf  des  Lairmies,  ou  Observatums,  etc., 
which  he  deaicated  to  the  first  consul. 
He  received,  in  return,  an  honorable  letter 
and  a  gold  snufi^-box,  through  Duroc. 
This  favor  was  followed  by  the  offer  of 
the  place  of  librarian  to  the  emperor,  upon 
which  he  repaired  to  Paris.  In  1805 
appealed  his  Historico-statisdcal  Picture 
of  Upper  Italy.    He  died  in  ISia 

I)«KisorDErnrs,ST.,ABBETOF ;  achurch 
celebrated  in  histoiy.  The  saint  (Dionys- 
ius)  to  whom  it  is  consecrated,  havuig 
been  sent  finom  Rome  into  Gaul  to  preach 
the  gospel,  died  by  the  hand  of  the  public 
executioner,  about  the  end  of  the  3d  cen- 
tury. CatuUa,  a  heathen  lady,  affected 
by  the  martyr's  constancv,  obtained  his 
body,  which  had  been  thrown  into  the 
Seine,  buried  it  in  her  garden,  became  a 
Chiisdan,  and  erected  a  small  chapel  over 
his  tomb,  which  was  afterwards  reouilt  on 
a  more  extensive  plan,  by  St  Genevieve, 
and  became,  in  the  6th  century,  one  of  the 
most  flouridiing  abbeys.  This  large  edi- 
fice is  sdll  standing,  a  noble  structure,  the 
oldest  Christian  clnut;h  in  France.  On 
the  left  was  the  principal  entrance,  a  large 
door  with  two  small  doors  at  the  sides, 
ornamented  with  statues  of  the  ancient 
eaintB  and  French  kings,  carved  in  stone. 


The  interior  of  the  church  was  enriched 
with  pious  offerings  and  works  of  art.  In 
the  large  vaults  under  the  choir  reposed 
the  remains  of  several  kings  of  the  first 
and  second  races,  and  all  tlie  rulers  of  the 
third  race,  fiiom  Hugh  Capet  to  Louis  XVI. 
At  present,  the  hei^  of  all  the  saints  and 
kinffs  at  tlie  entrance  are  wanting,  and  the 
vaults  are  vacant,  all  the  bodies  having 
been  removed  during  tlie  revolution. 
Oct  16, 1793,  at  the  time  when  the  queen 
was  beheaded  in  Paris,  the  coffin  of 
Louis  XV  was  taken  out  of  the  vaults  of 
St.  Denis,  and,  after  a  stormy  deliate,  it 
was  decided  to  tlirow  the  remains  of  all  the 
kings,  even  tliose  of  Henry  IV  and  Louis 
XIV,  which  were  yet,  in  a  good  degree,  pre- 
served entire,  and  recognised  with  perfect 
certainty,  into  a  pit,  to  melt  down  their 
leaden  coffins  on  the  spot,  and  to  take 
away  and  melt  into  bullets  whatever  lead 
there  was  besides  in  the  church  (the  whole 
roof,  for  example).  Napoleon's  decree  of 
the  20th  Febniary,  1806,  made  St.  Denis 
again  the  burial-place  of  the  reigning 
family  of  Fraiice ;  the  church  was  repair- 
ed and  ornamented,  and  marked  with  the 
emblems  of  the  new  dynasty,  particularly 
the  large  N.  Napoleon  had  selected  a 
vaulted  room  for  the  tomb  of  himself  and 
his  consort  Louis  XVIIl  obliterated  from 
St.  Denis  all  traces  of  Napoleon's  rule, 
buried  whatever  bones  of  his  ancestors 
could  be  found,  especially  the  relics  of 
Louis  XVI  and  his  family,  in  the  ancient 
sepulchre  of  the  kings,  and  instituted 
canons,  whose  duty  it  is  to  protect  the 
tombs  witljin.  These  canons  of  St.  De- 
nis are  the  most  disdnguished  in  France, 
and  form  a  convent,  the  abbot  of  which  is 
a  bishop. 

Denizen.  In  England,  a  denizen  is  an 
alien  bom,  who  has  obtained  letters  patent 
whereby  he  is  constituted  an  English  sub- 
ject. A  denizen  is  in  a  middle  state  be- 
tween an  alien  and  a  natural  bom  or  nat- 
uralized subject,  partaking  of  tlie  nature 
of  both.  He  may  take  lands  by  purchase, 
or  derive  a  title  by  descent  through  his  pa- 
rents or  any  ancestor,  tiiough  they  be  aliens. 

Denmark;  the  smallest  of  die  northern 
European  kingdoms.  The  oldest  inhab- 
itants of  Denmark  were  Gennans,  brave 
and  spirited  men,  who  gained  their  sup- 
port from  the  sea.  The  Cimbri,  who 
derived  their  origin  from  Uiem,  dwelt  in 
the  peninsula  of  Jutland,  the  Chersonestu 
Cimbrica  of  the  Romans.  They  first 
struck  terror  into  the  Romans  by  their  in- 
curaion,  with  the  Teutones,  into  the  rich 
provinces  of  Gaul.  After  this,  led  by  the 
mysterious  Odin,  the  Goths  broke  into 


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lii 


DENMARK. 


Seandioavia,  and  appointed  chlefi  fit)m 
tbeir  own  nation  over  Denmark,  Norway 
and  Sweden.  Skiold  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  ruler  of  Denmark.  His  liistory, 
however,  and  that  of  his  posterity,  is  in- 
volved in  fable.  All  we  know  with  cer- 
tainty is,  that  Denmark  was  divided,  at 
this  time,  into  many  small  states,  that  the 
inhabitants  gained  their  subsistence  by 
piracy,  and  spread  terror  through  every 
sea,  and  along  every  coast  to  which  they 
came.  When  the  power  of  the  Romans 
began  to  decline,  the  Danes  and  Normans 
became  conspicuous  in  the  South  by  their 
incursions  upon  the  shores,  which  were 
formerly  protected  by  tlie  guard-ships  of 
the  Romana  The  Normans  (compre- 
hending the  people  of  Denmark,  Sweden 
and  Norway)  landed  m  England  A.  D. 
Kfi2,  and  established  there  two  kincdoms. 
Under  Rollo,  in  911,  thev  made  a  descent 
on  the  French  coasts  in  Normandy,  occu- 
pied the  Faroe  isles,  the  Orcades,  the  Shet- 
land isles,  Iceland,  and  a  part  of  Ireland,  and 
thence  proceeded  to  Spain,  Italy  and  Sicily. 
Wherever  they  came,  they  spread  terror 
hy  their  valor,  ferocity  and  rapacity. 
These  expeditions  made  little  cliange  m 
their  national  government :  it  still  contin- 
ued a  federative  system  of  many  clans  or 
tribes,  each  of  which  had  its  own  head, 
and  all  were  united  under  one  severely 
When  the  German  kinps  of  the  Carlovm- 
gian  race  attempted  to  interfere  with  their 
domestic  affairs,  the  tribes  entered  into  a 
closer  union,  and  the  Norwegians  and 
Danes  formed  two  separate  states.  Gorm 
the  Old  first  subdued  Jutland,  in  863,  and 
united  all  the  small  Danish  states  under 
his  sceptre  till  920.  Flis  grandson  Sweyn, 
a  warlike  prince,  subdued  a  part  of  Nor- 
way in  1000,  and  England  in  1014.  His 
son  Canute,  in  1016,  not  only  completed 
the  conquest  of  England,  but  also  subdued 
a  pan  of  Scotland,  and,  in  1030,  all  Nor- 
way. Under  him  the  power  of  Denmaric 
reached  its  highest  pitch.  Political  mo- 
tives led  him  to  embrace  the  Christian 
religion,  and  to  introduce  it  into  Denmark  ; 
upon  which  a  great  change  took  place  in 
the  character  of  tlie  people.  Canute  died 
in  1036,  and  left  a  powerful  kingdom  to 
his  successors,  who,  in  1042,  lost  England, 
and,  in  1047,  Norway.  The  Danish  king- 
dom was,  after  this,  very  much  weaken^ 
by  intestine  broils.  Sweyn  Magnus  Es- 
tritson  ascended  the  throne  in  1047,  and 
established  a  new  dynasty ;  but  the  feudal 
system,  introduced  by  the  wars  of  Sweyn 
and  Canute,  robbed  the  kingdom  of  all  its 
strength  under  this  dynasty,  which  fur- 
nish^ not  a  single  worthy  prince  except 


the  neat  Waldemar,  lefl  the  princes  de- 
pendent on  the  choice  of  the  bishops  and 
nobility,  plunged  the  peasants  into  bond- 
age, caused  the  decay  of  agriculture,  and 
abandoned  commerce  to  the  Hanse  towns 
of  Germany.  With  Waldemar  III,  in 
1376,  the  male  line  of  the  &mily  of  Estrit- 
son  became  extinct.  His  politic  daughter 
Margaret,  afler  the  death  of  her  son  Olave 
IV,  A.  D.  1387,  took  the  helm  of  the 
Danish  government,  ascended  die  throne 
of  Sweden  and  Norway,  and  establisbetl 
the  union  of  Calmar  (q.  v.),  in  1397.  After 
the  extinction  of  the  princes  of  the  family 
of  Skiold,  the  Danes  elected  Christian  J, 
count  of  Oldenburg,  to  succeed  him,  in 
1448.  This  Christian  was  the  founder  of 
the  royal  Danish  family,  which  has,  ever 
since,  kept  possession  of  the  throne,  and 
from  which,  in  modem  times,  Russia, 
Sweden  and  Oldenburg  have  received 
their  rulers.  He  connected  Norway, 
Sleswic  and  Holstein  with  the  crown  of 
Denmark,  but  was  so  fettered  by  his  capit- 
ulations, that  he  seemed  to  be  rather  tiie 
head  of  the  royal  council  than  a  sovereign 
king.  His  son,  king  John,  was  bound  by 
a  still  more  strict  capituladon,  in  Den- 
maric,  1481.  In  Norway,  too,  his  power 
was  more  circumscribed.  Holstein  and 
Sleswic  he  shared  with  Frederic,  his 
brother.  King  Christian  II  (q.  v.),  son  of 
John,  a  wicked  and  cruel,  but  bv  no 
means  weak,  prince,  attempted  to  throw 
off  bis  depenaence  on  the  states;  but,  in 
doing  it,  he  lost  Sweden,  which  broke  the 
union  of  Calmar  in  1523 ;  and,  soon  after, 
he  was  deprived  of  both  his  other  crowns. 
Denmark  and  fiorwsy  elevated  his  &- 
ther's  brotiier,  Frederic  I,  to  the  throne. 
Under  this  prince,  the  aristocracy  gained 
the  entire  superiority ;.  bondage  was  estab- 
lished by  law ;  the  reformation  was  intro- 
duced ;  and,  in  1522,  Norway  was  united 
with  Denmark.  Christian  III,  his  eldest 
son,  divided  Sleswic  and  Holstein  with  hia 
brothers,  John  and  Adolpfaus,  the  latter 
of  whom  founded  the  house  of  Holstein- 
Gottorp ;  but  this  division  was  the  ground 
of  long  and  bitter  disputes.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded, in  1559,  by  king  Frederic  II,  who 
conquered  the  Ditmars,  and  became  in- 
volved in  a  war  with  Sweden  respecting 
the  possession  of  Livonia.  This  war  was 
concluded  by  the  peace  of  Stettin,  1570. 
Christian  IV,  who  succeeded  in  1588,  took 
part  in  the  tiiirty  years'  war,  and  twice 
engaged  in  a  war  with  Sweden ;  the  last 
time  with  such  unhappy  consequences, 
that,  by  the  peace  of  Bromsebro,  in  1645, 
Denmark  had  to  cede  to  Sweden  Jsmipt- 
land,  Herjedalen  beyond  the  mountains. 


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D^BNMARK. 


105. 


Gothland  and  Oesel,  provinces  which  it 
had  retained  ever  since  the  union ;  besides 
puttiug  Halland  in  her  hands  for  !)0  years. 
The  fauHs  of  the  Danish  fonn  of  goveni- 
ment,  and  the  restraints  on  the  crown,  had 
principally  contributed  to  make  the  Dan- 
ish arms  unsuccessful  The  same  inisfbr- 
time  attended  them  also  in  tlie  new  war, 
begun  with  Sweden  by  king  Frederic  III, 
in  1657.  In  the  peace  of  Roschild,  in 
1658,  and  that  of  Copenhagen,  in  1660,  he 
lost  Schonen,  Bleckingen,  Bohua  and  Hal- 
land.  This  caused  the  abolition,  in  1660, 
of  the  constitution  of  the  states:  the 
nation  itself  granted  the  king  absolute 
power,  and  rendered  the  crown  hereditary. 
Norway  did  the  same  in  1661.  The 
Danish  -  nobility,  however,  retained  the 
most  important  offices  of  state,  and  the 
result  did  not  answer  the  expectations 
which  had  been  entertained  or  the  new 
arrangement.  Christian  V  and  Frederic 
IV  were  conquered  in  the  war  with 
Charles  XII.  Denmark,  however,  after 
the  &11  of  Charles  XII,  gained  by  tlie 
peace  of  1720,  at  Fredericsburg,  the  toll 
on  the  Sound,  and  maintained  possession 
of  Sleswic.  After  this,  the  state  enjoyed 
a  long  repose;  but  the  wounds  inflicted 
by  its  ill  successes  and  its  defective  form 
of  government,  could  uot.be  healed  by  the 
peaceful  system  now  adopted.  Demnark, 
having  but  few  resources,  can  prosper  only 
by  wise  moderation  and  careful  manage- 
menL  The  political  macliine,  once  <£s- 
ordered,  requires  a  long  time  for  restora- 
tion. In  17^  Denmark  united  witli  the 
crown  die  county  of  Ranzau;  in  1761, 
Holstein-Plon ;  and,  in  1773,  Holstein-Got- 
torp.  In  return  for  the  latter,  by  a  treaty 
with  Russia,  it  ceded  the  counties  of  Ol- 
denbuig  and  Delmenhorst,  which  were 
acquired  in  1667.  In  1730,  Christian  VI 
succeeded  Frederic  IV,  and  left  his  crown, 
in  1746, 10  his  son  Frederic  V.  Christian 
VII  (q.  V.)  received  the  sceptre  in  1766. 
He  governed  entirely  by  his  ministers. 
(See  the  article  StrueTiste.)  The  present 
king,  Frederic  VI  (q.  v.)  was  declared  of 
age  at  16  years,  and,  in  April  14, 1784,  was 
appointed  regent  on  account  of  the  insani- 
ty of  his  father,  whom  he  succeeded,  after 
his  death,  A.  D.  1808.  In  consequence 
of  the  defensive  alliance  with  Russia,  in 
1788,  a  Danish  auxiliary  corps  marched 
into  Sweden  v^thout  opposition ;  but,  on 
the  representations  of  England  and  Prus- 
sia, an  annisdce  was  concluded  a  fortnight 
after  the  commencement  of  hostilities. 
Thus  ended  diis  fruitless  campaign,  which 
imposed  on  the  impoverished  finances  a 
biuden  of  7,000,000  riz  dollars.  Denmark 
16* 


maintained  her  neutrality  with  more  suc- 
cess, in  1792,  when  the  allied  powers 
wished  her  to  take  [lart  in  the  war  against 
France.  But,  by  her  accession  to  the 
Northern  confederacy,  in  1800,  she  was 
uivolved  in  a  war  with  Great  Britain,  in 
which  the  Danish  fteet  was  defeated  at 
Copenhagen,  April  2, 1801.  The  courage 
of  the  Danes,  however,  obtained  for  tliem 
a  truce,  upon  which  Denmark  acceded  to 
the  treaty  of  Russia  with  England,  com- 
pleted July  20,  evacuated  Hamburg  and 
Lfibeck,  of  which  she  had  possession,  and 
received  back  her  own  colonies.  At 
length,  in  1807,  this  state  was  included  in 
Napoleoirs  continental  policy.  A  French 
army  stood  on  the  bonders  of  Denmark, 
Russia  had  adopted  the  continental  sys- 
tem at  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  and  England 
thought  it  her  duty  to  prevent  the  acces- 
sion of  Denmark  to  this  alliance.  A  fteet 
of  23  ships  of  the  line  was  sent  up  the 
Sound,  August  3,  which  demanded  of 
Denmark  a  defensive  alliance,  or  the  sur- 
render of  her  fleet,  as  a  pledge  of  her  neu- 
trality. Both  were  denied.  Upon  this,  a 
British  army  landed,  consisting  of  25,000 
men,  under  lord  Catbcart ;  and,  after  an 
unsuccessful  resistance  on  the  part  of  the 
Danes,  who  were  unprepared  for  such  an 
attack,  Copenhagen  was  surrounded  Au- 
gust 17.  As  the  government  repeatedly 
refused  to  yield  to  the  British  demands, 
the  capital  was  bombarded  for  three  days, 
and  400  houses  laid  in  ashes,  in  the  ruins 
of  wliich  1300  of  the  inhabitants  perished. 
September  7,  Copenhagen  capitulated,  and 
the  whole  fleet,  completely  equipped,  and 
including  18  ships  of  the  line,  15  frigates, 
&c.,  was  delivered  up  to  the  British,  and 
carried  off*  in  triumph.  The  crevra,  who 
had  fought  on  those  days  with  distinguished 
bravery,  were  made  prisoners  of  war. 
Great  Britain  now  offered  tlie  crown- 
prince  neutrality  or  an  alliance.  If  he 
accepted  the  first,  the  Danish  fleet  was  to 
be  restored  in  tluee  years  after  the  cen 
eral  peace,  and  the  island  of  Heligoland 
was  to  be  ceded  to  the  British  crown. 
The  crown-prince,  however,  rejected  all 
proposals,  declared  war  against  Great 
Britain  in  October,  1807,  and  entered  into 
a  treaty  with  Napoleon,  at  Fontainebleau, 
October  31.  Upon  this,  Bemadotte  occu- 
pied the  lianish  islands  with  30,000  men, 
in  order  to  land  in  Sweden,  against  which 
Denmark  had  declared  war  in  April,  1808. 
This  plan  was  defeated  by  the  war  with 
Austria,  in  1809,  and  tlie  hostilides  against 
Sweden  in  Norway  ceased  the  same  year. 
The  demand  made  by  the  court  of  Stock- 
hohn,  in  1813^  of  a  transfer  of  Norway  fo 


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186 


DENMARK. 


Sweden,  was  followed  by  a  new  war  with 
this  crown,  and  a  new  alliance  with  Napo- 
leon, July  10,  1813.  On  this  account, 
after  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  the  northern 
powers,  who  were  united  against  France, 
occupied  Holstein  and  Sleswic.  Gl&ck- 
stadt  and  other  fortifications  were  cap- 
tured, and  the  Danish  troops  driven  beyond 
Fiensburg.  Denmark  now  concluded  a 
peace  with  England  and  Sweden,  Jan.  14, 
1814,  at  Kiel.  She  also  entered  into  an 
alliance  against  France,  and  contributed  a 
bcKly  of  troops  to  the  allied  forces.  She 
was  obliged  to  cede  Heligoland  to  Great 
Britain  (receiving  in  exchange  the  West 
India  islands),  and  Norway  to  Sweden  (for 
which  she  was  compensated  by  Swedish 
Ponierania  and  Ru^n).  A  peace  was 
concluded  with  Russia  in  February,  1614. 
Jan.  14,  1815)  Denmark  ceded  Swedish 
Pomerania  and  Rugen  to  Prussia,  and 
received  for  them  Lauenburg  and  a  pecu- 
niary compensation.  June  8,  1815,  the 
king  entered  into  tlie  German  confedera- 
cy with  Holstein  and  Lauenburg,  and 
received  in  it  the  tenth  place,  and  three 
votes  in  the  general  assembly  (tlie  plenum) ; 
after  which,  by  the  appointment  of  a  de- 
cemviral  commission,  preliminary  meas- 
ures were  taken  to  introduce  a  representa- 
tive government  into  Holstein. 

Denmark  consists  of  tlie  islands  of  Zea- 
land, Ftihncn,  Langeland,  Laaland,  Fal- 
8ter,  Bomholm  and  Moen,  the  peninsula 
of  Jutland  and  the  duchy  of  Sleswic.  To 
the  Danish  kingdom  belong  also  two  states 
of  the  German  confederacy,  the  duchies 
of  Holstein  and  Lauenburg ;  likewise  the 
Faroe  islands,  Iceland,  the  western  coast 
of  Greenland,  some  places  in  Guinea,  and 
the  city  and  territory  of  Tranquebar,  in  the 
East  Indies.  Denmark  Proper  and  Sles- 
wic contain  only  17,375  square  miles; 
Iceland  and  the  Faroe  islands,  30,270; 
the  German  states,  3665 ;  and  the  colonies, 
7173.  The  whole  kingdom,  with  its  de- 
pendencies, contains  58,500  square  miles, 
of  which  Iceland  and  the  coast  of  Green- 
land compose  36,128.  Denmark  Proper  is 
estimated  to  contain  1,230,000  inhabitants ; 
Holstein  and  Lauenburg,  370,000;  Ice- 
land, in  the  year  1823,  49,269 ;  the  Faroe 
islands,  5300;  and  the  rest  of  the  colonies, 
101,000 ;  so  that  the  whole  kingdom  con- 
tains 1,750,000,  or,  according  to  some  ac- 
counts, 1,864,534  inhabitants.  The  peo- 
ple, partly  Danes  and  partly  Germans, 
speak  Danish  in  Denmark  Proper,  Norse 
in  Iceland  and  the  Faroe  islands,  and 
German  in  the  high  and  low  German  and 
Frisian  dialects.  Bondage  no  longer  pre- 
Mls  among  the  peasants,  but  they  con- 


tinue to  be  attached  to  the' soil  in  Den- 
mark Projier.  The  principal  island,  Zea« 
land  (Dan.  SaUand),  is  separated  by  the 
Sound  (q.v.)  ftt)m  Sweden,  tlie  island  Fiili- 
nen  (Dan.  /Ven)  by  the  Great  Belt,  from 
Zealand,  and  by  the  Little  Belt  from  the 
peninsula  of  Jutland  (Dan.  Jylland):  these 
three  straits  form  the  passage  from  the 
Grerman  ocean  to  the  Baltic  sea.  The 
country  is  pei-feclly  level,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  single  ridge  of  moderate  eleva- 
tion, which  runs  through  the  duchies. 
The  coasts  are  low,  and,  ibr  the  most  part, 
protected  against  the  encroachments  of  the 
waves  by  flats,  and  require  artificial  dykes 
only  on  tlie  side  of  the  German  ocean. 
The  soil  consists  fjartly  of  marshes  and 
partly  of  heaths,  and  the  country  is  mod- 
erately fruitful.  By  tlie  improvident  ex- 
tirpation of  the  woods,  which  protected  the 
northern  and  north-western  coasts  of  Jut- 
land against  the  sea,  vast  extents  of  fruitful 
territory  have  become  barren  and  aandy 
deserts.  The  church  at  Skagen,  in  tlie 
most  northern  parish  of  Jutland,  at  present 
lies  almost  buried  in  heaps  of  sand,  driven 
up  by  the  sea.  An  attempt  has  lately  been 
made  to  check  this  devastation,  by  planting 
ftra,  birches,  &c.,  also  certain  liertis  that 
flourish  best  in  sand ;  by  which  means  a 
great  part  of  tliose  sandy  regions  have 
once  more  put  on  a  verdant  dress.  Be- 
sides the  Elbe,  the  boundary  stream  of  the 
kingdom,  it  has  only  a  f^w  rivers  on  the 
coast.  There  are  many  lakes  in  tlie  inte- 
rior, as  the  Schall  and  the  Ratzebiirger 
lakes  in  Lauenburg,  Ploner  and  Selenrer 
lakes  in  Holstein ;  and  several  bays,  the 
most  considerable  of  which  is  situated  in 
North  Jutland,  called  the  LanfiortL  The 
Cattegat  or  Skaggcrack, between  the  coasts 
of  Jutland  and  Sweden,  is  considered  by 
some  as  a  bay :  it  is  connected  with  the 
Baltic  by  the  Sound  and  the  two  Belte. 
The  chmate,  for  the  most  part,  is  temper- 
ate, but  very  wet  The  staple  produc- 
tions of  Denmark  are  grain,  rape-seed, 
tobacco,  &c. :  4,000,000  pounds  of  the  last 
are  raised  annually,  and  sold  mostly  in 
foreign  countries.  Hemp  and  flax  are  not 
raised  in  suflScient  quantities  to  satisfy  the 
demand  of  the  people :  the  same  is  the 
case  with  madder  (which,  however,  thrives 
very  well),  and  with  hops.  Horticulture  is 
neglected  in  Denmark  Proper.  Sea-weed 
is  used  for  stufling  cushions,  &C.,  instead 
of  horse-hair.  Forests  are  rare,  and  the 
price  of  wood  high ;  turf,  however,  is  very 
abundant  The  breeding  of  cattle  fur- 
nishes the  only  unportant  article  of  expor- 
tation :  for  example,  every  year  Denmark 
Proper  exports  16,000  horses  and  700O 


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0ENMARK. 


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ozeiL  Olofien  fixes  tlie  number  of  homed 
cattle,  not  including  those  raised  in  the 
duchies,  at  1,484,000  head:  the  sheep 
amount  to  1,3SBB,000  head,  including  90,000 
merinos.  Swine  and  pouitrv,  too,  are 
Fused  in  hige  numben^  The  larger  kinds 
of  game  are  very  nire»  The  fisheries  sup- 
ply a  pott  of  North  Germany  with  herring, 
oyatera,  lobsters,  d&c.  Among  the  miner- 
als are  clay,  iron,  copper,  alum,  Ume  (in 
Segeberg),  and  salt  (less  than  is  wanted) 
from  salt-springs.  The  manufactures  are 
few,  and  cairi^  on  principally  in  Copen* 
iiageu  and  Altona :  the  Banish  gloves, 
which  come  from  Jutland,  are  esteemed 
in  Germany.  Trade,  especially  to  the 
West  Indies,  and  navigation,  have  begun 
to  revive.  The  Holstein  canalioins  the 
Baltic  sea  and  the  North  sea.  The  char- 
ter of  the  Astatic  company  was  extended, 
in  1812,  to  30  years  after  the  peace ;  but 
the  shares  have  fallen.  Dennuuk  now 
without  including  Iceland  and 


the  Faroe  islands,  100  cities,  37  boromrhs, 
2305  parishes  and  5500  villages.  The 
government  is  an  absolute  monarchr. 
The  crown  is  hereditary  both  in  the  male 
and  female  line.  The  king's  oldest  son 
is  styled  the  crownrjnince ;  the  other  min- 
ces of  the  blood  are  called  prineea  of  Very- 
work.  Copenhagen  is  the  royal  residence. 
The  title  of  the  sovereign,  since  Jan.  1^ 
lew,  has  been,  king  of  Denmarky  of  (ht 
Vtmdals  and  M  Goths,  diJce  of  SUswie, 
SbbUinj  SUmnam,  the  Ditmanh,  and  vf 
LoMoibwrg  and  OUUnbwg.  The  orders  of 
knighthood  are  the  order  of  the  elephant 
and  the  order  of  the  Danebrog  (order  of 
the  royal  banner).  In  Denmark  Proper 
there  are  no  estatesi  The  highest  council 
of  state  is  the  privy  council,  to  which  the 
administraiion  of  domestic  affairs  has  be- 
longed since  1814.  The  Lutheran  is  the 
prevailing  religion,  but  unlinuted  tolera** 
tion  Is  extended  to  every  religious  sect, 
not  excepting  the  Jews.  There  are  two 
universities  (at  Copenhagen  and  Kiel). 
There  is  also  an  academy  of  arts,  a  royal 
society  of  sciences,  and  many  private  in- 
stitutions and  societies  of  learned  men, 
40gifnma9ia,  and  13  seminaries  of  teach- 
ers. Lancastrian  or  monitorial  schools 
were  first  established  in  Denmark  in  1823 ; 
but  their  progress  has  been  rapid  beyond 
example.  In  1823,  the  system  was  intro- 
duced into  244  schools :  in  1824,  the  num- 
ber was  605;  m  1825,  1143;  in  1826, 
1543;  in  1827,  2003;  in  1828,  2302; 
and  in  1829,  the  additions  made  would 
carry  it  to  2616.  The  Sound  dues  now 
tffi>nl  a  revenue  of  more  than  450,000 
doyaxs.     The  pubhc  debt,  it  is  ocmjec- 


tured,  amounts  in  silver  to  10  million  rix 
dollars  banco  of  foreign,  and  100  milUotw 
of  domestic  debt,  including  two  recent 
loans  in  Hamburg  and  London.  The 
value  of  bank-bills  in  circuladofi,  in  1823, 
a  little  exceeded  21,325,000  rix  dollars 
banco.  Paper  money  is  worth  about  40 
per  cent,  in  comparison  with  specie ;  and 
a  bank  dollar  in  silver  is  worth  1^  Ham- 
burg marks  banco.  The  land  force  con- 
sisted, in  1823,  of  30,838  men,  cxclusire 
of  the  miUtio.  The  marine  is  subject  to 
a  board  of  admiralty,  or  commisHariate. 
In  1826,  the  navy  consisted  of  4  ships  of 
the  line,  7  frigates,  4  corvettes,  5  brigs,  1 
schooner,  and  80  gun-boats. 

Danish  Language,  Literature  and  ^rts* 
The  Danish  language  is  a  daughter  of  the 
Low  German  and  the  original  Nonnan, 
which  was,  in  the  10th  century,  driven  to 
Iceland.  It  is  believed  by  many,  that  the 
Anglo-Saxon  tankage  is,  in  fact,  the 
Danish,  and  that  it  has  been  reiained  in 
its  purity  by  the  Irish.  The  first  culti- 
vators of  tliis  language  in  Denmark,  as  in 
Sweden  and  Norway,  were  the  Scalds, 
who  wrote  poems  in  the  pure  Grerman 
dialect,  and,  following  their  princos  and 

Senerals,  sung  in  rhymeless  verse  the 
cities  and  ex jiloits  of  their  nation.  After 
the  introduction  of  Christianity  (about 
1000),  historical  poems  only  continued  to 
be  composed  (till  1265).  For  the  intro- 
duction of  this  religion  into  Denmark,  at 
the  same  time  with  the  art  of  writing,  the 
foundation  was  laid  by  the  German  mis- 
sionary, Anschar.  (See^nsgar.)  Canute 
the  Great  (1015->1036|,  msptred  by  his 
wife,  Emma,  with  zeal  for  Christianity, 
and  a  liberal  spirit  towards  the  clergv, 
sent  Anglo-Saxon  teachers  to  Denmarx, 
established  tiie  bishoprics  of  Schonen, 
Zealand,  and  FCihnen,  and  spread  Chris- 
tianity through  all  the  rest  of  the  North. 
He  sought  to  promote  trade  and  com- 
merce, coined  new  money,  and  established 
more  fixed  laws.  Immediately  after  Chris- 
tianity, chivalry,  also,  was  introduced  into 
Scandinavia,  particularly  by  the  French 
crusades,  and  found  an  easy  reception 
amonff  the  inhalntants,  who  were  extreme- 
ly fond  of  bold  adventures.  Tournaments 
were  so  common  at  the  Danish  court,  that 
every  stranger  who  visited  it  was  obliged 
to  break  a  spear  with  some  of  the  cour- 
tiers. The  Danes  engaged  in  the  first 
crusade.  This  new  spirit  of  chivalry  had 
necessarily  a  favorable  influence  on  poetry. 
The  oldest  Danish  poetry  extant  is  the 
epic  of  the  Skyldingians,  first  publisljed 
complete  by  ThorkeUn  (De  Danorum  ret. 
GesL  SeeuL  HI  d  IV,  Poema  Dan.  DiaUd. 


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DENMARK. 


•^n^-tSSoEXon,  etc.  Copenhagen,  1815, 4to.). 
Of  a  much  later  date  (16th  century)  is  the 
collection  of  the  heroic  ballads  and  ro- 
mances of  love  (IQemneviaer  and  Elskovsvi- 
a«r),  pubUshed  by  Wedel  and  Syv,  and 
latest  by  Abrahamson,  Nyenip  and  Rab> 
beck,  IB12^~14,  in  5  vols.,  which  has  been 
translated  into  German  by  W.  L.  Grimm, 
who  has  done  much  for  the  northern 
poetry  (JRldamackt  HektenUtder,  Balladen^ 
xmdMfirchm,  Heidelburg,  1811).  Nyerup 
and  Rahbeck  likewise  published,  a  short 
time  shice,  a  selection  from  the  manu- 
script Danish  poems  of  the  middle  ages, 
with  valuable  commentaries.  Their  poet- 
ical value,  hideed,  is  very  unequal;  but 
most  of  them  contain  genuine  poetry,  and 
much  national  spirit  The  latest  Danish 
dramatists  have  drawn  much  from  these 
storehouses.  Among  the  heroic  poems, 
many  illustrate  the  cycle  of  the  old  Helden- 
hiclu  (q.  V.)  The  first  Danisli  historians  are 
Sueno  (Svend)  Aagesen  (about  1188),  and 
the  celebrated  Saxo-Grammaticus,  prop- 
erly Lang,  of  Schonen  (who  died  in  1204), 
bo&i  of  whom,  by  the  suggestion  of  Absa- 
lon,  archbishop  of  Lund,  wrote,  the  former 
a  concise  history  of  the  Danish  kings  from 
300  to  1186  (Suenoms  ^goms  Opuseula, 
ed.  Stephan.  Sora,  1642),  the  latter  a  com- 
plete history  of  Denmark  (HistoruE^  Libb, 
xvL  ed.  Stephanins  Sora,  1644 ;  Klotzius, 
1771, 4to.),  to  the  year  1186,  in  16  vols,  in 
a  correct  Latin  style.  The  reformation, 
introduced  in  1527,  and  still  more  tlie  ex- 
tension of  trade,  had  a  great  influence  on 
the  intellectual  progress  of  Denmark.  In 
consequence  of  the  reformation,  the  CJer- 
mans  obtained  an  important  influence  over 
the  church  and  the  literature  of  Denmark. 
The  Danes  studied  in  Germany.  German 
was  the  language  of  the  court,  and  Latin 
the  language  of  tlie  learned.  The  at- 
tempts of  authors  in  their  vernacular 
tongue  were  as  yet  insignificant.  A  Da- 
nish translation  of  the  New  Testament  was 
made  in  1524,  on  the  model  of  Luther^s. 
Danisii  became  the  language  of  literature, 
partly  in  the  16th,  and  still  more  in  the 
17tli  century,  and  was  distinguished  for 
its  softness  and  euphony,  and  for  the  ex- 
pressiveness of  its  abstract  terms.  The 
language  of  poetry  seems,  at  present,  to 
have  left  prose  far  in  the  rear.  The  flrst 
Danish  grammar  was  edited  by  Erich 
Pontoppidan  (Copenhagen,  1668).  Many 
useful  grammars  were  aflerwfuids  pre- 
pared by  James  Baden  and  others,  and,  in 
the  16th  century,  some  Danish-I^atin  dic- 
tionaries. (See  the  lAttratura  antupiissi- 
mOj  of  Olaf  Worm,  a  Dane  (Copenhagen, 
1651 ),  and  others.)    The  Danish  is  the  only 


Teutonic  language  wfaicb  has  a  real  pas- 
sive voice.  In  regard  to  prose,  the  Danish 
language  has  been  highly  enriched  by 
Holberg  (q.  v.J,  who,  in  one  view,  may 
justly  be  callea  the  father  of  modem  Da- 
nish literature,  having  applied  it  to  many 
branches  of  literature,  and  particularly  to 
the  drama.  Much  has  been  done  for  the 
improvement  of  the  public  taste  by  J. 
Wielandt  (died  1730)^  J.  Sch.  Sneedorfi 
(died  1764),  in  their  journals,  and  by  J. 
Baden  (died  1804),  who  paid  particular 
attention  to  the  purity  of  tlie  lanj^iage, 
and  discharged  with  success  the  office  of 
a  critic  Literary  institutions  were,  mere- 
over,  established  and  supported  by  Fred- 
eric V,  and  Christian  VII,  which  greatly 
promoted  the  native  literatufe  of  the  coun- 
try. T.  Rothe,  P.  F.  Suhm  (a  Danish 
historian,  who  died  in  1799),  an  excellent 
prose  writer  still  living,  Cnud  Lyne  Rah- 
beck (professor,  and  kiiight  of  the  order 
of  the  Danebrog,  who  published  various 
literary  works,  1785—9^,  in  three  parts, 
consisting  of  dramatic  works  and  narra- 
tives, and  who  exerted  no  Small  influence 
upon  the  Danish  national  taste,  as  editor 
of  tlie  Northern  Minerva  and  Danisii 
Spectator),  J.  Ch»  Bastholm,  Birkner,  Ras- 
mus, Nyerup,  Anders  Gamborg,  Frederic 
M  (inter,  and  Baggesen,  have  well  founded 
claims  to  the  reputation  of  clear,  strong, 
and  agreeable  writers.  In  practical  sci- 
ence and  natural  philoAphy,  the  Danes 
have  distinguished  themselves  most.  We 
must  not  omit  the  renowned  astronomer, 
Tycho  de  Brahe  (see  7)fcho\  and  the 
mineralogist,  Olaf  Worm,  who  died  in 
1654.  Much  has  been  done  for  the  cause 
of  education  in  Denmark,  in  modem  times^ 
by  the  establishment  of  schools,  univer^- 
ties  and  literary  societies.  There  are  also 
institutions  for  instmction  in  gymnastic 
exercises,  such  as  swimming,  for  instance, 
well  worthy  of  general  imitation.  Geog- 
raphy and  practical  astronomy  are  under 
great  obligations  to  Thomas  Bugge  (q^  v.), 
who  was  invited  to  Paris  in  1798,  by  the 
French  directory,  to  take  part  in  the  es- 
tabUshment  of  the  new  system  of  weights 
and  measures.  Many  learned  men,  wliom' 
he  drew  from  obscurinr,  have  contributed 
to  give  value  to  the  Transactions  of  the 
scientific  society  at  Copenhagen  (now 
fttnounting  to  24  vols.:  the  latest  series 
is  called  Det  Kongdige  Danakt  Videngsu 
Sdskaber  Skrifter).  The  late  convulsed 
state  of  Europe  excited  in  Denmark 
much  attention  to  the  military  art,  and 
all  the  foreign  improvements  were  adopt- 
ed. Denmark  has  always  been  more  dis- 
tinguished  for  its   naval  than  its   land 


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DENMARK. 


im 


forces.  The  Danish  admiralty  deseryes 
the  general  gratitude  for  the  publication  of 
tlie  charts  prepared  under  the  direction  of 
Paul  de  L6wen6ra,  and  ^atly  increased  in 
▼alue  by  learned  illustrations.  Further  im- 
provements were  made  in  this  department 
by  U.  S.  Rosenwinge,  who  died  in  1820. 
The  numerous  editions  of  Lous's  nautical 
works,  among  a  people  who  despise  all 
theory,  if  it  cannot  be  reduced  to  practice, 
bear  witness  to  their  practical  excellence. 
The  investigation  of  the  antiquities  of  the 
country  has  received  much  attention  from 
the  following  scholars,  some  of  whom  are 
still  living :— Viboi^,  N.  E.  P.  Grundtvig, 
Sandtvig,  Thorkelin,  Thoriacius,  Nyerup 
and  Rhabeck.  The  two  last  published 
Contributions  to  the  History  of  Danish 
Poetry  (Copenhagen,  1800—8  in  4  vols.), 
and,  with  Abrahamson,  the  Collection  of 
Poems  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  poetiy 
of  the  Danes,  in  modem  times,  has  been 
splendid.  It  began  with  religious  pieces 
and  national  songs,  of  which  the  Danes 
have  a  great  number,  and  may  be  consid- 
ered as  having  commenced  with  Andr.  Chr. 
Arreboe,  who  died  in  1637.  The  Hexaem- 
eron  of  Arreboe  is  extremely  heavy.  Andr. 
Hording  (died  1677)  took  Opitz  for  bis 
pattern.  Poetic  vigor,  however,  is  want- 
ing in  him  and  in  his  successors,  Jens 
Steno  Schestedt  (died  1698),  Paul  Petter- 
sen,  the  poet  of  the  people,  William  Hek, 
who  flourished  about  1703,  Nicholas  Kingo 
(died  1703,  while  bishop),  who  celebrated 
the  achievements  of  the  Danish  kings  in 
a  heroic  poem,  and  George  Lorterap  (died 
1722).  Much  improvement  was  intro- 
duced, about  the  middle  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury, by  the  anient  enthusiasm  of  Louis 
Hotberg,  a  Norwegian.  He  deserves  to 
be  pardcularly  mentioned  here,  as  an 
original  comic  and  satirical  poet.  (For 
a  further  account  of  his  works,  see  IM- 
herg,)  The  society  established  in  1758,  for 
the  advancement  of  the  fine  arts,  and  the 
improvement  of  taste,  brought  into  notice 
the  works  of  men  of  talents,  among  whom 
the  original  Ch.  B.  Tuilin  (who  died  in 
1765)  was  most  distinguished.  In  the 
second  half  of  the  18th  century,  a  warm 
literary  controversy  commenced,  and  many 
estimable  poets,  including  several  Norwe- 
gians, made  successftil  attempts  in  various 
departments  of  literature.  Even  at  pres- 
ent, however,  they  are  much  given  to  the 
imitation  of  foreign  models.  Among  late 
poets  most  distinguished,  are  the  tragedian 
and  Ijrric  poet,  John  Ewald  (q.  v.),  N. 
Weyer  (1788,  a  poet  of  much  talent ;  he 
is  the  author  of  Pod.  Ihrs^g,  Copenha- 
gen, 1789),  the  lyric  poet  and  dramatist, 


Rahbeck,  the  satirical  and  comic  poets, 
Guldberg,  John.  Herm.  Weasel  (died  1786), 
the  next  comic  writer  after  Holberg,  and 
famous  ibr  his  comedy,  Love  without 
Stockings,  and  many  cornic  poems.  Rah- 
beck published  the  4th  edition  of  his  po- 
ems in  1817.  Other  distinguished  poets 
are  P.  A,  Heiberg,  En.  de  Falsen  (died 
1808),  the  lyric  and  dramatic  Brun,  Th. 
Thaarup  (q.  vA  who  wrote  much  for  the 
stage,  J.  C.  Tode,  Ch.  Lovinus,  Sandef-, 
Pram,  the  successful  poet  of  the  people, 
Friraann,  Rein-Storm  (the  last  are  Nor- 
wegians), a  female  writer  named  Brun 
(q.  v.),  who  has  written  spirited  poetry  in 
the  German  language,  Jens  Baggesen 
(q.  v.),  a  lyric  poet,  full  of  animation  leind 
strength,  though  at  times  heavy,  and 
Oehlenschlager.  (q.  v.)  His  best  pieces 
are  Hakon  Jari,  Ptanatoke,  Jtcd  una  Wd- 
burgy  Cwre^gio,  Maddiii,  The  Sktphard*8 
Boy,  The  last  mentioned  poets  are  to  be 
numbered,  also,  among  Grerman  authors,  as 
they  all  write  in  that  language  likewise. 
B.  S.  Ingemann  (a.  v.)  now  shares  the 
public  favor  with  Oehlenschldger.  Of  late 
years,  much  has  been  translated  from  the 
German.  An  epic  poem,  called  the  Deliv- 
erance of  Israel,  in  18  cantos,  by  J.  M. 
Herz,  which  obtained  the  prize  of  tlie 
society  of  fine  arts,  notwithstanding  this 
honor,  seems  to  have  met  but  a  cold  re- 
ception fix>m  the  public.  Copenhagen 
could  probably  boast  of  the  youngest  au- 
thoress in  Europe.  VirgiHa  Christ  Lund, 
at  the  age  of  only  ten  years,  published,  in 
1820,  a  piece  called  Two  for  One,  and 
subsequently  a  small  dramatic  piece,  The 
faithless  Maid  discovered.  The  irritability 
of  poets  is  nowhere  more  striking  than  in 
Denmark,  where  they  are  constantly  quar- 
relluig.  This  polemical  spirit  is  very 
strong  in  N.  F.  Sev.  Gruntvig,  by  whom 
two  quarto  volumes  of  the  Chronicles  of 
Denmark,  by  Saxo  Grammaticus,  have 
been  translated  into  Danish  (Copenhagen, 
1818—19),  and  given  to  the  public. 

The  musical  productions  of  Denmark 
have  l)een  inferior  in  richness  and  abun- 
dance to  the  literary.  Thorwaldsen  (q.  v.) 
has  roused  the  ambition  of  his  country  to 
aspire  to  excel  in  the  fine  arts.  Under  his 
direction,  many  promising  Danish  youth, 
as,  for  instance,  Freund,  have  been  and  are 
still  receiving  instruction.  Lahde  hasjmb- 
lished  sketches  of  the  works  of  Thor- 
waldsen, with  poetical  explanations  by 
Oehlenschl%sr.  Intellectual  activity  is 
kept  up,  in  Denmark,  by  many  excellent 
periodicals.  There  are  many  well-ordered 
literary  societies ;  and  lately  the  study  of 
the  Scandinavian  language  and  antiquities 


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DENMARK-*D£NNI£. 


has  grown  so  fashionable,  that  a  Scandi- 
navian literaiy  society  was  instituted  at 
the  commencement  of  the  present  cen- 
tury. Tlie  Transactions  of  this  society 
amount  already  to  16  vols.  (Copenhagen, 
1819),  and  contain  a  variety  of  excellent 
treatises.  The  Amae-Magneean  commis- 
sion, and  the  royal  society  for  the  pre- 
servation of  antiquities,  protect  the  mon- 
uments of  antiquity  that  belons  to  the 
country;  and  the  promotion  of  mental 
cultivation  is  intrusted  to  the  northern 
society  of  science,  the  society  for  the 
encouragement  of  the  fine  arts  and  of 
taste,  tlie  society  of  medicine  and  rural 
economy.  All  these  attempts  of  the  Da- 
nish literati  have  been  encouraged  by  the 
government  The  measurement  of  a  de- 
gree from  Lauenbuigh  to  Sca^n  has 
been  continued  without  intermission,  un- 
der the  direction  of  professor  Schumacher. 
It  is  conducted  on  strictly  scientific  ynn- 
ciples,  and  the  instruments  are  excellent, 
made  by  Reichenbach,  and  furnished  by 
the  government.    This  measurement  will 

Serhaps  determine,  at  last,  whether  confi- 
ence  ought  to  be  placed  in  the  French 
surveyors^  or  the  English  under  Mudge, 
or  in  neitker  of  them.  The  government 
assist  in  the  publication  of  many  excellent 
works,  because  the  Danish  public  is  so 
small  that  they  would  not  pa^  the  ex- 
pense of  printing  them.  In  this  way  the 
J*lara  DamcOy  for  example,  is  published ; 
also  Thorlacius  and  Werlaufs  editions  of 
the  Norwegian  Histoiy  of  Snorro  Sturle- 
son,  and  tlie  LatW  of  Lagaboter  Guletbing, 
by  king  MagBUS.  The  inquiries  uito  tlie 
origin  of  the  northern  languages,  which 
Kask  (q.  v.),  it  is  well  known,  has  sought 
for  on  Uaucasus  itself,  were  encouraged  by 
the  government,  wliich  also  promoted  the 
publication  of  Nyerup's  CML  Jjibrorum 
Samscritanorumy  qaoa  BihL  Univ.  Hafni^n- 
sis  vel  dedii  vd  paramt  NaOu  WUlich  (Co- 
penhagen, 1821).  The  collection  of  med- 
als at  Copenhagen  received  ite  present 
importance  from  the  care  jof  the  reigning 
king.  The  fund  cul  usia  publicos  is  ap- 
pli^  to  the.J9upf)ort  of  distinguished  young 
men  on  scientific  journeys.  In  the  year 
1829,  Mr.  Bowring  was  in  Copenhagen, 
collecting  materials  for  an  English  trans- 
lation of  ancient  Danish  ballads,  and  the 
most  celebrated  lyrical  pieces  of  modem 
Danish  poets. 

Denner,  Baltliaser,  a  celebrated  portrait 
painter,  was  bom  at  Hamburg  in  1685, 
and  died  at  Rostock  in  1749.  He  was 
es|)ecially  distinguished  for  tlie  remarka- 
ble exacmess  of  his  execution,  or  rather 
tlie  almost  microscopic  accuracy  of  his 


paintings.  He  learned  to  draw  at  Altona, 
and  to  paint  in  oil  at  Dantzic,  and  after- 
wards travelled.  All  the  northern  princes 
invited  him  to  tlieir  courts  to  paint  their 
portraits.  The  emperor  Charies  VI  paid 
nim  4700  florins  for  tlie  head  of  an  aged 
woman.  It  is  now  in  the  imperial  gallery 
at  Vienna.  Denner  likewise  painted  the 
head  of  an  old  man  for  tlie  same  prince,  a 
pendant  of  the  former,  which  is  also  a 
masterpiece.  There  are  some  beautiful 
portraits  painted  by  him  in  Munich. 

Denner,  Jolm  Christian,  invented  the 
clarinet.  He  was  bom  at  Leipsic  in 
1655,  and  went  to  Nuremberg  with  his 
parents  in  his  eighth  year,  where  he  was 
employed  in  making  wind  instruments, 
especially  flutes.    He  died  in  1707. 

Dennewitz  ;  a  small  town  in  the  march 
of  Brandenburg,  famous  for  the  battle  be- 
tween the  French  and  Pmssians,  Sept.  6^ 
1813,  tlie  former  commanded  by  Ney 
(under  whom  were  Oudinot,  Bertrand, 
Re^er  and  Airighi),  the  latter  by  Tau- 
enzien  and  Billow.  40,000  Prussians 
maintained  tlieir  ground  for  several  houra 
against  80,000  French  ;-and,  on  the  arrival 
of  the  Russian  and  Swedish  battalions, 
victory  declared  in  favor  of  the  allies, 
who,  after  the  Russians  and  Swedes  came 
up,  were  far  superior  in  numbers.  The 
t  rench  were  defeated,  and  fled  in  disor- 
der, with  their  auxiliaries,  consisting  of 
Bavarians,  Wurtembergiansy  Saxons  and 
Poles.  This  batde  was  a  consequence  of 
the  battle  at  Grosbeeren.  (q.  v.) 

DEi^NiE,  Joseph,  bom  in  Boston,  Auff. 
30,  1708,  was  the  son  of  a  respectabfe 
merchant  He  early  evinced  a  decided 
fondness  for  polite  literature,  and  entered 
Harvard  college  in  1787.  He  left  this 
institution  in  1790,  and  entered  the  office 
of  a  lawyer  at  Charleston,  N.  H.  At  the 
expiration  of  three  yeais,  he  made  a  suc- 
cessful dibui  at  the  bar.  From  Cliarles- 
ton  he  soon  removed  to  Walpole,  where 
he  opened  an  office,  but  gained  very  litde 
business,  owing  to  his  literary  taste  and 
irregular  habits.  For  four  inontlis,  he 
officiated  as  reader  of  prayera  for  an 
Episcopalian  congre^tion  at  ClaremonL 
In  the  sprine  of  17SS,  he  endeavored  to 
establish,  at  Boston,  a  weekly  paper  under 
the  tide  of  The  TaUeL  This,  however, 
survived  but  a  short  time.  Not  long  after, 
he  returned  to  Walpole,  to  act  as  editor 
of  the  Farmer's  Museum,  a  journal  in 
which  he  publislied  a  series  of  essays, 
with  the  signature  of  The  Lay  Preadier. 
In  1799,  he  went  to  Philadelphia,  in  con- 
sequence of  being  appointed  a  clerk  in  the 
office  of  the  secretary  of  state.    On  the 


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DENNIE— DBNON. 


191 


dismissal  of  his  patron,  Mr.  Pickerings  he 
Jeft  the  department,  and  engaged  in  the 
conduct  or  a  literary  journal,  the  Port 
Folio,  for  which  his  name  and  talents 
acquired  considerable  patronage  and  ce- 
lebrity. His  reputation,  his  colloquial 
powers,  and  amiable  disposition,  attracted 
to  him  a  large  number  of  literary  disciples 
and  coadjutors.  With  industry  and  dis^ 
cretion,  he  might  have  gained  indepen- 
dence and  permanent  h«)pine8s ;  but  he 
was  deficient  in  both  qualities,  and  grad- 
ually destroyed,  by  his  imprudence,  his 
bodily  constitution,  as  well  as  all  hopes  of 
fortune.  Jan«  7, 1812,  he  died — a  victim 
to  anxiety  and  complicated  disease.  Mr. 
Bennie  possessed  a  brilliant  genius,  a  del- 
icate taste,  a  beautiful  style,  a  ready  pen, 
a  rich  fund  of  elegant  literature,  an  excel- 
lent heart,  and  a  captivating  countenance 
and  manner,  and,  with  a  proper  exercise 
of  industry  and  judgment^  might  have 
acquired  a  lasting  reputation. 

Dennis,  John;  an  English  dramatist 
and  critic  He  was  the  son  of  a  citizen  of 
London,  where  he  was  bom  in  1657. 
Having  completed  his  studies  at  Cam- 
bridge, he  made  the  tour  of  France  and 
Italy,  and,  on  his  return,  devoted  himself 
to  uterary  occupations,  living  upon  his 
fortune^  which  had  been  lefl  him  by  an 
uncle.  In  1697,  he  produced  a  comedy, 
entitled  Plot  and  no  Plot,  which  was  fol- 
lowed fa¥  several  dramatic  pieces  and 
poems  of  little  value.  He  also  became  a 
political  writer  for  the  whig  party.  The 
urritability  of  his  disposition,  heightened, 
probably,  by  the  unprosperous  state  of  his 
nnances,  involved  him  in  perpetual  broils, 
and  made  him  a  sort  of  standing  jest  with 
the  wits  of  his  time.  Having  written  a 
tragedy  entitled  Liberty  Asserted,  which 
be^me  popular  during  the  war  with  Louis 
XIV,  in  consequence  of  the  abuse  of  the 
French  with  which  it  abounded,  Dennis 
thought  that  monarch  would  never  forgive 
the  insult :  when,  therefore,  the  treaty  of 
tJtrecht  was  about  to  be  concluded,  he 
entreated  the  duke  of  Marlborough  to 
save  him  from  being  delivered  up  to  the 
French  government,  as  a  state  criminal. 
The  duke  told  him  that  he  thought  he 
might  make  himself  easy ;  for  though  he 
had,  he  conceived,  done  as  much  hfmn  to 
the  French  as  Mr.  Dennis,  he  had  not 
thought  it  necessary  to  seek  for  personal 
indemnity.  When  his  Appius  and  Vir- 
ginia was  performed,  he  introduced  a  new 
method  ot  imitating  thunder,  said  to  be 
still  used  at  the  theatre.  The  tragedy  was 
aoon  set  aside ;  but  some  time  afler,  Dennis, 
being  present  at  the  representation  of  Mac- 


beth, perceived  that  his  new  invention  had 
been  adopted;  on  which  he  exclainied, 
^  S'death !  bow  these  rascals  use  me ; 
they  will  not  let  my  play  run,  yet  they 
steal  my  thunder."  He  wrote  some  severe 
strictures  on  Adilison's  Cato  and  Pope's 
Rape  of  the  Lock.  Pope,  in  return,  gave 
him  a  place  in  the  Dunciad,  and,  in  con- 
junction with  Swiflk,  prcMluced  a  sarcastic 
tract,  entitled  A  Narrative  of  the  deplora- 
ble Frenzy  of  Mr.  John  Dennis.  After 
he  had  dissipated  his  fortune,  the  duke  of 
Mariborougn  procured  him  tiie  place  of 
land  waiter  at  tlie  custom-house.  This 
he  disposed  of,  reserving  only  a  t»mi)oniry 
annui^ ;  and  in  his  old  age,  his  necessitiea 
were  relieved  by  a  benefit  at  the  Hay- 
market  theatre,  to  which  his  former  an- 
tagonist. Pope,  contributed  a  prf>logue. 
He  died  soon  afler,  January  6, 17iM. 

Denon,  Dominique  Vivant,  bnron  de, 
was  bom  Feb.  4,  1747,  at  Chaloiis-sur- 
Saone,  of  a  noble  family.  He  was  des- 
tined to  study  law  at  Paiis,  where  he  was 
fiivorably  received  in  societ}' ;  and  histtUeiit 
and  Inclination  led  him  to  devote  liiniself 
to  the  arts.  A  comedy  which  he  wrote, 
called  the  Good  F\xther,  gained  Inin  the 
favor  of  the  ladies.  His  arnial)le  nmnnera 
made  him  a  favorite  of  Louis  XV,  who 
appointed  him  gentUhomme  ordinaire  aliout 
his  person.  ¥k  was  aflenvanls  attached 
to  an  embassy  at  St.  PeterslHirg,  where 
Catharine,  however,  observed  liiiii  vnth  a 
jealous  eye.  Subsequently  he  was  uitnist- 
ed  with  a  diplomatic  mission  to  Switzer- 
land. On  this  occasion,  he  drew  Voltaire's 
Ukeness  (engraved  by  St.  Aiihiii)}  and  the 
well  known  picture  Im  Dejeuner  de  Fer- 
no/.  He  then  occupied,  during  seven 
years,  a  place  in  the  French  emlHusKy  at 
Kaples.  His  residence  in  this  city,  and 
repeated  visits  to  Sicily  and  Malta,  gave 
him  an  opportunity  of  exercising  his  taJent 
for  drawing  and  engraving.  Denon  had 
the  princi|Ml  direction  of  the  artists  en- 
ffagchi  in  preparing  die  ahb^  St.  Non's 
rouage  piUoresque  de  JStapUs  et  de  iSSctfe, 
ana  me  text  was  chiefly  taken  trom  his 
journal.  This  elegant  work  appeared  at 
Paris,  in  1788.  The  remainder  of  Denou's 
journal,  relating  to.  Sicily  and  Malta,  ap- 
peared separately,  in  17^.  His  career  at 
Naples  was  interrupted  by  the  death  of 
tlie  minister  Vergennes,  his  patron,  or, 
according  to  some,  by  the  displeasure  of 
the  queen,  Maria  Caroline.  But  still  his 
love  for  the  study  of  the  great  masters  de- 
tained him  in  Italy.  He  resided  at  Venice 
during  several  years,  where  he  shone  in 
the  circles  of  the  countess  Albrizzi,  who 
yns  distinguished  for  her  annable  and  in- 


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DENON—DENSiry  OF  THE  EARTH. 


telligent  character,  and  lovod  to  be  sur- 
rounded by  men  of  talents  Denon  was 
not  forgotten  in  her  RittratU,  where  she 
bestows  llie  greatest  praise  on  his  charac- 
ter, his  passion  for  the  aits,  his  cheerful- 
ness and  amiable  disposition,  and  excuses 
the  raillery  with  which  he  attacked  the 
foibles  of  others.  The  observation  and 
restraint,  to  which  the  revolution  subjected 
Frenchmen  in  foreign  countries,  compelled 
him  to  leave  Venice.  After  a  short  stay  in 
Florence  and  Switzerland,  he  was  obliged 
to  return  to  France  during  the  reign  of 
terror;  but  he  made  himself  agreeable  to 
Robespieire,  and  was,  in  consequence,  sub- 
semiendy  accused  of  devotion,  at  that  time, 
to  Jacobin  principles.  During  this  period, 
he  exercised  himself  in  engraving.  At 
last,  he  became  acquainted  with  Bonaparte, 
and  immediately  united  himself  with  him. 
He  accompanied  the  general  in  his  cam- 
paigns to  Italy  and  Egypt,  and  Desaix  to 
Upper  Egypt  The  work  which  was  the 
result  of  this  journey,  was  an  addition  to 
Benon's  &me,  pardcularlv  the  engravings 
which  ornament  it  (Pans,  1802,  2  vofe. 
fol.,  and  3  vols.  12mo^  without  engravings). 
Denon,  in  this,  has  shown  himself  a  ver^ 
able  artist  Nature,  animate  and  inam- 
mate,  the  monaments  of  centuries,  and 
the  Arabian  il^g  through  the  Desert,  are 
represMited  with  great  fidehty.  When  he 
returned  to  Paris  with  Bonaparte,  he  was 
appointed  ffeneral  director  of  the  muse- 
ums, and  all  tlie  works  of  art  executed  in 
honor  of  the  French  successes^monu- 
ments,  coins,  the  erection  of  the  triumphal 
pillar  in  the  Place  de  Vendome,  &c.  He 
accompanied  Napoleon  in  all  his  cam- 
paigns, and  employed  himself  in  draw- 
ing, and  in  selecting  those  masterpieces 
in  the  conquered  countries,  which  were 
taken  to  Paris  as  trophies.  In  1815,  he 
was  compelled  to  witness  the  restoration 
of  the  spoils.  After  the  abdication  of 
the  emperor,  he  retained  his  office,  but 
was  deprived  of  it  in  1815,  in  consequence, 
of  havinff  joined  Napoleon  on  his  return 
from  Elba.  He  retained,  however,  his 
place  in  the  institute.  From  that  time 
ne  lived  retired,  and  the  preparation  of 
enffravings  and  lithographs  of  his  splendid 
collection  of  works  of  art,  formed  the 
occupation  of  his  last  yeara.  He  died'at 
Parisi  April,  28,  1825.  His  mind  was 
acti  ve  to  the  last  Denon  much  resembled 
Voltaire  in  his  old  age.  In  1826  appeared 
at  Paris  the  Descnptum  det  Olfds  d^Ari 
con^pasani  le  Cabmet  defm  M,  U  Bar.  V. 
Denony  in  3  vols.  (Alotitffit«n«  anK^uet, 
tableaux  d  eatampes).  The  cabinet  was 
sold  by  auction. 


Densitt,  strictly  speaking,  denotes  vi- 
cinity or  closeness  of  particles;  but  in 
mechanical  scieuce,  it  is  used  as  a  term  of 
comparison,  expressing  the  proportion  of 
the  number  of  equtd  niojecuue,  or  the 
quantity  of  matter  in  one  body  to  the 
number  of  equal  moUctdtt  in  the  same 
bulk  of  another  body.  Density,  therefore, 
is  direcdy  as  the  quantity  of  matter,  and 
inversely  as  the  magnitude  of  the  body. 
Since  it  may  be  shown  experimentally, 
that  the  quantities  of  matter,  or  the  masses 
in  different  bodies,  are  proportional  to 
their  weight ;  of  consequence,  the  density 
of  any  bcnly  is  directly  as  its  weight,  and 
inversely  as  its  magnitude ;  or  the  inverse 
ratio  of  the  magnitudes  of  two  bodi^ 
having  experimentally  equal  weight  (in 
the  same  place),  constitutes  the  ratio  of 
their  densities.  No  body  is  absolutely  or 
perfecdy  full  of  matter,  so  as  to  have  no 
vacuity  or  interstices:  on  the  contrary,  it 
is  the  opinion  of  Newton,  that  even  the 
densest  bodies,  as  ^old,  &c.,  contain  but  a 
smaU  portion  of  matter,  and  a  great  por- 
tion of  vacuity;  or  that  they  contain  a 
great  deal  more  pores  or  empty  qiaee 
than  real  substance. 

Density  OF  the  Eaeth.  The  determi- 
nation of  the  density  of  the  earth,  as  com- 
pared with  that  of  vrater,  or  any  other 
known  body,  is  a  subject  which  has  ex- 
cited considerable  interest  amongst  modem 
mathematicians ;  and  nothing  can,  at  first 
sight,  seem  more  beyond  the  reach  of  hu- 
man science,  than  the  due  solution  of  this 
problem;  yet  this  has  been  determined, 
and  on  such  principles,  that,  if  it  be  not 
correctly  true,  it  is  proliably  an  extremely 
near  approximation.  The  first  idea  of 
determining  the  density  of  the  eartli  was 
suggested  by  M.  Bouguer,  in  consequence 
of  the  attracdon  of  Chimbonizo,  which 
affected  his  plumb-line  while  engaged 
with  Condamme  in  measuring  a  degree 
of  the  meridian,  near  Quito,  in  Peru. 
This  led  to  the  experiments  on  die  moun- 
tain Scheballien,  in  Scodand,  which  were 
carried  on  under  the  direction  of  doctor 
Maskelyne,  and  afterwards  submitted  to 
calculation  by  doctor  Hutton,  who  deter- 
mined the  density  of  the  eardi  to  be  to  that 
of  water  as  4^  to  1.  But,  in  consequence 
of  die  specific  gravity  of  the  mountain 
being  assumed  rather  less  than  it  ought  to 
have  been,  the  above  resuk  is  less  than 
the  true  density,  as  has  since  been  shown 
by  doctor  Hutton  and  professor  Play&ir, 
the  former  of  whom  makes  it,  in  his  cor- 
rected paper,  as  99  to  20,  or  neariy  as  5  to  1. 
The  same  problem  has  been  attempted 
on  simikir  principles,  but  in  a  totally  di£- 


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DENSITY  OF  THE  EARTH— DEODAND. 


193 


ferent  manner,  by  the  late  Mr.  Caven^sh, 
who  found  the  density  of  the  earth  to  be 
to  that  of  water,  as  5.48  to  1.  Taking  a 
mean  of  all  these,  we  have  the  density  of 
tlie  earth  to  that  of  water,  as  5.24  to  1, 
and  which,  as  we  before  observed,  is 
probably  an  extremely  near  approxi- 
mation. 

Dentifrice  ;  a  preparation  for  clean- 
ing the  teeth,  of  which  there  are  various 
kinds :  generally,  however,  they  are  made 
of  eartliy  substances  mixed  with  alum. 
Those  formed  of  acids  are  very  pernicious. 

Dbodajnd  (Deo  daiidum);  a  thing  to 
be  given  or  dedicated  to  God.  Persons 
who  have  attended  trials  for  homicide 
will  have  observed  that  the  indictment,  in 
setting  forth  the  manner  of  the  death, 
alleges  it  to  have  been  occasioned  by  a 
blow  with  a  ceitain  weapon,  &C.,  ^  of  the 
value  of,"  &c.  This  allegation  of  the 
value  of  the  thing  which  caused  the 
death,  arose  from  the  English  law  of  deo- 
danda.  It  is  provided  in  the  Mosaical 
law,  (Exod,  xxi.  28),  that  "  If  an  ox  gore 
a  man,  that  he  die,  the  ox  shall  be  stoned, 
and  his  flesh  shall  not  be  eaten."  So,  by 
the  law  of  Atliena,  whatever  was  tlie  cause 
of  a  Dianas  death,  by  falling  U(K>n  him,  was 
de8tit>yed,  or  cast  out  of  the  territory  of  the 
republic  This,  says  Mr.  Christian,  in  his 
notes  upon  Blackstone^s  Commentaries, 
was  one  of  Dmco^s  laws ;  and  perhaps  we 
may  think  the  judgment  that  a  statue 
should  be  thrown  into  the  sea  for  having 
fallen  upon  a  man,  less  absurd,  when  we 
reflect  that  there  is  sound  policy  in  teach- 
ing the  mind  to  contemplate  with  horror 
the  privation  of  human  life,  and  that 
fiuniliarity  even  with  an  insensible  object, 
which  has  been  the  occasion  of  death, 
may  lessen  that  sentiment  This  reflec- 
tion, suggested  by  Mr.  Christian  in  refer- 
ence to  the  Athenian  law,  does  not  seem 
to  be  the  motive  for  the  rule  of  the  com- 
mon law  of  England,  that  whatever 
chattel  causes  the  deatli  of  a  person, 
shall  be  forfeited.  It  is  an  ancient  doc- 
trine mentio|i8d  by  Bracton  (Omnia  qua 
mnfeni  ad  m/oidem  avmt  Deo  danda.  1.  3. 
c  5.),  and  its  origin  is  attributed  to  the 
notion,  that  where  a  man  was  sud- 
denly cut  off  in  his  sins,  expiation  ought 
to  be  made  for  the  benefit  of  his  soul ; 
and,  accordingly,  the  chattel,  which 
occasioned  his  death,  should  be  for- 
feited to  the  king,  to  be  devoted  by 
him  to  pious  uses.  The  statute  of  4  Ed- 
ward I,  St.  2,  relating  to  coroners,  pro- 
vides that  ^horses,  boats,  carts,  mills, 
&c^  whereby  any  are  slain,  that  properly 
are  called  deod/ands,  shall  be  valued  and 

vol..  IV  17 


delivered  unto  the  towns,"  which  there- 
upon became  answerable  to  the  king  for 
their  value  ;  in  whose  behalf  the  sherifT 
might  levy  the  amount  upon  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  town.  Accordingly,  in  all 
indictments  for  homicide,  in  England,  the 
grand  jiuy  specify  the  instrument  that 
immediately  caused  the  death,  and  its 
value,  that  the  king  may  claim  the  deo- 
dand;  for  it  is  no  deodand  unless  it  is 
so  found  by  the  jury,  and  brace  the 
practice  of  finding  tlie  instntment  and 
Its  value,  in  indictments  m  the  United 
States,  or  at  least  in  some  of  them,  al- 
tliough  they  have  no  deodands.  Though 
these  forfeitures  were  origmally  incur- 
red to  the  king,  yet  he  might  grant 
them  away  to  tlie  lord  of  the  manor  or 
territory  upon  which  the  death  happen- 
ed, as  he  was  accustomed  to  grant  the 
right  of  wai&  and  wrecks.  The  deo- 
dands have  been  generally  so  granted ; 
and  these  grants  may  probably  be  the 
reason  that  this  ancient  singularity  has  so 
long  remained  a  part  of  the  EUnglish  law ; 
for  the  right  to  the  forfeimre  has  thus  be- 
come a  subject  of  private  property,  and  so 
not  liable  to  be  impaired  by  the  legislature 
witliout  compensation  to  the  parties  inter- 
ested. The  old  books  contain  a  good  deal 
of  quaint  and  curious  law  on  this  subject. 
It  will  be  observed,  that  no  distinction  is 
made,  whetlier  the  death  is  felonious,  ex- 
cusable, justifial>le,  or  purely  accidental, 
or  whether  tlie  instrument,  by  which  it  is 
occasioned,  belongs  to  the  person  commit- 
ting the  homicide  or  to  another ;  for,  savs 
the  Doctor  and  Student,  if  a  man  kills 
another  with  my  sword,  still  the  sword  is 
forfeited;  but  if  a  person  be  killed  by 
falUng  fh>m  a  thing  standing  still,  as  a 
cart,  it  is  not  forfeit^ ;  if,  on  the  contrary, 
a  horse,  ox,  or  other  animal  kill  a  iierson 
by  its  own  motion,  by  running  over  him 
or  otherwise,  it  is  a  deodand.  It  is  said, 
however,  that  if  the  instrument  of  the 
death  is  standing  still,  only  the  yori  which 
immediately  occasioned  the  death  is  for- 
feited ;  as,  if  one  attempts  to  climb  up  the 
wheel  of  a  cart  that  is  standing;  still,  and 
falls,  and  is  thereby  killed,  only  the  wheel 
is  forfeited ;  but  if  it  be  ui  motion,  the 
entire  cart  is  a  deodand.  Only  chattels 
are  forfeited ;  any  thing  attached  to  the 
freehold,  as  the  vrheel  of  a  mill,  or  a  bell 
hanging  in  a  steeple,  is  not  so ;  and  no 
deodand  occurs,  unless  the  death  haptiens 
witliin  a  year  and  a  dav  after  the  acoiaeut. 
A  sale  of  tlie  article  does  not  exempt  it 
frem  forfeiture  ;  as  if  a  horse  strikes  a 
man,  and  is  afterwards  sold,  and  the  man 
dies  within  the  year  and  day,  tlie  hone 


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194 


DEODAND—D'EON. 


is  forfeited.  It  is  not  suqmsing  that  so 
whimsical  a  law  should  be  very  negligently 
executed ;  the  juries  aitj  veiy  apt  to  miti- 
gate tlie  forfeitures  by  finding  that  only 
some  trivial  thing,  or  only  a  part  of  an 
entire  thing,  was  the  occasion  of  the  death ; 
and  the  court  has  generally  refused  to 
interfere  in  behalf  of  the  lorcl  of  the  fran- 
chise, to  assist  him  in  enforcing  his  claim 
to  the  whole  article.  There  are  no  deo- 
dands  on  the  high  seas,  tiiough  it  has 
been  said,  tliat,  if  a  man  tail  overboard  from 
a  vessel  in  a  fresh  water  river,  and  is 
drowned,  the  vessel  and  cargo  are  strictly 
a  deodand ;  and  the  above  statute  of  Ed- 
virard  I,  we  observe,  mentions  boats  as  one 
species  of  deodand.  But  in  this  case  the 
juiy  would  probably  find  the  death  to 
have  been  occasioned  by  the  winds  or  the 
water,  and  would  have  a  precedent  suffi- 
ciently analogous ;  for  the  books  maintain 
that  if  a  man,  riding  over  a  river,  is  throvim 
off  his  horse  by  the  violence  of  the  water, 
and  drowned,  the  horse  is  not  a  deodand, 
for  the  death  was  occasioned  by  the  cur- 
rent 

D'EoN  (the  chevalier).  Eon  de  Beau- 
mont, Charles  Genevieve  Louise  Auguste 
Andi^  Timoth^e  d',  equerry  to  Louis  XV, 
chevalier,  doctor  of  law,  parliaraentaiy 
advocate,  niilitaiy  officer,  royal  censor,  di- 
plomatist, &c.,  known  until  1777  by  the 
name  of  the  chemUer  (TJBon,  was  bom  at 
Tonnerre,  in  1728.  His  brilliant  qualities 
enabled  him  to  act  a  conspicuous  part  in 
the  world.  He  gained  a  greater  notoriety 
b^  the  mysteiy  long  kept  up  in  regard  to 
his  sex.  While  an  advocate,  he  studied, 
in  his  leisure  hours,  politics  and  belles- 
lettres,  and  wrote  an  Eased  kistorique  sur 
Us  diffirentes  Situations  de  la  France,  par 
Rcmport  aux  FinanceSy  followed  by  two 
volumes,  entitled  Consxdh'atums  politiques 
sur  VMmmistratian  des  PeupUs  anciens  et 
modtmes.  To  these  works  he  owed  the 
honor  of  being  proposed,  by  the  prince  of 
Conti,  minister  of  Louis  X  v,  as  envoy  on 
a  difficult  mission  to  the  Russian  court 
Here  his  insinuating  manners  gained  him 
the  favor  of  the  empress  Elizabeth,  and 
for  ^ve  years  he  was  the  medium  of  a 
secret  correspondence  between  her  and  the 
kinfr  of  France.  In  consequence  of  his 
services  at  this  court,  he  was  made  succes- 
sively lieutenant  and  captain  of  dragoons, 
and  received  a  pension  of  3400  Uvresr 
He  returned  to  France  in  1758,  and  sub- 
sequently distinguished  himself  in  the 
military  service.  After  the  conclusion  of 
peace,  he  went  to  London  as  secretary  of 
Kgation,  under  the  duke  of  Nivemois,  and 
oMained  posseflsion  of  some  important  pa^ 


pers.  On  the  return  of  the  duke,  he  re 
mained  as  resident,  and  afterwards  as  min 
ister  plenipotentiary  in  London.  Ever) 
thing  seemed  to  favor  him,  when  secrei 
intrigues  suddenly  disappointed  his  fail 
prospects.  France  had  concluded  a  dis- 
advantageous peace  with  England,  and 
the  negotiatois  of  it  were  fearful  of  having 
their  conduct  exposed.  The  chevalier 
was  the  confidant  of  Louis  XV,  and  might 
make  the  dreaded  disclosure&  This  was 
reason  enough  for  ruining  him.  He  was 
dismissed  from  his  employment,  and  lived 
14  years  at  London,  in  a  kind  of  banish- 
ment Though  the  king  had  consented 
to  his  disgrace,  he  assijmed  him  a  pen- 
sion of  1200  livres.  D'Eon  still  remained 
true  to  his  native  land,  and  rejected  several 
offers  of  the  English  court  The  king 
heard  of  his  conduct,  and  wished  to  re- 
store him,  but  the  chevalier  insisted  on 
having  his  innocence  publicly  acknowl- 
edged, before  accepting  .any  favors.  In 
the  mean  time,  Louis  XV  died.  During 
the  residence  of  D*Eon  in  England,  sus- 
picions arose  as  to  his  sex,  which  led  to 
several  extraordinary  wagers.  In  July, 
1777,  a  curious  trial  took  place  before 
lord  chief-jusdce  Mansfield,  on  an  action 
brought  against  Mr.  Jaques,  a  broker, 
who  had  received  several  premiums  of  15 
guineas,  to  return  100,  whenever  it  should 
be  proved  that  the  chevalier  was  a  woman. 
M.  Louis  Legoux  and  M.  de  Morande,  on 
the  trial,  deposed  to  this  as  a  fact,  which 
was  supposed  to  be  so  well  established, 
that  the  defendant's  counsel  pleaded  that 
the  plaintiff,  at  the  time  of  laying  the 
wager,  knew  that  the  court  of  France, 
relative  to  the  grant  of  a  pension,  had 
treated  with  D'Eon  as  a  woman;  and 
thence  inferred  that  the  wager  was  unfair. 
This  objection  was  not  held  good,  and 
Hayes,  the  plaintiff,  obtained  a  verdict 
It  was,  however,  afterwards  set  aside,  on 
the  ground  of  the  illegality  of  the  wager. 
After  the  decision  of  this  cause^  D'Eon 
put  on  female  attire,  and  continued  to 
wear  it  till  his  death.  In  1777,  he  returned 
to  France,  and  made  his  appearance  at 
Versailles,  where  the  minister  honorably 
received  him,  but  on  condition  that  he 
should  wear  in  future  the  female  dress. 
D'Eon,  however,  went  to  Tonnerre,  with- 
out observing  the  dommand,  and  did  not 
appear  as  la  aaoBaliiTt  d'Eon  till  his  second 
return  to  Paris.  His  change  of  dress 
drew  him  into  a  quarrel  at  the  opera,  and, 
for  fear  of  the  consequences,  he  was  sent 
to  Dijon,  where  he  was  treated  with  re- 
spect In  1783,  he  went  to  London. 
Meanwhile  the  French  revolution  broke 


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D'EON— DEPARTMENT. 


196 


out,  and  deprived  him  of  his  peoaioDs; 
U|iun  which  he  returned  to  France,  offered 
h^  aervicen  to  the  national  asBemblv  in 
17S2,  was  rejected,  went  back  to  England, 
and  was  put,  as  an  absentee,  on  the  emi- 
grant list  From  this  time  misfortunes 
crowded  upon  him.  He  lived  in  great 
poverty,  and  attempted  to  support  himself 
oy  givuig  lessons  in  fencing,  out  was  not 
very  successful,  and  depended  in  a  great 
measure  for  subsistence  on  the  aid  of  his 
friends.  Among  these  was  EUs^e,  first 
surgeon  of  Louis  XVllI,  who  aided  him 
till  his  death  in  London,  in  1810,  and 
attended  the  dissection  of  his  body.  The 
account  of  this  wimess,  with  other  unde- 
manle  evidence,  leaves  it  beyond  doubt, 
that  D'Eon  was  of  the  male  sex.  What 
political  reasons  could  have  induced  a 
soldier  and  a  knight  of  Sl  Louis  to  assume 
female  attire,  is  not  known.  In  1775  ap- 
peared the  Loiairs  du  Chevalier  D^Eon,  in 
14  vols.  8vo.  L^Espion  Chinois,  6  vols. 
12mo.,  has  also  been  ascribed  to  him. 

Department  ;  the  distribution  of  a  tiling 
into  several  parts;  thus,  in  France,  Le 
diparUmeni  des  totUw,  des  quariiers,  &c. ; 
that  is,  a  distribution  of  the  public  taxes,  or 
an  allotment  of  quarters  to  the  soldiery,  &c. 
Hence  it  is  used,  secondly,  to  denote  a  dis- 
tribution of  employments,  and  especially 


the  divisions  of  the  ministiy.  Finally,  it 
is  applied  to  territorial  divisions.  In  this 
sense,  it  has  become  important  in  modem 
statistics.  At  the  time  of  the  French  revo- 
lution, when  the  former  division  of  the 
kingdom  into  provinces  was  abolished, 
and  succeeded  by  a  division  of  it  into  de- 
partments, this  division  was  determined 
partly  by  the  number  of  inhabitants,  partly 
by  extent  of  territory,  and  partly  by  the 
amount  of  direct  taxes.  A  decree  for  this 
purpose  was  adopted  November  4th,  17^, 
by  the  constituent  assembly ;  and  the  abb6 
Si^yes  drew  up  the  plan,  uitended  to  ex- 
tinguish the  old  spirit  of  hatred  among  the 
provinces.  The  whole  kingdom  was  at 
first  divided  into  83  departments,  which 
were  subsequently  increased,  by  tlie  grad- 
ual extension  of  the  empire,  to  130,  and 
were  reduced  by  the  peace  of  1814  to  86. 
(See  Prefecturate^  and  Dranee,)  Each 
department  is  subdivided  into  cantons, 
and  these  again  into  communes.  This 
division  of  territory  has  been  adopted  in 
the  states  of  Bavaria,  Wiirtemberg,  Ba- 
den and  others.  The  representatives  in 
the  French  chambera  are  elected  by  the 
departments.  The  following  list  contains 
the  names  of  all  the  departments,  and  the 

Srovinces  to   which  they  formerly  be- 
mged:^- 


Region  du  Nord. 


Flanders. . 
Artois.  .  . 
Picaxdy.   . 


Normandy. 


Be-de-Fnince. 


Crhampagne.  < 


Lomine. 


Nord 

Pas-de-Calais. 
Somme. .... 


'  Seine-Inf^rieure. . 

Eure. 

Calvados. 

Manche 

Ome 


Seine 

Seine-et-Oise.  • 
Seine-et-Mame. 

Oise 

Aisne. 

(Ardennes..  .  .  . 
Mame 
Aube 
Haute-Mame.    . 

iMeuse 
Moselle 
Meurthe 
Voeges. 


TMP^ 

Pv-t-^ 

962,648 
642,969 
526,282 

3,208 
1,978 
1,697 

688,295 
421,665 
500,956 
611,206 
434,379 

2,137 
1,405 
1,776 
1,808 
1,361 

1,013,373 
440,871 
318,209 
385,124 
489,560 

46,062 
1,536 
1,060 
1,266 
1,305 

281,624 
325,045 
241,7SJ 
244,823 

1,005 
766 
805 
753 

306,339 
409,155 
403,0r« 
379,839 

975 
1,410 
1,567 
1,287 

Line. 

Arras. 

Amiens. 

Rouen. 

j^vreux. 

Caen. 

Saint-Ld. 

Alen^on. 

Paris. 

Versailles. 

Meiun. 

Beauvais. 

Laon. 

M^zi^res. 

Chilons-sur-Mame. 

Troyes. 

ChaumonL 

Bar-le-Duc. 
Metz. 

Nancy. 
&pinaL 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


)fc 


DEPARTMENT. 


Region  du  Centre. 


Orl^annois. . 

Touraine.    . 
Berry. .  .  .  . 


f  Loiret 

<  £iue-et-Loir. . 
(^  Loir-€t-Cher.  . 

I  Indre-et-Loire . 


Nivemais.  .  . 
fiourbonnais,. 
Marche 


Indre.  • 
Cher.  . 
Ni^vre. 
AlKer.  . 
Creuae. 


Limousin. 
Auvei^e. 


J  Haute- Vienne. 
I  Corr^ze.    .  .  . 

SPuy-de-D6me. 
Cautal 


304,228 
277,782 
230,666 

869 
904 

688 

290,160 

892 

237,628 

248,589 

644 
Qd6 

271,777 
285,302 
252,932 

730 
764 

848 

276,351 

284,882 

976 
961 

566,573. 
262,013 

1,333 
1,027 

Orl^ns. 

Chaitrea. 

Bioifl. 

Tours. 

Chdteaurouz. 

Bouiges. 

Nevers. 

Moulins. 

Gu^reL 

Limoges. 
Tulle. 

CleniMmt-Ferrand. 
Aurillac 


Region 


Maine. J  Sarth« 

}  Mayenne 

Anjou I  Maine-et-Loiife.    .  . 

'  Ille-et-Vilaine.  .  .  . 
Cdtes-du-Nord. .  .  . 

Bretagne. <  Finist^re 

Morbihan 

^  Loire-Iuf^rieure.  •  . 

{Vienne .r  .  . 
Deux  Sevres. .... 
Vendue 

Aunis. — Haintonge  ^  Charente  Inf^ricure. 
et  Angoumoia     ( Charente. 


de  r  Guest 

446,519 
354,138 

1,373 
1,287 

458,674 

1,197 

553,453 
581,684 
502,851 
427,453 
457,090 

1^1 
1,615 
1,389 
1^ 
1,193 

267,670 
288,260 
322,826 

731 
900 
891 

424,147 
353,653 

1,158 
1,178 

Le  Mans. 
LavaJ. 

Angers. 

Rennes. 

St.  Brieuc. 

Quimper. 

Vannes. 

Nantes. 

PoitierB. 

Niort 

Bourbon-  Vend^ 

La  RocheUe. 

Angoul^me. 


Alsace. 


R6gum 

5  Haut-Rhin 

•  •  •    J  Bas-Rhin 

['Haute-Sadne 

Fzanche-Comt^. .  i  Doubs. 

[jura. 

(Yonne 
Cdte-d'Or. 
Saone-et-Loire. .  .  . 
Ain. 


de  VEst, 


Lyonnais.. 


^Rh6ne. 
I  Loire.  . 


408,741 
535,467 

2,043 
2,231 

327,641 
254,314 
310,262 

1,178 

956 

1,146 

342,116 
370,943 
515,776 
341,628 

870 

799 

1,153 

1,260 

416,575 
369;298 

2,833 
1,442 

Coimar. 

Btrasburg. 

VesouL 

Besan^on. 

Lons-le-Saulnier. 

Auxerre. 

Dijon. 

Macon. 

Bourg. 

Lyons, 
Mdntbrison* 


RSgion  du  Sud, 


Languedoc. 


'Haute-Loire.  .  . 

Ard^che 

Loz^re. 

Gord 

H^rault 

Tarn. 

Aude. 

.Haute-Garonne. 


285,673 

1,175 

328,419 

1,368 

138,778 

510 

347,550 

1,198 

339,560 

1,041 

327,655 

1,170 

2654»1 

828 

407,016 

1,312 

LePuy. 

Privas. 

Mende. 

Nlmes. 

MontpeUier. 

Alby. 

CarcasBonne. 

Toulouse. 


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DEPARTMENT—DEPOSITION. 


197 


Guienne-et-Gas- 
couy 


Roussillon Pyrtn^es-Orientales. 

Comt^-de-Foix«  .      Ariege 

Doidogne. 

Gironde 

Lot-et-Garonne   . « 

Lot 

Tame-et-Graronne. . 

Aveyron 

Landes. 

Gen. 

Hautes-Pyr^n^es.  . 

B^ara I  Basses-Pyi^o^es. .  . 

risere. 

Dauphiny.  .  .  .  .  «J  Drome 

V  Hautes-AIpes.   .  .  . 
Cointat'Veoaiaain  \ 

et  Comtat  d'A->  >  Vaucluae* 

vignon J 

^  Basses- Alpes.    .  .  . 

Provence i  Bouches-du-Rhdne. 

iVar. 

Corsica. |  Corse 

Dephlooisticated  Air.  (See  Oxygen,) 
Depi^oy  ;  to  display,  to  spread  ouL    A 
column  is  said  to  deploy,  when  the  divis- 
ions open  or  extend  to  form  line  on  any 
given  division. 

Depo  RTATi  ON ;  a  kind  of  banishment  in 
use  oven  among  the  Romans  (first  intro- 
duced by  Augustus) ;  by  virtue  of  which 
the  condemned  pecaon  was  sent  to  a  foreign 
uninhabited  countrv,  usually  an  island, 
his  estate  confiscated,  and  himself  depriv- 
ed of  the  rights  of  a  Roman  citizen.  This 
punishment  differs  from  other  -kinds  of 
iMLnishment  in  this,  that  the  person  thus 
punished  is  not  permitted  to  choose  his 
place  of  exile.  During  the  French  revo- 
ludon,  this  punishment  was  revived  in 
lieu  of  the  guillotine.  The  merit  of  its 
restoration  has  been  at  different  times  as- 
cribed to  Boulay,  to  the  bishop  of  Autun, 
and  to  TaloL  For  the  most  part,  the  con- 
denmed  were  transported  to  Cayenne 
or  to  Port-Marat  (Po/i-Daupkin)  on  the 
island  of  Madagascar.  Towards  the  end 
of  Robespierre^s  administration,  this  pun- 
ishment was  most  frequent  Acconling 
to  the  French  penal  code  of  12th  Februa- 
17, 1810,  deportation  is  even  now  one  of 
the  punishments  established  by  law  in 
France ;  but,  nevertheless,  it  is  not  easily 
put  in  execution.  It  is  ranked  as  the  third 
degree  of  in&mous  punishments  (only 
capital  punishment  and  consignment  to 
labor  for  life,  together  with  iraiUng  the 
baU^  as  it  is  called,  are  ranked  before  it), 
and  gives  rise  to  civil  death.  The  person 
17* 


T\AdPep, 

Pop.t^l. 

ChyfUaem. 

151,372 

688 

Perpignan. 

247,932 

1,011 

Foix. 

464,074 

973 

P^rigueux. 
Bordfeaux. 

538,151 

978 

336,886 

1,161 

Agen, 

280,515 

1,038 

Cahors. 

241,586 

1,220 

Moutauban. 

350,014 

755 

Rhodez. 

265,309 

553 

Mont-de-MarBan. 

307,601 

896 

Auch. 

222,059 

902 

Tarbes. 

412,469 

1,018 

Pau. 

525,984 

1,160 

Grenoble. 

285,791 

850 

Valence. 

125,329 

545 

Gap. 

233,048 

1,259 

Avignon. 

153,063 

560 

Digne. 

^26,302 

1,226 

Marseilles. 

311,095 

818 

Draguignan. 

185,079 

420 

Ajaccio. 

deported  loses  the  control  of  his  property, 
is  deprived  of  the  power  of  making  con- 
tracts, and  his  heirs  enter  into  possession 
of  his  estate  in  the  same  manner  as  tliough 
he  were  actually  deceased ;  yet  the  govern- 
ment can  grant  him,  in  the  place  of  his 
banishment, which  is  always  assigned  with- 
out the  main  land  of  European  France, 
the  ordinary  civil  privileges,  or  a  portion  of 
the  same.  If  a  person  deported  return  to 
France  without  tlie  leave  of  the  govern- 
ment, he  is  immediately  condenmed  to 
the  before-mentioned  punishment  of  hard 
labor  for  life.  If  he  have  fled  to  a  foreign 
countiy  and  soil,  and  ever  comes  again 
into  the  power  of  the  French  govern- 
ment, he  is  again  remitted  to  the  place  of 
his  banishment  Deportation,  or  transpor- 
tation, is  dlso  one  of  the  legal  punishments 
in  England.  (See  Mw  South  WaU».) 
(For  tlie  number  of  persons  transported  to 
New  South  Wales,  see  CWme,  tht  Statistics 
0/,  page  24.)^  ,        ^ 

Deposition,  in  law ;  testimony  given  m 
court  by  a  witness  upon  oath.  It  is  also 
used  to  signify  tlie  attested  written  testi- 
mony of  a  witness  by  way  of  answer  to 
interrogatories.  These  interrogatories  are 
usually  put  in  writing,  and  must  be  short 
and  pertinent,  and  not  such  as  will  lead 
the  witness  to  give  a  turn  to  his  answer 
favorable  to  one  of  the  parties.  The 
witnesses  are  examined  before  magistrates, 
having  a  general  autiiority  given  them  by 
statute  to  take  depositions,  by  commis- 
nonera  appointed  by  the  court  which  has 


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DEPOSITION— DERPLINGER. 


cognizance  of  the  case.  If  the  witnesses 
are  foreigners,  residing  beyond  sea,  they 
are  examined  upon  oath,  through  skiliii] 
sworn  interpreters.  The  deposition  of  a 
heathen,  who  believes  in  the  Supreme 
Being,  taken  by  commission  according  to 
tlie  forms  used  in  his  country  in  giving 
evidence,  is  admissible.  By  die  practice 
of  some  countries,  the  commissionei^  are 
sworn  to  secrecy,  and  the  deposition  can- 
not be  made  public  till  the  papers  con- 
taining it  are  opened  in  court  After  a 
witness  is  fully  examined,  the  examina- 
tions are  read  over  to  him,  and  he  is  at 
liberty  to  alter  or  annul  any  tiling ;  and 
then  the  examinations  are  complete. — 
Depositions  are  frequently  taken  condi- 
tionally, or  de  bene  esse,  as  it  is  called ;  for 
instance,  when  the  parties  are  sick,  aged, 
or  going  abroad,  depositions  are  taken,  to 
be  read  in  court,  incase  of  their  death  or 
departure  before  the  trial  comes  on.  So 
depositions  in  perpduam  menwriam  rn,  or 
for  the  purpose  or  perpetuating  testimony, 
are  taken  under  tiie  direction  of  a  court 
of  chancery,  or,  in  some  of  the  U,  States, 
witiiout  any  application  to  chancery,  by 
inasistrates  authorized  by  statute. 

Deppino,  George  Bemhard ;  a  learned 
German,  residing  at  Paris,  bom  at  M(in- 
fiter,  in  Westphalia,  in  1784.  He  has 
written  various  works,  including  several 
for  the  instruction  of  youth,  and  has  su- 
perintended the  publication  of  many  oth- 
ers. His  Histoire  gMrcde  de  VEspagnt^ 
commenced  in  1811,  has  not  been  com- 
pleted. He  assists  in  the  Biographit 
JlniversdUy  in  the  Revue  Encydopidx^tpu^ 
the  continuation  of  the  chronological 
work  Art  de  viriper  Us  DateSj  &c.  We 
are  also  indebtecl  to  him  for  a  collection 
of  the  best  Spanish  Romances ;  La 
Suisse  (Paris,  1822,  4  vols.);  La  Grhce 
(Paris,  1823,  4  vols.);  Voyage  tTtm  ^i*- 
diant  dans  les  5  Parties  Ju  Monde  (Paris, 
1822,  2  vols.) 

Deptford;  a  town  of  England,  county 
of  Kent,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Ravens- 
bourne  with  the  Thames. ,  It  is  very  ir- 
regularly built,  and  contains  two  churches, 
besides  several  places  of  worship  for  dis- 
senters. There  is  a  royal  dock-yard  here, 
with  fine  wet  docks,  and  numerous  build- 
ing for  the  manufacture  and  preservation 
of*^  naval  stores.  There  are  also  several 
private  docks  in  the  neighborhood,  for 
building  and  repairing  merchantmen. 
There  are  two  hospitals  belonging  to  the 
society  of  the  Trinity-house.  This  so- 
ciety was  founded  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII,  by  sir  Thomas  Spert,  for  the  in- 
crease and  eucouFogement  of  navigation, 


and  for  the  good  government  of  the  sea- 
men, and  tiie  better  security  of  merchant 
ships  on  the  coasts.  Population,  including 
Greenwich,  40,574.    4  miles  K.  London. 

Deputies,  Chamber  of.  (See  Charte 
QmsiUuiionneUeS^ 

Derbt  ;  a  county  in  the  north  of  Eng- 
land. Derbyshire  is  noted  for  its  mineral 
productions — ^lead,  iron,  coal,  iime  and 
Derbyshire  spar.  It  has  extensive  quarries 
of  grit,  which  afford  excellent  mill-stones. 
A  singular  kind  of  lead  ore  is  found  in  a 
verticd  position,  wliich,  on  being  probed 
by  a  sharp-pointed  instrument,  emits  a 
crackling  noise,  and  explodes  violentiy  in 
a  few  minutes.  A  remarkable  substance, 
called  elastic  bitumen,  is  exclusively  the 
product  of  Derbyshire.  Many  chasms 
and  spacious  caverns  are  found  here. 

Derbt  ;  a  town  of  England,  the  capital 
of  Derbyshire,  on  the  Derwent,  whicli  is 
crossed  b^  a  stone  bridge.  The  cburdi 
of  All  Saints  has  a  tower  rising  180  feet, 
in  rich  Gothic.  Its  architecture  is  greatlv 
and  justiy  admired.  Besides  the  parish 
churches,  there  are  places  of  divine  wor- 
ship for  Presbyterians,  Independents,  Bap- 
tists, Methodists,  Roman  Catholics,  Qua- 
kers, Swedenborgians,  and  Revivalists,  or 
Primitive  Methodista  Manufactures  to  a 
large  extent  are  carried  on  in  tiiis  town, 
particularly  in  silk  and  cotton,  porcelain 
and  spar.  There  are,  besides,  manufac- 
tures of  iron,  lead  pipes,  lead  shot,  white 
and  red  lead,  tin  plate,  and  other  commod- 
ities. It  returns  two  members  to  parlia- 
ment Population,  17,423  ;  120  miles 
N.  W.  by  N.  London ;  ton.  P  25^  W. ; 
lat.  52°  SB'  N. 

Derbyshire  Spar.  (See  Fluate  of 
Lime,  in  article  Lime,) 

Derflixger,  George,  baron  of  (origin- 
ally D<ir/ling)j  a  field-marshal  of  Prussian 
Brandenburg,  and  one  of  the  first  heroes 
of  the  Prussian  military  state,  founded  by 
Frederic  William,  the  great  elector,  was 
bom  in  1606,  according  to  some  authois 
in  an  Austrian  village  near  the  Eta,  but 
according  to  Pauli,  was  the  son  of  a  Prot- 
estant peasant  in  Bohemia.  He  was  at 
first  a  tailor,  and  wished  to  remove  to 
Beriin,  on  account  of  the  distorbanoes  in 
Bohemia,  to  avoid  the  religious  oppression 
exercised  after  the  batde  at  the  Weisse- 
bcrge.  But,  not  being  able  to  ^et  ferried 
across  the  Elbe,  on  account  of  his  want 
of  money,  ho  tlirew  his  bundle  into  the 
stream,  and  betook  himself  to  the  swonL 
He  served  a  long  time  as  a  soldier  under 

General  Thurn,   and,  while  yet   only  a 
ragoon,  indulged  the  hope  of  becoming 
a  general    He  then  entered  the  Swedfah 


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DfiRFUNGERr-DERTlSE. 


199 


service,  under  Oustavus  AdolpiniSy  and 
afterwards  served  under  Baner  (q.  v!)  and 
TorBteoaohn.  Having  carried  queen  Chria- 
tiiia  intelligence  of  me  victory  at  Leiiiaic 
(1642),  to  which  his  regiment  of  horae  had 
greatly  contributed^  he  was  appointed  by 
her  a  major-geneiaL  Afler  the  peace,  he 
was  dismissed,  as  a  foreigner,  from  the 
Swedish  army,  went  to  Brandenbura,  and 
entered  the  service  of  the  elector,  Fred- 
eric William,  in  1654,  as  major-general  of 
the  cavalry.  He  disdnguished  himself  in  all 
the  campaigns  of  the  great  elector  against 
the  Poles,  Swedes  and  French,  by  his 
sagacity,  activity  and  valor.  He  was  also 
employed  in  embassies ;  and  the  emperor 
Leopold,  at  the  request  of  his  sovereign, 
raised  him,  in  1674,  to  the  rank  of  baron 
of  the  empire.    He  died  in  1695. 

DfiRscHAWTN,  Gabriel  Romanowich, 
bom  in  1743,  at  Kasan,  belongs,  with  the 
lately  deceased  Cheraskoif  and  the  tragic 
poet  Oserofi;  among  the  most  eminent 
poets  of  Russia.  In  1760,  he  entered  a 
corps  of  engineeia,  as  a  common  soldier, 
and  distinguished  himself  in  the  field,  par- 
ticularly in  1774,  agauist  the  rebel  Pngat- 
scheff.  Even  at  thu  time,  his  poetic  gen- 
ius began  to  dawn.  Under  Catharine,  he 
rose,  in  1800,  to  be  treasurer  of  the  empire, 
and,  in  1802,  became  minister  of  justice. 
But  he  soon  retired  from  business,  and 
devoted  his  life  to  the  muses.  His  Ode 
to  God  is  much  celebrated,  and  was  trans- 
lated into  Latin  by  Czeniky,  at  Wihia,  in 
1819.  The  emperor  of  China  caused  it 
to  be  translated  into  Chinese,  and  hung 
up  in  an  apartment  of  his  palace,  printed 
on  silk,  in  letters  of  gold.  His  WaterfUl 
has  also  great  merit  In  other  poems,  his 
loftiness  sometimes  degenerates  into  bom- 
bast Some  of  his  poems  have  been  trans- 
lated into  £kigiish  ny  Bowring.  (See  his 
i^pec«men9  of  Russian  Poetry.)  Derscha- 
win's  poems  appeared  in  1808,  in  four 
volumes.  He  also  wrote  political  and  to- 
pographical works.  Derscha win  died  July 

Dervise  (Persian ;  poor) ;  the  name  of 
a  certain  class  of  religious  persons  in 
Asia.  It  denotes  the  same  amongst  Mo- 
hammedans as  numk  with  the  Christians. 
The  observanceof  strict  forms,  fasting,  and 
acts  of  piety,  give  them  a  character  of 
sanctity  amongst  the  people.  They  live 
partly  together,  m  monasteries,  partly  alone, 
and  from  their  number  the  Imans  (a.  v.) 
are  generally  chosen.  Throughout  Tur- 
key, they  are  freely  received,  even  at  the 
tables  of  peraooB  of  the  highest  rank. 
Among  the  Hindoos,  these  monks  are 
eaUedyaJtirv.    There  are,  throughout  Asia, 


multitudes  of  these  devotees,  monasdc  and 
ascetic,  not  only  among  the  Mohamme- 
dans, but  also  among  the  followers  of  Brar* 
ma.  There  aro  thirtv-two  religious  orders 
now  existing  in  the  Turkisli  empire,  many 
of  which  are  scarcely  known  ueyond  its 
limits ;  but  others,  such  as  the  Nacshl^en- 
dies  and  Mevlevies,  are  common  in  Persia 
and  India.  All  these  communities  aro 
properly  stationary,  though  some  of  them 
send  out  a  pordon  of  their  members  to 
collect  alms.  The  regularly  itinerant  der- 
vises  in  Turkey  are  ail  foreigners,  or  out- 
casts, who,  though  expelled  from  their 
orders  for  misconduct,  find  their  profes- 
sion too  agreeable  and  profitable  to  be 
abandoned,  and  therefore  set  up  for  them- 
selves, and,  under  color  of  sanctity,  fleece 
honest  people.  All  these  orders,  except 
the  Nacshbendies,  are  considered  as  liv- 
ing in  seclusion  firom  the  world ;  but  that 
Older  is  entirely  composed  of  persons  who, 
without  quitting  the  world,  bind  them- 
selves to  a  strict  observance  of  certain 
forms  of  devotion,  and  meet  once  a  week 
to  perform  them  together.  Esich  order 
has  its  peculiar  statutes,  exercises  and 
habits.  Most  of  them  impose  a  novitiate, 
the  lenffth  of  which  depends  upon  the 
spiritual  state  of  the  candidate,  who  is 
sometimes  kept  for  a  whole  year  under 
this  kind  of  (iiscipline.  In  the  order  of 
the  Mevlevies,  the  novice  perfects  his 
spiritual  knowledge  in  the  kitchen  of 
the  convent.  Dancing,  or  something  like 
it,  forms  an  essential  part  of  the  duties  of 
some  of  the  orders.  The  dances  of  the 
greater  number  are  called  dew  (eirole), 
because  they  consist  in  a  movement 
forwards  of  the  right  foot,  accompanied 
with  violent  contortions  of  the  body, 
all  the  perfbrmers  joining  hand  in  hand, 
and  standing  in  a  circle.  The  longer  the 
dance,  and  die  louder  the  shout  of  Yd  Hu, 
or  Ya  Mahy  the  greater  is  the  merit :  these 
exercises  are  therefore  often  persevered  in 
till  a  fitinting  fit  or  spitting  of  blood  con- 
cludes the  exhibition.  The  exhibitions 
of  the  Rufaries  are  the  longest,  and  most 
comprehensive  of  alL  Towards  the  close 
of  them,  the  performers  are  worked  up  into 
a  sort  of  frenzy.  Previous  to  this  time, 
two  of  the  dervises  put  spits,  swords,  dag- 
geia,  &C.,  into  the  fire,  that  they  may  bis 
presented  red  hot  to  the  sheikh  or  chie^ 
when  the  excitement  reaches  its  highest 
pitch.  The  sheikh  blows  upon  them, 
just  touches  them  with  his  mouth,  and 
delivers  them  to  the  most  eager  of  the  fra- 
ternity :  they  are  seized,  licked,  gnawed, 
and  held  in  the  mouth  till  the  glow  disap- 
pean.    Othera  of  the  fiaternity  seize  the 


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DERVISE— DESAULT. 


swords,  cutlasses,  &c^  which  are  hanging 
on  the  waUs  of  the  room,  and  slRsti  dieir 
sides,  arms  and  legs  unmercifully.  The 
sheikh  concludes  the  whole  by  going 
round,  examining  the  wounds,  blowing 
upon  them,  and  anointing  them  with  his 
saliva,  which,  together  with  a  few  prayers, 
effects  a  cure  in  twenty-four  hours !  The 
sheikhs  of  all  orders  have  the  credit  of 
possessing  miraculous  powers.  The  in- 
terpretation of  dreams,  the  cure  of  dis- 
eases, and  the  removal  of  barrenness,  are 
tlie  giits  for  which  the  dervises  are  most 
in  repute. 

Derwent  Water,  or  the  Lake  of  Kes- 
wick ;  a  beautiful  lake  in  the  county  of 
Cumberland,  England,  in  the  vale  of  Kes- 
wick, lying  between  the  mountain  of 
Skiddaw  on  the  north,  and  the  craggy 
hills  of  Borrowdale  on  the  south,  whence 
it  derives  its  chief  supplies  of  water. 

Desaix^  de  Votoocx,  Louis  Charles 
Antoine,  a  French  general,  bom  in  1768, 
at  St  Hilaire  d'Ayat,  of  a  noble  family, 
entered  the  regiment  of  Bretagne,  in  1784, 
as  under-lieutenant.    He  contributed,  Dec. 

1793,  to  the  capture  of  the  Haguenau  lines, 
which  tlie  left  wing,  where  he  was  sta- 
tioned, first  broke  through.    He  served,  in 

1794,  in  the  nortfiem  army,  under  Piche- 
gru,  and  repeatedly  distinffuished  himself 
Attached  to  the  army  of  the  Rhine,  under 
Moreau,  1796,  he  defended  the  bridge  of 
Kehl  in  November  of  that  year.  In  1797, 
he  accompanied  Bonaparte  to  Egypt,  con- 
tributed to  his  first  victory,  and  was  thence 
sent  to  the  conquest  of  Upper  Egypt, 
where  Mured  Bey,  notwithstanding  his 
defeat,  incessantly  harassed  his  conqueror. 
Bonaparte  soon  returned  to  Europe,  as 
did  Desaix  himself,  afler  the  trea^  of  El- 
Arish,  concluded  by  him  with  the  Turks 
and  English.  On  his  arrival  in  France, 
he  learned  that  Bonaparte  had  departed 
for  Italy,  hastened  to  join  him,  and  took 
command  of  the  corps  of  reserve.  A  third 
part  of  the  French  army  was  already  dis- 
abled, when  Desaix's  corps  arrived  (June 
14, 1800)  on  the  field  of  Marengo,  (q.  v.) 
He  immediately  advanced  to  the  charge, 
but  fell,  mortally  wounded  by  a  cannon- 
ball,  just  as  victory  declared  for  the  French. 
His  body  was  carried  to  Milan,  embalmed, 
and  conveyed  to  the  hospitium  on  the  St. 
Bernard,  where  a  monument  is  erected  to 
him.  (See  Bernard,  SL)  Another  monu- 
ment, erected  to  him  on  tlie  plains  of  Ma- 
rengo, where  he  foil,  was  destroyed  by 
the  Austrians,  in  1814.  Desau  was  as 
iust  and  disinterested  as  he  was  brave. 
The  inhabitants  of  Cairo  gave  him  the  title 
of  the  just  9UUan, 


Desatir  is  a  lately  discovered  colleo 
tion  of  sixteen  sacred  books,  consisiing 
of  tlje  fifteen  old  Persian  prophets,  togeth- 
er with  a  book  of  Zoroaster.  This,  at  least, 
is  what  the  book  itself  pretends  to  be. 
The  collection  is  written  in  a  language 
not  spoken  at  present  any  where,  and 
equally  different  from  the  Zend,  the  Pelvi 
and  modem  Persian.  The  last  of  the 
fifieen  prophets,  Sasan,  who  lived  at  the  ^ 
time  of  the  downfall  of  the  Sassanides, 
when  the  Arabians  conquered  the  coun- 
try, literally  translated  the  Desatir,  and 
accompanied  it  with  commentaries.  This 
work  w^  afterwards,  until  the  17th  cen- 
tury, one  of  the  chief  sources  of  the  an- 
cient Persian  religious  doctrines,  inter- 
woven with  astrology  and  demonology; 
and,  after  having  been  forgotten  for  alwut 
a  century  and  a  half,  a  learned  Parsee 
discovered  it  at  Ispahan.  His  son,  Molla 
Firuz,  was  induced  by  the  marquis  of 
Hastings  to  publish  an  edition  of  the  De- 
satir at  Bombay,  in  1830,  to  which  Ersktne 
added  an  English  translation.  Enkine, 
however,  considers  the  collection  as  spu- 
rious ;  and  Sylvester  de  Sacy  {Journal  des 
Savants,  Feb.,  1821)  believes  that  the  De- 
satir is  the  work  of  a  Parsee  in  the  4th 
century  of  the  Hegira,  who,  as  he  thinks, 
invented  the  languag^,  in  order  to  give  to 
the  collection,  which  is  itself  an  assemblage 
of  old  traditions  and  significant  mysteries, 
an  air  of  genuineness.  Joseph  von  Ham- 
mer, on  the  contrary,  is  said  to  consider  it 
as  genuine.  At  all  events,  it  is  interesting 
to  learn  from  this  work,  with  greater  ac- 
curacy, an  old  religious  eystem  of  the 
East,  in  which  are  to  be  found,  with  pao- 
deemonism  and  the  metempsychosis,  the 
elements  of  the  worship  of  Uie  stara,  of 
astrology,  the  ihturgu,  the  doctrine  of 
amulets^  as  well  as  the  elements  of  the 
Hindoo  religion,  particularly  the  system 
of  castes,  and  many  elements  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion.  Yetno  trace  of  any  connex- 
ion with  the  Zendavesta  and  the  magic  of 
the  Parsees  has  been  found  in  the  Desatir. 

Desaclt,  Peter  Joseph ;  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  surgeons  of  France ;  bom 
Feb.  6,  1744,  at  Magny-Vemais,  in  the 
former  Franche-Comt^.  He  was  de- 
signed for  the  church,  early  studied  math- 
ematics and  philosophy,  and  was  led  by 
his  inclination  to  the  surgical  profession ; 
in  consequence  of  which  he  entered  the 
militaiy  hospital  at  B^fort,  where  his  dili- 
gence and  talent  for  observation  supplied 
the  defects  of  a  suitable  instruction  ;  and 
his  situation  was  favorable  for  obtaining  a 
knowledge  of  the  treatment  of  wounds 
from  fire-arms,  in  which  department  he 


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DESAULT— DESCARTES. 


9D1 


afterwnrds  rose  to  mat  etninence.  He 
went  to  Paris  in  1764,  and  was  one  of  the 
numerous  scholars  of  die  celehrated  Petit. 
Two  years  afterwards,  he  became  a  lec- 
turer, and,  though  liis  delivery  was  bad, 
he  floon  became  celebrated  by  introducing 
a  new  method  of  teaching  anatomy. 
While  lecmring  on  the  parts  of  the  hu- 
man body,  he  treated  of  the  diseases  inci- 
dent to  each.  Alter  having  been  several 
years  principal  surgeon  of  the  hospital  de 
la  duariU,  where  he  increased  his  reputa- 
tion by  introducing  new  methods  of  treat- 
ment, or  by  improving  and  simplifying 
those  ahneady  in  use,  he  was  pot  at  the 
head  of  the  great  HdUl-Dieu  in  Paris,  in 
1788.  Here  he  founded  a  surgical  school, 
in  which  have  been  educat^  many  of 
the  most  eminent  surgeons  of  Europe. 
His  principal  merits  were,  that  he  brought 
accuracy  and  method  into  the  study  of 
surgeiy ;  improved  the  treatment  of  fitic- 
tarSd  bones,  by  adopting  improved  ban- 
dages; first  introduced  into  France  the 
clinical  method  of  instruction  in  surgery, 
and  infijsed  into  his  scholars  a  generous 
attachment  to  their  profession.  He  was 
distinguished  for  the  skill  and  boldness 
with  which  he  perfbrmed  operations. 
This  happy  natural  talent,  this  surmcal 
instinct,  that  guided  him  in  the  most  diffi- 
cult cases,  compensated  for  his  want  of 
profesnonal  learning,  to  which  he  was  $o 
mdiflferent,  that,  in  his  later  years,  he  read 
very  little ;  and,  as  he  'was  entirely  igno- 
rant of  internal  diseases,  he  was  in<hgnant, 
when,  at  the  foundation  of  the  ^cofe  de 
modi,  in  which  he  became  professor  of 
clinical  surgery,  the  study  of  medicine 
and  surgery  were  connected.  He  died, 
while  attending  upon  the  son  of  Louis 
XVI,  in  the  Temple,  of  a  violent  fever, 
June  1,  1795.  Desault  wrote  only  two 
small  treatises ;  but  the  Journal  de  Chirur- 
rit,  in  which  his  scholars  published  his 
tectures  delivered  hi  the  Hutel-Dieu,  and 
the  (Eucres  Cfdrurgiades,  edited  by  Bicbat 
under  Desault's  name,  contain  his  whole 
system. 

Descartes,  Ren6  (Renatus  Cartesius^ 
an  original  thhiker,  and  refonner  of  phi- 
losophy, with  whom  the  modem  or  new 
philosophy  is  often  considered  as  com- 
mencing, was  bom  in  1596,  at  La  Haye, 
in  Toureine,  and  died  at  Stockholm,  in 
1650.  Wlule  pursuing  his  education  in 
the  Jesuits*  school  at  La  Fleche,  where 
he  studied  philology,  mathematics  and 
astronomy,  his  superior  intellect  manifest- 
ed itself.  After  having  read  much,  with- 
out coming  to  any  certain  conclusions,  be 
travelled.     Both  his  Imth  and  inclination 


led  him  to  embrace  the  military  profession, 
and  he  fought  as  a  vohinteer  at  the  siege 
of  Rochelle,  and  in  Holland  under  prince 
Maurice.  While  he  served  in  Holland, 
a  matliematical  problem  in  Dutch,  pasted 
up  in  the  streets  of  Breda,  met  his  eye. 
Not  being  acquainted  with  the  language,  he 
asked  a  man  who  stood  near  him  to  trans- 
late the  problem  to  him.  This  man  hap- 
pened to  be  professor  Beecman,  princiiJAl 
of  the  university  of  Doit,  and  himself  a 
.mathematician.  He  smiled  at  the  ques- 
tion of  the  young  officer,  and  was  greatly 
surprised,  the  next  morning,  to  find  that 
he  had  solved  it  From  hence  Descartes 
went  to  Gennany,  and  entered  the  Bava- 
rian service.  His  ntuation,  however,  af- 
fording him  little  opportuni^  for  pursuing 
his  favorite  studies,  he  left  the  army  in 
1621,  and  visited  Moravia,  Silesia,  Poland, 
Pomerania,  and  the  shores  of  the  Baltic. 
In  order  to  see  West  Friesland  with  ad- 
vantage, he  purchased  a  boat,  and  em- 
barked with  a  single  valet  The  sailors, 
thinking  him  a  foreign  merchant,  with 
much  money  in  his  baggage,  resolved  to 
kill  him.  Imagining  him  ignorant  of  their 
language,  they  conversed  of  their  plan 
o()enly.  Descartes,  seeing  his  danger, 
drew  his  sword,  addressed  them  in  their 
ovm  tongue,  and  threatened  to  stab  the 
first  man  that  should  offer  him  violence. 
Tlie  sailors  were  overawed,  and  gave  up 
their  design.  After  a  variety  of  travels, 
he  remained  in  Holland,  where  he  com- 
posed most  of  his  vmtings,  from  1629  to 
1649,  drew  about  him  many  scholars,  and 
was  engaged  in  many  learned  controver- 
sies, especially  with  theologians.  His 
celebrated  system  abounds  in  sin^larities 
and  originalities;  but  a  spirit  of  indepen- 
dent thought  prevails  throughout  it,  and 
has  contributed  to  excite  the  same  spirit 
in  others.  It  has  done  much  to  give  to 
philosophic&l  inquiries  a  new  direction, 
and  found  many  adherents,  especially  in 
England,  France  and  Gennany.  Des- 
cartes founds  his  belief  of  the  existence  of 
a  thinking  being  on  the  consciousness  of 
thought:  "I  think,  therefore  I  exist" 
[cogUo^  ergo  sum).  He  developed  his  sys- 
tem with  much  ingenuity,  in  opposition  to 
the  empiric  philosophy  of  the  English, 
and  the  Aristotelian  scliolastics,  and  adopt- 
ed the  rigorous,  systematic  or  mathematical 
method  of  reasoning.  From  his  system 
originated  tlie  notion  among  the  modems, 
that  the  very  existence  and  certainty  of 
philosophy  consists  in  definitions,  argu- 
ments, and  a  methodical  arrangement  of 
them.  The  thinking  being,  says  Des- 
cartes, or  the  soul,  evidently  differs  frofn 


Digitized  by 


Lioogle 


902 


DESCARTKS— DESCENT. 


the  body,  whose  existence  consists  in 
space  or  extension,  by  its  simplicity  and 
immateriality  (whence,  also,  its  immortal- 
ity), and  by  the  freedom  that  pertains  to 
it.  But  every  perception  of  the  soul  is 
not  clear  and  aistiuct;  it  is  in  a  great 
degree  involved  in  doubt,  and  is  so  fiir 
an  imperfect,  finite  bein^.  This  imper- 
fection of  its  own  leads  it  to  the  idea  of 
an  absolutely  perfect  being.  (He,  there- 
fore, here  makes  use  of  the  (so  called) 
orUological  proof  of  the  existence  of  God, 
in  a  different  manner  from  that  in  which 
Anselm  of  Canterbury  had,  somewhat 
earlier,  employed  the  same;  and  hence 
tlie  name  of  the  "Cartesian  proof.)  He 
placed  at  tlie  head  of  his  S)r8tem  the  idea 
of  an  absolutely  perf^ot  being,  which  he 
considers  as  an  innate  idea,  and  deduces 
from  it  all  further  knowledge  of  truth. 
The  princiiMd  problems  of  metaphysics  he 
conceived  to  be  substantiality  and  causality. 
He  contributed  greatly  to  the  advancement 
of  mathematics  and  physics.  He  made 
use  of  the  discoveries  and  observations  of 
others,  defining  them  accurately,  and  as- 
sijzning  them  their  place  in  his  s}'stem. 
The  hiffher  departments  of  geometry  (to 
which  ne  successfully  applied  analysis), 
as  well  as  optics,  dioptrics  and  mechanics, 
were  gready  extended  by  him,  their  method 
simphfied,  and  thereby  the  way  prepared 
for  the  great  discoveries  made  in  the  sci- 
ences by  Newton  and  Leibnitz;  for  in- 
stance, he  contributed  much  to  define  and 
illustrate  the  true  law  of  refraction.  His 
system  of  the  universe  attracted  great  at- 
tention in  his  time,  but  has  been  long 
since  exploded.  It  rests  on  the  strange 
faypotliesis  of  the  heavenly  vortices,  im- 
mense currents  of  ethereal  matter,  with 
which  space  is  filled,  and  by  wliich  he 
accounted  for  the  motion  of  the  planets. 
He  labored  much  to  extend  the  Coper- 
nican  system  of  astronomy.  Descartes 
loved  independence ;  he  nevertheless  suf- 
fered himself  to  be  perauaded  to  go  to 
Stockholm,  upon  the  invitation  of  queen 
Christina,  who  was  very  desirous  of  his 
society.  He  died  at  that  place,  4  months 
after  his  arrival.  His  body  was  carried  to 
Paris  in  1666,  and  interred  anew  m  the 
church  of  St  Genevieve  du  Mont  Des- 
cart^  was  never  married,  but  had  one 
natural  daughter,  Francina,  who  died  in 
his  arms,  in  ner  fiflh  year,  and  whose  loss 
he  felt  acutely.  His  works  have  at  vari- 
ous times  been  published,  singly  and  to- 
gether; as,  for  Ulstance,  at  Amsterdam, 
1692,  9  vols.  4to.  Bailie  and  Tarpelius 
have  written  his  life.  (See  his  letters; 
also  the  eulogies  on  him   by  GaiUard, 


Thomas  and  Mercier,  and  Leibnitz^  ac- 
count of  him  in  his  letters.) 

Descent,  in  law,  is  the  transmission  of 
tlie  right  and  title  to  lands  to  the  heu*,  on 
the  decease  of  the  proprietory  by  the  mere 
operation  of  law.  A  title  by  descent  is 
distinguished  from  a  title  by  purchase, 
which  latter  includes  title  by  aevise,  as 
well  as  by  grant  The  law  of  descent  is, 
accordin^y,  the  law  relating  to  and  regu- 
lating the  inheritance  of  estates.  Wherev- 
er there  is  an  exclusive  property  in  lands 
possessed  by  individuals,  or,  in  other 
words,  wherever  the  soil  is  held  by  dis- 
tinct, permanent  proprietaries,  the  law 
provides  for  the  disposition  of  the  posses- 
sion in  cose  of  the  aeath  of  the  proprietor, 
without  any  designation  of  heirs  by  him- 
selfl  It  is  a  theory  of  all  states,  that  the 
title  to  lands  is  originally  in  tlie  govern- 
ment Thus,  m  all  the  American  states, 
the  government  granted  the  title  ori^nally ; 
and,  in  case  of  a  vacant  possession,  the 
tide  now  reverts,  by  escheat,  to  this  ori- 
^al  grantor.  The  government  considers 
Itself  to  be  the  heir  to  all  its  subjects  or 
ciuzend,  who  leave  no  other  heir.  In 
some  countries,  as  in  Egypt,  particulariy, 
tiie  government  is  the  perpetual  and  prac- 
tical owner  of  the  soil,  and  stands  in  the 
relation  of  landlord  to  all  the  cultivators, 
who  are  its  tenants,  and  pay  regular  rents. 
It  is  a  theory  of  the  tenures  of  lands  in 
England,  that  they  are  generally  held,  di- 
recdy  or  indirectly,  of  the  king,  as  superior 
lord.  This  is  only  the  theoretical  rem- 
nant of  the  principle,  that  the  property  in 
the  soil  belongs  originally  to  the  sovereign ; 
and  the  title  is  held  by  tlie  subject  in 
England  upon  certain  conditions ;  for  the 
lands  of  a  traitor  are  forfeited,  which 
makes  allegiance  one  of  the  conditions  of 
the  tenure*  Though  there  are  countries 
in  which  the  sovereign  is  the  sole  landed 
proprietor,  while  in  others  he  is  the  heir 
of  the  landed  proprietors,  whose  estates 
ore  accordingly  for  life,  yet  most  countries 
provide  for  die  transmission  or  descent  of 
property  in  lands  to  the  heirs  of  the  pro- 

Iirietor;  one  distinction  in  the  different 
aws  being,  that  some  codes,  or  the  pro- 
visions relating  to  some  particular  kinds 
of  estate,  do  not  permit  the  occupant  or 
proprietor,  for  the  time  beiug,  to  aJter  the 
disposition  made  by  the  law.  Thus,  be- 
fore the  conouest,  lands  were  devisable  in 
England,  and  the  proprietor  could  appoint 
by  will  who  should  inherit  them  ailer  his 
deatli ;  but  it  was  one  part  of  the  policy 
of  the  feudal  law,  which  was  introduced 
into  Enj^land  after  the  conquest,  to  take 
away  this  power,  and  make  lands  descend 


Digitized  by 


Google 


DESCENT. 


203 


only  according  to  a  prescribed  rule.  Bttt 
expedients  have  been  resorted  to  in  Eng- 
land  to  break  entails,  and  ^ve  the  present 
proprietor  tlie  power  of  disposing  of  the 
lands  during  bis  lifetime.  These  expe^ 
dients  are  denominated  a  fint  and  a  torn- 
mon  recovery.  In  tlie  case  of  entailed  es- 
tates, the  successive  possessors  do  not,  in 
fiu;t,  come  in  as  inheritors  to  the  preceding 
occupiers,  but  in  virtue  of  the  grant  or 
original  constitution  of  the  estate ;  and 
these  grants  make  the  law  for  these 
perticumr  species  of  estates.  Estates  of 
this  description  were  formerly  much 
more  numerous  in  the  U.  States  than  at 
present.  But  they  were  never  much  fa- 
vored, and  after  the  revolution,  the  laws 
leaned  still  more  against  tliem,  so  tlmt  at 
present  thev  are  but  few.  But  in  Great 
Britain  and  the  continent  of  Europe,  a 
very  large  jiart  of  the  soil  is  held  by  this 
species  of  title.  The  rule  determining 
to  whom  an  estate  belongs,  on  the  decease 
of  the  proprietor,  is  that  of  consanguinity, 
or  relationship  by  blood,  tliough  wiui  some 
exceptions,  as  in  the  case  of  the  portion 
or  the  use  of  a  portion  of  a  man's  prop- 
erty, ffiven,  by  the  laws  of  England  and 
the  United  States,  to  his  widow.  The 
rules  of  descent,  designating  what  rela- 
tions shall  inherit,  and  their  respective 
sliares,  will  be  determined  by  the  genius 
and  policy  of  the  government  and  institu- 
tions. Hence  the  practice  of  entailments 
in  the  feudal  system.  And  wherever  the 
government  is  founded  in  family  privi- 
kges,  or  very  intimately  connected  with 
them,  as  is  the  case  in  all  governments 
where  the  hereditarily  aristocratical  part 
of  the  community  have  a  great  prepon- 
derance, the  sustaining  of  families  will 
veiy  probably  be  a  characteristic  feature 
in  the  code  of  laws.  Thus,  in  England, 
all  the  lands  of  the  father,  unless  otherwise 
directed  bv  will,  go  to  the  eld^t  son ;  and 
accorduigfy  all  the  eldest  sons,  who  re- 
ceive any  benefit  from  this  law  of  descent, 
are  naturally  the  supporters  of  aristocrat- 
ical privileges.  It  has  accordingly  been 
predicted,  that  the  provision  introduced 
into  the  French  laws,  since  the  revolution, 
for  equalizing  inheritances,  and  thus  di- 
viding estates,  and  forming  a  numerous 
body  of  small  proprietors,  will  have  a  ranid 
and  powerful  influence  in  giving  a  popular 
character  to  the  government  and  institu- 
tions of  the  country.  Some  remnant  of 
tills  &mily  policy,  which  prevails  so  gen- 
erally in  Europe,  appears  in  the  eariy 
laws  of  tiie  American  colonies  and  prov- 
inces, in  the  preference  given  to  eldest 
SODS,  by  assigniog  them  a  double  portion 


of  the  inheritance.  This  distinction  prob- 
ably resulted  veiy  much  from  the  mere 
force  of  habit  and  custom.  It  is,  how- 
ever, not  improbable  that  a  reverence  for 
the  Leviticai  code  might  have  led  some 
of  the  colonies  to  this  distinction  in  favor 
of  the  first-bom.  This  is  an  argument 
made  use  of  in  the  pragmatic  sanction, 
published  by  the  Spanish  king,  March 
29,  1890,  annulling  tne  rule  of  the  Salic 
law,  which  excludes  females  from  the 
succession.  In  this  decree,  an  argument 
is  cited  fix>m  the  petition  of  the  cortes  of 
1789,  in  favor  of  the  right  of  the  eldest, 
which  is  vindicated,  1.  from  the/ order  of 
nature;  2.  from  the  Old  Testament;  3. 
from  usage;  from  all  which  the  petition 
infers,  that  **  tiie  advantage  of  being  the 
fiist-bom  is  a  particular  mark  of  the  love 
of  God."  But  the  distinction  in  favor  of 
the  eldest  son,  which  existed  in  the  colo- 
nies now  constituting  the  U.  States,  has 
been  abolished  since  the  establishment  of 
independence.  A  compendious  notice  of 
the  various  laws  of  the  several  U.  States 
on  the  subject  of  the  descent  of  real  es* 
tate,  will  be  found  in  the  first  volume  of 
the  American  Jurist  and  Law  Magazine. 
These  laws  are  founded  upon  the  princi- 
ple of  equal  distribution,  both  of  real  and 
personal  estates,  among  li^irs  of  the  nearest 
surviving  degree,  and  the  representatives 
of  deceased  heirs  of  the  same  degree ;  the 
representatives  of  a  deceased  heir  who, 
when  alive,  was  of  the  same  decree  with  the 
nearest  that  survive,  being  entitled  collect- 
ively to  the  share  which  would  have  come 
to  such  deceased  heir,  had  he  been  living. 
This  general  principle  is  adopted  from  the 
English  statutes  of  die  22d  and  23d  of 
Charies  11,  relating  to  the  distribution  of  per- 
sonal property ;  ror  the  English  law  makes 
a  great  distinction  as  to  the  descent  of  real 
and  personal  estate,  whereas,  in  the  U. 
Stat^  they  descend  and  are  distributed 
upon  the  same  /eneral  principle,  though 
there  are  some  difierences  in  the  particu- 
lar provisions.  But  this  ri^ht  ot  takin|; 
by  represents'jon  is  very  variously  modi- 
fied in  the  c'jfierent  states.  To  make  the 
subject  beti«r  understood,  a  word  ought 
to  be  sCd  on  tlie  subject  of  affinity,  or 
degrees  of  consanguinity,  which  is  veiy 
lucidly  treated  in  Blackstone's  Commen- 
taries. Kindred  in  blood  are  divided  into 
three  general  classes,  viz.  1.  descendants ; 
2.  ancestois;  3.  collateral  relatives,  that 
is,  those  who  have  descended  from  the 
same  common  ancestor.  The  civil  law 
computes  the  degrees  by  counting  the 
generations  up  to  the  common  ancestor,  as 
Sither,  granduither,  great  grandfather ;  or 


Digitized  by 


Lioogle 


904 


DESCENT--DE  SERRE. 


mother,  gnuidinother,  ffreat  gmndniotber ; 
aud  from  him  or  her  down  to  the  collat- 
eral relative,  as  brother,  cousui,  &c,  mak- 
ing the  degree  of  relationship  the  sum  of 
these  two  series  of  genei-ations.  Every 
person  has  two  sets  of  ancestors,  the  pa- 
tema]  and  maternal,  and  theirdfore  two 
sets  of  coliateFal  relatives.  There  is  ajso 
a  distinction  of  collateral  kindred,  into 
those  of  the  whole  blood,  and  those  of  the 
half  blood.  Our  limits  will  not  allow  us 
to  state  the  various  regulations  in  England 
and  the  U.  States,  as  to  the  rules  of  inher- 
itance among  kindred  of  these  different 
kinds;  they  are  tlius  generally  noticed, 
merely  fbr  the  purpose  of  intimating  some 
general  dlvei-sities  in  the  rules  of  descent 
Thus  in  England  and  France,  it  is  a  rule, 
that  real  estate  cannot  ascend,  that  is,  can- 
not go  to  father,  grandfather,  &c  on  the 
decease  of  the  son,  grandson,  &c.;  for 
which  the  quaint  reason  is  given  by  Brae- 
ton,  that  the  weight  of  the  inheritance 
makes  it  descend.  Notwithstanding  this 
supposed  dovrawaid  tendency  of  an  in- 
heritance in  land,  it  is,  in  defect  of  de- 
scendants, made  by  the  American  laws  to 
ascend,  as  well  as  to  fiass  off  collaterally ; 
and  this  is  tlie  rule  respecting  personal 
estate,  both  in  England  and  the  U.  States. 
Another  distinctibn  is  made  by  the  EM^liah 
laws,  between  collateral  reladves  of  the 
whole  and  half  blood,  as  the  latter  cannot 
inherit  real  estate ;  but  in  respect  to  per- 
sonal estate  in  England,  and  bpth  personal 
and  real  estate  in  tfie  U.  States,  no  distinc- 
tion of  this  sort  is  made.  Another  diver- 
sity in  tlie  laws  of  inlieritance  relates  to 
the  distinction  of  male  and  female  heirs. 
The  Jewish  law  preferred  the  male  beirs^ 
and  the  present  laws  of  Vermont  (1830) 
give  a  similar  preference.  But  the  laws 
of  the  U.  States  generally,  in  regard  both  to 
real  and  personal  estate,  and  those  of  Eng- 
land respecting  the  latter,  make  no  dis- 
tinction on  accoimt  of  the  mx  of  the  heirs. 

DSSKADA,  DEBIlUnA,  OT.  DsSIOEiUDA  ; 

the  first  of  the  Caribbee  islands  discovered 
by  Columbus  in  the  year  1494 ;  belonging 
to  France,  about  10  miles  long,  and  hfudly 
5  broad.  The  soil  is,  in  some  plac^ 
black  and  good ;  in  othera,  sandy  and  un- 
productive ;  16  miles  E,  Guadaloupe : 
Ion.  61°  la'  W. ;  hit  16°  W  N. ;  popuU- 
tion,  about  1000. 

Db  Seree,  Hercule,  count,  a  French 
rainbter  of  state,  who,  in  1822,  was  ap- 
pointed ambassador  at  tlie  court  of  Naples, 
was  bom  at  Metz,  in  1774,  of  a  noblq 
family  of  Lorraine.  In  1791,  he  emi- 
pated,  and  served  in  several  campaigns, 
in  the  army  of  the  prince  of  Cond6.    He 


then  lived  a  lonff  time  in  Germany,  in 
Biberach,  a  smaU  place  in  Suabia,  as  a 
schoohuaster.  Here  he  acquired  hia  per- 
fect knowledge  of  the  German  language 
and  literature.  He  afterward  obtained 
permission  to  return  to  France,  and  be- 
came a  lawyer.  Napoleon  appointed  him 
avocat-giniral  to  the  court  of  appeal  at 
Metz,  and  first  president  cf  Uie  court  of 
appeal  at  Hambur^^,  where  he  acquhed 
esteem  by  his  integrinr,  talents  and  mode- 
ration. He  left  Hamburg  just  before  the 
siege,  m  18ia  In  1814,  Louis  XVIII 
appointed  him  first  president  of  the  court 
of  i^jpeal  at  Colmar.  During  the  hundred 
days,  he  resided  with  the  kmg  in  Ghent 
Being  chosen  a  deputy  by  the  department 
of  the  Upper  Rhine,  in  1815,  the  energy 
with  which  he  opposed  the  ultra-royaluBt 
majority  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
ministiy,  and. gained  him  the  confidence 
of  the  nation.  From  1816  to  1818,  he 
^led  the  chaur  of  president  of  the  cham- 
ber of  deputies  with  dignity  and  impar- 
tiality ;  at  the  same  time  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  committee  of  legisladon  in  tlie 
council  of  state.  In  December,  1818,  the 
king  appointed  him  keeper  of  the  seab 
and  minister  of  justice.  He  pursued  the 
policy  of  Decazes,  and  distinguished  him- 
self, in  1819,  by  his  defence  of  the  three 
laws  proposed  for  the  regulation  of  the 
press,  17th  May,  26th  May,  9th  June, 
wliicb  took  the  place  of  the  censorship 
then  existing.  He  also  opposed,  with 
vigor,  the  change  of  the  law  of  electiona. 
In  his  speech,  March  23,  1819,  he  de- 
nounced the  party  spirit  of  the  ultras  as 
the  cause  that  the  crimes  committed  in  the 
south  of  France,  in  1815,  had  remained 
i^ipunished.  He  of^posed,  however,  the 
demands  of  the  Uberals  for  the  restoradon 
of  the  regicides,  by  his  famous  Jamau 
(17di  May,  1819).  He  afterwards  se|ia- 
mted  himself  fix>m  the  dodrvntdreB^  whose 
principles  h6  had  hitherto  maintained,  and 
supported  the  proposal  of  Decazes,  of 
February,  1820,  to  change  the  law  of 
election  of  1817.  When  the  excitement 
of  parties  in  regard  to  the  three  projects 
of  the  la^  premier  had  reached  its  height, 
he  completed  the  triumph  of  the  ministry 
and  die  moderate  right  side,  by  advocating 
the  amendments  of  the  proposed  new  law 
of  election  (9di  June,  1820).  As  the  prin- 
cipal supporter  of  the  new  law  of  election, 
in  1820,  he  was  of  the  greatest  service  to 
the  royalists,  but  lost  the  favor  of  the  lib- 
erals. The  king  created  him  a  count, 
and  bestowed  on  his  son  an  income  of 
20,000  francs  per  annum.  De  Serre  him- 
self had  no  fbrtime  and  a  numerous  family. 


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JDiE  SERRE— DESHOULIERES. 


90S 


The  new  elecdons  of  1620  and  1^1 
brought  a  great  number  of  ultra-royalists 
into  the  chamber  of  deputies,  and  a  strong 
opposition  was  fonned,  on  the  part  of  the 
nglit  side,  a^nst  the  ministry.  The 
leaders,  Corbiere  and  Villele,  endeavored 
to  obtain  seats  in  the  ministry,  and  tlieir 
Influence  finally  effected  the  change  of  the 
14tli  Dec,  1821 ;  De  Serre,  Posquier,  La- 
tour-Maubourg,  Simeon,  Portal  and  Roy 
left  the  ininistiy,  and  Peyronnet  succeeded 
De  Serre  as  minister  of  justice  and  keeper 
of  the  seals.  De  Serre  is  said  to  have  con- 
tributed, himself,  to  the  nomination  of  the 
latter.  He  did  not  join  the  opposition, 
though  he  was  adverse  to  the  olau  of  the 
new  ministry  for  abolishing  ttie  jury  in 
trials  for  abuses  of  the  press ;  and  he  de- 
clared, in  the  chamber  of  deputies  (Feb- 
ruaiy,  1823),  through  his  friend  Froc  de  la 
Boulaye,  that  he  was  more  fully  convinced 
than  ever  of  die  expediency  of  a  jury. 
The  ministiy,  however,  succeeded  in  its 
object.  Innrm  health  prevented  count 
De  Serre  from  taking  part  in  the  discus- 
aions  on  this  occasion.  In  May,  1822,  he 
was  sent  ambassador  to  Naples,  where  he 
died  July  21, 1824. 

Desebter  ;  a  soldier  who  quits  his 
regiment  without  leave.  If  an  armed 
Bokiier  deserts  a  post  where  he  is  placed 
on  duty,  the  offence,  we  believe,  in  all 
annies,  is  punished  with  death ;  but  sim- 
ple desertion,  not.  In  the  English  army, 
however,  death  is  the  punishment  for  de- 
sertion in  any  shape.  In  the  U.  States,  the 
same  law  exists,  but  it  will,  probably,  soon 
be  changed. 

Deseze,  Raymond,  the  advocate  who 
defended  Louis  XVI  before  the  bar  of  the 
national  convention,  belongs  to  an  ancient 
fiimily.  His  father  was  a  celebrated  par- 
liamentaiy  advocate  at  Bordeaux,  in  which 
town  Raymond  was  born,  in  1750.  Ray- 
mond Deseze  studied  the  law  from  incu- 
Dotioo,  and  displayed  uncommon  talents 
in  his  profession.  He  made  himself 
known  to  the  minister  De  Vergennes,  by 
his  defence  of  the  marchioness  D'Anglure, 
and  was  induced  by  this  minister  to  setde 
in  Paris.  His  fiune  was  alreadv  estab- 
lished, when  he  was  associated  with  Males- 
herbes  and  Tronchet,  in  the  responsible 
office  of  defending  Louis  XVI.  He  had 
only  four  nights  for  drawing  up  the  articles 
of  defence.  The  days  were  occupied  in 
examiuinff  the  papers  connected  with  the 
cause,  and  in  the  necessary  conversations 
with  his  colleagues.  Notwithstanding 
thia^  his  defence  was  a  masterpiece,  and 
the  only  reproach  which  can  be  cast  upon 
Deseze  is,  that  he  did  not  overstep  the 

vol*.  IT.  18 


limits  of  the  advocate,  and  take  tlie  higher 
ground  of  a  statesman.  It  was  evident 
that  the  result  would  not  rewaixl  his  exer- 
tions. He  survived  tlie  reign  of  terror. 
On  the  return  of  the  Bourbons,  Deseze 
was  crowned  with  marks  of  honor,  and 
appointed  first  president  of  the  court  of 
cassation  and  grand-treasurer  of  the  royal 
order.  In  1815,  he  followed  the  court  to 
Ghent,  and  was  made  a  peer  of  France 
and  member  of  the  academy. 

DEsroNTAizfES,  Pierre  Francois  Guvot, 
abb^  bom  at  Rouen,  in  lGo5,  dieci  at 
Paris,  in  1745,  was  one  of  those  French 
literati  who  are  known  to  us  more  fh>m 
their  controversies  with  Voltaire,  and  his 
biting  attacks,  than  from  dieir  own  pro- 
ducUon&  Voltaire,  by  the  superiority  of 
his  vrit,  succeeded  in  gaining  many  to  his 
opinions ;  but  impartial  iu<iges  have  long 
agreed,  that  he  was  not  altogether  correct, 
and  that  the  criticisms  of  die  abb^  Desfon- 
taines,  tliough  severe,  are  by  no  means 
mijust.  One  of  the  works  of  the  abb^ 
which  had  the  misfortune  to  excite  the 
particular  displeasure  of  the  poet,  was  the 
well  known  Didiofinaire  Jyhlogiqae^  of 
which  the  6th  edition  appeared  in  1750 
(Amsterdam  and  Leipeic),  and  which  was 
intended  to  guard  the  purity  of  the  French 
language,  as  the  great  writers  of  the  17tb 
century  had  formed  it ;  and,  in  this  respect, 
it  has  certainly  proved  of  much  service. 

Deshouli^res,  Antoinette ;  a  French 
lady  of  much  literary  reputation.  Her 
maiden  name  was  Du  Ligitr  de  Jjogarde, 
She  lived  at  Paris  from  1638  till  1694. 
W^ith  a  prepossessing  appeanmce  she 
combined  a  distinguished  talent  for  light 
and  agreeable  poetry,  which  she  culuvated 
under  the  direction  of  the  poet  Hainault. 
She  was  acquainted  with  the  Latin,  Span- 
ish and  Italian  languages,  and  studied 
philosophy  in  her  later  years,  during  which 
she  had  to  endure  contuiual  sickness. 
Voltaire  was  of  opinion,  that  of  all  the 
French  poets  of  her  sex,  she  had  the 
greatest  merit  Several  learned  societies 
elected  her  a  member,  and  her  agreeable 
manner,  her  animation  and  wit,  which 
sometimes,  but  rarelv,  fiave  way  to  a  gen- 
tle melancholy,  made  ner  the  centre  of 
attraction  in  the  best  sociedes  at  that 
period.  For  reasons  unknown  to  U9,  she 
was  imprisoned,  in  February,  1658,  at 
Brussels,  by  the  Spaniards  ;  but  her  hus- 
band, an  ofnoer,  procured  her  deliverance. 
Her  works  appeared,  together  with  those 
of  her  daughter  Antoinette  Therese  (died 
1718), — ^who  also  devoted  herself  to  poetry, 
but  with  less  success, — at  Paris,  in  1753; 
2  vols.,  12mo.,  and  at  Brussels,  in  1740, 


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DESHOULIERES— DESNOYERS. 


2  vols.,  under  the  title  (Evvrea  de  Mouhme 
et  de  MademoiaeUe  Deshotditrea.  They 
contain,  1.  iiastorai  poems,  which  may  still 
be  numbered  amongst  the  best  French 
works  of  the  kind  (the  finest  of  these, 
however,  Les  Moutms,  is  tak^n,  nearly 
word  for  word,  from  a  poem  of  Antoine 
Cotel  or  Coutel,  and  madame  Deshoulieres 
has  only  tlie  merit  of  having  modernized 
the  old  style  and  expressions);  2.  odes, 
which  are,  in  ^neral,  very  poor;  3.  a 
tragedy,  Gensenck,  in  which  so  little  talent 
was  displayed,  that  slie  was  advised,  ac- 
cording to  the  French  proverb,  revenir  h 
seaMotUona;  4.  poetical  letters ;  5.  mad- 
rigals, epigrams  and  small  poems,  of  which 
some  are  full  of  excellent  and  vntty  re- 
inarks,  which  have  become  proverbial 
from '  their  truth.  Frederic  II  had  a 
selection  of  her  poems  published  toother 
with  Chalieu's,  under  the  title  Chmx  dea 
meiUeuna  Pi^cea  de  Madamt  DeahovUirea  et 
deMbbi  deChauIieu (BeT\in,l777),  This 
selection  is  little  known. 

Design,  in  painting ;  the  first  plan  of  a 
large  work,  drawn  roughly,  and  on  a  small 
scale,  with  tlie  intention  of  being  executed 
and  finished  in  large.  (See  Dreading.) 
— In  music,  deaign  means  the  invention 
and  execution  of  the  subject,  in  all  its 
parts,  agreeably  to  the  general  order  of  the 
whole. — In  manufacture'?,  deaign  expresses 
the  figures  with  Which  the  workman  en- 
riches his  stuff  or  silk,  and  which  he 
copies  afler  his  own  drawing,  or  the 
sketches  of  some  artist — In  building,  the 
term  ichnography  may  be  used,  when  by 
deaign  is  only  meant  the  plan  of  a  building, 
or  a  flat  figure  drawn  on  paper;  when 
some  side  or  face  of  the  building  is 
raised  from  the  ground,  we  may  use  the 
term  orthography;  and  when  both  front 
and  sides  are  seen  in  pers])ective,  it  may 
be  termed  acenography. 

Dksmologt  (from  the  Gre^  Sarfibt,  a 
ligament,  and  ^oytn) ;  that  branch  of  anat- 
omy which  treats  of  the  ligaments  and 
sineviTB.    (See  Anatomy.) 

Deshoulins,  B^noit  Camille,  born  in 
17^  was  conspicuous  during  the  first 
period  of  the  French  revolution.  His 
exterior  was  mean  ;  be  was  of  a  dariE 
complexion  and  repulsive  expression. 
From  the  commencement  of  the  revolu- 
tion, he  was  connected  with  Robespierre, 
with  whom  he  had  studied  at  college. 
From  the  secret  meetings  which  he  had  at 
Mousseaux  witli  the  duke  of  Orleans,  it 
majr  be  inferred  that  he  was,  at  first,  only 
the  agent  of  this  prince.  He  chose  the 
Ppfaia  royal  for  the  usual  scene  of  his 
citizen-apostleship,   and  was  constantly 


seen  there  surrounded  by  maihy  orators^ 
who,  with  him,  prepared  the  plan  for  the 
taking  of  the  mstile.  Afier  tliis  first 
triumph,  he  endeavored  to  excite  the 
minds  of  the  people  by  his  orations  or  his 
publications,  and  called  himself /mocureur- 
gMral  de  la  lanteme.  He  tlieu  became 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  club  of  the 
Cordeliera,  connected  himself  intimately 
with  Danton,  and  remained  faithful  to  him. 
On  the  flight  of  Louis  XVI  to  Varennes, 
he  was  one  of  the  instigators  of  the  assem- 
bly of  the  chaimp  de  Mara.  He  was  par- 
ticularly active  m  the  tumult  of  June  20, 
1792,  and  on  the  10th  of  August  About 
this  time,  he  was  secretary  to  the  minister 
of  justice,  Danton,  and  prepared  with  him 
the  scenes  of  September.  As  deputy  of 
Paris,  in  the  national  convention,  he  de- 
fended the  duke  of  Orleans,  December  16. 
Jan.  16,  1793,  he  gave  his  vote  for  tlie 
death  of  Louis  XVI.  His  fiiendship  for 
Danton  was  the  cause  of  his  fall.  Robes- 
pierre, at  the  head  of  the  committee  of 
public  safety,  was  making  rapid  progress 
towards  tvrBtnny.  Danton,  assisted  by  the 
leadera  of  the  Cordeliers,  intended  to  re- 
sist this  committee,  and  Camille  com- 
menced the  attack  in  bis  journal  Le  Vteuz 
Cordelier,  in  which  he  declared  himself 
the  terrorists,  and  even  made  use 


of  the  word  clemency  (demence).  Upon 
this,  he  was,  at  the  instigation  of  St  Just, 
whom  Camille  had  also  attacked  in  his 
journal,  imprisoned  on  the  night  of  the 
3l8t  of  May,  1794,  together  with  those 
who  were  called  his  accomplices,  brought 
before  the  revolutionary  tribunal,  June  4^ 
and  condemned  to  death,  ^  because  he  had 
dishonored  the  revolutionary  system,  and 
had  attempted  to  reestablish  monarchy." 
June  5,  he  was  taken,  after  a  violent  struff- 
gle,  to  the  place  of  execution.  His  wi^ 
whom  he  adored,  and  who  returned  his 
afiTection, — a  beautiful  courageous  and 
spirited  wom&n, — desired  to  share  her  hus- 
band's fate.  Robespierre  ordered  her  to 
the  scafibld  ten  days  after  Desmoulins' 
deatli.  During  her  trial,  she  evinced  a 
wonderful  tranquillity,  and  died  with 
much  greater  firmness  tban  her  husband. 
Desnoters,  Auguste-Boucher,  an  en- 
graver, member  of  the  institute,  honoraiy 
member  of  the  academies  at  Vienna  and 
Geneva,  bom  in  1779,  at  Paris,  where  his 
father  was  castellan  in  the  service  of  Louis 
XVI,  commenced  his  career  as  a  historical 
painter,  and  studied  in  Rome,  where  he 
copied  many  paintings  in  water-colors. 
Aner  this,  his  taste  was  directed  towards 
engraving,  in  which  art  Tardieu  was  his 
instnicter.    His  first  great  attempt,  in  1806^ 


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DESNOYERS— D£SSALINES. 


907 


La  Vlerge,  dite  la  helU  Jardimirej  of  Rapha- 
el, the  plate  of  which  he  executed  in  a 
year,  succeeded  reniaikablv,  and  laid  tlie 
foundation  of  his  fiune.  His  engraving 
of  Napoleon,  in  his  coronation  costume,  a 
full  length  figure,  from  Gerard's  painting, 
in  1805,  is  equally  grand  and  highly  fin- 
ished. It  is  now  seldom  to  be  met  with. 
It  is  2  French  feet  high,  and  18  in- 
ches wide.  The  emperor  cave  Desno- 
yers  tlie  order  for  it,  and  paid  him  50,000 
fiiancs  for  the  plate,  which  he  left  to  the 
artist,  after  having  received  a  thousand 
copies.  Desnoyers  likewise  engraved  the 
hkeneas  of  the  youn^  king  of  Rome,  from 
Guerin's  painting.  ^^  e  owe  to  him,  also,  the 
two  excellent  engravings  of  Phidre  d  Hvp- 
polyU  and  the  Viergt  au  linge.  Desno- 
yers is  an  industrious  artist:  he  himself 
makes  the  drawing  for  his  plates.  His 
style  is  noble  and  simple,  and  he  is  fortu- 
nate in  his  choice  of  subjects.  Amongst 
his  best  works,  besides  the  portrait  of  the 
emperor,  are  his  Bdiaaxrt^  engraved  in 
1806,  from  Gerard's  paintinff,  his  Viergt 
aux  BocKerSy  from  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and 
his  Madonna  da  FoUgnOy  from  Raphael 
Some  are  of  opinion,  that  the  Via^e  crux 
Rodiers  is  his  best  production ;  others  prefer 
the  Madonna  da  fhligno.  A  more  recent 
work  of  his,  which  appeared  in  1822,  is 
the  Madonna  dd  Pesce^  fix>m  Raphael's 
picture  in  the  Escurial. 

Despard,  Edward  Marcus,  an  ofiicer 
in  the  English  army,  was  an  Irishman  by 
birth,  and,  in  the  American  war,  served  in 
the  troops  of  the  line.  In  1779,  he  went 
to  Jamaica,  where  he  acted  as  an  engi- 
neer. He  afterwards  assisted  in  the  cap- 
ture of  the  Spanish  establishments  on  the 
Mosquito  shore,  of  which  he  was  sub- 
sequently appointed  superintendent.  In 
1786,  some  disputes  arose  in  the  colony, 
and  he  was  suspended  from  his  functions. 
He  arrived  in  Europe  in  1790,  bringing 
with  him  the  most  honorable  testimonies 
to  his  conduct.  His  applications  to  gov- 
ernment for  redress,  and  for  the  payment 
of  sums  which  he  claimed  as  due  to  him, 
were  unavailing ;  and  the  disappointment 
probably  soured  his  mind.  In  November, 
1802,  he  was  arrested,  as  the  head  of  a 
conspiracy  to  kill  the  king  and  overthrow 
the  government  Ail  the  conspirators,  ex- 
cept Despard,  were  persons  of^  the  lowest 
classes,  and  many  of  them  common  sol- 
diers. Their  leader  and  seven  of  his 
accomplices  were  executed.  The  scheme 
of  Despard  was  so  absurdly  arranged,  and 
bis  means  so  utterly  inadequate  to  the  suc- 
cess of  the  plot,  that  some  supposed  him 
to  be  deran^d ;  while  others  absurdly  as- 


cribed the  affiiir  to  the  machinations  of 
Bonaparte,  who  shortly  after  declared  war 
against  England. 

Despot  (from  the  Greek  itcndrrfi) ;  orig- 
inally, a  master^  a  Urd :  at  a  later  period, 
it  became  an  honorary  title,  wliicli  tlie 
Greek  emperors  gave  to  their  sons  and 
sons-in-law,  when  governors  of  provinces. 
Alexis  III,  surnamed  Angdus,  towards 
the  end  of  the  12th  century,  is  said  to 
have  first  introduced  this  title,  and  to  have 
made  it  the  first  in  rank  after  that  of  em- 
peror. Thus  there  was  a  despot  of  the 
Moreo,  of  Servia,  &c.  The  Turkish 
designation  of  the  princes  of  Moldavia 
and  Walachia  (hospodar)  is  a  remnant  of 
this  title.  At  present,  despot  means  an 
absolute  rulef,  as  tlie  emperor  of  Russia ; 
but,  in  a  narrower  sense,  it  conveys  the 
idea  of  tyranny,  as,  in  fact,  the  possession 
of  absolute  power  and  the  abuse  of  it  are 
two  things  bordering  very  closely  on  each 
otlier. 

Dessaix,  Joseph-Marie,  count  (who 
must  not  be  confounded  with  Desaix), 
was  bom  in  Savoy,  in  1764,  and  was  pur- 
suing his  medical  studies  in  Paris,  when, 
in  consequence  of  the  events  of  1789,  he 
joined  the  national  guard  of  that  city.  In 
1792,  he  proposed  the  raising  of  the  free 
legion  of  the  Allobroges,  composed  of 
fbreignera  in  France,  and  soon  became 
colonel  of  that  corps.  He  distinguished 
himself  particularly  at  the  siege  of  Tou- 
lon, and  was  ofifered  the  command  of  a 
brigade,  which  he  decUned.  After  having 
served  in  Italy,  he  was  chosen  (1798) 
member  of  the  five  hundred,  fi-om  the  de- 
'  partment  of  Mont  Blanc.  He  was  appoint- 
ed general  of  division  in  1809,  and  grand 
ofificerof  the  legion  of  honor  in  1811.  In 
1814,  he  conunanded  the  levy  en  masse 
in  the  department  of  Mont  Blanc,  and 
delivered  tlie  couutry  from  the  invadiiie 
forces.  In  the  same  year,  he  was  named 
chevalier  of  Sl  Louis,  but,  in  the  hundred 
days,  accepted  the  command  of  a  division, 
and  has  since  lived  in  retirement  at  Feniey. 

Dessalines,  Jean-Jacques,  emperor  of 
Hayti,  was  a  slave  in  1791,  when  the  in- 
surrection of  the  blacks  occurred  in  tiiat 
island.  His  master  was  a  shinglcr  of 
houses,  and  Jean  Jacques  was  l)red  to  the 
same  trade.  His  talents  for  war,  his  enter- 
prise, courage,  and  unscnipulous  conchict, 
raised  him  to  command  among  the  insur- 
gent Negroes ;  and,  when  Le  Clerc  in- 
vaded the  island,  in  1802,  Dessalines  and 
Cbristophe  stood  next  in  reputation  and 
rank  to  Toussaint-Louverture.  (See 
7\mssaint,)  After  the  deportation  of  the 
latter,  Dessalines,  Cbristophe  and  Cler- 


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DESSALINES-DESSOLE9. 


vaux  took  the  command,  and  maintained 
a  desperate  and  sansuinary  warfare  against 
the  French,  until  the  latter  evacuated  the 
island.  This  happened  in  November, 
1803.  The  black  chiefs  immediately  pro- 
ceeded to  proclaim  the  island  indepenaent, 
restoring  its  Indian  name  of  Hayti,  and 
nominated  Dessalines  governor-general  for 
bfe,  with  absolute  power.  Dessalines  now 
gave  fbll  scope  to  his  savage  character. 
He  began  by  ordering  a  general  massacre 
of  the  white  French,  wiiliout  distinction 
of  age  or  sex,  stimQlatiu^  the  Negroes  to 
glut  their  vengeance  for  tne  wrongs  they 
had  undergone.  In  October,  1804,  he 
assumed  the  title  and  state  of  emperor  of 
Hayti ;  and,  in  May  ensuing,  he  promul- 
gated a  new  constitution,  containuig  pro- 
vision for  permanently  organizing  the  im- 
perial govemmenL  His  reign,  however, 
was  brief;  for  the  people,  aided  by  the 
troops,  sick  of  his  atrocities,  and  wearied 
out  by  his  suspicious  and  vindictive  con- 
duct, conspired  against  his  life,  and  he 
was  killed  by  one  of  his  soldiers,  Oct 
17,  1806,  who  thus  ended  a  despotism 
stiuned  by  every  barbarous  enormity.  (Ma- 
lo^s  Hist  fTHmfti,  published  in  1825,  pp. 
270-304 ;  Franklin's  Hcofti,  ch.  6  and  7.) 
Dessau,  Anhalt;  one  of  the  three  prin- 
cipalities of  the  German  house  of  Anhalt 
It  contains  360  square  miles,  and  56,000 
inhabitants.  The  revenue  is  estimated  at 
510,000  guilders.  Since  1807,  the  princes 
have  borne  the  title  of  ctuke.  The  capital 
is  Dessau,  on  the  Mulda,  with  9400  inhab- 
itants, fine  parks,  &c.  Four  miles  and  a 
half  from  this  city  is  Worlitz,  distinguished 
by  its  beautiflil  park,  belonging  to  the 
duke.    (See  AnhaU.) 

Dessoles,  Jean- Joseph-Paul- Augustin, 
marquis,  lieutenant-general  and  peer  of 
France,  minister  of  state,  &c.,  is  descend- 
ed from  a  noble  femily  in  Gascony.  He 
was  bom  at  Auch,  in  the  department 
of  Gers,  July  3, 1767,  and  received  a  care- 
ful education.  At  the  commencement  of 
the  revolution,  he  enrolled  himself  among 
the  volunteers,  served,  in  1792,  as  captain 
in  tlie  western  army  of  the  Pyrenees,  was 
made  adjutant  to  general  Keynier,  and 
placed  on  the  general  staff.  In  1796,  he 
was  adjutant-general  and  chief  of  battal- 
ion in  the  army  of  Italy,  under  Bona- 
parte, and  carried  to  Paris  the  news  of  the 
Creliminaries  of  peace  concluded  at  Leo- 
en  in  1796.  Upon  this,  he  was  appointed 
general  of  brigade,  defeated  the  Austri- 
ans  in  the  Valteline,  near  Santa  Maria,  and 
became  (April,  1799)  general  of  division 
and  chief  of  the  general  staff  under  Sche- 
rer,  in  the  army  of  Italy,  where  he  gained 


Moreau's  esteem  and  friendship.  Des- 
soles particularly  distinguished  himself,  to- 
gether with  his  friend  Gouvion  St  Cyr,  by 
his  heroic  conduct  in  the  battle  of  Novi. 
When  Moreau  commanded  the  army  on  the 
Rhine,  in  the  spring  of  1800,  Dessoles  was 
appointed,  at  his  request,  chief  of  his  gen- 
eral staff.  This  fiimous  campaign,  and  the 
battle  of  Hohenlinden,  established  the  mili- 
tary fame  of  Dessoles,  whose  reports  must 
still  be  considered  as  models.  In  1803, 
afler  Mortier's  departure,  he  commanded, 
for  a  time,  tlie  anny  of  Hanover,  in  which 
country  he  gained  general  esteem  by  his 
disintereste£ie8S  and  moderation.  On 
Bemadotte's  arrival,  he  returned  to  Paris, 
and,  together  with  Macdonald  and  Le- 
courbe,  warmly  defended  Aloreau  on  the 
occasion  of  his  trial.  He  soon  afler  re- 
tired to  his  estate  at  Auch.  In  1808,  the 
emperor  intrusted  him  with  tlie  command 
of  the  army  in  Spain — an  office  which  he 
discharged  with  equal  bravery  and  hu- 
manity. From  1810  to  1812,  he  again 
lived  as  a  private  individual  in  France,  for 
his  opinions  did  not  agree  with  the  empe- 
ror's plans.  Notwithstanding  this,  Bona- 
parte appointed  him,  in  1812,  chief  of  the 
general  staff,  in  the  corps  commanded  by 
3ie  vicett)y ;  but,  on  the  conquest  of  Smo- 
lensk, disapproving  the  invasion  of  Russia, 
he  retired  to  reestablish  his  health,  and 
returned  to  Paris,  where  he  was  connected 
with  Talleyrand.  March  31, 1814,  the  pro- 
visional government  gave  him  the  command 
of  the  Parisian  national  guard.  He  declared 
himself,  with  Talleyrand,  on  the  night  of 
6tli  April,  before  the  emperor  Alexander, 
opposed  to  the  regency  of  the  empress 
Maria-Louisa,  proposed  by  Bonaparte  as  a 
condition  of  his  abdication,  and  in  favor 
of  the  reestablishment  of  the  Bourbons. 
Soon  after,  he  was  nominated  military 
commandant  of  the  department  of  the 
Seine,  and  chief  of  the  general  staff  of  the 
national  guard  of  France,  coimnanded 
by  Monsieur,  the  king's  brother.  Louis 
XVIII  made  him  peer  and  minister  of 
state.  During  tlie  hundred  days,  he  Kved 
retired  on  his  estate.  July  7, 1815,  he  re- 
entered the  chamber  of  peers,  and  Louis 
XVIII  appointed  him  a  member  of  the 
privy  council.  But,  disapproving  the  sys- 
tem of  the  ultras,  and  expressing  himself 
in  favor  of  constitutional  principles  in  tlie 
chamber  of  peers,  he  was  compelled  to 
renounce  the  command  of  the  national 
guard,  October,  1815,  which  was  then  con- 
ferred on  the  duke  of  Reggio.  He  divided 
his  time  between  his  estates  and  Paris, 
where  he  was  active  in  the  committees  of 
the  chamber  of  peers.    Dec.  29, 1818,  fae 


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DESSOLEa— DETROIT. 


ao9 


appomted  to  the  department  of  foreign 
affiiirB,  in  the  ministry  formed  by  Decazes, 
and  received  the  presidencv  of  the  minis- 
try, taking  the  place  of  Richelieu.  At  the 
same  time,  the  king  made  him  marquis. 
He  still  remained  true  to  constitutional 
principles,  and  warmly  opposed  any 
change  in  the  law  of  election  of  1617 ; 
tliis  was  the  cause  why  he  and  his  col- 
leagues, St.  Cyr  and  Louis,  left  the  minis- 
try of  the  count  Decazes  (q.  v.),  Nov.  17, 
ldl9.  The  baron  Pasquier  took  his  place. 
Deesoles  at  that  time  was  called,  by  the 
nation,  in  honor  of  his  firmness,  le  rnxnis- 
tre  homUte  homme.  The  king,  who  had 
conferred  upon  him,  in  1814^  the  grand 
cross  of  the  legion  of  honor,  in  1818  the 
command  of  the  order  of  St.  Louis,  and, 
in  1820,  the  command  of  the  order  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  retained  him  as  minister  of 
state,  and  often  requested  his  opinion  as  a 
member  of  the  privy  council.  These  sit- 
uations he,  however,  lost  (1822),  partly  in 
consequence  of  the  principles  which  he 
expressed  on  the  occasion  of  the  election 
of  the  deputies  in  the  month  of  May,  part- 
ly from  his  connexion  witli  the  present 
opposition.  Dessoles  is  distinguished  as 
a  statesman  by  his  candor,  firmness  and 
finnknesB. 

DssuLTORES  (from  desUioy  I  vault) ;  the 
Latin  name  for  vaulters  or  leapers,  who 
lumped  from  one  horse  to  another.  The 
Scythian,  Indian* and  Numidian  cavalry 
were  very  expert  desuUores^  and  each  man 
carried  at  least  two  horses  to  the  field. 
When  one  was  weary,  he  jumped  with 
great  aeility  upon  another,  which  he  led 
by  his  hand.  The  Greeks  and  Romans 
introduced  the  same  practice  in  their 
games,  races,  and  funenu  solemnities,  but 
never,  as  &r  as  we  know,  in  war.  Homer 
describes  a  vaulter  of  this  sort,  who  per- 
formed his  feats  on  four  horses  at  once 
(lliadf  XV.  67a) ;  and  Livy  (xxiii.  29)  de- 
scribes a  kind  of  Numidian  cavalry,  in 
Asdrubal's  army,  in  Spain,  in  which  the 
soldiers  had  two  horses  each,  and,  in  the 
heat  of  an  engagement,  frequently  leaped, 
fully  armed,  from  one  to  another.  iElian 
^ves  a  similar  account  of  a  tribe  dwell- 
mg  not  far  from  the  Danube,  who,  on  this 
account,  were  called  AmphippL 

Destouches,  Philippe  Nericault,  one  of 
the  best  French  comic  poets,  was  bom  at 
Tours,  in  1680.  Accoraing  to  the  general 
opinion,  he  left  his  &thers  house  when 
young,  and  joined  a  company  of  strolling 
players,  among  whom  he  distinguished 
himself  by  the  propriety  of  his  conduct 
Having  delivered  a  harangue  at  the  head 
of  his  troopt  before  M.  de  Puysieux,  then 
18* 


ambassador  in  Switzerland,  this  statesman 
was  struck  widi  the  talent  which  he  dis- 
played, took  him  into  his  service,  and 
fonned  him  for  diplomacy.  According  to 
the  account  given  by  the  relations  of 
Destouches,  who  considered  tlie  profes- 
sion of  a  player  dishonorable,  he  studied 
with  success  at  Paris,  where  he  devoted 
himself  to  poetry ;  and,  at  the  age  of  20, 
entered  the  army  as  a  volunteer,  and  was 
present  m  several  engagements.  Haviiig 
vmtten  the  comedy  called  Curieux  Imper- 
tinenty  while  in  winter  quarters,  and  read 
it  in  several  societies,  M.  Puysieux  was 
struck  with  it,  and  persuaded  the  autlior 
to  turn  his  talents  to  diplomacy.  '  In 
Switzerland,  he  wrote  several  plays,  which 
met  with  great  applause.  By  his  knowl- 
edge of  diplomacy,  he  likewise  gained  the 
favor  of  the  regent,  who  sent  him  to 
England,  in  1717,  as  an  assistant  to  the 
abb^  Dubois.  When  Dubois  returned  to 
France,  Destouches  remained  in  England, 
where  he  married.  He  acquitted  himself 
so  well  in  the  business  intrusted  him,  that 
the  regent  promised  to  give  hun  a  proof 
of  his  satisfaction  which  would  surprise 
all  France;  but  u\xm  the  death  of  this 
prince,  he  lost  Ids  protector  and  his  expec- 
tations. He  retired  to  his  country  seat  at 
Fort-Oiseau,  near  Melun,  and  endeavored 
to  forget  the  caprice  of  fortune  in  the 
study  of  philosophy  and  devodon  to  the 
muses.  Cardinal  Fleury  wished  to  send 
him  to  St  Petersburg  as  ambassador,  but 
he  declined  the  ofiTer.  He  died  in  1754, 
leaving  a  son,  who,  hv  order  of  Louis  XV, 
superintended  the  publication  of  his  work& 
After  Moli^re  and  Regnard,  Destouches  is 
considered  the  best  French  writer  in  the 
department  of  comedy.  His  comedies  Lt 
Giorieux  and  Le  Phibsopht  marU  are  con- 
sidered among  the  best  French  works  of 
their  class.  But,  as  he  made  the  comic 
effect  subordinate  to  the  moral,  his  pro- 
ductions have  something  of  the  character 
of  sentimental  comedy  (la  comedie  larmoy- 
ante).  He  excels  most  in  the  drawing  of 
character,  and  exhibits  a  fertile  ihnagina- 
tion,  pleasing  wit,  elegance,  vivacity  and 
decorum.  His  numerous  epigrams  are 
poor.  An  elegant  edidon  of  his  works 
appeared,  in  1750,  in  4  vols.,  4to. 

Detonation  ;  a  sudden  combustion 
and  explosion. 

Detroit;  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and 
capital  of  Michigan,  in  Wayne  county,  on 
the  west  side  of  the  river  Detroit,  between 
lakes  St  Clair  and  Erie,  18  miles  N.  of  the 
west  end  of  the  latter,  and  9  S.  of  the  for- 
mer ;  300  S.  by  £.  Michilimackinac  ;  309 
W.  by  S.  Bufliilo;  Ion.  82°  50^  W. ;  lat 


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210 


DETROIT— DEUX-PONTS. 


42"34'N. :  population,  in  1810,  770;  in 
1820, 1423,  exclusive  of  the  garrison.  It 
is  finely  situated,  regularly  laid  out  in  a 
square  three  quarters  of  a  mile  on  each 
side,  with  spacious  streets,  having  an  ele- 
vation of  alwut  40  feet  above  the  river,  of 
which  it  commands  beautiful  views.  It 
contains  a  handsome  Cathohc  church  of 
stone,  besides  several  other  public  build- 
ings. The  town  is  defended  by  fort  Shel- 
by, which  is  a  regular  work  of  an  oblong 
form,  covering  an  acre  of  ground  ;  and  the 
barracks  adjoining  are  capable  of  quar- 
tering several  regiments.  It  is  advan- 
tageously situated,  and  has  a  consider- 
able and  growing  commerce,  and  is  a 
place  of  importance  in  the  fur  trade.  In 
1825,  as  it  appears  from  the  custom-house 
books,  there  were  270  arrivals,  and  the 
same  number  of  clearances  of  vessels,  at 
and  from  tliis  port  It  was  wholly  de- 
stroyed by  fire  in  1805 ;  but  the  streets  have 
been,  since  laid  out  regular  and  wide,  and 
the  town  built  in  an  improved  style.  De- 
troit was  settled  by  the  French  from 
Canada  as  early  as  1683.  In  August, 
1812,  it  was  taken  by  the  British,  under 
^neral  Brock,  but  it  did  not  long  remain 
m  their  possession. 

Detroit  River,  or  Strait  of  St. 
Clair  ;  a  river  or  strait  of  North  America, 
which  runs  from  lake  St.  Clair  to  lake 
Erie,  Detroit  is  the  French  word  for 
straits ;  and  the  name  was  given  by  the 
French,  the  first  white  men  who  settled 
here.  Its  course  is  nearly  S.,  with  a  gen- 
tle current,  and  sufficient  depth  of  water 
for  the  navigation  of  large  vessels;  the 
banks  are  covered  vrith  settlements,  and 
the  country  is  exceedingly  fertile.  Near 
the  banks  of  the  river  are  many  fine  or- 
chards of  apple-trees,  pear-trees  and  chcr- 
ly-trees,  producuig  as  fiae  fruit  as  any  in 
the  U.  States,  and  presenting  a  very  agree- 
able view  as  one  sails  up  tlie  river.  It  is  27 
miles  long,  and  tliree  quarters  of  a  mile  wide 
opposite  to  Detroit,  enlarein^  as  it  descends. 

Deucalion,  father  of  Hellen^  ancestor 
of  the  Hellenes,  was  tlie  son  of  Prome- 
theus and  Pandora.  He  led  a  colony 
from  Asia  into  Greece,  and  esttiblished 
himself  in  Lycorea  on  mount  Paniassus, 
from  whence  he  afterwards  made  an  in- 
cursion into  Thessaly,  and  expelled  the 
Pelasgi.  In  his  time  was  the  celebrated 
flood  (tlie  deluge  of  Deucalion,  in  the 
16th  century  B.  C).  It  was  caused  by 
the  river  Peneus,  and  is  thus  described  in 
fable  :-T-Jupiter,  determining  to  destroy 
mankind  by  water,  on  account  of  their 
impiety,  brought  a  flood  u[)on  the  earth, 
by  m«ai]0  of  a  violent  rain;  Deucalioa 


saved  himself,  and  his  wife  Pyrrba,  on  the 
top  of  mount  Parnassus.  After  the  flood 
had  subsided,  they  consulted  the  oracle 
of  Themis,  to  know  what  they  must  do  to 
repair  tlie  loss  of  mankind;  and  were 
directed  to  throw  behind  them  the  bonea 
of  their  mother.  Underetanding  their 
mother  to  signify  the  earth,  and  her  bones 
the  stones,  they  did  as  the  oracle  directed. 
The  stones  thrown  by  Deucalion  became 
men,  and  those  thrown  by  Pyrrha  became 
women.  Many  other  cu-cumstances  are 
related  by  the  ancient  writers  concerning 
tliis  deluge,  which  bear  a  resemblance  to 
tlioee  related  in  the  Scriptures  of  the  del- 
uge of  Noah.    (See  Dduge.) 

Deuse,  or  DusE ;  an  evil  spirit  This 
word  is  only  used  as  an  exclamation ;  as, 
•*Whai  the  deuse  is  the  matter?"  It  is 
generally  derived  from  dusius,  a  Latinized 
term  of  the  Gauls.  Sl  Augustine  (De 
Cvoitate  Deij  15,  23)  has  the  words  Quof- 
dam  danumjts  qiios  ausios  GdUi  nuncupanL 
Isidorus,  in  his  glossary  annexed  to  Mar- 
tuiius,  suggests  that  dusius  may  be  a  cor- 
ruption of  the  name  of  Drusus,  son  of 
Tioerius,  notorious  for  his  German  victo- 
ries, whose  name  may  have  been  perpet- 
uated as  a  term  of  terror  am<Nig  the  coo- 
Suered  people.  Isidorus  also  suspects  that 
le  word  aroesy  used  among  the  Dutch  as 
we  use  deuse,  has  tlie  same  origin.  An- 
other derivation,  also,  might  be  suggested. 
Teut  or  Deut  was  the  name  of  a  deity 
among  the  ancient  Germana  May  not 
the  Saxons  have  continued  to  swear  by 
this  name,  even  afler  their  baptism,  and 
have  earned  it  with  them  to  England? 
Their  continuing  to  use  the  word  would 
not  be  more  sur{)rising  than  the  practice 
of  die  Italians,  who  still  retain  the  exclar 
mations  per  Baccc  (by  Bacchus)!  per 
Ventre  (by  Venus) !  &c. 

Deuteronomy  ;  the  last  of  the  books 
of  Moses.  The  wonf  is  derived  from  the 
Greek  inrtpot,  second,  and  yo^o;,  the  rule, 
or  law,  because  the  book  of  Deuteronomy 
is  a  repetition  which  tlie  legislator  made 
to  the  Israelites,  just  before  his  death,  of 
the  law  which  he  bad  before  dehvered 
to  them  at  large. 

Deux-Ponts  ;  the  French  name  for  the 
German  city  Zwe^br&chen,  in  Latin  jBi- 
pons,  all  which  names  signify  TutO" 
Bridges,  In  English,  the  French  name  is 
used.  Deux-Ponts  belongs  at  present  to 
the  circle  of  the  Rhine,  of  the  kingdom 
of  Bavaria,  and  was  formerly  the  capital 
of  the  duchy  of  Deux-Ponts.  (See  JBlct- 
varia.)  By  tlie  peace  of  Luneville,  the 
duchy  was  ceded,  with  all  the  left  bank 
of  the  Rhine,  to  France,  and  afterwards 

Digitized  by  LjOOQ IC 


DElJX-PONTS—DEVEREUX. 


311 


composed  a  pert  of  tbe  department  of  the 
Bouoersberg.  It  contains  70,000  iniiab- 
itant8,  on  763  square  miles.  By  tlie  peace 
of  May  30,  1814,  it  was  restored  to  Ger- 
many. Madder  and  hops  are  important 
articles  of  agriculture  in  this  district  The 
city  of  DtnX'Ponis  is  small,  and  agreea- 
bly situated,  in  Ion.  r»  W  E.,  lat.  41F  IG' 
N. ;  and  contained,  in  1822,  800  houses, 
and  63^^  inhabitants,  exclusive '  of  the 
suburbs,  which  contained  dQ6  inhabitants. 
Here  is  a  high  school,  and  a  court  of  ap- 
peal for  tbe  Bavarian  circle  of  the  Rhine. 
The  manufactures  are  of  cloth,  leather 
and  tobacco.  The  well-known  edidons 
of  Greek,  Roman  and  French  classics, 
called  Bifoni  editions,  were  published  here 
by  a  society  of  learned  men.  The  pub- 
lication commenced  in  1779. 

Deva  ;  a  Sanscrit  word,  meaning  God, 
It  occurs  in  various  geographical  com- 
pounds. 

Devereux,  Robert,  earl  of  Essex,  was 
bom  in  1567,  and  educated  at  Cambridge. 
In  his  17th  year,  he  was  introduced  at 
court ;  in  1586,  distinguislied  himself  at 
the  batde  of  Zutphen,  so  as  to  be  created 
a  knight  banneret,  and  on  his  return  be* 
came  master  of  the  horse.  The  queen 
assembling  her  army  at  Tilbury,  to  resist 
the  Spanish  invasion,  Essex  was  appoint- 
ed general  of  the  horse,  and  received  the 
order  of  the  garter.  In  1591,  he  was  sent, 
with  4000  men,  to  tlie  assistance  of  Henry 
IV,  then  fighting  agmnst  the  league,  but 
effincted  nothing  of  consequence.  He, 
however,  retained  the  queen's  fiivor,  was 
soon  after  created  a  privy  counsellor,  in 
1596  was  appointed  joint  commander  with 
lord  Howard,  in  a  successful  expedition 
to  the  coast  of  Spain,  and  on  his  return 
was  made  master-general  of  the  ordnance. 
In  1597,  he  was  created  eari  marshal  of 
England.  On  tlie  breaking  out  of  the 
rebellion  of  Tvrone,  Essex  was  appointed 
governor  of  Ireland.  He  attempted  to 
quell  a  rebellion  at  Munster,  before  he 
proceeded  against  Tyrone,  which  so  much 
reduced  his  army,  that,  not  being  able  to 
meet  tJie  Irish  leader,  he  entered  into  a 
negotiation.  These  transactions  displeased 
the  queen,  and  several  sharp  letters  passed, 
whicm  determined  him  to  confront  his 
enemies  at  home.  He  accordingly  left 
Ireland,  contrary  to  orders,  and  hastened 
to  the  court,  without  changing  his  dress, 
where,  finding  the  queen  in  her  bed-cham- 
ber, he  fell  upon  lus  knees,  and  was  re- 
ceived better  than  he  expected.  He  was, 
however,  soon  afier  strictly  examined  by 
the  council,  and  deprived  of  all  his  em- 
pk>ymentB  but  that  of  master  of  the  hone. 


He  miglit,  however,  have  regained  the 
queen's  favor,  had  not  her  refusal  to  renew 
to  hun  a  monopoly  of  sweet  wines  so  irri- 
tated him,  that  he  indulged  himself  in 
freedoms  of  speech  concerning  her,  which 
she  could  never  forget  He  also  carried 
on  a  secret  corresjiondence  with  the  king 
of  Scotland,  the  object  of  which  was,  to 
procure  a  public  declaration  of  his  right 
of  succession  to  the  English  throne ;  and 
he  would  have  encaged  his  firiend,  lord 
Mountjoy,  deputy  of  Ireland,  to  bring  over 
troops  to  compel  tiiis  measure.  He  then 
entered  into  a  conspiracy  to  seize  on  the 
queen's  person,  remove  his  enemies,  and 
settle  a  new  plan  of  government  Believ- 
ing that  tliis  was  discovered,  he  endeav- 
ored to  raise  the  city  of  London  in  his 
favor:  here,  however,  he  was  disappoint- 
ed ;  for,  instead  of  meeting  with  fneuds,  he 
was  proclaimed  a  traitor,  and  the  streets 
were  barricadoed  against  his  return.  He 
was  soon  invested  by  the  queen's  forces, 
and  obliged  to  surrenderat  discretion.  He 
was  committed  to  die  Tower,  with  the  eari 
of  Southampton,  his  chief  adherent,  and 
a  jury  of  peera  was  appointed  for  their 
trial.  Being  found  guilty,  he  received  hi* 
sentence  like  a  man  prepared  for  his  fate. 
The  queen  long  hesitated  as  to  siffnini^ 
the  warrant  for  his  execution,  but,  being 
persuaded  by  his  enemies  that  he  wished 
to  die,  and  interpreting  his  silence  into 
obstinacy,  at  length  signed  it ;  and  the  earl 
was  executed  within  the  Tower,  on  the 
25th  of  Februarv,  1601.  In  the  height  of 
his  favor,  he  had  received  a  ring  from  the 

2ueen,  as  a  pledge,  on  the  ratum  of  which 
lie  would  pardon  anv  offence  he  might 
commit  This  ring  he  is  said  to  have 
intivated  to  the  countess  of  Nottingham, 
his  relation,  but  the  wife  of  lus  enemy, 
the  admiral,  who  would  not  sufier  her  to 
deliver  it  to  the  queen,  and  thereby  the 
proffered  Clemency  was  frustrated.  The 
countess,  on  her  death-bed,  having  con- 
fessed the  secret  to  die  queen,  the  latter 
was  grratly  agitated,  and  told  her  ''that 
God  might  forgive  her,  but  she  never 
could."  f^ssex  was  rash,  violent  and  pre- 
sumptuous, but  at  the  same  time  brave, 
generous  and  affectionate.  He  was  the 
friend  and  patron  of  literature,  and  wrote 
well  himself  in  prose,  and  attempted  verse, 
though  without  much  success.  He  erect- 
ed a  monument  to  Spenser,  gave  an  estate 
to  Bacon,  and  encouraged  Wotton  and 
other  men  of  learning.  His  fate  has 
formed  the  subject  of  four  trajzedies. 

Devereux,  Robert,  earl  of  Essex,  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  bom  in  1592.  He 
was  entered  at  Meiton  college,  in  his  10th 


Digitized  by  LjOOQ IC 


QU 


DEVEREUX— DEVIL. 


year,  and,  in  1603,  king  James  nestored 
liini  10  liis  hereditary  honors.  He  was 
betrodied,  at  the  age  of  14,  to  lady  Fran- 
ces Howard,  but  the  marriage  was  not 
consummated  until  his  return  from  his 
travels.  The  affections  of  the  young 
countess  had,  in  the  mean  time,  been 
gained  by  James's  unworthy  fevorite,  Cair, 
earl  of  Somerset;  the  consequence  of 
which  was,  a  scandalous  suit  against  the 
earl  of  Essex  for  impotency.  A  divorce 
followed,  and  the  lady  married  Somerset. 
In  1G20,  Essex  joined  the  earl  of  Oxford, 
in  an  ex])edition  to  the  Palatinate,  and,  in 
1624,  commanded  one  of  the  English  regi- 
ments raised  for  the  United  Provinces. 
On  the  accession  of  Charles  I,  he  was 
employed  as  vice-achniral  in  an  expedi- 
tion against  Sfmin ;  and  after  a  second 
marriage,  in  which  tlie  conduct  of  the 
lady  rendered  a  divorce  necessary,  he 
dedicated  himself  solely  to  public  Me, 
In  1635,  he  was  second  m  command  of  a 
fleet  equipped  against  France  and  Hol- 
land, and,  in  16^,  was  made  lieutenant- 
general  of  the  army  sent  against  the 
Scottish  rebels.  His  services  were  coldly 
received,  until,  in  1641,  popular  nieasures 
being  thought  necessary,  he  was  made 
lord  chaml)erlain.  At  tliis  time,  such  was 
his  popularity,  both  parties  strenuously 
sought  to  gain  him :  the  king  made  him 
lieutenant-general  of  all  his  armies  south 
of  the  Trent,  the  house  of  lords  nmde  him 
chairman  of  tlieir  standing  committee,  and, 
when  the  people  became  tumultuous,  the 
hou8#  of  cemmons  requested  a  guard  un- 
der his  command.  When  the  king  re- 
tired from  the  capital,  he  required  his 
household  nobles  to  attend  him,  which 
Essex  declining  to  do,  was  deprived  of 
his  employments.  This  step  fixed  him  in 
^opposition,  and,  in  1642,  he  accepted  tlie 
command  of  the  parliamentary  anny.  He 
probably  imagined  the  contest  might  be 
terminated  without  any  radical  change  of 
government,  as  he  always  seemed  attached 
to  the  principles  of  tlie  constitution.  He 
commanded  at  the  battle  of  Edgehill,  cap- 
tured Reading,  raised  tlie  snege  of  Glouces- 
ter, and  fought  the  first  battle  of  Newbury. 
His  want  of  success,  in  1644,  in  the  west, 
and  the  inclination  he  showed  for  peace, 
began  at  length  to  lower  his  interest  with 
the  parliamentary  party;  and,  the  self- 
denying  ordinance  throwing  him  out  of 
command,  he  resigned  his  commission 
with  visible  discontent.  He  died  sud- 
denly, in  September,  1646,  and  was  buried 
in  Westminster  abbey,  with  a  public  fu- 
neral. 
Deviation.    In  the  law  of  marine  in- 


surance, deviation  is  an  cmnecessary  de- 
parmre  from  the  usual  course  of  the 
voyage  insoied.  Necessary  causes  of  de- 
parture fi-om  tlie  customary  line,  are  stress 
of  weather,  want  of  repair,  joining  con- 
voy, danger  from  an  enemy,  mutiny,  &c ; 
and,  even  in  these  cases,  the  shortest  and 
easiest  courses  must  be  taken,  or  a  devi- 
ation will  be  incurred.  Deviation,  from 
the  moment  at  which  it  commences,  dis-  * 
charges  the  insurer  from  all  subsequent 
responsibility,  and  entitles  him  to  retain 
the  premium. 

Device,  or  Badge,  in  heraldry ;  a  name 
common  to  all  figures,  cipbers,  charac- 
ters, rebuses,  mottoes,  &c.,  which,  by  their 
(illusions  to  the  names  of  persons,  of  fiun- 
ilies,  &c,  denote  their  qualities,  nobility, 
or  the  like.  Device,  in  this  sense,  is  of  a 
much  older  standing  than  heraldry  itself; 
being  that  which  fiiit  gave  rise  to  armorial 
ensigns.  Thus  the  eagle  was  the  device 
of  tlie  Roman  empire.  S.  P.  Q.  R.  was 
the  device  of  the  Roman  people,  and 
still  continues  to  be  what  is  called  tlie 
escutcheon  of  the  city  of  Rome.  The 
first  devices  were  mere  letters  placed 
on  the  borders  of  liveries,  housings  and 
banners,  and  at  length  on  shields.  Thus 
the  K  was  the  device  of  tlie  French  kiogs 
of  the  name  of  Charles,  from  Charles  V 
to  Charles  IX.  Badges,  impresses  and 
devices  were  greatly  in  vogue  m  England, 
from  the  reign  of  king  Edward  I  imtil 
that  of  queen  Elizabeth,  when  they  sunk 
into  disuse.  Device  is  now  taken,  in  a 
more  limited  sense,  for  an  emblem,  or  & 
representation  of  some  natural  body,  with 
a  motto,  or  sentence,  applied  in  a  figura- 
tive sense.  Thus  a  young  nobleman,  of 
nt  courage  and  ambition,  bore  for  his 
ce,  in  a  carousal  at  the  court  of  France, 
a  rocket  mounted  in  the  air,  with  this 
Italian  motto,  Poco  duriy  purek^  nCinnalzi 
(May  I  continue  but  a  short  time,  provided 
I  mount  high).  A  device  is,  therefore,  a 
painted  metaphor.  Devices  are  used  on 
coins,  counters,  seals,  shields,  triimiphal 
arches,  artificial  fire-works,  &c.  The 
French  have  distinguished  themselves  in 
the  invention  of  devices,  especially  since 
the  time  of  cardinal  Mazarin,  who  had  a 
great  fondness  for  them.  The  Italians 
have  reduced  the  making  of  devices  to  an 
art,  and  laid  down  laws  and  rules  fi)r  this 
purpose. 

Devii;.  Most  of  the  old  religions  of 
the  East  acknowledged  a  host  of  demons, 
who,  like  their  gods,  were  not  original- 
ly considered,  in  a  moral  point  of  view, 
as  good  or  bad,  but  merely  as  exercis- 
ing a  salutary  or  injurious  influence.    In 


Digitized  by 


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DEVIL. 


913 


the  latter  case',  they  were  l6oked  upon  as 
punishing  spirits,  without  inimical  or 
wicked  purpose.  Seeva,  the  judging  and 
destroying  god  of  the  Indian  mythology, 
is  a  svmbol  of  the  great  power  of  nature, 
which  is  alternately  beneficial  and  iujuri* 
ous,  but  in  itself  neither  good  nor  eviL 
The  doctrine  of  Zoroaster,  who  adopted 
au  evil  principle,  called  Mrimanj  opposed 
to  the  good  principle,  and  served  by  sev- 
eral orders  of  inferior  spirits  (in  order  to 
explain  the  existence  of  evil  iu  this  world), 
spread  the  belief  in  such  spirits  amonff 
the  people.  The  Gfeek  mythology  did 
not  distinguish  with  the  same  precision 
between  Sie  good  and  bad  spirits.  The 
Titans,  it  is  true,  struggled  against  the 
gods,  but  not  for  any  merely  moral  rea- 
son, and  the  gods  are  not  represented  as 
patterns  of  pure  morality.  The  caeo- 
demoiis  of  tlie  Greek  mythology,  as,  for 
instance,  the  Furies,  always  appear  more 
in  the  character  of  punisfamg  than  of  ma- 
lignant spirits.  On  the  contraiy,  Hecate, 
tl^  godaeas  of  the  lower  world  and  of 
encluuitmen^  and  the  Lamise,  correspond- 
ing to  the  witches  of  the  modem  popular 
belief,  hare  more  of  what  we  understand 
under  the  diabolical  character.  Typhon, 
who  partakes  in  the  fate  of  the  Titans, 
properly  belonss  to  the  Egyptian  mythol- 
ogy, in  which  ne  appears  as  the  origin  of 
evil,  under  the  figiu^  of  a  horrid  monster. 
Similar  to  him  is  Beelzebub,  or  Beelzebul, 
who,  from  the  mythology  of  Western 
Asia,  was  introduced  into  the  belief  of 
tlie  Hebrews.  But  as  the  captivity  of  the 
Hebrews  in  Babylon  had  in  many  respects 
a  decisive  influence  upon  their  way  of 
thinking  and  prevailing  notions,  by  the 
acquaintance  which  they  there  acquired 
with  the  ideas  of  the  Chaldeans,  the  idea 
of  the  devil,  as  the  principle  of  evil,  re- 
sembling Ahriman,  nrst  appeared  amonff 
the  Jews  afler  that  captivity.  He  is  called 
ScUanaSf  in  Greek,  6ta0oXot,  the  fiend,  de- 
stroyer, antagonist  The  word  detnl  is 
derived  from  iiaffoXos.  This  Satan,  how- 
ever, is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  one 
in  tlie  book  of  Job.  The  latter  is  no 
fiend,  but  the  accuser  before  the  throne  of 
the  Aliuightv,  and  belongs  to  the  heavenly 
servants  of  God.  All  the  conceptions  of  evil 
spirits,  whi<^  had  been  entertained  before 
the  Christian  era — the  impure  Beelzebub, 
whose  breath  scattered  pestilence ;  Belial, 
the  prince  of  hell ;  Samael,  the  seducer 
and  destroyer;  Lucifer  (the  Phosphoros 
of  the  Greeks),  who  lives  in  the  fire ;  As- 
modeus,  the  devil  of  marriage — ^were  now 
amalgamated  witli  that  idea  of  the  evil 
principle,  which  the  Jews  had  acquired 


in  Babylon.  Thus  the  Jevnsh  doctrine 
of  evil  spirits  and  tlieir  ehief  was  devel- 
oped. Insane  persons,  and  patients  suf- 
fering from  nervous  diseases,  which  man 
ifest  Uiemselves  by  epileptic  fits,  were  con 
sidered  as  stibject  to  his  influence;  and 
people  suffering  under  such  diseases  were 
said  to  "have  a  devil."  The  founder 
of  the  Christian  reli^on  not  onlv  did  not 
contradict  this  doctrine,  but  made  use  of 
it  in  the  instruction  of  the  people,  ac- 
cording to  several  passages  of  the  New 
Testament  Yet  the  whole  doctrine  re- 
ceived from  the  New  Testament  a  new 
character ;  for  the  devil  and  his  auxiliaiy 
spirits  are  represented  there  as  originally 
created  good,  but  as  having  fallen  from 
virtue,  and  the  favor  of  God,  owing  to 
ambition,  or  other  evil  disposittona  The 
Satan  of  the  New  Testament  is  a  rebel 
against  God.  Endowed  with  the  intel- 
lect and  power  of  ansels,  he  uses  them 
since  his  fall  to  entanpe  men  in  sin,  and 
obtain  power  over  them.  He  is  "the 
prince  of  the  worid''(ia.  John^  xii.  31),  the 
Antichrist,  because  be  constantly  opposes 
the  great  work  of  salvation.  But,  thou^ 
he  succeeds  in  effecting  the  perdition  of 
individuals,  yet  his  own  damnation,  and 
the  eternal  victory  of  good  over  evil,  are 
certain.  The  same  is  taught  in  ZorottS- 
ter*s  doctrine ;  yet  his  devil  was  evil  from 
eternity.  Some  early  sects,  as  the  Ma- 
nichseans,  likewise  gave  to  Satan  exist- 
ence from  eternity ;  yet  this  idea  was  never 
adopted  by  the  Christians  at  lan;e.  The 
doctrine  of  the  New  Testament,  however, 
soon  became  blended  with  numerous  fic- 
tions of  human  imagination,  with  the  va 
rious  superstitions  of  different  countries, 
and  the  mythology  of  the  pa^a.  In 
Italy,  Greece  and  Germany,  this  last  el- 
ement was,  and  to  a  certain  degree  still 
is,  blended  with  the  idea  of  the  devil. 
The  gods  of  the  ancients  became  evil 
spirits,  seeking  evexy  opportunity  to  injure 
mankind.  The  excited  imagination  of 
hermits,  in  their  lonely  retreats,  sunk  as 
they  were  in  ignorance,  and  unable  to 
accoimt  for  natural  appearances,  frequent- 
ly led  them  to  suppose  Satan  visibly  pres- 
ent; and  innumerable  stories  were  told  of 
his  appearance,  and  his  attributes  dis- 
tinctly described.  Among  these  were 
horns,  a  tail,  a  cloven  foot,  &.c.  The 
writings  of  the  fathers  of  the  church,  also, 
contain  several  passages  respecting  the 
appearance  of  the  devil.  The  sign  of  the 
cross  was  considered  as  a  safeguard 
against  him,  and  crucifixes  were  erected 
on  many  spots,  as,  for  instance,  cross- 
ways,  where  he  was  supposed  to  be  most 


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214 


DEVII^DEVIL-FISH. 


likely  to  present  himself.  '  In  most  works 
or  appearances  of  an  extraordinary  cliar* 
acter,  the  devil  was  supposed  to  be  con- 
cerned. How  many  a  dam,  bridge,  &>c^ 
has  been  built  in  one  night,  with  his  as- 
sistance! and  every  one  knows  that  the 
monks  made  the  people  believe  that  Faus- 
tus  invented  the  art  of  printing  by  the  help 
of  Satan.  In  consequence  of  the  cures 
which  Christ  and  his  apostles  performed 
on  the  possessed,  the  early  church  believed 
in  a  power,  connected  with  the  consecra- 
tion of  priests,  to  drive  out  evil  spirits ; 
and  as  early  as  the  third  century,  particu- 
lar officers  of  the  church  were  appointed 
for  this  puroose ;  they  were  called  exirrcxgts^ 
and  are  to  this  day  the  second  of  tlie  lower 
orders  in  the  Latin  church.  The  Catho- 
lics say,  the  church  employed  such  infe- 
rior ministers  for  this  busmess,  iji  order 
to  show  the  contempt  which  it  entertained 
towards  demons  (see  Dictionrudre  dt  Thi- 
clogiey  Toulouse,  1817,  article  Exorciste) ; 
but  this  does  not  agree  with  the  num- 
berless legends  of  the  power  of  the  devil 
(See  Exorcism,)  The  belief  in  evil  spirits, 
witches,  &C.,  was,  in  the  17th  century,  so 
conmion,  that  they  became  the  objects  of 
judicial  process.  (See  fVUches.)  It  can- 
not be  said  that  the  reformation  directly 
overturned  this  belief  Luther  once  threw 
an  ink-stand  at  tjie  devil,  who  interrupted 
him  when  he  wieis  engaged  in  translating 
the  Bible ;  and,  even  to  this  dav,  the  black 
spot  is  shown  on  the  wall  in  his  room  in 
the  Wartburg.  The  trials  of  witches,  in 
the  17th  century,  took  place  in  Protest- 
ant countries,  as  well  as  in  Catholic  ones. 
With  the  progress  of  the  natural  sciences, 
however,  m  the  18th  century,  many  won- 
derful phenomena  became  explained,  and 
less  was  heard  of  tlie  devil.  Our  limits 
will  not  allow  us  to  give  a  statement  of 
the  opinions  of  different  Christian  sects 
respectingevil  spirits. 

Devil-Fish  ;  the  popular  name  of  a 
large  species  of  ray  (q.  v.),  which  is  occa- 
sionally captured  on  tne  coasts  of  the  U. 
States.  During  gales  of  wind,  or  from 
strong  currents,  these  immense  fish  are 
driven  into  shoal  water,  and,  being  unable 
to  extricate  themselves,  fall  an  easy  prey 
to  the  vigilance  of  the  fishermen,  who  ob- 
tain considerable  quantities  of  oil  from 
their  livers.  The  peculiar  arrangement 
of  the  two  lateral  appendages  to  the  head, 
has  induced  naturalists  to  erect  a  sub- 
genus, expressly  for  the  reception  of  these 
marine  nionsters,  which  has  been  called 
cephalopterOj  in  allusion  to  the  wings,  or 
processes.  In  size,  the  s])ecies  of  this 
sub-genus  exceed  all  others  of  the  family. 


individuals  frequently  measuring  sixteen 
feet,  from  the  angles  of  the  body.  Caphfp- 
loptera  gioma,  the  devil-fish,  sea-devil, 
&c.,  is  recognised  by  the  following  char- 
acters: **Jaws  termmal,  inferior  one  ad- 
vanced; mouth  with  a  movable  flabelli- 
form  appendage  on  each  side ;  eyes  prom« 
inent,  lateral ;  tail  longer  than  the  body, 
and  armed  with  one  or  two  spines,  very 
distinct  fix)m  the  dorsal  fin,  which  is  situ- 
ated between  the  ventrals;"  teeth  very 
minute  and  numerous,  arranged  in  rows. 
The  skin  of  this  fish  is  not  covered  with 
spinous  protuberances,  Uke  that  of  most 
others  or  the  ray  species,  but  is  merely 
rough  to  the  touch,  like  that  of  many 
sharics.  In  preparing  the  specimen  now 
deposited  in  the  Philadelphia  museum, 
tliis  roughness  of  the  skin  produced  most 
disagreeable  effects  on  the  hands  of  the 
operators.  Color  above,  blackish  ;  be- 
neath, white,  varied  with  dusky.  The 
measurements  of  the  individual  just  men- 
tioned, made  him  in  breadth  between  fif- 
teen and  sixteen  feet,  and  seven  feet  ten 
inches  in  length,  exclusive  of  the  tail, 
which  was  somewhat  longer  than  the 
body.  A  similar  specimen  was  exhibited  in 
New  York,  under  the  title  of  **  the  Vam- 

Eyre  of  the  ocean^"  and  described  as  such 
y  doctor  Samuel  L.  Mitchell  Others 
have  been  olxaerved  on  various  parts  of 
our  coast,  generally  in  small  families,  and 
are  believed  to  visit  sandy  bottoms,  for  the 
purpose  of  breeding,  arriving  in  July,  and 
seldom  remaining  later  than  the  end  of 
September.  Tlie  great  size  of  the  speci- 
men purchased  by  Mr.  Peale  rendered  it 
necessary  to  divide  the  body,  transversely, 
into  two  equal  portions,  in  which  state 
the  process  of  stuffing  was  more  easy. 
The  pieces  were  afterwards  joined  to- 
gether, and  the  animal  exhibited  in  the 
museum,  where  it  now  remains.  In  dry- 
ing, the  skin,  of  course,  contracted  consid- 
erably, and  the  measurements  now  would 
be  much  less  than  those  taken  from  the 
recent  animal  Pyroligneous  acid  being 
used  to  counteract  putrefaction,  during 
several  hot  days  in  which  it  was  exhibited, 
prevented  any  experiment  being  made,  to 
determine  tlie  flavor  of  the  flesh,  and  its 
utility  as  an  article  of  food.  It  is  not 
improbable,  that  most  of  the  stories  rela- 
tive to  sea-serpents,  which  have  so  long 
been  a  theme  of  wonder,  are  in  truth  to 
be  referred  to  numbers  of  these  or  other 
marine  fishes  of  extraordinary  size  and 
uncommon  form.  It  is  to  be  regretted, 
that  more  perfect  examinations  have  not 
been  made,  particiilariy  in  relation  to  the 
anatomical  structure  of  the  c^hahptera ; 


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DEVIL-FISH— DEVONSHIRE. 


215 


bnt  it  id  to  be  hoped  that  our  natunJists, 
in  subsequent  researches,  may  supply  the 
desired  infomiatiott. 

Devil's  Advocate  [advocatuB  diaboli) 
is  the  person  appointed  to  raise  doubts 
against  the  genuineness  of  the  miracles  of 
a  candidate  for  canonization  (q.  v.),  to 
expose  any  want  of  formality  in  the  in- 
Testigation  of  the  miracles,  and  to  assail 
the  general  merits  of  the  candidate.  Af- 
ter every  thing  is  said  pro  and  contra,  and 
three  papal  ^vocates  of  tlie  consistory 
have  found  tlie  whole  course  of  proceed- 
ings legal  and  formal,  the  canonization 
ibllows.  It  is  said  that  in  the  beginnuig 
of  the  17tli  century,  the  canonization  of 
the  cardinal  Charles  Borromeo  was  al- 
most prevented  by  the  accusations  of  the 
devil's  advocate. 

Devil's  Bridge;  a  famous  Inidge  in 
Switzerland,  over  the  Reuss,  built  of  stone, 
from  mountain  to  mountain,  75  feet  in 
length,  on  the  road  over  St.  Gothanl, 
from  Germany  to  Ital^.  It  owes  its  name 
principally  to  its  antiquity,  for  tliere  are 
nigfaer,  longer  and  wider  bridges  in  Swit- 
zcarland.  The  Devil's  Bridge  is  a  very 
common  subject  of  prints  and  paintings, 
and  is  situated  in  a  most  romantic  country. 

Devil's  Wall,  in  the  soudi  of  Germa- 
ny. It  was  very  common  for  ^gantic 
works  of  art,  or  peculiar  formauons  of 
nature,  to  receive,  m  the  middle  ages,  the 
name  of  the  devil.  This  wall  was  origi- 
nally a  Roman  ditch,  with  palisades  behind 
it,  to  which,  under  the  reign  of  the  empe- 
ror Probus,  a  wall  with  towere  was  added. 
It  was  intended  to  protect  the  Roman 
setdements  on  the  len  bank  of  the  Dan- 
ube, and  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
against  the  inroads  of  the  Teutonic  and 
other  tribes.  The  wall  extended  for  about 
368  miles,  over  mountains,  through  val- 
leys, and  over  rivers,  running  towards  the 
Danube.  Remains  of  it  are  found  at 
present  only  from  Abeiisberg,  in  Bavaria,  to 
Colore,  on  the  Rhine.  Somedmes  these 
remains  fonn  elevated  roads  and  paths 
through  woods,  sometimes  tall  oaks  now 
upon  them,  sometimes  buildings  stand  up- 
on tlie  imperishable  structure.  A.  Buchner 
has  shown,  in  his  Journey  along  the  Devil's 
Wall  (Radsbon,  1821),  that  it  was  die 
work  of  nearly  two  centiuries,  commenc- 
ing in  the  time  of  Adrian,  and  was  at  first 
a  mere  wall  of  earth,  but  was  afterwards 
made  a  substantial  stone  wall,  of  from 
six  to  eight  feet  in  width.  Buchner  fol- 
lowed the  traces  of  this  wall  for  two  sum- 
mers. He  points  out,  also,  the  course  of 
the  Roman  road  behind  it  The  same 
book  oontaina  a  plan  of  the  canal  by 


which  Chariemagne  intended  to  unite  the 
Danube  and  the  Rhine,  and  of  which  a 
dry  ditch,  called  the  Fossa  CarolinOj  is  the 
only  remains.  (See  Carolina,)  Buchner 
says,  diat  six  million  guilders  would  be 
sufficient  to  complete  this  great  plan, 
which  odiers  doubt    (See  Danube,) 

Devise,  in  law,  is  the  disposition  of 
real  estate  by  will.  It  is  distinffuiahcd 
from  a  bequest  of  personal  estate  by  will, 
the  personal  estate  so  disposed  of  being 
called  a  legacy.  The  word  devise  is  also 
sometimes  applied  to  any  gift  by  will, 
whether  of  real  or  personal  estate.  The 
peiten  to  whom  a  devise  is  made  is  called 
detfisee. 

Devolution.  By  the  rule  of  devoludoUf 
the  ri^ht  of  presentation  to  a  vacant  place, 
especially  a  clerical  one,  reverts,  in  case 
of^  neglect  in  exercising  ii,  to  a  superior 
(bishop,  prince  or  consistory). 

Devonport  ;  a  market-town  of  Eng- 
land, at  the  confluence  of  the  Tamar  with 
the  sea  in  Plymouth  sound.  It  is  the  seat 
of  the  naval  and  military  goveniment  of 
the  port,  and  contains  die  dock-yard  and 
naval  arsenal.  Hence  it  was,  until  lately, 
called  Plymouth  dock,  and  viewed  only  as 
an  appendage  to  the  town  of  Plymouth. 
In  the  year  1834,  it  received  the  name  of 
Devonport,  which  it  has  since  borne.  The 
dock-yard  is  well  worthy  of  notice.  It 
extends  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Toniar, 
in  a  circular  sweep  along  the  shore,  3500 
feet  in  lengdi,  wiUi  a  width  at  the  middle, 
where  it  is  greatest,  of  1600  feet,  and  at  each 
extremity  1000,  thus  including  an  area  of 
96  acres.  The  hartior  of  Hamoaze,  which 
bounds  the  dock-yard  on  the  westeni  side, 
is  a  commodious  basin,  formed  by  die 
estuaiy  of  die  Tamar,  half  a  mile  wide, 
and  extending  four  miles  in  length.  Dev- 
onport, within  the  Unes,  contains  about 
20,000  inhabiumts. 

Devonshire  ;  1.  Geoi^ana  Cavendish, 
duchess  of;  famous  for  her  beauty  and 
poeucal  talents,  and  the  patriotic  friend  of 
Fox.  She  was  bom  in  I^ondon,  1757, 
celebrated  the  passage  of  St  (iothard 
(translated  into  French  bv  Delille,  with 
the  original,  Paris,  1803),  aiid  died  in  1806. 
2.  Elizabeth  Hervey,  duchess  of  Devon- 
shire, lived,  from  1815,  in  Rome,  where 
she  died,  March  90, 1834.  In  Rome,  she 
was  surrounded  by  distinguished  men, 
eniecially  artists.  She  was  the  friend 
of^  cardinal  Gonsalvi,  Canova,  Camucciiil, 
Thorwaldsen  and  others.  She  published 
Virgil's  |K>ein8,  in  the  translation  of  Han- 
nibal Caro,  with  enpavings,  from  the  de- 
signs of  the  first  painters  of  Rome.  Tliis 
edition  consisted  of  only  150  copies,  which 


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fnQ 


DEVONSHIRB-DEW. 


the  duchess  distributed  to  the  European 
sovereigns,  the  principal  libraries,  ana  her 
particular  friends.  She  caused  an  edition 
of  tlie  fifth  satire  of  Horace  to  be  pub- 
lished on  the  same  plan,  and  was  apout 
to  undertake  an  edition  of  Dante,  when 
she  died.  Her  house  in  Rome  was  the 
resort  of  the  most  cultivated  society. 

Devonshirb,  William,  duke  of.  (See 
Cavendish,) 

Dew  is  a  deposition  of  water  fibom  the 
atmosphere  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
The  conditions  under  which  the  phenom- 
ena of  dew  take  place  are  the  following : 
The  roost  plentiful  deposit  occurs  when 
the  weather  is  clear  and  serene;  veiy 
little  is  ever  deposited  under  oppoate  cir- 
cumstances. It  is  never  seen  on  nights 
both  ck>ud y  and  windy.  It  is  weU  known, 
likewise,  that  a  reduction  in  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air,  and  of  the  surface  of  tlie 
earth,  always  accompanies  the  falling  of 
dew,  the  surface  on  which  it  is  depos- 
ited being  however,  colder  than  the  air 
above.  These  phenomena  admit  of  an 
easy  and  elegant  explanation  from  the 
well  known  effect  of  the  radiation  of  calor^ 
ic  fix>m  bodies.  This  radiation  constantly 
taking  place  in  all  bodies,  it  is  obvious 
that  the  temperature  of  any  body  can 
remain  the  same  only  by  its  receiving 
fiom  another  source  as  many  rays  as  it 
emits.  In  the  case  of  the  eaith's  surface, 
so  long  as  the  sun  remains  above  the 
horizon,  it  continues  to  receive  as  well  as 
to  emit  heat;  but  when  the  sun  sinks 
below  the  horizon,  no  object  is  present  in 
the  atmosphere  to  exchange  rays  with  tlje 
earth,  which,  still  emitting  heat  into  free 
space,  must,  consequently,  experience  a 
diminution  in  its  temperature.  It  thus 
becomes  not  only  many  degrees  cooler 
than  in  the  day  time,  but  also  cooler  than 
the  superincumbent  air;  and,  as  the  at- 
mosphere always  contains  watery  vapor, 
this  vapor  becomes  condensed  on  the  cold 
sur&ce ;  hence  the  origin  of  dew,  and,  if 
the  temperature  of  the  earth  is  below  32^, 
of  hoar  frost  And  since  the  projection 
of  heat  into  free  space  takes  place  most 
readily  in  a  clear  atmosphere,  and  is  im- 
peded by  a  cloudy  atmosphere,  it  is  under 
the  former  condition  that  dew  and  hoar 
frost  are  formed ;  for  if  the  radiant  caloric, 
proceeding  from  the  earth,  is  intercepted 
by  the  clouds,  an  interchange  is  est^jb- 
hshed,  and  the  ground  retains  nearly,  if 
not  quite,  the  same  temperature  as  the 
adjacent  portions  of  air.  Whatever  cir- 
cumstances favor  radiation  favor  also  the 
production  of  dew ;  and,  accordingly,  un- 
der the  same  exposure,    dew  is  much 


more  copiously  deposited  on  some  sur- 
faces than  on  others.  Gravel  walks  and 
pavements  project  heat  and  acquire  dew 
leas  readily  than  a  grassy  surface.  Rough 
and  porous  surfaces,  as  shavings  of  wo^ 
take  more  dew  than  smooth  and  solid 
wood.  Glass  projects  heat  rapidly,  and  is 
as  rapidly  coated  with  dew.  But  bright 
metals  attract  dew  much  less  powerfully 
than  other  bodiea  Water,  which  stands 
at  the  head  of  radiating  substances,  is  seen 
to  condense  the  vapor  of  the  superincum- 
bent air  in  such  a  manner  as  to  create 
thick  mists  and  fogs  over  its  surface.  The 
unusual  abundance  of  precipitated  mois- 
ture over  ponds  and  streams  is  attributa- 
ble, however,  not  merely  to  the  inferior 
temperature  of  their  waters  to  the  air, 
arising  from  radiation,  but  to  the  circum- 
stance that  more  moisture  is  ordinarily 
contained  in  such  air,  since  the  sheltered 
situation  it  enjoys  prevents  its  being  borne 
away  by  those  aerial  currents  prevailing 
elsewhere.  An  acquaintance  with  the 
cause  which  produces  dew  and  hoar-frost 
enables  us  to  understand  the  rationale  of 
the  process  resorted  to  by  gardeners  to 
protect  tender  plants  fix>m  cold,  which 
consists  simply  in  spreading  over  ihem  a 
thin  mat  or  some  nimsjr  substance.  In 
this  way,  the  radiation  of  their  heat  to  the 
heavens  is  prevented,  or,  rather,  the  heat 
which  they  emit  is  returned  to  them  from 
the  awning  above,  and  they  are  preserved 
at  a  temperature  considerably  liigher  than 
that  of  tne  surrounding  atmosphere.  To 
ensure  the  full  advantage  of  this  kind  of 
protection  from  the  cliill  of  tlie  air,  the 
coverings  should  not  touch  the  bodies  they 
are  intended  to  defend.  Garden  walk 
operate,  in  part,  upon  the  same  principle. 
In  warm  climates,  the  deposition  of  dewy 
moisture  on  animal  sulistances  hastens 
their  putrelaction.  As  this  usually  hap- 
pens only  in  clear  nights,  it  was  anciently 
supposed  that  bright  moonsliine  favored 
animal  corruption.  This  rapid  emission 
of  heat  from  the  surface  of  the  ground 
enables  us  to  explain  the  artificial  fonna- 
tion  of  ice,  during  the  night,  in  Bengal, 
while  the  temperature  of  me  air  is  above 
32°.  The  nights  most  favorable  for  this 
effect  are  those  which  are  the  calmest 
and  most  serene,  and  in  which  tlie  air  is 
so  dry  as  to  deposit  little  de^  afler  mid- 
night Clouds  and  frequent  changes  of 
wind  never  fail  to  interrupt  the  congela- 
tion. 300  persons  are  employed  in  this 
operation  at  one  place.  The  enclosures 
formed  on  the  ground  are  four  or  five  feet 
wide,  and  have  waUs  only  four  inches 
high.     In  these  enclosures,   previously 


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DEW— DE  wrrr. 


917 


bedded  with  diy  straw,  broad,  shallow, 
unglazed  pans  are  set,  containing  water. 
Wind,  which  so  greatly  promotes  evapo- 
ration, prevents  the  freezing  altogether; 
and  dew  forms,  in  a  greater  or  less  de- 
gree, during  the  whole  of  the  nights  most 
productive  of  ice.  The  straw  is  carefully 
preserved  dry,  since  if,  by  accident,  it  be- 
comes moistened  by  the  spilling  of  water, 
it  conducts  heat,  and  raises  vapor  from  the 
ground,  so  as  greatly  to  impede  the  con- 
gelation. The  radiation  from  the  earth's 
surfiice  is  one  of  those  happy  provisions 
fi>r  the  necessities  of  hving  beings,  with 
which  nature  every  where  abounds.  The 
heavy  dews  which  fall  in  tropical  regions 
■re,  in  the  highest  degree,  beneficial  to 
Tegetation,  which,  but  for  this  supply 
of  moisture,  would,  in  countries  where 
scarcely  any  rain  falls  for  months,  be  soon 
seorebed  and  withered.  But,  after  the 
high  temperature  of  the  day,  the  ground 
radiates  under  these  clear  skies  witn  great 
rapidity ;  the  surface  is  quickly  cooled, 
even  to  a  great  extent,  and,  as  soon  as  this 
refieshing  cold  is  produced,  the  watery 
vapor,  which,  from  the  great  daily  evapo- 
ration, exists  in  large  quantities  in  the 
atmosphere,  is  deposited  abundantly.  This 
deposition  is  more  plentiful,  also,  on  plants, 
fiom  their  greater  radiating  power ;  while, 
on  hard,  mre  ground  and  stones,  where  it 
is  less  wanted,  it  is  comparatively  trifling. 
In  cold  chmates,  the  earth,  being  cold 
and  sufficiently  moist,  requires  little  dew ; 
accordingly  the  clouds,  which  are  so  com- 
mon in  damp  and  chilly  regions,  prevent 
the  radiadon  of  heat :  the  surface  is  thus 
preserved  warm,  and  the  deposition  of 
dew  is,  in  a  great  measure,  prevented. 

De  Wette.    (See  fVette.) 

De  Witt,  John,  grand-pensioner  of 
Holland,  celebrated  as  a  statesman  and 
for  his  tragical  end,  was  the  son  of  Ja- 
c<rf>  De  Witt,  burgomaster  of  Dort,  and 
was  bom  in  1635.  His  father  was  im- 
prisoned for  some  time  on  account  of 
Ins  opposition  to  prince  William  11  of 
Orange.  John  De  Witt  inherited  from 
hb  rather  republican  principles  and  a 
hatrMl  to  the  house  of  Orange.  Afler 
having  carefully  cultivated  his  talents,  he 
entered  into  the  service  of  his  country,  and 
was  one  of  the  deputies  sent  by  the  states 
of  Holland  to  Zealand,  in  1^52,  to  dis- 
suade this  province  from  conferritig  the 
office  of  captain-general  on  the  young 
prince  of  Orange,  William  III,  who  was 
buttwoyearaola.  His  eloquence  procured 
him  universal  confidence;  but  to  pre- 
serve this  was  almost  impossible  during 
the    dSssensioDfl  which    raged    in    the 

TCI*.  IV.  19 


states-general.  One  party  was  anxious, 
during  tlie  war  between  England  and 
Holland,  to  have  all  power  and  honora 
conferred  on  prince  William  III ;  the 
other,  with  De  Witt  at  its  head,  endeavored 
to  withdraw  ^1  authority  from  diis  prince, 
and  endrely  to  abolish  the  stadtholdership. 
The  war  with  England,  sometimes  fortu- 
nate, sometimes  adverse,  was  injurious  to 
commerce,  and  excited  the  displeasure  of 
the  nation  against  the  latter  paity,  of  which 
excitement  the  Orange  party  took  advan- 
tage to  effect  their  purposes,  until,  in  1654, 
the  former  concluded  a  peace  with  Crom- 
well, with  the  secret  condition  that  the 
house  of  Orange  should  be  excluded  frpm 
all  situations  of  authority.  Thus  the 
republican  party  was  victorious,  and  De 
Witt,  as  grand-pensioner,  employed  the 
time  of  peace  in  healing  the  wounds  un- 
der wliich  the  state  was  suffering.  When 
Charles  II  again  took  possession  of  the 
crown  of  England,  De  Witt  inclined  to 
the  side  of  France,  which  inclination  be- 
came more  powerful  when,  in  1665,  the 
war  recommenced  between  England  and 
the  states-generaL  The  bishop  of  Miln- 
ster,  likewise,  taking  arms  against  the 
latter,  the  discontent  of  the  people  against 
De  Witt  became  so  great,  tliat  he  was 
compelled,  in  order  to  pacify  them,  to  give 
up  some  privileges  to  the  prince  of  Onu)ge, 
and  to  conduct  peace  with  England,  in 
1667.  To  increase  the  danger  of  De 
Witt's  situation,  Louis  XIV  now  began 
to  manifest  his  intentions  with  regard  to 
the  Spanish  Netherlands.    The  Orange 

n  insisted  on  elevating  prince  William 
e  dignity  of  his  ancestors.  De  Witt 
succeeded  in  separating  the  offices  of 
stadtholder  and  captain-general,  and  pro- 
vided that,  in  Holland  at  least,  he  should 
be  entirely  excluded  from  the  latter.  The 
number  of  De  Witt's  enemies  increased. 
He  was  obliged  to  conclude  an  alliance 
with  England  and  Sweden  against  France, 
which  produced  the  peace  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  and  was  as  quickly  dissolved 
as  it  had  been  formed.  Louis  XIV,  now 
united  with  England,  invaded  the  Span- 
ish Netherlands  (1672).  William's  friends 
succeeded  in  procuring  for  him  tJie  post 
of  commander-in-chief.  The  first  cam- 
paign vras  unfortunate  in  its  results,  which 
were  imputed  to  De  Witt  and  his  friends. 
The  life  of  the  former  was  endangered. 
William  was  nominated  stadtholder  by 
universal  consent,  and  De  Witt  resigned 
his  employments.  But  tlie  disposition  of 
the  people  was  little  changed  by  this  volun- 
tary act,  nor  was  the  hatred  of  the  Orange 
party   satisfied.     His  brother  Cornelius 


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DE  WITT— DEY. 


was  accused  of  having  attempted  to  t 
sinate  the  prince.  He  was  imprisoned  and 
put  to  the  rack ;  but,  as  he  would  not  con- 
fess any  such  design,  he  was  banished  from 
the  country,  and  his  property  confiscated. 
Hearing  that  his  brotner  wished  to  speak 
t»  him  while  in  prison,  John  de  Witt 
hastened  thither,  when  a  tumult  suddenly 
arose  among  the  people  at  the  Hague. 
The  militia  could  not  disperse  the  mob, 
the  greater  number  of  tlie  officers  being 
devoted  to  the  prince.  The  people  broke 
into  the  prison,  and  both  brothers  fell  vic- 
tims to  their  rage  (Aug.  20, 1672).  The 
states  demanded  an  investigation  of  this 
affair,  and  tlie  punishment  of  the  mur- 
derers, from  the  stadtholder,  which,  how- 
ever, never  took  place.  That  the  opinions 
of  De  Witt's  contemporaries  respecting  him 
did  not  agree,  may  well  be  supfiosed  ;  but 
all  acquitted  him  of  treason  against  his 
country.  He  was  simple  and  modest  in 
all  his  relations.  He  fell  a  victim  to  party 
spirit,  nor  could  the  friends  of  the  house 
of  Orange  accuse  him  of  any  other  crime 
than  that  of  not  belonging  to  their  party, 
and  of  aiming  to  elevate  his  own  party 
at  their  expense.  De  Witt  was  an  ac- 
tive political  writer,  and  has  left  many 
excellent  observations  on  the  events  of 
his  time. 

Dexter,  Samuel,  an  eminent  American 
lawyer  and  statesman,  was  bom  at  fioston, 
in  1761.  His  father  was  a  distinguished 
merchant,  and  a  benefactor  of  Harvard 
college.  The  son  was  graduated  at  that 
institution,  in  1781,  with  its  first  honors. 
He  then  engaged  in  the  study  of  the  law. 
He  had  not  been  long  at  the  bar  before  he 
was  elected  to  the  state  legislature,  from 
which  he  was  transferred  to  congress,  first 
to  the  house  of  representatives,  and  then 
to  the  senate.  He  was  in  congress  dur- 
ing a  period  of  strong  party  excitement, 
and  succeeded  in  eaining  much  influence 
and  honor  by  the  rorce  of  his  talents  and 
character,  proving  himself  an  enlightened 
politician  and  superior  orator.  President 
Adams  made  him,  successively,  secretary 
of  war  and  of  the  treasury.  He  dis- 
charged these  offices  in  a  masterly  man- 
ner. Towards  the  end  of  Mr.  Adams's 
odministration,  he  was  offered  a  foreign 
embassy,  but  declmed  it  When  Mr. 
Jefferson  became  president,  he  resigned 
his  public  employments,  and  returned  to 
the  practice  of  the  law.  In  1815,  president 
Madison  requested  him  to  accept  an  ex- 
traordinary mission  to  the  court  of  Spain, 
but  he  declined  the  ofiler.  For  many 
years,  he  continued  to  display  extraordi- 
nary powera  in  his  profesBioD,  having  no 


superior,  and  scarcely  a  rival,  before  the 
supreme  court  at  Washington,  in  which 
he  appeared  every  winter,  in  cases  of  the 
highest  importance.  On  his  return  fit)m 
that  capital,  in  die  spring  of  1816,  he 
fell  sick  at  Athens,  in  the  state  of  New 
York,  and  died  there  May  4,  aged  55. 
Mr.  Dexter  was  tall  and  well  formed,  with 
stronff  features  and  a  muscular  frame. 
His  eloquence  was  that  of  clear  exposition, 
and  cogent,  philosophical  reasoning ;  his 
delivery  in  general  simple,  and  his  enun- 
ciation monotonous ;  but  he  often  expressed 
himself  with  signal  energy  and  oeauty, 
and  always  gave  evidence  of  uncommon 
power.  He  devoted  much  of  his  leisure 
to  theological  studies,  and  died  a  zealous 
Christian.  In  the  party  divisions  of  the 
American  republic,  he  held,  at  first,  the 
post  of  an  acknowledged  leader  among 
the  federalists :  eventually,  however,  be 
separated  himself  from  his  colleagues,  on 
some  questions  of  primary  interest  and 
magnitude.  In  the  fine  sketch  of  his  lifb 
and  character,  drawn  by  judge  Story,  it  is 
truly  said  of  him,  '*lle  considered  the 
union  of  the  states  as  the  main  securi^ 
of  their  liberties ;  whatever  might  be  his 
opinion  of  any  measures,  he  never  breathed 
a  doubt  to  shake  public  or  private  confi- 
dence in  the  excellence  of  the  constitu- 
tion itself." 

Det  ;  the  chief  of  Algiers,  which  is  a 
rnilitaiT  aristocratic  state.  In  Tunis  and 
Tripoli,  the  same  officer  in  these  similarly 
regulated  military  republics,  is  named  bey. 
The  bey  of  Tripoli  is,  however,  assisted 
by  a  ]>acha.  Since  1520,  Algiers  has 
recognised  the  authority  of  the  Turkish 
sultan.  Turkish  soldiers,  under  the  com- 
mand of  a  pacha,  sent  to  Algiers  by  the 
sultan,  once  governed  there,  and,  not  re- 
ceiving tlieir  pay  fi-om  the  pacha,  they 
prayed  permission  of  the  Porte,  at  tlie 
commencement  of  the  17th  century,  to 
choose  a  chief  fix>m  their  number,  with 
the  tide  of  dey.  The  pacha  was  to  remain, 
but  to  have  no  share  in  the  government 
This  was  agreed  to  by  the  Potte.  In  the 
year  1710,  the  dey  banished  the  pacha 
from  Algiers,  and  obtained  permission  of 
the  Porte  to  enjoy  both  tides.  Since  that 
period,  every  dey  chosen  by  the  soldiers 
must  apply  to  the  sultan  for  confirmation 
and  for  appointment  as  pacha.  The  sul- 
tan^ therefore,  reckons  Algiers  amonest 
his  possessions,  and  sends  orders  to  the 
pacha  and  the  divan.  In  dme  of  war,  the 
people  of  Algiers  must  assist  the  Porte,  if 
required,  wim  soldiers  and  ships.  All 
money  coined  here  bears  the  stamp  of  the 
sultan,  and  public  prayere  are  ofifered  fn 


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DEY— DIAL. 


819 


him,  as  through  the  whole  of  Tiukey. 
The  dey  sends  an  annual  tribute  to  Con- 
stantinople. The  highest  authority  is  with 
the  divan,  or  the  council  of  state ;  but  **  the 
greater  and  lesser  membe»  of  the  invin- 
cible militia  of  Algiers"  make  decrees 
according  to  the  majority  of  votes,  in  all 
things  which  concern  the  government. 

Dhioliba.  (See  Aljger,  and  J^tmbuetoo.) 

Diadsm;  a  band  of  silk  or  woollen, 
invented,  according  to  some,  by  Bacchus, 
to  retieve  tlie  headache  produced  by  ex- 
cessive drinking.  It  more  probably  be- 
longed to  him  as  coming  from  the  East 
(the  Indies).  It  afterward^  became  the 
distinguishing  ornament  of  royalty.  The 
diadem  of  the  Egyptian  deities  and  kings 
bore  the  symbol  of  the  sacred  serpeuL 
Among  the  Persians,  it  was  twined  about 
the  tiara  of  the  kings,  and  was  purple  and 
white.  The  diadem  of  Bacchus,  particu- 
larly of  the  Indian  Bacchus,  as  seen  in 
very  old  representations,  consisted  of  a 
broad,  plaited  band,  encircling  the  fore- 
head and  temples,  and  tied  behind,  with 
the  ends  hanging  down.  When  unfolded, 
h  formed,  in  fact,  a  veil ;  and,  for  this  rea- 
son, it  was  often  called,  by  the  Greeks, 
cal^ptroj  L  e.,  a  veiL  It  was  afterwards 
attriiiuted  to  otlier  deities,  and  finally 
became  die  badge  of  kings.  In  the  ear- 
liest times,  it  was  very  narrow.  Alexan- 
der the  Gk-eat  adopted  the  broad  diadem 
of  the  Persian  kings,  the  ends  of  which 
hung  over  his  shoulders ;  and  tliis  mark 
of  regal  dignity  was  retained  by  his  suc- 
cessors. On  coins  we  see  queens,  also, 
with  the  diadem,  with  the  addition  of  a 
veiL  The  early  Roman  emperors  ab- 
stained fit>m  this  ornament,  to  aVoid  giving 
offence  to  the  people.  Constantine  tlie 
Great  was  the  first  who  used  it,  and  he 
added  new  ornaments  to  it  Afler  his 
time,  it  was  set  with  a  single  or  double 
row  of  pearis  and  other  precious  stones,  so 
that  it  was  somewhat  similar  to  a  Turkish 
turban. 

DiACious,  in  botany;  plants  which 
have  their  stamens  on  one  individual  and 
theur  pisdls  on  another.  The  willow,  the 
ash,  tne  poplar,  &c.,  are  diiecious.  On 
this  account,  the  weeping  willow  and 
several  other  trees  never  produce  seeds  in 
the  U.  States,  as  the  male  plants  only  have 
been  introduced. 

DiAOLTPHON  (Lat;  itayXbipovt  Gr.h  in 
ancient  sculpture ;  the  name  by  whicn  the 
Greeks  desi^ated  works  in  sculpture 
when  sunk  in  with  the  chisel  Among 
the  most  celebrated  of  these  were  the 
buckler  and  pedestal  of  a  colossal  statue  of 
Minerva  at  Athens.    When  it  was  in  re- 


lief^ the  work  was  called  anaglyphic* 
(See  Anaglyphic,) 

Diagnosis,  in  medicine;  the  distinc- 
tion of  one  disease  from  othere  resembling 
it,  by  means  of  a  collected  view  of  the 
symptoms. 

Diagnostic  symptoms  are  the  leading 
symptoms,  or  those  which  are  most  char- 
acteristic of  any  particular  form  or  seat 
of  disease. 

DiAGONAi.,  Diagonal  Line  ;  a  straight 
line,  joining  two  angles  not  adjacent,  in  a 
rectilmear  figure,  having  more  than  three 
sides.  Every  rectilinear  figure  may  be 
divided  by  diagonals  into  as  many  tri- 
angles as  it  has  sides,  minus  two. 

Diagram  ;  a  figure  or  geometrical  delin- 
eation, applied  to  the  illustration  or  solu- 
tion of  geometrical  problems,  or  a  de- 
scription or  sketch  in  general.  Anciently, 
it  signified  a  musical  scale.  Among  the 
Gnostics,  the  name  (/iogram  was  given  to  a 
figure  formed  by  die  su))erposition  of  one 
triangle  on  anotlier,  and  inscribed  with 
some  mystical  name  of  the  Deity,  and 
worn  as  an  amulet. 

Dial,  Sun.  This  instrument  has  been 
known  from  the  earliest  times :  the  Egjrp- 
tians,  Chaldeans  and  Hebrews  (Ismak 
xxxviL  8)  were  acquainted  with  the  uses 
of  it  Tne  Greeks  derived  it  from  their 
eastern  neighbors,  and  it  was  introduced 
into  Rome  during  the  first  Punic  war.  A 
dial  constructed  tor  the  latitude  of  Catana 
was  carried  off  from  that  citv  and  placed 
in  the  forum  by  Valerius  Alessana ;  but, 
as  there  was  a  difference  of  4°  of  latitude 
between  the  two  cities,  it  could  not,  of 
course,  indicate  the  tnie  time  at  Rome. 
Before  this  period,  the  Romans  ascertain- 
ed tlie  hour  by  the  rude  method  of  ob- 
serving the  lengths  of  shadows,  or,  in  the 
absence  of  the  sun,  by  the  cle|)sydni  (q.  v.), 
which  a  slave  was  employed  in  tending. — 
Sun-dials  have  lost  much  of  their  value 
in  modem  times,  by  the  general  introduc- 
tion of  instruments  which  indicate  the 
time  at  any  period  of  the  day  or  night ; 
but  clocks  and  watches  require  to  be 
regulated,  and  the  sliadows  projected  by 
the  sun  are  the  most  convenient  standard 
for  this  purpose.  Dials  are  of  various 
kinds  ;  but  the  horizontal  and  vertical  are 
most  commonly  used.  In  this  place,  we 
can  give  only  the  general  rules  of  construc- 
tion applicable  to  all  of  them.  Supi^se  12 
planes,  making  with  each  other  angles  of 
15°,  passing  through  the  axis  of  the  earth 
and  dividing  the  sphere  into  24  equal 
parts,  one  of  these  planes  being  the  me- 
ridian of  the  place  of  the  observer;  start 
from  the  meridian,  and,  moving'towanls 


Digitized  by 


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2220 


DIAL-DIALECT. 


the  west,  number  these  planes  respectiTely 
1,  %  3,  and  so  on  up  to  12,  whicn  will  bie 
the  lower  meridian  of  the  place ;  starting 
irom  this  point,  number  as  before,  1,  2,  ^ 
&C.,  again  to  12,  which  will  now  fall  on 
the  upper  meridian.  We  shall  thus  have 
a  series  of  horary  circles,  in  passing  fit>m 
one  of  which  to  the  next,  the  sun  will  oc- 
cupy one  hour.  At  noon,  he  will  be  on 
tlie  meridian,  which  is  numbered  12 ;  it  is 
then  12  o'clock ;  an  hour  before,  he  was 
on  the  last  horary  circle  preceding  (to  the 
.  east),  numbered  11,  and  it  was  11  o'clock. 
Twelve  hours  from  the  time  of  passing 
the  upper  meridian,  he  will  pass  the  lower, 
also  numbered  12,  and  it  will  be  midnight. 
Suppose,  now,  an  opaque  plane  passing 
throuffh  the  centre  of  the  earth,  and  inter- 
sected by  the  12  planes  in  as  man^  diverg- 
ing straight  lines,  and  mark  these  Imes  with 
the  numbers  belonging  to  their  respective 
planes.  This  opaque  plane  will  represent 
the  face  of  a  dial,  the  straight  lines  will  form 
the  horary  lines  marked  on  its  surface, 
and  the  style  will  represent  the  axis  of  the 
earth,  and  will  project  its  shadow  succes- 
sively on  each  of  the  hour  lines,  the  num- 
ber affixed  to  which  will  show  the  hour 
of  the  day;  that  is,  at  10  o'clock  the 
shadow  will  fall  on  the  line  numbered  10, 
&c.  We  shall  thus  have  a  dial  construct- 
ed at  the  centre  of  the  earth ;  but  the 
radius  of  the  earth,  or  the  distance  from  its 
centre  to  its  surface,  is  so  small,  in  com- 
parison with  the  distance  of  the  eaith  from 
the  sun,  that  it  may  be  considered  as 
nothing:  we  may  tlierefore  transport  our 
central  dial  to  any  given  place,  keeping 
the  style  and  surface  always  parallel  to  the 
'positions  in  which  we  supposed  tliem  at 
first,  and  we  shall  have  a  dial  for  that 

I)lace.  This  is  the  tlieory  of  dials.  It  fol- 
ows,  from  this  explanation,  1.  tliat  a  sun- 
dial, calculated  for  any  given  place, will  also 
serve  for  any  other  place  under  Uie  same 
meridian,  provided  its  position  in  the  latter 
place  be  parallel  to  its  posidon  in  the  for- 
mer place.  2.  The  st>  le  of  a  dial  is  parallel 
to  tlie  axis  of  the  earth ;  the  meridian  line 
is  the  intersection  of  the  plane  of  the  dial 
and  the  meridian  of  the  place ;  the  style  is 
in  the  meridian,  and  inclines  to  the  rational 
horizon  in  the  same  manner  as  the  terres- 
trial axis,  tliat  is,  by  an  angle  equal  to  the 
latitude  of  the  place.  3.  The  hour  lines  are 
the  intersections  of  the  face  of  the  dial  by 
12  planes,  inclined  to  each  other  by  an 
ande  of  15°,  drawn  from  the  meridian, 
and  passing  through  the  style.  If  it  is 
required  to  mark  shorter  intervals  of  time, 
as  half  hours,  it  is  only  neces^y  to  con- 
ceive 24  planes,  at  an  angle  of  7i°  with 


each  other,  and  so  on  for  any  subdi visions 
4.  The  hour  lines  of  a  di^  drawn  on  a 
plane  are  straight  lines  meeting  in  the 
centre  of  the  diiU,  where  the  face  is  pene- 
trated by  the  style.  The  forenoon  and 
afternoon  hour  Ihies  of  the  same  number 
are  given  by  the  intersection  of  the  same 
horary  plane,  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the 
style.  Sometimes  the  hour  is  indicated 
by  means  of  a  plate,  placed  before  the 
dial,  having  a  bole  through  which  the 
hght  passes.  It  is  only  necessary  that  this 
hole  sliould  be  one  of  the  points  of  the 
style;  the  light  will  then  fall  u|x>n  ttiat 
part  of  the  dial  where  the  shadow  of  the 
corresponding  point  of  the  style  would  be 
projected. 

Dialect;  a  variety  of  a  language. 
This  definition  is  certainly  vague,  but  la 
necessarily  so  from  the  nature  of  the  sub- 
ject, as  it  is  impossible  to  determine  nicely 
tlie  line  where  dialects  begin  to  become 
distinct  languages.  For  instance,  in  some 
respects,  German,  Danish,  Swedish,  Ice- 
]andish,may  be  called  diiUectsof  the  com- 
mon Teutonic  stock ;  yet  a  German  is  no 
more  able  to  understand  Swedish  than 
Hebrew,  if  he  has  not  studied  it.  It 
would  not  be  correct,  however,  to  lay  it 
down  Its  a  rule,  that  dialects  are  such 
forms  of  the  common  language,  as  may 
be  understood,  if  not  entirely,  yet  in  gen- 
eral, bv  all  who  speak  one  of  the  vari- 
eties of  the  common  longuage,  because  a 
person  who  never  heard  or  spoke  any 
thing  but  High-German  cannot  under- 
stand the  people  of  Lower  Germany, 
speaking  to  each  other  in  their  dialect :  a 
Portuguese,  indeed,  is  generally  able  to 
understand  Spanish,  without  having  learn- 
ed the  language  systcmaticaUy.  The 
common  meaning-  of  the  tenn  «fici2ec^  in 
modem  times,  is  the  language  of  a  part  of 
a  country  or  a  distant  colony,  deviating, 
either  in  its  grammar,  words  or  pronun- 
ciation, from  the  language  of  that  |>art  of 
the  common  country  whose  idiom  has 
been  adopted  as  the  literary  language,  and 
the  medium  of  intercourse  Itetween  well- 
educated  people.  In  ancient  times,  when 
the  great  difficulties  in  the  way  of  inter- 
course and  communication  between  dif- 
ferent parts  of  a  country  prevented,  or  at 
least  impeded,  the  formation  of  a  general 
language,  each  dialect  was  develoi)ed 
independently  of  the  otliers,  until  son.e 
event  gave  to  one  the  ascendency.  In 
Greece,  we  find  four  distinct  dialects  ;  the 
Ionic,  Attic,  Doric  and  iEolic  ;  each  of 
which  gave  birth  to  literary  productions 
still  extant,  until  at  last  the  greater  refine- 
ment, and  the  cultivation  of  arts  and  sci- 


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DIALECT— DIALOGUE. 


1221 


ences  in  Athens,  gave  the  Attic  dialect  the 
Biiperiority.  It  is  a  great  mistake  to  con- 
sider dialects  as  something  to  be  rooted 
out  hke  noxious  weeds ;  for,  if  they  are 
independent  varieties  of  a  common  lan- 
guage, not  mere  corruptions  of  a  language 
already  settled,  they  always  retain  many 
lieauties,  which  would  not  exist  without 
them ;  many  peculiarities,  which  often 
aflTord  a  great  uisight  into  the  language,  to 
a  judicious  philologist  No  one,  who  has 
studied  tlie  peculiarities  of  the  Provencal, 
the  Low-German,  or  the  AJIemannic  dia- 
lects, or  the  Neapolitan,  with  its  many  rem- 
nants of  tlie  Greek,  would  wish  to  put  an 
end  to  their  existence.  Dialects  resemble 
rebels  against  lawful  authority,  until  the 
stamp  of  legitimacy  is  impressed  upon 
them  by  a  great  man  or  great  event.  Itaf- 
ian  was  once  tlie  tndgcpr  dialect ;  and,  even 
now,  to  translate  into  Italian  is  called  vol- 
garizzart.  It  was  corrupt  Latin  mixed 
with  barbarous  words  derived  irom  the 
idioms  of  the  conquerors  of  tlie  country, 
and  was  used  at  first  only  by  the  lower 
classes;  it  then  became  tlie  general  dia- 
lect of  common  life ;  and,  at  last,  tlie  giant 
mind  of  Dante  dared  to  sing  in  the  ^  vul- 
gar dialecr,"  and  to  stamp  it  as  a  legitimate 
hnguage.*  Portuguese  was  a  corrupted 
dialect  of  Spanish,  until  Portugal  separated 
from  Spain,  and  dared  to  uphold  its  dialect 
as  an  independent  language.  In  Germa- 
ny, no  dialect  has  ever  obtained  entire 
ascendency.  Much  was  once  written  in 
Low-German,  and  the  activity  of  the 
Hanseatic  league,  and  the  wide  extent  to 
which  it  was  spoken,  gave  it  much  influ- 
ence. Charles  V,  bom  at  Ghent,  spoke 
Low-German  ;  but  Luther's  translation  of 
the  Bible,  like  Dante's  Divina  Commediaj 
made  High-German  the  literary  language. 
Since  that  time,  it  has  changed  very  much, 
and  has  acquired,  in  many  respects,  a  de- 
velopement  of  its  own.  It  is  a  great  mis- 
take, common  among  foreigners,  to  con- 
sider Saxon  as  the  Castilian  or  Tuscan 
dialect  of  Germany,  because  Luther  was 
bom  in  Saxony.  On  the  contrary,  the 
Saxon  dialect  is  one  of  the  most  disa- 
greeable to  a  German  ear,  and  deviates 
much  from  the  modem  Higli-Gemian. 
Only  the  fundamental  characteristics  of 
die  language  of  Upper-Germany  have  re- 
mained in  High-German.  In  other  re- 
spects, it  has  developed  itself  independent- 
ly of  any  provincial  dialect  In  England, 
there  axe  but  two  great  dialects,  English 

*  It  must  be  observed,  that  Neapolitan  was 
written  even  before  Tuscan ;  but  Dante's  rreat- 
jiess  made  the  Tuscan  at  once  the  standara  dia- 
kwt. 

19* 


and  Scotch ;  yet  it  has  oflen  been  obeerv- 
id  tliat  no  country  has  more  variations  from 
tl.e  common  literary  language.  Every 
coi^nty  has  its  peculiarities,  which  are 
sometimes  striking  and  difficult  to  be  uu- 
dem'>od.  On  tlie  other  hand,  tliere  never 
has  e.nsted  a  country  so  vast,  and  a  popu- 
lation so  large  as  that  of  the  U.  States, 
with  so  little  variety  of  dialect,  which  is 
owing  to  the  quick  and  constant  commu- 
nication between  the  different  parts  of  the 
country,  and  the  roving  spirit  of  tlie 
people,  the  great  mass  of  whom,  be- 
sides, derive  tlieir  descent  froia  the  same 
stock. 

Dialectics  ;  the  old  name  of  logic,  or 
the  art  of  reasoning  (from  iiaXfytcOuif  to 
speak),  because  thought  and  reasoning  are 
expressed  by  speech,  and  thus  were  first 
manifested,  and  the  mind  naturally  pro- 
ceeds from  the  obvious  to  the  remote, 
from  the  particular  to  tlie  general.  Logic 
(q.  V.)  was  early  denominated,  in  confor- 
mity witli  this  name,  the  art  of  speaking 
or  disputing.  By  diaUcticia/nj  we  under- 
stand a  teacher  of  dialectics,  or  one  who 
understands  tlie  art  of  lo^cal  disputiition. 

Dialogue  ;  a  conversation  or  conference 
between  two  or  more  persons.  The  word 
is  particularly  used  in  reference  to  theat- 
rical performances  and  to  written  conver- 
sations, or  a  composition  in  which  two  or 
more  persons  are  represented  as  inter- 
changing ideas  on  a  given  topic.  The 
ancient  philosophers,  especially  the  Greeks, 
from  their  peculiar  vivacity,  were  fond  of 
this  form ;  they  used  it  for  the  communi- 
cation of  their  investigations  on  scientific 
subjects.  The  dialogues  of  Plato  are  a 
sort  of  philosophical  dramas.  The  Socrat- 
ic  dialogue  (socalled|  consists  of  questions 
and  answers,  and  tne  person  questioned 
is  obliged,  by  successively  assenting  to 
the  interrogatories  put  to  him,  to  come 
to  the  conclusions  which  the  questioner 
vrishes  to  produce.  This  dialogue  sup- 
poses in  the  interrogator  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  human  nature  in  general,  and  of 
the  person  questioned  in  particular.  The 
dialogue  is  now  much  used  for  verbal  in- 
struction. The  philosophical  dialogue 
seems  but  little  adapted  to  our  manners 
and  the  present  improved  state  of  tlie  sci- 
ences ;  and,  beins  written,  of  course,  with 
the  view  of  estabushmg  certain  positions, 
the  objections  raised  are  only  such  as  can 
be  readily  answered,  and  tliereby  assist  in 
establishing  the  desired  conclusions ;  but 
are  not  always  such  as  present  themselves 
to  the  resf^er,  who  is  oflen  dissatisfied 
with  the  result  because  his  own  doubts 
are  not  settled.    Erasmus  of  Kotterdani, 


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222 


MALOGOJE— DIAMOND. 


and  siilieeqiiently,  among  the  Germans, 
Lessnig,  Moses  Mendelssohn,  Engel,  Her- 
der, Jacobi,  Solger,  have  written  in  this 
form.  In  comic  and  satiric  dialogue, 
Wieland  has  imitated  the  satirist  Lu- 
cian.  Among  tlie  most  distinguished 
Italian  writers  of  dialogue  are  Petrarca 
(De  vera  Sapientia),  Machiavelli,  Gelli, 
Algarotti  and  Gozzi ;  and  tiinong  the 
French,  Sarnusin,  Malehmnche,  Fenelon ; 
Fontenelle  and  St.  Mard  imitated  Lucian, 
and,  among  die  English,  bishop  Berkeley 
and  Hurd  have  imitated  Plato,  and  Harris, 
Ciceix).  Lord  Lyttelton's  dialogues  of  the 
dead,  and  Addison's  dialogues  on  medals, 
are  well  known.  Landor's  imaginary  con- 
veRjations  of  liteniry  men  and  statesmen 
(London,  182(i)  attructe<t  some  attention. 
If  tiie  conversation  gives  rise  to  action, 
tben  the  drama  is  pixxhiced.  In  the  dra- 
ma, the  rfw/o^M«,  in  a  narrower  sense,  is 
o|>|>osed  to  nionolofriie  or  sMoqiiy ;  in  the 
o]»era,  it  is  that  which  is  spoken,  in  opposi- 
tion to  that  which  \ssmi^,  (See  Drama.) 

Diameter;  the  straight  line  drawn 
through  the  centre  of  a  circle,  and  touch- 
ing the  two  opiK)site  |>oint8  of  the  circum- 
ference. It  thus  divides  the  circle  into 
two  equal  parts,  and  is  the  greatest  chord. 
The  radius  is  half  this  diameter,  and  con- 
se(|uently  the  space  comprehended  lie- 
tween  the  centre  and  circumference  of  a 
circle.  (For  the  magnitude  of  the  diame- 
ter, in  comparison  with  the  circumference, 
see  Circle) 

Diamond;  the  hardest  and  most  valua- 
ble of  all  the  gems.  To  the  account  of 
the  <liamond  already  given  in  t4ic  article 
Carbon,  we  will  only  add  at  ])resciit,  that 
diamonds  are  of  various  colors ;  but  the 
colorless,  which  is  the  sort  mostly  used  in 
the  arts,  is,  when  pure,  jierfecdy  clear, 
and  pellucid  as  the  purest  water.  Hence 
the  ])hrases,  the  toaler  of  a  <lianiond,  a 
diiunond  of  the  finest  toaUr,  &c.  The 
colorless  diamonds  ui'e  not,  however,  the 
most  common.  The  rarest  colors  are 
blue,  pink,  and  dark  brown ;  but  yellow 
diamonds,  when  the  color  is  clear  and 
equal  throughout,  are  very  iMmtitifiil  and 
•much  value<l.  Pale  blue  diamonds  are  also 
very  fine  and  rare,  but  deep  blue  still 
inore  rare.  The  largest  diamond  hitherto 
found  is  in  the  fKissession  of  the  rajah  of 
Mattan,  in  the  isUmd  of  J)omeo,  where  it 
was  fbuiul  about  eighty  years  since.  It 
weighs  three  hundred  and  sixty-seven 
carats.  It  is  descrilted  as  having  the 
8htti»e  of  an  egg,  with  on  indentation  near 
the  smaller  end.  Many  yi^rs  ago,  the 
governor  of  JiaUivia  tried  to  purchase  it, 
uid  ofTenHl  in  exchange  one  hundred  and 


fifty  thousand  dollars,  two  large  brigs  of 
war,  with  their  guns  and  ammunition,  and 
other  cannon,  with  |)owder  and  siiot.  But 
tlie  rajah  refused  to  part  with  a  jewel,  to 
which  the  Malays  attach  miraculous  low- 
ers, and  which  they  imagine  to  be  con- 
nected with  the  fate  of  his  fimiily.  Tliis 
diamond  is  mentioned  in  the  memoirs  of 
the  Batavian  society.  The  diamond  is  the 
hardest  of  all  known  subetances.  Nothing 
will  scratch  it,  nor  can  it  be  cut  but  by 
itself.  By  cutting,  it  acquires  a  brilliancy 
and  play  of  lustre  that  much  augment  its 
])rice.  The  lianhiess  of  the  diamond  was 
well  known  to  the  ancients;  its  name, 
both  in  Greek  and  Latin  (aldiiai,  adainas), 
imidying  invmcible  hardness.  The  an- 
cients did  not  confine  the  woni  adamas  to 
inthcate  tiie  diamond  alone,  but  applied  it 
to  other  hard  and  adamasdmt  substances. 
They  were  unacquainted  with  the  art  of 
cutting  the  diamond,  satisfying  themselves 
with  those  which  were ])olished naturally; 
but  knew  of  the  property  of  its  powder  or 
dust  for  cuttuig,  engravuig,  and  polishing 
otiier  stones.  The  art  of  cuttmg  and  }M>1- 
ishhig  the  diamond  was  iniknown  in  Eu- 
ro|)e  till  the  fifteenth  century.  Before 
that  i)eriod,  rough  and  unpolished  ones 
were  set  as  ornaments,  and  valued  accord- 
ing to  the  Iteauty  tuid  ])erfection  oftlieir 
crystallization  and  trans]uu*eiicy.  This 
art  is  said  to  have  been  invented  ami  first 
practised  in  14t5(i,  by  Louis  de  Berquen,  a 
native  of  Bruges.  Cluirles  the  Bold,  duke 
of  Burgundy,  was  one  of  the  first  princes 
of  modern  times  who  afiiected  a  great 
splendor  in  diamonds.  Among  engraved 
or  sculptured  diamonds  is  one  with  a 
head,  which  Gori  falsely  imagined  to  be 
antique,  and  called  it  a  ])ortrait  of  Posido- 
nius.  It  belonged  to  the  duke  of  Bedford. 
Lessjng  thinks  that  many  of  the  engraved 
antique  ^miih,  which  are  called  <iiamouds, 
are  nothing  Init  amethysts,  sopphircs  and 
emeralds,  deprived  of  their  color  by  the 
ojieration  of  fire.  Diamonds  are  valuable 
for  many  puritoses.  Tiieir  {wwder  is  the 
l)est  for  the  lapi<lury  and  gem  engraver, 
aial  more  economical  than  any  otlier  mate- 
rial for  cutting,  engraving  and  poiislung 
hard  stones.  Glaziers  cut  glass  with  tliem ; 
glass  cutters  looking-glasses,  and  otlier  ar- 
ticles of  window  aiul  plate  glass.  The 
glazier's  diamond  is  set  in  a  steel  socket, 
and  attached  to  a  wooden  handle  about 
the  size  of  a  thick  fiencil.  It  is  very  re- 
markable, that  only  the  ]X)int  of  a  natural 
crystal  can  l>eused  ;  cut  or  split  diamonds 
scratch,  but  the  gltiss  will  not  break  along 
the  scratch,  as  it  does  when  a  natural  crys- 
tal is  used.  An  application  of  tlie  diamond, 


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DIAMOND— DIAMOND  DISTRICT. 


i238 


of  great  importaace  in  the  ait  of  engrav- 
ing, bas  been  also  made  within  a  few  yeais 
by  the  late  Wilson  Lowry,  to  the  purpose 
of  drawing  or  ruting  lines,  which  are  af- 
terwards to  be  deepened  by  aqua  fortis. 
Formerly  steel  points,  called  ticking  nee- 
dUSf  were  used  for  tliat  purpose ;  but  they 
soon  became  blunt  by  the  nriction  against 
the  copper,  ^o  that  it  has  always  been  im- 
jmvcticable  to  make  what  are  called  Jiat  or 
even  tints  with  them ;  such  as  the  a:&ure 
parts  of  skies,  large  architectural  subjects, 
and  the  sea  in  maps;  but  the  diamond, 
being  turned  to  a  conical  point,  or  other- 
wise cut  to  a  proper  form,  is  not  worn 
away  by  the  friction  of  the  copper,  and, 
consequendy,  the  lines  drawn  by  it  are  all 
of  equal  thickness.  The  diamond  etching 
points  of  Mr.  Lowry  are  turned  in  a  lathe, 
by  holding  a  thui  splinter  of  diamond 
against  them,  as  a  chisel. 

Diamond  District,  in  Brazil.  That  part 
of  Brazil  where  the  government  collects 
diamonds  is  not  far  from  Villa  dl  Principe, 
and  extends  about  sixteen  leagues  from 
north  to  south,  and  about  eight  from  east 
to  west,  in  the  district  of  Cerro  do  Frio, 
which  consists  of  rugged  mountains,  gen- 
eraUy  considered  the  hiffbest  in  Brazil. 
The  fiist  diamonds  found  here  were  used 
by  the  governor  of  Villa  di  Principe  as 
card  counters,  and  considered  by  lum  as 
curious  bright  crystals.  They  were  seot 
to  Lisbon,  where  the  Dutch  consul  recoff- 
nised  their  value,  and  sent  them  to  Hol- 
land, then  the  market  of  precious  stones. 
Holland  immediately  concluded  a  com- 
mercial  treaty  with  Portugal,  and  it  is  said 
that  the  weight  of  the  diamonds  intro- 
duced during  the  next  twenty  years  into 
Europe,  exceeded  a  thousand  ounces. 
This  diminished  their  value,  and  diamonds 
were  exported  profitably  even  to  India,  the 
odAv  country  whence,  till  then,  these  stones 
had  come.  An  interesting  account  of  tlie 
proceedings  in  the  Diamond  district,  into 
which  few  visitors  are  ever  admitted,  is 
contained  in  the  excellent  work  called 
Travels  in  Brazil,  in  the  Years  1817—1820, 
undertaken  by  Command  of  H.  M.  the 
King  of  Bavaria,  by  the  late  Dr.  John 
Bapt  von  Spix,  and  Dr.  C.  F.  PhiL  von 
Martius,  2  vols.,  written  and  edited  by  the 
survivor.  Dr.  Martins,  Munich,  1828^  4to., 
translated  into  English  1829.  From  this 
work  the  following  accotmt  is  extracted : — 
The  travellers  reached  Villa  di  Principe, 
a  town  of  some  size,  lying  near  the  edge 
of  the  Diamond  district,  into  which  they 
were  admitted  by  virtue  of  an  order 
from  the  king.  This  tract  of  country  is 
entirely  occupied  by  the  government,  for 


the  sake  of  its  mineral  treasures.  In  1730, 
diamonds  were  declared  the  property  of 
the  crown ;  and  this  district,  abounding 
pardcu  laxly  in  them,  Ims  been  subjected 
to  a  most  curious  system  of  exclusion. 
Lines  of  demarcation  are  drawn  around  it, 
guarded  as  strictly  as  those  of  an  infected 
city.  No  person  is  permitted  to  pass  these, 
in  eitlier  direction,  without  an  order  from 
the  intendant  of  the  mines.  Every  one, 
on  going  out,  is  subjected,  witli  liis  horees 
and  bagffa^,  to  a  most  minute  examina- 
tion, and,  m  case  of  suspicion  that  a  dia- 
mond has  been  swallowed,  may  be  detain- 
ed for  twenty-four  hours.  The  intendant 
is  head  judge  in  all  cases,  and  chief  of  the 
police ;  he  may  send  any  inhabitant  out 
of  the  district  on  bare  suspicion ;  nor  is 
there  any  appeal  from  hun  and  his  coun- 
cil, the  junta  (Uanumtina,  except  to  the 
mercy  of  the  king.  Every  meml)er  of  this 
board,  if  he  knows  of  any  ])erBon  having 
diamonds  in  his  possession,  is  bound  to 
mve  notice  to  the  intendant,  who  imme- 
diately issues  his  search-warrant,  though, 
in  cases  of  emergency,  the  soldiers  are  per- 
mitted to  search  without  such  authority. 
There  are  also  strict  rules  with  regard  to 
the  registering  of  the  inhabitants,  the  ad- 
nussion  of  settlers,  the  erection  of  new 
inns  or  shops,  and  the  hiring  of  slaves. 
The  members  of  the  expedition  being  ac- 
quainted with  the  intendant,  who,  though 
a  native  Brazilian,  had  stuclied  mineralo- 
gy under  Werner,  in  Germany,  were  in- 
vited to  a  sitting  of  the  junto.  The  order 
of  proceedings  was  as  follows.  First,  the 
whole  stock  of  diamonds  was  laid  before 
the  meeting.  It  amounted  to  9396  carats 
2  grains,  and  was  divided  into  twelve  class- 
es (lates),  enclosed  in  bags  of  red  silk. — 
The  division  was  made  by  means  of  a 
brass  box,  in  which  there  were  eleven 
sievesofdiilferent  sizes,  so  arranged  that 
the  smallest  diamonds  were  collected  in 
the  lowest,  the  largest  in  the  upper  sieve. 
There  were  eleven  stones  <^  mora  than 
eight  carats  in  weight.  Some  spurious 
diamonds  were  rejected  by  the  /Miito,  and 
given,  for  the  sake  of  accurate  examination, 
to  the  travellers.  These  are  now  preserved 
at  Munich,  and  were  found  to  be  several 
beautiful  varieties  of  chrysobeiyls  (chiefly 
those  called  in  Brazil  green  aouormarines) 
and  sapphires,  white  and  blue  topazes, 
rubies,  quartzes,  and  other  stones.  After 
the  whole  collection  of  the  year  had  been 
examined  and  a  list  made,  they  were,  in 
the  presence  of  all  the  members,  packed 
up  in  bags,  and  deposited  in  a  small  red  mo- 
rocco box.  This  was  fastened  by  two  locks, 
of  which  the  intendant  and  the  officer 


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224 


DIAMOND  DISTRICT— DIANa 


of  the  crown  revenue  had  each  a  key,  and 
then  given  in  charge,  together  with  tlie  min* 
utes  of  the  proceedings,  to  a  detachment  of 
dragoons,  and  addressed  to  the  kuig,  to  be 
fbrwanied  hy  the  governor  of  Villa  Rica, 
to  Rio  Janeiro.  The  diamond-washing  is 
performed  by  slaves,  who  are  hired  by  the 
govennnent  from  f>rivate  proprietore,  at 
the  rate  of  300  to  600  rees  a  week.  They 
ore  under  the  control  of  certain  inspectors, 
named  feitores,  of  whom  tliere  were,  in 
1818,  one  hundred.  These  persons  have 
the  more  immediate  care  of  the  slaves,  and 
receive  from  them  the  diamonds.  The 
feitores^  again,  are  under  the  control  of 
ten  surveyors  (adminisiradons),  who  weigh 
the  diamonds,  deliver  them  to  tlie  jimtOy 
and  have  the  management  of  die  works, 
machinery,  &c.  The  government  fonnerly 
prohibited  tlie  washnig  for  gold  in  tlie 
Diamond  district ;  it  is,  however,  now  (ler- 
mitted,  as  a  favor  to  uidividuals ;  but  if 
any  precious  stones  are  found,  they  are 
given  up  to  the  jwnUu  The  most  ibmii- 
dable  enemy  to  the  government,  are  the 
diamond  smugglers,  or  grimpeiros.  These 
|>er8ons,  who  are  frequently  runaway 
slaves,  being  well  acquainted  with  the 
country,  are  able  by  night  to  elude  the 
vigilance  of  tlie  royal  guards.  The  dia- 
monds smuggled  are  generally  procured 
from  the  slaves,  who  are  able,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  insfiectors,  to  secrete  tliem  in 
various  ways  between  tlieir  fingers  and 
toes,  in  their  eais,  mouth  or  hair ;  or  tliey 
swallow  tlie  stones,  or  throw  tliem  over 
their  heads,  so  tliat  tliey  can  find  them 
again  by  night  When  the  guards  are 
once  past,  the  smugglers  sell  the  stones  to 
traders,  who  easily  conceal  them  in  bales 
of  cotton  and  other  similar  commodities, 
and  send  tliem  down  to  the  coast.  Such 
is  the  necessary  and  natural  consequence 
of  tlie  system  adopted  by  the  Brazilian 
government  ^  It  is,"  as  doctor  Martins  re- 
marks, ''the  only  instance  in  wlrich  a  tract 
of  country  has  been  isolated,  and  all  civil 
relations  made  sulmrdinate  to  a  monopoly 
of  the  crown.**  The  happiness  and  con- 
venience of  both  the  inhabitants  and  neigh- 
bors are  obviously  sacrificed  to  maintain  a 
mercantile  s|)eculation,  of  which  the  prof- 
its cannot  be  very  great* 
■  Diamond,  in  tccJinical  language,  is  tlie 
rhomboid,  that  is,  a  quadrangle  with  equal 
sides,  and  two  acute  and  two  obtuse  an- 
gles ;  for  instance,  in  patterns  of  calico. 

*  Diamonds  have  been  lately  broaglit  by  Alex, 
von  HumboKIl  from  the  Ural  mountains,  wliere, 
from  some  passages  in  ancient  writers,  they  ap- 
pear to  have  been  found  in  ancient  times.  ''  Not 
far  from  the  Rhiphaean  mouataiiu/'  says  Dionysius 


Diana  ;  the  Roman  tnme  of  the  Arte- 
mis of  the  Greeks;  the  daughter  of  Jupiter 
and  Latona,  twin  sister  of  Apollo.  (See 
Jlpdio^  and  Dehs,)  While  yet  a  cliild,  as 
Callimachus  relates  in  his  hymn,  she  en- 
treated her  father  to  suffer  her  to  continue 
a  virgin,  because  her  niotlier^  sufferings 
had  rendered  her  averse  from  love.  She 
desired  him,  at  the  same  time,  to  give  her 
a  bow  and  arrows,  a  city,  and  rule  over ' 
the  hills,  60  Oceanides  and  20  river- 
njrmphs,  and  to  permit  her  to  bear  a  torch 
and  hunt  in  the  foresta  Jupiter  gave  her 
more  than  she  asked.  He  caused  30 
cities  to  be  devoted  exclusively  to  her 
worship,  and  appointed  many  otiiers  where 
she  was  venerated  in  common  with  other 
deides.  Diana  Uien  retired  to  the  woods 
of  Lcucus,  in  Crete ;  thence  she  went  to 
the  ocean,  where  she  selected  a  numerous 
rednue  of  nymphs,  nine  years  old.  Her 
next  journey  was  to  the  Cyclops,  on  the 
island  Lipai*a,  of  whom  she  asked  a  Cy- 
douian  bow,  and  a  quiver  and  arrows. 
They  executed  tlie  commands  of  the  god- 
dess, and  she  no  w  appeared  with  her  amis 
in  tlie  Arcadian  territory  of  Pan,  who  pre- 
sented her  vritli  some  beautiiid  hunting- 
dogs.  Thus  equipped,  at  the  foot  of 
mount  Parrliasius,  she  took  four  beautiful 
stags,  with  gold  antlers,  yoked  them  to  her 
chariot,  and  proceeded  with  them  first  to 
the  Thrachui  Uoemus.  On  Olympus,  in 
Mysia,  she  cut  a  torch  from  a  tree,  and 
kindled  it  with  the  lightning  of  Jove. 
When  she  returned  to  tlie  palace  of  the 
gods,  loaded  with  game,  Mercury  and 
AfioUo  met  her  in  the  vestibule ;  the  for- 
mer took  her  weapons,  and  the  latter  the 
fruits  of  the  chase.  The  river-nymphs 
unyoked  the  stags  from  her  chariot,  fed 
tliem  in  Juno's  meadows,  and  gave  them 
water  from  golden  vessels.  Diana  then 
went  into  the  palace  of  the  gods,  and  sat 
by  die  side  of  Apollo.  As  he  directs  the 
chariot  of  the  sun,  she  guides  that  of  the 
moon.  Cupid  and  Venus  sought  to  con- 
quer her  in  vain.  Hunting,  music  and 
dancing  alone  had  charms  for  her.  She 
punished  without  mercy  those  of  her  vir- 
gins wlio  violated  tlieir  vows  of  chastity. 
Actieon,  the  grandson  of  Cadmus,  who 
secretly  watched  her  as  she  was  bathing, 
she  changed  into  a  stag,  and  his  own  dogs 
tore  him  in  pieces.  The  beautifiil  En- 
dymion,  however,  at  length  made  her  feel 
the  |X)wer  of  love.    While  enlightening 

Periccetes,  "among  the  cold  Agathyni,  spark- 
ling diamonds  are  collected;"  and' Ammiaaus 
Marcelliuus  agrees  with  him  when  he  jneutiom 
"  Ajrathyrri    apud   quos    adamcaUu    €St    ccpia 


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DIANA-^DIAPASCm. 


the  eaith  as  Luna  (the  moon),  she  beheld 
the  hunter,  fatigued  with  tlie  chase,  fllum- 
bering  in  the  woods.  She  descended 
from  her  ethereal  course,  and  kissed  the 
lips  of  the  youth,  who  enjoyed  a  favor 
never  before  granted  to  mortal  or  immor- 
tal. Notwithstanding  her  avernon  to  love, 
she  afforded  aid  to  women  who  called 
upon  her  in  travail.  She  was  also  the 
goddess  of  death.  She  aims  her  darts  es- 
pecially at  the  female  sex,  and  brings  the 
old,  who  are  satisfied  with  hfe,  to  a  gentle 
death,  to  make  way  for  tlie  vigorous  and 
blooming.  When  she  is  angiy,  she  de- 
stroys with  pestilence  and  disease,  like  her 
brother  Apollo.  When  offended,  she  re- 
venges without  compassion.  Thus  she 
slew  Orion,  the  hunter,  from  jealousy,  be- 
cause Aurora  had  &llen  in  love  with  him ; 
so  also  the  daughters  of  Niobe,  because 
their  mother  preferred  herself  above  <La- 
tona,  &c.  In  the  Trojan  war,  both  Diana 
and  Apollo  aided  the  Trojans ;  and  in  the 
war  with  the  giants  and  Titans,  she  proved 
her  valor.  The  worship  of  Diana  was 
spread  through  all  Greece.  She  received 
many  surnames,  particularly  from  the 
places  where  her  worship  was  established, 
and  from  the  flmctions  over  which  she 
presided.  She  was  called  LucmOi  Ilythia^ 
or  Juno  Pronvba,  when  invoked  by  women 
in  child-bed,  and  Trima  when  worshipped 
in  the  croes-ways  whare  her  statues  were 
generally  erected.  She  was  8uppo€»d  to 
be  the  same  as  the  moon  and  Proserpine  or 
Hecate,  and  from  that  circumstance  slie  was 
called  Triformis ;  and  some  of  her  statues 
represented  her  with  three  heads,  that  of  a 
horse,  a  dog,  and  a  boar.  She  was  also 
called  JigroUicL,  OriMoj  7\tvric€tt  Ddioj 
CyrdhicL,  ^ricia,  &.c.  She  was  supposed 
to  •foe  the  same  as  the  bis  oi'  me  Egyp- 
tians, whose  worship  was  introduced  into 
Greece  with  that  of  Os'uris,  under  the 
name  of  ,^)oUo.  The  Artemisia  was  a 
festival  celebrated  in  honor  of  her  at 
Delphi. — ^Atfint  she  was  represented  with 
a  diadem,  afterwards  with  the  crescent 
upon  her  head,  with  bow  and  arrows,  a 
quiver  over  her  shoulders,  and  a  hght 
hunting  dress,  together  with  her  hounds. 
Her  most  famous  temple  was  at  Ephesus 
(q.  v.),  and  was  considered  one  of  the 
wonders  of  the  world.  She  was  woiship- 
ped  there  as  the  symbol  of  fruitful  nature, 
and  represented  with  many  breasts,  en- 
circled with  numerous  bands. 

Diana  of  Poitiers,  duchess  of  Valenti- 
Dois,  bom  in  1499.  She  was  the  mistress 
of  king  Henry  H  of  France,  and  de- 
scended from  the  noble  &mily  of  Poitiers, 
in  Dauphiny.    At  an  early  age,  she  mar- 


ried the  ffnmd-seneschal  of  Normaady, 
Louis  de  Brez^  became  a  widow  at  31, 
and,  some  time  afler,  tlie  mistress  of  the 
voung  duke  of  Orleans.  When  the  duke 
became  dauphin,  a  violent  hostilitv  arose 
between  Diana  and  the  duchess  of*^  Etam- 
pes,  mistress  of  Francis  I,  who  taunted 
her  rival  with  her  age.  Diana  satisfied  her 
revenge  by  baniahinff  the  duchess  on  the 
accession  of  Henry  ll  to  the  throne,  in 
1547,  in  whose  name  she  ntled  with  un- 
limited power.  Till  his  death,  in  1559, 
she  exercised  such  an  absolute  empire 
over  Ihe  king,  by  the  charms  of  her  wit 
and  grace,  that  her  superstitious  contem- 
poraries ascribed  her  power  to  magic. 
Upon  his  death,  she  retired  to  her  casde 
Anet,  where  she  established  a  charitable 
institution  for  tiie  support  of  12  widows, 
and  died  in  1566.  Medals  are  still  to  be 
seen  bearing  her  image,  trampling  under 
foot  the  god  of  love,  with  tiie  inscription, 
Ommum  victorem  vici  (I  have  conquered 
the  universal  conqueror). 

Diana's  Tree  (arbor  Diaaut^  or  silver 
tree)  is  fbrme<l  from  a  solution  of  silver  m 
nitrous  acid,  precipitated  by  quicksilver, 
and  crystallized  in  prismatic  needles, which 
are  grouped  together  in  the  form  of  a  tree. 
To  make  this  beautiful  process  of  crystalli- 
zation visible  to  the  eye,  let  a  quantity  of 
pure  silver  be  dissolved  in  nitrous  acid ; 
then  dilute  the  saturated  solution  with 
do  or  30  pcuts  of  water,  and  put  in  an 
amalgam  of  8  parts  mercury  and  1  part 
silver  leaf,  upon  which,  afler  some  days, 
crystals  are  formed.  A  little  mercury,  in 
fine  linen,  is  suspended  in  this  solution  by 
a  silk  thread,  and  the  tree  may  then  be 
withdrawn  from  the  soiution,  and  pre- 
served under  a  glass  bell.  Copper  filings 
dropped  into  a  solution  of  silvar  in  aqua 
fortis  produce  the  same  efiect ;  and  such 
trees  are  ofien  found  in  working  silver 
ore,  on  the  removal  of  the  quicksilver. 
Since  the  invention  of  the  voltaic  pile, 
scientific  men  have  succeeded  in  produc- 
ing the  tree  of  Diana  by  its  influence  on 
the  union  of  metals  with  acids.  If  the 
electric  cuirent,  for  example,  is  transmitted 
through  nitrate  of  silver,  the  needles  of 
silver  arrange  themselves  in  the  same  way 
on  the  wire  of  the  pile. 

Diapason.  By  the  term  diapason^  the 
ancient  Greeks  expressed  the  mterval  of 
the  octave.  And  certain  musical  instru- 
ment-makeis  have  a  kind  of  rule  or  scale, 
called  the  diapason^  by  which  they  deter- 
mine the  measures  of  the  pipes,  or  other 
parts  of  their  instruments.  There  is  a 
diapason  for  trumpets  and  serpenci.  Bell- 
founders  have  also  a  diapason,  for  the 


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DIAPASON— DIBDIN. 


regulation  of  the  size,  thickness,  weight, 
&C.,  of  their  bells.  Diapason  is  likewise 
the  appellation  given  to  certain  stops  in  an 
organ.    (See  Stop,) 

Diaper  (French,  diapre\ ;  so  called  from 
Yprts  (tTYpns) ;  linen  cloth  woven  in 
flowers  and  other  figures ;  the  finest  spe- 
cies of  figured  hnen  c3ter  damask.  Hence, 
as  a  verb,  it  signifies  to  diversify  or 
variegate  vnth  flowers,  or  to  imitate 
diaper. 

DiAPHRAoiff,  in  anatomy ;  a  large,  ro- 
bust, muscular  membrane  or  skin,  placed 
transversely  in  the  trunk,  and  dividilig  the 
chest  from  the  belly.  In  its  natural  situa- 
tion, the  diaphragm  is  convex  on  tlie  up- 
per side  towards  the  breast,  and  concave 
on  its  lower  side  towards  the  belly ;  there- 
fore, when  its  fibres  swell  and  contract, 
it  must  become  plain  on  each  side ;  and 
consequently  the  cavity  of  tlie  breast  is 
enlarged,  to  give  libert}'  to  the  lungs  to 
receive  air  in  inspiration ;  and  the  stom- 
ach and  intestines  are  pressed  for  the  dis- 
tribution of  their  contents ;  hence  the  use 
of  this  muscle  is  very  considerable.  It  is 
the  principal  agent  in  respiration,  particu- 
larly in  inspiration;  for,  when  it  is  in 
action,  the  cavity  of  the  chest  is  enlarged, 
particularly  at  the  sides,  where  tlie  lungs 
are  chiefly  situated;  and,  as  the  lungs 
must  always  be  contiguous  to  the  inside 
of  the  chest  and  up|)er  side  of  tlie  dia- 
phragm, the  air  rushes  into  them,  in  order 
to  fllTup  tlie  increased  space.  In  expira- 
tion, it  is  relaxed,  and  pushed  up  by  the 
pressure  of  the  abdominal  muscles  upon 
the  viscera  of  the  abdomen ;  and,  at  the 
same  time  tliat  they  press  it  upwards, 
they  pull  down  the  ril)s,  by  which  tlie 
cavity  of  the  chest  is  diminished,  and  the 
air  suddenly  pushed  out  of  tlie  lungs. 

Diatonic  (from  the  Greek) ;  a  term  in 
music,  applied  by  the  Greeks  to  that  one 
of  their  three  genera,  which  consisted,  like 
the  modem  system  of  intervals,  of  major 
tones  and  semitones.  The  diatonic  genus 
has  long  since  been  considered  as  more 
natural  than  either  the  chromatic  or  en- 
harmonic. Aristoxenus  asserts  it  to  have 
been  the  first,  and  informs  us  that  tlie 
other  two  were  formed  firom  the  division 
of  its  intervals. 

DiATONUM  Intensum,  or  Sharp  Dia- 
tonic ;  the  name  given  by  musical  tlieo- 
rists  to  tliose  famous  proportions  of  tlie 
intervals  proposed  by  Ptolemy,  in  his  sys- 
tem of  that  name ;  a  system  which,  long 
after  the  time  of  this  ancient  speculative 
musician,  was  received  in  our  counter- 
point, and  is  pronounced  by  doctor  Wallis, 
doctor  Smith,  and  the  most  learned  writers 


on  harmonics,  to  be  the  best  division  of 
the  scale. 

Diaz  ;  1.  Michael,  an  Arragonese,  com- 
panion of  Christopher  Columbus.  In 
1495,  he  discovered  the  gold  mines  of  St. 
Christopher,  in  the  new  world,  and  con- 
tributed much  to  the  founding  of  New 
Isabella,  afterwards  St.  Domingo.  He 
died  in  1512. — 2,  Bartliolomew ;  a  Portu- 
guese. In  1486,  he  was  commissioned 
by  his  government,  during  tlie  reign  of 
John  II,  to  seek  a  new  way  to  the  East 
Indiea  He  advanced  boldly  to  the  south, 
and  reached  the  southern  extremity  of 
Africa  ;  but  the  mutinous  spirit  of  his 
crew,  and  tlie  dangerous  tempests  that 
raged  there,  compeUed  him  to  return  u> 
Lisbon.  Diaz  called  the  southern  cape 
of  Africa  Cabo  dt  todoa  los  tormenios ;  but 
his  king,  John  II,  gave  it  the  name  of  the 
cape  of  Good  Hope,  convinced  that  the 
expected  way  to  India  was  now  found. 

DiB,  orDiv,  sisnifyuig  island;  the  final 
syllable  of  several  Hindoo  names,  as,  Mal- 
dives, Laccadives,  Serendib  (Ceylon). 

DiBDiN,  Charles,  bom  1748 ;  an  Eng- 
lish dramatic  manager  and  poet,  com- 
poser and  actor.  At  the  age  of  15^  he 
made  his  appearance  on  the  stage,  and 
was  early  distinguished  as  a  composer. 
He  excited  uncommon  admiration,  and 
soon  gained  friends  and  a  sufficient  sup- 
port He  invented  a  new  kind  of  enter- 
tainment, consistuig  of  music,  songs  and 
public  declamations,  which  he  wrote,  sung, 
composed  and  performed  himself,  and,  by 
this  means,  succeeded  in  amusing  the 
public  for  20  years.  His  patriotic  songs 
were  very  popular,  and  his  sea  songs  are 
still  the  favorites  of  tlic  British  navy. 
Their  favorable  influence  on  the  lower 
classes  obtaiued  him  a  pension  of  iSSGO 
from  ffovenimenL  Improvidence,  how- 
ever, Kept  him  constantly  poor.  He 
died  in  1814.  His  son,  Charles  Dibdin, 
haft  composed  and  written  many  small 
pieces  and  occasiniial  songs.  His  second 
son,  Thomas  Dibdin,  is  likewise  a  fruitful 
venter  of  tlieatrical  and  occasional  pieces. 

Dibdin,  Thomas  Frognall;  a  distin- 
guished bibliographer.  He  is  a  clergy- 
man, member  of  the  society  of  antiquities 
in  London,  and  librarian  oi  earl  Spencer, 
and,  in  tliis  oflice,  has  the  care  of  one  of 
tlie  richest  and  most  valuable  private  li- 
braries iu\he  world.  We  have  from  him 
many  estimable  works,  bibliographical  and 
bibliomanical,  of  which  we  will  mention 
the  most  hnportant : — Introduction  to  a 
Knowledge  of  rare  and  valuable  Ediuons 
of  tlie  Greek  and  Roman  Classics  (LoiMton, 
3d  edit,  18C8, 2  vols.) ;  tlic  Billiomania,  a 


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DIBDIN— DICKINSON. 


227 


bibtiographical  Romance  (London, 2d  edit., 
1811| ;  Bibliography,  a  Poem  (London, 
1812) ;  the  BiblioUieca  ^enceriana,  or  a  de- 
scriptive Catalogue  of  the  Books  printed 
in  the  15th  Century,  and  of  many  valuable 
first  Editions,  in  the  Library  of  Georee  John 
Earl  Spencer  (3  vols.,  18141  the  only  book 
of  its  kind  in  existence ;  Bibliographical 
Decameron,  or  Ten  Days'  pleasant  Dis- 
course upon  illuminated  Manuscripts,  and 
Subjects  connected  with  early  Ensraving, 
Typography  and  Bibliography  (London, 
1817,  3  vols.):  this  is  ornamented  with  a 
preat  variety  of  fine  wood  cuts  and  engrav- 
mgs,  and  is  one  of  the  master-pieces  of  tlie 
art  of  printing.  He  has  described  his  travels 
through  France  and  the  south  of  Germany 
(1818^  in  the  foUowmg  work :  A  Bib- 
liographical, Antiquarian  and  Picturesque 
Tour  in  France  and  Germany  (London, 
1821,  3  vols.,  with  numerous  engravings 
and  wood  cuts).  It  is  executed  with  simi- 
lar typographical  splendor,  but  the  con- 
tents are  inferior  to  the  beauty  of  the 
exterior.  The  author  has  made  his  col- 
lections without  choice,  and  oflen  without 
taste,  and,  in  all  that  is  not  inmiediately 
bibliographical,  he  is  a  mere  copyist ;  even 
his  bibliographical  notices  are  not  alwavs 
new  or  fully  worthy  of  credit  His  JEdes 
MhorpiantB  is  of  more  value.  It  contains 
a  supplement  to  his  BUdioUieca  Spenceria- 
no,  and  a  catalogue  of  the  pictures  in  the 
Spencer  gallery. 

DicB ;  cubical  pieces  of  bone  or  ivorjr, 
marked  with  dots  on  each  of  their  six 
fiices,  fipom  one  to  six,  according  to  the 
number  of  faces.  Sharpers  have  several 
ways  of  falsifying  dice :  1.  By  sticking  a 
hog's  bristle  in  them  so  as  to  make  them 
run  high  or  low,  as  they  please ;  2.  by 
drilling  and  loading  them  with  quicksilver, 
which  cheat  is  found  out  by  holding  them 
gently  by  two  diagonal  corners;  for,  if 
mlae,  the  heavy  sides  will  turn  always 
down;  3.  by  filing  and  rounding  them. 
But  all  these  ways  fall  far  short  of  the 
art  of  the  dice-makers,  some  of  whom 
are  so  dexterous  this  way,  that  shar()ing 
gamesters  will  give  any  money  for  their 
asnstance.  Dice  are  very  old.  The  Ro- 
man word  tessera  is  derived  from  the 
Greek  rimipti,  Ionic  for  Hwa^t,  four  ;  be- 
cause it  is,  on  every  side,  square.  Nu- 
merous passages  in  the  ancient  writers, 
and  very  many  representations  in  marble 
or  paintings,  show  how  frequent  dice- 
playing  was  among  them.  Difierent  from 
the  tenerm,  which  were  precisely  like  our 
dice,  were  tlie  tali  (which  means,  origi- 
nally, the  pastern  bone  of  .a  beast— -Greek, 
itTfAytiKoi  )•    These  were  almost  of  a  cubic 


form,  and  had  numbers  only  on  four  siden, 
lengtliwise^  Three  tessera  and  four  tali 
were  oflen  used  togetlier ;  and  the  game 
with  dice  was  properly  called  alea,  though  ^ 
aUa  afterwards  came  to  signify  any  ^nie 
at  hazard,  and  aleator^  a  gambler.  Dice- 
playing,  and  all  games  of  chance,  were 
prohibited  by  several  laws  of  the  Romans, 
except  in  December,  yet  the  laws  were 
not  strictly  observed. 

Dickinson,  John,  an  eminent  political 
writer,  was  bom  in  Maryland,  in  Decem- 
ber, 1732,  and  educated  ui  Delaware,  to 
which  province  his  parents  removed  soon 
after  his  birth.  He  read  law  in  Philadel- 
phia, ajid  resided  three  years  in  the  Tem- 
ple, London.  After  his  return  to  America, 
ne  practised  law  with  success  in  Phila 
delphia.  He  was  soon  elected  to  the 
legislature  of  Pennsylvania,  in  which  his 
superior  qualifications  as  a  speaker  and  a 
man  of  business  gave  him  considerable 
influence.  The  attempts  of  the  mother 
country  upon  the  liberties  of  the  colonies 
early  awakened  his  attention.  His  firet 
elaborate  publication  against  the  new  pol- 
icy of  the  British  cabinet  was  printed  at 
Philadelphia,  in  176.%  and  entitled,  Tfit  laU 
RegitUUtons  respecting  the  British  Cofomes 
on  the  Continent  of  America  considereiL 
In  that  year  he  was  deputed,  by  Pennsyl- 
vania, to  attend  l!ie  first  congress,  held  at 
New  York,  and  prepared  the  draft  of  the 
liold  resolutions  of  tliat  congress.  In  1766, 
he  published  a  spirited  address  on  the 
same  questions,  to  a  committee  of  corre- 
spondence in  Barbadoes.  He  next  issued 
in  Philadelphia,  in  1767,  his  celebrated 
Farmer's  Letters  to  the  Inhabitants  of  the 
British  Colonies — a  production  which  had 
a  great  influence  in  enlightening  the 
American  people  on  the  subject  of  their 
rights,  and  preparing  them  for  resistance. 
They  were  reprinted  in  London,  with  a 
preface  by  doctor  F'ranklin,  and  published 
in  French,  at  Paris.  In  1774,  Mr.  Dickin- 
son wrote  the  resolves  of  tlie  committee 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  their  instructions  to 
tlieir  representiitives.  These  instructions 
formed  a  profound  and  extensive  essay  on 
the  constitutional  power  of  Great  Britain 
over  tlie  colonies  in  America,  and  in  that 
shape  they  were  published  by  the  com- 
mittee. While  in  congress,  he  wrote  the 
Address  to  the  Inhabitants  of  Quebec; 
the  first  Petidon  to  the  King ;  tlie  Address 
to  the  Armies ;  the  second  Petition  to  the 
King,  and  the  Address  to  the  several 
States;  all  among  the  ablest  state-papers 
of  the  time.  As  an  orator,  he  had  few 
superiors  in  tliat  body.  He  |)enned  tho 
femous  Declaration  of  the  United  Colonies 


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DICKINSON— DICTATOR. 


of  North  America  (July  &  1775) ;  but  he 
opposed  tlie  declaration  or  indefiendence, 
believing  that  compromise  was  stiJl  prac- 
ticable, and  that  his  countrymen  were  not 
yet  ripe  for  a  complete  separation  from 
Great  Britain.  This  rendered  him  for  a 
time  so  unpopular,  that  he  withdrew  from 
the  public  councils,  and  did  not  recover  his 
seat  in  congress  until  about  two  yeara 
afterwards.  He  then  returned,  earnest  in 
the  cause  of  independence.  His  zeal  was 
shown  in  the  ardent  address  of  congress 
to  the  several  states,  of  May,  1779,  which 
he  wrote  and  reported.  He  was  after- 
wards president  of  the  states  of  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Delaware,  successively ;  and,  in 
the  beginning  of  1788,  being  alarmed  by 
the  hesitation  of  some  states  to  ranfy  the 
censdtution  proposed  by  the  federal  con- 
vention the  year  before,  he  published,  for 
the  purpose  of  promoting  its  adoption, 
nine  veiy  able  letters,  under  the  signature 
of  Fabius.  This  signature  he  a^n  used 
in  fourteen  letters,  published  m  1797, 
tlie  object  of  which  was  to  produce  a 
favorable  feeling  in  the  U.  States  towards 
France,  whose  revolution  he  believed  to  be 
then  at  an  end.  Before  the  period  last 
mentioned,  he  had  withdrawn  to  private 
life,  at  Wilmington,  in  the  state  or  Dela- 
ware, where  he  died,  Feb.  14, 1808.  His 
retirement  was  spent  in  literary  studies, 
in  charitable  offices  and  the  exercise  of  an 
elegant  hospitality.  His  conversation  and 
mannera  were  very  attractive;  his  coun- 
tenance and  i)erson,  uncommonly  fine.  His 
EuWic  services  were  eminent :  his  writings 
ave  been  jusdy  described  as  copious,  forci- 
ble and  correct ;  sometimes  eloquendy  rhe- 
torical and  vehement,  and  generally  rich  in 
historical  references  and  classical  quota- 
tions. 
Dickinson  College.  (See  Carlisle,) 
Dictator.  We  shall  state  finst  the 
opinions  commonly  entertained  respecting 
the  Roman  dictator,  and  afterwards  some 
of  the  views  of  Niebuhr  respecting  tiiis 
officer,  as  given  in  his  Roman  History. 
This  magistrate,  tlie  highest  in  the  Roman 
republic,  was  appointed  only  in  extraordi- 
nary emergencies,  which  demanded  the 
fullest  power  in  the  executive.  The  au- 
thority of  the  dictator  was,  therefore,  al- 
most without  restrictions  in  the  administra- 
tion of  the  state  and  of  the  army,  and  from 
it  there  was  no  ap[)eal.  It  continued  only 
ax  months.  In  fact,  tlie  dictatora  common- 
ly resigned  tlieir  office  as  soon  as  the  ob- 
ject was  accomplished  for  which  they  had 
been  appointed.  There  are  only  a  few 
instances  of  their  continuing  a  loneer 
time ;  for  example,  in  the  cases  of  Sylla 


and  of  CiEsar.  The  authority  of  all  civQ 
magistrates,  except  that  of  tribunes  of  the 
people,  immediately  ceased  on  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  dictator.  The  consuls,  in- 
deed, continued  in  the  discharge  of  their 
office ;  but  they  wer^  subject  to  the  orders 
of  the  dictator,  and  in  his  presence  had 
no  badges  of  power.  The  dictator,  on  tlie 
contrary,  both  within  and  vrithout  the 
city,  wos  attended  ly  24  lictors,  with  their 
fasces  and  axes.  He  had  the  power  of 
life  and  death,  and  was  only  restrained  in 
not  being  permitted  to  spend  the  public 
money  ubitrarily,  or  to  leave  Italy,  or  to 
enter  the  city  on  horseback.  He  might 
also  be  compelled  to  account  for  his  con- 
duct, when  he  laid  dovm  his  office.  The 
choice  of  dictator  was  not,  as  in  the  case 
of  otlier  magistrates,  decided  by  the  pop- 
ular voice,  but  one  of  die  consuls  appoint- 
ed him,  at  the  command  of  the  senate. 
The  dictator  then  selected  a  master  of  the 
horae  (magister  eqtdtum).  In  the  sequel, 
dictatora  were  alf^o  appointed  to  officiate 
in  certain  public  solemnities ;  for  example, 
to  summon  the  eomiiia  for  the  choice  of 
new  consuls,  to  arrange  the  festivals,  and 
the  fike. — ^The  remainder  of  this  article 
contains  Niebuhr's  views.  The  name  of 
dictator,  says  Niebuhr,  was  of  Ladn  ori- 
gin. The  Latins  elected  dictators  in  their 
several  cities,  and  also  over  the  whole 
nation.  If  Rome  and  Latium  were  con- 
federate states,  on  a  footing  of  equality,  in 
the  room  of  that  supremacy  which  lasted 
but  for  a  brief  space  after  tlie  revolution, 
they  must  have  possessed  the  chief  com- 
mand alternately ;  and  this  would  explain 
why  the  Roman  dictatora  w^ere  appointed 
for  only  six  months,  and  why  they  came 
to  have  twenty-four  lictors.  These  were 
a  symbol  that  the  governments  of  the 
two  states  were  united  under  the  same 
head ;  the  consuls  had  only  twelve  lictora 
between  them,  which  served  them  in  turn. 
The  dictator,  at  first,  therefore,  could  have 
had  to  take  cognizance  only  of  foreign 
aflaira ;  and  the  continuance  of  the  con- 
suls along  vrith  the  dictator  is  accounted 
for.  The  object  aimed  at  in  the  institu- 
tion of  the  dictatorahip,  was  incontestably 
to  evade  the  Valerian  laws,  and  to  re- 
establish nnlimited  authority  over  the  ple- 
beians ;  for  the  appeal  to  the  commonalty 
granted  1^  tlie  law,  was  from  tlie  sentence 
of  die  consuls,  and  not  from  that  of  this 
new  magistrate.  Even  tlie  methbera  of  tlie 
legislative  bodies,  at  firet,  had  not  tlie  right 
of  appealing  against  the  dictator,  to  their 
coimha.  This  is  expressly  asserted  by 
Festus ;  but  he  adds  that  they  afterwards 
obtained  it    This  is  confirmed  by  the  ex- 


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DICTATOR— DICTIONARY. 


229 


ample  of  M.  Fabiun,  who,  when  his  son 
was  persecuted  by  the  dictator,  appealed 
in  his  behalf  to  the  poptdus ;  to  his  peers, 
the  patricians  in  the  curu^  The  later 
Romans  had  only  an  indistinct  knowled^ 
of  the  dictatorship,  derived  from  their 
earlier  histoiy.  As  appUed  to  the  tyraimy 
of  SyUa,  and  the  monarchy  of  Ceesar,  th^ 
term  didaiorship  was  merely  a  name, 
witliout  any  ground  for  such  a  use  in  the 
ancient  constitudon.  This  last  application 
of  the  term  enables  us  to  account  for  the 
error  of  Dion  Cassius,  when,  overlooking 
the  freedom  of  the  patricians,  he  expressly 
asserts,  that  in  no  instance  was  there  a 
right  of  appealing  from  the  dictator,  and 
that  he  might, condemn  knights  and  sen- 
ators to  death  without  a  trial ;  also  for  the 
error  of  Dionysus,  in  fancying  that  he 
decided  on  every  measure  at  will,  even 
the  determination  of  peace  and  war.  Such 
notions,  out  of  which*  the  modems  have 
drawn  their  phrase,  dtcUUorial  powety  are 
suitable,  indeed,  to  Sylla  and  Caesar,  but 
do  not  apply  to  the  genuine  dicuitorship. 
The  statement  generally  contained  in  the 
books  on  Roman  antiquities,  that  the  c^ 
pointment  of  the  dictator,  in  all  cas^ 
rested  with  one  of  the  consuls,  designated 
by  the  senate,  is  incorrect.  Such  might 
possibly  be  tlie  case,  if  the  dictator  was 
lestricted  to  the  charge  of  presiding  over 
the  elections ;  but  the  disfiosal  of  kingly 
power  could  never  have  been  intrusted  to 
the  discretion  of  a  single  elector.  The 
pontifical  law-books  have  preserved  the 
true  account,  that  a  citizen  whom  tlie 
senate  should  nominate,  and  the  people 
approve  of^  should  govern  for  six  months. 
The  dictator,  afler  his  appointment,  had 
to  obtain  the  xmperivm  from  the  cwrut, 
Ab  late  as  in  444,  the  bestowal  of  the  m- 
perium  was  something  more  than  an 
empty  form ;  but  it  became  such  by  the 
Menian  law :  thenceforward  it  was  only 
necessary  that  the  consul  should  consent 
to  proclium  the  person  named  by  the  sen- 
ate. Thus,  after  that  time,  in  the  ad- 
Tanced  state  of  popular  freedom,  the  dic- 
tatorship could  occur  but  seldom,  except 
for  trivial  purposes:  if,  on  such  occasions, 
the  appointment  was  left  to  the  consuls, 
they  would  likewise  advance  pretensions 
to  exercise  it  in  the  solitary  instances 
"ndiere  the  office  still  had  any  real  impor- 
tance. However,  when  P.  Claudius  mis- 
used his  privilege  in  mockery,  the  remem- 
brance or  the  ancient  procedure  was  still 
fiesh  enough  for.  the  senate  to  annul  the 
scandalous  appointment 

DicTioNART  (from  the  Latin  tftcfto,  a 
saying,  expression,  word);  a  book  con- 

▼oi-  IT.  30 


taining  the  words,  or  subjects,  which  it 
treats,  arranged  in  alphabetical  order.  At 
least,  Uiis  should  be  the  general  principle 
of  the  arrangement;  thus  an  etymological 
dictionary  contains  the  roots  of  the  words 
in  a  language  in  this  order.  By  tEcHonanf 
is  generally  understood  a  vocabulary,  a 
collection  of  the  words  in  a  lanffuago, 
with  their  definitions ;  and  Johnson^s  and 
Webster's  definitions  of  the  word  apply 
only  to  this  use  of  it.  But  in  modem 
times,  when  the  various  branches  of  sci- 
ence have  become  so  much  extended,  and 
the  desire  of  general  knowledge  is  daily  in- 
creasing, woras  of  very  various  kinds  have 
been  prepared  on  die  principle  of  alphar 
beticat  airangeraent,  and  are  termed  die- 
Honaries.  Among  the  Greek  dictionaries, 
the  Onomastikmij  written  B.  C.  120,  by 
Julius  Pollux,  is  one  of  the  oldest,  but 
more  of  a  dictionary  of  thin^js,  or  an  en- 
cycloptedia,  tiian  a  verbal  dictionary.  He- 
s^chius  of  Alexandria,  of  whom  we  know 
htde  more  Uian  that  he  Uved  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  third  century,  was  the  nrst 
Christian  who  wrote  a  Greek  dictionary, 
wluch  he  called  Glossanum,  Afler  die 
revival  of  learning,  Johannes  Crestonus 

ICreuioinu,  JoJumnes  PlacentimUj  because 
te  was  a  native  of  Placenza)  wrote,  in 
1480,  the  first  Greek  and  Latin  dictionary. 
M.  Terentius  Varro,  bom  in  die  year  of 
Rome  638,  wrote  the  first  Latin  diction- 
ary. A  similar  one  is  that  called  Pcmjus, 
prepared  by  Solomon,  abbot  of  St.  Gall, 
bishop  of  Constance,  who  lived  about 
1409.  John  Balbus  Ide  BaUfU ;  de  Jmwa ; 
Jmwensis;  died  1298)  compiled  a  Latin 
dictionary,  printed  at  Mentz  m  1460,  under 
the  title  CathdicorL  John  Reuchliu  was 
the  first  German  who  wrote  a  Latin  dic- 
tionary. The  finst  Hebrew  dictionary  is  by 
Rabbi  Menacbem  Ben  Saruck  (Ben  Jakob), 
in  tlie  ninth  century.  Rabbi  Ben  Jechiel 
(died  in  1106)  published  the  first  Talmudic 
dictionary.  The  first  Arabic  dictionary, 
written  by  a  Christian,  was  published  bv 
Peter  de  Alcala,  in  1505,  at  Grenada,  vrith 
definitions  in  the  Spanish  language ;  an- 
other, by  Franciscus  Raphelengius  (lioro 
1539,  died  1597^  was  printed  at  Leyden, 
in  1613.  The  first  Syriac  dictionary  was 
written  by  Andrew  Masius,  in  1571,  at 
Antwerp;  the  first  iEthiopian  ancl  Ain-> 
haric,  by  Job  Ludolf,  in  the  16th  century, 
London;  the  first  Japanese,  by  John 
Ferdinand ;  the  first  German,  by  the  aroh- 
bishop  Rabanas  Maurus,  of  Mentz  (died 
859) ;  the  first  German  printed  dictionary, 
under  the  tide  TheuUmuta,  was  prepared 
by  Gerhard  von  der  Schfiren,  Cologne, 
1477 ;  the  first  Hebrew,  Greek  and  Latin 


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230 


DICTIONARY— DIDASCALIA. 


dictionary,  hy  Selmstian  Munster,  1530, 
at  Basle.  The  dictionary  of  the  Italian 
ianffuage,  which  has  the  highest  authority, 
IS  uiat  of  the  Crusco,  The  best  Frencli 
dictionary  is  that  of  tlie  academy ;  but, 
since  the  revohition,  the  language  has 
been  increased  by  the  addition  of  many 
new  words,  and  has  received  fh)m  several 
of  its  first  writers  a  new  turn.  The  Span- 
iards have  also  a  dictionary  of  the  acad- 
emy. The  Portuguese  ac^ideniy  has  pul>- 
lished  one  volume  only  of  its  dictionary. 
In  German,  no  work  of  such  authority 
exists.  Adelung  is  excellent  for  etymolo- 
gy, but  not  of  much  authority  as  a  stand- 
ard of  language.  In  this  respect,  Campe's 
HZrUHiuck  (Bnmswick,  1813,  6  vols.  4to.) 
18  more  complete.  For  Latin,  Forcellini 
is  ftill  the  l)e8t,  and  Jatnes  liai ley's  edition 
(London,  1828, 2  vols.  4to.)  is  very  excel- 
lent and  complete.  In  English,  Jolmson's 
Dictionary  was  publisiied  in  1755,  in  2  vols, 
fol.  An  Abridgment  by  the  author  a|)- 
peared  in  1756,  in  which  many  of  the  words 
were  omitted.  Mr.  Todd  has  added,  in 
his  second  edition  of  Johnson's  Dictionaiy 
(18271  more  than  15,000  words.  A  very 
uaefui  edition  of  the  Abridgment,  contain- 
ing alt  the  words  of  doctor  Johnson's  large 
dictionary,  wiMi  ilie  additions  of  Mr.  Todd, 
and  some  words  which  have  been  consid- 
ered as  Americanisms,  was  published  in 
Boston  (N.  E.),  in  1828.  The  other  Eng- 
lish dictionaries  are  of  little  comiiarative 
value,  in  res{)cct  to  language.  Walker's 
Critical  Pronouncing  Dictionary  (which  is 
inconiorated  with  the  Boston  edition  of  the 
Abridgment  of  Todd's  Johnson)  is  imnor- 
tant,  as  affonling  the  most  general  stanuard 
of  polite  pronunciation.  The  American 
Dictionary  of  the  English  Language,  in- 
tended to  exhibit  tlie  ori^n,  affinities  and 
primary  signification  of  wonls,  tlie  genuine 
orthography  and  pronunciation  of  words, 
and  accurate  ana  discriminating  defini- 
tions, by  Noah  Webster,  2  vols.  4lo.,  New 
York,  1828,  republished  in  London,  1821) 
(Abrid^ent,  8vo.,  Boston,  1829),  is  a  work 
af  merit,  and  of  great  lalxir.  It  contains 
between  60,000  and  70,000  worda  (For 
Geographical  Dictionaries,  see  Gazetteer,] 
Didactic  Poetry.  The  word  didactic 
18  derived  from  iiSanavj  to  teach ;  and  a 
didactic  poem  is  one  of  some  length,  die 
object  of  which  is  to  impart  instruction  in 
the  form  of  ])oetry.  It  is  a  matter  of  ques- 
tion, whedier  didactic  jioetry  really  deserves 
to  be  classed  with  lync,einc  and  dramatic, 
because  either  the  chief  object  of  the  poem 
k  to  give  instruction  on  a  certain  sub- 
ject, in  which  case  the  elevation,  inven- 
tion and  freedom  of  poetry  are  excluded; 


or,  if  diis  is  not  the  prominent  object,  then 
every  poem  is  more  or  less  didactic.  If 
there  are  any  poems  really  deserving  the 
name,  that  ought  to  be  called  didaciiCj  it 
is  tliose  which  veil  the  purpose  of  in- 
struction under  die  universally  admitted 
forms  of  poetic  composition,  as  in  the 
case  of  Lcssing's  drama  of  Nathan  the 
Wise ;  or  clothe  the  lessons  of  wisdom 
in  a  symbolical  or  allegorical  garb,  as  in 
the  case  of  many  visions,  &c.  Many  of 
the  early  sacred  poems  of  the  different 
nations  are,  in  this  sense,  didactic,  and 
most,  perhaps  all,  of  tliese  didactic  |)oem8 
partake  of  the  symbolical  character.  Even 
Dante's  grand  poem  (see  Dante)  would, 
in  this  point  of  view,  be  jusdy  called 
didactic.  Also  fables,  parables,  poetic 
epistles  and  descriptive  poems  are  num- 
bered, in  this  sense,  among  those  of  die 
didactic  kind. — ^There  is  htutlly  a  subject, 
however  prosaic,  mhich  has  not,  at  some 
time,  been  treated  in  a  didactic  poeniy  so 
called.  The  writer  recollects  havmg  seen 
a  long  poem  on  book-binding.  Didactic 
poetry,  taking  the  phrase  in  its  narrower 
sense,  will  always  ue  a  meager  and  poor 
kind  of  composition ;  but,  when  it  passes 
into  ])oetic  description,  it  may  attain  an 
animated  and  elevated  character.  Lively 
and  beautiful  descrijitions,  for  instance, 
exist,  of  hunting,  fishing,  husbandiv  ;  but 
it  is  not  to  be  denied,  tliat  they  lose  in 
didactic,  as  they  gain  in  poetical  character. 
E^ven  die  poem  of  Lucretius,  De  Rerum 
JS/atura,  on  the  system  of  Epicums,  and 
the  Georgics  of  Virgil,  on  husbandry, 
though  containing  i)oetical  episodes  and 
masterly  fiassages,  can  hardly  be  regarded, 
on  the  whole,  as  great  poems.  Didactic 
|K>etiy  is  most  cultivated  in  periods  when 
the  nobler  kinds  of  ])oetiy  are  declining, 
and  die  want  of  poetical  cenius  and  noble 
conceptions  is  attempted  to  be  supplied 
by  an  incongruous  mixture  of  poetry  and 
reflection.  Ovid's  Art  of  Love  partakes 
of  the  comic  character.  The  An  pottka 
of  Horace  is  of  the  didactic  kind.  Among 
die  English  didactic  poets  are  Davies, 
Akenside,  Diyden,  Pope,  Young,  Cow- 
i)er,  Darwin ;  among  the  French,  Racine, 
Boileau,  Dorat,  Lacombe,  Delille ;  among 
the  Gentians,  Opitz,  Haller,  Hagedom, 
Cronegk,  Lichtwet,  Tiedge,  &c.  Our 
objections  to  didactic  poetry  apply  to  it 
only  if  it  is  intended  to  make  a  class  sep- 
arate from  epic,  lyric  or  dramatic,  and  lias 
for  its  great  object,  to  impart  instruction 
on  a  particular  subject,  ana  not  where  the 
established  forms  of  poetic  composition  are 
employed  as  vehicles  of  instruction. 
DiDAtcALiA,  among  the  Greeks ;  some- 


Digitized  by 


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DroASCALIA— DIDEROT. 


Q31 


droes  the  exhibition  of  a  play  itself^  and 
sometimes  a  written  addition,  in  which 
infonnation  is  given  of  the  authors  and 
contents  of  the  plays,  of  the  time,  place 
and  success  of  the  representation ;  whether 
tiie  pieces  were  exhibited  or  not ;  whether 
they  were  the  work  of  the  poet  to  whom 
they  were  attributed,  &c.  Many  old  au- 
thors have  vnitten  didascalia ;  and  these 
contain,  not  merely  theatrical  infonnation, 
but  also  dramatic  criticisms,  the  analysis 
of  tlie  plan,  developenient  of  the  beauties 
and  faulty  &c.    (See  Drama,) 

Diderot,  Denis;  bom  1713,  at  Lan- 
gres,  in  Cbam{)agne,  and  educated  in  the 
school  of  tlie  Jesuits,  who  designed  to 
make  him  one  of  their  order.  His  father 
intended  that  he  should  pursue  tlie  pro- 
fession of  law,  and  committed  him  to  tiie 
instruction  of  a  Paris  attorney ;  but  tlie 
youth  found  greater  attractions  in  litera- 
ture. Neitiier  the  indignation  of  his  fadier, 
nor  his  consequent  want  of  means,  could 
deter  him  from  his  favorite  pursuit ;  and  he 
found  resources  in  his  own  taints.  He 
applied  himself  zealously  to  mathematics, 
physics,  metaphysics  and  the  belles-lettres, 
and  soon  became  distinguished  among  die 
wits  of  the  capital.  Hekid  the  foundation 
of  his  &me  by  his  Pensees  PiiUosophiques 
(1746) — a  pamphlet  against  the  Giiristian 
religion^ which  found  many  readers,  and  in 
consequence  of  which  he  was  imprisoned 
at  Vincennes :  the  parliament  caused  it  to 
be  burned  by  the  public  executioner,  llie 
applause  which  this  pamphlet  received 
encourafed  him  to  continue  in  the  same 
course ;  he  was  not  bold  enough)  however, 
to  continue  this  particular  work.  His  li- 
tres svr  les  Ao€v^leSj  a  VUsctge  de  ceux  qtd 
voyaU  (London,  1749),  contaui  attacks  upon 
the  Christian  religion.  In  his  Lettrts  sur 
Sourds  et  Mutts,  h  P  Usage  de  ceux  qui 
entendent  et  qui  padent,  he  treats  of  the 
origin  of  our  perceptions.  In  conjunction 
wiSi  Eidous  and  Toussaint,  he  published 
the  Didiomunre  universel  de  M^decine  (6 
vols,  folio).  The  success  of  this  work,  not- 
withstanmng  its  deficiencies,  determuied 
him  to  undertake  an  encyclopcedia.  Ho 
prepared  die  plan,  and  was  assisted  in  the 
execution  by  D'Aubenton,  Rousseau,  Mar- 
monte],  Le  Blond,  Le  Monnier,  and  par- 
ticularly D'Alembert,  who,  next  to  him, 
had  the  lar^t  share  in  Uiis  gi-eat  under- 
taking. Diderot  took  upon  himself  the 
preparation  of  the  articles  relating  to  the 
arts  and  trades,  and,  by  his  care  as  editor, 
supplied  many  of  the  deficiencies  of  his 
coadjutors.  (See  Encyclop<Bdia,)  The 
profit  of  his  20  years'  labor,  owing  to  his 
bad  management,  was  so  trifling,  that  he 


found  himself  compelled  to  sacrifice  his 
library.  The  empress  of  Russia  ])ur- 
chased  it  for  50,000  livres,  and  allowed 
him  the  use  of  it  for  lif^.  After  this,  Dide- 
rot visited  Petersburg ;  but,  having  offend- 
ed the  empress  by  an  equivol^al  quatrain, 
he  soon  returned  to  France^  While  en- 
gaged in  the  encycloneedio,  and  obliged 
to  encounter  many  oustocies,  which  de- 
layed the  printing  for  several  years,  he 
publislied  a  lively  but  licciittous  romance, 
Z»w  Bijoux  inUscrets ;  and  two  sentiment- 
al comedies,  Le  Fits  naturel  and  Le  Fire 
de  Famille,  They  are  often  printed  imder 
tlie  title  Thidtre  de  Diderot,  and  accom- 
panied with  a  treatise  on  the  dramatic  art, 
which  contains  many  ingenious  observa- 
tiona.  Diderot  died  in  1784.  His  char- 
acter has  Ixjen  very  differently  represented* 
His  friends  describe  him  as  ofien,  disin- 
terested and  honest ;  his  enemies,  on  the 
contrary,  accuse  him  of  cunning  and  self- 
ishness. Towards  the  end  of  his  life,  he 
had  a  quarrel  with  Rousseau,  by  whom 
be  thought  himself  calumniated,  in  which 
much  weakness  was  displayed  on  both 
sides.  Several  excellent  productions  of 
his  have  been  published  suice  his  rleath. 
Among  thein  are  his  Essai  sur  la  Feinture  ; 
likewise  a  dithyramhic  iioem,  written  in 
1772,  AhdicaJtion  d'un  Bm  de  la  Ftoe,  which 
coutains  democraticul  opinions;  and  two 
lively  tales.  La  Rdigkuse  (Paris,  1790^ 
and  Jacques  le  Fataliste  et  son  Maitre 
(Paris).  Of  Diderot  was  first  said,  what 
has  been  often  rejieated,  that  he  had  writ- 
ten some  fine  pages,  but  had  never  made 
a  good  liook.  Diderot  was  a  man  of  bril- 
liant talent  and  warm  imagination,  but 
has  not  established  a  lasting  reputation, 
either  as  a  writer  or  as  a  philosopher. 
His  works  are  deficient  in  ))lan  and  con- 
nexion, and  disfigured  with  pretension, 
olwcurity  and  arrogance,  but,  neverthe- 
less, are  characterized  by  energy,  and 
sometimes  even  by  eloquence.  They 
contain  many  happy  passages,  and  truths 
which  would  be  more  effectual  if  more 
simply  stated.  As  a  philosopher,  he  fol- 
lowed the  dictates  of  an  intemperate  hn- 
agination,  ratlier  than  tliose  of  a  sound 
reason.  He  is  always  enthusiastic,  and 
oversteps  the  bounds  of  discretion.  The 
pneral  ojiinion  entertained  respecting 
him  at  present  is,  that  he  had  much  talent, 
and  was  capable  of  waniith  and  elevation 
of  feeling,  but  that  he  was  deficient  in 
jud^nent  and  in  taste.  He  adopted  a  des- 
olating system  of  philosophy,  and  dishon- 
ored his  cause  by  the  excess  to  which  he 
carried  some  of  his  principles,  and  by  the 
licentiousness   of  his  productions.     Uo 


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DIDEROT— DroOT. 


ivasdisdiiguishecl  for  fluency  and  richness 
of coDversation.  A  complete  edition  of  his 
works  appeared  at  London,  1773,  5  parts ; 
ill  6  vols.,  Paris,  1819. 

Dido;  the  founder  of  Carthaffe.  Ac« 
cording  to  some,  she  was  the  daughter 
of  Agenor  (Belus) ;  according  to  othera,  of 
Carchedon  of  Tyre,  from  whom  Cartilage 
received  its  name.  Others  call  her  father 
Mutgo  or  Muttinus.  Her  brother  was 
Pygmalion,  Icing  of  Tyre.  Her  father 
married  her  to  Sichcus  or  Sicharbos,  one 
of  the  richest  Pbcenicians,  who  was  also 
the  priest  of  Hercules,  and  to  whom  she 
was  strongly  attached.  He  was  murdered 
before  the  altar,  by  her  brotlier,  who  was 
instigated  by  the  desire  of  makin  j^  himself 
master  of  his  wealtli.  The  sfurit  of  her 
husband  appeared  to  her  in  a  dream,  dis- 
closed the  crime,  besought  her  to  flee,  and 
informed  her  where  she  could  And  his 
trensures,  which  Pygmalion  had  sought 
in  vain.  She  therefore  set  sail  for  Africa, 
with  all  her  wealth  and  her  faithful  com- 
panions, taking  on  board  a  number  of 
young  women  at  Cyprus,  who  were  ne- 
cessary for  the  establisliment  of  a  new  col- 
ony. They  landed  on  the  coast  of  Afiica, 
not  far  from  Utica,  a  Tyrian  colony,  the 
inhabitants  of  which  received  her  with 
the  greatest  kindness,  and  advised  her  to 
settle  in  the  place  where  she  first  landed. 
Hhe  purchased  of  the  natives  a  piece  of 
land,  and  first  built  the  citadel  of  Byrsa, 
nnd  afterwards  Carthage  (q.  v.),  about 
888  B.  C,  which  soon  l^came  an  impor- 
tant place.  larbas,  a  neighboring  prince, 
])oid  his  addresses  to  her.  Unwilling  to 
accept,  and  unable  to  refuse  the  proposal, 
she  sacrificed  her  life  on  the  funeral  pile. 
Virgil  attributes  her  death  to  the  faitliless- 
ness  ofJEneaB ;  but  the  story  of  the  meet- 
ing of  iEneas  and  Dido  is  a  ]joetical  fic- 
tion, as  she  lived  more  than  200  years 
later  than  the  hero  of  the  iEneid. 

DiDOT.  This  family  of  printers  and 
booksellers  at  Paris  have  distinguished 
themselves  by  their  liberality  and  skill  in 
their  ait,  and  by  tlieir  many  fine  works, 
so  that  they  may  be  justly  ranked  with  the 
Ela^evirs. — 1.  Francois-Ambrose,  son  of 
the  printer  and  booKseller  Francois  Didot, 
boni  inl730,  iuvented  many  of  the  machines 
and  instruments  now  commonly  used  in  the 
typographic  art  From  his  foundery  came 
the  most  beautiful  types  that,  up  to  that 
period,  had  been  used  in  France,  and  he  was 
tlie  fiiBt  person  in  France  who  printed  on 
vellum  paper.  He  took  the  greatest  care 
to  have  his  editions  correct.  By  tlie  di- 
rection of  Louis  XVI,  he  printed  a  collec- 
tkuki  of  the  French  classics,  for  the  use  of 


the  dauphin.  The  count  d'Artois  em- 
ployed him  to  print  a  similar  coUection. 
He  died  in  1804.— 2.  Pierre-Francois  Di- 
dot, brother  of  tlie  former,  succeeded  Lis 
father  in  the  bookselliue  business,  ood 
distinguished  himself  by  his  bibliographi- 
cal knowledge.  He  also  became  pnnter  to 
Monsieur,  since  Louis  XVHL  He  had  a 
great  share  in  the  changes  made  in  the 
character  of  types,  and  contributed  to  the 
advancement  of  bis  ait  He  published 
some  very  fine  editions ;  amonff  them  the 
Voyages  (TAnaduarsU.  He  died  in  1795. — 
3.  Pierre  Didot  the  elder,  who  has  carried 
his  art  to  perfection,  son  of  Francois-Am- 
brose, bom  in  1761,  succeeded  his  father 
in  the  printing  business  in  1789.  His  firat 
work  was  to  finish  the  collection  for  the 
dauphin,  begun  by  the  latter.  But  he  was 
not  satisfied  witli  accomplishing  tiiis.  In 
the  universal  impulse  which  tlie  arts  re- 
ceived from  the  revolution,  he  aimed  at 
becoming  the  Bodoni  of  France,  and  con- 
ceived the  plan  of  a  splendid  edition  of  the 
classic  authors  in  folio,  which  should  ex- 
cel, if  possible,  die  best  editions  extant. 
He  spared  no  expense  to  adorn  them  with 
all  the  splendor  and  elegance  of  the  ana 
of  design,  and  availed  hunself  of  the  aid 
of  the  first  masters.  He  even  sacrificed  a 
part  of  his  property  to  this  favorite  object, 
liis  Vii^  (1798^  was  worthy  of  these 
endeavors,  and  still  more  so  his  Racine  of 
1801,  which  the  French  regard  as  the 
first  typographical  production  of  any  age 
or  country.  Onlv  ^250  copies  of  these 
works  were  struck  ofi*.  Among  tiie  pro- 
ductions of  his  press,  Visconti's  Iconog- 
raphy is  particularly  distinguished.  Didot 
devoted  the  efibrts  of  10  years  to  the  im- 
provement of  the  types,  and  caused  IB 
diflerent  sorts,  with  new  proportions,  to 
be  cut,  with  which  he  printed  Boileau  and 
the  Henriade  in  1819.  Didot  paid  no  less 
attention  to  correctness  and  purity  of  text, 
and  perfect  consistency  of  orthographyy 
tlian  to  typographical  beauty.  He  is  also 
known  as  an  author.  He  has  written 
prefaces,  in  Latin,  to  Virgil  and  Horace, 
and  is  the  author  of  several  works  in 
French,  poetry  as  well  as  prose.  He  has 
received  marks  of  honor  Irom  the  repub- 
lic, from  Napoleon,  and  from  Louis  X  VIII ; 
tlie  latter  conferred  on  him  the  order  of 
St  Michael. — 4.  Firmin  Didot,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  printer  and  type-founder. 
He  is  the  inventor  of  a  new  sort  of  writing 
and  of  stereotype  printing.  (See  Prcnt- 
ing).  In  18%,  he  publislied  JVbUs  (Pun 
Voyage  dans  U  Levanty  en  1816  ei  1817» 
of  wliich  he  is  the  author. — 5.  Heniy 
Didot,  son  of  Pierre-Fran^ois^and  nephevir 


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DIDOT— DIEMEN'S  LAND. 


233 


of  the  two  preceding)  early  distioguished 
himself  as  a  type-engiuver.  He  then  ap- 
plied himself  particularly  to  improve  the 
metho<l  of  founding  ty(>e8,  m  which  he 
Rucceeded  by  the  invention  of  a  new 
founding  apparatus.  He  calls  his  process 
Jbndarie  jMUuamatifpe,  It  is  more  expedi- 
tious than  ine  former  mode,  and  tlie  types 
ore  much  cheaper. 

DiDYMfEus ;  a  surname  of  Apollo,  either 
because  he  was  the  twin-brother  of  Diana, 
or  from  tlie  double  light  of  the  sun  and 
moon,  which  he  lends  to  men.  Under 
this  name,  Apollo  had  one  of  the  most 
famous  of  his  temples  and  an  oracle  at 
Didyma,  among  the  Milesians.  Pindar 
calls  Diana  Didyma. 

Die.  (See  Architecture^  page  338,  right 
columrL) 

DiEBiTscH,  Sabal  Kanski,  count.  (See 
Turkey,  and  Russia^  towards  the  end.) 

DiEMEN,  Anthony  van ;  governor-gen- 
eral of  the  Dutch  East  Indies;  bom  1.5i)3, 
at  Cuylenburg.  Having  been  unsuccess- 
ful as  a  merchant,  and  pressed  by  his 
creditors,  he  went  to  India,  where  his 
excellent  penmanship  procured  him  the 
place  of  a  clerk,  and  he  speedily  rose  to 
the  highest  dignity.  He  administered  the 
government  with  much  ability,  and  con- 
tributed much  to  the  establishment  of  the 
Dutch  commerce  in  India.  Al^el  Tasman, 
whom  he  sent  witli  a  vessel  to  the  South 
seas,  in  1642,  gave  tlie  name  of  Van  Die- 
mtn*9  Land  to  a  country  long  reg-anled  as 
a  port  of  New  Holland,  but  since  found  to 
be  an  island ;  he  likewise  discovered  New 
Zealand.  Another  navigator,  whom  he 
sent  out,  made  discoveries  in  the  ocean 
north  of  Japan,  which  have  been  con- 
firmed by  voyages  in  our  days.  A  part 
of  the  north-western  portion  of  New 
Holland,  which  is  also  called  Vcm  Die- 
maC9  Land,  was  probably  discovered 
later;  perhaps,  also,  by  Tasman.  Van 
Diemen  died  in  ]645w 

Diemen's  (Van)  Land  ;  an  island  in  the 
Southern  ocean,  separated  from  New 
Holland  by  a  navigable  canal  called  BoM^a 
stntiis.  The  country  was  first  discovered 
in  1633,  by  Abel  Janson  Tasman,  a  Dutch 
navigator,  who  called  it  Van  DiemerCs 
Land,  adfter  the  governor  of  Batavia,  Van 
Diemen  (see  Diemen).  In  1773,  it  was  vis- 
ited by  captain  Fumeaux,  and  by  captain 
Cook  in  1777 ;  since  which  period  it  has 
been  visited  by  different  navigators.  Sev- 
eral colonies  have  been  sent  from  the 
ori^nal  establishment  made  bv  tlie  British 
at  Port  Jackson,  to  this  island.  In  1804, 
Hobart's  Town  was  founded  on  this  island 
by  the  English,  about  0  miles  up  the  Der- 
30 


went;  and  another  settlement,  namely, 
Launceston,  was  founded  about  30  miles 
from  the  mouth  of  Port  Dalrymule,  and 
130  miles,  in  a  straight  Une,  fi-om  llobart's 
Town.  Van  Diemeii's  Land  is  situated 
between  40^  42^  and  43^  S.  lat.,  and  be- 
tween 145«  31'  and  148«  23^  E.  Ion.  It 
contains  23,437^  square  miles,  and  had,  in 
1821),  20,000  inhabitants.  The  island  is 
divided  into  two  counties,  Cornwall  and 
Buckingham.  It  has  not  so  discouraging 
and  repulsive  an  ap|>earance  from  the 
coast  as  New  Holland.  Many  fine  tracts 
of  land  are  found  on  the  very  borders  of 
tlie  sea,  and  the  interior  is  almost  invari- 
ably posscHsed  of  soil  adapted  to  all  tlie 
puqioses  of  civilized  man.  This  island 
18,  uj)on  the  whole,  mountainous,  with 
some  peaks  of  considerable  elevation, 
and  consequently  aliounds  in  streams. 
Of  tlicse,  the  Derwcnt,  Huon  and  Tamer 
rank  in  the  first  class.  There  is,  {jerhape, 
no  island  in  the  world,  of  the  same  size, 
which  can  boast  of  more  fine  harbors : 
the  best  are  the  Dcrwent,  Port  Davy, 
Macquarie  harlx)r,  Port  Dairy mple  and 
Oyster  bay.  There  is  ahnost  a  peifect 
resemblance  between  the  animals  and 
vegetables  found  here  and  in  New  Hol- 
land. In  tlie  animals,  in  particular,  there 
is  scarcely  any  voriation.  The  native  dog, 
indeed,  is  unknown  here ;  but  there  is  an 
animal  of  the  pantlier  tribe  in  its  stead, 
which,  though  not  found  in  such  numbers 
as  the  native  dog  is  in  New  Holland,  com- 
mits dreadful  havoc  among  the  flocks. 
Kangaroos  are  most  abundant  In  the 
feathered  tribes  of  the  two  islands,  there 
is  scarcely  any  diversity ;  of  diis  the  wat- 
tle binl,  which  is  about  die  size  of  a  snijie, 
and  considered  a  very  great  delicac}',  is 
the  only  instance  that  can  be  cited.  The 
climate  is  equally  healthy,  and  much  more 
congenial  to  the  £uro|)ean  constitution 
than  that  of  Port  Jackson.  In  tliis  island, 
as  in  New  Holland,  there  is  every  diversity 
of  soil ;  but,  in  proportion  to  tlie  surface 
of  the  two  countries,  this  contains,  com- 
paratively, much  less  of  an  indifferent 
auality.  Barley  and  oats  arrive  at  great  [ler- 
tection.  The  wheat,  too,  is  of  a  superior 
description,  not  subject  to  the  weevil,  and 
generally  yields  from  60  to  65  pounds  a 
busliel.  It  is  frequently  exported  to  Syd- 
ney, Isle  de  France,  Cape  of  Good  Hopo 
and  Rio  Janeiro.  The  fmits  raised  here 
are  the  apple,  currant,  gooseberry,  and, 
indeed,  all  the  fruits  not  requiring  a  warm 
climate.  The  settlements  have  been  in- 
fested, for  many  years,  by  banditti  com* 
posed  of  niuaway  convicts,  known  by  the 
name  of  bush-rangers.     The  aborigines 


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DIEWUEN^  LAND— DIES  DLffi. 


are  but  few,  and  have  much  more  reeem- 
blaBce  lo  tne  Negro  race  than  to  the  abo- 
rigines ot  Nvw  South  Wales  :  they  have 
woolly  hair,  are  not  quite  black,  paint 
tlieraselved  all  over  with  grease  and  cliar- 
coal,  are  tall,  and  both  the  sexes  go  quite 
naked,  or  covered  only  with  a  kangaroo 
8kin.  The  English  colony,  one  of  those 
to  which  convicts  are  exported,  has  grown 
rapidly  within  a  few  years,  and  the  settle- 
ments* have  increased  to  a  considerable 
number.  This  colony  has,  of  late,  at- 
tracted much  attention ;  and,  fit>m  its 
natural  advantages,  must  become  a  very 
important  commercial  settlement  The 
following  particulars  respecting  it  are  ex- 
tracted from  tlie  Hobart^s  Town  Almanac, 
for  tiie  year  18S9,  printed  at  Hobart's 
Town : — The  island  is  under  a  lieutenant- 
governor,  assisted  by  an  executive  and 
legislative  council,  a  supreme  court,  hav- 
ing civil,  criminal  and  ecclesiastical  juris- 
diction, a  court  of  requests,  &c.  There  is 
a  grammar  school  at  Hotxirt's  Town,  the 
seat  of  government,  and  several  king's 
schools,  tor  the  education  of  aU  classes  of 
children.  The  government  have  herds 
here.  Cattle  thrive  excellently,  and  the 
wool  of  the  island  promises  to  be  very  fine 
and  very  abundant :  great  quantities  have 
l)een  already  export^  to  England.  In 
1829,  the  island  contained  500,000  sheep 
and  70,000  honied  cattle.  We  were  struck 
with  finding,  in  the  statistical  statements 
respecting  this  new  and  thinly  settled 
colony,  a  characteristic  trait  of  English 
usages,  in  the  shape  of  a  list  of  annual 
pensions.  The  amount  is  by  no  means 
small,  being  £1972  lOf.,  divided  among 
14  people,  among  whom  are  a  retired 
lieutenant-governor,  with  £500 ;  a  deputy 
judge-advocate,  with  £400 ;  some  retired 
pilots,  with  £2i5  each ;  retired  constables 
with  £10,  &c.,  annually !  The  following 
numbers  are  drawn  fi^om  the  most  authen- 
tic sources,  as  statistics  of  Van  Diemen's 
Land,  Jan.  1,1829: 

Inhabitants  of  Hobart's  Town,  5,700 

Launceston,  1,000 

setded  districts  and 

townships,  13,000 

Circular  Head,  3C0 

Total  number  of  inhabitants,  20,000 

Of  whom  there  are  male  adults,  12,000 

Female  adults,  4,800 

Children  at  school,  1,200 

Children  classically  educated,  120 

Aborigines  in  the  woods,  600 

Total  territory,  in  acrea^  15,000,000 

Pasture,  6,000,000 


Arable  land,  1,500,000 

Rocky  and  thickly-wooded  hills,  7,500,000 
Total  amount  of  acres  granted,  1,1 21,548 
Acres  not  yet  granted,  13^8,452 

Total  amount  of  acres  cultivated,  30,150 
Total  of  imports  in  1828,  £300,000 

Total  of  exports  in  1828,  £100,000 

Expenditure  of  goveniment,  £170,000 
Total  circulating  medium,  £100,000 

Colonial  interest,  10  per  cent ;  insurance 
to  or  fit)m  England,  3  guineas  per  cent 
The  mail-bag  is  mostly  carried  on  foot 
The  coins  of  England,  the  East  Indies 
and  Spain  are  current  Attempts  have 
been  made  to  introduce  steam  navigation 
on  the  Derwent  There  are  several  hbra- 
ries,  and  nine  newspapers  and  other 
periodicals.  Some  of  the  highest  moun- 
tains are  the  Southern  mountains,  near 
Port  Davy,  5000  feet  high;  Quamhy's 
blufif,  3500  feet;  Table  mountain,  3800 
feet;  peak  TeneriflTe,  or  Wylde's  craig, 
4500  feet ;  mount  Wellington,  4C00  feet 

Dieppe  ;  a  seaport  town  of  France,  in 
Upper  Normandy,  m  the  department  of 
Seine-Inf^rieure,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Arques  or  Bethune,  on  the  Channel ;  lat 
49°  55^  34"  N.;  Ion.  P  4f  44"  E. ;  wi\h 
20,000  inhabitants.  Its  streets  are  toler- 
ably regular:  the  principal  public  build- 
ings are  the  parish  church  of  St  James, 
and  the  old  castle  on  the  west  side  of  tlie 
town.  There  are  here  several  small 
squares,  and  the  ramparts  form  a  pleasant 
promenade.  The  haiiior,  though  tolerably 
commodious,  is  narrow.  Here  is  a  nav- 
igation school.  12il  leagues  N.  W.  Rou- 
en;  34  N.  Paris.  The  commerce  of  Di- 
eppe is  considerable,  and  employs  80  ves- 
sels. It  was  founded  by  fishennen,  in  the 
14th  century.  Canada  was  discovered  by 
the  inhabitants  of  Dieppe,  and  the  first 
French  setders  on  the  coast  of  Afiica  were 
also  fix)m  this  place. 

Dies  iRic ;  the  first  words  of  a  Latia 
hymn,  describing  the  final  judgment  of  the 
world.  It  is  ascribed  to  Thomas  de  Co&- 
lano,  a  Minorite,  who  lived  in  the  ]3tb 
centuiy.  It  is  a  beautiful  poem,  belonging 
to  those  early  Christian  songs,  which  com- 
bine the  smoothness  of  rhyine  with  the 
gravity  of  Latin  verse.  This  powerful 
poem  makes  a  part  of  the  requiem  (the 
mass  for  the  souls  of  the  dead) ;  and  it  ia 
one  of  the  highest  and  most  difiicult  tasks 
for  the  composer  to  compose  music  adapt- 
ed to  the  awful  solemnity  of  the  subject. 
Who  ever  has  heard  Mozart's  Tuha  mirum 
spargens  «onum,  without  beine  reminded 
of  the  tnimp  which  shall  echo  Qirough  the 
tombs  on  the  judgment-day  ?  Gothe  has 
happily  introduced  a  few  stanzas  of  this 


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DIES  nL£— DIETSCH. 


939^ 


poem  in  his  FausL  Ab  this  hymn  consti- 
tutes the  chief  part  of  the  requiemi  and  is, 
at  the  same  time,  a  fine  example  of  a 
whole  class  of  poetry,  little  kiiown  in  this 
young  and  Protestant  country,  we  have 
quoted  it  at  length. 

Dies  inSf  dies  ilia 
Solvet  saecium  in  favilla. 
Teste  David  cum  Sibylla. 

Quantas  tremor  est  futuras, 
Quando  Judex  est  venturus, 
Cuncta  stride  discussonis ' 

Tuba  minim  spargens  sonom 
Per  sepulchra  regionum, 
Cogei  omnes  ante  thronam. 

Mors  stnpebit,  et  natora, 
Cum  resui^gBt  creatura, 
Judicanli  responsura. 

Liber  soriptus  proferetur, 
In  QUO  totum  contineiar, 
Unde  mundus  judicetur. 

Judex  erffo  cum  sedebit 
Quidquicflatet  apparebit. 
Nil  inultum  remauebit 

Quid  sum  miser  tunc  dictums  f 
Quem  patronum  rogatums. 
Cum  vix  Justus  sit  securus  i 

Rex  tremendee  majestatis^ 
Qui  salvandos  salvas  gratis, 
Salva  mt,  fons  pietatis. 
Recordare,  Jesu  pie, 
Quod  sum  causa  tuse  vis, 
Ne  me  perdas  ilia  die. 
Quaerens  me  sedisti  lassos, 
Redemisti  crucem  passus, 
Tantus  labor  non  sit  cassus. 

Juste  judex  oltionis, 
'  Dooum  fac  remissioniSi 
Ante  diem  rationis. 

Inpemisco  tanqmn  rem, 
Culpa  nibet  vultus  mens : 
Supplicant!  parce,  Deos. 

Qui  Mariam  absoHsti, 
Et  latronem  exaudisti, 
Mihi  quoque  spem  dedisti. 

Preces  roee  non  sunt  dignae, 
Sed  tu,  bone,  fac  benigne, 
Ne  perenni  cremer  igue. 


Inter  ores  locum  praesta, 
£t  ab  hsedis  me  sequestra] 
Statuens  in  parte  dextra. 


Conibtatis  maledictts^ 
Flammis  acribos  addictis 
Voca  me  cum  benedictit. 

Oro  supplex,  et  accHnis^ 
Cor  contritom  quasi  ciuB, 
Gere  coram  met  finis. 

Lacrymosa  dies  ilia 
Qua  resuiget  ex  favills. 

Ju<ficandtt8  homo  reus, 
Huic  efgo  parce  Deus. 

Pie  Jmu,  Domioe,  dona  da  requiem.  Amen. 


Diet,  Geehait,  (See  Gtrmmiy  and 
German  Confederacy.) 

Diet  op  HuNOAaT.    (See  Huneanf.) 

Diet  of  Poland.    (See  Poland,) 

Diet  [dieta).  The  dietetic  part  of  medi- 
cine is  an  iiuportaDt  branch,  and  seeins  to 
require  a  much  creater  share  of  attention 
than  it  commonly  meets  with.  A  great 
variety  of  diseases  might  be  removed  by 
the  observance  of  a  proper  diet  aiid  regi- 
men, without  the  aasistauce  of  medicine, 
were  it  not  for  the  impatience  of  tiie  suf- 
ferers. It  may,  however,  ou  all  occasions, 
come  in  as  a  proper  assistant  to  the  cure. 
That  food  is,  in  general,  thought  the  best 
and  most  conducive  to  long  life,  which  is 
most  simple,  ptire,  and  free  from  irritating 
qualities,  and  is  capable  of  being  mont 
easily  converted  into  the  substance  of  the 
body  after  it  has  been  duly  pre|Nired  by  the 
artof  cookeiy ;  but  the  nature,  composition, 
virtues,  and  uses  of  particular  aliments  can 
never  be  learnt  to  satistaction,  without  the 
assistance  of  practical  chemistry. 

Diet  Drink  ;  an  alterative  decoction 
employed  daily  in  considerable  quantities, 
at  least  from  a  pint  to  a  quart.  The  de- 
coction of  sarsaparilla  and  inezereon,  the 
Lisbon  diet  drink,  is  the  most  common 
and  most  useful 

Dietalia  Acta  ;  the  records  of  the 
Hungarian  diet,  written  in  Latin,  in  which 
language  the  discusaons  of  the  diet  take 
place.  The  discussions  are  not  public, 
and  the  records  are  only  given  to  members 
of  the  diet,  and  a  few  other  persons 
through  them. 

Dietrich,  John  William  Einst  (who, 
from  eccentricity,  often  wrote  his  name 
DieUricy);  a  famous  German  painter  of 
the  18th  century.  He  was  bom  in  171^ 
His  father,  John  Greorge,  was  also  a  skil- 
ful painter,  and  instructed  liis  son  tiU  he 
was  12  years  old,  when  he  sent  liim  to 
Dresden,  and  placed  him  under  the  care 
of  Alexander  Thiele.  The  picture  of  a 
peasant  drinking,  in  the  Dutch  style,  exe- 
cuted by  Dietrich  while  a  l)oy,  is  in  tlie 
royal  cabinet  of  engra^ngs  at  Dresden. 
He  succeasfully  imitated  Raphael  and 
Mieris,  Correggio  and  Ostade.  His  paint- 
ings are  scattered  throucb  almost  all  Ku* 
rope.  In  the  Dresden  galkry  there  are  34  of 
them.  Some  of  his  dengns  are  in  the  cabi- 
net of  engravings  in  that  place,  and  some 
in  private  collections.    He  died  in  1774 

DiETScH,  Barbara  R^na  ;  a  distin- 
ffuished  female  painter  of  the  celebrated 
lamily  of  artists  of  that  name.  She  was 
bom  at  Nuremburg  in  1716^  and  died  in 
1783.  Notwithstanding  many  invitations 
to  different  courts,  which  her  talents  pro- 


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DlETSCH— DIGBY. 


cured  her,  she  preferred  to  remain  in  tho 
modest  obscurity  of  private  Dfe. — Her  sis- 
ter, Margaret  Barbara,  was  bom  in  1726, 
and  died  in  17dS.  She  painted  flowers, 
binls,  &C. 

DiEu  ET  MOW  Droit  [French  ;  signify- 
ing, God  and  my  right) ;  tlie  motto  of  the 
arms  of  England,  first  assumed  by  Rich- 
an!  I,  to  intimate  that  he  did  not  bold  his 
empire  in  vassalage  of  any  mortal.  It 
was  afterwards  taken  by  Edward  III,  and 
was  cctitinued  without  interruption  to  the 
time  of  William  III,  who  used  the  motto  Je 
maintiendrcyf  though  tlie  former  was  still 
retained  upon  the  great  seal.  After  him, 
queen  Anne  used  tlie  motto  Semper  eadem^ 
which  had  been  before  used  oy  queen 
Elizabeth ;  but  ever  since  the  time  of 
queen  Anne,  Dieu  et  man  droit  has  been 
the  royal  motto. 

DiEZ,  Juan,  or  John  Martin  ;  a  Spanish 
partisan  officer,  distinguished  for  his  con- 
duct during  the  French  invasions  of  his 
native  country.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
peasant,  and  bom  in  the  district  of  Valla- 
dolid,  ui  Old  Castile,  in  1775.  On  the' 
proclamation  of  war  against  France,  after 
tlie  revolution,  he  again  entered  the  army, 
as  a  private,  in  the  Spanish  dragoons.  He 
served  till  tlie  restoration  of  peace,  when 
he  returned  home,  married,  and  resumed 
his  agricultural  employment  Patriotism 
and  a  love  of  enterprise  drew  him  from  his 
peaceful  labors  on  the  invasion  of  the  ter- 
ritory of  Spain  by  Napoleon.  In  1808,  he 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  a  party  of 
four  or  five  of  his  neighbors,  and  com- 
menced hostilities  against  tlie  enemy,  kill- 
ing their  couriers,  and  thus  obtaining  a 
supply  of  horses,  arms,  and  ammunition. 
After  the  atrocities  committed  by  the 
French  at  Madrid  May  2,  a  spirit  of  resent- 
ment was  excited  in  the  country,  and 
Martin,  procuring  associates,  prosecuted 
his  system  of  annoyance  and  extermina- 
tion against  the  French.  At  this  period, 
he  ac(^uired  the  appellation  of  d  Empeci- 
no^,  from  the  darLnessofhis  complexion. 
With  the  increase  of  his  band,  he  extended 
his  operations,  and,  besetting  the  roads, 
intercepted  tlie  couriers  of  the  enemy, 
seized  their  convoys,  and  harassed  their 
small  parties.  At  first,  he  neither  gave 
Ror  expected  quarter ;  but  at  length,  find- 
ing himself  at  the  head  of  forty-eight  well- 
armed  men,  he  no  longer  pursued  that 
barbarous  practice.  In  September,  1809, 
with  170  men,  all  mounted,  he  passed 
into  the  province  of  Guadalaxare  to  check 
the  inroads  of  the  enemy.  He  was  after- 
wards employed  under  the  orders  of  the 
commander-in-chief  of  the  second  army ; 


and,  the  value  of  his  services  being  appre- 
ciated, he  was  at  length  made  a  brigadier- 
geneial  of  cavalry.  The  French  troops 
sent  against  him  were  almost  unifomily 
defeat^ ;  but,  on  one  occasion,  he  was 
overpowered,  and  only  eaca\)eA  falling 
into  their  hands,  by  leaping  down  a  dan- 
gerous precipice.  He  attended  the  duke 
of  Wellington  in  triumph  to  Madrid,  after  ^ 
the  exputeion  of  the  French,  and,  some ' 
time  after,  received  his  commands  to  join 
the  second  anny  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Tortosa,  at  the  head  of  4850  men,  horse 
and  foot  All  the  services  of  this  brave 
officer,  during  the  war  which  preceded 
the  restoration  of  Ferdinand,  could  not 
atone  for  the  crime  of  opposing  the  inva- 
sion of  tlie  liberties  of  Spain,  &er  the  re- 
tum  of  that  prince.  The  Emnecinado  hod 
laid  down  his  arms  on  the  faitii  of  a  treaty ; 
notwithstanding  which,  he  was  seized  and 
executed  at  Rueda,  August  19, 1825,  with 
circumstances  of  insulting  cmelt}'  highly 
disgraceful  to  his  persecutors.  As  the 
originator  of  that  system  of  desultory  war- 
fare which  contributed  much  to  the  ex- 
Eulsion  of  the  invading  army  from  Spain, 
^iez  has  strong  claims  to  notice.  His 
natural  talents  were  not  assisted  by  educa- 
tion, as  he  could  write  no  more  than  his 
name ;  his  manners  were  rude,  and  his 
temper  violent ;  yet  he  was  partial  to  the 
society  of  well-informed  persons,  and  dis- 
posed to  attend  to  their  advice ;  while,  with 
the  greatness  of  mind  which  characterizes 
conscious  worth,  he  never  scmpled  to 
acknowledge  his  humble  origin,  or  the 
limited  sphere  of  his  information. 

Differential  Calculus.  (See  Cal- 
adua.) 

DioAMMA,  in  the  Greek  language.  In 
addition  to  ^e  smooth  and  rough  breath- 
ings, the  ancient  Greek  language  had  an- 
other, which  remained  longest  among  tlie 
iEolians.  This  is  most  commonly  called, 
from  the  appearance  of  the  character  used 
to  denote  it,  a  dtgammoj  that  is,  double  r. 
It  was  a  tme  consonant,  and  appears  to 
have  had  the  force  off  or  v.  It  was  at- 
tached to  several  words,  which,  in  the 
more  familiar  dialect,  had  the  smooth  or 
rough  breatliing.  The  whole  doctrine, 
however,  of  the  digamma,  for  want  of 
literaiT  monuments,  remaining  fiom  the 
periocl  when  it  was  most  in  use,  is  ex- 
ceedingly olxtcure.  (See  Buttmann's  Greek 
Grammar^  from  the  German,  by  Ed.  Ev- 
erett, 2d  edit  Boston,  1826.) 

DioBT,  sir  Kenehn,  the  eldest  son  of 
the  unfortunate  sir  Everard  Digby,  was 
bom  at  Gothuret,  in  Buckinghamshire,  in 
1603.    He  was  educated  in  the  Protestant 


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DIGBY— DIGESTION- 


f&r 


reGsioiif  and  entered  at  Gloucester  hall, 
OxrorcL  On  his  return  from  his  travelsy 
he  brought  back  with  him  a  recipe  for 
makhig  a  sympathetic  powder  for  the  cure 
of  wounds,  being  much  addicted  to  the 
philosophy  which  employed  itself  m  al- 
ciiymy  and  occult  qualinea.  On  the  ac- 
cession of  Charles  I,  he  was  created  a 
gentleman  of  the  bed-chamber,  a  commis- 
sioner of  tlie  navy,  and  a  governor  of  the 
Trinity  house.  He  soon  after  fitted  out 
a  small  squadron  at  his  own  expense,  to 
cruise  against  the  Algerines  and  Venetians, 
and  obtained  some  advantages  over  the 
shipping  of  both  these  powers.  He  re- 
turned with  a  great  increase  of  reputation, 
and,  having  a  good  address  and  a  grace- 
ful elocution,  with  a  fine  perM>n  and  an 
imposiug  manner,  he  made  a  considerable 
figure.  On  a  visit  to  France,  he  was 
converted  to  tlie  Catholic  religion.  On 
tlie  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war,  he  was 
committed  prisoner  to  Winchester  house, 
where  he  amused  himself  by  writing  ob- 
servations on  the  Reiigio  Medici  of  sir 
Thomas  Browne,  and  on  the  ninth  canto 
of  the  Fairy  Queen,  in  which  Spenser 
has  introduced  some  mysterious  matter  in 
regard  to  numbers.  Bein^  liberated,  he 
pwsed  into  France,  and  visited  Descartes, 
In  1646,  he  printed  at  Paris  his  own  philo- 
sophical syttem,  in  two  works,  entitled  a 
Treatise  on  the  Nature  of  Bodies,  and  a 
Treatise  on  the  Nature  and  Oiieration  of 
the  SouL  In  1651,  he  also  published  In- 
wtUuUonum  Perwatkieantmf  cum  Appendkt 
ihitologiea  de  Origine  MtmdL  All  these 
treatises  are  written  in  the  spirit  of  the 
corpuscular  philosophy,  which  they  sup- 
port with  more  leamuig  and  ingenuity 
than  solidity  or  force.  After  die  ruin  of 
the  royal  cause,  he  returned  to  England  to 
compound  for  his  estate,  but  was  not  al- 
lowed to  remain.  He  resided  in  the  soutli 
of  France  in  1656  and  1657,  and  produced 
at  Mont|)ellier,  a  Discourse  on  the  Cure  of 
Wounds  by  Sympathy.  On  tlie  restora- 
tion, he  retunied  to  England,  became  a 
member  of  the  royal  society,  and  was 
much  visited  by  men  of  science.  He  mar- 
ried a  lady  who  was  highly  distinguished 
for  beauty,  and,  in  other  res|iecta,  almost  as 
singular  as  hunself.  Of  tiits  lady,  Venetia 
Dxgby,  a  great  many  pictures  and  busts 
are  extant ;  but  she  died  while  still  youuff. 
Sir  Kenelm  died  in  1665,  at  the  age  of  63. 
Dieer,  brd  George,  son  of  John,  earl 
of  Bristol,  was  bom  during  liis  fiulier's 
embassy  to  Madrid  in  1612.  He  distin- 
guished himself  much  while  at  Magdalen 
college,  Oxford,  and,  in  tiie  beginumg  of 
the  long  parliament,  opposed  the  court,  but 


seceded  from  the  opposition,  on  the  i 
ures  against  the  eari  of  Straftbrd.  He 
then  distinguished  himself  as  warmly  on 
the  side  of  die  king,  and  was  made  secre- 
tary of  suite  in  1643.  After  the  deatii  of 
Ciiarles,  he  was  excepted  from  pardon  by 
the  parliament,  and  was  obliged  to  live  in 
exile  until  the  restoration,  when  lie  was 
made  knight  of  the  garter.  He  wrote  a 
comedy  called  Elvira,  and  also  lettera  to 
his  cousin,  sir  Kenelm  Digby,  against  po- 
pery, although  he  ended  by  booming  a 
Catholic  himself. 

Digest.    (See  CM  Law.) 

Digester  ;  an  instrument  invented  by 
Mr.  Papin.  It  consists  of  a  strong  vessel 
of  copper  or  iron,  with  a  cover  adapted  to 
screw  on,  with  pieces  of  felt  or  pasteboard 
interposed.  A  valve  witii  a  small  aperture 
is  made  in  the  cover,  thestopfier  of  which 
valve  may  be  more  or  less  loaded,  either 
by  actual  weights,  or  by  pressure  from  an 
ai)|)aratus  on  tlie  principle  of  the  steelyard. 
The  purpose  of  this  instrument  is  to  pre- 
vent the  loss  of  heat  by  evaporation. 
Water  may  be  thus  heated  to  400°  Fahr. ; 
at  wliich  temperature  its  solvent  power  is 
greatly  increased. 

Digestion  is  that  process  in  the  animal 
body,  by  which  the  aliments  are  dissolved, 
and  the  nutritive  parts  are  separated  from 
tiiose  which  cannot  aftbrd  nourislunent  to 
die  body.  The  organs  effecting  tiiis  pro- 
cess are  divided  into  die  digettwe  organs, 
properiy  so  called,  and  die  auxUiary  or- 
ffan&  The  fonuer  are  coin])osed  of  the 
divisions  of  the  intestinal  canal,  which  in- 
cludes the  stomach,  the  great  and  small 
mtestines,  &c.  To  tire  latter  belong  die 
liver,  the  pancreas  and  the  spleen.  The 
first  process  of  digestion  is  the  solution  of 
the  aliments.  When  die  aliments,  after 
being  pro|)erly  pre|)ared,  and  mixed  with 
saliva  by  mastication,  have  reached  die 
stomach,  they  are  ultimately  unite<i  with 
a  liquid  substance  called  die  gastric  jvieey 
by  the  motion  of  die  stomach.  By  this 
motion,  die  aliments  are  mechanically  sep- 
arated hito  dieir  smallest  parts,  peiietiated 
by  die  gasuric  juice,  and  transformed  uito 
a  uinfbnu  pulpy  or  fluid  mass.  At  die 
same  time,  a  solution  of  the  aliments  into 
dieir  simple  elements,  and  a  mixture  of 
them  so  us  to  fonn  other  products,  tokos 
place,  effected  pardy  by  the  [leculiar  (loiier 
of  the  stomach  and  the  liquid  generated  in 
it,  partlv  by  die  warmth  of  this  organ. 
This  pulpy  mass,  called  e^ine  (q.v.),  pro- 
ceeds from  die  stomach,  dirough  die  pylo- 
rus, into  die  part  of  die  intestinal  canal  call- 
ed die  Ubvc  intestines  (q.  v.),  where  it  is 
mixed  with  the  jjaucreatic  juiiH)  and  th» 


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DIGESTION— DIJON. 


bile.  (See  BJZe,  and  PdHcma.)  Both  these 
liquids  operate  most  powerfully  on  the 
chyrae,  yet  in  vexy  diftereut  ways.  The 
inild  juice  of  the  pancreas  attracts  the  milk- 
like  liquid  of  the  chyme,  and  forms  with  it 
the  d^/e, which  is  absorbed  by  the  capillary 
vessels  called  ladeaU.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  bitter  matter  c^led  bile,  formed  by  the 
liver  from  the  blood,  attracts  the  coarser 
parts,  which  are  not  fitted  to  be  alisorbed 
mto  the  fine  animal  organization,  and  ex- 
cites the  intestinal  canal  to  the  motion 
which  carries  it  off.  (For  further  informa- 
tion on  the  subject  of  digestion,  particu- 
larly of  diseaseci  digestion,  see  the  article 
Dyspepsia.) 

Digestion^  with  chemists  and  apothe- 
caries ;  the  maceration  of  any  substance 
which  is  to  be  softened  or  dissolved,  com- 
monly pulverized,  in  a  solvent  liquid.  It 
is  enclosed  in  a  tight  vessel,  and  exposed  to 
a  gentle  heat  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time. 
By  tliis  process  essences,  elixirs  and  tinc- 
tures are  made. 

DiGoiivo,  among  miners ;  the  operation 
of  freeing  ore  fit>m  the  stratum  in  wliich 
it  lies,  where  every  stroke  of  tlieir  tools 
turns  to  account;  in  contradistinction  to 
the  openings  made  in  search  of  such  ore, 
which  are  called  haiehts  or  essay-hatches^ 
and  the  operation  itself  tracing  ofmmeSf 
or  hatching. 

Digit,  in  arithmetic,  signifies  any  one 
of  the  ten  nunaerals,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8, 
9,  0.  The  word  comes  from  digitus^  a 
finger ;  tlius  indicating  the  humble  means 
originally  employed  in  computations.  Di- 
git is  also  a  measure  equal  to  three  fourths 
of  an  inch. 

Dipt,  in  astronomy,  is  the  measure  by 
whicn  we  estimate  the  quantity  of  an 
ecli|i6e.  The  diameter  of  tlie  sun  or 
moon^s  disc  is  conceived  to  be  divided 
into  12  equal  parts,  called  digits;  and 
according  to  the  number  of  those  parts  or 
digits  which  are  olscured,  so  many  digits 
are  said  to  be  ecli|)sed.  When  the  lumi- 
nary is  wholly  covered,  the  di^ts  eclipsed 
are  precisely  12 ;  and  when  it  is  more  than 
covered,  as  is  frequently  the  case  in  lunar 
ecliiiees,  then  more  than  12  digits  are  said 
to  he  eclipsed. 

Dkhtaliive  is  the  active  principle  of 
the  digitalis  purpurea,  or  foxglove,  and 
is  a  very  powerful  poison,  possessing  all 
the  properties  of  digitalis  (q.  v.)  in  a  very 
concentrated  state.  To  prepare  it,  the 
leaves  are  digested  in  ether,  tlie  solution 
filtered  and  evaporated,  and  the  residue 
dissolvefl  in  water :  this  solution  is  heated 
with  oxide  of  lead,  filtered  and  evajiorated, 
and  the  residuum  digested  in  ether,  which 


afiR)rds  digitaline,  on  evaporation.  It  is 
a  brown-colored  substance,  deliquescent, 
and  extremely  bitter.  It  restores  the  color 
of  reddened  litmus,  and  combines  with 
aciiJs.    (See  Digitalis,) 

Digitalis  ;  a  genus  of  plants,  including, 
among  other  species,  the  purple  foxglove 
(Z>.  purpurea),  a  vegetable  possessing  im- 
portant medicinal  properties,  inhabiting  the 
temperate  and  southern  parts  of  Europe, 
and  fi^quently  cultivated  for  ornament  in 
the  U.  States.  The  stem  is  simple,  her- 
baceous, glabrous,  or  slightly  pubescent, 
and  attains  the  beisht  of  two  or  three 
feet;  the  leaves  oval  lanceolate,  soft  to 
the  touch,  and  dentate  on  the  borders; 
tlie  flowers  are  large,  purple,  spotted 
witliin,  pendent,  and  disposed  in  a  long, 
simple  and  terminal  raceme.  The  plant, 
when  fresh,  possesses  a  bitter,  nauseous 
taste,  and  is  violently  emetic  and  cathar- 
tic. When  prepared,  and  administered 
medicinally,  it  has  (he  remaritable  prop- 
erty of  duninishing  the  strength  and  fre- 
quency of  the  pulse,  and  is,  at  the  same 
time,  diuretic. 

DioHAPH  (fit>m  the  Greek  its  and  ypa- 
^u,  to  write ;  doMe-ioritten) ;  a  union  of 
two  vowels,  of  which  one  only  is  pro- 
nounced ;  as  in  head,  breath.  This  is 
tlie  meaning  which  Mr.  Sheridan  gives  to 
the  word.  Mr.  Webster,  in  his  American 
Dictionary  of  the  English  Language,  fol* 
lows  this  meaning.  Thus  siege^  dtoeioey 
mMn,  hear,  esteem,  deem,  njeStj  contain 
digraphs.  It  is  well  known  how  much 
the  English  idiom  abounds  in  digraphs. 
They  are  essentially  dififerent  fipom  diph- 
thongs, which  consist  of  two  vowels,  also, 
but  produce  a  sound  which  neither  of  the 
vowels  have  separately. 

Dijon  (Divio),  the  ancient  capital  of  the 
duchy  of  Burgundy,  at  present  the  chief 
place  of  the  department  C6te-d'Or  (see 
Departmn}l)t  646  French  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  at  the  confluence  of  tlie 
Ouche  and  Suzon,  100  miles  N.  Lyons, 
175  S.  E.  Paris,  lat  47°  19^  25"  N.,  Ion. 
5°  2^  5^'  E.,  contains  22,000  inhabitants,  and 
is  the  seat  of  a  suflragan  bishop,  several 
courts  and  branches  of  government.  In 
1725,  the  academy  of  sciences  and  belles- 
lettres  was  erected  here,  and  confirmed 
bv  the  king  in  1740.  (See  Academy,) 
There  is  alro  a  school  for  the  fine  arts, 
two  libraries  (one  of  which  contains 
36^000  volumes),  collections  in  natural  his- 
tory, an  observatory,  a  botanical  garden, 
&c.  There  are  many  old  and  interesting 
buildings  here.  There  is  now  a  canal 
building  from  this  city  to  the  Sadne,  near 
Saint-Jean-de-Lome,  which  will  be  of 


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DDON— DIMINUTIVES. 


great  advantage  to  the  place.  Many  of 
Sie  most  celebrated  Frenchmen  have  been 
bom  at  Dijon,  among  whom  are  Bossuet, 
Cr^bJllon,  Piron,  Saumaise.  A  fortified 
camp,  constructed  by  Caesar,  gave  origin 
to  Dijon.  Marcus  Aureiius  caused  3ie 
place  to  be  surrounded  by  walls. 

DiK£,  or  Dtke  (in  German,  deich) ;  a 
ditch  or  drain,  and  also  a  work  of  stone, 
timber  or  fascines,  raised  to  oppose  the  pas- 
sage of  the  waters  of  the  sea,  a  lake,  river, 
or  the  like.  In  no  country  has  tlie  art  of 
building  dikes  and  taking  care  of  them  been 
carried  to  so  much  perfection  as  in  Holland 
and  the  north-west  of  Germany,  where 
the  construction  and  superintendence  of 
them,  the  draining  of  land  and  guarding 
against  uiundations,  and  the  distribution 
of  taxes  for  the  maintenance  of  the  dikes, 
ibrm  an  important  branch  of  government 

Dilapidation  is  where  an  incumbent 
of  a  church  living  suffers  the  parsonage- 
house  or  out-houses  to  &11  down,  or  be 
in  decay  for  v^raiit  of  necessary  repairs ; 
OT  it  is  the  pulling  down  or  destroying 
any  of  the  houses  or  buildings  belong- 
ing to  a  spiritual  living,  or  destroying  of 
the  woods,  trees,  &c.  appertaining  to  the 
same ;  it  is  said  to  extend  to  committing 
or  suffering  any  wilful  viraste  in  or  upon 
the  inheritance  of  the  church. 

Dilemma  (from  6t(,  twice,  and  ^c/i/m,  an 
assumption),  in  logic ;  an  ar^ment  con- 
sisting of  two  or  more  propositions,  so  dis- 
posed that,  grant  which  you  will,  you  will 
be  pressed  by  the  concluaon. 

Dilettante;  an  Italian  expression, 
rignifying  a  lover  of  the  arts  and  sciences, 
who  devotes  his  leisure  to  them,  as  a 
means  of  amusement  and  gratification. 

DiLLENius,  John  James;  a  botanist, 
bom*  in  1687,  at  Darmstadt,  and  distin- 
guished for  ids  investigations  into  the 
propagation  of  plants,  particularly  ciyp- 
togambus  plants.  In  compliance  with  the 
invitation  of  a  rich  botanist,  William 
Sberaid,  in  1721,  he  went  to  England, 
where  he  spent  part  of  his  time  in  Lon- 
don, and  part  at  his  friend's  country-seat, 
in  Eltham.  Here  he  published  several 
works,  and  particularly  that  splendid  pro- 
duction which  appeared  in  1732,  Hnius 
Elthamengis,  in  which  the  drawings,  pre- 
pared by  himself^  are  distinguished  by  the 
greatest  faithfulness.  His  last  work,  on  the 
mosses  (Higtona  Mu8corum\  added  much 
to  his  reputation.  Sherard  founded  a 
IMnofesBorship  of  botany  in  the  university 
of  Oxford,  lor  his  friend,  who  died  there, 
ID  1747. 

Diix-Seed  (aneOuim  graveoleru,  Lin.) 
is  of  an  oval  form,  convex  on  one  aide, 


flat  on  the  other,  having  three  striaB  on 
the  outside,  and  surrounded  with  a  small, 
membranous  border.  Its  taste  is  slightly 
acrid,  and  its  odor  stronger,  but  less 
pleasant,  than  fennel-seed. 

Dime  ;  tiie  legal  term  for  the  tenth  part 
of  a  dollar  in  the  U.  States.    (See  Cain,) 

Diminutive,  in  grammar  (from  the 
Latin  diminuiivum) ;  an  affix,  whicli  con- 
veys the  idea  of  linleness,  and  all  other 
ideas  connected  with  tiiis,  as  tendemesS| 
affection,  contempt,  &c.  The  opposite  of 
dminuUve  is  caignienUUive*  Prehxes  and 
affixes  belong  to  those  delicate  beauties 
of  language,  which  enable  us  to  express 
fine  shades  of  meaning  wiUi  conciseness 
and  Uveliness,  and  which  are  almost  al- 
ways beyond  the  power  of  translation,  if 
the  language,  into  which  we  intend  to 
translate,  does  not  possess  the  corres])ond- 
iiif  prefixes  and  affixes. — In  Latin,  dimin- 
utives ahnost  always  ended  in  lus^  la,  or 
ban;  as,  ISdliola,  meuni  eoradufn,  little 
Tullia,  my  dear  or  litde  heart  This  syl- 
lable was  sometimes  preceded  by  an- 
other one,  not  belonging  to  the  original 
word ;  as,  homuncvlus.  A  few  words  term- 
ed their  diminutives  in  other  vniys. — ^No 
European  langua^  has  so  many  and 
so  expressive  diimnutives,  augmentotivea 
and  affixes,  as  the  Tuscan :  uio,  eUo,  elio^ 
convey  the  idea  of  smalhiess,  deamess, 
&c. ;  one,  of  largeness ;  uccio  sometimes 
of  smallness,  with  reproach,  but  oflen 
without  it:  accio  signifies  that  the  thing 
is  disgusting,  unpleasing,  &c. ;  for  exam- 
ple, caaa  is  a  house ;  castka,  casina,  casdla, 
a  small  house,  nice  little  house;  caacnt, 
a  large  house;  camcda,  a  small,  insig- 
nificant house;  casaccia,  an  ugly  house. 
That  expressive  tongue  can  compound  two 
or  three  of  these  endearing  affixes ;  and 
the  writer  has  frequently  heai-d  little  Ital- 
ian children  form  almost  endless  words, 
as  if  overflowing  witii  tendeniess ;  fbr  m- 
stance,  JhMUnuccieUindio,  Adjectives, 
also,  can  receive  the  diminutive  termina- 
tion ;  as,  cortno,  cormucoo,  from  C€av,  It 
must  be  remarked,  that  very  many  Italian 
words  are  the  diminutives  of  the  orighial 
Latin  ones ;  aafratdlo,  from  Jrater,  9wtHa, 
&C.  The  reason  is,  that  the  Italian  was 
originally  the  corrupted  Latm  of  the 
lower  classe&  These  always  have  many 
points  of  resemblance  to  children,  and 
among  them  tiiis,  that  they  make  much 
more  use  of  diminutives  tiian  the  educated 
classes,  who  are  more  reserved  iu  the  ex- 
pression of  their  feelinga  Thus,  in  the 
south  of  Germany,  they  will  say,  wo  da9 
Baumehe  vor  der  Tliiire  stehi  (where  the 
litde  tree  stands  before  the  door),  how- 


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DIMINUTIVES. 


ever  large  the  tree  (Bourn)  may  be. — In 
Spanish,  there  are  similar  diminutiyes, 
augmentatives  and  other  affixes.  The 
augmentatives  in  Spanish  are  as  follows: 
from  Aomfrre,  a  man,  are  formed  Aomfrrtm, 
hombraxo^  kombronazoj  hombrachon;  and 
from  ,mugtrj  a  woman,  mugtrmiOf  muger" 
axeu,  mugarmaza.  Adjectives,  also,  take 
similar  forms ;  as,  from  grandt^  great,  or 
huge,  are  formed  grandcnf  grandoiej  gran- 
dazo,  grandoncao^  Sometimes  these  aug- 
mentatives are  used  by  way  of  commen- 
dation, as,  hombron,  a  man  of  great  wis- 
dom ;  at  other  times,  to  denote  contempt 
or  worthiessness,  as,  from  cabotto,  a  horse, 
we  have  co&aUazo,  a  miserable  horae ;  and 
sometimes  they  denote  merely  greamess 
of  bulk,  as  tnoceUm,  moetUmazo^  a  lar^^ 
youth  or  boy.  Augmentatives  in  azo,  m 
some  instances,  also  denote  two  diflerent 
things ;  as,  zopcrfozo,  a  large  shoe,  or  a  blow 
given  with  a  shoe.  The  Spanish  dimin- 
utives are  these :  from  hmnbre,  a  man, 
hombncUoy  hombreeicoy  hombreciUo,  hombrt- 
Tuelo ;  from  mt^per^  a  woman,  mugerciiOj 
nwgtreica,  m/ugerculOj  muftrmda;  from 
eftto),  small,  oMpdiOy  chqwHo^  cMeudo, 
efuqmiudo.  Diminutives  m  «to  and  too 
usually  denote  endearment  or  tenderness, 
as  those  in  iUo  do  sometimes;  those  in 
do  always  denote  contempt;  from  UbrOf 
a  book,  are  formed  Wnitio,  iibnio^  Ubrico^ 
librefeyUbntdOj  /t&r^o.— In  Portuguese,  the 
diminutives  and  augmentatives  correspond 
to  those  of  the  Spanisli  language. 

Dmmutives. 
rfrom  cabroy  a  soat,  is  formed 
In  Uoy  <  cabritOy  a  kid,  or  little  ^oat ;  mof- 
l  CO,  a  fly,  masquiUOf  a  httle  fly. 
[  Aomem,  a  man,  komemzinhOf  a 

little  man ;  irmao,  a  brother,  tr- 
I  mooztnAo,  little  brother  ;,/EAo,  a 
I  soil,  jUftm&o,  a  little  son. 
rtfuid,   a  hand,  maozinkaf  little 

hand ;  nqfariga,  a  giii,  nyori- 
[guinhOf  a  little  girL 

Adjectives  also  take  the  diminutive  fonn ; 
as,  cottaffo,  poor  fellow,  poor  thing ;  coUa- 
dinho,  |)oor  little  fellow,  &c. ;  redondo, 
redondinkOf  round ;  homto,  bonUmho,  pret- 
ty ;  pequtno,  peqwmnoj  small,  whence  is 
corrupted  the  negro  word  jpickanmnyy 
used  on  die  coast  of  Africa,  ror  a  child, 
a  litde  boy  or  ^,-^ugmentaiioea.  TWo, 
a  fool,  tokirao,  a  peti  fool ;  homem,  a  man, 
komtnaarao,  a  big  or  huge  man ;  mulher, 
a  woman,  muMcrono,  a  masculine  or  lai^ 
woman^ — ^In  French,  there  are  many  £- 
miniitives  formed  fiom  other  words;  as, 
kAteUe,  of  iabUj  charetU  ofdiar;  but  there 
is  no  genend  affix,  which  can  be  added 


inhoA 


Mo,  J 
foui. 


to  every  substantive.  The  sij'llable  dire 
(fi!om  the  Latin  oater),  as  in  noirdtrt,  from 
Notre,  cannot  be  called  properly  a  dimin- 
utive ;  neitlier  can  vieiuot,  he  who  bepns 
to  look  old,  be  called  precisely  a  dimmu- 
tive  of  vitUU, — ^The  German  has  the  sylla- 
bles chen  (in  Low-German,  ikm,  which 
has  remained  in  English  in  manikmj  and 
some  other  words),  Ian  and  el,  for  sub- 
stantives ;  Uch,  &c.  for  adjectives ;  (lick 
oorrespozids  to  the  English  tah  or  like ;  for 
instance,  rundUchj  roundish  or  roundlike 
ffrom  rundj  round) ) ;  and  dn  for  verbri,  as 
from  bUten  (to  pray),  they  form  hettdn  (to 
b^,  the  action  of  a  beggar),  iUtr^n  from 
kUngen^  to  sound.  The  bordumue  of  tlie 
Gennans  even  adds  the  diminutive  to  pro- 
nouns, and  nurses  sometimes  will  say  du- 
eften,  from  du,  thou ;  nay,  the  writer  once 
heard  (in  Erfurth|  a  nurse  use  the  dative  of 
duy  dir,  with  the  diminutive,  gefallt  es  dxr- 
dun  ^The  English  language  aflbrds  ex- 
amples of  diminutives,  but  has  no  affix 
which  can  be  used  at  pleasure  to  convey  this 
idea.    Among  English  diminutives  i — 


Ind, 


im,^ 


^A 


'cocfteret,  a  litde  cock ; 

kemdj  a  httle  com ; 

jndurdy  a  litde  pike. 
'maniJany  a  little  man ; 

UmJbkin  a  little  lamb ; 

nofikiny  horn  nape^  French  for 
eUdh; 

/M^nibm,  a  tittle  pipe. 

dudding,  a  little  chickoii ; 

g««ltr^,  a  tittle  goose; 

dariing^  i.  e.  deamngy  or  little  dear ; 

mdhonmgy  an  inferior  author; 

wiUittgy  a  person  of  amali  under- 
standing. 
^  omUetf  finom  arm ; 

bracdetf  fix>m  6rtu,  French  for 
arm; 

cocketj  a  Httle  cock ; 

^locKcet,  from  pojfce,  a  bag  or  poudi ; 
LtoUe<,atitttotable. 

Diminutives  of  proper  names  are  also 
formed,  in  coUoquial  and  familiar  lan- 
guage, by  adduiff  y  to  the  names;  as, 
Vhmieyy  Johnny^  &c. ;  and  coadty  is  used 
colloquially  for  coachmcm. — ^The  aboriginal 
lan^ages  of  America,  also,  have  tlieir 
diminutives.  In  the  Delaware  language 
(according  to  Mr.  Zeisberger's  Grammar, 
published  oy  Mr.  Duponceau),  diminutives 
of  nouns  denoting  animate  objects  are 
formed  by  adding  the  syUable  tit ;  as,  lemu, 
a  man,  [mnofct,  a  little  man ;  ochqaeuy  a 
woman,  odujudU,  a  litde  girl ;  tdioUns^  a 
bird,  tshoientity  a  little  bird.  In  speaking 
of  a  pretty  little  animal,  the  fonn  is  ghts 
or  tdM ;  as,  in  pkiying  with  a  tittle  kitten, 


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DIMINUTIVES— DIODORUS. 


dU 


m-  other  young  animal,  tfaev  would  sinr, 
kidigixtskis^  thy  pretty  little  paw.  In 
nouns  denoting  inammaU  objects,  dimin- 
utiveu  are  fonned  by  the  tennination  e» ; 
as,  toikufom,  a  bouse,  ufikwcanes,  a  small 
bouse;  amokM  (kh  guttural),  a  canoe, 
amMioUSf  a  small  canoe.  In  the  ancient 
kuigua^e  of  the  Massachusetts  Indians, 
wliich  IS  a  dialect  of  the  Delaware  stock, 
diminudves  were  fbnned  (according  to 
Eiiot^s  Grammar)  by  adding  es  or  erne*, 
with  a  euphonic  vowel  or  syllable;  as, 
niadum^,  a  youth,  nunkompais  or  Tmit- 
kompaemesy  a  little  youth ;  hawvuij  a  stone, 
Aosncfiane*,  a  litde  stone ;  and,  of  these 
two  affixes,  em/na  denotes  the  smallest  size, 

DiocxsE,  or  DiocEBS  (dioinrns) ;  I.  a  pre- 
fecture. According  to  Strabo,  the  division 
of  the  Roman  empire  into  dioceses,  at 
least  in  Asia,  was  customary  as  early  as 
tlie  reigns  of  Augustus  and  Tiberius.  The 
whole  empire  was  afterward  divided  into 
dioceses  by  ConsUuitine  and  his  success- 
ors ;  at  first  into  4,  and  afterwards  into  13: 
these  comprehended  120  provinces,  and 
were  governed  bv  13  vicars  orsub-pre* 
fects.  Rome  and  its  neighborhood  had 
one  of  these  officers  to  itself,  exclusive  of 
th«  one  appropriated  to  Italy  at  lai^e. — 
SL  An  ecclesiastical  division  m  the  Chris- 
tian church ;  in  the  Catholic  church,  a 
territory  over  which  the  jurisdiction  of  an 
archbishop  or  bishop  extends.  With  the 
Protestaitts  in  Gennany,  a  dioctst  sig- 
nifies all  the  parishes  which  are  under  the 
inspection  of  one  superintendent.  This 
arrangement  is  derived  from  the  times  of 
the  emperor  Constantine  (4th  cent,  A.  D.), 
who  mode  Christianity  the  religion  of  the 
state.  In  the  Episcopal  Protestant  coun- 
tries, diocese  signifies  the  jurisdiction  of  a 
Insbop.  Thus,  in  England,  tbe  province 
of  Canterbury  contains  21  dioceses,  and 
the  province  of  York,  3 :  each  diocese  is 
divided  into  archdeaconries,  each  arch- 
deaconry into  rural  deaneries,  and  each 
deanery  into  parishes. 

Diocletian,  C.  Valerius,  sumamed  Jo- 
vtttf,  was  a  man  of  mean  birdi,  a  native  of 
Dalmatia.  He  was  proclaimed  emperor 
by  tbe  army,  284  A.  D.  He  was  success- 
ful against  his  enemies,  defeated  Carinus 
in  McBsia  (286),  conquered  the  Allemanni, 
and  was  generally  beloved  for  the  good- 
ness of  his  disposition.  But  new  troubles 
and  attacks  disturbed  the  Roman  empire, 
and  compelled  htm  to  share  the  burthen 
of  government  with  colleagues ;  at  first, 
with  M.  AureL  Valerius  Maximian  (286), 
an  ambitious,  rude  and  cruel  soldier, 'who 
defeated  ^  Geuk.    Diecletiaii,  at  tbe 

▼ox..  IV.  21 


same  time,  vras  successful  against  the  Per- 
sians in  the  East,  and  afterwards  penetra- 
ted to  the  sources  of  the  Danube,  in  Ger- 
many. He  subsequently,  in  292,  named 
C.  Galerius,  Caesar,  and  Maximian  raised 
Constanthis  Chlorus  to  the  same  digni^. 
Tlius  the  empire  vras  divided  into  four 
parts.  Diocletian  recovered  Egypt,  and, 
as  long  as  he  preserved  his  influence,  the 
unanimity  continued ;  but  he  resinied  the 
imperial  dignity  at  Nicomedia  (305),  as 
did  Maximian  at  Milan,  at  the  same  time. 
Diocletian  retired  to  Salona  in  Dalmatia, 
where  he  found  hapniness  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  his  garden,  and  lived  in  tranquillity 
until  the  year  313.  He  founded  tbe  abso- 
hite  power,  which  was  more  firmly  estab- 
lished by  the  family  of  Constantine. 

DiODATi,  John,  an  eminent  divine,  was 
bom  at  Lucca,  about  die  year  1589,  of  a 
noble  Catholic  family ;  but,  embracing  the 
Protestant  faith  early  in  life,  he  removed 
to  Greneva,  where  he  made  such  progress 
m  his  studies,  that,  at  the  age  of  19,  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  in 
that  city.  Some  time  afterwards,  he 
was  made  professor  of  theology,  and,  in 
1619,  was  deputed,  with  his  colleague^ 
Theodore  Tronchin,  to  represent  the  Ge- 
nevan clergy  at  the  synod  of  Dort ;  and 
his  abilities  were  so  much  respected  by 
tfiat  synod,  that  he  was  one  of  the  six 
ministera  appointed  to  draw  up  tbe  Belgic 
confession  or  faith,  which  vras  intended  to 
secure  the  professors  of  the  reformed  re- 
ligion in  Holland  within  the  {lale  of  pure 
and  unadulterated  Calvinism.  Diodau  is 
most  celebrated  for  a  translation  of  the 
Bible  into  Italian,  faithful  and  elegant,  but 

gerhape  too  paranhrastical ;  and  ftither 
imon  maintains  tnat  his  notes  are  rather 
the  serious  meditations  of  a  divine,  than 
the  judicious  reflections  of  a  critic.  He 
also  translated  the  Bible  into  French,  but 
is  not  thought  to  have  succeeded  so  weU 
in  this  as  in  the  Italian.  He  was  tlie  first 
translator  into  French  of  father  Paul's 
History  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  which  is 
faithfbl,  but  not  very  elegant.  Diodati 
died  in  1649,  at  Geneva. 

DiODORUs  of  Aigyrtum,  in  Sicily,  and 
therefore  called  Sicmus;  a  celebrated  his- 
torian in  the  time  of  Julius  Cfesar  and 
Augustus.  In  order  to  render  his  history 
as  complete  and  exact  as  possible,  he 
travelled  through  a  great  part  of  Europe 
and  Ana.  It  is  very  much  to  be  regretted^ 
that  the  greater  part  of  this  history,  which 
the  author  called  the  Higiorical  Librcny,  in 
the  composition  of  which  he  combmect 
the  ornaments  of  rhetoric  with  the  detail 
of  ftctts  ato  ^e  example  of  Theopompus 


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242 


DIODORUS— DIOGENES. 


and  Ephorus,  and  on  which  he  had  be- 
Btowed  the  labor  of  SO  years,  has  not 
reached  our  times.  It  consisted  of  40 
books,  was  written  with  the  greatest  fidel- 
itv,  and  comprised  the  history  of  ahnost 
all  nations.  Only  the  books  I — 5  and 
16—20  are  now  extant.  Among  the  best 
editions  are  those  of  Wesseling  and  Eich- 
stddt,  with  Heyne*s  commentary  (Bipont 
and  Strasburg,  1790—1807, 11  vols.). 

Diogenes  of  Sinope  {a  city  of  Pontusj 
flourished  in  the  4th  century  B.  C^  ana 
was  the  most  famous  of  the  Cynic  phi- 
losophers. (See  Cynics.)  Hanug  been 
lianished  from  his  native  place  widi  his 
father,  who  liad  been  accused  of  coining 
false  money,  he  went  to  Athens,  and  re- 
quested Antisthenes  to  admit  him  among 
Ids  disciplea  That  philosopher  in  vain 
attempted  to  repel  the  importunate  sup- 
plicaiH,  even  by  blows,  and  finally  granted 
Iiis  requesL  Diogenes  devoted  himself, 
with  the  greatest  diligence,  to  tlie  lessons 
of  his  master,  whose  doctrines  he  extend- 
ed BUll  further.  He  not  only,  like  Antis- 
thenes, despised  all  philosophical  specula- 
tions, and  opposed  the  coiTupt  morals  of 
his  time,  but  also  carried  tlie  application 
of  his  doctrines,  in  his  own  person,  to  the 
extreme.  The  stern  austerity  of  Antis- 
tlienes  was  repulsive;  but  Diogenes  ex- 
posed the  follies  of  his  contemporaries 
with  wit  and  good  humor,  and  Uas,  there- 
fore, better  adapted  to  be  the  censor  and 
instructer  of  tl]«  people,  though  he  really 
accomplished  little  in  the  way  of  reform- 
ing them.  At  the  same  time,  he  applied, 
in  its  fullest  extent,  his  principle  of  divest- 
ing himself  of  all  su])erfluities.  He  taught 
tliat  a  wise  man,  in  order  to  be  happy, 
must  endeavor  to  preserve  himself  inde- 
pendent of  fortune,  of  men,  and  of  him- 
self: in  order  to  do  this,  he  must  despise 
riches,  power,  honor,  arts  and  sciences, 
and  all  the  enjoyments  of  life.  He  en- 
deavored to  exhibit,  in  his  own  person,  a 
model  of  Cynic  virtue.  For  this  purpose, 
he  subjected  himself  to  the  severest  trials, 
and  disregarded  all  the  forms  of  polite 
society.  He  often  struggled  to  overcome 
his  appetite,  or  satisfied  it  with  the  coarsest 
food ;  practised  the  most  rigid  temperance, 
even  at  feasts,  in  the  midst  of  tlie  greatest 
abundance,  and  did  not  even  consider  it 
beneath  his  dignity  to  ask  alms.  By  day, 
he  walked  through  tiie  streets  of  Athens 
barefoot,  witliout  any  coat,  with  a  long 
beard,  a  stick  in  his  hand,  and  a  wallet  on 
his  shoulders ;  by  night,  he  slept  in  a  tub, 
though  this  has  been  doubted.  He  defied 
the  inclemency  of  the  weather,  and  bore 
the  Kof&  and  insults  of  the  people  with 


the  greatest  equanimity.  Seeing  a  boy 
draw  water  with  his  hand,  he  threw  away 
his  wooden  goblet  as  an  imnecessary  uten- 
sil. He  never  spared  tlie  follies  of  men, 
but  openly  and  loudly  inveighed  against 
vice  and  corruption,  attacking  them  with 
satire  and  irony.  The  people,  and  even 
the  higher  classes,  heard  him  with  pleas- 
ure, and  tried  their  wit  upon  him.  When 
he  made  them  feel  his  superiority,  diey 
often  had  recourse  to  abuse,  by  wliich, 
however,  he  was  little  moved.  He  rebuked 
them  for  expressions  and  actions  which 
violated  decency  and  modesty,  and  there- 
fore it  is  not  credible  that  he  was  guilty 
of  tlie  excesses  with  which  his  .enemies 
have  reproached  him.  His  rudeness  of- 
fended the  laws  of  good  breeding  rather 
than  tlie  principles  of  morality.  Many 
anecdotes,  however,  related  of  this  sin- 
gular person,  are  mere  ficdons.  On  a 
voyage  to  the  island  of  iEgina,  he  fell  into 
the  hands  of  pirates,  who  sold  him  as  a 
slave  to  tlie  Corinthian  Xeniades  in  Crete. 
The  latter  emancipated  him,  and  intrusted 
him  witli  the  education  of  his  children. 
He  attended  to  the  duties  of  his  new  em- 
ployment with  the  greatest  care,  com- 
monly living  in  summer  at  Corinth, 
and  in  winter  at  Athens.  It  w*as  at  the 
former  place  that  Alexander  found  him 
on  the  road-side,  basking  in  the  sun,  and, 
astonished  at  the  indifference  witli  which 
the  ragged  beggar  regarded  him,  entered 
into  conversation  with  him,  ai|d  finally 
gave  him  permission  to  ask  for  a  boon. 
^  I  ask  nothmg,**  answered  the  philosopher, 
**but  that  thou  wouldst  get  out  of  my  sun- 
shine." Surprised  at  th  is  proof  of  content, 
the  king  is  said  to  have  exclaimed,  *^  Were 
I  not  Alexander,  I  would  be  Diosenes.'* 
At  another  dme,  he  was  carrying  a  lantem 
through  the  streets  of  Atliens,  in  the  day- 
time :  on  being  asked  what  he  was  looking 
for,  he  answered,  ^^  I  am  seeking  a  man.^ 
Thinking  he  had  found,  in  tlie  Spartans, 
the  greatest  capacity  for  becoming  such 
men  as  he  wished,  he  said,  "•  Men  1  have 
found  nowhere;  but  children,  at  least,  I 
have  seen  at  Lacedsmon."  Being  ad<ed, 
^'What  is  the  most  dangerous  animal.^ 
his  answer  was,  ^  Among  wild  animals, 
the  slanderer ;  among  tame,  the  flatterer.'' 
He  died  324  B.  C,  at  a  great  age.  When 
he  felt  death  approaching,  he  seated  him- 
self on  the  road  leading  to  Olympia,  where 
he  died  witli  philosophical  calmness,  in 
the  presence  or  a  peat  number  of  people^ 
who  were  collected  around  him. — ^Anotner 
philosopher  of  the  same  name,  who  lived 
earlier,  and  belonged  to  tlie  Ionian  school, 
^^as  Diogenes  of  Apolionia.    He  eonmd- 


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DIOGENES— DIONJGA  MUSCIPULA. 


243 


ered  air  as  the  element  of  all  things.  He 
lived  at  Athens,  in  the  5th  century  B.  C. 
DioMEDES ;  1.  a  king  of  the  Bistones, 
who  fed  his  horses  on  human  flesh,  and 
used  to  tlirow  all  strangers,  who  entered 
his  territoiT,  to  tliose  animals  to  be  de- 
voured. He  was  killed  by  Hercules,  who 
carried  off  the  horses.— -2.  One  of  the 
heroes  at  the  siege  of  Troy,  the  son  of 
T\'deus  and  De'iphyle,  and  king  of  Argos. 
He  early  lost  his  father,  who  was  slain 
before  Thebes,  took  [lart  in  the  second 
expedition  to  Thebes,  and  became  one  of 
the  suitors  of  Helen.  After  she  was  car- 
ried off,  the  Grecian  chiefs. resolved  on  an 
expedition  to  Troy,  to  avenge  this  outrage 
against  Greece,  and  Diomedes  engaged  in 
the  expedition,  at  the  head  of  the  Argives, 
Tyrindiians,  and  several  other  nations. 
Hjs  daring  courage  rendered  him  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  heroes,  and,  ac- 
cording to  tlie  testimony  of  Nestor,  supe- 
rior to  all  his  contemporaries.  Protected 
by  Pallas,  he  not  only  encountered  the 
most  valiant  of  the  enemies,  many  of 
whom  he  killed,  but  even  ventured  to 
attack  the  immortals.  When  Venus  has- 
tened to  the  rescue  of  her  son  iEneas, 
whom  he  was  on  the  point  of  putting  to 
death,  he  wounded  the  goddess  in  her 
hand  with  his  spear,  and  would  have  torn 
JBneas  from  her  arms  but  for  the  inter- 
ference of  Apollo.  He  thrice  ^ussailed 
even  Apollo  himself,  nor  did  he  desist  till 
terrified  by  the  threats  of  tlie  god.  Ani- 
mated by  Pallas,  he  tlien  turned  his  arms 
against  Mars,  wounded  him  in  his  belly, 
and  compelled  him  to  return  to  Olympus. 
He  was  equally  distinguished  in  the  coun- 
cil He  boldly  opposed  the  proposal  of 
A^memnon  to  leave  the  plains  of  Troy 
without  having  gained  the  object  of  the 
expedition,  and  prevailed;  he  even  ad- 
hered to  his  opinion,  after  Achilles  had 
rejected  the  proffered  reconciliation.  By 
carrying  off  the  horses  of  Rhcesus  from 
the  enemies'  tents,  he  fulfilled  one  of  the 
conditions  on  which  alone  Troy  could  be 
conquered.  With  Ulysses,  he  removed 
Philoctetes,  who  had  the  arrows  of  Her- 
cules, from  Lemnos,  which  was  another 
condition  of  the  fall  of  Troy.  Finally,  he 
was  one  of  the  heroes  who  were  con- 
cealed ill  the  wooden  horse,  by  whom  the 
capture  of  Troy  was  at  length  accom- 
plished. Though  he  reached  home  in 
safety,  the  vengeance  of  Venus  awaited 
him.  During  his  absence,  that  goddess  had 
inspired  his  wife,  iEgiale,  with  a  criminal 
passion  for  Cometes;  and  Diomedes,  on 
nis  arrival,  was  compelled  to  leave  Argos, 
and  promise  never  to  retum,  under  jiain 


of  death.  Accompanied  by  his  most 
fidthful  friends,  he  set  sail  for  Italy.  Of  his 
residence  tliere,  the  accounts  are  contra- 
dictory and  fabulous:  some  say  that  he 
died  there  at  a  great  age ;  others,  that  be 
was  slain  by  king  Daunus ;  others,  that  ho 
suddenly  disappeared  un  the  islands  that 
have  been  calfed  after  his  name.  After  his 
death,  he  was  worshipped  as  a  deini-god, 

Dioi?  of  Syracuse,  who  acquired  immor- 
tal gloiy  in  the  history  of  that  state,  lived 
in  the  times  of  the  two  kings  who  bore  the 
name  of  Dionysius^  He  was  related  to 
tliem,  and  long  exercised  great  influence 
over  tliem.  He  attempted  to  refonn  the 
tyrannical  disposition  of  the  younger  Dio- 
nysius  liy  the  precepts  of  philosophy ;  but 
his  enemies  succeeded  in  rendering  him 
suspected  by  tiie  king,  and  in  effecting  his 
banishment  Dion  went  over  to  Greece, 
where  the  beauty  of  his  person,  and,  still 
more,  the  excellent  qualities  of  his  mind 
and  heart,  eained  him  so  many  friends, 
that  he  resolved  to  employ  force  to  deliver 
his  country  from  a4)riiice  who  had  closed 
his  ears  to  remonstrances.  With  this  de- 
sign, he  embarked  witii  800  valiant  war^ 
riors,  landed  in  Sicily,  and,  hearing  that 
Dionysius  had  set  out  a  few  days  before 
,  for  Italy,  hastened  to  Syracuse,  and  en- 
tered the  city  amidst  the  acclamations  of 
the  people.  After  some  ineffectual  at- 
tempts to  recover  his  authority,  Dionysius 
was  at  lengtli  obliged  to  abandon  the 
crown,  and  fled,  with  his  treasures,  to  Italy. 
Dion  was  also,  soon  after,  obliged  to  leave 
die  city,  on  account  of  the  unjust  8usi>i- 
cions  of  his  fellow  citizens.  New  troubles 
having  broken  out  in  Syracuse,  he  was 
recalled,  and  was  about  to  restore  the 
republican  government,  when  he  was  a»- 
sasdinated  by  his  treacherous  friend,  Calip- 
pus  of  Athens,  354  B.  C.  Thus  perished 
a  man  of  noble  sentiments,  great  courage, 
and  inflexible  patriotism.  He  was  tlie 
intimate  friend  of  Plato.  His  life  has  been 
written  by  Plutarch  and  Com.  Nepos. 

DioN£A  MusciPULA  (Venu8*s  Jhf-tmf) 
is  a  remarkable  plant,  inhabiting  the  basin 
of  Cape  Fear  river,  in  Nortli  Carolina. 
The  leaves  are  radical,  spreading  u  jwn  the 
ground,  and  tenninated  by  an  orbicular 
ap|)endage,  composed  of  two  hemispher- 
ical lobes,  which  are  fringed  with  hairs : 
when  the  inside  of  tliis  appendage  is 
touched,  the  lobes  close  suddenly,  and  thus 
imprison  flies  and  other  small  insects. 
These,  having  no  outlet,  must  necessarily 
perish,  unless  delivered  by  tearing  the  leaf. 
It  is  not  until  the  insect  is  dead,  and,  of 
course,  no  longer  affects  die  {larts  of  the 
leaf  by  its  motions,  that  the  leaf  opens, 


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DIONi£A  MUSCIPULA— DIONYSIUS. 


and  lets  the  body  of  the  animal  fall  The 
insects  aeem  to  be  allured  by  a  sweet 
moisture  on  the  surface  of  the  leaf.  In 
Europe,  the  seed  of  this  plant  has  not  been 
brought  to  ripen.  The  stem  is  8  or  10 
inches  high,  and  bears  a  corymb  of  white 
flowers,  analogous  in  their  structure  to 
those  of  the  sun-dew. 

Dion  Cassius,  bom  about  A.  D.  155,  at 
Nice,  in  Bithyuia,  is  sometimos  called  a  Ro- 
man, because  he  was  made  a  Roman  citizen, 
and  filled  many  honorable  offices  in  Rome 
under  Pertinax  and  his  three  successors. 
He  wrote  the  Roman  history  in  80  books, 
of  which  only  those  from  the  30th  to  the 
54th  are  extant  complete :  the  remainder 
we  have  only  in  the  epitome  of  Xiphi- 
linus.  It  began  with  the  arrival  of  iEueas 
in  Italy,  and  extended  to  A.  D.  228.  He 
devoted  22  years  to  this  work,  in  which 
the  events  are  arranged  chronologically, 
and  gives  an  impartial  account  of  tliose 
occurrences  of  which  he  was  himself  a 
wimess.  He  oflen  exhibits,  however,  a 
ist)irit  of  jealousy  towards  ffreat  men,  and 
appears  superstitious,  ffattennff  and  servile. 
His  style  is  too  rhetorical  for  history. 

DioNE ;  the  nwther  of  Venus,  who 
tlierefore  bears  the  surname  of  DwfUBOf 
or  is  called  by  this  name  alone. 

DioifYsiA;  the  same  as  BacelumaUay 
from  Dionysos  or  Bacchus.  (See  Bcto 
ehus,) 

DioNTsius  the  Elder  raised  himself 
from  a  low  condition  to  the  rank  of  gen- 
eral, and  afterwards  to  that  of  tyrant  (i.  e., 
rxder)  of  Syracuse  (about  406  B.  C). 
The  Agrigentines,  who  had  escaped  when 
Agrigenuim  was  taken  by  the  Carthagin- 
ians, accused  the  Syracusan  generals  of 
treacheiy.  Dionysius  supported  their  com- 
plaints, and  contrived  that  the  enraged 
people  should  choose  other  leaders,  of 
whom  he  was  one.  He  soon  found  means 
to  render  his  colleagues  suspected  also, 
and  to  have  himself  appointed  command- 
er-in-chief. In  this  post,  it  was  no  diffi- 
cult task  for  him,  by  the  assistance  of  the 
troops,  whom  he  had  drawn  over  to  his 
interest,  to  make  himself  master  of  the 
citadel  of  Syracuse,  together  with  all  the 
arms  and  provisions  contained  in  it,  and 
finally  to  declare  himself  king,  at  the  age 
of  25  years.  The  more  firmly  to  establish 
his  power,  he  married  the  daughter  of  Her- 
mocrates,  whose  family  was  the  most  di&- 
tin^ished  in  Syracuse.  After  having 
finished  a  short  war  against  the  Cartha- 
ginians, and  successfully  quelled  several 
seditions,  in  which  he  reduced  some  other 
cities  on  tlie  island  under  his  authority,  he 
made  preparations  for  a  great  war  against 


Carthage.  The  fortune  of  arms,  which, 
in  tlie  beginning,  had  fiivored  him,  soon 
turned  against  him.  The  Carthaginians 
had  alreau^y  laid  siege  to  Syracuse,  when 
the  plague  made  great  ravages  among 
them.  Dionysius,  having  just  received 
a  reinforcement  of  30  sliips,  took  advan- 
tage of  the  discouraged  state  of  the  ene- 
mies, attacked  them  at  once  by  land  and 
water,  and  gained  a  complete  victory, 
which  was  soon  followed  by  an  advan- 
tageous peace.  In  his  ex])editions  into 
Lower  Italy,  he  reduced  the  city  of  Rhe- 
gium  l^  famine.  After  anotiier  short 
war  with  Carthage,  he  lived  some  time  in 
peace,  occupied  with  making  verses,  and 
unagining  himself,  in  spite  of  the  iKramess 
of  his  productions,  as  great  a  luminary  in 
the  poetical  as  in  the  political  world.  Nay, 
he  even  ventured  to  contend  for  the  prize 
in  the  Olympic  games,  and  sent  for  tliat 
purpose  a  solemn  embassy,  accom}mnied 
by  a  number  of  the  best  declainiera,  to 
read  his  poems ;  but,  with  all  their  art 
they  were  not  able  to  prevent  the  tents  of 
Dionysius  from  being  torn  down  and  plun- 
dered by  the  multitude.  A  second  em- 
bassy, which  he  sent  four  yeara  afterwards^ 
was  received  still  more  unfavorably.  He 
liecame  almost  distracted  at  these  dis- 
graces, yet  would  not  relinquish  the  high 
opinion  which  he  had  conceived  of  his 
own  genius,  and  used  to  torture  the  poets 
and  philosophera  of  his  time  with  reading 
his  verses  before  them.  In  his  had  humor, 
he  commenced  a  new  war  against  the  Car- 
thaginians, intending  to  drive  them  en- 
tirely out  of  Sicily.  He  did  not,  however, 
succeed  in  this  attempt,  and  was  obliged 
to  conclude  a  disadvantageous  fieace.  For 
tills  misfortune,  he  was  indemnified  by  the 
success  of  one  of  his  tragedies  at  Athens. 
The  news  of  this  event  filled  him  with 
such  immoderate  joy,  that  he  fell  sick. 
At  the  instigation  of  his  son,  tlie  physicians 
administered  to  him  a  fatal  potion.  Tlius 
perished  Dionysius,  after  a  reign  of  25 
years. 

DioNTSius  the  Younger  succeeded  his 
fatlier,  Dionysius  the  Elder.  For  the 
purpose  of  recalling  him  from  tlie  ex- 
cesses to  which  he  was  addicted,  Dion 
(q.  V.)  directed  his  attention  to  the  doc- 
trines of  Plato,  representing  to  him  that 
this  great  philosopher  alone  was  able  to 
teach  him  the  art  of  government,  and  tlie 
means  of  rendering  his  subjects  happy. 
In  consequence  of  this  advice,  Dionysius 
invited  Plato  to  his  court  The  latter, 
complving  with  his  ur^nt  invitations,  suc- 
ceeded in  tempting  him  into  the  path  of 
virtue  and  knowledge,  and  in  giving  a  new 


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DIONYSIUS. 


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chafacter  to  his  whole  court.  An  oppo- 
ate  party,  however,  headed  by  the  histo- 
rian Philistus,  awakened  the  king's  sus- 
picions against  Dion,  and  caused  his  ban- 
ish tneuL  Plato  in  vain  endeavored  to 
effect  his  lecali,  and,  after  having  been 
long  retained  by  force,  fiuaJly  left  Syra- 
cuse himself,  when  Dionysius  was  en- 
gaged in  a  war  in  another  part  of  the 
island.  After  the  restoration  of  peace, 
Plato,  at  the  repeated  request  of  the  king, 
returned  to  his  court,  and  again  endeav- 
ored, though  in  vain,  to  effect  Dion's 
recall.  He  therefore  insisted  upon  his  own 
dismissal.  Dionysius  at  last  appeased  him 
by  promising  to  restore  Dion  his  fortune, 
on  condition  that  he  would  undertake 
nothing  agaiust  the  throne.  But  he  vio- 
lated lus  prouiise,  and  Plato,  after  ex|)eri- 
eociug  many  mortifications,  fiiiaUy  left 
him.  Dion  then  appeared,  and  made  him- 
self master  of  die  city  of  Syracuse,  to 
which  Dionysius  did  not  return  until  after 
the  murder  of  Dion.  His  misfortunes, 
however,  had  no  other  effect  than  to  ren- 
der him  more  cruel.  The  first  families 
of  the  city  fled  from  his  tyranny.  Mean- 
time, the  Carthaginians  commenced  a  new 
war  with  Syracuse,  and  entered  into  a 
secret  union  with  Icetas,  whose  intention 
it  was  to  make  himself  master  of  the  city. 
He,  however,  disguised  his  purpose,  and 
even  approved  of  the  measure  of  calling 
upon  Corinth  for  assistance.  Timoleoa 
appeared  with  a  fleet  before  Syracuse,  and 
expelled  not  only  the  enemies,  but  also 
the  tyrant.  Dionysius,  who  had  surren- 
dered himself,  was  carried  to  Corinth, 
where  he  gained  a  scanty  living  by  giving 
lessons  in  grammar,  and  died  in  the  con- 
tempt which  he  bad  brought  upon  him- 
self by  his  excesses. 

DiONTSius  of  Halicamassus,  in  Caria,  a 
learned  critic  and  teacher  of  eloquence, 
went  to  Rome  about  30  B.  C,  where,  for 
the  instruction  of  his  countiymen,  he 
wrote  his  Roman  Antiquities,  in  20  books, 
in  which  he  relates  the  early  histoiy  of 
Rome,  and  its  government  up  to  the  times 
of  the  first  Punic  war.  We  have  the  11 
first  books  of  this  work,  and  some  frag- 
ments of  the  others.  His  residence  m 
Rome  during  22  years,  his  intercourse  with 
the  most  learned  Romans,  and  his  knowl- 
edge of  the  ancient  annalists,  render  him 
very  important  to  the  critical  historian, 
though  he  has  ^ven  his  own  coloring  to 
the  Roman  traditions.  Dionysius  is  also 
valuable  as  a  critical  and  rhetorical  writer. 
It  is  difficult  to  pronounce,  however,  on 
the  genuineness  of  the  writings  attributed 
to  him  in  this  department,  witiiout  a  crit- 
21  ♦ 


ical  examination.  The  Rhetoric  (Schott, 
Lei^js.,  1804),  for  instance,  belongs  only  in 
part  to  Dionysius,  and  probably  received 
its  present  form  in  the  3d  century,  A.  D. 

Dionysius.  the  Areopagite  (i.  e.,  one  of 
the  judges  of  the  Areopagus,  at  Athens), 
converted  to  Christiauity  by  the  apostle 
Paul,  aljout  die  middle  of  the  Ist  century, 
and  first  bisliop  at  Athens,  where  he  suf- 
fered martyrdom,  is  remarkable  for  the 
Greek  works  which  have  been  ascribed  to 
him,  and  for  being  considered  tiie  patron . 
saint  of  France.  These  writincs,  com- 
posed in  an  obscure  8ty\e,  and  hardly 
intelligible  on  account  of  their  mysti- 
cism, are,  Of  the  heavenly  Hierarchy, 
Of  the  Names  of  God,  Of  the  eccle- 
siastical Hierarchy,  and  Of  the  mys- 
tic Theology,  with  a  number  of  letteis, 
wliich,  by  tiieir  style,  contents  and  histor- 
ical allusions,  betray  an  author  who  could 
not  have  lived  before  the  middle  of  the 
4th  centmy.  They  apjieared,  in  a  very 
equivocal  manner,  as  the  Avorks  of  Dio- 
nysius, as  late  as  the  6th  century.  Fantastic 
descriptions  of  the  Deity,  and  of  the  ordere 
of  angels  and  blessed  spirits,  borrowed 
from  the  New  Platonic  philosophy  ;  bril- 
liant representations  of  the  Catholic  cere- 
monies ;  exaltations  of  the  hierarchy ; 
praises  of  the  monastic  life,  and  mystic 
interpretations  of  the  doctrines  of  the 
church,  gave  tiiem  such  charms,  that  the 
absurdities  in  which  they  abound  did  not 
prevent  the  ignorant  clergy  of  the  7th 
century  from  reading  tiiem  with  delight, 
and  finding  in  them  the  clearest  proofs  of 
the  ai)ostolic  origin  of  many  ecclesiastical 
observances  and  institutions,  which  are  of 
a  much  later  date ;  for  they  had  no  doubt 
of  their  genuineness.  In  France,  where 
a  certain  Dionysius  established  the  first 
Christian  community  at  Paris,  in  the  3d 
century,  they  were  readily  received  in  the 
9th  century ;  and  this  Dionysius,  without 
further  inquiry,  was  taken  for  the  Areopa- 
gite, because  the  origin  of  tiie  Gallican 
church  could  thus  be  canned  back  to  the 
1st  century ;  and  France  gained  a  patron 
who  was  a  martyr  and  the  immediate 
disciple  of  an  apostle.  The  monastic 
life,  in  the  Western  church,  gained  new 
support  from  these  writings,  which  were 
fiiequently  translated  into  Latin ;  and  mys- 
tic theology  received  its  first  impulse  from 
them.  The  convent  of  St  Denis,  which 
was  originally  dedicated  to  the  first  apos- 
tie  of  Christianity  at  Paris,  but  is  now 
consecrated  to  Dionysius  the  Areopagite, 
had  a  remarkable  dispute  with  the  con- 
vent of  St  Emmeran,  at  Ratisbon,  in  the 
lltii  centuiy,  concerning  the  poseefiBion 


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BIONYSnjS— DIPLOMACY. 


of  the  ^enuina  bones  of  the  saint.  Each 
maintained  tiiat  it  possessed  bis  earthly 
remains^  and  each  had  its  claims  confirm- 
ed by  the  in&IIible  authority  of  the  pope. 
In  the  14th  century,  another  church  in 
Paris  claimed  tlie  third  head  of  the  saint. 
The  writings  attributed  to  Dionvsius  the 
Areopagite  are  as  spurious  as  the  relics. 
The  pretended  author  of  them  neither  left 
such  writings,  nor  ever  taught  in  France, 
as  was  put  beyond  all  doubt  by  the 
French  critics  Daille,  Sirmond  and  Lau- 
noi,  in  the  17th  century. 

DiONTSius  the  Little  (so  called  on 
account  of  his  short  stamre) ;  a  Scythian 
monk,  who  was  abbot  of  a  monastery  at 
Rome  in  the  beginning  of  the  6th  century, 
and  died  about  the  year  «545,  celebrated  as 
tlie  author  of  the  computation  of  time 
from  the  Cliristian  era.  He  calculated  an 
Easter  cycle  in  5%,  and  fixed  the  birth 
of  Christ,  agreeably  to  the  most  certain 
data,  in  the  year  753  afler  the  foundation 
of  Rome.  The  computation  of  tune  from 
the  birth  of  Christ  thus  estal>lished,  and 
now  universal  among  Christians,  was  not 
publicly  used  until  the  8di  century.  His 
collection  of  ecclesiasdcal  laws,  viz.  the 
(so  called)  apostolical  canons,  decrees  of 
councils  favorable  to  the  pretensions  of 
the  Roman  bishops,  and  official  letters 
written  by  the  Roman  bishops  since  the 
4th  century,  which  were  called  decretals^ 
bad  a  more  rapid  success.  The  placing 
of  the  latter  by  the  side  of  the  decrees  of 
councils,  and  thus  attributing  to  tiiem 
equal  authority,  was  so  flattering  to  the 
pride  of  the  Roman  bishops,  and  the  let- 
ters of  their  predecessors  afforded  so  fa- 
vorable an  opportunity  for  renewinff  their 
ancient  pretensions,  that  tbe  collection 
soon  obtained  the  authority  of  an  ac- 
knowledged source  of  canon  law.  Dio- 
nvsius was,  as  his  friend  Cassiodorus  says 
of  him,  a  good  Ladn  writer,  and  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  Greek  language,  from 
which  he  translated  much.  Nothing  more 
is  known  of  him,  except  that  be  ravored 
the  superstition  of  the  Theopaschitea 

DroPTRics  ;  the  science  which  treats 
of  the  refimction  of  the  rays  of  hght,  or 
the  laws  of  vision  when  the  rays,  before 
reaching  the  eye,  pass  through  different 
refiracting  mediums ;  for  instance,  from 
the  lur  through  the  glasses  of  a  telescope. 
Dioptrics,  consequently,  is  a  branch  of 
optics,  L  e.  the  science  of  viaon  in  general. 
It  demonstrates  the  different  directions  in 
whkh  the  xays  move,  according  as  they 
are  broken  on  plane  or  curved  surfaces. 
The  principles  deduced  from  these  obser- 
VBtiont  determine  the  nature  of  tbe  vari- 


ous lenses,  explain  tbe  manner  in  which 
tlie  Kght  is  refhicted  in  the  human  eye, 
teach  the  manner  of  seeing  through 
lenses,  and  the  composition  of  them,  con- 
sequendy  the  theory  of  telescopes,  mag- 
nifying glasses,  &c.  The  ancients  were 
not  acquainted  with  this  science.  Natural 
science,  in  modem  times,  has  been  greatly 
indebted  to  it.  By  its  aid,  or  rather  by 
the  aid  of  the  glasses  which  it  has  taught 
how  to  construct,  the  human  eye  has  beieh 
enabled  to  reach  objects  previously  un- 
known. Kepler,  Snellius  of  Leyden,  Dee- 
cartes,  Newton,  &c.,  not  only  extended 
this  science,  but  founded  a  great  part  of 
their  discoveries  on  it.  In  modern  dmes, 
the  science  of  dioptrics  has  been  very 
much  enriched  by  the  important  inven- 
tions of  Dollond  in  London.  (See  ^ch" 
romatic,  RefracHan  of  lAghty  Telescope^ 
Lewises ;  also  Dioptrica  Jhictore  Leonhardo 
Eulero,  Petersburg,  176£^71,  3  vols.,  4to.) 

Diorama.    (See  Panorama.) 

DioscoRiDES,  Pedanius ;  bom  at  Ana- 
zarbus  (Ctesarea  Augusta),  in  Cilicia,  in 
the  1st  century  of  the  Chrisdan  era,  a 
Greek  physician,  author  of  a  celebrated 
work  on  materia  medicoj  in  £ve  book& 
It  is  particularly  valuable  in  regard  to  bot- 
any, OS  most  of  the  medicines  which  die 
author  mendons  are  talceii  from  the  veg- 
etablc  kingdom.  Two  other  works  are 
also  attributed  to  him :  the  ^lexipharmaca, 
which  was  unitetl  with  the  Materia  Medi*- 
CO,  forminff  the  three  last  books  of  it,  and 
treadng  of  the  poisons  in  tbe  diree  king- 
doms of  nature,  and  their  anddote»;  and 
the  EuporistOj  which  treats  of  remedies 
that  are  easily  procured.  The  best  edi- 
tion of  Dioscoridos  is  that  of  Saracenus 
(Frankfort,  1596,  fol.) ;  the  best  commen- 
tary is  by  Matthiolus  (Venice,  15G5,  fol.). 

Dioscuri  ;  Castor  and  Pollux,  twin- 
sons  of  Jupiter,  and  tutelary  deities  of 
virresders,  horsemen  and  navigators.  (See 
Ca.9fDr  and  PoUux.) 

Dip  of  the  horizon  is  an  allowance 
made  in  all  astronomical  ol)servadons  of 
altitude  for  the  height  of  the  eye  above 
the  level  of  the  sea. 

Diploma  (from  iiirX<5«,  I  fold  up) ;  litei^ 
ally,  a  letter  folded  but  once,  and  there- 
fore divided  into  two  parts.  It  is  used  to 
signify  a  document  signed  and  sealed,  in 
which  certain  rights,  privileges,  dignities, 
&c.,  are  conferred.  Thus  a  letter  or  writ- 
ing of  a  university  conferring  a  degree  ia 
called  a  dxpUmuu    (See  Diplomatics,) 

Diplomacy.  The  precise  time  at  which 
the  word  diplomacy  began  to  be  applied  to 
the  management  of  the  mutual  relations 
of  independent  states  through  accredited 


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DIPLOMACY. 


947 


affeitts,  cannot  be  eaaSty  aBoeitainecL—In 
lemoce  antiquity,  embassies  are  spoken  of. 
Rome  received  ambaaBadors  from  nations 
seeking  peace  or  altiance  and  protection. 
Afler  the  establishment  of  the  senate,  such 
messengers  of  rival  or  dependent  countries 
deliver^  theur  commissions  to  the  senato- 
rial body,  and  commonly  in  set  orations. 
At  Athens  and  at  Sparta,  ambassadors 
were  obliged  to  harangue  the  sovereign 
people  from  the  tribunal  of  the  orators.— 
We  have  no  authentic  accounts  respecting 
the  privileges  of  these  foreign  emissaries, 
nor  relics  of  their  correspondence  with 
their  own  government,  or  with  those  to 
which  they  were  deputed.  The  term 
ambascia  is  found  in  the  Salic  law.  But  the 
cardinal  de  Richelieu  is  generally  consid- 
ered OS  the  founder  of  that  regular  and  un- 
mtemipted  intercourse  between  govern- 
ments, which  exists  at  present  l^tween 
almost  all   the  Christian  powers.     The 

Sivate  dissensions  between  Philip  II  and 
lizabetb  de  Valois  furnished  a  convenient 
pretence  for  attaining  the  ends,  which  may 
well  be  supposed  to  have  guided  tliat  sa- 
gacious statesman,  and  which  went  un- 
doubtedly fiirther  than  to  protect  the  un- 
fortunate queen  of  Spain.  Raymond  de 
Beccaria  thus  commences  the  line  of  reg- 
ular ambassadors  in  Europe.  However, 
the  instructions  given  by  Machiavelli  to 
one  of  his  frien£,  who  was  sent  by  the 
Florentine  republic  to  Charles  V  (Charies 
I  of  Spain),  show  that  Richelieu  was  not 
the  first  person  who  conceived  all  the  ad- 
vantages that  might  be  derived  to  a  gov- 
ernment from  the  correspondence  of  an 
intelligent  agent,  accredited  at  the  seat  of 
a  foreign  government  Machiavelli's  own 
negotiations  with  CoBsar  Bmpa,  with  the 
canlinal  de  Rouen,  at  Rome,  in  Germany, 
and  wherever  he  was  employed,  prove 
that  diplomacy  had  its  present  meaning 
long  before  Richelieu's  ascendency  in 
France.  We  recommend  to  our  readers 
Machiavelli's  diplomatic  correspondence 
[Dfgazioni)  not  only  as  the  earliest,  but  as 
the  finest  specimens  of  diplomatic  de- 
spatches ;  and  we  do  it  the  more  willingly, 
as  this  portion  of  his  works  is  generally 
little  referred  to.  It  is  probable,  Uiat,  fiY>m 
the  b^inning,  the  duties  <^  diplomatic 
agents  were  at  least  as  great  as  at  present, 
as  far  as  the  art  of  diplomacy  alone  was 
concerned.  To  study  the  character  of  the 
prince  and  the  disposition  of  his  ministera ; 
to  observe  with  a  vigilant  eye  the  passing 
events ;  to  investigate  the  strong  and  weak 
points  of  a  state;  to  establish  relations 
jvhich  might  become  usefiil,  either  in 
peace  or  in  vrar ;  to  strengthen  the  existing 


amicable  relations,  and  to  weaken  the 
means  of  attack  and  of  defonce  on  the 
part  of  the  foreign  state ;  to  extend  com- 
mercial intercourse  in  a  manner  profitable 
to  the  country  of  the  ambassador  (for 
centuries  were  to  pass  before  sounder 
views  in  political  economy  could  prevail) ; 
to  protect  the  subjects  of  the  ambassador's 
sovereign,  and  to  give  a  great  idea  of  his 
power  and  resources,  by  all  possible 
means ; — such  were,  as  we  see,  from  the 
instructions  given  by  Machiavelli  to  his 
fiiend,  the  cardinal  points  recommended 
to  a  diplomadc  agent  eariy  in  the  IGth 
century ;  and  they  will,  with  few  altenir 
tions,  serve  to  guide  ambassadors,  minis- 
ters and  charvh  tPaffaires,  yet  in  the  womb 
of  time.  Still  there  are  diiferences,  pro- 
duced by  the  progress  of  civilization  and 
the  improvement  of  public  morals,  that 
must  be  noticed.  Wherever  diplomacy  may 
have  had  its  origin,  be  it  in  Italy,  France  or 
Spain,  the  maimers  of  theee  countries  and 
of  the  times,  left  politics  infinitely  less 
restrained  by  the  curb  of  honesty  and  good 
feeling,  than  if  it  had  sprung  up  among 
German  nations,  or  at  later  epochs.  Thus 
intrigue,  falsehood,  plots  and  murder,  or 
connivance,  at  least,  in  such  detestable  ex- 
pedients, were  sometimes  resorted  to,  by 
the  eariiest  diplomatists,  and  contributed  to 
render  diplomacy,  in  the  eyes  of  the  iudis- 
criminating,  almost  a  byword  of  reproach. 
The  marouis  de  Bedmar,  in  Real  s  con- 
spiracy 01  Venice,  is  a  mere  fancy  figure. 
The  cardinal  d'Ossat  and  president  Henin 
are,  on  the  contrary,  unquesdonable  mod- 
els of  excellent  men  and  ambassadors. 
General  ignorance,  the  laxity  of  morals 
which  de^aded  the  greater  part  of  Europe 
till  the  middle  of  the  18th  century,  and  the 
deficiency  of  that  censorship,  which,  since 
the  triumph  of  the  press,  in  some  coun- 
tries, spreads  itself  over  all,  serve  to  ac- 
count for  the  want  of  honest  principle 
which  formerly  disgraced  public  minis- 
ters. Few  treaties  were  as  yet  concluded. 
War,  brutal  force,  was  the  sole  umfiire  of 
right  Except  in  the  Germanic  confede* 
racy,  law  was  hardly  ever  hroueht  to  bear 
upon  international  relations.  It  was  not 
till  the  independence  of  Holland,  and  the 
Siubsequent  developement  ef  maritime 
power,  that  political  questions  were  exam- 
med  by  the  learned,  in  consequence,  prob- 
ably, of  having  become  connected  with 
(peat  public  grievances  and  judicial  inves- 
tigations. From  that  time,  and  chiefly 
fi^m  the  conclusion  of  the  trea^  of  WeeC- 
phalia — the  most  remarkable  epoch  in  the 
nistory  of  international  intercourse-diplo- 
macy assumed  a  more  legitimate,  a  higher 


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DIPLOMACY. 


and  really  usefii]  character.  Ambaseadors 
ceased  gradually  to  seek  their  greatest 
lustre  in  their  numerous  retinue,  and  the 
Rassian  ministers  at  Constantinople  and 
Warsaw  were  the  last  to  appear  with  such 
a  display  of  armed  followers  as  made  a 
governor  of  Bordeaux  refuse  admission 
mto  the  city  to  tlie  duke  of  Feria,  who 
came,  in  the  name  of  tlie  king  of  Spain,  to 
compliment  Louis  XIII  on  his  accession 
to  tlie  throne.  There  were  no  longer  (to 
quote  the  noble  language  of  Shaksfieare) 
^  loving  embassies  to  embrace  sovereigns, 
as  it  were,  from  the  ends  of  opp<^ied 
winds  f^  and,  from  that  time,  hi^h  breed- 
ing, an  agreeable  figure,  tlie  display  of 
wealth,  fascinating  and  prepossessing  man- 
ners, an  unblemished  character,  discretion, 
knowledge  of  mankind,  natural  parts, 
nay,  upright  intentions  and  noble  views, 
ceased  to  be  sufficient  for  the  fulfilment  of^ 
duties  so  much  enlarged  by  the  improving 
condition  of  general  society,  through  the 
advancement  and  diffusion  of  knowledge. 
— To  be  a  perfect  diplomatist,  in  tlie  pres- 
ent state  of^ the  Christian  world,  it  would  be 
necessary  that  a  man  should  be  a  sound 
lawyer,  well  acquainted  with  the  munici- 
pal laws  of  more  tlian  one  country,  versed 
in  the  sciences,  from  which  industry  and 
arts  derive  their  splendor,  and  a  state 
its  strength,  and  equal  to  any  of  the 
tasks  to  which  those  with  whom  he  is 
brought  into  contact  might  put  his  learn- 
ing and  sagacity.  The  present  political 
system  of  tlie  world  can  no  longer  be  split 
into  partial  and  solitary  interests :  each  par- 
ty to  it  is  a  pamr  m  a  common  concern, 
and  usually  suffers  or  gains  by  every  im- 
portant change.  There  is  really  now  a 
Christian  commonwealth,  a  unity  of  rights 
and  interests,  more  real,  more  wortliy  of 
consideration  and  confidence,  than  tlie 
dream  of  political  balance.  This  whole 
system  is  in  a  constant  state  of  develope- 
ment ;  and  to  step  out  of  its  path,  is  to  re- 
main liehind  it  in  its  career.  The  tone  of 
political  corresixindence  at  present  must 
correspond  with  the  elevated  state  of  the 
diplomatic  character. — In  times  not  very 
distant,  it  was  sufficient  to  entertain  a  royal 
master  by  the  gossip  of  a  capital,  tlie  in- 
trigues of  ladies  and  gentlemen  of  tlie  bed- 
chamber, and  the  calmis  of  rival  ministers. 
Now,  the  political  correspondent  of  a  cab- 
inet is  compelled  to  inquire  into  the 
working  of  the  complex  machinery  of 
modem  society  ;  to  observe  constantly  tlie 
pulse  of  the  whole  body  politic ;  to  keep  in 
view  the  moral  and  physical  resources  of 
nations;  to  defend  the  rights  of  his  coun- 
•  Winter's  Tale. 


try,  on  the  groimds  of  law  and  reason ;  to 
give  information  to  the  minister,  from 
whom  he  holds  his  instructions,  and  to  en- 
able his  government  to  profit  by  tlie  intel- 
ligence he  imjiartB,  not  only  in  the  manage- 
ment of  its  foreign  concerns,  but  likewise 
of  its  internal  resources.  For  tlie  accom- 
plishment of  duties  so  great  and  so  various, 
no  school  can  l>e  established,  or  particular 
study  trace<l.  Humam  nihil  a  me  alienum  ' 
pyio,  must  be  tlie  device  of  tlie  modem  di- 
plomatist; and  much  applicatif»u,  much 
good  fortune,  many  favorable  opportuni- 
ties, and  a  long  experience,  are  necessary 
to  enable  him  to  perform  well  the  duties 
of  his  office. — ^At  the  earliest  period  of  the 
French  monarchy,  a  number  of  persons 
were  joined  together  in  an  embassy.  Re- 
cently, a  diplomatic  mission  has  commonly 
been  intmsted  to  a  single  personage  of 
high  rank  or  distinguished  talents,  assisted 
by  one  or  several  secretaries.  In  the  late 
congresses,  and  in  some  late  negotiations, 
several  plenipotentiaries  were,  however, 
joined  together  for  a  jKirticular  object  In 
tlie  U.  States,  diplomatic  commissions,  or 
embassies  composed  of  several  individuals, 
will  probably  remain  in  use  as  long  as 
their  present  political  system  subsists. — 
The  diplomacy  of.  each  state  is  under  the 
direction  of  a  minister,  who  generally  ad- 
ministers at  the  same  time  some  other 
branches  of  the  public  service,  as,  for  in- 
stance, in  the  U.  States,  where  the  secre- 
tary of  state  is  at  the  head  of  the  patent 
office,  and  superintends  the  publication 
of  tlie  laws,  &c  In  Spain,  the  SeareUaio 
de  Eatado  y  dd  Dtsptzcko  Universalj  or 
minister  of  foreign  relations,  has  also  the 
direction  of  post-offices,  public  roads,  acad- 
emies, and  some  other  inferior  branches 
of  government  In  some  states,  as,  for 
example,  in  Portugal  and  Piedmont,  tlte 
departments  of  war  and  of  foreign  rela- 
tions are  intmsted  to  the  same  hands.  In 
Russia,  Austria  and  Pmssia,  the  chancel- 
lor or  vice-chancellor  is,  ^p«o  faeio^  min- 
ister of  the  foreign  department. — Diplo- 
matic agents  are  of  several  degrees :  1. 
ambassadors;  2.  envoys  extraordinary 
and  ministers  plcni]M>tentiary  ;  3.  minis- 
tere  resident ;  4.  charg^  d^affidres ;  5.  sec- 
retaries of  legation  and  aUachis, — Their 
rank  has  been  regulated  in  Europe  in  the 
aljove  order,  by  the  congress  assembled  at 
Vienna  in  1814 ;  and  many  such  quarrels 
as  formerly  arose  from  questions  of  pre- 
cedence, are  now  obviated,  by  the  agree- 
ment of  the  European  powers,  that,  among 
ministers  of  the  same  rank,  he  who  arrives 
first  shall  have  die  precedence  over  his 
colleagues.    The  most  ancient  rehcs  of 


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DIPLOMACY— DIPLOMATICa 


S49 


cUplomatic  correspondence,  periiaps,  which 
have  l>een  preserved,  ore  those  in  the 
Excerpta  Le^ationum,  volume  1st  of  the 
Byzitntine  hisiorians,  or  the  53d  book 
of  the  i^reat  historical  compilation  made 
by  order  of  the  emperor  Constantino 
Vl,  Porphyrogenitus.  Among  them  wiU 
be  found  the  Relation  of  an  Embassy 
srnt  by  the  eni})eror  Theodosius  the 
Younger  to  Attila,  in  the  year  449. 
The  account  here  given  of  court  cere- 
monies, international  courteffles,  personal 
pretensions  of  diplomatists,  and  the  means 
by  which,  in  barliarous  ages,  and  at  the 
court  of  a  half-savage  prince,  political  ends 
were  pursued,  remarKably  illustrates  die 
truth  of  the  old  proverb, "  There  is  nothing 
new  under  the  sun."  The  same  petty 
quarrels  and  rivalry  among  associate  diplo- 
matists ;  the  same  disregard  to  that  morel 
principle  which  prohibits  the  placing  of 
temptations  in  the  way  of  human  virtue; 
the  same  want  of  confidence,  on  the  part  of 
the  sovereign,  towards  tlie  agents  intrusted 
with  the  care  of  his  greatest  interests;  the 
same  keen  attention  to  every  word  falling 
from  the  lips  of  a  foreign  agent,  affecting, 
however  remotely,  the  honor  of  a  sove- 
reign (though  this  sovereign  be  Attila); 
the  same  petty  intrigues  Which  have  been 
the  disgrace  of  modem  diplomacy, — 
seem  to  have  equally  characterized  that 
which  prevailed  14  centuries  since.* — 
We  recommend  the  following  works  as 
useful  manuals  fbr  the  study  6f  diploma- 
cy:   TraiU  de  Urml  pdrtiqvut  et  de  DipUt- 

*  The  expenses  of  the  diplomatic  departments, 
in  the  various  states,  are,  of  course,  very  difTerent  3 
but,  in  general,  it  is  correct  to  say  that,  in  all  the 
European  states,  they  are  by  far  loo  great,  and 
SB  mmecessarv  burden  to  the  country ;  whilst  the 
ministers  of  the  U.  States  receive  a  salary  in 
most  cases  entirely  iuadc<}uate  to  their  expenses. 
A  mistaken  idea  of  dignity,  on  the  part  of  the 
courts  represented,  induces  eovemmeuts  to  spend 
immense  sums  abroad ;  andthe  ministers  often  go 
far  beyond  their  means.  How  many  ambassadors 
have  ruined  themselves !  Napoleon,  according  to 
Las  Cases' journal,  once  had  in  consideration  the 
abolition  of  resident  ministers.  An  official  state- 
ment  has  been  lately  published  of  the  expenses  in- 
curred for  the  En^fisn  diplomatic  service  abroad, 
finom  1821  to  1829  mdusive,  from  which  it  appears 
they  were  as  follows : 


In  1821, 
1822, 
1823, 

1824, 
1825, 


£296,769 
306,772 
332,453 
361,728 
418,637 


In  1826,  jE459,538 

1827,  412,859 

1828,  407,117 

1829,  366,004 


The  expenses  of  the  missions  to  the  new  Ameri- 
ean  states  were, 


In  1823,  £6,177 

1824,  16,368 

1825,  27,009 

1826,  66,108 


In  1827, 
1828, 
1829, 


£36,460 
26,732 
20,593 


matity  by  Battus,  Paris,  1831 ;  Munud  cK- 
pUmatiqrte  de  Charles  MarUne^  1882 ;  Coiov 
diphmaHquey  3  vols,  poor  le  Baron  de  Mar^ 
tens,  1801 ;  Pficia  du  Droit  dea  Gens  mo- 
derf^es  de  V Europe,  wsr  le  Baron  de  Martens, 
1821;  Heeren,  Manuel  de  PHisUnre  du 
Sf/sthne  PoUtiqtie  deV Europe,  1829,  aSfrigi 
dePIEstoiredesTraiUsdePaaentrelesPu' 
issanees  de  ^Europe  depwis  la  Paix  de  fVest^ 
phaliej  par  Koth,  4  vols.  See  also  Diplo- 
macy of  the  U,  States,  by  Theodore  Ly- 
man, jun.,  2d  edition,  Boston,  1828 ;  and 
Diplomatic  Correspondence  of  the  Ameri- 
can Revolution,  &C.,  edited  by  Jared 
Sparks,  Boston,  1829,  30.  German  litera^ 
ture  has  lately  been  enriched  by  some 
works  on  diplomacy  which  might  be 
translated  into  English,  with  some  advan- 
tage to  American  statesmen. 

Diplomatics.  The  ancient  acceptation 
oid&pUma  is  the  record  of  a  transaction 
performed  through  the  agency,  or  under 
the  eyes  of  the  public  authority.  The 
chatters  of  gifts  made  by  sovereigns  to  in- 
dividuals and  to  incorporated  bodies,  in 
the  earliest  ages  of  civilization,  are  tlius 
named  dSpUmuu ;  and  as  the  materials  on 
which  they  were  inscribed,  the  manner  of 
writing,  the  characters,  the  ink,  tuid  alltlie 
other  external  forms,  as  well  as  their 
style,  difiered  in  different  centuries,  their 
interpretation,  and  the  ascertaining  of  their 
authentichy,  have  become  a  science  the 
more  complicated,  as  the  clergy  of  former 
ageahad  abundant  inducements  and  means 
to  cotmterfeit  charters,  giving  them  an  in- 
crease of  power  and  wealth. — ^The  most 
ancient  diplomas  which  have,  as  yet,  been 
saved  from  oMivion  and  destructi<m,  do 
not  go  back  fiuther  than  the  5th  century ; 
and  they  are  on  parchment  Those  of  an 
earlier  date  were  written  on  the  thin 
leaves  of  papyrus,  or  biblum  JEgypUaciam, 
so  called  irom  its  Egyptian  origin.  The 
ink  used  consisted,  at  fiist,  of  soot ;  but 
when  parchment  came  into  use,  tincture 
of  vermilion,  red  lead,  or  a  purple  coloring 
substance,  and  sometimes  gold  and  silver, 
were  used  instead  of  the  black  liquid. — 
Till  the  year  602;  Latin  seems  to  have 
been  the  general  and  official  language 
throughout  the  Roman  empire.  Af^ 
that  epoch,  the  Greek  became  its  substi- 

The£ngluh  amba3sadoratParisreceives£l2,000* 
Petersbunp,  13,000 
Vienna,  13,000 

Madrid,  13,100 

the  Hague,       13,000 

The  expenditures  of  the  U.  States,  for  the  diplo- 
ma tic  clepailment,  in  1827,  were  ]^6S9fil\. 

*  Be8ide«/hfs,  the  Briticb  ^vernroent  bought  a  sidoa 
dki  manakw  at  hirls  Ibr  tiieir  eiuboasy. 


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DIPLOMATICS— DIPTYCHA. 


tute  in  the  East,  and  was  still  in  use  in  the 
kingdom  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  during  the 
11th  and  12th  centuries. — Tlie  characters, 
the  direction  in  which  the  lines  are  writ- 
ten, tlie  obbi^viatious,  the  signs  which 
supplied  die  places  of  whole  words,  tlie 
flourishes,  varied  considerably  from  one 
century  to  another.  On  some  of  the  di- 
plomas, the  signature  is  a  cipher  or  mono- 
gram ;  and,  as  it  is  often  in  the  form  of  a 
cross,  it  is  called  ckrismmx.  Seals  of 
white  wax  are  found,  either  imprinted  on, 
or  pending  from  diplomas,  in  small  cases : 
at  a  later  period,  they  were  stamped  on 
metal,  and  affixed  in  the  same  manner. 
In  the  conquered  provinces  of  the  Roman 
empire,  and  chiefly  those  which  compose, 
at  present,  Great  Britain  and  Grennany, 
the  Latin  language  at  length  gave  way  to 
the  idioms  of  t^ie  natives ;  and  various  lan- 
guages, therefore,  must  be  learned  by  the 
students  of  diplomatics  to  enable  them- 
selves to  distinguish  the  genuine  docu- 
ments from  the  spurious,  and  to  brin^  to 
light  such  fitcts  as  can  increase  histoncal 
knowledge,  and  clear  up  points  of  private 
or  public  right  Si  nee  the  refonnation,  the 
science  can  be  of  little  service  in  the  latter 
respect,  but  it  still  promises  valuable  assist- 
ance in  the  study  of  antiquity.  (See  Char- 
Urs,)  In  this  point  of  view,  diplomas  are 
considered  as  literary  documents;  and 
much  diligence  and  research  have  been 
bestowed,  by  men  not  less  distinguished  by 
learning  tlian  by  industry,  in  tlie  investiga- 
tion of  their  contents  and  the  examination 
of  their  authenticity.  The  Benedictine 
monks  have  done  much  in  this  department 
of  learning:  among  them  Mahillon,  Tous- 
saint  and  Tassin  hold  a  distinguished  place, 
and  their  works  will  long  be  the  most  valu^ 
able  manuals  for  the  study  of  diplomatics. 
A  Jesuit  named  Papebroeck  was  the  first, 
perhaps,  who  gave  an  example  of  the  ap- 
plication which  can  be  made  of  them  to 
historical  researches.  The  celebrated 
count  Maflei,  the  most  distinguished  anti- 
quary of  moflern  Italy,  is  the  author  of  a 
supplement  to  Mabillon's  Code  Diploma- 
tique. Gatterer  and  Schoneman  have,  in 
times  still  more  recent,  treated  the  science 
in  the  most  systematic  manner.  Walter's 
Lexicon  Dipl.  Gottingen,  1745,  is  an  ex- 
cellent guide  for  abbreviations,  and  Car- 
pentier's  Ahhabetum  T\ronianum,  Paris, 
1747,  for  ciiaracters  representing  whole 
words,  in  ancient  diplomacy.  See,  also, 
Henselii,  i^opsis  Umversrt  PhUologiaj 
and  Kappas  Alphabet. 

Dipping,  among  minera,  signifles  the 
interruption  of  a  vein  of  ore — an  accident 
tnat  onen  gives  tliem  a  great  deal  of 


trouble  before  they  can  discover  the  ore 
again. 

Dipping  Needle,  or  Inclinatort  Nee- 
dle ;  a  maffuetical  needle,  so  hung,  tiiat, 
instead  of  playing  horizontally,  and  point- 
ing north  and  south,  one  end  dips  or 
inclines  to  the  horizon,  and  tlie  ot\i/tr 
points  to  a  certain  height  above  it — The 
inventor  of  this  instrument  was  one  Robert 
Norman,  a  compass-maker,  of  Wapping, 
about  the  year  1576. — Some  persons  liave 
endeavored  to  And  the  latitude  and  longi- 
tude of  places  by  means  of  the  dipping 
needle ;  out  nothing  of  importance  has  fol- 
lowed from  their  attempts.  The  following 
general  rule,  however,  may  be  adopted  in 
order  to  And  the  longitude  or  latitude  by 
the  dipping  needle.  If  the  lines  of  equal 
dip,  below  the  horizon,  l)e  drawn  on  maps^ 
or  sea-charts,  from  good  observations,  it 
will  be  easy,  from  tlie  longitude  known, 
to  And  the  latitude,  and  from  the  latitude 
known,  to  And  the  longitude.  SupfHise, 
for  example,  you  were  travelling  or  sailing 
along  tlie  meridian  of  London,  and  found 
the  angle  of  dip,  with  a  needle  of  one  foot, 
to  be  75^  the  chart  will  show,  that  tliis 
meridian  and  the  line  of  dip  meet  in  the 
latitude  of  53°  11',  which  therefore  is  tlie 
latitude  sought.  Or  suppose  you  were 
travelling  or  sailing  along  the  ]Mindiel 
of  London,  i.  e.,  in  5P  32^  N.  lat.,  and  you 
find  the  angle  of  dip  to  be  74^  This 
parallel,  and  the  line  of  this  dip,  will  meet 
in  the  map  in  1°  40^  of  £.  Ion.  from 
London,  which  is  therefore  the  longitude 
sought 

DiPTTCHA  (Greek)  originally  signifies 
the  same  as  diploma^  something  fblded. 
The  Greeks  and  Romans,  among  other 
materials  for  writing,  used  tablets  of  metal, 
ivory  or  wood,  of  equal  size,  fastened  to- 
gether by  a  hinge  or  little  ring  which  went 
3irough  them,  diat  they  might  lie  more 
easily  carriefl  or  passed  from  one  hand 
into  the  other.  Such  double  tablets  were 
origuially  called  dipUmata  or  diptycha. 
Both  terms,  however,  afterwards  received 
different  significations.  The  Sptycka  be- 
came im[)ortant  hi  the  Christian  church, 
and  were  of  three  sorts,  containing  the 
names  of  tlie  bishops,  of  the  living,  and  of 
the  dead.  The  Ai-st  contained  the  names 
and  hves  of  deserving  bishops.  It  was 
customary  to  read  them  at  festivals,  which 
gave  rise  afterwards  to  the  custom  of  can- 
onization. In  tlie  diptfcha  of  the  livuig, 
the  names  of  pof^es,  (latnarchs,  bishoiis  and 
other  ecclesiastics,  then  the  names  of  the 
emperore,  kings,  princes,  and  other  distin- 
guished persons,  who  had  deserved  well 
of  tlie  church,  though  still  alive,  were 


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DIPTYCHA— DISCUS. 


951 


written  down,  to  be  mentioned  in  the 
church  prayers.  The  diptycha  of  the 
dead,  finally,  comprised  the  names  of 
tiiose  wiio  had  departed  in  the  Lord, 
which  were  also  mentioned  in  tlie  church 
prayers.  There  was  also  another  si>ecie8 
of  diptifcha,  containing  the  names  of  the 
baptized.  Casaubon,  in  his  obsei-vations 
on  ^UientBUSj  lib.  vi.  cap.  14,  supposes  the 
Christians  to  have  borrowed  the  custom 
of  writing  names  in  a  book,  and  rehears- 
ing tliem  at  moss,  from  the  headjens,  who 
entered  the  names  of  persons  to  whom 
they  would  do  any  signal  honor  in  the 
Teraes  of  the  Saliiy  as  was  done  to  Ger- 
manicus  and  Verus,  sons  of  the  emperor 
Marcus  Aurelius,  and  a  long  time  before, 
during  tlie  period  of  the  republic.  (See 
TiicUus,  lib.  ii.)  The  profane  diptycha 
were  firequently  sent  as  presents  to  prin- 
ces, &C.,  on  wliich  occa^ons  they  were 
finely  gilt  and  embellished.  Those  pre- 
sented were  usually  made  of  ivory. 
DiR£,  or  £uMENiDEs.  (See  FurUa,) 
Directory  ;  a  guide,  a  rule  to  direct 
This  name  was  given  to  five  officers,  to 
whom  the  executive  authority  in  France 
was  committed  by  the  consurution  of  the 
year  III.  This  regulation  was  unitated  in 
other  states  over  which  France  exercised 
an  immediate  influence,  as  in  Switzer- 
land, Holland,  &c.  The  two  le^lative 
bodies,  called  tlie  councils,  elected  the 
members  of  the  directory :  one  of  them 
was  obliged  to  retire  yearly,  and  his  place 
was  supplied  by  election.  This  body  was 
invested  with  the  authority,  which,  by  the 
constitution  of  1791,  had  been  granted  to 
the  king*  The  seven  ministers  of  state 
were  immediately  under,  and  were  ap- 
pointed and  removed  by,  the  directory.  By 
the  revolution  of  the  18tli  Bnraiaire,  tliis 
body,  and  the  constitution  of  the  year  III, 
were  abolished.  (For  the  history  of  the 
directory  and  of  the  18th  Brumaire,  see  the 
Mimoins  de  Loxda  Jirome  Gohier  (Paris, 
1824,  2  vols.),  the  last  president  of  this 
body.    See  Jvapoleon,) 

Direct  Tax.  Taxes  are  distinguished 
into  dirtd  and  indirecL  A  tax  is  direct 
when  it  is  paid  by  the  persons  who  per- 
manently own,  or  use,  or  consume  the 
subject  of  the  tax.  An  indirect  tax  falls 
ultimately  on  a  difierent  person  from  the 
one  who  immediately  pays  it  to  the  gov- 
ernment. Thus  the  importer  of  goods 
pays  a  duty  on  them  to  the  government, 
but  reimburses  himself  by  charging  the 
amount  of  this  duty  in  the  price  of  the 
il^oods,  80  that  the  retailer  who  takes  them 
of  him  refiiiids  the  duty,  and  the  con- 
sumer who  takes   them  of  the  retailer 


again  reimburses  die  latter.  On  the  ron- 
trary,  a  land-tax,  a  capitation-tax,  an  annu- 
al excise  on  watches,  coaches,  &c.,  or 
on  excise  collected  on  articles  as  diey  are 
distributed  by  tlie  retail  dealer  among  his 
customers  for  consumption,  is  a  direct 
tax ;  for  the  party  really  taxed  is  the  one 
who  pays  die  tax  to  the  government  (See 
TcaeSf  and  Revenue.) 

Dis ;  among  the  Romans,  a  name  of 
Pluto  (q.  V.)  and  Hades. 

Discord.  A  discord  is  a  dissonant  or 
inharmonious  combination  of  sounds,  so 
called  in  opposition  to  the  concord,  tlie  ef- 
fects of  which  the  discord  is  calculated  to 
relieve  and  sweeten.  Among  various  odier 
discords,  are  those  formed  by  tlie  union 
of  die  fiflh  witli  the  sixth,  the  fouith  with 
the  fifth,  the  seventh  with  tlie  eighth,  and 
die  diird  widi  the  nindi  and  seventh,  all 
which  require  to  be  introduced  by  certain 
preparatives,  and  to  be  succeeded  by 
concords  to  which  they  have  some  rela- 
tion. 

Discount,  or  Rebate,  is  an  allowance 
made  on  a  bill,  or  any  other  debt  not  yet 
become  due,  in  consideration  of  present 
payment  Bankers,  merchants,  &C.,  allow 
for  discount  a  sum  equal  to  the  interest  of 
the  bill  for  the  time  before  it  becomes 
due,  which,  however,  is  not  just ;  for,  as 
the  true  value  of  the  discount  is  equal  to 
die  difference  between  the  debt  and  its 
present  worth,  it  is  equal  only  to  die  in- 
terest of  that  present  worth,  instead  of 
the  interest  on  the  whole  debt  And, 
dierefore,  die  rule  for  finding  the  true  dis- 
count is  this:  As  the  amount  of  £1  and 
interest  for  tlie  given  rate  and  time  is  to 
the  given  sum  or  debt,  so  is  the  interest 
of  £1  for  the  given  rate  and  time  to  die 
discount  of  the  debt  Thus,  if  the  interest 
or  discount  of  money  were  five  per  cent., 
then  the  allowance  on  a  bill  of  £100 
would  be  found  dius:  As  21«.:£100:: 
U  :  £4  159.  2^1  d. 

Discus,  Disc,  or  Disk;  ammg  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  a  quoit  of  stone  or 
metal,  convex  on  both  its  sides,  |>erfo- 
rated  in  the  middle,  and  fastened  to  the 
hand  by  strings.  Throwing  the  disciu 
was  one  of  the  gymnastic  exercises ;  and 
in  the  Olympic  and  other  games,  it  was 
considered  a  great  honor  to  conquer  in 
the  contest  Perseus  is  said  to  have  in- 
vented this  instrument,  and  Apollo  killed 
his  fiivorite.  Hyacinth,  with  it  In  some 
places,  the  plate  which  contains  the  host 
during  the  act  of  coasecnition,  is  called 
disk, — Disk,  in  astronomy,  means  die  faee 
of  die  sun  and  moon,  as  they  appear  to 
observers  on  the  earth. 


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DISEASES— DISMOUNTING. 


Di3EA8C6,  U^  REDiTAKT.  The  influence 
of  the  ]>arent8  on  the  organization  of  the 
child  is  80  great,  tliat  even  the  individual 
peculiarities  wliich  distinguish  one  man 
from  anodier  are^in  part  at  least,  tiuns- 
mitted  to  his  children ;  hence  tlie  similar- 
ity, in  person  and  looks,  of  the  child  to  its 
parents.  The  internal  organs,  too,  as  well 
as  the  external  foFm,  have  the  same  re- 
semblance ;  BO  that  the  peculiar  constitu- 
tion, the  greater  or  less  acdvity  and  devel- 
opement  of  these  organs^  are  found  to 
pass  from  parent  to  chi'd.  Now,  as  it  is 
the  pardcular  state  of  the  several  organs 
and  functk>ns,  in  which  a  very  great  part 
of  diseases  have  their  foundation,  it  fol- 
lows tlmt  these  diseases  may  be  inherited ; 
and,  in  fact,  it  has  been  observed,  tliat  the 
son  is  not  unfrequendy  attacked  by  a  dis- 
ease at  the  same  period  of  life  in  wliich 
his  father  was.  These  diseases  are  called 
hereditary ;  but  it  is  only  tlie  predisposi- 
tion to  them  that  is,  properly  speaking, 
inherited.  Hence  the  actual  deveIo|)e- 
ment  of  hereditary  diseases  recpiires  certain 
oo-operating  circumstancea  Constitu- 
tional diseases  are  very  often  not  hered- 
itary, but  depend  on  circumstances  which 
affect  the  foetus  during  pregnancy.  The 
father  has  no  influence  on  the  child,  be- 
yond die  act  of  generation ;  the  mother 
operates  upon  it  duiing  pregnancy,  and  it 
IB  possible  that  hereby  occasion  may  be 
given  to  hereditary  diseases.  Among  the 
diseases  which  are  most  frequently  hered- 
itary, are  scrofula,  bleeding  (especially  at 
the  lungs)  and  hemorrhoid^  consumption, 
gout,  the  gravel  and  stone,  scirrhus  and 
cancer,  disorders  of  the  mind  and  spirits, 
hysterical  and  hypochondriac  aflections, 
apoplexy,  epilepsy,  and  organic  diseases 
of  particular  parts,  especially  of  the  heart. 
They  have  this  pecubarity,  that  they  are 
produced,  and  appear  as  constitutional 
diseases,  more  from  the  action  of  internal 
than  of  external,  of  predisposing  than  of 
occasional  causes.  Such  diseases  are 
much  more  difficult  to  reach  and  to  cure, 
than  those  which  originate  in  accidental, 
external  causes.  Hence  it  is  especiaUv 
necessary  to  prevent  in  season  their  growth 
and  developemenL  The  means  of  doing 
this  are  the  folk)wing:  1.  WhoevbT  has 
a  hereditary  predisposition  to  any  dis- 
ease, should  not  marry  one  who  has  the 
same  constitution.  For  this  reason,  mar- 
riages between  near  relations  are  not  ad- 
vimble,  as  tending  to  perpetuate  such 
liervditaiy  diseases.  This,  too,  appears 
Co  be  the  reason  why  attachments  ore 
generally  formed  between  persons  of  op- 
poriite  constitution  and  different  tempera- 


ment 2.  We  ou^ht  to  order  all  the  cir- 
cumstances, in  which  the  child  grows  up, 
in  such  a  way,  tiiat  the  inherited  predis- 
position may  not  only  not  be  favored,  but 
counteracted.  3.  The  accidental  occa- 
sions which  favor  the  growth  of  tha 
disease  should  be  avoided,  eroecially  at 
the  time  of  life  in  which  the  father  was 
attacked  by  it  The  medical  treatment 
of  hereditary  diseases  is  not  essentially 
different  finom  that  which  is  requisite  in 
the  same  discAses,  arising  under  different 
circumstancea 

Dishing  Wheels.  Wheels  should  be 
exactly  cyliiidrical,  if  roads  were,  in  all 
cases,  level  and  smooth;  but  since  the 
unequal  surfiice  of  most  roads  exposes 
carruges  to  frequent  and  sudden  changes 
of  position,  it  is  found  advantageous  to 
mak^  the  wheels  a  litde  conical,  or,  as  it 
is  commonly  called,  disking,  eo  that  the 
sj^kes  may  all  diverge  with  their  extrem- 
ities from  the  carriage. 

Dismal  Swamp;  a  large  tract  of  marshy 
land,  beginning  a  litde  south  of  Nmfolk, 
in  Virginia,  and  extending  into  North 
Carolina,  containing  ISOjWO  acres;  30 
miles  long,  from  north  to  "south,  and  10 
broad.  This  tract  is  entirely  covered  with 
trees,  some  of  which  grow  to  a  very  large 
size;  and  between  diem  the  brushwood 
springs  up  so  thick,  that  many  parts  are 
utterly  impervbus.  In  the  midst  of  the 
swamp  is  a  lake,  called  Dmmmond^a 
pondy  seven  miles  m  length.  The  Pas- 
Guotank  flows  from  this  lake  south,  and 
Ine  Nansemond  flows  from  it  north. 

Ditwud  SuHtniat  Cancdj  or  Chesapeake 
and  Mhtmaiit  Canal,  passes  dirouc^h  this 
swamp,  beginning  at  Deep  creek,  a  branch 
of  Elizabeth  river,  seven  miles  above 
Norfolk,  and  terminating  at  Joyce's  creek, 
a  branch  of  the  Pasquotank,  90  miles 
from  its  entrance  into  Albemarle  sound. 
It  is  22i  miles  long,  38  feet  broad  at  the 
surface,  and  ^  feet  deep.    (See  Ganslf.) 

DiSMouirTtNG,  in  the  military  art,  is  ren- 
dering the  enemy's  cannon  unfit  for  further 
service,  by  breaking  their  carriages  and 
axle-trees;  also,  shattering  the  parapet  of  a 
retrenchment,  or  of  a  waU,  by  balls,  so  that 
it  cannot  be  defended,  particuhu-Iy  so  that 
carmons  cannot  be  worked  behind  it  Dis- 
mounting batteries  are  such  as  are  intend- 
Oil  to  throw  down  the  parapets  of  fortifi- 
catioii^  and  disable  the  enemy's  cannons. 
They  are  placed  generally  hi  the  Second, 
qflen  in  the  diird  parallel.  If  they  are  on 
the  glacis,  m  the  salient  angles  of  the  bas- 
tions, and  firo  against  tlie  flanks  of  the 
adjacent  bulwark,  diey  are  called  eaunter^ 
fcattouf.     They  are  erected  exactly  op- 


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ponte  the  front  to  be  battered,  and  consist 
of  from  four  to  eight  cannons,  mostly  12 
pounders.  These  cannons  are  generally 
aimed,  at  the  same  time,  at  the  same  em- 
brasure, whilst  the  others  occupy  the 
other  cannon  of  the  enemy:  when  one  of 
the  enemy's  cannon  is  silenced,  the  fire 
is  directed  to  another,  and  so  on.  Some 
mortars  and  howitzers,  which  may  be 
placed  either  within  tlie  dismounting  bat- 
tery or  by  themselves,  support  its  ^^  by 
bombarding  the  attacked  embrasures :  the 
fire  of  both  must  be  slow,  and  well  aimed. 
The  distance  of  the  dismounting  battery 
from  the  work  attacked,  is  usudly  from 
3  to  400  paces,  according  to  the  distance 
of  tlie  second  parallel  It  has  been  pro- 
posed, in  modem  times,  to  shoot  grenades, 
mstead  of  balls,  fh>m  the  cannons,  into  the 
works  which  are  to  be  dismounted,  to 
produce  an  effect,  by  their  bursting,  simi- 
lar to  tliat  of  mines. 

Dispensary;  a  charitable  institution, 
common  in  large  towns  of  Britain  and  the 
U.  States.  Dispensaries  are  supported  by 
voluntary  subscriptions,  and  each  has  one 
or  more  physicians,  surgeons  and  apoth- 
ecaries, who  attend,  or  ought  to  attend,  at 
stated  times,  in  order  to  prescribe  for  tlie 
poor,  and,  if  necessary,  to  visit  them  at 
their  own  habitations.  The  poor  are 
supplied  with  medicines  gratis.  Where 
these  institutions  are  managed  with  care, 
they  are  of  the  utmost  importance  to  so- 
eiety,  it  beine  unquestionably  more  for 
the  comfort  of  the  sick,  to  be  attended  at 
their  own  houses,  than  to  be  taken  from 
their  fiimilies  to  an  hospital. 

DispCNSATORT ;  a  book  in  which  all 
the  medicines  are  registered,  that  are  to 
be  kept  in  an  a{K>thecary's  shop,  and  the 
apothecaries  directed  how  te  compose 
them.  Almost  every  country  in  Europe, 
and  many  large  cities,  have  their  own 
dispensatories,  which  the  apothecaries  are 
bound  to  follow. 

Disseizin,  or  Disseisin,  is  the  dispos- 
BesHing  one  of  a  freehold  estate,  or  inter- 
rupting his  Mtzvn.  Under  the  feudal  law, 
.  when  a  vassal  was  admitted  to  an  estate, 
by  the  eeremony  of  investiture,  he  was 
said  to  be  s^xd  of  it  Tho  diss^ing  of 
him  was  tlie  turning  him  out  of  his  fee. 
The  entry  into  a  vacant  estate  is  not  a 
disseizin.  In  regard  to  incorporeal  here- 
ditaments, as  of  a  certain^  omce,  or  the 
right  to  receive  a  certain  rent  out  of  land, 
without  that  of  possession,  there  could  be 
only  a  constructive  disseizin.  The  person 
disseizing  another  is  called  the  disseizor^ 
and  the  person  whose  estate  is  disseized, 
the  (Hsaeixee.    By  a  JhehM  is  meant  an 

rou  IV.  22 


estate  for  life,  or  some  larger  estate ;  and  an 
estate  for  years,  or  a  lease,  though  it  be  for 
a  hundred  years,  is  not  a  freehold.  Of 
freeholds,  only,  can  a  seizin  be  had,  or  a 
disseizin  done.  Whetlier  an  entiy  upon 
lands  is  or  is  not  a  disseizin,  will  depend 
partly  upon  the  circumstances  of^  the 
entry,  and  partly  upon. tlie  intention  of 
the  partv,  as  mode  known  by  his  words  or 
acts.  Thus,  if  one  enters  another's  house 
without  claiming  any  thing,  it  is  not  a  dis- 
seizin. So,  if  one  enters  wrongfully  upon 
another's  land,  and  the  owner  afterwanle 
receives  rent  of  him,  it  will  not  be  a 
disseizin ;  so,  if  a  lessee  at  will  makes  a 
lease  for  yeaia,  it  is  a  disseizin ;  so,  if  one 
enters  upon  lands  of  an  infant,  though 
with  his  consent,  it  is  a  disseizin,  if  the 
infant  chooses  afterwards  so  to  consider 
it ;  so,  if  one  commands  another  to  make 
a  disseizin,  tlie  person  giving  the  com- 
mand is  a  disseizor;  and  so  it  is  a  dis- 
seizin to  prevent  the  owner  from  entering 
on  his  land,  &c.  Between  joint-tenants 
and  tenants  in  common,  and  coparceners, 
the  entry  of  one,  being  construed  to  be 
made  in  behalf  of  all,  is  not  a  disseizin, 
which,  in  tliese  cases,  must  be  tlie  actual 
ouster  of  the  co-tenant ;  that  is,  putting  or 
keeping  him  out  of  possession :  thus,  if 
one  co-tenant,  afler  entering,  makes  a 
feoffment  of  the  whole,  tliis  is  a  disseizin ; 
for  it  shows  the  intention  of  the  entry : 
so  if  one,  being  in  possession,  claims  the 
whole,  and  refuses  to  pay  rent,  &c. 
Dissenters.  (See  Mm  Conforimsts.) 
Dissidents,  in  its  more  extensive  mean- 
ing, denotes  those  who  differ  from  the 
established  religion  of  a  country.  It  has 
been  used  in  a  more  particular  sense  m 
Poland,  since  1736,  to  denote  all  those 
who,  though  tliey  do  not  belong  to  the 
established  (Catholic)  religion,  are  yet 
allowed  the  free  exercise  of  their  respect- 
ive modes  of  worship,  including  Luther- 
ans, Galvinists,  Greeks  and  Arminians, 
and  excluding  Anabaptists,  Socinians  and 
Quakers.  As  early  as  the  time  of  Luther, 
the  reformation  was  introduced  into  Po* 
land.  During  the  reign  of  Sigismund 
Augustus  (1548—72),  great  nunibers  Qf 
the  people,  and  even  half  of  the  members 
of  tne  diet,  and  more  than  half  of  the 
nobility,  were  Lutherans  or  OaJvinists. 
The  convention  of  Sandomir,  concluded 
in  1570,  united  the  Lutherans,  Galvinists 
and  Bohemian  brethren  into  one  church 
— a  union  which  had  also  a  political  ten- 
dency, and  whose  members  obtained  the 
same  rights  with  the  Catholics,  by  the 
religious  |)eace  (pax  dissidenlxum)  sworn 
tobythekingui  ISTU    But  the  great  mis- 


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254 


DISSIDENTS— DISTILLATION. 


take  conunitted  in  not  settling  the  mutual 
relations  of  the  two  religious  [Kuties,  gave 
rise  to  bloody  contests.  Altliough  tlie 
rigiits  of  the  dissidents  were  aAerwanls  re- 
peatedly confirmed,  they  were  grachially 
repealed,  particularly  in  1717  and  1718,  iu 
the  reign  of  Augustus  II,  when  they  were 
deprived  of  the  right  of  voting  in  the 
diet  They  lost  still  more,  some  years 
afterwards  (17^)3),  under  Augustus  III; 
and  m.  the  did  of  pacijicationj  as  it  was 
called  (1736),  an  old  statute,  requiring 
every  Polish  king  to  be  of  the  Catliolic 
church,  was  revived.  Afler  the  accession 
of  tlie  last  king,  Staniskius  Poniatowski, 
the  dissidents  brought  their  grievances 
before  the  diet  held  in  17()G,  and  wer» 
supported  in  their  claims  by  Russia,  Den- 
mark, Prussia  and  England.  Russia,  in 
particular,  profited  by  the  occasion,  to  ex- 
tend her  influence  in  the  affairs  of  Poland, 
supported  them  stronglv,  and  succeeded, 
by  her  mediation,  in  bringing  about  a 
new  convention,  in  17t)7,  by  which  they 
were  again  placed  on  an  equal  foodng 
with  the  Catholics.  The  diet  of  1768  re- 
pealed the  decrees  which  had  been  for- 
merly passed  against  them.  The  war 
against  the  confederates  breaking  out, 
however,  and  tlie  kingdom  being  dis- 
membered, nothing  was  accomplished,  un- 
til the  year  1775,  when  the  dissidents 
regained  all  their  privileges,  excepting  the 
right  of  being  elected  senators  or  ministers 
of  state.  I^ter  events  in  Poland  have 
again  placed  the  dissidents  on  an  equal 
footing  with  the  Catholics. 

Dissonance;  that  effect  which  results 
firom  the  union  of  two  sounds  not  in  ac- 
cord with  each  other.  The  ancients  con- 
sidered thirds  and  sixths  as  dissonances; 
and,  in  fact,  every  chord,  except  the 
perfect  concord,  is  a  dissonant  chord. 
The  old  tlieories  include  an  infinity  of 
dissonances,  but  the  present  received  sys- 
tem reduces  them  to  a  comparatively 
small  number.  One  rule,  admitted  both 
by  the  ancients  and  the  modems,  is,  that 
of  two  notes,  dissonant  between  them- 
selves, the  dissonance  appertains  to  that 
one  of  the  two  which  is  most  remote 
from  the  concord. 

Distich  ;  a  couplet  of  verses,  especially 
one  consisting  of  a  hexameter  and  pen- 
tameter; a% 

''  Turpe  quidem  dicta :  scd,  si  modo  vera  fo- 
temur, 
Valgus  amicitias  utilitate  probat/' 
Thto  hexameter,  which  flows  on  in  an 
uninterrupted  course,  being  adapted  to  the 
expresrfon  of  feeling,  and  the  pentameter, 
which  is  broken  by  two  ne«ily  equal  di- 


visions, expressing  subdued  emotion,  this 
disposition  is  undoubtedly  best  suited  to 
the  elegy  (q.  v.),  and  for  this  reason  was 
called  die  elegiac  measure.  At  the  same 
time,  no  form  is  more  suiud>le  for  majums 
or  sentences  than  the  distich.  The 
Greeks,  tlierefore,  composed  tlieir  epi- 
grams almost  exclusively  in  tJiis  fonn, 
and  tlie  Germans  have  followed  their  ex- 
ample. Odier  natious,  who  do  not  possess 
this  measure,  frequently  call  every  piece 
of  poetry  in  two  lines,  a  disuch. 

Distillation  is  an  art  founded  upon 
the  different  tendencies  which  bodies  have 
to  pass  into  vapor,  and  to  be  condensed 
again  by  cold,  and  is  performed  in  order 
to  separate  them  from  each  other,  when 
combined,  or  when  tliey  become  prod- 
ucts of  chemical  action.  Its  use  is  very 
important  in  obtaining  spirits,  essences, 
volatile  oils,  &c  The  most  common 
method  of  conducting  this  process  con- 
sists in  placing  the  liquid  to  be  disdlied 
in  a  vessel  called  a  stUl,  made  of  copper, 
having  a  movable  head,  with  a  swan-like 
neck,  which  is  so  formed  as  to  fit  a  coiled 
tube,  packed  away  in  a  tub  of  water  con- 
stantly kept  cold,  and  which  is  termed  a 
refrigeratory.  The  fire  is  applied  either 
immediately  to  the  still,  or  mediately, 
by  means  of  a  water  or  sand-bath.  The 
liquid  to  be  obtained  rises,  in  vapor,  into 
the  head  of  the  still,  and,  passing  down 
the  curved  tube,  or  worm,  becomes  con- 
densed, and  makes  its  exit  in  a  liquid 
state.  The  still  should  be  consti-ucted 
with  a  diameter  considerably  greater  than 
its  height,  in  order  to  ex]X)se  a  larger  sur- 
face to  the  fire ;  and  the  tube  should  not 
be  so  narrow  as  to  impede  the  passage  of 
the  vapor  into  die  worm.  An  improve- 
ment made  by  Mr.  Tennant  in  this  appa- 
ratus, consists  in  introducing  the  siiunl 
tube  into  the  body  of  a  second  still,  so 
that  the  heat  from  the  condensation  of  the 
steam,  passing  through  the  tube,  is  applied 
to  the  distillation  of  liquor  in  the  seconcL 
The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  re- 
moved from  the  latter,  bv  connecting  it 
with  an  air-tight  receiver,  kept  cool.  The 
air  in  this  receiver  is  allowed  to  escape 
at  the  commencement  of  the  operatiou ; 
its  place  is  occupied  by  the  steam  from  the 
liquor,  which  being  condensed,  a  vacuum 
is  kept  up,  whence  the  distillation  proceeds, 
without  any  fiirther  heat  being  direcdy 
applied  to  the  second  stilL  This  form  of 
disdlling  apparatus  is  called  the  douUe 
sUU,  The  process  introduced  by  Mr.  Bar- 
ry, for  preparing  vegetable  extracts  and  in- 
spissated juices,  by  evaporadon  in  vacuo^ 
is  of  a  somewhat  sioular  nature.    The 


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DISTILLATION— DISTRESS. 


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apparatus  consists  of  a  hemispherical  still, 
made  of  cast  iron,  and  {lolislied  within. 
It  is  closed  by  an  oir-tight,  flat  cover, 
through  which  rises  a  wide  tube,  which 
is  theu  bent  downwards,  and  tenninates 
in  a  large  copper  globe,  of  a  capacity  three 
or  four  tinits  greater  tliaii  that  of  tiie  still. 
In  this  tube  tliere  is  a  sto(>-cock,  between 
the  still  and  the  globe.  When  evajiora- 
lion  is  to  be  perlbnned,  the  vegetable 
iuice  or  infusion  is  poured  into  the  pol- 
ished iron  still,  through  an  oi3eniug,  which 
is  theu  closed,  made  air-tight,  and  covered 
witli  water.  In  order  to  produce  a  vac- 
uum, the  connexion  between  tiie  still  and 
cop|)er  receiver  is  interrupted,  by  shutting 
the  stop-cock,  and  steam  ifY>m  a  boiler  is 
uitroduced  by  a  pipe  into  the  latter,  till 
the  whole  of  the  air  is  expelled  from  it 
Tliis  takes  usually  about  five  minutes,  and 
is  known  by  the  steam  issuing  from  the 
globe  uncondensed.  The  copper  s))here 
is  then  closed,  and  tlie  communicution 
restored  between  it  and  the  still,  by  open- 
ing tlie  stop-cock,  when  the  greater  jiart 
of  the  air  m  the  latter  rushes  into  the 
former.  The  stop-cock  is  again  closed, 
and  die  globe  again  filled  with  steam  as 
before.  By  the  condensation  of  this  steam 
a  vacuum  is  again  produced,  which,  on 
opening  the  stop-cock,  extracts  the  greater 
portion  of  tlie  air  remaining  in  the  still : 
in  short,  by  reiieating  tiiese  exhaustions 
live  or  six  times,  an  almost  (lerfect  vacuum 
is  obtained,  both  in  the  still  and  receiver. 
Heat  is  tiien  applied  to  the  water  bath, 
in  which  the  still  is  placed,  until  the  juice 
within  begins  to  boil,  which  is  ascertained 
by  inspection  through  a  piece  of  thick 
glass,  fixed  finnly  in  die  up{)er  fiart  of  the 
apfwratus.  As,  in  a  vacuum,  fluids  boil 
nearly  124  degrees  below  their  usual 
boiling  temperature,  water  passes  mto 
ebullition,  in  such  circumstances,  at  90^ 
Fahr.,  or  a  little  above  it ;  and  it  is  never 
found  necessary  to  heat  the  jiuce  above 
a  temperature  of  100°.  The  evaporation 
is  continued  till  the  fluid  is  inspissated  to 
tlie  proper  extent,  which  is  judged  of  by 
its  appearance  tiux)ugh  the  glass.  Ex- 
tracts prepared  in  this  way  are  found  to 
be  greatly  preferable  to  tiiose  obtained  by 
evaporation  at  a  high  temperature:  tiiey 
are  considerably  stronger,  as  the  active 
principles  in  the  juices  are  not  decom- 
posed by  reaction  between  their  elements, 
&vored  by  heat ;  and  they  are  firee  from 
all  burnt  flavor,  or  empyreuma.  There 
are  many  operations,  however,  in  which 
liquids  are  employed,  tiiat  would  corrode 
metallic  vessels:  in  such  cases,  vessels 
are  employed,  constructed  either  of  glass, 


platinum,  or  stone  ware.  They  are  of 
various  fbnns,  generally  consisting  of  two 
parts,  one  called  a  rdort,  and  the  otiier  a 
receiver.  The  receiver  is  sometimes  tu- 
bulated, witii  a  stopper  adapted  to  the 
tubulature.  In  some  cases  of  distillation, 
the  product  is  not  entirely  a  vapor  which 
may  be  condensed;  but  tiicre  is  disen- 
gaged an  elastic  fluid,  which  is  inconden- 
sable. This  gas  is  allowed  to  pass  off  by  a 
tube  from  the  tubulature ;  the  tube  tennina- 
ting  in  a  vessel  of  water,  and  thus  enabling 
us  to  collect  die  gas  in  an  iiwerted  jtu*.  In 
certain  cases,  the  ])roduct  designed  to  be  ob- 
tained by  distillation  is  an  elastic  fluid,  not 
condensable  by  itself,  but  capable  of  being 
condensed  by  being  transmitted  tiirough 
water.  A  contrivance  called  fVolfe'a  ixp- 
pcurcUus  is  used  for  this  purpose,  a  descrij>- 
tion  of  which  may  be  found  in  most  of 
the  chemical  treatises.  A  liquid  obtained 
by  distillation  is  sometimes  not  |)erfectiy 
pure,  or  it  is  dilute,  from  die  intermixture 
of  water,  that  has  been  elevated  in  vapor 
along  with  it.  By  repeating  die  distilla- 
tion of  it  a  second  or  a  third  time,  it  is 
rendered  more  pure  and  strong.  This 
latter  process  is  named  redijicaiiany  or 
sometimes  eoncentraHoiu 

Distress,  ui  law  (from  the  Latin  (Hs- 
trvngOf  to  distrain),  is  the  taking  of  a  per- 
sonal cliattel  of  a  wrong-doer,  or  a  tenant, 
in  order  to  obtain  satisfaction  for  the 
wrong  done,  or  for  rent  or  ser\ice  due. 
The  thing  taken  is  also  called  a  distress, 
A  distress  may  be  taken  for  homage,  fealty, 
or  any  other  service,  of  which  there  were 
many  descriptions  under  the  old  feudal 
tenures,  due  from  die  tenant  to  the  lord, 
or  person  of  whom  the  estate  was  holden, 
the  rendering  or  payment  of  which  was 
die  consideration  or  condition  on  which 
the  land  was  held.  So  a  distress  is,  by 
the  English  and  American  law,  allowed 
to  be  madi  of  catde  or  goods  damage-' 
feasant  (see  Damage- Feasant),  both  for  die 
purpose  of  preventing  furthei-  damage,  and 
obtaining  satisfaction  for  that  already 
done.  If  the  party  whose  goods  or  cattle 
are  seized,  disputes  the  injury,  service, 
duty  or  rent,  on  account  of  which  the 
distress  is  taken,  he  may  replevy  the 
tilings  taken,  giving  bonds,  at  the  same 
time,  to  retuni  them  or  pay  damage,  in 
case  the  party  making  die  distress  shows 
that  the  wrong  has  been  done,  or  the  ser- 
vice or  rent  is  due,  on  account  of  which  the 
distress  was  taken.  Another  description 
of  distress  is  that  of  attachment  (see  i^- 
taehment),  to  compel  a  party  to  appear  be- 
fore a  court  when  summoned  for  this 
purpose.    The  distresses  most  frequenUy 


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DISTRESSk-DlVERfiENT. 


made  in  England  and  the  tf.  States,  are 
on  account  of  damagt-feascmct  and  rent ; 
though  the  ordinary  attachments  on  mesne 
process,  that  is,  on  a  writ  betbre  iudgment, 
that  tlie  judgment  may  be  satished  out  of 
the  property  so  seized,  coincides  in  princi- 
ple with  the  right  of  distress.  But  this  right 
of  previous  attachment,  though  permitted 
in  most  cases  of  claims  for  debts  or  damage, 
in  some  few  of  the  U.  States,  seems  to  be 
peculiar  to  them,  whereas  the  right  of 
diatreaSj  strictly  so  called,  is  very  genemL 
The  reason  for  giving  a  right  of  distress 
in  cases  of  damage-feasance  is  obvious, 
but  it  is  by  no  means  so  evident  why  a 
landlord  should  have  a  right  to  distrain 
for  his  rent,  any  more  tlian  a  grocer  for  a 
debt  accruing  on  account  of  articles  sup- 
plied for  the  use  of  his  debtor's  family. 
The  power  with  which  the  great  body  of 
landliolders  is  vested,  all  over  Europe, 
where  a  vast  pro|)ortion  of  the  soil  is 
imder  lease,  will  sufficiently  account  for 
the  prevalence  of  this  rule  tliere  ;  but  this 
will  not  account  for  the  adoption  of  a 
aimilar  rule  in  the  U.  States,  where,  in 
general,  tlie  cultivators  occupy  their  own 
soil,  and  contracts  for  rent,  except  in  the 
considerable  towns,  form  but  a  small  \wxt 
of  tlie  whole  mass  of  contracts.  It  may 
lie  said,  indeed,  that  the  chattels  on  the 
farm  are  usually,  in  part,  at  least,  the 
ffrowth  of  the  farm  itself,  and  so  &r  the 
landlord  may,  without  injustice,  have  a 
sort  of  lien  on  them  for  his  rent  No 
other  reason  occurs  to  us,  why  a  special 
remedy  should  be  provided  for  this  ])ar- 
ticular  S})ecies  of  debts,  and  this  reason 
may  not  appear  entirely  satisfactory.    This 

rference  is  not  without  exception  in  the 
States ;  for  in  some  of  the  states,  where 
the  right  of  attaching  in  mesne  processes 
is  extended  to  most  claims  for  debt  or 
damages,  the  demand  for  rent  has  no 
beuer  remedy  than  others.  As  to  the 
things  that  may  be  distrained,  the  English 
law  allows  any  chattel  of  the  lessee,  on 
the  premises,  to  be  so  taken.  The  law  also 
prescribes  particularly  the  time  and  mode 
of  making  the  distress,  and  the  manner 
of  treating  the  things,  especially  beasts, 
distrained. 

DiTHTRAHBUs ;  a  surname  of  Bacchus, 
because  he  was  said  to  have  been  bom 
twice— once  of  his  mother,  Semele,  and 
the  second  time  out  of  the  thigh  of  his 
fiuher  Jupiter ;  or  because  several  mothers 
have  been  ascribed  to  him.  The  word 
means,  also,  a  poem,  sung  in  honor  of  the 
god,  at  his  festivals.  Since  these  festivals 
were  celebrated  with  all  the  extravagance 
which  could  please  the  intoxicated  deity, 


the  dithyrambua  employed  in  bis  wor- 
ship naturally  breathed  die  same  frenzy. 
The  character  of  the  ditiiyrambus,  the  re- 
fore,  requires  bokl  images  and  4ofty 
periods.  The  more  apparent  disorder  it 
contains,  the  more  it  partakes  of  the  fire 
of  intoxication,  the  better  it  sustains  the 
true  dithyrambic  character.  In  llie  wikl 
Phrygian  music,  it  was  sung  in  choin. 
Arioii  of  Methymne,  on  the  island  of 
Lesbos,  is  considered  as  the  inventor  cf 
it  In  public  games,  it  was  first  made  use 
of  by  Lasos  of  Hermione.  The  expres- 
sion dUhframbic  poeni  denotes,  also,  eveiy 
lyric  poem,  filled  with  a  wild  and  impet- 
uous enthu^asm,  as  is  the  case  with  many 
odes  of  Pindar. 

DiTTERS  VON  DiTTERSDORF,  Charles, 
bora  at  Vienna,  in  1739,  is  particularly 
distinguished  in  comic  compositions,  and 
perhaps  unrivalled,  in  this  branch  of 
music^  among  the  German  composersL 
Several  of  his  operas  are  represented  with 
great  applause,  even  in  Italy.  The  em- 
peror of  Germany  raised  him  to  the  rank 
of  nobility.    He  died  in  1799. 

Ditto  (usually  written  do,)  signifies  Vie 
aforcmentionedy  and  is  a  corniptioii  of  the 
Italian  detto,  fiom  the  Latin  diclvniy  the  said. 

Divan  ;  1.  with  the  Turks,  tlie  highest 
council  of  state ;  the  Turkish  ministry. 
(See  Ottoman  Empire.)  Every  pacha  has 
also  a  divan.  2.  In  Turkey,  a  kind  of 
sta^  raised  about  a  foot  from  the  floor, 
which  is  found  in  all  the  halls  of  the  pal- 
aces, as  well  as  in  the  apartments  of  pri- 
vate persons.  It  is  covered  vrith  costly 
tapestry,  and  a  number  of  embroidered 
cushions,  leaning  against  the  wall.  This 
divan  is  the  seat  of  the  master  of  the 
house,  and  reclining  on  it,  he  receives 
vuiitors.  From  this,  a  kind  of  sofa  has 
obtained  the  name  of  dhan,  .  3.  Divan^ 
with  the  Arabs,  Peraians  and  Turks,  is 
used  to  denote  a  complete  collection  of 
lyric  poems,  which  they  call  gazelles,  and 
through  each  of  which  one  single  rhyme 
extends:  tliey  never  exceed  the  length  of 
14  strophes.  Such  a  collection  is  com- 
plete if  there  are  as  manv  divisions  as 
there  are  letters  in  the  alphal)et  of  the 
respective  languages;  and  each  division 
contains  at  least  one  poem,  the  rhymes 
of  which  terminate  with  tlie  letter  under 
which  the  division  falls ;  some  letters  are 
excluded,  as  few  or  no  worrls  end  in  them. 

Diver.    (See  PeaH-Fishery.) 

Diver,  a  bird.    (See  Loan,) 

Divergent;  tending  to  various  paitis 
from  one  point;  thus  we  say,  dtvergent 
lines,  rays,  &c.,  meaning  those  Ihies  or 
rays  which,  issuing  fit>m  one  common 


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257 


point,  go  off  from  that  point  in  yarious  di- 
rections. Concave  glasses  render  the  rays 
divergent,  and  convex  ones  convergent. 
Concave  mirrors  make  the  rays  conveige, 
and  convex  ones  make  them  diverge. 

Di  VF.R6INO  Series,  in  analysis,  are  thoee 
series,  the  terms  ^  of  wriiich  increase  more 
and  more,  the  further  they  are  continued. 

Diversion,  in  military  atfairs,  is  an 
attack  on  an  enemy,  in  a  place  where  he 
is  weak  and  unprovided,  in  order  to  draw 
off  his  forcee  from  another  place,  where 
they  liave  made,  or  intend  to  make,  an 
irruption,  llius  the  Romans  had  no 
other  way  in  tlieir  power  of  driving  Han- 
nibal out  of  Italy,  but  by  making  a  diver- 
sion in  attacking  Carthage. 

DiviDBffD  OF  Stocks  is  a  share  or 
proportion  of  the  interest  of  stocks,  divided 
amoni^,  and  paid  to,  the  poprietora. 

DivuUndf  in  arithlnetic,  is  that  number 
which  is  to  be  divided. 

Divination  (from  die  Latin  dwrnaiio) ; 
the  foreseeing  or  predicting  of  future 
events  (in  Greek,  ^avrua,  iiavriKh),  Cicero 
has  treated  diis  subject  in  his  book  De 
Dwhialione,  Man  is  so  dependent  upon 
external  things  and  influences ;  he  is  so 
conscious  of  this  influence ;  he  is  so  jper- 
fectly  aware  of  tlie  uncertain  issue  of^  his 
best  calculations,  and  is  so  often  obliged 
to  act,  when  the  reasons  for  and  against 
a  measure  seem  to  be  almost  equally 
balanced,  that  it  is  natural  for  him  to 
cherish  an  ardent  desire  to  pir  into  futu- 
rity, and  to  inform  himself  about  things 
which  are  happening  in  distant  regions, 
by  some  process  out  of  the  ordinary 
coune  of  nature.  If  we  take  into  view^ 
besides  this  natural  desire,  the  belief  which 
nations,  in  an  early  stage  of  their  progress, 
entertain  of  the  immolate  dispensations 
of  Providence,  of  a  constant  interference 
of  the  Deity  in  the  bourse  of  things,  rather 
than  of  the  existence  of  eternal  and  all- 
wise  laws,  we  shall  have  the  reason  why 
the  belief  in  divination  of  some  kind  or 
other,  in  signs  given  from  above,  to  warn 
or  to  alarm,  and  in  the  power  of  particular 
individuals  to  lift  the  veil  of  futurity,  has 
been  so  general.  We  need  not  suppose 
divination  to  have  had  its  origin  in  fraud : 
the  disposition  of  men  to  deceive  them- 
selves, and  form  conclusions  as  to  future 
events  from  unmeaning  signs,  will  suf- 
ficiently account  for  its  existence.  In 
the  sequel,  indeed,  it  became  a  fruitful 
source  of  imposition.  Moses  prohibited 
divination  expressly.  (Devi,  xviii,  11.) 
Saul  expelled  ^  those  that  had  familiar  spir- 
its, and  tiie  wizards,'*  from  his  kingdom, 
yet  he  was  weak  enough  to  consmt  the 
22» 


famous  witbh  of  Endor,  shortly  l)efore  the 
decisive  battle  in  which  he  fell.  The 
Egyptians  and  Greeks  had  their  oracles, 
(q.  V.)  With  the  Romans,  divination  and 
witchcraft  were  brought  into  a  kind  of 
system,  and  constituted  part  of  their  reli- 
gion, of  which  the  generals  and  chieis 
of  parties  often  availed  themselves,  with 
much  effect  (See  Augur,  and  ^^lupices.) 
All  the  ancient  Asiatic  tribes  had  modes 
of  divination ;  and  sorcerers  are  common 
among  the  Indians  of  America.  In  &ct, 
we  believe  that  there  has  hcuxily  been  a 
nation  discovered,  which  had  advanced 
l)eyoud  the  lowest  barbarism,  that  did  not 
practise  some  kind  of  divination ;  and  even 
m  the  ages  in  which  reason  has  most  pre- 
vailed over  feeling,  the  t)elief  in  the  power 
of  foreseeing  future  events  has  been  enter- 
tained ;  even  men  of  the  greatest  intel- 
ligence have  not  been  able  to  rid  them- 
selves of  it  entirely.  Without  going  into 
the  question  of  the  degree  to  whicn  the 
human  mind  is  capable  of  looking  into 
futurity,  or  considering  the  numerous  ex- 
traoi^duiary  stories  afloat  in  the  world,  of 
presentiments  and  predictions,  we  shall 
confine  ourselves  to  a  few  remarks  on  the 
systems  of  divination  which  have  existed. 
The  ancient  Germans  had  consecrated 
white  horses,  from  whose  snorting  and 
neighing  they  drew  favorable  or  unfavor- 
able signs.  They  also  followed  the  guid- 
ance of  prophetesses,  whom  they  called 
Alrunts.  The  Greeks  had  their  series 
Homeric^  the  Romans  their  sories  Vxr- 
gUiana ;  and,  in  imitatioa  of  these,  many 
Christians,  from  the  period  of  the  3d  cen^ 
tury,  adopted  the  sories  sanctorum — a  mode 
of  judging  of  the  future  by  opening  the 
Sacred  Scriptures  at  random,  and  forming 
an  opinion  from  the  passage  on  which 
tlie  eye  happened  to  fall.  (See  BMionum- 
cy.)  This  usage  was  early  disapproved 
by  the  councils.  Some  popes  forbad  it 
under  penalty  of  excommunication.  The 
capitularies  of  Charlemagne,  of  789  A.  D., 
also  prohibit  this  mode  of  consulting  the 
Psalms  and  the  Gospels;  yet  the  sortes 
sanctorum  continued  until  die  14th  century, 
and  is  not,  even  now,  altogether  obsolete. 
In  most  countries  of  Europe,  many  of  the 
old  forms  of  divination  continue  to  be 
practised,  sometimes  from  superstition, 
sometimes  for  amusement  In  fact,  the 
love  of  having  one's  fortune  told  is  not 
confined  to  the  ignorant  and  the  supersti- 
tious. People  who  are  above  belie virig 
the  predictions  are  still  fond  of  prying,  m 
sport,  into  the  mysteriesof  futurity.  There 
are  many  names  for  the  different  modes 
of  prognosticating  the  future  by  means  of 


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DIVINATION— DIVISIBILITY. 


the  various  appearances  which^ature  and 
art  present,  from  the  revolutions  of  the 
stars  down  to  the  grounds  of  a  coffee- 
cup  ;  as,  asiroLogy^,  airomancyj  mdeoromaney^ 
pyromancy,  hydrotnancv,  ^eoTnancyj  hierth- 
manof,  rhabdomancy,  physwmmMncy,  nee- 
romancy,  bUdiamancyj  &c.  Very  lately,  a 
Jady  at  Paris,  mademoiselle  Lenormand, 
attracted  much  attention  by  telline  for- 
tunes to  persons  of  high  rank ;  and  Miiller, 
in  Suabia,  was  a  celebrated  prophet  in  the 
time  of  Napoleon.  It  has  been  often  ob- 
served, that  great  politicians,  men  who 
have  risen  above  many  of  die  prejudices 
of  tlieir  age,  and  have  even  disregarded 
important  truths,  have  yet  given  them- 
selves up  to  a  su()erstitious  trust  in  signs 
and  divination.  One  reason  may  be,  that 
they  have  peculiar  opportunities  of  seeing 
how  many  things  are  out  of  the  reach  of 
human  |x>wer,  and  must  be  left  to/ortune ; 
and  an  ambidous  spirit  refuses  to  doubt 
infliat  it  strongly  wishes.  The  works  on 
this  subject  are  very  numerous,  includuig, 
as  they  do',  the  mystical  producdonsof  the 
East,  tiie  Cabala  (q.  v.),  the  treatises  on  as* 
tiDlogy  (q.  v.),  witobcrafl,  &c.,  in  the  middle 
ages,  and. all  that  modern  times  have  pro- 
duced, as  Jung  Stilling'^  Theorit  dor  Gfe»- 
terhunde  ^Theory  of  Demonology),  sir  W. 
Scott*8  History  of  Demonology,  &c.  (See 
the  articles  Jlstrology,  JGxpsks,  Witck,  &c.) 
Divino-Bell.  To  illustrate  the  princi- 
ple of  tiiis  machine,  take  a  glass  tumbler, 
plunge  it  into  water  widi  tlie  mouth 
peri)cndicularly  downwards ;  you  will 
find  that  .very  little  water  will  rise  into  the 
tumbler,  which  will  be  evident  if  you  lay 
a  piece  of  cork  upon  the  sur&ce  of  the 
water,  and  put  tlie  tumbler  over  it;  for 
vou  will  see,  that,  though  the  cork  should 
oe  carried  far  below  the  surface  of  the 
water,  yet  its  upper  side  is  not  wetted,  the 
air  which  was  in  tlie  tumbler  having  pre- 
vented the  entranoe  of  the  water ;  mit,  as 
air  is  compressible,  it  could  not  endrely 
exclude  the  water,  which,  by  its  preieure, 
condensed  the  air  a  little. — The  first  div- 
ing-bell we  read  of  in  Europe  was  tried 
at  Cadiz,  by  two  Gredis,  in  the  presence 
of  Charles  V  and  10,000  spectatora.  It 
resembled  a  large  ketde  inverted^  The 
^rst  of  any  note  was  made  by  Dr.  Halley. 
It  is  most  commonly  made  in  the  form  of 
a  tnmcated  cone,  the  smallest  end  lieing 
closed,  and  the  larger  one  open.  It  is  so 
suspended  that  it  may  sink  fiili  of  air,  with 
its  open  base  downwards,  and  as  near  as 
may  be  parallel  to  the  horizon,  so  as  to 
close  with  the  surface  of  the  water.  Mr, 
Smeaton'a  diving-bell,  made  in  1788,  was  a 
AQuaxe  chest  of  cast  iron,  4^  feet  in  height, 


4^  feet  in  length,  and  3  feet  wide,  and 
afforded  room  for  two  men  to  work  in  it 
It  was  supplied  with  fresh  air  by  a  forcinf 
pump.  Tliis  was  used  with  great  succesi 
at  Ramsgate.  Other  contrivances  have 
been  used  for  diving-bells.  Witliin  die 
last  30  yeani,  the  diving-bell  has  been 
much  employed  to  assist  in  laying  the 
foundations  of  buildings  under  water.  A 
diving-bell,  on  an  improved  princif>le,  was 
constructed,  in  1812,  by  the  late  Mr.  Ren- 
nie,  and  employed  in  Ramsgate  hari>or, 
where  it  answered  so  well,  that  tiie  ma- 
sonry was  laid  with  the  utnjost  precision. 
From  tills  period  must  be  dated  a  new- 
era  in  the  construcdon  of  masonry  under 
water,  die  use  of  coder  dams  behig,  in  a 
considerable  degree,  superseded.  The 
diving-bell  was,  thenceforward,  employed 
by  JVir.  Rcnnie  in  the  construction  of  all 
die  great  harbors  which  he  projected. 
Roimd  bells  of  cast  iron  and  co]>per  have 
been  occasionally  made  for  the  pearl  and 
coral  fisheries  of  South  America,  and  have 
been  supplied  by  the  Messrs.  Rennie  for 
most  of  the  royal  dock-yards  in  England, 
and  several  of  those  in  the  colonies^  for  the 
pearl  fishery  at  Ceylon,  for  the  re|iair  of 
the  works  at  Cronstadt,  for  many  places  in 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  &c. 

DiviNirro  Ron  (virgula  mercwialis)  is  a 
rod  made  with  certain  supersdtlous  cere- 
monies, either  single  and  curved,  or  with 
two  branches,  hke  a  fork,  of  wood,  brass 
or  other  metal  The  rod  is  held  in  a  par- 
ticular way,  and  if  it  bends  towards  one 
side,  those  who  use  the  rod  believe  it  to 
be  an  indicadon  diat  there  is  treasure 
under  the  spot  Some  publications  re- 
specdng  a  men  who,  in  quite  receut  times, 
pretended  to  l)e  able  to  discover  water  and 
metals  under  the  ground  by  his  feelings, 
attracted  much  attendon.  (See  Camptttu) 
DivisiBULiTY.  The  actual  subdivision 
of  bodies  has,  in  many  cases,  been  carried  to 
a  prodigious  extent  A  slip  of  ivory,  of  an 
inch  in  length,  is  frequently  divided  into 
a  hundred  cqiial  parts,  which  are  flistinct- 
]y  visible.  But,  by  the  application  of  a 
veiy  fine  screw,  5000  equidistant  lines,  in 
tbe  space  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  can  be 
traced  on  a  surface  of  steel  or  gkns  with 
the  fine  point  of  a  diamond,  producing 
delicate  iridescent  colors.  Common  writ- 
ing paper  has  a  thicknees  of  about  the 
5(X)th  part  of  an  inch;  but  the  peiliele 
separated  from  ox-gut,  and  then  doubled 
to  form  gokl-beaters'  skin,  is  six  times 
thinner.  A  single  pound  of  cotton  has 
been  spun  into  a  thread  76  miles  in  length  \ 
and  the  same  quantity  of  wool  has  been 
extended  into  a  thread  of  95  miles ;  the 


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259 


dianieteiiB  of  those  threads  being  hence 
only  the  350th  and  400tii  parts  of  an  inch. 
But  the  ductility  of  some  metals  far  ex- 
oee<l8  that  of  any  other  substance.  The 
gold-beatera  begip  with  a  riband  an  inch 
broad  and  150  inches  long,  which  has 
been  reduced,  by  passing  through  rollers, 
to  about  the  BOOtli  partof  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness. This  riband  is  cut  mto  squares, 
which  are  disfKised  between  leaves  of  vel- 
lum, and  beat  by  a  heavy  hammer,  till 
they  acquire  a  breadth  of  more  tlian  three 
inches,  and  are  tlierefore  extended  ten 
times.  These  are  c^n  quartered,  and 
placed  between  the  folds  oi  gold-beaters* 
skin,  and  stretched  out,  by  the  operation 
of  a  lighter  hammer,  to  the  breadth  of  five 
inches.  The  same  process  is  repeated, 
sometimes  more  than  once,  by  a  succes- 
sion of  lighter  hammers;  so  tliat  376 
grains  of  gold  are  thus  finally  extended 
into  2000  leaves  of  3.3  inches  square,  mak- 
ing in  all  80  books,  containing  each  25 
leavea  The  metal  is,  conseouently,  re- 
duced to  the  thinness  of  tiie  2d2,000th  part 
of  an  uich,  and  eveiy  leaf  weighs  rather 
less  tlian  the  5th  part  of  a  grain.  Silver 
is  Ukewise  capable  of  being  laminated, 
but  will  scarcely  bear  an  extension  above 
half  that  of  gold,  or  the  150,000th  part  of 
an  inch  thic£  Copper  and  tin  have  still 
inferior  degrees  of^  ductility,  and  cannot, 
perhaps,  be  beat  thinner  than  tlie  20,000tn 
part  of  an  inch.  These  form  what  is 
called  Dutdi  leaf.  In  the  gilding  of  but- 
tons, five  CTains  of  gold,  which  is  applied 
as  an  amaugmn  witli  mercury,  is  allowed 
to  each  gross ;  so  tliat  the  coating  lefl 
must  amount  to  the  110,000th  part  of  an 
inch  in  thickness.  If  a  piece  of  ivor]r  or 
white  satin  be  immersed  in  a  nitrormuriate 
solution  of  gold,  and  then  nhinged  into  a 
jar  of  hydrogen  ^as,  it  will  become  oov- 
ered  with  a  surface  of  gold  hardly  ex- 
ceeding in  thickness  the  10,000,000th  part 
of  an  mchi  The  gilt  wire  used  in  em- 
broidery is  formed  by  extending  gold 
over  a  surface  of  silver.  A  silver  rod, 
about  two  feet  long  and  an  inch  and  a 
half  in  diameter,  and  therefore  weighing 
nearly  20  potmds,  is  richly  coated  with 
about  800  grains  of  pure  gokL  In  Eng- 
land, the  lowest  proportion  allowed  is  1& 
grains  of  gold  to  a  pound  of  silver.    This 

Silt  rod  is  then  drawn  through  a  series  of 
iminishing  holes,  till  it  has  stretched  to 
the  vast  l^gth  of  240  miles,  when  the 
cold  has,  consequendy,  become  attenuated 
§00  times,  each  ^in  covering  a  surface 
of  9^  SQuare  mches.  This  wire  being 
now  flatted,  the  golden  film  suffers  a  fuj> 
tber  edUenaion,  uid  has  its  thickness  re- 


duced to  the  four  or  ^ve  milUonth  part  of 
an  inch.  It  has  been  asserted,  that  wures 
of  pure  gold  can  be  drawn  of  only  the 
4(X)0th  oart  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  But 
doctor  vV.  H.  Wollaston,  by  an  in^nious 
process,  has  lately  advanced  much  further. 
Taking  a  short  cylinder  of  silver,  al)out 
the  third  part  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  he 
drilled  a  fine  hole  through  its  axis,  and  in- 
serted a  wire  of  platinum,  only  the  100th 
part  of  an  inch  thick.  This  silver  mould 
was  now  drawn  through  the  successive 
holes  of  a  steel  plate,  tiU  its  diameter  was 
brought  to  near  the  1500th  part  of  an  mch, 
and,  consequently,  the  internal  wire,  be- 
ing diminished  in  the  same  proportion, 
was  reduced  to  between  the  four  and 
five  diousandth  part  of  an  inch.  The 
compound  wire  was  then  dipped  in  warm 
nitric  acid,  which  dissolved  the  silver,  and 
lefl  its  core,  or  the  wire  of  platinum.  By 
passing  the  incrusted  platinum  throi^h  a 
greater  number  of  holes,  wires  still  finer 
were  obtained,  some  of  them  only  the 
30,000th  part  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The 
tenacity  of  the  metal,  before  reaching  that 
limit,  was  considerable ;  a  platinum  wire 
of  the  18,000th  part  of  an  inch  in  diame- 
ter, supporting  the  weight  of  one  gnin 
and  a  third.  8uch  excessive  fineness  is 
hardly  surpassed  by  the  filamentous  pro- 
ductions of  nature.  Human  hair  varies 
in  thickness,  from  the  250di  to  the  GOOdi 
part  of  an  inch.  The  ^  bre  of  the  coarsest 
vtrool  is  about  the  500th  part  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  and  that  of  the  finest  vnly  the 
1500th  part.  The  silk  line,  as  spun  by 
the  worm,  is  about  the  5000th  part  of  an 
inch  thick ;  but  a  spidei^s  line  is,  perhaps, 
six  times  finer,  or  only  the  30,000th  part 
of  an  inch  in  diameter;  insomuch,  tlmt  a 
single  pound  of  this  attenuated  substance 
might  be  sufficient  to  encompass  oiur 
globe.  The  red  globules  of  the  human 
blood  have  an  irregular,  roundish  shapes 
fh>m  the  2500th  to  the  3300th  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  with  a  dark  central  spot* 
The  trituration  and  levigation  of  powders, 
and  the  perennial  abrasion  and  waste  of 
tlie  surface  of  solid  bodies,  occask>n  a  dis- 
integration of  particles,  almost  exceeding 
the  poweiB  of  computation.  Emery,  after 
it  has  been  ground,  is  thrown  into  a  vat 
filled  with  water,  and  the  fineness  of  the 
powder  is  distinguished  by  the  time  of  its 
subsidence.  In  very  dry  situations,  tha 
dust  lodged  near  the  comers  and  crevices 
of  ancient  buildings  Ls,  by  die  continual 
agitation  of  the  au*,  made  to  give  a  glossy 
polish  to  the  interior  side  of  the  pillars,  and 
the  less  prominent  parts  of  those  venen^- 
ble  reauQQs*    So  fine  is  the  sand  on  tiie 


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260 


DIVISIBILITY— DIVORCE. 


adust  plains  of  Arabia,  that  it  is  carried 
fioinetimes  300  miles  over  tlie  Mediterra- 
qeaii,  by  the  sweeping  sirocco.  Along 
die  shores  of  that  sea,  the  rocks  are  peo- 
pled by  the  pholas,  a  testaceous  and  edible 
worm,  which,  though  very  soft,  yet,  by  un- 
wearied perseverance,  woriis  a  cylindrical 
hole  into  tlie  lieartof  tlie  hardest  stone.  The 
marble  steps  of  the  great  churches  in  Italy 
are  worn  by  the  incessant  crawling  of 
abject  devotees ;  nay,  the  hands  and  feet 
of  bronze  statues  are,  in  the  lapse  of  ages, 
wasted  away  by  the  ardent  kisses  of  in- 
numerable pilgrims  that  resort  to  those 
shrines.  What  an  evanescent  pellicle  of 
the  metal  must  be  abraded  at  each  suc- 
cessive contact !  The  solutions  of  certain 
sahne  bodies,  and  of  other  cqlored  sub- 
stances, exhibit  a  prodigious  subdivision 
and  dissemination  of  matter.  A  single 
grain  of  the  sulphate  of  copper,  or  blue 
vitriol,  vnll  communicate  a  fine  azure  tint 
to  five  gallons  of  water.  In  this  case,  the 
copper  must  be  attenuated  at  least  ten 
hiillion  dmes ;  yet  each  drop  of  the  liquid 
may  contain  as  many  colored  particles, 
distinguishable  by  our  unassisted  vision. 
A  still  minuter  portion  of  cochineal,  dis- 
solved in  deliquiate  potash,  will  strike  a 
bright  purple  color  through  an  equal  mass 
of  water.  Odora  are  capable  of  a  much 
wider  diffusion.  A  single  grain  of  musk 
has  l)een  known  to  perfume  a  large  room 
for  the  space  of  20  yearai  Consider  how 
often,  during  that  time,  the  air  of  the  a[)art- 
metit  must  have  been  renewed,  and  have 
/  become  charged  with  fresh  odor !  At  the 
lowest  computation,  the  musk  had  been 
subdivided  into  320  quadiillions  of  parti- 
cles, each  of  them  capable  of  affecting  the 
olfactory  organs.  The  vast  diffusion  of 
odorous  effluvia  may  be  conceived  from 
the  fact,  that  a  lump  of  assafoedda,  ex- 
posed to  the  open  air«  lost  only  a  grain  in 
seven  weeks.  Yet,  since  dogs  hunt  by 
•  the  scent  alone,  the  effluvia  emitted  from 
the  several  species  of  animals,  and  from 
different  individuals  of  the  same  race, 
must  be  essentially  distinct  The  vapor 
of  pestilence  conveys  its  poison  in  a  sdll 
more  subtile  and  attenuated  form.  The 
seeds  of  contagion  are  knovina  to  lurk,  for 
years,  in  various  absorbent  substances, 
which  scatter  death  on  exposure  to  the 
air.  But  the  diffusion  of  the  particles  of 
light  defies  all  powers  of  OBdculation.  A 
small  taper  will,  in  a  twinkling,  illuminate 
the  atmosphere  to  the  distance  of  four 
miles;  yet  the  luminous  particles  wliich 
fill  that  wide  concavity  cannot  amount  to 
the  5000th  part  of  a  {pun,  which  may  be 
the  whole  consumption  of  the  wax  in 


light,  smoke  and  ashes.  Animated  mat- 
ter likewise  exhibits,  in  many  instances,  a 
wonderful  subdivision.  The  milt  of  a 
codfish,  when  it  begins  to  putrefy,  has  been 
computed  to  contain  a  billion  of  perfect 
insects ;  so  that  thousands  of  these  living 
creatures  could  be  lifted  on  the  point  of  a 
needle.  But  the  infusoiy  animalcules  dis- 
play, in  their  structure  and  functions,  the  . 
most  transcendent  attenuation  of  matter. 
The  vibrio  unduUu,  found  in  duck- weed,  is 
computed  to  be  ten  thousand  million 
times  smaller  than  a  hemp  seed.  The 
vibrio  lineola  occurs  in  vegetable  infusions, 
every  drop  containing  myriads  of  those 
oblong  points.  Of  the  numas  gdaHnosa, 
discovered  in  ditch  water,  millions  appear 
in  the  field  of  a  microscope,  playing,  like 
the  sunbeams,  in  a  suigle  drop  of  liquid. 
Insects  have  been  discovered  so  small  as 
not  to  exceed  the  10,000th  part  of  an  inch, 
so  that  1,000,000,000,000  of^them  might  be 
contained  within  the  space  of  one  cubic 
inch;  yet  each  animalcule  must  consist  of 
parts  connected  with  each  other,  with  ves- 
sels, with  fluids,  and  with  organs  neces- 
sary for  its  motions,  for  its  increase,  for 
its  propagation,  &c.  How  inconceivably 
small  must  those  organs  be !  and  yet  they 
are,  unquestionably,  composed  of  other 
parts  still  smaller,  and  still  farther  re- 
moved from  the  perception  of  our  senses. 

Divorce  is  a  separation,  by  law,  of  hus- 
band and  vnfe,  and  is  either  a  divorce 
a  vinculo  matrmumii,  that  is,  a  complete 
dissolution  of  the  marriage  bonds,  whereby 
the  parties  become  as  entirely  disconnected 
as  ttiose  who  have  not  been  joined  in  wed- 
lock, or  a  divorce  a  menaa  et  iharo  (from 
bed  and  board),  whereby  tlie  parties  are 
legally  separated,  but  not  unmarried.  The 
causes  admitted  by  different  codes  of  kiws 
as  grounds  fof  the  modification  or  entire 
dissohition  of  the  marriage  contract,  as 
well  as  the  description  of  tribunal  which 
has  jurisdiction  of  the  proceedings,  and  the 
form  of  the  proceedings,  are  quite  varioua 

According  to  the  law  of  Moses  [DtitL 
xxiv.  I),  "vvhen  a  man  hath  taken  a  wife, 
and  married  her,  and  it  come  to  pass  that 
she  fuid  no  favor  in  his  eyes,  because  he 
hath  fbund  some  uncleanness  in  her;  then 
let  him  write  her  a  bill  of  divorcement, 
and  give  it  in  her  hand,  and  send  her  out 
of  his  house."  This  was  a  very  sum- 
mary proceeding,  and  the  proviaon  seems 
scarcely  to  recognise  the  force  of  a  mar- 
riage contract,  as  binding  upon  the  hus- 
band, who,  according  to  tne  prevalent  in- 
terpretation of  this  law  among  the  Jews, 
might  be  his  own  judge  of  the  sufficiency 
of  tiie  cause  for  repudiating  his  wife ;  and 


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DIVORCE. 


261 


one  school  of  doctors,  whose  interpreta- 
tions were  had  in  resfiect,  considered  it  to 
be  sufficient  cause  if  he  preferred  another 
woman,  or  if  his  wife  did  not  dress  his 
victuals  to  his  satisfaction.  This  law  is 
said  (MatL  zix.)  to  have  been  a  concession 
to  t)ie  hardness  of  heart  of  the  Jews,  who 
were  not  prepared  to  receive  a  better  doc- 
trine. Tlie  wife,  on  receiving  her  bill  of 
divorce,  was  at  liberty  to  marry  again, 
after  waiting  90  days,  in  order  to  avoid 
doubts  as  to  the  potemity  of  her  next  bom 
child.  This  law,  like  those  of  the  Eastern 
countries  generally,  pays  very  little  respect 
to  tiie  rights  of  the  wife  as  a  party  to 
a  matrimonial  contracL  The  husband 
might  marry  another  wife  immediately. 
The  wife  could  not  divorce  the  husband. 

The  Mohammedan  law  of  divorce, 
founded  upon  some  passages  iA  the  Koran, 
allows  of  a  separation  by  mutual  consent, 
giving  the  wife  the  right  of  retaining  her 
marriage  portion,  unless  she  agrees  to 
relinquish  a  part  of  it  as  the  price  of  the 
seponition.  The  parties  are  permitted  to 
separate  and  reunite  twice,  if  they  can  so 
agree,  without  any  particular  conditions ; 
but  after  the  third  divorce,  the  husband  is 
not  pennitted  to  receive  his  wife  again, 
until  she  shall  have  previously  married 
another  husband.  The  act  of  divorce  is  a 
ju«iicial  proceeding  before  the  cadi,  who 
does  not  decree  it  until  three  months  after 
the  application,  which  delay  is  made  in 
order  to  detennine  whether  the  wife  is 
pregnant ;  and  if  she  be  so,  the  divorce  is 
delayed  until  after  her  delivery.  The  ma- 
gistrates Uiirow  obstacles  in  the  way  of 
divorce,  so  that  the  expenses  of  the  pro- 
ceedings, and  the  necessity  of  allowing  the 
wife  her  marriage  portion  back  again,  in 
case  of  divorce,  sometimes  discourage  the 
husband  from  prosecuting  the  affair,  and 
induce  him  to  make  a  com|X)6ition.  But 
here,  according  to  D'Arvieux's  Memoirs, 
the  magistrate  interposes,  and  will  not 
permit  a  reconciliation  and  discontinuance 
of  the.  proceedings,  until  tiie  wife  is  first 
married  to  another  person ;  for  which  pur- 
pose some  youth  is  agreed  with  to  act  the 
part  of  second  busbwd,  so  far  as  may  be 
necessary  in  order  to  afford  a  ground'  for 
tiie  discontinuance  of  the  proceedings,  and 
the  relenting  husband  must  be  a  spectator 
of  this  second  marriage  and  its  incidents. 
A  cadi  informed  this  traveller  that  this 
<*ondition  was  rigidly  enforced,  in  onler  to 
prevent  the  tribunals  from  being  overfour- 
tbened  with  applications  for  divorce. 

The  Hindoo  laws  (lay  still  less  respect 
to  tiie  woman,  who  are  considered  very 
much  in  the  light  of  slaves  to  tiieir  hus- 
bsnds.    According  to  a  maxim  of  these 


laws,  ''prudent  husbands  instantly  forsake 
a  wife  who  speaks  unkindly."  Barren- 
ness, the  bearing  of  daughters  only,  eating 
in  her  husband^  presence,  any  incurable 
disease,  or  quarrelsomeness,  is  each  a  suf- 
ficient cause  of  divorce.  The  same  law 
inculcates  upon  tiie  wife  the  obligation  to 
revere  her  husband  as  a  god,  although  he 
is  devoid  of  all  good  qualities,  or  enam- 
ored of  another  woman.  If  the  wife  is 
supereeded  by  the  husband's  taking  anoth- 
er, he  must  still  maiutaui  her.  Tne  wife 
is,  however,  so  far  protected,  that  the  hus- 
band is  not  allowed  to  put  her  to  death,  or 
to  mutilate  her  person,  unless  in  case  of  an 
amour  with  one  of  a  lower  caste. 

The  Chinese  laws  of  divorce  are  veiy 
similar  to  the  Hindoo,  but  add  some  othet 
sufficient  causes,  such  as  disregard  to  the 
husband's  parents,  loouaciousness,  and 
jealousy  of  temper.  But  the  husband 
cannot  divorce  a  wife  who  has  mourned 
three  years  for  his  parents,  or  if  his  family 
has  become  rich  sulisequently  to  his  mar- 
riage, or  if  the  wife  have  no  parents  living 
to  receive  her  back  again.  A  woman 
who  has  been  deserted  three  years  by  her 
husband,  may  marry  another. 

The  different  Grecian  states  had  each 
their  re8|iecti  ve  laws  of  divorce.  At  Spar- 
ta, they  do  not  seem  to  have  greatly 
regarded  the  delicacy  of  the  marriage  bed, 
when  the  interest  of  the  republic  was  in 
question;  but  divorces  appear  to  have 
been  rare,  since  the  ephori  fined  Lysander 
for  repudiating  his  wire.  At  Athens,  either 
the  husband  or  wife  might  procure  a  di- 
vorce, by  exhibiting  a  bill  for  this  purpose 
to  the  archon,  and  obtaining  the  verdict 
or  consent  of  a  jury,  to  whom  the  question 
was  referred.  But  the  party  applying 
must,  it  seems,  have  made  application  per- 
sonally ;  and  Alcibiades,  according  to  Plu- 
tarch, took  advantage  of  his  authority  as  a 
husband,  to  prevent  his  wife  from  making 
the  application  personally ;  for,  when  she 
was  going  from  ner  brother's  house,  where 
she  had  taken  refuge,  to  the  orchon's,  to 
sue  for  a  divorce,  he  forcibly  seized  upon 
her,  and  confined  her  to  his  own  house. 

The  early  laws  of  Rome  permitted  the 
husband  to  divorce  his  wife  for  poisoning 
his  children,  counterfeiting  his  keys,  or 
adultery.  But  other  causes  were  after- 
wards added ;  for  the  first  divorce  recorded 
was  for  the  sterility  of  the  wife.  This  was 
by  Sp.  C.  Ruga,  in  the  year  533  after  the 
building  of  the  city.  Divorces  afterwards 
became  very  frequent,  and  a  law  was,  on 
this  account,  made  by  Augustus,  requiring 
additional  ceremonies  in  a  divorce ;  among 
other  things,  the  presence  of  seven  wit- 
to  the  act  or  dissolution  of  Che  Dior- 


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DIVORCE— DJEZZAR. 


riage.  Bv  the  TheodoBian  code,  the  hus- 
band could  divorce  the  wife  for  adultery, 
or  if  she  was  a  witch  or  a  inunleress,  had 
sold  a  freebom  person  into  slavery,  vio- 
lated a  sepulchre,  committed  sacrilege, 
been  accessary  to  theft  or  robbery,  was 
given  to  feeding  with  strangera  without 
the  kiiowledffe  or  against  the  wishes  of 
the  husband,  lodging  abroad  without  good 
reason,  or  frequented  theatres  and  shows, 
her  husband  forbidding,  or  was  aiding  and 
abettaig  in  plots  against  tlie  state,  or  dealt 
fiilsely,  or  offered  blows.  The  wife  had 
equivalent  rights  in  this  res{)ect,  for  she 
could  procure  a  divorce  on  similar  charges 
aguinst  her  husband.  He  could  be  mamed 
again  immediately  ;  she,  not  within  a  year. 

The  facility  of  divorce  continued,  without 
restriction,  under  tlie  Roman  emperors,  not- 
withstanding the  doctrine  promulgated  on 
the  subject  in  the  New  Testament;  but, 
as  tlie  modem  nations  of  Europe  emerged 
from  the  ruins  of  the  Roman  empire,  they 
adopted  the  doctrine  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment (Matt,  xix.),  **  what  God  hath  joined 
together,  let  not  man  put  asunder."  Mar- 
riage, under  the  Roman  church,  instead 
of  a  civil  contract,  came  to  be  considered 
a  sacrament  of  tlie  church,  and  subject  to 
the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction,  and  so  it  is, 
at  this  time,  in  England ;  and  the  canonists 
founded  upon  tliis  text  the  doctrine  of  the 
unlawfulness  of  dissolving  this  contract, 
the  dissolution  of  which  tliey  considered 
lo  be  a  violation  of  a  sacred  institution. 
If  parties  were  once  legally  married,  they 
could  not  be  unmarried,  though  they 
might  be  separated.  But  though  mar- 
riage was  tlius  held  to  be  a  sacrament, 
still  the  ceremony  of  union  might  |>ass 
between  those  who  could  not  lawfully  be 
joined  in  '*  holy"  wedlock,  in  which  case 
the  marriage  might  be  annulled,  or  ratlier 
declared,  by  the  competent  tribunals,  to 
have  been  null  from  the  first.  Divorces 
a  vinculo  are,  accordingly,  decreed  by  the 
ecclesiastical  courts  in  England,  for  prior 
contract,  im|K>tencv,  too  near  an  affinity  or 
consanguinity,  and  other  causes,  existing 
at  tlie  time  of  the  marriage,  but  n9t  for  any 
subsequent  cause.  For  any  cause  what- 
ever, arising  afler  the  marriage,  the  eccle- 
siastical courts  can  only  decree  divorce 
a  mensa  et  thoro^  which  does  not  leave 
either  of  the  paities  at  liberty  to  many 
a^n.^^  To  obtain  a  divorce  a  vinculo  jnat- 
nmoniiy  for  any  cause  whatever,  arising 
afler  the  marriage  of  the  parties,  to  whose 
union  no  legal  impediment  existed  at  the 
time  of  tlie  marriage,  the  omni/io/erure,  as 
It  is  called,  of  parliament,  must  be  resort- 
ed to. 

Jn  the  U.  States,  marriage,  though  it 


may  be  celebrated  before  clergymen  as 
well  as  civil  magistrates,  is  considered  to 
be  a  civil  contract.  The  causes  of  divorce, 
and  the  facility  or  difficulty  of  obtaining 
it,  are  by  no  means  the  same  in  the  sev- 
eral states;  and  the  diversity  in  this  respect 
is  so  great,  that  instances  have  lieretofore 
not  been  unfrequent^  of  one  of  tlie  parties 
removing  into  a  neighboring  state  for  the 
express  pur|)ose  of  obtaining  a  divorce 
a  vinculo.  The  more  general  causes  of 
sucli  a  divorce  are^  former  marriage,  phys- 
ical incapacity,  or  fraudulent  contract,  ac- 
cording to  the  expression  in  the  Connecti- 
cut law,  to  include  these  and  other  causers; 
consanguinity ;  and  the  New  York  code 
particularly  enumerates  idiocy  and  insan- 
ity, and  the  circumstance  of  citlier  fiany 
being  under  the  age  of  consent.  Adid- 
teiy  is  also-a  cause  of  divorce  a  vinculo  ; 
but  the  laws  of  some  of  tlie  states  pro- 
hibit the  guilty  party  from  marrying 
again.  If  the  husband  or  wife  is  al)8eut 
seven  years,  or,  by  the  laws  of  some  states, 
three  years,  and  not  heard  from,  tlie 
other  is  at  liberty  to  marry  again;  and 
in  some  states,  if  the  husband  desert 
the  wife,  and  make  no  provision  for  her 
support  during  three  years,  being  able  to 
make  such  provision,  tlie  wife  can  obtain 
a  divorce.  Extreme  cruelty  ui  either 
party  is  also,  generally,  a  cause  of  divorce, 
either  a  vinculo  or  a  mensa.  In  many  of 
tlie  states,  applications  to  the  legislature 
for  divorce,  in  cases  not  provided  for  by 
the  statutes,  are  very  frequent  In  New 
York  and  New  Jersey,  divorce  is  a  subject 
of  chancery  jurisdiction,  from  wliich,  as  in 
other  cases,  questions  of  law  may  be 
referred  to  a  jury  for  trial.  But,  in  most 
of  the  states,  the  courts  of  law  have  cogni- 
zance of  divorce.  The  laws  prescribe 
the  provision  to  be  made  for  the  wife  in 
case  of  divorce,  confiding  to  the  courts, 
however,  some  degree  of  discretion  ui 
fixing  the  amount  ot  alimony. 

Djebel  is  an  Arabian  word,  signifying 
mountain,  as  Djebel-el-Mousa,  the  mountain 
of  Moses;  Djebcl-el-Tarik  (Gibraltar), tbe 
mountain  of  Tarik. 

Djezzar,  Achnict,  pacha  of  Acre,  who 
checked  the  victorious  career  of  Bonaparte 
in  Egypt  and  Syria,  was  bom  in  Bosnia, 
and  is  said  to  have  sold  himself  as  a  slave 
to  Ah  Bey,  in  Egypt  There  he  uigra- 
tiated  himself  with  his  master  to  such  a 
degree,  that  he  rose  from  the  low  state  of 
a  mamehike  to  that  of  governor  of  Cairo. 
For  his  future  success,  he  was  not  Icbs 
indebted  to  his  faithlessnrss  and  ingrati 
tude,  than  to  his  courage  and  talents.  As 
pacha  of  Acre,  he  rendered  himself  so 
formidable  to  the  rebels,  that    he   was 


Digitized  by 


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DJEZZAR— DOCKS. 


263 


raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  pacha  of  tliree 
tails.  DiffeFences  soon  arose  between  him 
and  the  Porte,  which  is  jealous  of  every 
])aciia  of  spirit  and  enterprise.  Obeying 
tlje  commands  received  from  Constanti- 
nople no  fartljer  than  they  coincided  with 
Ills  own  plans,  he  maintained  himself  by 
force  and  cunning.  On  Bonaparte's  inva- 
sion of  Syria,  in  1799,  he  broke  out  into 
the  most  ungovernable  fuiy,  that  Chris- 
tians from  Europe  should  dare  to  attempt 
the  conquest  of  his  province.  Assisted 
by  the  French  engineer,  Phillppeaux,  who 
conducted  the  defence  with  great  ability, 
and  by  sir  Sidney  Smi-Jj,  who  supported 
him  with  several  English  men-of-war, 
Djezzar  could  boast  of  repelling  the  man 
before  whom  Europe  trembled.  He  after- 
wards had  several  bloody  struggles  with 
the  grand-vizier  and  the  paclia  of  Jaffa, 
and  died  in  1804.  He  received  the  name 
of  Djezzar  (butcher)  from  his  bloodthirsty 
disposidon. 

Djidda.    (See  Jidda.) 

DNiErER,  or  DiNEFER,  or  NiEPER  (an- 
ciendy,  BorysOienes) ;  a  river  of  Russia, 
which  rises  in  the  west  part  of  the  gov- 
ernment of  Tver,  passes  by  Smolensk, 
Mogilev,  Kiev,  Ekaterinoslav,  &c.,  and 
runs  into  the  Black  sea,  near  Otchakov. 
It  begins  to  be  navigable  a  litde  above 
Smolensk.  Notwithstanding  the  course  ^ 
of  this  river  is  so  extensive,  its  navigadon 
is  only  once  interrupted  by  a  series  of  cat- 
aracts, which  commence  about  200  miles 
from  its  mouth,  and  continue  30  or  40 
miles ;  these,  however,  are  not  veiy  dan- 
serous,  and  may  be  passed  in  the  spring 
by  loaded  barks.  Length,  1000  miles. 
The  lower  part  of  the  river  has  been  die 
theatre  of  many  conflicts  between  the 
RusHians  and  Turks. 

Dniester,  or  Dniestr  (the  ancient  Tif- 
ra9  or  Dasuuter) ;  a  large  river  of  Europe, 
'which  has  its  source  in  a  lake  in  tlie 
Carpathian  mountains,  in  Austrian  Gahcia, 
and  empties  itself  into  the  Black  sea,  be- 
tween Ovidiopol  and  Akermnn,  after  a 
course  of  between  500  and  600  miles, 
mostly  dirough  Russia,  the  government  of 
ivhich  has  done  much  towards  improving 
its  navigation. 

DoBBERAN ;  a  casde  and  borough 
(210  houses  and  1400  inhabitants),  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  a  bailiff,  between  two 
and  three  miles  from  the  Baltic,  in  the 
duchy  of  Mecklenburg-Sch  werin.  About 
a  mile  from  the  place  is  die  Heilige 
Danun,  or  Holy  Dam,  a  high  natural 
mound  of  stones,  curiously  formed  and 
colored^  stretching  far  into  die  Baltic. 
Tradition  says,  that  the  sea  threw  up  these 


stones  in  one  night :  it  was,  perUips,  the 
effect  of  an  earthquake.  Three  miles  dis- 
tant from  Dobberan  is  a  bathing-house, 
the  oldest  establishment  for  sea-badiing  in 
Germany.  It  was  founded  by  the  duke 
in  1793;  and  to  it  Dobberan  has  been 
chiefly  indebted  for  its  celebrity. 

DoBROwsKY,  Joseph,  abb^,  bom  in  1754, 
doctor  of  philosophy,  member  of  the  royal 
Bohemian  society  of  sciences,  and  several 
other  sociedes,  lives  at  Prague,  in  the  fam- 
ily of  count  Nostitz.  lie  is  the  most 
learned  Sclavonian  in  the  Austrian  empire. 
Beside  other  works,  he  has  written  a  His- 
tory of  the  Language  and  ancient  Litera- 
ture of  Bohemia  (revised  edidon,  Prague, 
1818) ;  and  a  work  endded  Methodius  and 
Cyrilius,  the  apostles  of  the  Sclavonians. 
He  is  now  preparing  a  critical  edidon  of 
Jornandes,  ror  die  society  of  ancient  Ger- 
man history  at  Frankfort 

Dock  ;  a  name  applied  to  different  spe- 
cies of  the  genus  rumex.  These  are  large 
herbsiceous  plants,  widi  stout  roots,  alter- 
nate and  often  endre  leaves,  and  bearing 
panicles  of  small  greenish  flowers.  Sev- 
eral species  have  been  introduced  into  our 
gardens  fix)m  Europe,  and  have  become 
troublesome  weeds.  Their  roots  have  an 
austere  taste,  are  astringent  and  stypdc, 
and  die  seeds  are  sometimes  employed  in 
hcmorrhajge.  The  root  of  the  water-dock 
(IL  aquatictu)  strikes  a  black  color  in  a 
solution  of  sulphate  of  iron.  About  60 
species  of  this  genus  are  known,  five  or 
six  of  which  are  really  natives  of  die  U. 
States.  The  term  dock  is  frequendy  ap- 
plied to  other  large  weeds. 

Docks.  The  word  dock  was  fbnneriy 
applied  to  the  slip  or  excavation  made  for 
the  purpose  of  building  or  repairing  a 
vessel ;  and  was  distinguished  as  a  dry 
dock  when  furnished  with  flood-gates  to 
prevent  die  influx  of  the  tide,  if  required ; 
and  as  a  wet  dock  when,  having  no  flood- 
gates, the  vessel  could  only  be  cleaned  or 
repaired  during  the  period  in  which  the 
tide  left  her  accessible.  These  slips  or 
docks  are  still  used.  At  present,  the  name 
of  errcanng  or  building  dock  is  more  gen- 
erally given  to  what  we  have  termed  dfy 
dockj  which  latter  tenn  is  apphed  to  those 
docks  or  basins  left  dry  by  the  tide; 
while  the  appellation  dip  is  confined  to 
the  narrow  inlet  for  building  or  repairing, 
unprotected  by  gates.  During  die  growth 
of  the  maritime  power  and  the  commerce 
of  Europe,  it  was  found  highly  inconve- 
nient to  load  and  unload  vessels  in  a  tide- 
river  or  in  a  harixir  not  entirely  land- 
locked; for  either  the  shi|)s  could  not 
be  brought  close  to  the  wharves,  or,  when 


Digitized  by 


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864 


DOCKS. 


conducted  there  at  the  flood  of  the  tide, 
they  were  left  dry  at  the  ebb,  and  sufiered 
continual  damage  by  straining,  by  delay 
from  neap  tides,  and  other  accidents  and 
inconveniences.  To  obviate  these  incon- 
veniences, improvements  in  the  existing 
docks  or  slips  were  made  from  time  to 
time,  until  England,  taking  the  lead,  intro- 
duced a  system  of  floating  docks,  which 
have  greatly  contributed  to  her  advance- 
ment and  prosperity.  Many  of  the  prin- 
cipal maritime  ports  of  Europe  are  pro- 
vided with  drv  docks  for  building  and 
repairing  Vessels;  and  of  these  Toulon, 
Havre  and  Brest  have  the  most  remark- 
able. Most  seaport  towns  are  provided 
with  graving  docks  for  the  repairing  of 
ships  ;  but  it  is  only  in  the  British  islands 
that  the  system  lias  been  carried  to  any 
extent  of  forming  large  basins  or  floating 
docksj  furnished  with  flood-gates  for  the 
reception  of  shipping  to  load  and  unload, 
wherein  the  vessel  remains  safe  at  the 
quay-side.  The  docks  of  Liverpool  were 
ttie  first  constructed  in  England ;  and  many 
other  maritime  towns  have  been  induced 
to  follow  her  example.  It  is  scarcely*  30 
yeazB  since  neariy  .the  whole  of  the  vessels 
that  entered  the  port  of  London  were 
obli|;3d  to  remain  moored  in  the  open 
8tre^'^  of  the  Thames.  The  example 
whicd  Liverpool  had  set  for  nearly  a  cen- 
tuiy  pointed  out  the  remedy  for  the  exist- 
ing evils,  and  the  construction  of  floating 
docks  in  the  port  of  London  was  resolv- 
ed on.  The  first  constructed,  and  those 
nearest  the  trading  part  of  the  metropo- 
lis, are  called  the  London  docks.  They 
are  just  below  the  site  of  the  Tower,  and 
on  the  lefl  bank  of  the  Thames ;  were  be- 
ffun  in  1800,  and  completed  in  1805.  The 
dock,  properly  so  called,  is  420  yarrls  in 
length,  276  yards  in  breadth,  and  29  feet 
in  depth;  its  superficies  is  equal  to  25 
acres;  that  of  tlie  basin  communicating 
with  it  is  above  2^1  acres ;  and,  including 
the  ground  occupied  by  warehouses,  sheds 
and  quaprs,  the  whole  premises  contain  a 
superficies  of  110  acres.  Excepting  those 
ships  tliat  trade  to  the  East  and  West  In- 
dies, every  vessel,  whether  English  or 
foreign^  may  enter  the  London  dock  upon 
paying  the  duties,  to  unship  her  cargo  or 
take  m  a  new  lading.  For  the  conve- 
nience of  business,  ranges  of  sheds,  low, 
and  of  a  very  simple  construction,-  have 
been  erected  along  the  sides  of  tlie  dock 
and  near  the  edges  of  the  quays,  into 
which  cargoes  are  removed.  Behind 
these  sheds,  and  in  a  parallel  direction  to 
diem,  stands  It  line  of  magnificent  ware- 
houses^ four  stories  high,  with  spacious 


vaults,  into  which  the  casks  are  conveyed 
by  inclined  planea  These  buildings  oo- 
cupy  a  superficies  of  120,000  square  yards. 
The  cellars  are  appropriated  to  wines  and 
brandies,  and  railwa^^s,  or  rather  tramways, 
running  in  all  directions,  facilitate  labor. 
The  London  docks  have  their  several 
parts  perfectly  adapted  to  each  other,  and 
are  of  the  most  admirable  construction. 
The  gates,  like  all  those  whose  size 
much  exceeds  20  feet,  instead  of  being 
straight,  are  curved  on  the  side  on  which 
the  water  presses.  The  fVest  India  docks 
are  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Thames, 
at  the  distance  oi  about  one  mile  and  a 
half  below  the  London  docks.  They  are 
situated  on  the  base  of  a  ton^e  of  land 
of  the  Isle  of  Dogs — a  sort  of  peninsula 
formed  by  a  long  circuit  of  the  river. 
The  West  India  docks  are  much  superior 
to  the  London,  both  in  extent  and  regu- 
larity. These  vast  works  were  under- 
taken and  executed  by  an  association  of 
private  uidividuals,  and  by  means  of  a 
mere  subscription.  27  months  sufiSced  to 
accomplish  tlie  whole.  The  excavations 
of  the  West  India  docks  were  begun  on 
the  12th  of  July,  18C0 ;  and  as  early  as  the 
month  of  September,  1802,  vessels  entered 
the  import  dock!  At  the  highest  tides, 
the  depth  of  water  in  the  two  docks  is  24 
feet;  they  are  formed  parallel  to  each 
other;  their  common  length  is  about  890 
yards.  The  largest,  which  has  a  super- 
ficies of  above  90  acres,  is  destined  for 
those  vessels  returning  to  the  West  Imlies, 
which  deposit  tlieir  cargoes  in  tlie  ware- 
houses of  this  artificial  port  The  second, 
the  superficies  of  which  is  about  25  acres, 
receives  the  vessels  laid  up  in  ordinary,  or 
taking  the  outward-bound  cargoea  These 
docks,  with  their  basins,  and  the  locks 
which  connect  them  with  the  river,  pre- 
sent an  area  of  68  acres  of  ground,  exca- 
vated by  human  hands,  for  the  reception 
and  moorage  of  vessels.  The  total  super- 
ficies, including  that  of  the  quays  and 
warehouses,  is  140  acrea  During  the 
busy  season,  this  establishment  enipbys 
about  2600  workmen.  It  can  admit,  at 
the  same  time,  204  vessels  in  the  import, 
and  195  in  the  export  dock,  forming  a 
total  of  120,000  tons.  During  tlie  first  15 
years,  7260  vessels  entered  them.  Upon 
the  quays,  under  tlie  sheds,  and  in  the 
warehouses,  there  have  been  deposited,  at 
tlie  same  time,  148,563  barrels  or  casks  of 
suw,  70,675  barrels  and  433,648  bags  of 
conee,  35,158  p|)es  of  rum  and  Aladeira 
wine,  14,021  logs  of  niahogan}^  21,350 
tons  of  logwood,  &c.  At  tlie  up]x.T  and 
lower  entrances  of  the  two  docks,  a  basin 


Digitized  by 


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DOCKS— DODD. 


265 


presents  three  locks  of  comiDunication. 
The  first  communicates  with  the  Thames ; 
the  water  is  kept  in  it  by  means  of  double 
gates.  The  second  and  third  locks  lead 
respectively  into  the  export  and  import' 
docks ;  they  have  also  double  gates.  By 
this  means,  the  vessels  are  able  to  come  in 
and  go  out  independently  of  the  state  of 
tlie  tide ;  thev  may  remain  in  tlie  basin  as 
lonv  as  is  judged  convenient  The  water 
of  tlie  docks  being  but  veiy  little  higher 
tlian  that  of  the  bf^ns,  it  does  not  press 
violently  on  the  gates  of  the  locks.  It 
should  be  also  ol^rvcd,  that  tliis  water, 
having  had  time  to  settle  in  its  previous 
passage  through  the  basin,  hardly  deposits 
any  sediment  when  introduced  into  the 
docks.  The  East  India  docks,  belonging 
to  the  East  India  comjiany,  are  inferior  lo 
the  West  India  docks  in  magnitude,  but 
equal  in  {K>int  of  construction  and  secu- 
rity of  property.  Having  to  receive  vessels 
of  2500  tons,  they  are  deeper  than  the 
West  India  docks,  and  have  never  less 
than  23  or  24  feet  water. 

Dock-Yards  ;  arsenals  containing  all 
sorts  of  naval  stores,  and  timber  for  ship- 
building. In  England,  the  royal  dock- 
yards are  at  Chatliam,  Portsmouth,  Plym- 
outh, Deptford,  Woolwich,  and  Sheer- 
ness,  where  tlie  king's  ships  and  vessels 
of  war  are  generally  moored  during  peace, 
and  such  as  want  repairing  are  taken  into 
the  docks,  examined,  and  refitted  for  ser- 
vice. 

Doctor.  The  title  of  doctor  originated 
at  the  same  time  with  the  establishment 
of  the  universities.  The  dignity  con- 
nected with  it  first  received  public  sanc- 
tion at  the  law  university  in  Bologna, 
between  1128  and  1137,  where  the  cele- 
brated Imerius  (Werner)  began  to  give 
instructions  in  law,  in  1 128,  and  was  con- 
firmed by  the  emperor  as  professor  of 
law.  He  is  said  to  have  prevailed  on  the 
emperor  Lothaire  II,  whose  chancellor 
he  was,  to  introduce  the  dignity  of  doctor. 
From  the  faculty  of  law,  ttiis  titie  jMissed 
to  tliat  of  theology.  The  faculty  in  Paris 
first  conferred  the  decree  of  doctor  of  di- 
vinity on  Peter  Lonibard,  who,  in  1159, 
became  bishop  of  Paris.  William  Gordc- 
nio,  of  the  college  at  Asti,  in  1329,  was  the 
lirst  person  who  was  promoted  to  die  dig- 
nity of  doctor  arUttm  et  medidntB,  The 
doctorate  of  philosophy  was  established 
last,  becAuse  tlie  faculty  of  philosophy  was 
formed  the  latest  The  titie  of  magister 
was  more  common  among  the  members 
of  this  faculty.  The 'degree  of  doctor 
is  either  conferred  publicly,  with  cer- 
tain ceremonies,  or  by  diploma.    On  the 

VOL.  IV.  & 


continent  of  Europe,  the  order  of  rank  b 
this— doctor  of  theolog}',  of  law,  of  medi- 
cine, and  of  philosophy ;  but  in  England 
and  the  U.  Slates  of  America,  the  doctor 
of  laws  ranks  first,  and  the  doctor  of  di- 
vinity next  Doctor  of  medicine  is  a  pro- 
fessional title. — ^The  degree  of  doctor  of 
music  is  conferred  at  tiie  univei-sities  of 
Oxford  and  Cambridge  (England).  The 
great  Haydn  and  Romberg  received  tiiis 
title  from  the  university  of  Oxfonl. 

Doctors'  Commons.  (See  College  of 
Civilians.) 

Doctrinaires.  Since  the  second  res- 
toration of  tiie  Bourbons,  a  small  number 
of  deputies  in  the  French  chamber  would 
neither  rank  themselves  among  the  friends 
of  absolute  power,  nor  among  the  de- 
fenders of  the  revolution.  They  supjwrted 
Decazes,  while  he  was  minister;  and  sev- 
eral of  them  held  offices  in  the  ministry, 
as,  for  instance,  the  counsellors  of  state 
Camille  Jordan  and  Royer-Collanl.  Their 
system  embraced  a  constitutional  mon- 
archy, allowing  the  government  more 
power  than  the  ultra-lil«rals  would  admit, 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  restricting  the 
royal  power  more,  and  admitting  let^  ap- 
proach towards  the  old  fonn  of  govern- 
ment, than  the  ultra-royalists  demanded. 
They  retired  with  Decazes,  and  after- 
wards joined  the  liberal  opposition.  The 
first  orator  among  them  was  Royer-Col- 
lard,  and  their  most  distinguished  writer 
out  of  the  chamber,  Guizot  (See  Cham" 
bers.) 

DoDD,  William,  an  English  clergyman, 
born  in  1729,  the  son  of  a  clergj'inaii,  was 
educated  at  Cambridge.  In  1750,  he 
mamed  without  the  means  of  8U|)port; 
in  1753,  took  orders,  and  soon  became  one 
of  tiie  most  popular  preachers  in  Loudon. 
An  expensive  mode  of  living  rendered  his 
circumstances  embarrassed,  and  he  be- 
came tiie  author  or  editor  of  several  works 
wliicii  affonled  him  large  profits.  In 
1764,  he  was  chosen  one  of  his  majesty's 
chaplains,  and  was  active  in  the  formation 
of  a  society  for  the  relief  of  persons  con- 
fined for  small  debts.  Being  now  much 
involved  in  debt,  he  disgraced  his  station, 
and  violated  the  rules  of  common  honesty, 
by  offering  a  bribe  to  the  lord  chancclloj's 
lady  if  she  would  procure  his  nomination 
to  a  vacant  rectory.  The  lady  was  indig- 
nant, and  infomied  the  chancellor  of  tiie 
offer,  who  procured  Dodd's  name  to  lie 
struck  from  the  list  of  the  king's  chaplains. 
To  escape  from  the  disgrace  which  at- 
tended the  knowledge  of  his  conduct,  he 
went  to  Geneva,  where  he  met  with  the 
earl  of  Chesterfield,  to  whom  he  had  been 


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DODD— DODINGTON. 


tutor.  This  nobleman  aflerwards  pre- 
sented him  with  a  living.  In  1777,  he 
committed  a  forgery  u{>on  his  patron,  by 
which  he  obtained  a  large  sum  of  money, 
which  he  prolnbly  hoped  to  replace,  and 
thereby  avoid  detection.  But  the  offence 
was  scarcely  committed  before  the  crimi- 
nal was  discovered.  He  was  imprisoned, 
tried,  convicted,  and  executed  at  Tyburn, 
notwithstanding  great  efforts  to  procure 
his  pardon.  He  died  with  all  the  marks 
of  sincere  contrition  for  the  crimes  he  had 
committed  and  the  scandal  he  had  brought 
upon  his  profession.  His  works  were 
numerous. 

DoDD,  Ralph,  a  civil  engineer,  the  ori- 
gnal  projector  of  a  tunnel  under  the 
Thames,  and  various  other  public  works 
of  importance.  In  1795,  he  published  an 
Account  of  the  principal  Canals  in  the 
known  World,  with  Reflections  on  the  great 
Utility  of  Canals.  In  1798,  he  laid  before 
the  public  his  plan  for  a  tunnel  under  the 
Thames,  which  was  approved  by  govern- 
ment; but  the  scheme  was  abandoned 
soon  afler  its  commencement  He  had 
also  a  share  in  the  improvement  of  steam- 
vessels;  and  the  first  impetus  to  the 
scheme  for  navigating  by  steam  in  Eng- 
land was  ^ven  by  a  patent  which  he  ob- 
tained for  a  steam-boat  on  tlie  Thames, 
from  London  to  Gravesend,  which,  how- 
ever, was  not  carried  into  effect.  He 
afterwards  navigated,  in  a  steam-vessel, 
round  the  coasts  of  Endand  and  Ireland. 
In  1822,  he  was  severely  wounded  by  an 
expk)8ion  of  the  boiler  of  a  steam-packet, 
and,  after  lingering  a  few  months,  died  at 
Cheltenham,  in  April  of  that  year. 

Doddridge,  Philip;  an  eminent  dis- 
sentuig  divine.  His  fatlier  was  a  trades- 
man in  London,  and  he  was  bom  there  in 
1702.  After  some  previous  education,  he 
became  the  pupil  of  Mr.  John  Jennings, 
who  kept  a  theological  academy.  On  the 
death  of  his  tutor,  he  succeeded  to  the  sit- 
uation, but  removed  the  seminary,  in  1729, 
to  Northampton.  There  he  resided  nearly 
22  vears,  filling  his  station  as  a  minister 
and  academical  preceptor  with  great  credit 
He  died  Oct  26, 1751,  at  Lisbon,  whither 
he  had  gone  in  the  hope  of  deriving  bene- 
fit from  the  change  of  air,  in  a  pulmon- 
ic complaint  Doctor  Doddridge  distin- 
guished himself  by  a  commentary  on  the 
New  Testanient^ublished  under  the  tide 
of  the  FamUy  Expoiilor,  which  became 
deservedly  popular,  and  has  gone  through 
many  editions.  After  his  death  appeared 
a  Course  of  Lectures  on  the  prmcipal 
Subjects  of  Pneumatology,  Ethics  and 
Divinity,  with  Referenced  to  the  most  con- 


siderable Authors  on  each  of  those  sub- 
jects (4to.,  1763;  republished,  with  im- 
provenif^nts,  by  doctor  Kippis,  in  1794, 
2  vols.,  8vo.).  Doctor  Doddridge  was  also 
4he  audior  of  sermons,  hymns,  devotional 
treatises,  &c. 

DoDECANDRiA  (from  iioScKa,  twclvc,  and 
At^P,  man) ;  the  12th  class  of  Llnuseus,  in 
botany,  because  it  comprises  plants  with 
hermaphrodite  flowers,  that  have  12  male 
organs.  It  is,  however,  not  limited  to  tliis 
number:  several  genera  of  this  class  have 
16, 18,  and  even  19  stamens.  The  essen- 
tial character  is,  that  the  stamens,  how- 
ever numerous,  are  inserted  into  the  recep- 
tacle. 

DooircGTON,  George  Bubb  (lord  Mel- 
combe  Regis),  was  the  son  of  a  gentleman 
of  fortune ;  or,  as  others  say,  of  an  apothe- 
cary, named  Bubb,  who  married  into  a 
wealtliy  family,  in  Dorsetshire.  He  was 
bom  in  1691,  was  elected  member  of  par- 
liament for  Whichelsea,  in  1715,  and  was 
soon  after  appointed  envoy  to  the  court  of 
Sjiain.  In  1720,  by  the  death  of  his  ma- 
ternal uncle,  he  came  into  possession  of 
a  large  estate,  and  took  the  surname  of 
Dodinffton.  In  1724,  having  closely  con- 
nected himself  with  sir  Robert  Walpole, 
he  was  ap{)ointed  a  lord  of  the  treasuiy, 
and  became  clerk  of  the  pells  in  Ireland. 
He  afterwards  joined  the  opposition,  and, 
on  the  fall  of  Walpole,  became  treasurer 
of  the  navy.  This  party  he  aliso  quitted, 
in  order  to  lead  the  opfiosition  under 
Frederic,  prince  of  Wales,  whose  death 
for  some  time  arrested  his  career.  In  1755, 
he  accepted  his  former  post  of  treasurer 
of  tlie  navy,  under  the  duke  of  Newcas- 
tle, but  lopt  it  tlie  following  year.  On 
the  accession  of  George  HI,  he  was  early 
received  into  the  confidence  of  lord  Bute  ; 
and,  in  1761,  was  advanced  to  the  peer- 
age by  the  title  of  lord  Mdcombe,  and  died 
the  following  year.  This  versatile  poli- 
tician was  generous,  magnificent  and  con- 
vivial in  private  life,  und  the  patron  or 
friend  of  Young,  Thomson,  Glover,  Field- 
ing, Bentley,  Voltaire,  Lyttelton  and  Ches- 
teriQeld,  who,  with  many  of  meaner  pre- 
tensions, mingled  at  his  hospitable  table. 
He  is  b^  known  by  his  celebrated  Diary, 
published  in  1784,  by  Henry  Penruddock 
Wyndham,  Esq.  A  more  curious  exposi- 
tion of  avarice,  vanity,  servility  and  selfish- 
ness, as  a  place-hunter  and  trading  poli- 
tician, has  seldom  been  exhibited.  It  is  a 
most  extraordinary  instance  of  a  self-re- 
corded and  seemingly  unconscious  pros- 
tration oflionorable«nd  manly  feelings  to 
the  acouirement  of  place,  emolument  aad 
couit  mvor. 


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DODONA— DO0WELL. 


2(57 


DoDOpk ;  a  celebrated  place  in  Epiras, 
built,  accortiiug  to  tradition,  by  Deucalion, 
containing  one  of  the  most  ancient  oracles 
in  Greece.  Tiie  oracle  belonged  to  Jupi- 
ter, and  near  the  splendid  temple  was  a 
sacred  grove,  in  which  there  was  a  pro- 
phetic oak.  Jupiter,  savs  the  fable,  had 
presented  to  his  daughter  Thebe  two 
doves,  wliich  possessed  the  faculty  of 
speaking.  One  day  they  lefl  Thebes  in 
Egypt,  taking  their  course,  the  one  to 
Libya,  where  it  founded  the  oracle  of 
Jupiter  Ainmon,  the  other  to  Epirus, 
where,  alighting  on  an  oak  tree,  it  an- 
nounced, in  a  loud  voice,  to  the  inhabitants, 
tliat  it  was  the  will  of  Jupiter  to  establish 
there  on  oracle.  The  prophetic  priestesses 
announced  the  divine  communications  in 
different  ways.  They  approached  the 
sacred  tree,  and  listened  to  the  rustling  of 
its  leaves,  or,  standing  by  the  fountain  at 
the  foot  of  the  tree,  ol^ervcd  the  murmur- 
ing of  the  water  which  gushed  forth  from 
the  earth.  They  also  prophesied  from  the 
sounds  issuing  iirom  brazen  vessels,  which 
were  suspended  from  the  pillars  of  the 
temple,  &c. 

DonsLET,  Robert,  an  ingenious  poet  and 
dramatist,  was  bom  of  parents  in  humble 
life,  at  Mansfield,  in  Nottinghamshire,  in 
1703.  He  was  apprenticed  to  a  stocking- 
weaver,  but  lefl  tliat  erftployment,  became 
footman  to  the  honorable  Mrs.  Lowther, 
and  published  by  subscription  a  volume 
of  poems,  entitled  the  Muse  in  Livery, 
which  attracted  public  favor  1^  from  its 
intrinsic  merit  than  from  the  situation  of 
the  author.  His  next  effort  was  the  Toy- 
shop, a  dramatic  satire  on  the  fashionable 
follies  of  the  time.  Pope  patronised  this 
piece,  and,  through  his  .influence,  it  was 
Drought  upon  the  stage  in  1735.  Dodsley 
was  enabled,  by  his  profits  as  an  author, 
to  set  up  a  bookseller's  shop  in  Pali-Mall, 
which  ultimately  proved  a  very  prosper- 
ous concern.  He  next  wrote  the  farce  of 
the  King  and  tlie  Miller  of  Mansfield, 
funded  on  an  old  ballad ;  which  succeed- 
ed so  well,  tliat  he  produced  a  sequel  to  it, 
called  Sir  John  Cockle  at  Court  In 
1741,  he  brought  out  a  musical  piece,  en- 
titled the  Blind  Beggar  of  Bethnal  Green; 
and,  in  1745,  he  made  an  attempt  to  intro- 
duce on  the  stage  a  new  species  of  panto- 
mime, in  Roc  et  Pontifex.  A  loyal  masque 
in  honor  of  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
appeared  in  1749.  His  next  work  was  the 
Economy  of  Human  Life,  a  well  known 
collection  of  moral  maxims.  He  wrote  a 
tragedy,  entitled  Cleone,  which  had  some 
success  on  the  stage,  but  possesses  no 
extraordinary  merit  A  selection  of  Fables 


in  prose,  with  an  Essay  on  Fable  prefixed, 
was  one  of  his  latest  productions.  Hav- 
ing acquired  a  competent  fortune  by  his 
double  occupation  of  author  and  booksel- 
ler, he  retired  from  business.  He  died  at 
Durham,  in  1764.  He  planned  tlie  Pre- 
ceptor; the  Collection  of  Old  Plavs,  12 
vols.,  12mo. ;  and  the  Collection  of  Poems 
by  different  Hands,  6  vols.,  12mo. 

DoDWELL,  Henry,  a  critic  and  theolog- 
ical writer  of  distinction,  was  bom  at  Dnh- 
Ihi,  in  1641,  and,  owing  to  family  misfor- 
tunes during  the  Irish  rebellion,  and  the 
death  of  his  father,  was  early  subjected  to 
a  life  of  want  and  dependence.  Sir  Henry 
Slingshy,  his  mother's  brother,  at  length 
enablecf  him  to  obtain  some  education. 
In  1656,  he  became  a  student  of  Trinity 
college,  Dublin,  where  he  distinguished 
himself  by  his  application,  and  was  chosen 
to  a  fellowshi[).  This  station  he  resigned 
in  1666,  because  he  had  scruples  relative 
to  the  lawfulness  of  taking  orders  in  the 
church,  as  enjoined  by  the  statutes  of  the 
college.  He  then  \isited  England,  and 
for* some  time  resided  at  Oxford.  Re- 
turning to  Ireland,  he  began  his  career  of 
authorship  with  a  preface  to  a  theological 
tract  of  his  tutor,  doctor  Steam.  His  next 
production  was  entitled  Two  Letters  of 
Advice;  1.  for  the  Susception  of  Holy 
Orders ;  %  for  Studies  Theological,  espe- 
cially such  as  are  rational.  To  the  second 
edition  of  this  work  (1681)  was  annexed 
a  Discourse  on  the  Phcenician  History  of 
Sanchoniathon,  which  he  deemed  spuri- 
ous. In  1674,  he  came  again  to  England, 
and  settled  in  London,  where  he  continued 
to  employ  his  pen.  In  1688,  he  was 
chosen  Camden  professor  of  history  at 
Oxford.  Afler  the  revolution,  his  high- 
church  principles  inducing  him  to  espouse 
the  cause  of  the  nonjurors,  he  was  de- 
prived of  his  office.  He  died  in  1711. 
He  produced  a  multitude  of  works  relat- 
ing to  tlieological  and  classical  literature. 
Of  these,  the  most  valuable  is  entitled 
De  veterUnu  Gracorum,  Ronumorum/jue 
CudiBy  obiierque  de  Cyclo  JudrBonan  JEtate 
Christty  DisBertaHones  X.  cum  Tabulis  ne- 
cessariia,  &c.  (folio) ;  and  another,  entitled 
An  Epistolary  Discourse,  proving  from  the 
Scri inures  and  the  first  Fathers,  that  the 
Soul  is  a  Principle  naturally  mortal,  but 
immortalized  actually  by  the  Pleasure  of 
God,  to  Punishment  or  to  Reward,  by  its 
Union  with  the  divine  baptismal  Spirit; 
where  it  is  proved  that  none  have  the  Pow- 
er of  giving  this  divine  immortalizing  Spirit 
since  the  Apostles,  but  only  the  Bishops. 
This  work  gave  rise  to  a  warm  controversy, 
and  subjected  the  author  to  much  obloquy. 


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DOIi-DOG. 


Doe,  JoHfT,  and  Richard  Roe.  (See 
Bail,  and  HyU.) 

Dog  (caniafamUiaris).  To  no  animal  is 
mankind  more  indebted  for  faithful  and 
unswerving  ai!ection  than  to  the  dog. 
His  incorruptible  fidelity,  his  forbearing 
and  enduring  attachment,  his  inexhausti- 
ble dihgence,  ardor  and  obedience,  have 
been  noticed  and  eulogized  from  the  ear- 
liest times.  This  valuable  quadruped  may 
be  emphatically  tenned  the  iriend  of  man ; 
as,  unlike  other  animals,  his  attachment 
is  purely  personal,  and  unhifluenced  by 
changes  of  ti  me  or  place.  The  dog  seems 
to  remember  only  the  benefits  wliich  he 
may  have  received,  and,  instead  of  discov- 
ering resentment  when  he  is  chastised, 
exposes  himself  to  torture,  and  even  licks 
the  hand  fi*om  which  it  proceeds.  With- 
out the  aid  of  this  almost  reasoning  animal, 
how  could  man  have  resisted  the  attacks 
of  the  savage  and  ferocious  tenants  of  the 
forest,  or  have  procured  sustenance  in 
those  ages  of  the  world  when  agriculture 
was  unknown! — When  we  attempt  to 
trace  the  source  or  origin  of  the  species,  it 
will  be  found  that  the  changes  and  varie- 
ties, which  the  influence  of  domestication 
and  the  intermixture  of  races  have  pro- 
duced, are  so  muldfarious  and  intermma- 
ble  as  to  baffle  all  research.  Pennant  is 
of  opinion  that  the  original  stock  of  dogs 
in  tlie  old  world  is  witli  great  reason  sup- 
posed to  be  the  jackal;  that  fix)m  their 
tamed  ofispring,  casually  crossed  with  the 
wolf,  the  fox,  and  even  the  hyaena,  have 
arisen  the  numberless  forms  and  sizes  of 
the  canine  race.  Buffon,  with  much  in- 
genuity, has  traced  out  a  genealogical 
table  of  all  the  known  dogs,  deducing  all 
the  other  varieties  fix>m  the  shepherd's 
dog,  variously  aflfected  by  climate,  and 
other  casual  circumstances.  From  the 
recent  ol)8ervation8  of  travellers  in  the 
high  northern  parts  of  this  continent, 
where,  although  dogs  have  been  employed 
for  an  incalculable  lengtli  of  time,  they 
still  retain  much  of  the  external  appear- 
ance and  general  carria^  of  a  wild  ani- 
mal, it  would  seem  that  Pennant's  sugges- 
tion is  wortiiy  of  attention.  But,  at  the 
same  time,  it  should  be  remarked,  that  the 
breed  of  dogs,  produced  from  the  wolf  and 
varieties  oi  the  domestic  dog,  during  a 
long  succession  of  generations,  sdll  retains 
marked  characteristics  of  the  predomi- 
nance of  tlie  savage  qualities  derived  from 
its  untamed  progenitors,  in  the  keen  and 
vivid  expression  of  tlie  eye,  ferocity  of  dis- 
P|Osition  and  severity  of  bite.  It  is  also  a 
singular  fact,  that  the  race  of  Euroiiean 
dogs  evince  as  great  an  anti|)atliy  to  the 
I^squitnaux  species  as  they  do  to  a  wolf. 


Linnaeus  has  asserted  that  the  mil  of  this 
animal,  in  all  its  species  and  varieties,  in- 
variably bends  to  the  lelt ;  but,  although 
such  is  very  oflen  the  case,  it  is  by  no 
means  universal,  as  the  slightest  observa- 
tion will  demonstrate.  Desraarest,  how- 
ever, has  remarked  a  fieculiarity  as  re- 
spects the  tail  of  dogs,  which  appears  much 
better  entitled  to  rank  as  a  specific  char- 
acter; that,  whenever  this  member  is  of 
white  united  with  any  other  color,  tlie 
white  is  always  terminal  The  same  re- 
mark applies  to  othg^  species  of  tliis  geuufl 
equally  with  tlie  dogs.  Naturalists  have 
divided  dogs  into  several  classes :  1.  maa- 
tiffs,  including  the  dog  of  New  Holland, 
the  mastiff,  (particulany  so  called),  the 
Danish  dog,  and  the  varieties  of  grey- 
bound  ;  2.  tlie  spaniels,  including  the 
spaniel  and  its  varieties,  tlie  wuter-dog, 
the  hound,  the  terrier,  the  shepherd's  dog, 
tlie  wolf-dog,  the  Siberian  dog,  the  Es- 
quimaux dog,  and  tlie  alco  or  Peruvi- 
an dog;  3.  huU-^Ggs,  consisting  of  the 
bull-dog  and  its  varieties,  the  house- 
dog, the  turnspit,  the  pug,  &c.  The 
sagacity  and  attention  of  tlie  dog  are  so 
gi^at,  that  it  is  not  difficult  to  teach  him 
to  hunt,  dance,  and  exhibit  a  thousand 
tricks.  The  mode  in  which  he  is  taught 
to  point  out  different  cards  tliat  are  placed 
near  him  is  this  :^— He  is  first  taught,  by 
repeated  trials,  to  know  something  by  a 
certain  mark,  and  then  to  disthigui^h  ouo 
ace  fix)m  another ;  food  is  frequently  offer- 
ed him  od  a  card  lie  is  unacquainted  with, 
after  which  he  is  sent  to  search  it  out  from 
tlie  pack  ;  and,  after  a  little  experience,  he 
never  mista!;es.  Profiting  by  tlie  discove- 
ry of  receiving  food  and  caresses  for  his 
docility,  he  soon  becomes  able  to  know 
each  particular  card,  which,  when  it  is 
called  for,  he  brings  witli  an  air  of  gayety, 
and  without  confusion.  But  of  the  attain- 
ments by  which  die  dog  has  been  distin- 
guished, that  of  learning  to  speak  is  tlie 
most  extraoiflinary.  The  celebrated  Leib- 
nitz communicated  a  fact  of  this  nature  to 
the  royal  academy  of  France;  and  were  it 
not  that  he  asserts,  that  he  himself  was  a 
witness  of  the  phenomenon,  we  should 
scarcely  have  dared  to  rejwrt  the  circum- 
stance. The  dog,  from  his  accoimt,  could 
articulate  about  diirty  words,  but  it  was 
necessary  that  they  should  be  first  pro- 
nounced to  him. — Dogs  are  found  in  all 
parts  of  the  world,  with  the  exception  of  a 
few  grouj)8  of  islands  in  the  soutliem 
Pacific  ocean.  It  is  only  in  temperate 
climates  that  they  preserve  their  ardor, 
courage,  sagacity  and  otlier  talents.  When 
transported  to  very  hot  countries,  they  lose 
those  qualifies  for  which  we  admire  thein. 


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DOG-^^DOG-FISH. 


969 


These  animals  form  an  important  article 
of  food  among  many  nations.    In  China, 
the  Society  islands,  &c.,  young  puppies  are 
considered  a  great  delicacy,  and  are  al- 
lowed hy  Europeans,  who  have  overcome 
their  prejudices,  to  he  very  sweet  and  pal- 
atable.— This  taste  for  do^s  flesh  is  of  very 
eariy  origin.     The  ancients  regarded  a 
young  and  fiit  dog  as  excellent  food ;  and 
Hippocrates  placed  it  on  a  footuig  with 
mutton  and  pork,  and,  in  another  place,  ob- 
serves, that  the  flesh  of  a  grp^^  dog  is 
wholesome  and  nourfehing.  The  Romans 
admired  sucklnff  puppies,  and  sacrificed 
them  to  the  gods,  as  the  most  acceptable 
oflTering.    Virgil  has  not  thought  the  praise 
of  dogs  a  subject  unworthy  of  his  pen. 
,He  recommends  it  to  the  husbandmen  of 
Italy  to  pay  particular  attention   to  the 
rearing  and  training  of  dogs.*    The  dog 
18  bom  with  its  eyes  closed ;  they  do  not 
become  opened  until  the  tenth  or  twelfth 
day ;  its  teeth  begin  to  change  about  the 
fourth  month,  and  its  growth  is  perfected 
in  two  years.    The  female  generally  has  a 
litter  of  from  six  to  twelve  pups.  The  dog 
seldom  lives  beyond  fifteen  years.    (See 
BloodSiOwvi,  BuU'Dog,  Gr^hiund,  Hound, 
MasHff',  Pointer,  Spardd,  Skepha^a  Doe,) 
Doc-Bane    (apocynum,    androatem^iU-' 
vm,  Lin.),   a  perennial  American  plant 
found  from  Canada  to  Carolina,  has  an 
erect  smooth  stem  from  three  to  five  feet 
high,  and  leaves  acute,  entire,  and  two  or 
three  inches  long. — ^The  whole  plant  is 
lactescent :  the  root  is  intensely  bitter  and 
nauseous.    It  is  considered  as  containing 
a  bitter  extractive   principle,  soluble  in 
water  and   alcohol,  a  coloring  principle 
soluble  in  water  only,  a  veiy  lai^  quantity 
of  caoutchouc,  and  a  volatile  oiLr—It  is  a 
very  active  plant,  highly  valued,  by  our 
southern  Indians.    The  root  is  the  most 
powerful  part,  and  is  much  employed  by 
our  country  physicians  instead  of  ipecacu- 
anha.   Tlurty  grains  of  the  recentlypow- 
dered  root  evacuate  the  stomach  a?  efiectu- 
ally  as  two  thirds  of  this  quantity  of  ipe- 
cacuanha, by  which  name  it  is  imown  in 
various  pNBurts  of  the  Eastern  States.    Its 
power  is  diminished  by  keeping,  and  de- 
stroyed by  age.  Doctor  Bigelow  remarks, 
that  we  have  very  few  indigenous  vegeta- 
bles which  exceed  this  apocynum  m  bit- 
temeas,  and  thinks  the  sensible  and  chem- 
ical properties  of  the  root  promise  a  good 
eSiscty  when  gLven  in  small  doses  as  a 
tonic  medicine. 
Doo-Dats.  This  name  is  applied  to  the 

*  Nee  tibi  cora  canum  foerit  postrema ;  sed  una 
Velocis  Spartae  catulos,  Bcreinque  molosftim, 
Paree  seropiogui,  d&c. — Qeorg,  lib.  iii.  v.4M. 


period  between  the  24th  July  and  24th 
August,  because  the  dog-star  (Sinus), dur- 
ing this  period,  rises  with  the  sun.  The 
heat,  which  is  usually  most  oppressive  at 
this  season,  was  fonnerly  ascribed  to  the 
conjunction  of  this  star  with  the  sun. 

DooE ;  fonnerly  the  title  of  the  first  mag- 
istrates in  the  Italian  republics  of  Venice 
and  Genoa,  (q.  v.)  He  was  chosen  firom 
the  nobility,  who  governed  the  state,  and 
formed  a  Qrrannical  aristocracy.  In  Ven- 
ice, he  held  his  dignity  for  life ;  in  Grenoa, 
for  two  yeais.  His  power  became,  by  de- 
grees, very  limited.  In  ranlc  he  was  con- 
sidered only  equal  to  a  duke,  tliough  the  re- 
public of  Venice  was  in  dignity  equal  to  a 
kingdom.    (See  CeremmiuS.) 

Doo-FisH ;  the  popular  name  of  sev- 
eral species  of  the  genus  aqwdua,  or  sharic, 
which  are  arranged  by  Cuvier  under  his 
sub-genus  aaflmm,  S,  canieula  and  &  ca- 
tulus  are  the  two  most  common  species, 
and  those  in  particular  to  which  the  trivial 
name  is  given.  In  their  general  anatomy, 
they  differ  but  little  from  the  other  sub-gen- 
era of  the  great  shark  family,  so  well  known 
for  their 'ferocious  and  savage  habits.  The 
dog'JishM,  though  among  the  smallest  of  the 
trioe,  manifest  propensities  equally  cruel 
with  those  which  have  rendered  the  white 
sliaric  and  others  so  justly  dreaded.  Al- 
though seldom  or  never  injurious  to  man, 
they  commit  great  ravages  in  the  fisheries, 
and,  where  ^they  abound,  constitute  one  of 
the  greatest  nuisances  of  the  fishermen. 
Exceedingly  voracious,  and  devouring 
almost  eveiy  thing  they  encounter,  the 
mischief  they  occasion  by  taking  the  baits, 
and  very  often  the  hooks,  of  the  deep  sea 
lines,  is  very  considerable,  and  not  at  all 
compensated  for  by  the  flesh  of  those 
which  are  captured.  The  sub-genus  is 
characterized  by  having  a  short,  obtuse 
snout ;  the  nostrils  situated  near  the  mouth, 
and  in  a  sinus,  or  groove,  which  runs  alonff 
the  edge  of  the  upper  lip^  partially  covered 
by  two  lobes  or  productions  of  tlie  skin ; 
teeth  with  a  laige  trianffular  point,  and  a 
smaller  one  on  each  side.— The  larger 

r^ies,  jSI  cameula,  is  distinguished  oy 
following  charsctere:  blackish  brown, 
marked  with  numerous  small  blackish 
spots  ;  length  3  to  5  feet ;  inhabits  the  seas 
of  ahnost  every  portion  of  the  globe ; 
swifi,  voracious,  and  very  powerful;  fol- 
lows ships  to  feed  upon  the  refuse  which 
is  thrown  overboard ;  feeds  on  small  fish 
moUusca,  and  destroys  great  numbere  of 
the  young  of  its  own  species ;  breeds  sev- 
eral times  a  year,  and  brings  forth  nume- 
rous individuals  at  a  bir£.  The  young 
are  hatched  firom  the  egg,  in  the  compli- 


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270 


DOG-FISH— DOGMAS,  HISTORY  OF. 


cated  oviducts  of  the  female,  and  are  bom 
alive.    Tl)e  eggs  are  similar  to  others  of 
the  family,  and  covered  by  a  tough  mem- 
bmiiaoeous  integument.  The  skin  of  these 
fish  is  lieset  with  numerous  small  asperi- 
ti<^s,  which  render  it,  when  dried,  well 
raiculated  for  polishing  wood,  and  for 
oiUer  mechanical  pur[K>ses.    When  alive, 
it  has  a  strong  musky  smells — ^&  catuhu^ 
tlie  lesser  dog-fish,  or  rock  shark,  resem- 
bles tiie  former  in  its  general  appearance 
and  habits,  but  the  spots  with  which  it  is 
marked  are  larger  and  more  scattered.    It 
has  very  frequently  been  confounded  with 
itf  and  by  some  authors  described  as  the 
male;  color  gray-brown,  spots  blackish, 
unequal,  rounded ;  dorsal  iins  equal,  nos- 
trils bilobate ;  inhabits  rocky  bottoms,  and 
preys  principally  on  Crustacea  and  shell 
fisli;   produces  eighteen   or  twenty  at  a 
time.    The  young  evince  their  ferocious 
propensities  very  soon  after  birdi,  and  are 
destroyed  by  tlie  lanrer  individuals  of  their 
own  species. — ^The  flesh  of  all  the  species  is 
hard,  dry  and  unpalatable,  requiring  to  be 
well-soaked  before  it  is  eaten.  Oil,  ui  con- 
siderable quantity,  is  obtained  fiom  tlie 
liver.    Poisonous  effects    are,  at  certain 
times,  observed  in  consequence  of  eating 
the  livers  of  dog-fish ;  and  some  cases  are 
recorded,  in  which  the  most  distressing 
illness  has  been  occasioned,  followed  by  a 
heavy,  torpid  stupor  of  two  or  three  days. 
The  patients  were  afierwaids  affected  by 
an  erytlirematous  eruption, which  extended 
fUl  over  the  body,  and  which  was  termi- 
nated by  a  general  peeling  off  of  the  skin. 
— ^M.  Cuvier  ius  divided  the  ffsnvBsqualus 
into  nmnerous  sub-genera,  which  include 
many  new  and  extraordinary  species.  The 
sub-genus   scyUium  is  now  divided  into 
two  sections: — Sect  1.  anal  fin  situated 
under  the  interval  between  the  two  dor- 
sals ;    sect.  2.  anal  fin  placed  posterior 
to  the  second  dorsal. — The  first  division 
includes  S»  camcula^  S,  cahdtu,  &>c ;  the 
second,  &  q/ncofium,  &  tubercuUdtmij  &c. 
DoooER ;  a  Dutch  vessel  navigated  in 
the  German  ocean;  it  is  equipp^  with 
two  masts,  a  main  and  a  mizzen-mast, 
and  somewhat  resembles  a  ketch.    It  is 
principally  used  for  fishing  on  the  Dogger 

Doo-Grass  (radix  graminia ;  gramen 
eanmum ;  triHcum  repens^  Lin.) ;  a  peren- 
nial plant,  very  common  in  uncultivated 
grounds;  root  repent;  stems  straight, 
about  two  feet  high;  leaves  soft  and 
ffreen ;  spike  elongate,  compressed ;  spike- 
letB  distichous,  unarmed,  and  formed  of 
firom  four  to  five  fiowers.  Dog-grass  root 
is  k>ng,  cylindrical^  thin,  knotty,  white  in- 


ternally, yellowish  and  skinny  e^emaDy, 
inodorous,  of  a  fiuinaceous  and  sweet 
taste.  This  root  is  used  in  medicine^ — 
Among  the  demulcent  substances,  dog- 
grass  is  one  of  the  most  frequently  em- 
ployed in  France.  It  is  used  in  most  of 
the  inflammatory  and  febrile  diseases,  and 
especially  in  those  of  the  urinary  passages. 
It  was  formerly  recommended  as  a  pow- 
erful diuretic,  and  was  employed  as  such 
in  dropsies ;  but  we  know,  at  present,  tliis 
opinion  to  be  erroneous. 

Dogmas,  History  of  ;  a  branch  of  the- 
ology, more  attended  to  in  the  universities 
of  tiie  north  of  Germany,  than  any  where 
else.    Its  object  is  to  exhibit,  in  a  histor- 
ical way,  the  origin  and  the  changes  of 
the  various  Christian  systems  of  belief^ 
showing  what  opinions  were  received  by 
the  various  sects,  in  different  ages  of 
Christianity,  the  sources  of  the  diflerent 
creeds,    by  what  arguments  they  were 
attacked  and  supported,  what  degrees  of 
importance  were  attached  to  them  in  dif- 
ferent ages,  the  curcumstances  by  which 
they  were  affected,  and  the  mode  in  which 
the  dogmas  were  combined  into  systems. 
The  sources  of  this  branch  of  histoiy  are 
the  public  creeds,  the  acts  of  councils,  and 
other  ecclesiastical  assemblies,  letters  and 
decrees  of  the  heads  of  churches,  liturgies 
and  books  of  rituals,  the  works  of  the 
fathera  of  the  church,  and  of  later  eccle- 
siastical writers,  as  well  as  the  narrations 
of  contemporaxy  historians.    It  is  easily 
seen    how  important  and  interesting   a 
study  this  is,  teaching,.as  it  does,  modesty 
and  forbearance  in  the  support  of  particu- 
lar opinions,  by  chowing  tlie  vast  variety 
of  those  which  have  afforded  subjects  of 
bitter  controversy  at  particular   periods, 
and  have  then  passed  away  into  oblivion ; 
and  how  much  learning,  industry,  and  crit- 
ical acuteness,  are  oflen  required,  to  make  a 
thorough  investigation  of  contested  points 
of  doctrine.    The  distinction  between  this 
branch  of  histoiy  and  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory is  obvious.    It  is  the  same  as  exists 
between  political  history  and  the  history 
of  politics.    Lectures  on  this  subject  are 
delivered  in  all  the  German  universities. 
It  is  evident  that  the  views  taken  of  the 
history  of  dogmas  must  vary  according  to 
the  sect  to  which  the  writer  belongs;  oe- 
cause  it  does  not  consist  of  a  series  of 
facts,  but  of  the  representation  of  the  de- 
velopement  of  certain  ideas,  which  must 
appear  different,  according  to  the  idea 
which  is  considered  by  the  writer  as  the 
most  important.    This  is  more  or  less  the 
case  with  all  history,  in  proportioa  as  the 
writer  abandons   mere   relation   for  an 


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DOGMAS,  HISTORY  OF— DOGWOOD. 


271 


analysis  oftlie  nature,  the  causes  and  con- 
sequences of  what  he  describes.  Thus  a 
republican  would  give  a  very  different 
hjstoiy  of  politics  frohn  a  royalist ;  and  a 
writer  of  the  nineteenth  century  a  differ- 
ent history  of  civilization  from  that  which 
would  be  given  by  a  writer  of  the  seven- 
teenth. One  division  of  dogmatical  his- 
tory, by  a  Protestant  professor,  is  the  fol- 
lowing : — 1st  period  ;  from  the  foundation 
of  Christianity,  to  the  beginning  of  gnos- 
ticism (alx)ut  125,  A.  D.).  The  2d  period 
(from  125  to  325,  A.  D.)  is  that  of  the 
dawn  of  speculation,  and  the  rise  of  the 
desire  for  settled  creeds^  and  systems  of 
Christianity,  which  appeared  very  strongly 
in  the  council  of  Nice,  in  325.  The  3d 
period  (from  325  to  604)  is  that  of  the 
mcreasing  authority  of  councils,  and  the 
heads  of  the  church.  Able  men,  as  Atha- 
nasius,  the  great  Basil,  the  two  Greffories, 
Jerome,  Augustine,  and  the  popes  Leo  I 
and  Gregory  I,  exercised  great  influence 
iu  settling  the  dogmas  during  this  period. 
4th  period;  from  the  death  of  Gregory,  in 
604,  to  Gregory  VII,  in  1073 ;  character- 
ized by  the  rapid  growtli  of  the  papal 
power.  In  this  period,  the  first  system 
of  dogmatics  was  settled  by  the  influence 
of  John  of  Damascus  (died  in  754),  found- 
ed on  a  systematical  revision  of  the  dog- 
mas of  the  church.  5th  period ;  from 
Gregory  VII,  in  1073,  to  Luther,  in  1517 ; 
in  which  the  power  of  the  popes  attained 
its  highest  point,  and,  at  the  same  time,  a 
new  spirit  of  philosophy  arose,  which, 
influenced  by  mistaken  notions  of  the 
Greek  philosophy,  gave  rise  to  the  scho- 
lastic theology,  {he  oppositipn  to  which 
gave  birth  to  mysticism.  6th  period ;  that 
of  the  reformation,  the  period  since  which, 
of  course,  admits  of  many  divisions,  ac- 
cording to  the  different  views  which  may 
be  taken  of  the  subject 

Dogmatics  ;  a  systematic  arrangement 
of  the  articles  of  Christian  fiiith  (dogmas). 
It  is  the*duty  of  the  compiler  of  such  a 
system,  to  collect  the  religious  ideas, 
which  are  scattered  through  die  Holy 
Scriptures,  to  explain,  estabhah  and  com- 
bine them.  No  one  can  successfully 
treat  this  important  but  difficult  subjeet, 
who  is  not  well  acquainted  both  with  ex- 
egens  and  philosophy.  The  first  attempt 
to  furnish  a  complete  and  coherent  sys- 
tem of  Christian  dogmas  was  made  by 
Origen  in  the  3d  century,  who  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Aur.  Augustine  in  the  4th,  by 
Isidore  of  Seville  in  the  6th,  and  by  John 
of  Damascus  (see  Damaacemu)  in  the  8th 
century.  In  the  middle  ages,  ingenious 
eacaminations  of  the  ChriiSan  doctrines 


were  made  by  the  schoolmen ;  but,  agi- 
tating as  they  did  subtle  questions  of  little 
practical  importance,  they  loaded  the  sci- 
ence with  useless  refinements.  Among 
tlie  Protestants,  Melancthon  was  the  first 
who  virrote  a  compendium  of  the  Christian 
doctrine,  which  is  still  justly  esteemed. 
This  science  has  been  succe^fuUy  culti- 
vated by  the  Protestant  theologians  since 
the  last  century. 

Dogs,  Isle  of  ;  in  England,  in  the 
county  of  Middlesex,  opposite  Greenwich. 
In  this  island  are  magnificent  docks,  with 
large  and  convenient  warehouses  for  the 
accommodation  of  the  West  India  mer- 
chants. (SeeI>oe^.)  One  of  the  largest 
canals  ever  attempted  in  England  has 
been  cut  near^  one  mile  and  a  qAarter 
in  length,  142  feet  wide  at  top,  and  24  feet 
deep,  across  the  Isle  of  Dogs,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  shortening  the  passage  of  vessels 
to  and  fix>m  the  pool,  and  avoiding  the 
long  circuit  by  Greenwich  and  Deptfbrd. ' 

Doo-Star  ;  Sirius ;  the  star  that  gives 
their  name  to  the  dog-days.  (q.  v.) 

Dogwood  (comua  Jhrida)  is  a  small 
tree,  inhabiting  the  U.  States  from  the  43d 
parallel  of  latitude  to  Florida,  and  ex- 
tending westward  beyond  the  Mississippi. 
The  leaves  are  oval,  entire,  pointed,  and 
whitish  beneath ;  the  flowers  small,  yel- 
lowish, and  surrounded  with  an  involucre 
composed  of  four  large  white  leaves; 
the  berries  are  red,  and  remain  on  the 
tree  during  a  great  part  of  tiie  winter. 
Throughout  a  ^reat  part  of  the  U.  States, 
the  large  white  mvolucres  of  the  dogwood, 
together  with  the  rose-colored  flowers  of 
the  Judas  tree  (cereis  Canadmsia)  make  a 
beautiful  appearance  in  the  spring.  The 
dogwood  attains  the  height  of  S^  or  30 
feet,  and  has  a  trunk  8  or  10  inches  in  di- 
ameter ;  the  wood  is  white,  hard,  of  a  fine 
texture,  and  much  esteemed;  it  is  used 
by  cabinet-makeis  for  inlawing,  &c.  dif- 
ferent ornamental  works ;  for  tne  handles 
of  tools,  plane-stocks,  &c.,  it  is  conadered 
little  interior  to  Itox.  The  bark  of  this 
tree,  as  well  as  that  of  several  other  spe- 
cies of  comus  inhabiting  Canada  and  the 
Northern  States,  possesses  similar  proper- 
ties with  the  Peruvian  baris,  and  is  em- 
ployed successfully  in  the  cure  of  inter- 
mittent fevers.  The  bark  of  the  root, 
stem  and  branches  tastes  very  much  lik« 
this  famous  bark ;  it  is  bitter,  astringent, 
and  slightly  aromatic.  Its  astringency  is, 
faowever,  stronger  than  that  of  the  Peru- 
vian bark.  This  bark  is,  without  doubt, 
one  of  oiur  most  valuable  native  articles. 
As  a  substitute  for  the  Peruvian  bork,  much 
has  been  written  in  commendation  of  it. 


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272 


DOGWOOi>-DOLL. 


The  lesemblanY^  extends  to  its  cbemical 
and  physical,  as  well  astherapeuticaj  prop- 
erties. The  bark  of  the  dogwood  is  ex- 
teDsively  employed  by  country  practition- 
ers in  intermittent  fevers,  and  the  rep^ 
they  give  of  it  is  very  favorable  and  satis- 
ikctoiy.  It  is  remarked  that,  in  its  recent 
state,  it  is  apt  to  disagree  with  the  stomach, 
and  to  produce  pains  in  t}ie  bowels ;  but, 
in  order  to  prevent  this  efiect,  it  is  simply 
needful  to  add  to  it,  when  used,  a  few 
drops  of  laudanum,  or  to  use  the  bark 
ailer  it  has  been  collected  for  some  time. 
This  bark  may  be  used  with  still  greater 
advantage  in  intermittents,  if  combined 
with  serpentaria.  The  C.  tericea  and  C* 
ctrctno/o,  Linn,  (swamp  and  round-leaved 
dof[wood),seem  to  possess  the  same  pmp- 
ernes  as  the  preceding.  Some  other  plants 
have  received  the  name  of  dogwood  An 
the  U.  States,  particulariy  the  poisonous 
sumach  {rkus  vermr). 

DoHM,  Christian  William  von ;  a  states- 
man and  scholar,  distinguished  for  his  prin- 
ciples, genius  and  merits ;  bom  at  Lemgo, 
Bee.  1],  1751.  Ha  was  the  son  of  a  Lu- 
theran minister  in  that  city,  and  cultivated 
his  taste  by  the  study  of  ancient  literature 
and  the  English  classics.  He  lived  for 
some  time  in  a  private  condition  at  Berlin, 
where  he  made  himself  known  by  his 
writings.  He  was  then  employed  by  the 
Prussian  government,  and,  during  the 
reign  of  the  two  last  kings  and  the  pres- 
ent, gradually  rose  from  one  post  to  an- 
other. He  was  Prussian  ambassador  at 
the  congress  of  Rastadt,  in  1797,  and,  in 
the  name  of  the  whole  diplomatic  corps, 
made  a  report  concerning  the  murder  of 
the  two  French  envoys.  He  remained  in 
Westphalia  while  the  countiy  was  occu- 
pied by  Napoleon ;  for,  as  his  estates  were 
in  this  part  of  the  Pnissian  dominions,  he 
was  compelled  to  continue  his  residence 
there,  after  they  had  been  separated  fit)m 
Prussia  by  the  peace  of  Tilsit  in  1607. 
By  the  command  of  the  French  intendant 
ffsneral,  he  went  to  Paris  in  September, 
1807,  at  the  head  of  a  delegation  of  tiue 
states  of  the  province  and  the  administra- 
tive authorities.  AfWr  bis  return,  in  De- 
cember of  the  same  year,  he  was  made  a 
member  of  the  council  of  stal»;  aad^iif 
February,  1808,  he  was  appointed  by  the 
kinff  ambassador  to  the  court  of  Dresden. 
A  danfferous  inflammation  of  the  luncs 
forced  him  to  retire  in  April,  1810.  He 
was  permitted  to  reside  on  his  estate  of 
Pustleben,  in  the  county  of  Hohenstein, 
till  he  should  be  able  to  take  his  place 
again  in  the  council  of  state.  From  that 
time  he  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  his- 


torical punuits.  His  work  Denkwitrdigkei' 
ten  meiJier  ZeU,  oder  BeUrage  zvr  GtBcKkhU 
von  1778  his  1806,  Lemffo  and  Hanover, 
1814—19,  5  vol&  (which  extend  to  the 
death  of  Frederic  the  Great)  gives  much 
information  respecting  the  most  memorable 
persons  and  events  since  1778,  drawn  part- 
ly from  his  own  observation  and  experi- 
ence, nardy  from  other  sources.  It  is  es- 
teemed also  on  account  of  its  clearness,  cor- ' 
rect  spirit,  and  impartiality.  Dohm  died 
at  his  estate  of  Pustleben,  May  29, 1820. 

Doit  was  the  ancient  Scottish  penny 
piece,  of  which  twelve  were  equal  to  a 
penny,  sterling.  Two  of  them  were  equal 
to  the  bodle,  nx  to  the  baubee,  and  eight  to 
the  acheson.  There  was  also  in  I^wer 
Germany  a  small  coin  called  deid  (pro- 
nounced like  doU)  and  dtHkhm^xh^  dimin- 
utive ofdeut.  In  the  Netherlands,  the  coin 
is  called  dayt,  and  Frisch  believes  that  these 
words  took  their  origin  from  the  French, 
UU^  head ;  the  piece  of  20  kreuzer  is  still 
called^  in  Gennany,  kopfst&ck  (head-piece). 

Dolce,  Cario  (also  Ccaimo  Dotce\  a 
celebrated  painter,  of  the  Florentine  school, 
bom  at  Florence,  in  1616,  and  died  there 
in  1686,  was  a  disciple  of  Jacopo  .Vigniali ; 
and  his  works,  in  Fieri Uo's  opinion,  bear 
the  character  which  his  name  implies. 
His  subjects  are  principally  beads  of  ma- 
donnas and  saints,  so  mild  and  soft  that 
they  have  been  reproached  with  want  of 
character.  In  minuteness  and  accuracy 
of  finish,  he  approaches  the  Dutch  schcoL 
It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that  in 
hi»  madonnas  we  discover  frequent  rep- 
etitions, and  that  his  paintings  betray 
that  timidity  and  melancholy  to  whiefa 
he  was  subject  His  works  are  qiread 
over  all  Europe;  many  of  them  are  in 
Florence.  Tlu-ee  of  his  best  pieces  are  in 
the  gallery  at  Dresden — namely, -Cecilia, 
or  the  Organ-Player,  Christ  blessiag  the 
Bread  and  Wine  (which  lias  been  vety 
fiiequently  engraved),  and  Hero^iaswith 
the  Head  of  John  the  Baptist  Among 
his  chief  productions,  also^  is  Christ  on 
the  Mount  of  Ohves,  now  at  Paris. 

D6iiL,  Frederic  William ;  professor  of 
the  art  (;Kf  sculpture  in  Godia,  bom  at  Hild- 
bttrghausen  m  1750 ;  a  <tiBdnguished  Ger- 
man artist.  His  first  important  woik  was 
the  monument  of  Winkelmann,  which 
was  honored  with  a  place  in  the  Pantheon 
at  Rome.  His  best  works  are  the  Reliefs 
in  the  riding-academy  at  DesKau :  a  huge 
group  representing  Faith,  Hope,  and 
Charity,  for  the  principal  chureb  at  Lu- 
nenburg ;  the  monument  of  Leibnitz  at 
Hanover,  and  Kepler's  at  Ratisbon.  Ha 
died  at  Gotfaa,  March  30, 18ia 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


DOLLARn-DOLOMIEU. 


273 


Dollar;  a coid of  difierent value.  (See 
Coins,)  This  word  corresponds  to  the  Ger- 
rnau  thakry  the  Low-German  dahler,  the 
Danish  daler,  the  Italian  tallero.  All  these 
irords,  together  with  our  dollar^  are  deriv- 
ed from  the  name  of  the  Bohemian  town 
Joachims-Thai  (Joachim's  Valley),  where, 
in  1518,  tlie  count  of  Sch lick  coined  silver 
pieces  of  an  ounce  weight.  These,  indeed, 
were  not  the  first  of  the  kind  coined ;  yet, 
as  they  were  numerous  and  very  good, 
they  became  generally  known  by  the  name 
of  Joachims-thaler,  which  is  the  Ger- 
man adjective  of  Joackhns-thal,  and  also 
Schlickenihaler,  from  the  name  of  the 
counts.  As  these  coins  were  in  good  re- 
pute, thalers  were  also  coined  iu  other 
countries,  but  of  different  value :  thus  orig- 
inated the  laub-tiholer  (leaf-dollar)  PhUipps- 
IhaUr,  the  Swedish  copper  dollar,  &c.  In 
Russia,  a  dollar  is  called  jephimockj  firom 
Joachim. 

DoLLoiTD,  John,  an  eminent  optician 
of  French  descent,  was  bom  in  Suitaliields 
in  1706.  He  was  brought  up  a  silk-weaver, 
and  carried  on  that  business  for  many 
years ;  but,  finding  it  little  congenial  to  his 
taste,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
mathematics,  optics,  and  astronomy,  and  at 
last  comhienced  optician,  in  conjunction 
with  his  eldest  son,  Peter.  His  first  atten- 
tion was  directed  to  the  improvement  of 
refiticting  telescopes,  an  account  of  which 
-was  printed  in  the  Philosophical  Transac- 
tions, vol.  xlviii ;  and  he  soon  afi:er  com- 
municated his  discovery  of  tlie  micrometer, 
as  applied  to  the  reflecting  telescope.  Mr. 
Doilond  then  engaged  in  a  defence  of  New- 
ton's doctrine  of  refraction,  against  Euler, 
-which  correspondence  was  also  published 
in  the  Philosophical  Transactions.  He 
next  constructed  object-glasses,  in  which 
the  different  refitingibility  of  the  rays  of 
light  was  corrected,  to  which  the  name 
otachromaJtic  was  given  by  doctor  Bevis, 
on  account  of  their  being  free  from  the 
prismatic  colors.  In  1761,  Mr.  Doilond 
was  elected  F.R.  S.,  and  appointed  optician 
to  the  king ;  but  died  of  apoplexy  in  the 
same  year. 

DoLLOND,  Peter,  eldest  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  bom  in  1730.  In  1765,  he 
communicated  a  paper  to  the  royal  so- 
ciety, upon  his  improvement  of  telescopes, 
and  another  in  1772,  on  his  additions  to, 
and  alterations  of,  Hadley's  quadrant  He 
also  gave  a  description  of  his  equatorial 
instrument  for  correcting  the  errors  arising 
in  altitude  from  refraction.  In  1789,  he 
published  Some  Account  of  the  Discovery 
made  by  his  Father  in  refracting  Teles- 
copes.   He  died  in  1890. 


DoLOMTEu,  D^odat  Guy  Silvain  Tan- 
cr^e  Gratet  de,  a  geologist  and  mineral- 
ogist, bom  June  24, 1750,  at  Dolomieu,  in 
Dauphiny,  was  received  into  the  order  of 
the  knights  of  Malm  while  yet  a  child, 
and  began  his  novitiate  in  his  18th  year. 
On  his  first  cmise  in  the  Mediterranean,  he 
killed  one  of  the  ofiScers  of  his  galley  in 
a  quarrel.  He  was  tried  at  Malta,  and 
condemned  to  lose  the  rolie  of  tlie  order; 
but  the  grand-master,  consideringliis  great 

Jrouth,  reprieved  him  ;  and  the  pope  was  at 
ast  prevailed  on  to  give  his  consent  to  a 
full  pardon.  Dolomieu  was  in  prison  nine 
months,  and,  during  his  confinement,  ac- 
quired a  taste  for  jK)€try.  He  continued 
his  studies  at  Metz,  whither  he  was  trans- 
ferred as  an  officer  of  a  regiment  of  car- 
bineers, in  garrison  at  that  place.  The 
duke  de  la  Rochefoucault  oecaine  ac- 
quainted with  him  there,  and,  through  his 
influence,  Dolomieu  was  made  a  corre- 
sponding member  of  the  academy  of  sci- 
ences. In  order  to  devote  himself  entirely 
to  his  studies,  Dolomieu  left  the  military 
service,  and  returned  to  Malta,  whence  he 
went  to  Portugal  in  1777,  in  the  retinue 
of  the  bailli  de  Rohan.  He  examined 
this  country,  visited  Sicily  and  the  neigh- 
boring islands,  Naples  and  mount  Vesu- 
vius in  1781,  travelled  over  the  Pyrenees 
in  1782,  and  in  1783  passed  through  Cala- 
bria, which  had  just  been  desolated  by  an 
earthquake.  In  consequence  of  some  se- 
cret communications,  which  he  made  to 
the  grand-master  on  his  return,  being  be- 
trayed to  the  court  of  Naples,  which  was 
interested  in  them,  he  was  forbidden  to 
enter  that  kingdom,  and  experienced  ma- 
ny difficulties  in  Malta.  Leaving  this 
island  again,  he  visited  the  mountains  of 
Italy,  the  Tyrol,  and  the  country  of  the 
Grisons.  He  retumed  once  more  to 
Malta,  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  off  his 
collection,  and  thence  went  to  France,  iu 
May,  1791,  where  he  resided  at  Roche- 
Guyon,  the  estate  of  his  friend  the  duke 
de  la  Rochefoucault,  who  had  fallen  n 
victim  to  the  revolutionary  fury.  After 
the  9tb  Thermidor,  he  renewed  his  geo- 
logical excursions  through  France,  always 
on  foot,  with  a  hammer  in  his  hand,  and 
a  bag  on  his  back.  In  1796,  he  was  ap- 
pointed engineer  and  professor,  and,  at  the 
establishment  of  the  institute,  was  made 
h  member  of  that  society.  In  these  capa- 
cities, he  published  several  works  relative 
to  the  theory  of  the  earth  and  the  nature 
of  minerals.  He  eagerly  sei  zed  the  opi)or- 
tunity  of  visiting  Egypt,  offered  to  him  by 
the  French  expedition  to  that  country. 
But  the  occupation  of  Malta  on  the  way 


Digitized  by 


Lioogle 


274 


DOLOMIEU— DOLPHIN. 


made  him  dissatisfied  with  the  whole  ud- 
dertaking,  and  the  situation  of  the  army  in 
Egypt  soon  condemned  liim  to  inactivity. 
In  March,  1799,  he  embarked  for  Europe. 
On  the  passage,  tlie  vessel  sprung  a  leak, 
and  only  succeeded,  after  great  efforts,  in 
reaching  the  harbor  of  Tarentum.  There 
the  crew  were  treated  as  prisoners  of  war ; 
and,  when  the  rest  were  set  at  liberty,  Do- 
lomieu  was  recognised  and  detained  as  a 
prisoner.  During  twenty-one  months;  he 
suffered  hardships  and  privations  of  every 
kind.  Even  books  and  writing  materials 
were  denied  him.  His  firmness,  liowev- 
er,  sustained  him.  On  the  margins  of 
two  or  tliree  books,  which  he  had  contriv- 
ed to  conceal  from  tlie  eyes  of  his  senti- 
nel, he  wrote  his  treatise  on  mineralogical 
philosophy :  his  pen  was  a  piece  of  wood, 
and  the  soot  of  his  lamp  supplied  himwitli 
ink.  In  consequence  of  the  peace  con- 
cluded between  France  and  Naples,  March 
15, 1601,  he  obtained  his  Uberty,  and  re- 
ceived the  professorship  of  mineralogy  in 
the  museum  of  natural  history,  which  had 
become  vacant  by  the  death  of  Daubenton. 
His  health,  however,  having  been  already 
undennined  by  his  captivity,  was  entirely 
destroyed  by  a  journey  to  Switzerland, Sa- 
voy and  Dauphin V,  m  1801,  and  he  died 
at  Chateauneuf,  Nov.  28  of  the  samevear. 
With  a  passionate  love  for  geology,  l)olo- 
inieu  united  all  the  quahties,  physical  and 
moral,  necessary  for  the  successful  study 
of  this  science ;  and  it  is  therefore  much  to 
be  re^tted,  that  he  was  prevented  from 
combming  and  systematizing  his  views 
and  observations. 

Dolomite;  a  mineral  species,  speci- 
mens of  which  occur  under  considerably 
diversified  aspects.  A  variety  called  bitter 
spoTf  and  sometimes  rhomb  spar,  is  found 
in  crystals,  having  tlie  fonn  of  a  rhomboid, 
with  angles  varying  from  106®  1^  to  107° 
W  and  73®  45^  to  7>  40^.  It  cleaves  with 
ease  fiarallel  to  this  form.  Color  grayish, 
yellowish  or  reddish  brown;  hardness  a 
little  above  that  of  calcareous  spar,  but  is 
easily  scratched  with  the  knife ;  semitrans- 
parent  and  very  brittle.  It  is  found  in 
steatite  or  soapstone,  disseminated  in  crys- 
tals, varying  in  size,  from  three-fourths  to 
one-iburth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  It  has 
numerous  localities  in  the  U.  Suites,  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  of  which  is  at 
MaHborough,  in  Vermont^  where  it  exists 
in  a  soapbtone  quarry.  It  is  also  found 
abundantly  in  oiher  countriea  A  second 
variety  of  tl/is  species  is  denominated 
pearl  sfor.  It  ditfers  from  bitter  spar 
chiefly  in  the  slightly  curvilinear  faces  of 
its  crysuils,  and  m  possessing  a  more  shin- 


ing, peariy  lustre,  and  usually  ligfatet 
shades  of  color,  being  sometimes  quite 
white.  It  is  found  principally  in  metallic 
veins  accompanying  the  ores  of  lead  and 
tin.  It  occurs  abundandy,  however,  in 
cavities  along  with  calcareous  spar  and 
selenite,  in  the  secondaiy  limestone  of 
Lockport,N.  Y.  The  most  abundant  va- 
riety of  the  present  species  goes  by  the 
name  of  dolomite.  It  is  massive,  or  con- 
sists of  fine  ciystalline  grains,  but  slightly 
coherent,  and  of  various  shades  of  white. 
It  constitutes  beder  of  very  creat  extent, 
and  therefore  belongs  to  the  class  of 
rocks;  and,  as  such,  comes  under  the 
division  of  prmitive  rocks.  It  exists  in 
great  abundance  in  Litchfield  county,  in 
Connecticut,  and  in  the  south-western 
towns  of  Massachusetts.  It  abounds  in 
the  Apennines,  the  Tyrol,  Switzerland 
and  Tuscany.  It  is  finequently  employed 
as  a  marble,  both  in  the  U.  States  and  Eu- 
rope. It  is  composed  of  caribonate  of 
lime  and  carbonate  of  magnesia ;  but  the 
relative  quantity  of  tiie  two  seems  not  to 
be  exactly  the  same  in  all  varieties.  Its 
decomposition  is  conceived  to  form  a  good 
soil  for  agriculture. 

Dolphin  (delpkinus).  A  cetaceous  ani- 
mal, the  name  of  which  is  improperly 
applied  to  a  fish,  the  coryphana  mppuris^ 
or  dolphin  of  navigators,  so  celebrated  for 
the  beautiful  changes  of  color  which  it 
exhibits  when  dying.  The  real  dolphiu 
has  been  rendered  famous  by  the  tales  re- 
lated of  it  by  the  ancient  writers ;  one  of 
the  most  ^miliar  of  which  is  the  fable 
of  the  musician  Arion.  (q.  v.)  There  are 
several  species  of  dolphins  enumerated  by 
naturalists.  Those  which  occur  common- 
ly are  D.  ddphis,  or  common  dolphin.,  D» 
rostratus,  and  D.  tursio.  Dolphins  are 
cosmopolite  animals,  inhabiting  every  sea, 
from  the  equator  to  the  poles,  endiuing 
equally  well  the  extremes  of  heat  or  cold ; 
they  fure  greeariou8,and  swim  with  extra- 
ordinaiy  velocity,  outstripping  in  their 
course  the  fleetest  vessels.  During  the 
electrical  excitement  of  the  atmosphere 
previous  to  changes  of  weather,  tliey  are 
observed  to  be  very  active  and  vivacious, 
leaping  considerable  distances  out  of  the 
water,  and  displaying,  in  their  rapid 
movements,  their  uncommon  muscular 
powers.  The  characters  distinctive  of 
the  common  dolphin  are — black,  1)eneatli 
white;  snout  porrect,  depressed;  jaws 
with  forty  or  forty-two  curved,  pointed 
teeth  on  each  side  ;  length  eight  or  ten 
feet ;  flesh  coarse,  rank,  and  disagree- 
able (used  by  the  Laplanders,  and  the  in- 
habitants of  Greenland,  as  food,  but  is  ape 


Digitized  by 


Lioogle 


DOLPHIN— DOMAIN. 


275 


ttf  produce  sickness  in  persons  who  eat 
it  ror  the  first  time);  skin  smooth,  soft, 
with  a  layer  of  very  white  fat  or  blubber 
under  it ;  liver  Ivse,  yielding  a  larger 
Quantity  of  oil  than  the  blubber.  The  ori- 
fice from  whence  the  water,  inspired  bv  the 
mouth,  iB  ejected,  is  of  a  semilunar  ionn, 
with  a  kind  of  valvular  apparatus,  and 
opens  on  the  vertex,  nearly  over  the  eyes. 
The  volume  and  developement  of  the  brain 
have  induced  naturalists  to  consider  the 
dolphin  an  animal  of  unusual  intelligence, 
ana  capable  of  feeling  an  attachment  to 
man.  Many  stories  are  related  of  its  do- 
cility, but,  unfortunately,  want  confirma- 
tion. The  skeleton  presents  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  princifxil  bones  of  the  higher 
mammifera,  and  the  absence  of  maiw  of 
minor  importance.  The  structure  of  the 
ear  renders  the  sense  of  hearing  very 
acute,  and  the  animal  is  observed  to  be  at- 
traoteid  by  regular  or  harmonious  sounds. 
Owing  to  the  flattened  form  of  the  cervi- 
cal vertebrae,  which  amount  to  seven,  the 
neck  is  very  short,  and,  the  two  first  be- 
ing unmovably  connected,  the  motion  is 
Tery  limited.  A  single  bone,  composed 
of  or  replacing  those  of  the  ann,  is  the 
support  of  the  pectoral  fins :  it  articulates 
with  a  peculiar  shaped  scapula,  and  the 
muscular  arrangement  is  such  as  to  give 
tbe  fin  great  force.  The  whole  number 
of  vertebrae  amounts  to  fifty-three,  the 
sacrum  being  produced  to  support  the 
tail.  Compactness  and  strength  are  the 
cbaracteristics  of  the  genus,  and  the  mus- 
cular powers  of  the  tail  are  proverbial. 
The  food  of  the  dolphin  consists  of  fish, 
mollusca,  &c. ;  and  shoals  of  dolphins  are 
observed  to  hover  round  the  herring  and 
other  fisheries,  in  purauit  of  their  prey. 
When  one  of  a  shoal  is  struck,  the  rest 
are  observed  to  pursue  it  immediately, 
probably  for  the*  purpose  of  devouring  the 
"wounded  animal.  One  or  two  young  are 
produced  by  the  female,  who  suckles  and 
watches  them,  with  great  care  and  anxie- 
ty, long  after  tliey  have  acquired  consid- 
erable size.  It  is  stated  by  some  authors, 
that  they  cease  growing  at  ten  years  of 
age,  and  live  eighty  or  a  hundred  years.^- 
The  dolphin  respiring  by  lungs,  and  not 
in  the  manner  of  fishes,  it  is  compelled  to 
rise  to  the  surface,  at  short  intervals,  to 
breathe,  throwing  out  the  water  firom  the 
blow-hole,  or  aperture  on  the  head,  like  a 
ckmd  of  steam.  The  color  varies  in  dif- 
ferent individuals:  some  are  black,  olive 
or  gray,  and  others  mottled,  or  even  quite 
white.  The  inhabitants  of  ancient  By- 
zantium and  Thrace  pursued  a  regular 
fishery  of  the  dolphin,  destroying  them 


vrith  a  kind  of  trident  attached  to  a  long 
line.  Figures  of  this  animal  arc  found  on 
antique  coins,  and  very  good  repr^fscnta- 
tions  of  it  occur  on  the  Corintltian  medals. 

DoLPHi!!  of  navigators ;  a  fiali,  the  co^ 
ryplutna  hippuris  of  authors;  celebrated 
by  travellers  and  poets  in  their  marvellous 
recitals  of  its  changes  of  color  when  ex- 
piring. Such  changes  do  occur,  and  are 
curious,  but  by  no  means  so  much  so  as 
romantic  travellers  would  have  us  lielieve. 
The  cok)r  of  the  dolpliin  is  mlvery  white, 
spotted  witli  yellowish.  Body  eompress- 
ed,  elongate,  gradually  decreasing  from 
the  front  (which  is  very  obtuse^  to  the 
tail ;  dorsak  fin  extending  from  tlie  nape 
nearly  to  the  caudal ;  caudal  fin  large,  fur- 
cate ;  anal  nearly  reaching  the  base  of  ttie 
caudal;  pectorals  somewhat  falciform; 
length  usually  four  or  fiYe  feet,  though 
specimens  of  six  feet  in  length  are  occa- 
sionally taken.  Few  fish  are  more  agile, 
or  swun  with  greater  velocity.  They 
alKmnd  within  the  tropics,  and  are  found 
in  all  temperate  latitudes.  In  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  equator,  they  commit  great 
havoc  in  the  immense  shoaJs  of  flying  fish 
which  inlmbit  those  regions,  and  which 
constitute  tlie  principal  food  of  the  conf' 
phancu  It  is  remarkable  that,  in  swai* 
lowing  their  prey,  the  position  of  the  cap 
tured  fish  is  reversed,  and  it  peases  down 
the  throat  head  foremost :  by  thisraancBU- 
vre  the  fins  are  prevented  from  impeding 
its  passage.  The  fiesh  of  the  dolpliin  is 
coarse  and  dry,  but,  to  those  who  have 
subsisted  for  a  long  while  on  salted  pro- 
visions, is  very  acceptable.  At  certain 
times,  and  in  particular  localities,  the  flesh 
acquires  a  deleterious  quality,  which  has 
often  proved  fatal  to  persons  who  have 
eaten  of  it.  The  best  antidote  to  its  poi- 
sonous efiect  is  a  cofMous  emetic,  admin- 
istered as  soon  as  any  symptom  of  poison 
is  apparent.  The  dolphin  bites  freely  at 
a  hook  baited  with  apiece  of  salted  meat, 
or  better  with  a  flying  fish,  and,  from  its 
great  strength,  affords  fine  sport  to  the 
fisherman. 

Domain,  or  Demain,  or  Demesiie  (in 
French  domaine\  in  its  popular  sense,  de- 
notes the  lord's  manor-place,  with  the 
lands  thereto  belonging,  which  he  and 
his  ancestors  have  from  time  to  time  kept 
in  their  own  occupation.  In  Enf^land 
the  domains  of  the  crown  (terr<t  dmnxmcor 
leg  regis)  denote  either  the  share  reserved 
to  the  crown,  in  the  distribution  of  landed 
property  at  the  time  of  tlie  conquest,  or 
such  as  came  to  it  afterwards,  by.  forfeit* 
ures  or  other  means.  They  are,  at  pres- 
ent, contracted  within  a  very  narrow  comr 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


are 


DOMAIN--DOMENICHINO. 


pass,  having  been  almost  entirely  granted 
to  private  subjects;  and  though  this  was 
often  done  in  a  most  injudicious  manner, 
it  has  been  of  great  benefit  to  the  Eng- 
lish nation,  by  chminishing  the  power  of 
the  crown,  and  making  it  dependent  on 
the  grunts  of  parliament ;  whilst,  in  many 
other  coimtries,  the  weahh  of  the  crown 
has  rendered  it  independent,  and  strong 
enough  to  oppress  tlie  subjects,  and  un- 
4  dertake  wars  injurious  to  the  public  wel- 
fare. The  rents  and  profits  of  the  de- 
mesne lands  of  the  crown  constitute,  at 
present,  one  branch  of  tiic  king  of  Eng- 
land's ordinary  revenue.  (For  more  in- 
formation res|)ecting  the  history  of  crown 
lands  in  England,  see  the  aiticle  CM 
LisL) 

In  France,  there  are  several  different 
kinds  of  domains : — 1.  Domaine  de  Vitaty 
or  vublic  domains^,  comprising  highways, 
haroors,  rivers,  canals,  sea-coasts,  banks 
of  rivers,  fortifications,  &c.  (Code  No- 
poUony  a.  538— Ml),  to  which  the  estates 
of  tlie  emigrants  were  also  added  (CharU 
Const^  a.  91  2.  Domaine  or  dotation  de 
la  cottrotme  (Senattu  Cons,  of  January  30, 
1810,  and  law  of  Nov.  8,  1814).  To  tliis 
class  belong  the  palaces,  gardens,  forests, 
farms,  crown  jewels,  &0.,  of  the  sove- 
reign, which  are  all  inalienable,  and  not 
chargeable  witli  debts,  and  pass  thus  finom 
each  king  to  his  successor.  3*  Domaine 
prwi  consists  of  such  estates  as  the  king 
acquires  as  a  private  person,  and  over 
whicli  he  exercises  an  entire  control.  But 
whatever  portion  of  tliis  the  king  does 
not  dispose  of  by  testament  becomes,  at 
his  death,  a  \wn  of  the  pubUc  domains ; 
so,  also,  whatever  a  prince  possesses,  be- 
fore he  ascends  the  throne,  becomes  a 
port  of  the  public  domain  at  the  moment 
he  becomes  king,  and  his  debts,  at  the 
same  time,  become  charges  on  tlie  public 
treasury.  4.  Napoleon  had  also  a  cicmuBine 
extraorMnaire  (law  of  Jan.  30, 1810),  which 
consisted  of  his  acquisitions  by  conquests, 
and  were  kept  entirely  at  his  disposal: 
these  supplied  the  means  of  donations  to 
his  generals,  &c  The  domamt  extraordi- 
naire has  been  also  retained  by  tiie  Bour- 
bons (law  of  May  22, 1816).  The  admin- 
istration of  these  donations  was  conducted 
with  great  wisdom ;  and  Napoleon,  as  Las 
Cases  relates,  dwelt  with  pleasure  on  this 
branch  of  bis  government  (See  Dotor 
turns  of  Napoleon,)  There  also  existed, 
tbnnerly,  domains  which  were  inalienable 
in  the  ruling  family,  but  did  not  belong 
to  the  state ;  and  in  some  countries  there 
are  still  such.  The  question,  what  part 
of  the  domain  a  sovereign  may  alienate. 


what  are  public  domains,  and  what  the 
private  property  of  the  ruUng  family,  &&, 
IS  extremely  difficult  to  be  decided,  in 
states  in  which  tlie  origin  of  the  domains 
goes  back  to  periods  when  few  political 
subjects  were  distinctly  settled,  and  per 
ticularly  in  countries  in  which  there  is  no 
constitution  binding  the  sovereign,  and 
settling  the  distinction  between  tfaefw 
different  kinds  of  property.  Power  will 
generallv  decide,  instead  of  justice,  when- 
ever it  18  for  the  advantage  of  the  sove- 
reign, as  has  often  been  the  case  in  Ger- 
many. An  important  question  arose  in 
Germany,  m  regard  to  the  sale  of  die 
domains  in  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia, 
during  the  reign  of  Jerome.  Th*"  elector 
of  Hesse-Cassel  and  the  duke  of  Bnms- 
vrick,  having  resumed  possession  of  their 
countries,  which  had  bceti  included  in 
that  kingdom,  declared  the  sales  void, 
because,  as  thev  said,  thev  never  bad 
acknowledged  the  king  of*^  Westphalia. 
Prussia,  which  received  back  a  part  of  the 
teiritory  which  constituted  tlie  kingdom 
of  Westphalia,  acknowledged  the  validity 
of  the  sale,  because  it  had  recognised 
Jerome  Bonaparte  as  king.  Much  dis- 
cussion took  place  respecting  these  sales. 
Austria,  as  well  as  Prussia,  showed  a  dis- 
position to  favor  the  purchasers.  Tlie 
diet  of  the  Germanic  confederacy  showed 
its  weakness  on  this  occasion,  as  it  could 
effect  nothing  against  the  elector  and  the 
duke.  (Whoever  wishes  to  read  a  full 
account  of  these  transactions,  is  refeired 
to  the  article  Domairumjerkaufy  in  the 
German  Conversations-Lexikon.) 

For  the  public  lands  of  tlie  U.  States, 
see  tlie  article  United  States. 

DoMAT,  John ;  an  eminent  French  law- 
yer, who  was  bom  in  the  province  of 
Auvergne,  in  1625.  He  was  King's  advo- 
cate in  tlie  presidial  court  of  Clermont^ 
for  thirty  years.  He  died  at  Paris,  in 
169().  His  treatise,  entitled  Les  Loix 
cmleSj  dans  lew  Ordre  tuxftireZ,  was  pub- 
lished in  1694,  3  vols.  4to. ;  and  after  his 
death  appeared  three  volumes  more,  on 

Eublic  law,  &c.  An  improved  edition  of 
is  works  was  published  in  1777,  and 
there  is  an  English  translation  of  them, 
1720,  2  vols,  folio. 

Dome.  (See  ArcUtectvarey  vol.  i.  page 
336,  right  column ;  also  the  article  Cupola,] 
DoMEiviCHiNO ;  die  name,  among  artists, 
of  Domenico  Zampiert,  a  painter  of  ffreat 
eminence,  of  the  Lombard  school,  liom 
at  Bologna,  in  1581.  He  vras  sent  to  stiidv 
first  with  Calvart,  and  afterwards  with 
the  Carracci.  From  the  slowness  of  his 
porformnnce,  he  was  named,  by  his  fellow- 


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DOMENICHINO— ST.  DOMINIC  DE  GUZMAN. 


277 


Htudent^  the  oz  of  pmntmg ;  but  Aiuiibal 
Carracci  predicted  that  the  ox  would 
•*  plough  a  fruitful  field."  Having  con- 
tracted a  great  firiendship  for  Albano,  he 
joined  him  at  Rome,  ana  his  former  mas- 
tf}r,  Annibal  Carracci,  jealous  of  Guido, 
procured  for  him  the  execution  of  one  of 
the  pictures  for  a  Roman  church,  which 
had  been  promised  to  that  great  painter. 
It  was  a  custom  with  Domenichino  to  as- 
sume, for  a  time,  the  passion  he  was 
depicturing;  so  that,  while  working  by 
himself,  he  was  often  heard  to  laugh, 
weep  and  talk  aloud,  in  a  manner  that 
would  have  induced  a  stranger  to  suppose 
bim  a  lunatic.  The  effect  was,  however, 
such,  tliat  few  painters  have  surpassed 
him  in  lively  representation.  His  Com- 
munion of  St.  Jerome  has  been  considered, 
bv  some  connoisseurs,  inferior  only  to  the 
Transfiguration  of  Raphael ;  and  the  His- 
tory of  A|K>llo,  which  he  painted  in  ten 
frescoes,  for  cardinal  Aldobrandini,  is  also 
much  admired.  Although  a  modest  and 
inofjensive  man,  his  merit  excite^l  so 
much  envy,  tliat  he  retired  to  his  native 
city,  where  he  married,  and  employed 
himself  two  years  on  his  famous  picture 
of  the  Rosaiy.  He  was  afterwards  re- 
called to  Rome,  by  Gregory  XV,  who 
created  him  his  first  painter,  and  architect 
of  the  Vatican.  Losing  this  post  afier 
the  pope's  death,  he  accepted  an  invita- 
tion to  Naples,  to  paint  the  chapel  of  St 
Januarius.  But  here  he  encountered  a 
jealousy  so  rancorous,  that  his  life  became 
altogether  imbittered  by  it ;  and  so  great 
was  his  dread  of  poison,  that  he  prepared 
all  his  eatables  with  his  own  hand.  He 
died  in  1641,  at  the  age  of  sixty.  Dome- 
nichino, who  understood  every  branch  of 
his  art,  produced  nothing  excellent  with' 
out  study  and  labor ;  but,  in  consequence 
of  his  great  premeditation,  no  painter  has 

S'ven  his  pieces  more  of  the  properties  be- 
nging  to  the  subject  At  the  same  time, 
his  designs  are  correct ;  and  he  succeeded 
equally  in  the  grand  and  the  tender.  Near- 
ly fifty  of  his  pieces  have  been  engraved. 

DoMESDAT  or  Doomsday  Book,  a  very 
ancient  record,  made  in  the  time  of  Wil- 
liam the  Conqueror,  which  now  remains 
in  the  exchequer,  and  consists  of  two 
Yolunr^^;  the  greater  contains  a  survey 
of  all  the  lands  in  most  of  the  counties  in 
England,  and  the  lees  comprehends  some 
counties  that  were  not  at  first  surveyed. 
The  Book  of  Domesday  was  begun  by 
^ve  justices,  assigned  for  that  purpose,  in 
each  county,  in  the  year  1081,  and  fin- 
ished in  1086.  It  was  of  such  authori^, 
that  the  Conqueror  himself  submitted,  m 

voi*  IV.  d4 


some  cases  wherein  he  was  concerned,  to 
be  governed  bv  it  Camden  calls  this 
book  the  J\zX'Book  of  king  William ;  and 
it  was  further  called  Magna  RoUa.  There 
is  likewise  a  tliird  Book  of  Domesday, 
made  by  command  of  tlie  Conqueror;  and 
also  a  fourth,  being  an  abridgment  of  the 
other  books. 

DoMiciL.  The  dwelling  had  peeuliar 
privileges  among  the  Romans ;  it  was  re- 
garded as  inviolable;  for  example,  no 
debtor  could  be  arrested  in  his  domicil ; 
no  ofiScer  of  the  police  or  court  could 
pass  the  threshold  of  a  private  house,  to 
arrest  even  a  person  who  did  not  dwell 
there*  These  rights  and  privileges  still 
belong  to  the  dwelUng-house  in  England, 
the  Netherlands  and  the  U.  States  of 
America.  The  name  drntdal  implies,  in 
general,  a  place  of  residence ;  ui  a  nar- 
rower sense,  the  place  where  one  Uvea, 
in  opposition  to  that  where  he  only  re- 
mains for  a  time.   (See  Appendix,) 

Domingo,  St    (See  Hayii,) 

Dominic  db  Guzman,  St,  founder  of 
the  Dominican  order,  bom  in  1170,  at 
Calahorra,  in  Old  Castile,  applied  himself 
in  his  early  ^eais,  with  zeal  and  ability,  to 
the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  was  made 
canon  and  archdeacon  at  Osma,  in  Cas- 
tile, and  was  employed  with  others  by 
pope  Innocent  III,  to  discover,  confute, 
and  punish  heretics,  especially  the  Albi- 
genses  in  France.  This  was  the  oriffln  of 
Si'e  court  of  the  inquisition,  and  St  Dom- 
inic is  considered  as  the  first  inquisitor- 
general.  As  he  prescribed  to  the  membem 
of  his  order  a  certain  number  of  Pater 
Nosters  and  Ave-Marias  daily,  he  is  sup- 
posed to  have  introduced  the  rosary.  lie 
died  At  Bologna,  in  1221,  and  in  li»3  was 
canonized  by  Gregory  IX.  In  the  exami- 
nation, previous  to  the  canonization,  it  was 
proved  that  he  had  converted  more  than 
100,000  souls  to  the  true  faith.  An  inter- 
esting comparison  might  be  made  between 
St  Dominicus  and  St  Franciscus,  cer- 
tainly two  of  the  most  powerful  minds 
among  the  saints.  St  Franciscus  lalmred 
all  his  life  to  relieve  the  poor  and  })erse- 
cuted,  to  propagate  the  gospel  among  the 
lower  classes,  who,  in  those  convulsed 
periods,  were  almost  entirely  excluded,  in 
most  countries,  from  education  and  in- 
struction in  Christianity ;  whilst  St  Do- 
minicus strove  to  spread  Christianity  by 
persecution.  The  character  of  the  two 
founders  is  deeply  im()rinted  on  the  two 
orders — ^the  humble  Franciscans  and  the 
zealous  Dominicans.  Dante  speaks  of 
these  two  saints,  in  one  of  tlie  most  beau- 
tiful passages  in  his  Panulise. 


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m 


DOMINICA— DCMIIINKIANS. 


Dohinioa;  oim  of  the  Caiibbee  idaads 
in  tlie  West  Indies,  belonging  to  Great 
Britain ;  situated  between  Guadaloiipe 
and  Mardnieo ;  about  29  miles  in  length, 
and  16  in  breadth,  containing  186,436  acres 
of  land.  Colqulioun  estimated  the  pop- 
ulation, in  1813,  at  96,500.  An  article  on 
the  state  of  the  English  colonies,  in  the 
Edinburgh  Review,  gives  it,  in  1823^  as 
only  16,^4.  This  same  article  gives  the 
iinporfeB  from  diis  island  into  Great  Brit- 
ain, in  1833,  at  39,013  quintals  of  sugar, 
17,136  quintals  of  coSee,  and  14,310  nd- 
lons  of  rum.  It  was  discovered  by  Co- 
lumbus, Nov.  3, 1493,  on  Sunday — whence 
its  name.  It  contains  many  high  and 
lugged  mountains,  among  which  are  vol- 
canoes, that  frequently  discharge  erup- 
tions. From  some  of  these  mountains 
issue  springs  of  hot  ^ter,  whose  medi- 
cinal virtues  are  much  conunended.  Do- 
minica is  well  watered,  there  being  up- 
wards of  30  rivers  in  the  island,  besides  a 
great  number  of  rivulets.  The  soil,  in 
most  of  the  interior  cotmtry,  is  a  light, 
brown*colored  mould,  and  appears  to 
have  been  washed  from  the  mountains. 
Towards  the  sea-coast,  and  in  many  of 
the  valleys,  it  is  a  deep,  black,  and  rich 
native  earth,  which  seems  well  adapted 
to  the  cultivation  of  all  the  articles  of 
West  Indian  produce.  The  principal 
towns  are  Portsmouth  and  Roseau  or 
Chariotte's  Tovra.  Lon.  61°  23^  W. ;  lat 
15°  32'  N. 

Dominical  Lbtter,  in  chronology; 
properly  called  Sundau  Idtar;  one  of  the 
seven  letters  of  the  alphabet,  A  B  C  D 
E  F  G,  used  in  almanacs,  ephemerides, 
d&c,  to  designate  the  Sundays  throughout 
the  year.  In  our  almanacs,  the  first  seven 
letters  of  the  alphabet  are  commonly 
placed  to  show  on  what  days  of  the  week 
the  days  of  the  month  fall  throughout  the 
year.  And  because  one  of  those  seven 
letterB  must  necessarily  stand  against  Sun- 
day, it  is  printed  in  a  capital  form,  and 
ealled  the  domMMol  kUtr;  the  other  six 
being  inserted  in  different  characters,  to 
denote  the  other  six  days  of  the  week. 
Now,  since  a  common  Julian  year  con* 
tains  365  days,  if  this  number  be  divided 
by  7  (the  number  of  days  in  a  weekl  there 
will  remain  one  day.  If  there  had  been 
DO  remainder,  it  is  obvious  the  year  would 
eonstantly  be^n  on  the  same  day  <^  the 
week ;  but,  smce  one  remains,  it  is  plain 
that  the  year  inusc  be^  and  end  on  the 
same  day  of  the  week ;  and  therefore  the 
next  year  will  begui  on  the  day  following. 
Hence,  when  January  begins  on  Sunday, 
A  is  the  dominical  or  Sunday  letter  for 


that  year:  then,  because  the  next  year 
begins  on  Monday,  the  Sunday  will'  fidl 
on  the  seventh  day,  to  which  is  annexed 
the  seventh  letter,  G,  which,  therefore, 
vrill  be  the  dominical  letter  for  all  that 
year:  and,  as  the  third  year  will  begin  on 
Tuesday,  the  Sunday  will  fall  on  the  sixth 
flay ;  therefore  F  will  be  the  Sunday  let- 
ter for  that  year.  Whence  it  is  evident, 
that  the  Sunday  letters  will  go  annually 
in  retrograde  order,  thus,  G,  F,  £,  D,  C, 
B,  A  ;  and,  in  the  course  of  seven  years, 
if  they  were  all  common  ones,  the  same 
days  of  the  week  and  dominical  letten 
would  reuim  to  &e  same  days  of  the 
months.  But,  because  there  are  366  days 
in  a  leap-year,  if  the  number  be  divided 
by  7,  there  will  remain  two  days  over  and 
anove  the  52  weeks,  of  which  the  year 
consists.  And,  therefore,  if  the  leap-year 
begins  on  Sunday,  it  will  end  on  Monday ; 
and,  as  the  year  will  begin  on  Tuesday, 
the  first  Sunday  thereof  must  &11  on  tfie 
6th  of  January,  to  which  is  annexed  the 
letlpr  F,  and  not  G,  as  in  common  years. 
By  this  means,  the  leap-year  returning 
every  fourth  year,  the  order  of  the  domin- 
ical letters  is  interrupted,  and  the  series 
cannot  return  to  its  first  state  till  afler  four 
times  seven,  or  38  years;  and  then  the 
same  days  of  the  months  return  in  order, 
to  the  same  days  of  the  week  as  before. 
The  dominical  letter  may  be  found  uni- 
versally, for  any  year  of  any  century,  thus : 
Divide  the  centuries  by  4,  and  take  twice 
what  remains  from  6;  then  add  the  re- 
mainder to  the  odd  years,  above  the  even 
centuries,  and  their  4th.  Divide  their 
sum  by  7,  and  the  remainder  taken  from 
7  will  leave  the  number  answering  to  the 
letter  required.  Thus,  for  the  year  1878^ 
the  letter  is  F.  For  the  centuries,  18,  di- 
vided by  4,  leave  2;  the  double  of  whicb« 
taken  from  6,  leaves  3  affain ;  to  which 
add  the  odd  years,  78,  and  then*  4th  part, 
19,  the  sum,  99,  divided  by  7,  leaves  1, 
which,  taken  fiom  7,  leaves  6,  answering 
to  F,  the  sixth  letter  in  the  alphabet 
(See  CycUy  and  CaUndar,) 

Dominicans,  called  also  prtdiamit  or 
preaching  frian  (proBc&otoru),  derived 
their  name  from  their  founder,  Dominic. 
At  their  origin  (1215,  at  Toulouse),  they 
were  governed  by  the  rule  of  St  Augus- 
tine ;  and  the  principal  object  of  their  in- 
stitution was  to  preach  against  heretic& 
They  retained  these  rules  and  regulations 
after  they  had  adopted  a  white  habit,  sim- 
ilar to  that  of  the  Carthusians,  and  the 
character  of  monks,  in  1219.  They  were 
called  JaeMnB  in  France,  because  tbnr 
first  convent  at  Paris  was  m  the  rue  St 


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DOMINICANS-DOHINa 


379 


Jaques.  The  Domuiican  nuns  were  e»- 
tabliabed,  in  1206,  by  St.  DominiG,  and 
increased  in  niimben  after  1218,  when  he 
founded  a  nunnery  in  Rome.  They  fol- 
low the  same  rules;  they  are  required^ 
also,  to  labor,  which  is  not  expected  of 
the  fiiars,  on  account  of  their  higher  du* 
ties.  A  third  establishment  of  St.  Dom- 
inic was  the  niilitaiy  order  of  Christ, 
originally  composed  of  knights  and  no- 
blemen, whose  duty  it  was  to  wo^  war 
against  heretics.  After  the  death  of  tlie 
founder,  this  became  the  order  of  the 
penitence  of  St  Dominic,  for  both  sexes, 
and  constituted  the  third  order  of  Domin- 
icans. These  Tertiarians,witlioutmakinff 
any  solemn  vows,  eigoy  great  spiritual 
privileges,  for  the  observance  of  a  few 
fiists  and  prayers;  they  continue,  also, 
in  the  enioyment  of  their  civil  and  domes- 
tic relations.  Some  few  companies  of 
Dominican  sisters  of  tlie  third  order,  par- 
ticularly in  Italy,  united  in  a  monastic 
life,  and  became  regular  nuns;  the  moat 
celebnUed  of  whom  is  St.  Catharine  of 
Sienna.  That  they  might  devote  them- 
selves with  success  to  the  promulgation 
and  estabhshment  of  the  Cadiolic  faith, 
which  was,  in  fact,  the  object  of  their 
inatitudon,  and  the  fiist  proof  of  their  zeal 
lor  which  they  gave  in  the  extirpation  of 
the  Aibigenses,  the  Dominicans  received, 
in  1272,  the  privileges  of  a  mendicant  or- 
der, which  contributed  (preatly  to  their 
rapid  increase.  They  filled  not  only 
Europe,  but  the  coasts  of  Asia,  Africa 
and  America,  with  their  monasteries  and 
missionaries.  Their  strictly  monarchical 
constitution,  which  connected  all  the  prov- 
inces and  congregations  of  their  order 
under  one  general,  secured  their  perma- 
nent existence,  and  a  imity  in  their  suc- 
cessful effi>rts  to  obtain  influence  in 
church  and  state.  They  made  themselves 
useful  by  preaching,  which  was  much 
neg^cted  at  the  period  of  tlieir  establish- 
ment, and  by  their  missions;  respectable 
and  serviceable  to  the  church  by  the  dis- 
tinguished  scholars  they  produced,  such 
as  Albertus  Magnus  aud  Thomas  Aqui- 
nas ;  and  formidable  as  managers  of  the 
inquisition,  which  was  committed  exclu- 
sively to  them,  m  Spain,  Portugal  and 
Italy.  After  they  had  obtained  pennission 
to  receive  donations,  in  1425,  notwith- 
standing their  original  vow  of  absolute 
poverty,  they  ceased  to  belong  to  the 
mendicants,  and,  in  the  enjoyment  of  rich 
benefices,  superior  to  other  orders,  they 
paid  more  attention  to  politics  and  theo- 
kigical  science.  They  gave  to  kings 
fa^er-confesBors,  to  universities  instruct- 


ers,  and  to  the  pious  h)8Bries ;  and  for  all 
they  were  richly  rewarded.  From  their 
establishment  they  found  dangerous  rivals 
in  the  Franciscans  (q.  v.),  and  engaged  in 
contests  with  them,  the  heat  and  bitter- 
ness of  which  have  been  perpetuated  by 
the  hostilities  of  the  Thomists  and  Scot- 
isis  (see  Ihm»^  and  Schoclmtn)^  and  have 
continued  even  to  modem  times.  These 
two  orders  divided  the  honor  of  nding  in 
church  and  state  till  the  16th  centuiy, 
when  the  Jesuits  gradually  superseded 
them  in  the  schools  and  courts,  and  they 
fell  back  again  to  their  original  destina- 
tion. They  obtained  new  importance  by 
the  censorship  of  books,  which  was  com- 
mitted, in  16SN),  to  the  master  of  the  sacred 
palace  at  Rome,  who  is  always  a  Domin- 
ican. What  the  reformation  took  from 
them  in  Europe,  the  activity  of  their  mis- 
sions in  America  and  the  East  Indies 
restored.  In  the  18th  century,  the  order 
comprised  more  than  1000  monasteries, 
diviaed  into  45  provinces  and  12  congre- 
gations. To  the  latter  belonged  the  nuns 
of  die  holy  sacrament,  in  MarseiUea,  es- 
tabUshed  by  Le  Quien,  in  1636,  under 
the  strictest  rules.  They  dress  in  black, 
with  white  manUes  and  veils,  while  the 
Dominican  nuns  wear  white,  with*  black 
mantles  and  veils.  The  Dominican  order 
is  now  flourishing  only  in  Spain,  Portugal, 
Sicily  and  America :  they  have  hopes  of 
a  revival  in  Italy.  The  good  Las  Casas 
(q.  V.)  belonged  to  this  order. 

DoMiNiquB  LE  PtaB,  harlequin  of  the 
Italian  theatre  (properiy,  Qiua,  Dommico 
BianeoUUi),  born  at  Bologna,  in  1640, 
was  invited,  in  1660,  to  Paris,  by  cardinal 
Mazarin,  where  he  played  the  hariequin 
with  die  greatest  applause,  till  his  death, 
in  1688.  The  French  comedians  wished 
to  prevent  the  Italians  from  bringing 
French  pieces  on  their  stage,  and  Louis 
XIV  gave  both  parties  an  audience. 
Baron  and  Dominique  were  ordered  to 
appear  as  their  deputies.  The  former 
having  spoken,  in  the  name  of  the  FrencJi, 
it  was  Dominique's  turn  to  plead  his 
cause;  and  he  asked  the  king  how  he 
shoukl  speak.  **  Speak  as  you  please," 
answered  the  kins.  **  That  is  all  I  want," 
rejoined  the  hartecntin;  **I  have  won." 
The  king  received  this  siodly  with  a  laugh, 
and  from  that  time  the  Italian  theatre 
represented  French  pieces  without  oppo- 
sition. 

DoHiifo;  formerly  a  dress  worn  by 
priests,  in  die  winter,  which,  reaching  no 
lower  than  the  shoulders,  served  to  pro- 
tect the  face  and  head  fl^m  the  weather. 
At  present,  it  is  a  masquerade  dress,  worn 


Digitized  by 


Lioogle 


280 


DOMINO— DONATISTS. 


by  gentlemen  and  ladies,  consisting  of  a 
long  silk  mantle,  with  a  cap  and  wide 
sleeves. 

DoMiTiAN,  Titus  Flavins  Sabinus,  son 
of  VeRpasian,  and  brother  of  Titus,  bom 
A.  D.  51,  made  himself  odious,  even  in 
youth,  by  his  indolence  and  voluptuous- 
ness, by  his  cruel,  malignant  and  suspi- 
cious temper,  and  Rome  trembled  when, 
on  his  brother*^  death,  he  obtained  the 
diadem  (A.  D.  81).  At  first,  indeed, 
he  deceived  the  people  by  acts  of  kind- 
ness, good  lavra  and  a  show  of  justice,  so 
that  their  fears  vanished;  but  he  soon 
returned  to  his  former  excesses  and  cruel- 
ty. He  first  caused  his  kinsman,  Flavins 
Sahinns,  to  be  put  to  death,  though  en- 
tipily  innocent  No  less  vain  than  cruel, 
while  his  general,  Agricola,  wbs  victorious 
nver  the  Caledonians,  in  Britain,  he  made 
a  ridiculous-  expedition  against  the  Catti, 
returned  speedilv  to  Rome,  without  having 
efiected  any  thmg,  and  carried  a  multi- 
tude of  slaves,  dressed  like  Germans,  in 
triumph  to  the  city.  Agricola's  victories 
exciting  his  jealousy,  he  recalled  that 
peneral  to  Rome,  and  kept  him  in  total 
mactivity.  At  the  same  time,  he  spread 
terror  through  Rome  by  the  execution  of 
a  great  number  of  the  first  citizens.    He 

SLve  himself  up  to  every  excess,  and  to 
e  meanest  avarice.  He  at  last  conceived 
the  mad  idea  of  arrogating  divine  honori 
to  himself,  assumed  the  titles  of  Lord  and 
God,  and  claimed  to  be  a  son  of  Minerva. 
His  principal  amusement  consisted  in  the 
shows  of  the  circus.  In  the  year  86, 
the  bloody  war  with  the  Dacians  began, 
which  was  carried  on  with  various  suc- 
cess, and  terminated  (A.  D.  90)  by  a 
peace  bought  by  the  promise  of  paying 
a  certain  tribute.  Notwithstanding  this, 
Domitian  celebrated  a  grand  triumph  on 
the  occasion.  The  misery  of  the  people 
was,  meanwhile,  continually  increasing; 
and,  after  the  revival  of  the  law  against 
high  treason,  no  one  was  secure  of  his 
property  or  his  hfe.  The  tyrant  once 
made  a  feast,  on  purpose  to  terrify  the 
senators  and  knights.  They  were  assem- 
bled in  a  dark  hall,  in  which  were  coffins, 
with  the  names  of  the  individuals  invited 
inscribed  upon  them ;  suddenly  the  doors 
opened,  and  a  troop  of  naked  men,  paint- 
ed black,  with  drawn  swords  and  blazing 
torches,  rushed  in,  and  danced  about  the 
guests,  until  the  emperor  had  sufficiently 
enjoyed  their  terror,  when  he  dismissed 
tlie  supposed  executioners.  The  fears  of 
the  tyrant  increased  his  cruelty.  A  paper 
fell  into  the  hands  of  his  wife,  the  inta- 
mous  Domitia,  in  which  she  found  her 


own  name,  and  those  of  the  two  com- 
manden  of  tlie  pretorian  guards,  noted 
down  by  the  emperor,  with  many  others, 
to  be  sacrificed.  This  discoveiy  induced 
her  to  conspire  against  him,  and  to  mur- 
der him  in  his  chamber,  A.  D.  96.  He 
had  reigned  15  years,  and  was  45  years 
old.  Domitian  built  the  most  magniiiceut 
temple  in  Rome. 

DoH&EHT  LA  PucELLE ;  the  birth-placo 
of  Joan  of  Arc  (q.  v.) ;  a  small  village  in 
the  department  of  the  Vosges,  in  France, 
not  far  fiom  Vaucouleurs,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Meuse,  in  a  fruitful  region. 
The  house  is  still  shown  here  in  which 
the  heroine  was  bom.  In  the  neighbor- 
hood is  the  monument  erected  to  her 
memory  by  the  prefect  of  the  department 
of  the  Vosges,  with  her  marble  bust, 
which  was  solemnly  consecrated,  SepL 
10,  1820.  A  &ee  school  is  established 
there,  for  the  instruction  of  girls.  (See 
the  description,  in  the  HisL  oSbrigie  de  la 
Vie  et  des  Exploits  de  Jeanne  d'Arc^  par 
JoUois  (with  engravings,  1821,  folio). 

Don,  the  T^cmais  of  the  ancients,  a  river 
of  European  Russia,  rising  in  the  small 
lake  of  Ivan  Ozero,  in  the  government  of 
Toula,  has  a  course  of  about  880  miles^ 
generally  finom  north  to  south,  itasses 
Azoph,^and  falls  into  the  sea,  two  leagues 
below  this  place.  Many  larse  rivers 
empty  into  the  Don,  and  its  valley  is  one 
of  the  most  extensive  tn  Europe.  A 
canal,  dug  by  Peter  the  Great,  in  1707, 
connects  the  Volga  and  the  Don,  by  the 
help  of  intermediate  rivers.  It  is  intended 
to  dig  another  canal  between  the  Don  and 
Volga,  which,  in  the  49th  parallel  of  lat- 
itude, are  distant  from  each  otlier  33 
leagues  only ;  and  thus  a  communieatiou 
would  be  easy  between  the  sea  of  Azoph 
and  the  Caspian.  (For  information  re- 
specting the  Cossacks  of  the  Don,  see  the 
article  Cossacks,) 

Doif  (Spanish,  from  the  Latin  daminus). 
In  Naples,  however,  the  Spanish  fashion 
of  giving  every  gentleman  the  title  of 
don  became  common  during  die  dme 
when  that  country  was  under  the  govern- 
ment of  Spain.  In  the  north  of  Italy,  it  is 
given  only  to  ecclesiastics. 

DoNATisTs ;  the  followers  of  Donatus, 
a  Numidian  bishop,  who,  with  his  friends, 
refusing,  in  311,  in  a  contested  election 
of  a  bishop,  to  recognise  the  Traditors 
(i.  e.  tiie  ecclesiastics  who  had  given  up 
the  sacred  liooks  to  the  heathen  magis- 
trates, during  the  periods  of  persecution) 
as  eligible  to  office  in  the  church,  quitted 
the  Roman  church,  with  his  friends,  and 
founded  a  peculiar  sect,  which  refused  to 


Digitized  by 


Lioogle 


DONATISTS-DOPPELBLITR. 


961 


veoeive  Christians  of  other  sects^  witbout 
a  second  baptism.  These  schismatics 
prevailed  in  the  Christian  provinces  of 
northern  Africa,  and,  in  330,  numbered 
172  bishops  of  their  persaaaion.  Their 
strictness  was  increased  by  the  adoption 
q£  the  Novatian  principle  of  excommuni- 
cating apostates,  or  gross  offenders,  and 
decku-ing  the  roost  perfect  blamelessness 
of  life  and  doctrine  essential  to  the  mem- 
bers of  the  true  church — a  principle  after- 
WBsds  adopted  by  the  Cathofics.  The 
Donatists  made  themselves  formidaUe, 
ivhen  swarms  of  fanatical  peasants,  in- 
flamed by  their  doctrines,  in  348,  under 
the  name  of  CtretanceUioneSj  attacked  the 
Imperial  army,  sent  to  convert  them  by 
foroe,  and,  in  Mauritania  and  Numidia, 
lor  13  years  after,  desolated  the  land  with 
pillage  and  murder.  Martyrdom  was 
ea^riy  sought  by  them,  and  thev  volun- 
tanly  gave  &eniselves  up  to  the  Cfatholics, 
to  be  executed.  This  sect,  which  flour- 
ished in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries, 
vras  finally  extinguished  when  the  coun- 
tiy  was  conquered  by  the  8aracens. 

DoNATUs,  ^lius ;  a  Roman  gramma- 
rian and  commentator  (e.  g.,  on  Terence), 
who  lived  in  the  4th  century.  He  wrote 
ma  elementary  work  on  the  Latin  language 
{De  odo  Parubut  Oratiomu),  which  served 
as  a  guide  to  the  learning  of  Latin  in  the 
midme  ages,  it  was  not  till  a  recent  pe- 
riod that  it  was  superseded  by  more  judi- 
cious gramman.  It  was  one  of  the  first 
books  printed  by  Gkittenbei^. 

DoNAiT.    (See  Danube,) 

Don  oratuit  ;  a  free  gift,  bestowed  by 
die  si^jeet  on  the  sovereign,  in  extraordi- 
nary cases,  especially  m  countries  where 
the  prince  can  levy  no  new  tax  without 
the  consent  of  the  estates.  For  example, 
the  ancient  French  provmces,  in  which  the 
representation  of  the  estates  existed,  viz.. 
Burgundy,  Ptovence,  Languedoc,  Britta- 
ny, Artois,  and  the  kingdom  of  Navarre, 
mptad  the  king  a  tax  as  a  don  gnXhtiL 
This  used  to  be  the  case,  formerly,  in  the 
Aostiian  Netherlands,  and  in  the  German 
ecdeoastical  principalities  having  sinular 
representative  governments. 

l>oirjON,  in  fortification,  signifies  a  strong 
tower  or  redoubt,  in  old  fortresses,  vvhidier 
the  garrison  could  retreat  in  case  of  neoesr 

DoHNB,  John,  D.  D.,  a  celebrated  poet 
and  divine,  was  the  son  of  a  merchant  of 
London,  in  which  city  he  was  bom  in 
157a  He  studied  both  at  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  and  was  then  entered  at  Lin- 
oofai's  IniL  His  parents  were  Catholics} 
but,  in  his  19lh  year,  he  abjured  the  Cath- 
24* 


olic  refigioii,  and  bebarae  secretary  to  the 
lord  chancellor  EUesmere.  He  continued 
in  that  ci^Mcity  five  years ;  but  finally  lost 
his  office  by  a  clandestine  marriage  with 
his  patron's  niece.  The  young  couple 
were,  in  consequence,  reduced  to  great 
distress.  At  length,  his  ftither-in-law  re- 
lented so  fiir  as  to  give  his  daughter  a 
moderate  portion ;  and  they  were  lodged 
in  the  house  of  sir  Robert  Dnuy,  in  Lon- 
don, whom  Dorme  accompanied  in  his 
embassy  to  Paris.  On  his  return,  he  com- 
plied with  James's  wish,  bv  taking  orders, 
and  was  soon  after  naade  one  of  his 
chaplaius.  He  immediately  received  four- 
teen offers  of  benefices  from  persons  of 
rank,  but  preferred  settling  in  London, 
and  was  made  preacher  of  Lincoln's  Inn. 
In  1619,  he  accompanied  the  earl  of  Don- 
easter  in  his  emDassy  to  the  German 
princes.  He  was  chosen  prolocutor  to 
the  convocation  in  1623 — 4 ;  and,  in  con- 
sequence of  a  dangerous  illness,  soon  afler 
wrote  a  religious  work,  entided  Devotions 
upon  emergent  Occasions.  He  died  in 
Mareh,  1631,  and  vnis  imenred  in  St  Paul's. 
As  a  poet,  and  the  precursor  of  Cowley» 
Donne  may  be  deemed  the  founder  of 
what  doctor  Johnson  calls  tbemeUqfh^dad 
chas  of  poets  :  abounding  in  thought,  this 
school  generally  neglected  versmcation, 
and  that  of  doctor  Donne  wsb  peculiariy 
harsh  and  unmusical.  He  wrote  Latin 
verse  with  much  elegance,  of  which  a  col- 
lection was  published  in  1633w  Of  his 
prose  works,  one  of  the  most  remaikable  is 
that  entitled  Biathantdos,  to  prove  that 
suicide  is  not  necessarily  sinful,  which  he 
never  publidied  himself,  but  which  found 
its  way  to  the  press  after  his  death.  His 
sQde  is  quaint  and  pedantic ;  but  he  dis- 
plays sound  learning,  deep  thinking,  and 
originality  of  marmer.  Besides  the  works 
alr^y  mentioned,  he  wrote  the  Pseudo 
Martyr  (4to^  1610),  Letters,  Sermons,  Es- 
says on  Diviiuty,  and  other  piece& 

DoNN£K,  George  Raphael ;  a  sculptor^ 
bom  in  Lower  Austria,  1660.  He  was,  at 
first,  a  goldsmith.  He  received  his  ear- 
best  instructions  in  art  from  John  Giuliani, 
a  sculptor  of  the  neighborhood,  and,  from 
1726,  devoted  himself  ^tirely  to  sculp- 
ture. Dormer's  works,  in  many  Austrian 
ehurches  and  palaces,  are  masterpieces. 
The  beautiful  statues,  which  form  one  of 
the  finest  ornaments  of  the  fountain  in  the 
new  market-place  at  Vienna,  and  the  statue 
of  Charles  VI,  at  Breitenfurt,  are  particu- 
larly admired.  He  died  at  Vienna,  FeK 
16, 1741. 
Don  Qitixots.  (See  Cervanka.) 
DoFPELBiATR,  Johu  Gabriel ;  a  mathe- 

Digitized  by  LjOOQ IC 


983 


DOPPELMAYIU-DORIG. 


matician,  bom  in  1671,  at  Nuremberg. 
He  travelled  through  Holland  and  Eng- 
land, and  received  a  madiematical  profes- 
sorship at  Nuremberg,  which  he  held  46 
years.  He  published  mathemadcal,  geo- 
graphical and  astronomical  works,  among 
which  liis  celestial  atlas  has  spread  his 
name  the  farthest  (AtUu  ccdestiSf  with 
30  astronomical  tables,  Nuremberg,  1743, 
folio).  He  gained  the  esteem  of  Leibnitz, 
was  received  into  several  learned  societies, 
and  died  in  1759 ;  or,  according  to  some 
accounts,  in  1750.  In  Wiirs  Nurembei^g 
Literary  Lexicon,  there  is  a  catalogue  of  his 
works  on  dialling,  experimental  physics, 
astronomy,  &c.  Dopriehiiayr's  Account 
of  the  Nuremberg  Mathematicians  and 
Artists  (Nuremberg,  1730,  folio),  is  an  im- 
portant work  in  respect  to  literary  history. 
It  contains  interesting  notices  of  the  geo- 
graphical discoveries  of  Martin  Behaim. 
(See  Behaim,) 

DoRAT,  Claude  Joseph ;  a  poet,  bom  in 
1734,  at  Paris.  He  renounced  the  study 
of  law,  and  afterwards  the  military  ser- 
vice, into  which  he  had  entered  as  a  mus- 
keteer, ai\d  devoted  himself  entirely  to 
poetiy.  Among  his  earlier  works  are  his 
tragedies  and  heroides.  Though  the  lat- 
ter were  received  with  much  applause,  he 
was  little  fitted  for  this  sort  of  poetry. 
His  dramatical  works  were  unsuccessful. 
He  has  succeeded  better  in  songs,  tales 
and  poetical  episdes,  and  in  these  depart- 
ments he  is  still  in  high  estimation.  Ow- 
ing to  his  vanity  in  causing  his  works  to 
be  published  with  the  greatest  splendor, 
be  wasted  a  considerable  part  of  his 
property.  He  died  at  Paris,  April  24, 
1780.  His  works  appeared  at  Paris  com- 
plete in  20  vols,  ilis  (Euvres  choisies 
were  pubhshed  in  1786,  3  vols.,  12mo. 
For  several  years  he  was  editor  of  the 
Jounud  dea  Dames, 

DoREE.    (See  Dmy,) 

DoRF ;  a  very  conmion  syllable  at  the 
end  of  German  names,  signifying  viUagt ; 
as,  AUdorfy  Dusseldorf. 

Doria;  one  of  the  oldest  and  most 
powerfid  fiimilies  of  Genoa.  The  annals 
of  diis  republic  do  not  recu;h  further  back 
than  the  year  1100;  but,  even  at  this 
period,  we  find  the  Doria  family  in  the 
highest  offices  of  the  state.  Four  of  them 
were  distinguished  admirals  before  the 
14th  century.  The  most  celebrated  of  the 
whole  family  was  Andrew  Doria,  bom  at 
Oneglia,  in  1468.  He  gained  renovm 
when  but  a  youth,  by  his  heroic  conduct 
against  the  pirates  and  Corsicans,  and,  in 
1524,  was  made  admiral  of  the  French 
galleys  by  Francis  L    Receiving  some 


ofience  from  the  French,  he  went  over  to 
the  Spanish-Austrian  party,  and  therebv 
prevented  the  progress  of  the  French 
arms  in  Italy.  This  great  naval  hero  was 
the  deliverer  of  his  country.  Since  1339, 
Genoa  had  been  governed  by  a  chief  mag- 
istrate, called  the  doge^  whose  office  last^ 
for  life ;  but  die  constimtion  was  so  dis* 
ordered,  and  party  spirit  so  violent,  that 
sometimes  die  state,  sometimes  one  of  the 
parties  in  it,  was  compelled  to  seek  pro- 
tection from  a  foreign  power,  which  usu- 
ally became  the  oppressor  of  the  whole. 
Thus  Genoa  was,  at  one  time,  under  the 
yoke  of  Milan  or  Austria ;  at  another  time, 
of  France.  In  1528,  France  had  posses- 
sion of  Genoa,  when  Doria  surprised  the 
city,  drove  out  the  French  without  blood- 
shed, received  the  tide  of  father  and  deliv- 
erer of  his  country,  and  established  an 
improved  constitution.  Only  28  noble 
famihes  were  allowed  to  be  eligible  to  the 
highest  offices,  which  were  annually  filled 
anew.  The  doge  and  his  council  presided 
over  die  affaire  of  state,  and  were  chosen 
at  the  end  of  every  two  years.  The  great 
Doria,  howeyer,  failed  m  remedying  the 
oppressions  and  evils  of  aristocracy ;  and 
many  of  his  instimtions  were  chaziged  by 
a  statute,  in  1576,  on  which  the  future 
constitution  was  based.  Notwithstanding 
Doria  held  the  office  of  do^  for  life,  he 
again  entered  the  naval  service  of  Charies 
V,  contended  with  brilliant  success  against 
the  Turks  and  Corsairs,  and  died  in  1560, 
at  the  age  of  93.  Noble  as  was  the  char- 
acter of  this  great  man,  and  honored  as  he 
was  by  the  Genoese,  several  conspiracies 
were  yet  formed  against  him,  of  which 
that  of  Fiesco  (q.  v.)  was  the  most  dan- 
gerous ;  but  they  were  suppressed  by  his 
address  and  decision. 

Doric;  belonging  to  the  Dorian  race, 
or  of  a  quality  or  style  common  in  that 
race.  The  Dorians,  one  of  the  four  great 
branches  of  the  Greek  nation,  derive  their 
name  from  Dorus,  die  son  of  HeUen. 
They  dwek  first  in  Estieeotis,  were  then 
driven  by  the  Perrhsebi  into  Macedonia, 
forced  their  way  into  Crete,  where  the 
lawgiver  Minos  sprang  from  them,  built 
the  four  Dorian  towns  (Dorica  Tetrapolis) 
at  the  foot  of  mount  (Eta,  between  Thes- 
saly,  iEtolia,  Locris  and  Phocis,  and  sub> 
sequently,  together  with  the  Heraclidae, 
made  a  settlement  in  the  Pebponnesus, 
where  they  ruled  in  Sparta.  Colonies 
emigrated  fix)m  them  to  Italy,  Sicily  and 
Asia  Minor.  The  four  chief  cities  of  the 
Greek  race  were  distinguished  from  each 
other  by  marked  pecidiarities  of  dialect, 
manners  and  government;  and  the  Doci- 


Digitized  by 


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DORIC— DORMANT. 


38a 


ans  were  the  revene  of  the  loniaxia  The 
Doric  maimer  always  retained  the  antique 
style,  and  with  it  sondething  solid  and 
grave,  but,  at  the  same  time,  hard  and 
rough.  The  Doric  dialect  was  broad  and 
rough ;  the  Ionic,  delicate  and  smooth ; 
yet  there  was  something  venerable  and 
dignified  in  the  antique  style  of  the  for- 
mer ;  for  which  reai^on  it  was  often  made 
use  of  in  solemn  odes,  e.  g.,  in  hvmns  and 
in  choruses,  which  belonged  to  the  liturgy 
of  the  Greeks.  The  Cretan  and  Spanan 
legislative  codes  of  Minos  and  Lycurgus 
wore  much  more  rigid  than  the  mild 
Athenian  institutions  of  Solon.  The 
Spartan  women  wore  the  light,  tucked  up 
hunting  dress,  while  the  Ionian  females 
arrayed  themselves  in  long,  sweeping  gar- 
ments. Both  have  been  idealized  by  art- 
ists; the  one  in  Diana  and  her  nymphs, 
the  other  in  Pallas  Athene  and  the  Ca- 
nephone.  l^ie  same  contrast  appears  no 
less  strikingly  in  their  architecture,  in  the 
strong,  unadorned  Doric,  and  the  slender, 
elegant  Ionian  columns.  (See  Orders  of 
JirSuiedure.)  In  the  music  of  the  an- 
cients there  was  also  a  Dorian  mode* 
(See  Music.) 

Doriont;  the  name  of  several  cele- 
brated engravere  and  painters : — 1.  Michael 
Dorigny,  bom  at  Sl  Quentin,  in  1618,  a 
scholar  of  Simon  Vouet,  whose  works  he 
etched,  and  whose  faults  in  drawing  he 
copied.  His  style  of  execution  is  bold, 
and  his  management  of  light  and  shade 
good.  He  died  while  professor  of  the 
academy  at  Paris,  in  lo65. — 2,  His  son 
Louis,  bom  in  1654,  entered  the  school  of 
Lebrun,  and  made  a  journey  to  Italy, 
where  he  copied  the  ffreat  masters.  From 
Venice  he  went  to  Verona,  where  he  set- 
tled, and  died  in  1742.— 3.  Nicholas,  the 
brother  of  the  latter,  born  in  1657,  at  Paris, 
is  the  most  celebrated  engraver  of  the 
three  here  noticed.  He  spent  28  years  in 
Italy,  in  studying  the  most  illustrious  mas- 
ters, and  8  in  engraving  the  famous  cartoons 
of  Raphael,  at  Hampton  court,  for  which  he 
received  the  honor  of  knighthood  from 
king  Georffe  I.  In  1725,  he  became  a 
member  of  the  academy  at  Paris,  and 
died  in  174^.  One  of  his  best  engravings, 
besides  liis  cartoons,  is  the  Transfigura- 
tion, from  Raphael,  and  the  Apotheosis 
of  St  Petronilla,  after  Guercino.  His 
engraving  is  easy  and  strong,  and  the 
woris  of  me  needle  and  the  graver  happily 
jnit^. 

Doris.    (See  JVeretu.) 

DoRMAirr  state  of  animals.  We  are  all 
accustomed  to  see  a  lai^  part  of  creation, 
during  summer,  in  great  activity,  and  in 


winter  returning  to  an  apparently  inani- 
mate state :  we  mean  the  plants ;  but  this 
phenomenon  is  not  common  in  tlie  case 
of  animals.  There  is,  however,  a  small 
number  of  animals,  which,  besides  the 
daily  rest  that  they  have  in  common  with 
most  other  animak,  remain,  during  some 
months  in  the  year,  in  an  apparently  life- 
less state ;  at  least,  in  uner  inactivity. 
£xcept  the  hedgehog  and  Uie  bat,  all  the 
mammaUa  subject  to  this  dormant  state, 
belong  to  tlie  class  of  digitated  animals. 
They  are  found  not  only  in  cold  climates, 
but  in  very  warm  ones;  for  instance,  the 
jerboa  in  Arabia,  and  the  taurick  in  Mada- 
pscar.  The  period  of  long  sleep  generally 
begins  when  the  food  of  the  animal  begins 
to  become  scarce,  and  inactivity  spreads 
over  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Instinct,  at 
this  time,  impels  the  animals  to  seek  a  safe 

Elace  for  their  period  of  rest  The  bat 
ides  itself  in  dark  caves,  or  in  walls  of 
decayed  buildings.  The  hedgehog  en- 
velopes himself  in  leaves,  and  generally 
conceals  himself  in  fera-brakes.  Ham- 
sters and  marmots  bury  themselves  in  the 
ground,  and  the  jumping-mouse  of  Can- 
ada and  the  U.  States  encloses  itself  in  a 
ball  of  clay.  At  the  same  time,  these 
singular  anunals  roll  themselves  together 
in  such  a  way  that  the  extremities  are 
protected  against  cold,  and  the  abdominal 
mtestines,  wd  even  the  vnndpipe,  are  com- 
pressed, so  that  the  circulation  of  the  blood 
is  checked.  Many  of  them,  especially  the 
gnawers,  as  the  hamster  and  Norway  rat, 
collect,  previously  to  their  period  of  sleep, 
considerable  stores  of  food,  on  which  they 
probably  live  until  sleep  overpowera  them. 
In  this  period  we  observe  in  the  animals, 
first,  a  decrease  of  animal  heat,  which, 
in  the  case  of  some,  is  diminished  20°, 
with  others,  40°  to  50^  Fahrenheit ;  yet 
it  is  always  higher  than  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  atmosphere  in  the  winter 
months.  If  these  anunals  are  waked  dur- 
ing winter,  they  soon  recover  their  natural 
warmth,  and  this  artificial  awaking  does 
not  injure  them.  Secondly,  animals  in 
the  dormant  state  breathe  much  slower 
and  more  interruptedly  than  at  other  times. 
Some  will  remain  even  a  quarter  of  an 
hour  without  any  respiration ;  and  animals 
in  this  state  seldom  breathe  more  than 
once  in  a  minute.  Hence  they  cor- 
rupt the  surrounding  air  much  less 
than  if  their  respiration  was  free.  Of 
course,  the  heart  moves  proportionally 
slow.  With  the  hamster,  it  only  beats  15 
times  a  minute,  whilst,  in  a  waking  state, 
it  beats  115  times  a  minute.  The  irrita- 
bility of  the  animals  '»  veiy  bw;  and 


Digitized  by  LjOOQ IC 


2B4 


DOAMANT-DORMOU8E. 


haiiiflten  id  this  state  have  been  diesected, 
which  only  now  and  then  gasped  for  air, 
or,  at  least,  opened  the  nx>uth ;  and  on 
which  sulphuric  acid,  put  on  their  intes- 
tines, liad  little  or  no  efiect  Marmots 
can  be  awakened  only  by  powerful  elec- 
tric sliocks.  The  digestion  is  also  dimin- 
ished ;  the  stomach  and  intestines  are 
usually  empty ;  and,  even  if  the  animals 
are  awakened^  they  do  not  manifest  symp- 
toms of  appetite,  except  ui  heated  rooms. 
The  causes  of  the  dormant  slate  of  ani- 
mals have  generally  been  sought  in  a 
peculiar  construction  of  the  organs.  It  is 
mie^  that  the  veins  in  such  animals  are  usu- 
ally much  wider  and  larger  than  in  others ; 
hence  the  arteries  can  exert  comparatwely 
Mttle  activity.  The  great  vena  cava  also 
not  merely  opens  into  the  right  auricle  of 
the  heart,  but  divides  itself  into  two  con- 
siderable branches ;  and  the  thymus  gfauid, 
whkh,  in  the  foBtus,  is  so  large,  is  also  very 
extensive  in  this  species  of  animals.  The 
mfy*>Mw*ft  cause,  nowever,  producing  this 
toipidit^  is  mostly,  if  not  entirely,  the 
eold.  The  animals  of  this  species  ^  into 
this  sleep  in  the  middle  of  summer,  if  they 
are  exnosed  to  acold  teinperature ;  on  the 
other  hand,  they  remain  awake  during 
winter,  if  diey  are  brought,  towards  au- 
tumn, into  a  warm  room.  Yet  they  fall 
asleep  if  the  heatiKig  of  ^  room  is  <fi8Con- 
tinued  for  some  time.  In  the  case  of  some 
of  them,  confined  air  produces  the  sleep ; 
thus  a  hamster  may  be  made  to- sleep  vcnj 
easily  if  it  is  put  into  a  vessel  which  is 
busied  deep  under  ground.  Among  the 
birds,  some  of  the  swaltows  are  subject  ta 
a  ahnilar  sleeps  The  swift  {hmrni^  opus) 
is  not  only  found  in  the  crevices  of  walls, 
but  abo  in  morasses,  in  a  donmant  st^e, 
during  wimcr ;  and  many  have  concluded 
fiom  this  that  all  swaHows  pass  the  winter 
in  this  state,  whkh  is  incorrect,  as  they 
are  known  to  be  biids  of  passafle.  Most 
pwbebly  those  swallows  which  have  been 
found  in  a  donnant  state,  were  prevented 
fimn  emigrating  by  accident,  and  became 
torpid  in  their  retreat,  throuf^  col4  In  a 
similar  way,  young  cuckoos  have  been 
found  torpid  in  the  waller,  though  this 
state  is  by  no  means  natural  to  them.  With 
frogs  and  other  amphibious  reptiles,  the 
donnant  state  is  very  common.  As  soon 
as  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere 
sinks  under  50^  Fahrenheit,  the  number 
of  pulsations  of  the  heart  is-  diminished 
fhmi  90  to  12  in  a  nunute.  If,  in  this 
state,  food  is  put  into  the  stomach  by  force, 
it  remains  undigested  for  a  lon^  time. 
Fron  serpents  and  lizards,  kept  m  arti- 
foau  celd)  may  remain  for  years  in  this 


state:  hence  they  have  been  sometimes 
found  enck)sed  in  stones,  in  which  they 
have  been,  perhaps,  for  centuries.  The 
other  tower  animals,  as  snails,  insects,  &C., 
are  also  subject  to  a  similar  torpidity.  A 
state  <^  partial  torpor  takes  place  in  the 
case  of  the  common  bear  and  the  raccoon. 
The  bear  begins  to  be  ilroway  in  Novem- 
ber, when  he  is  particulariv  fat,  and  retires 
into  his  den,  which  he  has  lined  vrith 
moss,  and  where  be  but  rarely  awakes  in 
winter.  When  he  does  awake,  he  is  ac« 
customed  to  lick  his  paws,  which  are 
without  hanr,  and  fuU  of  small  glands; 
hence  the  belief  that  he  draws  his  nour- 
ishment only  fit)m  them.  The  badger 
also  sleeps  the  greater  part  of  the  winter. 

Dormouse  (^myoxnSf  Gm.  Cuv.) ;  a  ge- 
nus of  mammiforous  quadnipeds,  of  the 
order  gUres  (L.).  These  little  animals^ 
which  appear  to  be  intermediate  between 
the  squirrels  and  the  mice,  inhabit  tem- 
perate and  warm  countries,  and  subdst 
entirely  on  vegetable  food.  They  have 
not  the  activity  and  sprightliness  of  tlie 
squirrel,  but,  lUce  that  animal,  can  ascend 
trees  in  search  of  then:  food,  which  they 
carefully  store  up  for  tlieir  winter  con- 
sumption. This,  however,  is  not  great, 
as,  during  the  rigor  of  winter,  they  retire 
to  their  retreats,  and,  rolling  themselves  up, 
fall  into  a  torpid  or  lethargic  state,  which 
lastfl^  with  little  interruption,  throaghout 
that  gloomy  i 


Tota  mibi  donaiuir  hyems,  et  phigvior  tllo 
Tempore  Kun,  quo  me  nil  nisi  somnas  aiiu 
MarL  Ub.  zlii.  E^).  39. 

Sometimes  they  experience  a  short  revival, 
in  a  warm,  sunnv  day,  when  they  take  a 
little  food,  and  then  relapse  into  dieir  for* 
mer  condition;  During  this  torpidity, 
their  natural  heat  is  considerably  dimin- 
ished The^  make  dieir  nests  of  grass, 
moss  and  dned  leaves,  about  six  inches  in 
diameter,  and  open  only  from  above.  The 
number  of  young  is  genendly  three  or 
fbur.  Their  pace  is  a  kind  of  leap,  in 
which,  it  is  said,  they  are  assisced  by  their 
tails*  Like  tlie  jerboa,  whilst  feeding, 
thev  sit  upright,  and  cany  the  fbod  to 
their  mouth  with  their  paws.  When  they 
are  tliirsty,  they  do  not  lap,  like  most  other 
ouadrapeds,  but  dip  their  fore  foet,  with 
me  toes  bent,  into  the  water,  and*  thus 
cany  it  to  their  mouths.  They  are  diatin- 
guiahed  from  all  the  rest  of  the  gimwnv^ 
by  the  want  of  the  ccecuiii,  and  large 
intestines.  They  were  esteemed  a  great 
delicacy  by  the  Romans,  who  had  their 
gUrariOj  or  places  in  which  they  were  kept 
and  fottened  for  the  table. 


Digitized  by  LjOOQ IC 


DORPAT— DORT. 


DoRPAT,  DoRPT  (in  EIsthoDian,  Thrl- 
ZAn) ;  a  city  on  the  Emboch,  formerly  an 
important  commercial  place,  at  present  tlie 
chief  town  of  tlie  government  of  Riga 
(7(>4  houses  and  8450  inhabitants),  about 
175  miles  S.  W.  of  St.  Petereburgh ;  lat 
58**  aa'  N. ;  Ion.  26°  4&  15"  E.  The 
transit  trade  of  Dorpat,  in  products  of  the 
interior,  is  still  cousiderabie,  and  will  be 
increased  when  the  Alexander  canal  is 
finished.  The  emperor  Alexander  estab- 
lished here,  in  1802,  a  university  for  Fin- 
land, Esthonia,  Livonia  and  Courland. 
The  students  ^about  400)  wear  a  uniform, 
and,  after  finisning  their  studies,  have  the 
rank  of  a  commissioned  officer.  The 
library  contains  40,000  vols.  There  are, 
besides,  many  scientific  institutions.  Dor- 
pat  is  situated  on  the  road  from  Peters- 
burg to  Germany.  Its  environs  are  agree- 
able and  fertile. 

Dorset,  John  Syng,  an  eminent  physi- 
cian, was  bom  in  Philadelphia,  Dec.  23, 
1783,  and  received  an  excellent  classical 
education,  at  a  school  in  Philadelphia,  of 
the  society  of  Friends.  He  here  mani- 
fested the  same  vivacity  of  genius,  and 
mild  and  amiable  disposition,  for  which  he 
was  subsequently  conspicuous.  At  the 
age  of  15  years,  he  applied  himself  to  the 
study  of  medicine ;  and,  in  tlie  spring  of 
1802,  being  then  in  his  19th  year,  was 
graduated  doctor  in  physic,  having  previ- 
ously defended  an  inaugural  dissertation 
On  the  Powers  of  the  Gastric  Liquor  as  a 
Solvent  of  urinaiy  Calculi.  This  work 
exhibits  some  original  views,  illustrated 
by  a  number  of  well  conducted  experi- 
ments. Not  long  afier  he  received  his  de- 
cree, the  yellow  fever  appeared  in  Phila- 
delphia, and  prevailed  so  extensively  that 
an  hospital  was  opened  for  those  sick 
with  tiiis  malady,  to  which  he  was  e>- 
pointed  resident  physician.  He  improved 
this  opportunity  of  investigating  the  dis- 
ease, elucidated  some  of  the  more  intricate 
parts  of  its  pathology,  and  aided  in  the 
establishment  of  a  better  system  of  prac- 
tice. At  the  close  of  the  same  season,  he 
visited  Europe.  He  returned  home  in 
December,  lo04,  and  entered  on  the  prac- 
tice of  bis  profession.  His  reputation, 
amiable  temper,  popular  manners,  and 
fidelity  and  attention,  soon  introduced  him 
to  a  large  share  of  business.  In  1807,  he 
was  elected  adjunct  professor  of  surgery, 
and  held  the  office  till  he  succeeded  to 
tlie  chair  of  materia  medico.  He  delivered 
two  courses  of  lectures  on  this  subject, 
when,  the  chair  of  anatomy  becoming 
vacant  by  the  death  of  doctor  Wistar,  he 
was   raised   to  that  professorship.     He 


opened  the  session  by  one  of  the  finest 
exhibitions  of  eloquence  ever  heard  within 
the  walls  of  the  university.  But,  on  the 
evening  of  the  same  day,  he  was  attacked 
with  a  fever,  which  in  one  week  closed 
his  existence.  He  had  cultivated  every 
department  of  medicine  assiduously,  but 
for  surgery  he  evinced  a  decided  predilec- 
tion, and  in  this  made  the  greatest  pro- 
ficiency. He  was  one  of  the  most  accom- 
plished surgeons  of  this  country,  equally 
distinguish^  for  the  number,  variety  and 
difiiculty  of  his  operations,  and  tlie  skill 
and  boldness  with  which  they  were  per- 
formed. As  a  teacher  of  medicine,  his 
merits  were  great,  and  he  was  constantly 
resorted  to  in  cases  of  emergency  in  the 
schooL  He  has  been  known,  in  the  same 
day,  to  lecture  on  surgery  and  the  tnaU" 
ria  mtdkoy  the  details  of  the  anatomical 
structure  and  the  laws  of  the  animal  econ- 
omy. He  contributed  many  valuable  pa- 
pers to  the  journals,  and  his  Elements  of 
Suiveiy  (2  vols.,  8vo.)  is  probably  the  best 
wonk  on  the  subject.  It  embraces,  in  a 
narrow  compass,  a  digest  of  sureery,  with  ' 
all  the  recent  improvements  which  it  had 
received  in  Europe  and  this  country.  It 
has  been  adopted  as  a  text-book  in  the 
university  of  Edinburgh,  and  was  the  first 
American  work  on  medicine  reprinted  in 
Europe. 

DoRT ;  a  pleasant  commercial  town  in 
South  Holland  (18,000  inhabitants,  3900 
houses),  on  the  Merwe  and  Biesbosch, 
situated  on  an  island,  which  was  formed 
by  the  inundation  of  1421,  when  72  vil- 
lages and  100,000  persons  were  destroyed. 
Lat  51«  48'  54"  N. ;  Ion.  4°  39^  42"  E. 
Its  great  church  is  a  fine  building.  Its 
harbor  is  spacious,  and  jts  commerce  in 
Rhenish  wines  and  lumber  (which  is 
brought  down  in  rafls,  and  exported  to 
Spain,  England  and  Portugal)  is  impor- 
tant Shi|)-buildiiig,  tile  manufacture  of 
salt,  bleachinff,  and  tlie  salmon  fisheries, 
are  extensively  carried  on.  Dort  has  an 
artillery  and  engineer  school.  It  was 
formerly  the  residence  of  the  counts  of 
Holland,  and  is  the  native  place  of  De 
Witt  (q.  v.),  John  Gertiard  Vossius,  the 
painter  Varestag,  and  other  distinguished 
persons.  In  1618  and  1619,  the  Protes- 
tants held  here  the  famous  s>iiod  of  Dort, 
the  resolutions  of  which  still  constitute  the 
laws  of  the  Dutch  reformed  church.  The 
synod  declared  the  Arminians  heretics,  and 
confirmed  the  Belgic  confession  with  the 
Heidelberg  catechism.  Since  the  navi- 
gation of  the  Rhine  has  not  yet  been  regu- 
wted  according  to  the  promise  of  the  con- 
gress of  Vienna,  Dort  is  still  in  possession 


Digitized  by 


Google 


966 


DORT— DOTATIONS  OF  NAPOLEON. 


of  its  ancient  and  unjust  rif  ht  of  staple. 
(For  a  more  pacticular  account  of  tlie  aj- 
nod  <^  Dort,  see  •firnwitanj,  and  .^riiMmicc.) 

Dortmund;  a  city  on  the  £ms»  in 
Prussian  Westphalia  (900  bouses  and  4500 
inhabitants) ;  lat.  51°  81'  W  N. ;  km.  52° 
2&  4F  £.  It  was  fbrmeriy  a  free,  impe- 
rial and  Hanseatic  city.  In  1803,  it  was 
bestowed  on  the  prince  of  Orance;  in 
l&08j  Napoleon  gave  it  to  the  grand-duke 
of  Berg ;  In  1815,  it  was  ceded  to  Prussia. 
Its  archives  contain  interesting  manu- 
scripts and  documents  of  the  tune  when 
tlie  chief  tribunal  of  the  Vehme  (q.  v.)  was 
here. 

DoKTRECHT.    (See  DorL) 

DoRT,  or  Jouf  DoRT ;  a  fisli  beloBging 
to  the  cenus  xtui  of  Linnnus.  and  ceie- 
bmted  ror  the  delicacy  of  its  flesh.  The 
species  is  distinguiabed  by  having  the 
spinouB  portions  of  the  dorsal  and  anal 
iuis  separated  by  a  deep  emargination  firom 
the  soft-rayed  portion,  and  having  the 
base  of  all  the  vertical  fina,  and  the  carina 
of  the  belly  anterior  to  the  anal  fin,  ftir- 
nished  with  spines  or  senratures ;  color,  jrel- 
lowish-green,  with  a  blackish  spot  on  each 
side ;  dorsal  and  anal  with  furcate  spines, 
and  a  long  filament  produced  from  behind 
each  dorMl  spinous  ray.  Tradition  has 
rendered  this  fish  fiunous  on  several  ac- 
counts. Firet,  it  is  said  to  derive  the  mark 
on  each  side  of  its  body,  from  the  im- 
pression of  the  ibre  finger  and  thumb  of 
the  apostle  Peter.  There  is  a  schism 
among  the  superstitious  in  relation  to  this 
stoiy,  as  the  haddock  also  enjoys  a  similar 
disaoetion,  it  is  affirmed,  firom  the  same 
cause.  Another  fiible  is,  that  the  imores- 
sion  was  produced  by  the  foot  or  St 
Christopher,  which,  it  is  ftir  to  say,  is 
iequally  probable.  The  dory  obtains  its 
food  very  much  by  stratagem,  and  its  ex- 
ceedingly protractile  jaws  enable  it  to  cap- 
ture small  fish,  dec,  in  its  vicinity  with 
ease,  when  lying  concealed  in  the  ooze  or 
weeds.  Torbay,  in  England,  is  itoin- 
guislied  as  the  locality  from  whence  tlie 
greatest  number  of  these  fish  is  obbiineil. 
They  are  also  found  on  the  coasts  of 
France,  on  the  Adanlic  shores  <^  Europe, 
and  in  the  Mediterranean. 

Dosso  Dossi;  a  painter  of  Ferrara, 
much  honored  by  duke  Alfonso,  and  tm- 
uortaiized  by  Ariosto  (whose  portrait  he 
executed  in  a  masterly  manner)  in  his  Or- 
lando, canto  23L  His  manner  approaches 
to  that  of  Titian,  with  whom  be  painted 
some  apartments  in  the  ducal  castle.  His 
paintings  there  represent  bacchanaUans, 
finina,  sa^  and  nymphs.  In  other  pamt- 
ings  he  imitated  SaphaeL    Among  eight 


of  Dossi's  piotores  in  Dresden,  the  Dispute 
of  the  four  Fathen  of  the  Church  is  dis- 
tinguished as  a  mafiler|neee  by  accurate 
delmeation  and  peculiar  power  of  colorinf;*, 
and  is  entirely  in  the  style  of  Titian.  His 
brothers  are  less  celebrated.  He  was  bora 
1479,  and  died  1560. 

Dotations  or  Napoleon;  cifiB  firom 
the  national  domaina,  which  Napoleon 
bestowed  on  his  generals  in  the  conquered 
countries,  as  the  ancient  Lombard  kings 
made  grants  to  their  vassals,  on  the  di- 
vision of  the  countries  which  they  sub- 
dued. These  gifts,  sometimes  connected 
with  a  title  of  nobility,  formed  a  sort  of 
fief^  and,  both  in  respect  to  possession  and 
inheritance,  luid  the  character  of  majorats 
(q.  v.);  and  tlie  donees  stood,  as  such, 
under  tlie  general  superintendents  of  the 
txtmordmanf  dommns^  so  called,  to  whom 
was  committed  the  care  of  all  these  por- 
tions of  land,  oafMtais,  or  other  sources  of 
revenue,  which  tlie  emperor  was  accus- 
tomed to  reserve  to  himself  (chiefly  with  a 
view  to  making  such  dotatioBs)^  in  the  con* 
quered  countries,  and  those  transfeired  liy 
him  to  other  princes.  It  was  the  duty  of 
the  above-mentoMd  oflicen  of  state  to  see 
that  all  who  had  received  frwa  the  em- 
peror dotations  in  foreign  countries,  should 
sell  their  estates,  one  iMilf  within  the  first 
20  years,  and  the  remainder  within  a 
secmid  period  of  the  same  length ;  so  that, 
in  the  couree  of  40  years,  all  these  est^es 
were  to  be  alienated  and  cban^,  either 
into  landed  or  other  property,  m  France. 
Deeds  of  investiture  were  prepared  for 
these  donees,  by  the  ardi-chancellor  of  the 
kingdom,  as  president  of  the  oenjeil  Aa 
sceau  de$  tUns ;  but  within  three  months 
after  the  death  of  the  donee,  documents 
of  confirmation  must  be  applied  for  by 
the  heira.  E^  this  (^cer,  many  dotations 
owned  by  the  same  man  might  be  thrown 
into  one  mass,  or  the  amount  might  be 
augmented  out  of  the  otiier  property  of 
the  donee,  if  the  dotation  alone  did  not 
afford  income  enough  to  enable  it  to  be 
raised  to  a  majorat,  with  the  tide  of  knight, 
baron,  count  or  duke  annexed.  If  the  at- 
toraey-gemeral  of  the  council  was  infcNrra- 
ed  of  the  extinctioo  of  tlie  male  line  of 
the  descendants  of  the  owner  of  a  m^o- 
rat,  received  wholly  or  in  part  from  the 
emperor,  he  was  oldiged  to  make  a  re- 
port of  it  to  the  superintendent  of  the 
extraordinary  imperial  domains,  or  of 
the  imperial  private  domains,  accovding 
as  the  estate  bad  been  granted  fiom  one 
or  the  other;  upon  which  the  intendant 
immediately  took  possession,  in  order  to 
secure  the  property  to  the  treasury.    A 


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JOTATIONS  OP  NAPOLEON-  DOUGLAS. 


28r 


deoiee  of  May  13^  1809,  established  in 
countries  not  belonging  to  the  French 
imperial  states^  where  the  emperor  had 
raised  such  grants  to  majorats,  particular 
officers  (agms  conservaieun)^  whose  prin- 
cipal duty  was  to  see  that  the  owners  of 
the  majorats  managed  them  well,  and  that, 
if  any  lapse  of  such  property  took  place,. 
It  should  be  united  again,  entirely  and 
without  delay,  to  the  French  crown.  All 
sifts  of  this  sort,  so  far  as  they  had  not 
been  alienated,  became  null  and  void  on 
the  death  of  the*gi^or. 

DouANE ;  in  France,  the  name  given  to 
the  custom-houses  on  the  bordefa— Doua- 
xfums ;  the  officers  who  received  the  cus- 
toms. During  the  warsof  France  with  £ne- 
iaiid  (179a— 1814),  and  particularly  whUe 
the  continental  system  wis  in  operation, 
the  French  douanien  were  of  much  po- 
litical importance.  They  were  divided 
into  bodies  of  six  men  each,  had  a  military 
organization,  and  were  well  armed.  Thus 
they  iniarded,  in  three  lines,  the  boundan 
xiea  of  France,  against  the  introduction  of 
all  prohibited  articles,  mcluding  not  only 
£ngl]Bh  produce  and  manufactures,  but 
also  those  of  nearly  aU  other  countries. 
They  likewise  cdlected  the  export  duties. 
Thw  number,  in  1812,  was  80,000,  and 
the  expense  to  the  French  government 
amotmted,  in  1809,  to  50,000,000  francs. 
The  severity  with  which  the  French  reve- 
nue system  was  executed ;  the  inteiTU{>- 
tions  it  caused  to  almost  all  classes,  partic- 
ularly in  the  conquered  provinces,  and  the 
arbitrary  extortions  of  the  douanierB,  ex- 
asperated the  people,  especially  in  the 
newly  acquired  provinces.  In  the  insure 
redions,  in  1813,  in  Germany  and  Hol- 
land, against  the  French,  the  people  at- 
tacked, in  the  first  instance,  the  custom- 
officers  and  custom-houses,  tearing  down 
and  burning  the  latter,  in  Hambuiig  and 
Amsterdam. 

Double  Ententb  (jFVouA).  Mats  h 
drnMe  entente  are  words  which  have  two 
difierent  meaiungs;  entente  being,  propi- 
erly,  the  interpretation  given  to  a  wonL 
MhMe  entendre  is  often  used  for  a  phrase 
which  has  a  covert  as  well  as  an  obvious 
meaning. 

DouBLizfo  a  cape  is  to  sail  rouAd  er 
pass  beyond  it,  so  that  the  point  of  land 
shall  separate  the  ship  from  her  former 
situation,  or  lie  between  her  and  any  di»- 
tant  observer. 

D0UB1.IN0  upon,  in  a  naval  engage- 
ment ;  the  act  of  enclosing  any  part  or  a 
hostile  fleet  between  two  fires,  or  of  can- 
nonading it  on  both  ndes.  It  is  usually 
peicfiirmed  by  the  van  or  rear  of  the  fleet 


vrfaich  is  superior  in  ntmiber,  taking  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  wind,  or  of  its  situation  and 
circumstances,  and  tacking  or  running 
round  the  van  or  rear  of  tiie  enemy,  who 
are  thereby  exposed  to  great  danger. 

Doubloon  ;  a  Spanish  coin  of  the  value 
of  two  pistoles.  ,  (See  Coin,) 

DouoLAS,  Gawin  ;  an  early  Scottish 
poet  of  eminence.  He  was  the  son  of 
Archibald,  earl  of  Angus,  and  was  bom  at 
Brechin,  in  1474-^.  He  received  a  lib- 
eral education,  commenced  at  home,  and 
completed  at  the  univendty  of  Parik  On 
returning  to  Scotland,  he  took  orders  in 
the  church,  and  was  made  provost  of  the 
church  of  St  Giles's,  at  Edinburgh,  af- 
terwards abbot  of  Aberbruthick,  and,  at 
length,  bishop  of  Dunkeld.  Political 
conunotiona,  after  a  time,  obliged  him  to 
seek  a  retreat  in  England,  where  he  was 
liberally  treated  by  Henry  VIII.  He  died 
of  the  plaj^e,  in  London,  in  1523,  and  was 
interred  m  the  Savoy  church.  Gawm 
Douglas  translated  the  poem  of  Ovid,  Oe 
Ren^dio  Amaris  ;  also,  the  iEneid  of  Vir< 
gil,  and  the  supplementary  book  of  Ma- 
phflsus,  in  heroic  verse.  This  work,  in 
the  Scottish  dialect  of  the  English  lan- 
guage, is  executed  with  great  spirit ;  and, 
considering  the  age  of  the  author,  with 
extraordinary  elegance  of  diction,  fiir  sur- 
passing, in  tiiat  respect,  the  succeeding 
productions  of  Phaer,  Swyne,  and  even 
of  lord  Surrey.  It  was  written  about  1513, 
and  ia  said  to  have  been  completed  in  16 
raouthsi  To  each  book  is  prefixed  a 
highly  poetical  prologue,  it  was  fint 
piiblished  in  1553  (London,  4to.| ;  and 
reprinted  at  Edinburgh  (1710,  folio). 

Douglas,  John,  a  learned  divine  and 
critic,  was  bom  in  Scotland  in  1731.  A^ 
ter  some  education  at  a  grammar-school 
in  his  native  country,  he  was  sent  to  the 
university  of  Oxford  in  1736,  and  in  1743 
he  took  the  degree  of  M.  A.  Soon  after, 
be  was  appointed  chaplain  to  the  3d  r^ 
ment  of  ftwt-guards^  He  was  afterwards 
a  tiavelling  tutor  to  lord  Pulteney,  with 
vrhom  he  visited  several  parts  of  ihe  eonr 
tinent,  but  quitted  him  and  returned  to 
England  in  1749,  vrhen  his  patron,  the 
earlof  Bath,  presented  him  with  several 
benefices.  His  first  literary  production 
was  a  letter  to  the  earl  of  Bath,  entitied 
Mihon  vmdicated  firom  the  Charge  of 
Phgiarism,  brought  against  him  by  Mr. 
Lauder  (1751,  8vo.).  (See  Lauder,  IT.) 
In  1754,  he  published  a  tract,  entitied  die 
Criterion,  or  a  Discourse  on  Miracles.  In 
17^  he  was  made  canon  of  Windsor, 
which  benefice  he  exchanged  with  doctor 
Barrington  for  a  residentiary  canoory  of 


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DOUGLAS— BOVER. 


St  Paul's.  His  next  preferment  was  the 
deanery  of  Windsor.  In  1777,  be  was 
employed  in  preparing  for  the  press  the 
journal  of  captain  Cook's  second  voyage, 
to  which  he  prefixed  a  well-written  intro- 
duction, and  added  notes.  He  assisted 
lord  Haidwicke  in  arranging  and  pub- 
lishing his  Miscellaneous  Papers,  wtiich 
appeal  the  following  year.  In  1778,  he 
was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  royal  and 
antiquarian  societies;  and,  in  1761,  he 
edited  tlie  account  of  captain  Cook's  third 
voyage.  In  1787,  he  was  raised  to  the 
see  of  Carlisle,  and,  in  1792,  was  made 
bishop  of  Salisbury.  He  died  May  18, 
1807. 

DousA,  or  Van  der  Does  ;  bora  1545, 
at  Noordwyk,  in  Holland ;  a  statesman, 
philologist,  historian  and  poet  He  stud- 
ied at  Delft  and  Louvain,  resided  some 
time  at  Paris,  and  then  lived  in  domestic 
retiremont,  devoted  to  literaiy  pursuits,  till 
1572,  when  he  went  ambassador  to  England 
to  obtain  the  support  of  queen  Elizabeth 
for  the  cause  of  the  Dutch.  As  chief  com- 
mander, during  the  siege  of  Leyden  bv  the 
Spaniards,  he  conducted  with  pruclence 
and  unshaken  courage,  in  the  midst  of  the 
horrors  of  famine,  plague  and  civil  dissen- 
sions. He  kept  up  an  intercourse  with  the 
expected  deliverers  by  means  of  trained 

gigeons;  and  to  these  faithful  messengers 
e  has  expressed  his  cratitude  in  some  of 
his  poems.  The  stadtliolder,  William  I, 
compensated  the  city  for  its  sufferings,  by 
the  estabUshment  of  the  university,  of 
which  Dousa  was  the  first  curator.  His 
extensive  connexions  with  the  literary 
men  of  other  countries  enabled  him  to 
I»t>cure  for  the  new  insdtution  that  most 
distinguished  instrueter,  Joseph  Scaliger. 
After  the  assassination  of  William  I,  Dou- 
sa secretlv  visited  London  to  seek  the  pro- 
tection of^queen  Elizabeth,  for  the  freeoom 
of  his  country,  of  which  he  was  always  the 
faithful  defender;  and  during  the  period 
when  the  government  of  the  eari  of 
Leicester  proved  op[)ressive  to  the  Dutch 
nation  (see  Dudley),  he  conducted  with 
pnidence  and  moderation.  Domestic 
misfortunes,  particularlv  the  death  of 
his  eldest  son,  Janus  Dousa,  a  youth  of 
great  promise,  afflicted  the  last  years  of 
his  life,  and  he  died  1604.  The  many 
works  which  he  lefl  show  how  true  he 
was  to  his  motto— Z>ufeet  ante  omnia 
Mustt,  His  best  known  work  is  Batamte 
HoUanditeaue  Anntdea,  extending  to  1606, 
which  baa  been  commenced  by  his  son. 
It  was  published  both  in  verse  and  in 
prose. 
DoDWy  Qeraid.    (See  Dow,) 


Dove.    (6ee  7\irf2e  Dove,  and  Ptreon.) 

Dover;  a  post-town  of  New  Hamp- 
shire, capital  of  Strafford  couiity,  12  miles 
N.  W.  by  N.  Portsmouth,  40  E.  Concert], 
50  S.  W.  Portland,  60  N.  Boston;  Ion. 
7QP  54'  W. ;  lat  43°  \9  N. ;  population, 
in  1820,  2871 ;  in  1826,  4160.  It  is  sim- 
ated  on  the  west  side  of  the  Piscataqua,  and 
the  Cochecho  flows  through  it.  This 
river  has  several  fells,  the  largest  of  which, 
upwards  of  40  feet  perpendicular,  are  at 
the  centre  of  the  town,  fuid  aflbrd  water- 
power  equal  to  any  in  New  England. 
The  sgpply  of  water  is  abundant,  and  the 
river  never  rises  so  high  as  to  endanger 
the  buildings  on  it  These  falls  are  15 
miles  from  the  sea,  at  the  head  of  tide 
water.  Gondolas  come  up  to  the  mills, 
and  sloops  within  a  quarter  of  a  mile. 
Large  iron  and  cotton  manufactories  have 
been  erected  on  these  falls,aiid  othens  two 
miles  higher  up  the  river.  Dover  is  one 
of  the  most  considerable  and  flourishing 
towns  in  the  state.  It  contains  a  court- 
house, a  jail,  a  bank,  a  printing-ofiice,  an 
academy,  and  three  houses  of  public  wor- 
ship. The  greatest  part  of  the  timber 
exported  from  the  state,  is  brought  to 
this  town.  Considerable  shipping  is  also 
owned  here.  Dover  is  the  oldest  town  in 
New  Hampshire,  having  been  settled  in 
1623,  by  Edward  and  William  Hilton. 
The  part  flrst  settled  is  in  the  south  of 
Dover,  an  elevated  and  beautiful  neck  of 
land,  called  by  the  Indians  Wmrdckahan' 
naly  and  by  the  first  settlers  J^Tortkam, 

Dover;  a  post-town  of  Delaware,  the 
seat  of  the  government  of  the  state,  in  the 
county  of  Kent,  on  Jones's  creek,  7  miles 
above  its  entrance  into  Delaware  -bay ; 
a6  &  NewcasUe;  Ion.  75'' 30^  W. ;  hiL 
20*  \(y  N.  It  contains  a  handsome  state- 
house,  a  jail,  an  academy,  a  bank,  &c. 
The  town  is  well  built,  chiefly  of  brick, 
and  carries  on  a  considerable  tnde  with 
Phikidelpbia  in  flour. 

Dover;  a  seaport  of  Engiand,  in  the 
county  of  Kent,  situated  on  a  small  stream 
which  falls  into  the  harbor.  It  consists 
chiefly  of  three  tong  streets,  converging  to 
one  point.  Dover  is  defended  by  a  strong 
and  spacious  castle,  and  all  the  neighbor^ 
ing  heights  are  fortifled.  The  casUe  oc- 
cupies a  lofiy  eminence,  steep  and  ruggvd 
towards  the  town  and  harbor,  and  presents 
a  precipitous  cliff,  320  feet  higher  than 
the  sea.  Subterraneous  works  and  case- 
mates have  been  added,  since  tlie  alarm 
of  French  invasion,  caimble  of  accommo- 
dating 2000  men.  Dover  is  one  of  the 
Cinque  ports,  and  a  borough  returning  two 
memberB  to  parliament,  who  are  elected 


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DOVER— DOWER, 


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by  about  2000  voters.  The  harbor  can 
receive  vessels  of  400  or  500  tons,  and  is 
defended  by  strong  batteries.  It  is  the 
principal  place  of  embarkation  to  France, 
and  steam-packets  ply  daily  to  Calais  and 
Boplogne.  Population,  10,327;  8  miles 
fiom  Deal,  72.  E.  S.  E.  London;  lon« 
FIQ'E.;  lat.SPfi'N. 

Dover,  Straits  of  ;  the  narrow  chan- 
nel between  Dover  and  Calais,  which  sepa- 
rates Great  Britain  from  tlie  French  coast 
Britain  is  supposed  by  many  to  have 
been  once  a  peninsula,  tlie  present  straits 
occupying  the  site  of  the  isthmus,  which 
joined  it  to  Gaul.  **  The  correspondency 
of  strata,"  says  Mr.  Pennant,  in  his  Arct. 
Zoology,  *^  on  part  of  the  opposite  shores 
of  Britain  and  France,  leaves  no  room  to 
doubt  that  the^  were  once  united.  The 
chalkv  cliffs  of  Blancnez,  between  Calais 
and  Boulogne,  and  those  to  the  westward 
of  Dover,  exactly  tally :  tlie  last  are  vast 
and  continued,  the  former  short,  and  the 
termination  of  the  immense  bed.  Between 
Bologne  and  Folkstone  (about  six  miles 
from  the  latter)  is  another  memorial  of 
the  junction  of  the  two  countries — a  nar- 
row submarine  hill,  called  the  Rip-rapSj 
aiiout  a  quarter  of  a  mile  broad,  and  ten 
miles  long,  extending  eastward,  towards 
the  Goodwin  sands.  Its  materials  are 
boulder-stones,  adventitious  to  many  strata. 
The  depth  of  water  on  it,  in  very  low 
spring  Udes,  is  only  14  feet  The  flsher- 
men  from  Folkstone  have  often  touched 
it  with  a  15  feet  oar;  so  that  it  is  justly 
the  dread  of  navigators.  Many  a  tall  ship 
has  struck  on  it,  and  sunk  instantly  into 
21  fathoms  of  water."  In  July,  1782,  the 
Belleisle,  of  64  guns,  struck  and  lay  on  it 
during  three  hours ;  but,  by  starting  her 
beer  and  water,  got  clear  off.  These  cel- 
ebrated straits  arc  only  21  miles  wide,  in 
the  narrowest  part;  from  the  pier  at  Dover 
to  that  of  Calais,  24  miles.  It  is  said 
that  their  breadth  is  diminishing,  and  that 
they  are  two  miles  narrower  than  tliey 
were  in  ancient  times.  An  accurate  ol>- 
server  for  fifty  years  remarks  diat  the  in- 
creased height  of  water,  from  a  decrease 
of  breadth,  has  be^  apparent,  even  in 
that  space.  The  depth  of  the  channel,  at 
a  medhim,  in  the  highest  spring  tides,  is 
about  25  fathoms  ;  me  bottom  is^  either 
coarse  sand  or  rugged  sears,  which  have, 
for  ages  unknown,  resisted  tlie  attrition 
of  the  currents. 

DovE-TAiLiNo,  in  carpentiy,  is  the  fast- 
ening boards  together,  by  letdng  one  piece 
into  another,  in  the  form  of  the  tail  of  a 
dove.  The  dove-tail  is  the  strongest  of 
jointings,  because  the  tenon,  or  piece  of 

VOL.  IV.  25 


wood  which  is  put  into  the  other,  goes 
vndening  to  the  end,  so  that  it  cannot  be 
drawn  out  again. 

Dow  (also  written  Douw\  Gerard ;  born 
at  Leyden,  1613,  son  of  a  glazier.  He 
Studied  under  Rembrandt,  and  was  distin- 
guished for  the  excellence  of  his  coloring 
and  ehictro  scuro.  He  surpassed  his  mas- 
ter in  diligence,  and  nothing  can  be  more 
finished  thai^  his  small  pieces.  They  arc 
so  delicate  that  a  magnifying  glass  is  ne- 
cessary to  see  distincuy  the  work  in  them. 
His  soflest  figures  are  full  of  life,  and  he 
never  neglected,  in  his  representations, 
the  almost  invisible  minutiae  of  nature. 
Still,  his  paintings  do  not  appear  artificial 
nor  forced.  He  is  regarded  as  tlie  inventor 
of  the  ingenious  mode  of  painting  large 
pictures  on  a  reduced  scale,  by  covering 
the  original  with  a  frame,  including  a 
space  divided  into  small  quadranguhur 
parts,  by  means  of  threads,  and  then  trans- 
ferring the  parts  into  an  equal  number  of 
similar  divisions,  drawn  on  the  canvass. 
He  made  use  of  the  convex  mirror,  to 
represent  objects  on  a  reduced  scale. 
Dow  died  in  1680,  leaving  a  large  proper- 
ty. His  works  brought  nigh  prices,  and 
are  still  among  the  dearest  of  the  Dutch 
school.  In  lo09,  a  picture,  painted  by 
him  for  the  ro^al  museum  of  Holland, 
was  sold  for  17^000  guilders ;  and  at  the 
auction  of  Peter  de  Smith  in  Amsterdam, 
in  1810,  Dow's  pictures  brought  from  5  to 
10,000  guilders.  His  scholars,  Metz{i, 
Schalken  and  Mieris,  are  worthy  of  their 
master. 

Dower  is  the  portion  which  a  vndow 
has  in  the  lands  of  her  husband,  after  his 
decease,  by  the  operation  of  law,  and 
without  any  special  provision,  by  will  or 
marriage  settlement  There  are  three 
species  of  dower  enumerated  in  tlie  books 
of  the  common  law,  which  are  now  obso- 
lete. A  fourdi  kind  of  dower,  in  Eng- 
land, uicludes  several  sorts.  It  is  dower 
hy  custoMy  as  distinguished  from  dower  at 
common  law.  In  some  particular  manors 
and  districts  in  England,  the  widow  is 
endowed,  not  according  to  common  right, 
but  according  to  the  practice  or  custom 
in  that  particular  district  or  manor ;  as  of 
half  her  husliand's  lands,  by  the  custom 
ofgavd-kmd,  or  of  die  whole  of  them,  for 
her  life,  where  she  is  entitled  to  her  free 
henfih. 

But  the  general  kind  of  dower,  or  that 
by  the  common  law,  is  the  third  part,  for 
Bfe,  of  the  lands  or  tenements  whereof 
the  husband  was  seized,  in  fee  simple  or 
fee  tail,  during  the  time  of  the  marriage. 
If  the  parties  have  been  divorced  from 


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DOWER. 


the  bonds  of  marriafe,  the  woman  is  not 
entitled  to  dower,  fiut  if  the  divorce  be 
from  bed  and  board  only,  her  dower  is  not 
barred.  The  common  law  of  England 
and  the  U.  States  respects  the  laws  of 
other  countries,  so  that  a  marriaee,  valid 
where  it  is  contracted,  is  considered  as 
valid  by  the  common  law,  and  entitles 
tlie  wife  to  dower,  in  the  countries  just 
named.  The  wife  of  an  idiot  is  not  en- 
titled to  dower,  because  die  marriage  was 
not  valid,  from  the  want  of  the  power  of 
consent  in  the  husband.  By  the  ancient 
English  law,  the  wife  of  a  traitor  was  not 
entitled  to  dower.  Some  say  the  reason 
was,  that  the  wife  was  presumed  to  be  privy 
to  the  treason ;  odierB  say,  that  it  was  in- 
tended to  secure  the  loyalty  of  the  subject, 
by  an  appeal  to  his  affection  for  his  wife  and 
children.  The  statute  of  1  Edward  VI,  c 
12,  abated  tlie  rigor  of  the  law,  and  allowed 
the  widow  of  a  traitor  dower ;  a  subsequent 
statute,  however,  passed  five  or  six  years 
afterwards,  restored  the  old  law  in  respect 
to  most  kinds  of  treason.  According  to 
an  opinion,  supported  by  very  respectable 
authorities,  the  death  of  the  husband  is 
not  necessary,  in  all  cases,  to  entitle  the 
wife  to  dower ;  as,  if  he  is  outlawed,  ban- 
ished, or  transported  for  life,  she  is,  ac- 
cording to  this  opinion,  entitled  to  dower. 
So,  in  New  York,  the  wife  is  endowed,  if 
the  husband  is  condemned  to  imprison- 
ment for  life.  In  one  of  Mr.  Haivrave's 
notes  to  Coke's  Littleton,  it  is  said  mat  an 
act  of  parliament  of  8  Henry  V,  provides, 
that  where  an  Englishman  marries  a 
foreigner,  "by  license  of  tlie  king,"  she 
shall  be  endowed ;  and  statutes  of  many 
of  the  U.  States  contain  a  similar  pro- 
vision, allowing  to  alien  widows,  who 
have  resided  in  tlie  U.  States,  the  same 
rights  of  dower  as  if  they  had  been  bom 
in  the  country.  A  seizin  (q.  v.|  in  law, 
no  less  than  a  seizin  with  actual  posses- 
sion, entitles  the  widow  to  dower-  But 
if  the  huslwmd  is  only  seized  for  an  in- 
stant, and  tlie  same  transaction  which 
gives  him  the  fee  passes  it  to  another,  the 
wife  does  not  thereby  gain  the  right  of 
dower.  This  right  of  the  wife  is  an  in- 
separable incident  to  an  estate  in  fee  or  in 
tail,  so  tliat,  if  such  an  estate  be  conveyed 
upon  condition  tliat  it  shall  not  be  subject 
to  this  right,  the  condition  will  be  void. 
A  woman  is  not,  by  the  common  law, 
entitled  to  dower  in  lands  held  in  trust 
for  her  husband ;  and,  as  a  large  part  of 
the  lands  of  England  are  so  held,  joint- 
ures were  introduced  instead,  and,  as  it 
is  usually  expressed,  in  bar  of  dower. 
The  statutes  of  some  of  the  U.  States^  as 


Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  Mississippi,  pro- 
vide for  the  wife's  dower  in  trust  estates 
In  Endand,  tlie  wife  is  barred  of  her 
dower  oy  a  jointure,  although  she  may 
be  married  under  the  age  of  21,  and  so 
within  the  age  requisite  to  make  a  valid 
contract  to  most  other  purposes.  But, 
afler  her  marriage,  her  acts  are  void,  as 
she  is  then  supposed  to  be.  under  the 
authority,  and  subject  to  the  coercion  of 
her  husband,  and,  accordingly,  cannot  re- 
lease her  right  of  dower,  except  by  a  fine 
or  common  recovery,  which  are  acts 
done  in  court.  (See  Fine.)  But,  in  the 
U.  States,  although  the  general  nile  as 
to  the  wife's  in(£ility  to  contract  is  the 
same  as  in  England,  yet  one  exception  is 
made,  in  respect  to  tlie  right  of  dower,  in 
all  tliose  states  which  borrow  diis  right 
from  the  common  law  of  England ;  for 
the  wife  may,  in  all  diose  states,  release 
her  right  of  dower,  by  joining  her  husband 
in  the  conveyance,  or  by  endorsing  upon 
the  deed,  or  subjoining  to  it,  an  agreement 
to  that  effect;  or,  in  a  number  of  the 
states,  by  making  a  distinct  agreement  to 
this  effect  But,  to  sadsiy  the  rule  that 
the  wife  cannot  bind  herself  by  any  con- 
tract made  by  her  during  her  coverture, 
and  as  a  substitute  for  Uie  English  fine 
and  common  recovery,  as  far  as  the  right 
of  dower  is  concerned,  the  laws  of  many 
of  the  states,  as  Rhode  Island,  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  Ohio,  Ilhnois, 
Geors^ia,  Alabama,  Missouri,  Mississippi, 
Maryland,  Delaware,  Kentucky,  and  New 
Jersey,  require  that  tlie  wife  shall  be  ex- 
amined by  a  magistrate,  separately  from 
her  husl)and,  to  ascertain  whether  she 
signs  the  deed  freely,  and  without  com- 
pulsion ;  and,  on  her  acknowledging  that 
It  is  a  free  act  on  her  part,  the  magistrate 
certifies  accordingly,  and  her  right  of 
dower  is  released.  The  rule  of  the  Eng- 
lish law,  as  to  a  married  woman's  inca- 
pacity to  bind  herself^  would  be  exceed- 
ingly troublesome  in  the  (J.  States,  if 
applied  to  her  right  of  dower,  by  embar- 
rassing the  conveyance  of  lands ;  and  so 
the  statutes  or  usages  avoid  the  incon- 
venience, by  this  formality  of  a  private 
examination,  which,  if  the  rule  be  hterally 
well  founded,  is  a  itery  unsatis&ctoiy 
compliance  with  it,  or  excuse  for  deviaung 
from  it ;  for  if  the  wife  be,  in  feet,  under 
the  coercion  supposed  by  the  rule,  she 
would  hardly  be  liberated  from  it  by 
merely  going  into  an  adjoining  room,  or 
into  open  court ;  so  that,  if  the  theoiy  of 
the  law  were  true,  she  would  be  com- 
pelled to  make  a  false  declaration,  as  well 
80  to  lose  her  dower.     But  the  theoiy 


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DOWER— DOXOLOGY. 


291 


of  the  common  law  is  by  no  means  true : 
that  of  the  civil  law  is  much  more  just, 
namely,  that  the  wife  is  capable  of  Voli- 
tion, and  of  making  contracts,  as  far  as 
her  own  rights  are  concerned  ;  and  so 
is  the  rule  as  to  the  conveyance  of  real 
estate  in  some  of  the  U.  States ;  for  in 
Maine,  New  Hampshire  and  Massachu- 
setts, although,  in  general,  the  law  sup- 
poses a  married  womcm  to  have  no  dis- 
cretion or  liberty  as  to  contracting  about 
other  things,  vet  it  allows  her  to  release 
her  dower  in  her  husband'lB  lands,  and  to 
convey  those  which  she  holds  in  her  own 
right,  by  merely  joining  in  the  deed  with 
the  husband,  and  without  any  private  ex- 
amination as  to  her  being  under  compul- 
sion. In  other  states,  the  difficulty  is 
avoided  by  altering  the  law  of  dower,  and 

giving  it  only  in  the  lands  of  which  the 
usband  **  dies  seized.**  This  is  the  law 
of  Vermont,  Connecticut,  N.  Carolina, 
S.  Carolina  and  Tennessee*  The  civil 
law  being  the  common  law  of  Louisiana, 
the  wife  is  there  BipartTier  of  the  husband, 
and,  accordingly,  instead  of  being  entitled 
to  dower,  she  is,  on  the  dissolution  of  the 
copartnership,  by  his  decease,  entitled  to 
her  share  of  the  joint  stock.  The  laws 
of  the  other  U.  States,  generally,  agree 
vrith  the  English  in  giving  the  wife,  for 
dower,  a  life  estate  in  one  third  part  of 
the  lands  and  tenements  of  which  the 
husband  was  seized,  in  fee  simple  or  fee 
tall,  during  the  coverture,  or,  in  some  of 
the  states,  as  before  mentioned,  at  the 
time  of  his  decease.  In  some  states,  as 
Alabama  and  Tennessee,  the  widow  has 
the  right  to  occupy  the  principal  man- 
sion-house of  her  husband  during  her 
fife,  unless,  in  the  opinion  of  the  court, 
this  would  he  too  great  a  share;  and 
much  discretion  appears  to  be  given  to 
the  court  in  judging  whether  this  is  an  ex- 
cessive proportion  of  the  husliand's  estate. 
As  to  the  particular  modes  of  proceeding 
in  assigning  or  setting  off  the  widow's 
dower,  in  England  and  the  different  U. 
States,  it  would  too  much  extend  this  ar- 
ticle to  go  mto  the  detail  of  them.  Be- 
sides dower,  the  widow  is  generally  en- 
titled to  a  greater  or  smaller  portion  of 
her  husband's  personal  property,  not,  as 
in  case  of  the  dower,  merely  to  receive 
the  income  of  it  for  her  life,  but  she  has  it 
absolutely.  The  laws  of  some  of  the  U. 
States  provide,  that  lands  sold  by  the 
sheriff,  to  pay  the  debts  of  the  husband, 
shall  be  discharged  of  the  wife's  dower ; 
in  others,  it  is  set  off  to  the  creditor,  or 
sold  under  a  judgment  obtained  by  him, 
subject  to  this  right,  and  is,  accordingly, 


set  off  at  a  lower  appraisement,  or  sold 
at  a  lower  price. 

DowNiifo  STREEf ,  Westminster,  Lon- 
don ;  a  street  fivm  which  many  important 
state  papers  are  dated,  because  here  are 
the  offices  of  the  ministers  of  the  foreign 
and  home  departments.  Business  with 
foreign  ministers  is  generally  transacted 
in  Downing  street  The  two  offices  are 
not  far  from  Westminster  abbey  and  St. 
Stephen's,  where  parliament  assembles. 

Downs  ;  banks  or  elevations  of  sand, 
which  the  sea  eathers  and  forms  along 
its  shores,  and  wTiich  ser\-e  it  as  a  harrier. 
The  term  is  also  applied  to  larse  tracts 
of  naked,  poor  land,  on  which  sheep 
usually  graze. 

Downs  ;  a  celebrated  road  for  ships, 
extending  six  miles  along  the  east  coast 
of  Kent,  m  England,  between  North  and 
South  Foreland,  where  both  the  outward 
and  homeward  bound  ships  fieauentiy 
make  some  stay,  and  squadit)ns  oi  men- 
of-war  rendezvous  in  time  of  war.  It 
affords  excellent  anchorage,  and  is  de- 
fended by  the  castles  of  Deal,  Dover  and 
Sandwich,  as  well  as  by  Groodwin  sands. 

DoxoLooT  (from  So^a,  praise,  glory,  and 
^oyoiy  the  word).  This  name  is  given  to 
hymns  in  praise  of  the  Almighty,  distin- 
guished by  the  title  of  greater  and  Usser. 
Both  the  doxologies  have  a  place  in  the 
church  of  England,  the  former  being  re- 
peated after  every  psalm,  and  the  latter 
used  in  the  communion  service.  Doxol- 
ogy  the  greater,  or  the  angelic  hymn,  was 
or  great  note  in  the  ancient  church.  It 
began  with  the  words  which  the  angels 
sung  at  our  Savior's  birth,  **  Glory  be  to 
God  on  high,"  &c.  It  was  chiefly  used 
in  the  communion  service,  and  in  private 
devotions.  Doxology  the  lesser  was  an- 
ciently only  a  single  sentence,  without 
response,  in  these  words — ^"  Glory  be  to 
the  Father,  and  to  the  Son,  and  to  the 
Holy  Ghost,  world  without  end ;  amen." 
Part  of  the  latter  clause,  ^  as  it  was  in  the 
beginning,  is  now,  and  ever  shall  be,"  was 
inserted  some  time  after  the  first  compo- 
sition. Some  read  this  ancient  hymn, 
*^  GloiT  be  to  the  Father,  and  to  the  Son, 
vrith  the  Holy  Ghost" ;  others,  "  Glory  be 
to  the  Father,  in  or  by  the  Son,  and  by 
the  Holy  Ghost"  This  difference  of  ex- 
pression occasioned  no  disputes  in  the 
church,  till  the  followere  of  Arius  be^n 
to  make  use  of  the  latter  as  a  distinguishmg 
characteristic  of  tiieir  party,  when  it  was 
entirely  laid  aside  by  tlie  Catholics,  and 
the  use  of  it  was  sufficient  to  bring  any 
one  under  suspicion  of  heterodoxy.  The 
doxology  v?as  used  at  the  close  of  every 


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DOXOLOGY— DRACUNCULL 


aolemn  office.  The  Westeni  church  re- 
peated it  nt  the  end  of  eveiy  psalm; 
Many  of  the  prayers  were  also  concluded 
with  it,  particularly  the  solemn  thanksgiv- 
ing or  consecration  prayer,  at  the  celebr&- 
tion  of  the  eucharisL  It  was  also  the  or- 
dinary conclusion  of  the  sermons. 

DoTEN,  Gabriel  FranQois,  bom  at  Paris, 
in  1726,  a  pupil  of  the  fNiimer  Vanloo. 
At  the  a^  of  20,  he  gained  the  first  prize 
for  palntmg.  He  went  to  Rome,  in  1748, 
where  the  works  of  those  painters,  who 
were  distinguished  for  boldness  of  design 
and  stren^h  of  expression,  as  Annibal 
Carracci,  Pietro  di  Coitona,  Giulio  Roma- 
no, Polidore,  and  Michael  An^lo,  were 
the  particular  objects  of  his  study  and  en- 
thuoastic  emulation.  After  his  return  to 
Paris,  he  remained  a  long  tinie  without 
employment,  occupied  solely  with  his  art. 
He  spent  two  years  in  the  execution  of 
his  Virginia,  which  procured  him  admis- 
sion into  the  academy  of  painting,  in 
1758.  The  picture  La  PesU  da  Ardtnta^ 
for  the  church  of  St  Roch,  increased  his 
reputation.  To  give  his  works  more  truth, 
he  visited  the  hospitals,  and  studied  the 
expression  and  appeamnces  of  the  sick 
and  dying.  He  executed  several  works 
for  the  court  In  the  beginning  of  the 
revolution,  Catharine  II  invited  him  to 
Russia,  gave  him  a  pension  of  1200nibles, 
with  a  residence  in  one  of  the  palaces, 
and  appointed  him  professor  in  the  acad- 
emy of  painting  at  Petersburg.  After 
the  death  of  the  empress,  Paul  II  con- 
tinued to  treat  him  with  equal  favor.  He 
painted  much  for  the  imperial  palaces, 
and  died  at  Petersburg,  June  5, 1806. 

Drachm  (Vx^*))*  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^  weight 
and  of  mone^  among  the  ancient  Greeks, 
both  as  a  weight  and  a  coin,  contained  six 
oboli  (i&o\oi\  and  was  itself  the  100th  part 
of  a  mina  (/iva),  and  the  6000th  part  of  a 
talent  (Td\avTov\  1.  According  to  the  cal- 
culations of  Wurm  (Dt  PoruL  JSTununorun^ 
que  raL,  Stuttgarrt,  1821),  the  weight  of 
the  Attic  drachm  is  67.3o3  grains  English 
Troy  weight,  and  the  Attic  talent  70  lbs. 
61  oz.  The  calculation  of  M.  Letronne 
differs  slightly  from  this.  There  were 
several  other  kinds  of  drachm  and  talent 
in  use :  those  of  JSgina  were  the  heaviest, 
the  iEffinetic  talent  being  equal  to  10,000 
Attic  drachms;  tlie  Euboic  talent  was 
nearly  the  same  as  the  Attic ;  tlie  Rhodian 
and  E^ptian  talents  were  each  about 
one  thind  of  the  Attic.  Whenever  no 
particular  kind  is  designated,  the  Attic 
talent  is  meant  2.  The  principal  Gre- 
cian coin  was  the  drachm :  it  was  of  sil- 
ver :  it  was  divided,  tike  the  weight,  into 


nx  oboli  (silver).  The  tetradrachm  (of 
four  drachms|  was  called  the  Btatar.  These 
coins  difierea  much  in  value  in  different 
countries  in  Greece,  and  in  different  ages 
in  the  same  country.  The  Attic  drachm 
and  stater  occur  most  frequently.  Those 
coined  previous  to  the  time  of  Pericles 
were  worth  about  17.05  cents,  the  talents 
(silver),  of  course,  $1023 ;  the  value  of 
the  later  drachms  (during  the  two  centu- 
ries before  and  after  the  Christian  eraj, 
was  15.20  cents;  of  the  talents,  $9l2i»0. 
The  stater,  in  the  former  period,  was 
worth  G8.2  cents ;  in  the  latter,  60.8  cents. 
Besides  these  silver  coins,  tliere  were  also 
the  stater  of  gold,  equal  in  value  to  20 
drachms,  and  the  talent  of  gold,  which 
was  used  sometimes  to  designate  a  quan- 
tity of  gold  equal  in  value,  sometimes  a 
quantity  of  gold  equal  in  weig'ht,  to  the 
silver  talent  It  sometimes,  also,  desig- 
nates a  ^Id  coin,  weighing  six  drachms. 
In  the  ame  of  Solon,  a  sheep  could  be 
bouglit  for  one  drachm,  an  ox  for  five. 
In  the  time  of  Demosthenes,  a  fat  ox  cost 
80  drachms,  a  Iamb,  10. 

DaACo;  an  archon  and  legislator  of 
Athens,  about  600  B.  C,  celebrated  for 
the  extraordinaiy  severity  of  his  laws. 
The  slightest  onence,  such  as  stealing 
fruit,  and  even  idleness,  he  punished  with 
death,  no  less  than  sacrilege,  murder  or 
treason.  Hence  his  laws  were  said  to  be 
written  in  blood.  Notliing  was  more  natu- 
ral tiian  that  this  rigor  should  render  them 
odious,  and  prevent  their  execution,  espe- 
cially as  the  people  became  more  civilized 
and  refined.  Solon  was  Uierefore  com- 
missioned to  compose  a  new  code.  (See 
Miccu)  Tradition  relates  that  Draco,  on 
his  appearance  in  the  theatre  at  iEgina, 
where  he  is  said  to  have  carried  his  laws, 
was  suffocated  amidst  the  applauses  of 
the  people,  who,  according  to  their  custom, 
threw  their  gannents  and  caps  upon  hinL 
He  was  buried  under  the  theatre. 

Dracunculi,  in  medicine ;  small,  long 
worms,  which  breed  in  the  muscular  parts 
of  the  arms  and  legs,  called  Guinea- 
worms,  common  among  the  natives  of 
Guinea.  The  worm  is  white,  round  and 
uniform,  resembling  white,  round  tape. 
It  is  lodged  between  the  interstices  and 
membranes  of  the  muscles,  where  it  in- 
sinuates itself,  sometimes  exceeding  five 
ells  in  len^.  It  occasions  no  great  pain 
in  the  beginning ;  but,  at  such  times  as  it 
is  ready  to  go  out,  the  part  adjoining  to  the 
extremity  of  the  worm,  where  it  attempts 
its  exit,  begins  to  swell,  throb,  and  become 
inflamed  :  this  generally  happens  about 
the  ankle,  leg,  or  thigh,  and  rarely  higher. 


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DRACUNCUU— DRAGON. 


293 


The  countries  where  this  distemper  is  ob- 
served are  hot  and  sultiy,  subject  to  great 
droughts,  and  the  inhabitants  make  use  of 
stagnating  and  corrupted  water,  in  which 
it  is  very  probable  that  the  ova  of  tlieae  an- 
imalcute  may.  be  contained ;  for  tlie  white 
people  who  drink  this  water  are  liable  to 
the  disease  as  well  as  the  Negroes. 

Drag  ;  a  machine  consisting  of  a  sharp, 
square  frame  of  iron,,  encircled  with  a 
net,  and  commonly  used  to  rake  the  mud 
off  from  the  platform  or  bottom  of  the 
docks,  or  to  clean  rivers. 

Dragging  the  Anchor;  the  act  of 
truling  it  along  the  bottom,  after  it  is 
loosened  from  the  ground,  by  the  effort 
of  the  wind  or  current 

Dragoman;  an  interpreter,  employed 
in  the  East,  and  especially  at  the  Turkish 
court.  The  dragoman  of  the  Porte,  who 
IS  in  the  service  of  the  court,  and  through 
whom  the  sultan  receives  the  communi- 
cations of  the  Christian  ambassadors,  was 
formerly  a  Christian,  by  birth  a  Greek, 
and  often  attained  the  rank  of  a  prince 
(hospodar)  of  Moldavia  or  Wallachia. 

Dragon  ;  1.  One  of  the  northern  con- 
stellations. Fable  says  that  Juno  trans- 
lated to  the  heavens  the  dragon  which 
kept  tlie  golden  apples  in  the  <mamber  of 
the  Hesperides,  and  was  slain  by  Hercules. 
2.  The  dra^n  of  fable.  The  &bulous 
stories  of  this  monster  reach  back  almost 
as  far  as  history.  His  form  is  described 
as  most  terrible,  and  bis  residence  has 
been  assigned  to  almost  all  countries, 
particidarlv  that  part  of  India  and  Africa 
that  was  mrmerly  unknown.  His  length 
is  represented  from  20  to  70  ells.  Of 
the  latter  sort  was  the  dragon  which 
lived  in  India,  according  to  iElian,  in  the 
time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  was 
venerated  as  a  god.  The  dragon  is  de- 
scribed as  having  no  feet,  but  as  crawling 
like  a  serpent,  his  body  covered  with 
scales,  ana  his  neck,  according  to  some 
accounts,  adorned  with  a  mane.  These 
relations  are  abnost  all  contradictory,  and 
agree  only  in  this— that  the  dragon  had 
very  acute  senses,  especially  a  piercing 
vision.  His  strength  was  so  great  that  he 
could  easily  strangle  an  elephant  His 
food  consisted  of  the  blood  and  flesh  of 
all  sorts  of  animals,  and  of  various  fruits.. 
Notwithstanding  his  ferocity,  however,  the 
dra^n  miffbt  be  confined  and  tamed, 
which  the  old  authors  represent  as  havmg 
happened  in  various  cases.  The  animd 
which  gave  occasion  to  these  fables  is 
probably  no  other  than  the  great  boa 
constrictor.  (See  Boa.)  The  fabled  draff- 
OD  of  the  middle  ages  iiad  four  lioirs 


feet,  a  long,  thick,  serpent's  tail,  and  an 
immense  throat,  from  which  streamed 
flames  of  fire.  This  dragon  played  a 
distinguished  part  in  the  ages  of  chivalry : 
he  is  one  of  tliose  monsters  whom  it  was 
the  business  of  tlie  heroes  of  romance  to 
destroy.  The  idea  of  tlie  dragon  of  tlie 
middle  ages  probably  grew  out  of  indis- 
tinct and  exagfferated  accounts  of  the 
crocodile  of  the  Nile,  which  were  brought 
to  Europe  by  means  of  the  crusades, 
and  from  similar  descriptions  of  the  larg- 
est land  serpents.  Even  at  the  present 
day,  the  existence  of  dragons  is  fully  be- 
lieved in  by  the  inhabitants  of  certain 
countries.  3.  The  researches  of  modem 
naturalists  have  served  to  explode  tliis 
and  many  otlier  fictions  connected  with 
the  history  of  animals ;  and,  at  the  present 
day,  the  curious  inquirer,  who  seeks  for 
the  celebrated  dragon,  will  be  disappoint- 
ed in  discovering  that  the  animal  to  which 
the  name  properly  belongs,  is  not  an  un- 
tamable and  ferocious  monster,  but  an 
inoffensive  lizcwd,  a  few  inches  long,  for- 
midable to  notliing  but  the  small  insects 
on  which  it  feeds.  The  love  of  gain  often 
makes  the  natives  of  wann  climates  guilty 
of  tlie  most  ingenious  frauds  on  the  credu- 
lity of  strangers,  for  whom  tliey  prepare, 
with  great  art,  fictitious  animals,  which 
are  purchased  by  the  ignorant,  as  genuine 
dragons,  mermaids,  &c.  In  this  way, 
ill-informed  travellera  are  led  occasionally 
to  revive  the  fable  of  the  existence  of  the 
dragon.  Two  species  of  dragon- lizard 
are  described  by  naturalists,  but  it  is  most 
prolwble  that  the  second  is  merely  a 
variety  of  the  first  (D,  volans)^  which  is 
said  to  inhabit  Asia,  Africa,  and  South 
America.  Length,  seldom  exceeding  12 
inches ;  body  lacertiform ;  sides  furnished 
vrith  peculiar  productions  of  the  skin, 
supported  by  internal  cartilaginous  rays, 
which,  when  expanded,  enable  it  to  sup- 
port itself  in  the  air  for  a  few  seconds,  m 
springing  firom  branch  to  branch,  among 
the  lofty  trees  in  which  it  resides ;  hodr 
and  wings  covered  by  small  scales ;  back 
slightly  carinate;  throat  with  the  skm 
produced  into  a  pouch-shaped  expansion, 
which  is  inflated  with  air,  at  the  pleasure 
of  the  animal.  The  food  consists  almost 
exclusively  of  insects.  Color  varied  with 
blackish,  brown  and  whitish.  The  pro- 
portions of  the  animal  are  delicate,  and  it  is 
very  active.  Dried  specimens,  preserved 
in  the  cabinets  of  the  curious,  do  not  give 
a  good  idea  of  the  animal,  as  the  process 
of  drying  destroys  the  proportions ;  and  it 
is  also  to  be  regretted  that  few  engraved 
figures  are  commendable  for  their  fidelity. 


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X04 


DRAGON'S  BLOOD— DRAKE. 


Dbaoon^s  Bloop  ;  a  resinous  juice  ob- 
tained by  incision  finom  several  difTereut 
plants,  found  between  tbe  tropics; — from 
tl)e  trunk  of  the pterocarpus  draco,  a  tree  of 
the  natural  order  Uguminosay  {rrowingin  the 
Eaai  Indies,  which  yields  OnenUd  dragon's 
blood ;  from  the  pieroaxrpus  santmnus, 
inhatiiting  tropical  America,  which  affords 
it  in  less  quantity  and  more  impure ;  from 
tlie  calamus  draco,  a  palm  of  the  East 
Indies,  from  which  it  is  obtained,  accord- 
ing to  Kdmpfer,  by  boiling  tlie  fruit ;  from 
a  dalbergia  in  Guiana,  and  a  croUm  in 
Soutli  America ;  from  the  dracttna  draco, 
the  native  country  of  which  is  not  known 
with  certainty,  but  is  supposed  to  be  Afri- 
ca. A  single  tree  of  this  last  species, 
which  was  introduced  into  the  Canaries 
at  the  time  of  the  conquest,  acquired 
enormous  dimensions,  and  has  been  vis- 
ited and  celebrated  by  every  traveller,  but 
was  destrofyed  by  a  storm,  in  1822.  Drae- 
Dn's  blood  is  obtained,  in  conunerce,  m 
three  principal  forms—in  that  of  oval 
masses,  of  the  size  of  a  pigeon's  egg,  en- 
veloped with  leaves  of  tlie  pandanus ;  in 
cylinders,  covered  with  iNdm  leaves ;  and 
in  irregular  masses,  marked  with  impres- 
sions of  leaves :  that  in  oval  masses  is  the 
most  esteemed.  It. is  often  very  much 
adulterated,  and  other  substances  are  sub- 
stituted; particularly  gum  Arabic  and  gum 
Senegal,  colored  with  logwood,  &c.  Sev- 
eral of  tliese  substances  may  be  detected 
by  tlieir  dissolving  in  water,  while  drag- 
on's blood  is  nearly  insoluble  ;  others  re- 
quire to  be  submitted  to  some  chemical 
tests.  Madagascar  furnishes  tliis  resin  of 
a  good  quality,  but  so  much  mixed  with 
foreign  substances,  that  it  is  little  used. 
Dragon's  blood  is  opaque,  of  a  deep  red- 
dish-brown color,  brittle,  and  has  a  smooth 
and  shining  conchoidal  fracture ;  when  in 
thin  larninse,  it  is  sometimes  transparent ; 
when  burnt,  it  gives  out  an  odor  somewhat 
analogous  to  beni'.oui ;  its  taste  is  a  litde 
astringent ;  it  is  so.'uble  in  alcohol,  and  the 
solution  will  permanently  stain  heated 
marble,  for  which  purpose  it  is  often  used, 
as  well  as  for  stainiiig  leather  and  wood. 
It  is  also  soluble  in  oil,  and  enters  into 
tbe  composition  of  a  veiy  brilliant  var- 
nish, which  is  much  i«teemed  by  artists. 
Its  quality  may  be  pit)ved  by  making 
marks  on  paper :  the  best  leaves  a  fine  red 
trace,  and  commands  a  pretty  high  price. 
It  was  fbrmeriy  in  high  repute  as  a  med- 
icine, but  at  the  present  time  is  verv  little 
used.  An  astringent  resin,  obtains  from 
the  eucalyptus  rtsimfera  of  New  Holland, 
beara  the  name  of  dragon^s  Hood  in  the 
English  settlements  in  that  country. 


Diuooif-SHEi.L,  in  natural  histoiy;  a 
name  given  to  a  species  of  concamera- 
ted  patella  or  limpet.  It  has  a  top  very 
much  bent,  and  is  of  an  ash-color  on  the 
outside,  but  of  an  elegant  and  bright  fresh- 
color  vrithin.  It  has  been  found  sticking 
to  the  back  of  a  tortoise,  as  the  common 
limpets  do  to  the  sides  of  rocks,  and  some 
have  been  affixed  to  large  shells  of  the 
pinna  fnartnom 

Dragoon;  a  kind  of  light-horseman, 
of  French  origin,  trained  to  fight  either  in 
or  out  of  the  line,  in  a  body,  or  singly, 
chiefly  on  horseback,  but,  if  necessary,  on 
foot  also.  Tbe  dragoons  were  mounted, 
armed  and  exercised  as  these  objects 
require.  Thev  probablv  took  the  name 
of  dragoons  from  the  Roman  draeonarUy 
whose  lances  were  adorned  with  figures 
of  dragons.  Experience  proving  that  tfaey 
did  not  answer  the  end  deagned,  they 
wers  hardly  ever  used  in  infantry  service, 
and  now  form  a  useful  kind  of  cavalry, 
mounted  on  horses  too  heavy  for  the 
hussara,  and  too  light  for  the  cuirassiers. 
— ^Drc^goofUMfeff,  dragoon-conversionB ;  Le. 
conversions  which  are  compelled  by  force 
of  arms ;  forced  converaions.  Louis  XIV, 
for  instance,  sent  dragoons  for  this  pur- 
pose to  the  Cevennes,  m  1684,  to  chastise 
the  Huguenots. 

Drake,  sir  Francis,  a  distinguished 
Endish  navigator,  was  bom  at  Tavistock, 
in  Devonshire,  1545^  and  served  as  a 
sailor  in  a  coasting-vessel,  which  some- 
times made  voyages  to  France  and  Ire- 
land. He  gained  the  favor  of  his  master, 
who,  on  his  death,  left  his  vessel  to  him. 
Sir  John  Hawkins,  one  of  his  relations, 
then  took  him  under  his  care,  and,  at  the 
age  of  18,  he  served  as  purser  of  a  ship 
which  traded  to  Biscay.  At  20,  he  made 
a  voyage  to  the  coast  of  Guinea  {  at  02, 
received  the  command  of  a  ship,  ^d  dis- 
tininiished  himself  by  his  valor  in  the 
unfortunate  expedition  of  sir  John  Haw- 
kins against  the  S|)aniards,  in  tlie  harbor 
of  Vera  Cruz.  In  tliis  aiiair,  however,  he 
lost  all  which  he  possessed.  Hereup<Hi 
he  conceived  an  inveterate  hatred  against 
the  Spaniards,  and  projected  new  expe- 
ditions against  them.  He  had  no  sooner 
made  his  plans  known  in  England,  than 
a  multitude  of  adventurera  joined  him. 
He  now  made  two  cruises  to  tbe  West 
Indies,  but  avoided  an  engagement  with 
the  Spaniards.  The  result  of  tiiese  voy- 
ages, however,  was  so  successful,  that  he 
received  tlie  command  of  two  vessels,  in 
1572,  for  the  purpose  of  attacking  the 
commercial  ports  of  Spanish  America. 
One  of  them  was  commanded  by  Lis 


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DRAKB-DRAMA. 


SM 


brother.  He  captured  tfie  cities  of  Norn- 
bre  de  Dioe  and  Vera  Cruz,  lying  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  the  isthmus  of  Darien, 
and  took  a  rich  booty.  After  his  return, 
he  equipped  three  frigates  at  his  own  ex- 
pense, with  which  he  served  as  a  volun- 
teer, in  an  expedition  to  Ireland,  under 
the  command  of  the  earl  of  Essex,  father 
of  queen  Elizabeth's  favorite.  On  the 
death  of  his  protector,  he  returned  to 
England.  Sir  Cliristopher  Hatton,  vice- 
chamberlain  and  privv-counsellor  of  queen 
Elizabeth,  introducea  him  to  this  princess. 
Drake  disclosed  to  her  his  plan,  which 
was  to  pass  tlirough  the  straits  of  Magel- 
lan to  tlie  South  seas,  and  there  to  attack 
the  Spaniards.  The  queen  furnished  him 
with  means  for  equipping  a  fleet  of  five 
ships  for  diis  purpose.  Drake  sailed  from 
Plymouth  Nov.  13,  1577,  and  anived  at 
the  straits  of  Magellan  Aug.  20,  1578. 
Nov.  6,  he  succeeded  in  leaving  the  straits, 
but  was  overtaken  by  a  storm  the  day 
after,  which  compelled  him  to  steer  to 
the  south.  Returning  to  the  extremity 
of  the  straits,  he  called  the  bay  in  which 
he  anchored  The  Parting  of  Friends,  on 
account  of  the  separation  of  one  of  his 
ships.  New  storms  again  drove  liim  to 
the  south.  He  now  found  himself  be- 
tween the  islands  which  geograohers,  in 
later  charts,  have  laid  down  as  200  leagues 
west  of  America.  But  Fleurieu  has  prov- 
ed that  they  belong  to  those  numerous  isl- 
ands, as  yet  but  little  known,  which  com- 
pose the  south-western  part  of  the  Archi- 
pelago of  the  Terra  del  Fuego :  he  has 
shown,  likewise,  that  Drake  then  saw 
cape  Horn,  and  has,  therefore,  the  honor 
of  the  discovery.  November  20,  Drake 
came  in  sight  of  the  island  of  Mocha, 
south  of  CMle,  where  he  had  appointed  a 
rendezvous  for  his  fleet  As  none  of  his 
vessels  arrived,  he  continued  his  course 
to  the  north,  along  the  coast  of  Chile  and 
Peru,  in  search  of  Spanish  ships,  and 
suitable  places  for  making  incursions  into 
the  country.  When  his  crew  was  suffix 
ciently  enriched  with  booty,  he  followed 
the  coast  of  North  America,  to  48°  north 
latitude,  hoping  to  find  a  passage  into  the 
Atlantic  Deceived  in  his  expectations, 
and  compelled  by  the  cokl  to  return  to 
38°,  be  named  the  place  where  he  re- 
paired his  vessels  New  Albion,  and  took 
posses^n  of  it  in  the  name  of  queen 
Elizabeth.  Sept  29,  1579,  he  directed 
his  course  to  the  Moluccas,  and  anchored 
at  Temate,  Nov.  4.  He  narrowly  escaped 
being  lost  near  the  Celebes.  Nov.  3, 1580, 
he  anived  at  Plymouth;  April  4,  1581, 
Elizabeth  heiself  went  on  board  Drake's 


vessel,  then  at  anchor  at  Deptford,  dhed 
with  him,  knighted  him,  and  wnroved  of 
what  he  had  done.  In  1585,  Drake  dis- 
turbed the  Spaniards  anew  in  the  Cape 
Yerd  islands,  and  in  the  West  Indies.    In 

1587,  he  commanded  a  fleet  of  30  sail, 
which  burned  a  part  of  the  celebrated 
armada  in  the  harbor  4  of  Cadiz,  and,  in 

1588,  commanded,  as  vice-admiral,  under 
lord  Howard,  high-admiral  of  England,  in 
the  conflict  with  the  Spanish  armada.  A 
rich  galleon  surrendered  to  him  at  the 
mere  sound  of  his  name,  and  he  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  pursuit  of  the  en- 
emy. In  1589,  he  commanded  the  fleet 
intended  to  restore  don  Antonio  to  the 
tlirone  of  Portugal  But  this  enterprise 
failed  on  account  of  a  misunderstanding 
between  Drake  and  the  general  of  tlie 
land  forces.  The  war  wuh  Spain  still 
continued.  Drake  and  Hawkins  proposed 
to  Elizabeth  a  new  expedition  against  the 
Spaniards  m  the  West  Indies,  which 
should  surpass  all  that  had  preceded  it 
They  were  willing  to  bear  a  part  of  the 
expense,  and  the  queen  furnished  shipa 
The  expedition,  however,  wss  unfortu- 
nate. Nov.  12, 1595,  the  day  of  sir  John 
Hawkinses  death,  Drake's  vessel,  in  sailing 
from  the  port  of  Porto  Rico,  was  struck 
by  a  cannon-ball,  which  carried  away  the 
chair  in  which  he  sat,  without  doing  him 
any  injury.  The  next  day,  the  Spanish 
vessels  were  attacked  before  Porto  Rico 
with  great  violence,  but  without  success. 
He  then  sailed  to  the  continent,  and  set 
fire  to  Rio  de  la  Hacha  and  Nomhre  de 
Dios;  but,  having  undertake!/  an  expedi- 
tion against  Panama,  some  days  after, 
which  entirely  failed,  the  disappointment 
threw  him  into  a  slow  fever,  which  ter- 
minated his  life,  Dec.  30, 1596, 0.  S.  (Jan. 
9, 1597).  Among  the  honorable  uses  of 
his  wealth  must  4ie  mentioned  his  pro- 
viding Plvmoutli  with  water,  which  hs 
brouiefht  trom  the  distance  of  20  milea. 
To  him  Europe  is  indebted  for  the  intro- 
duction of  the  potato.  (See  The  famous 
Voyage  of  Sir  Francis  Drake  into  the  Souik 
Seoj  andhence  about  the  whole  Globe  ofOie 
Earthy  London  1600,  12mo.,  edited  by 
Francis  Pretty,  who  served  under  Drake.) 

Drama  (the  Greek  Spana,  from  6pd»,  I 
act);  a  class  of  writings  in  which  the 
author  does  not  appear  as  such,  either 
reasoning  or  relating,  but  persons  are 
represented  as  acting  and  speaking,  and 
the  course  of  the  story  and  the  feelings 
of  the  parties  are  to  be  gathered  fh>m 
what  they  say.  In  euic  poetiy,  the  per- 
sons of  the  poem  are  also  often  mtroduced 
speaking,  but  description  is  the  prevailing 


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DRAMA. 


chaActeristic  of  the  epopee,  whilst,  in  the 
drama,  every  tiling  is  represented  as  actu- 
ally happening.     The  drama,  therefore, 
represents  actwii  and  its  motives  directly, 
not  in  the  vtray  of  description.    TcCking 
the  word  in  its  most  general  sense,  we 
also  call  an  epic  poem  or  a  novel  dror 
malic,  when  a  quick  succession  of  inter- 
estuig  eyeftts  is  rapidly  developed ;  when, 
in  a  word,  action  prevails  over  descrip- 
tion or  reasoning.    The  French,  however, 
designate  by  dratne  only  something  inter- 
mediate between   tragedy  and   comedv. 
The  origin  of  the  drama  must  be  sought 
for  in  that  powerful  agent  in  human  nature 
— tlie  love  of  imitation.    The  rude  war- 
dance  of  a  savage  tribe  is  a  beginning 
of  the  drama,  because  it  represents  an  ac- 
tion for  the  entertainment  of  the  spectatore 
or  performers,  and  the  dance  is  found 
among    all    early   religious    rites.     (See 
Dance,)    So  dramatic  performances,  that 
is  to  say,  imitative  representations  of  im- 
portant events,  in  religious  history,  are 
found  among  the  rites  or  religious  ser- 
vices of  all  nations  in  their  early  period. 
Witli  many  they  are  always  preserved;  as 
the  Catholics,  both  Greek  and  Roman,  to 
this  day.  at  tlie  celebration  of  their  various 
festivaiiB,  hrinff  forward  exhibitions,  which 
represent,  witn  more  or  less  accuracy,  the 
chief  particulara  of  that  event  which  is  to 
be  commemorated.    These  religious  per- 
formances are  connected  with  or  give  rise 
to   the  symbolical  performances  in  the 
different  rites.    Thus  the  Catholic  priest, 
by  moving  from  one  end  of  the  altar  to 
the  other,  while  reading  mass,  indicates 
the  fliffht  of  Joseph  ana  Mary  to  Egypt 
The  elements  of  the  dramatic  art,  as  has 
already  been  said,  are  found  among  all  na- 
tions ;  and  every  people,  which  has  made 
progress  in  civilization,  has,  at  the  same 
time,  developed  this  art     The  Chinese 
and  the  Indians  have  their  dramatic  per- 
fonnances ;  but  the  Europeans  are  indebt- 
ed for  the  drama,  as  for  so  many  other 
productions  of  civilization,  to  the  Greeks. 
From  them    it  passed  to   the  Romans, 
whose  acquisitions  in  civilization  were  in 
part  preserved,  and  in  part  revived  by  the 
Italians,  though  the  latter  never  cultivated 
this  species  of  poetry,  at  least  the  tragic 
branch  of  it,  so  much  as  the  epic  and 
lyric     The  gifled  Machiavelli,  inspired 
by  the  productions  of  the  ancients,  may 
be  said  to  have  conwnenced  a  new  era 
of  the  drama,  though  the  art  had  been  in 
some  measure  cultivated  by  the  Italians 
before  his  time.    But  the  dramatic  genius 
who  has  surpassed  all  ancient  and  modem 
writers^  in  univenality  of  conception  and 


knowledge  of  human  nature,  appeared 
among  tne  English.    The  drama  began 
with  action;  that  is  to  say,  with  panto- 
mimic dances.    No  art,  useful  or  orna- 
mental, is,  in  its  ori^,  clearly  defined. 
The  dramatic  art,  in  its  origin  among  the 
Greeks,  was  by  no  means  so  distinctly 
separated  from  epic  and  l3rric  poetry  as 
we  find  it  at  a  later  period.    The  Greek 
comedy  commenced  about  580  B.  C,  with 
Susarion,  tlie  contemporary  of  Thespis, 
who  travelled  from  place  to  place,  holding 
up  to  ridicule,  on  a  small  movable  stage, 
the  follies  and  vices  of  his  age.    The  okl 
comedy  of  the  Greeks  consisted  of  dra- 
matic-epic songs  connected  with  dancing, 
by  which  travelling  actors  entertained  the 
P|eople ;  hence  the  name  comedy  (xwituiia^ 
signifying,  originally,  vmage-song.     The 
contents  of  these  songs  were  mirthful, 
ludicrous,  often  indecent     By  degrees, 
tragedy  became  a  distinct  branch  of  the 
art,  and  its  graver  scenes  served  as  an  en- 
tertainment for  the  inhabitants  of  the  cities, 
whilst  the  comedy  retained  its  gay  charac- 
ter, and  chiefly  served  to  amuse  the  coun- 
tjy  people  of  Attica.    Regular  companies 
of  comedians  were  at  length  established 
at  Athens,  where  they  were  only  tolerated 
by  the  government    A  chief,  a  dancinv 
and  singing  chorus,  together  with  sevenu 
actors,  appeared  on  a  convenient  stage. 
Epicharmus,  about  485  B.  C,  introduced 
unity  of  action,  and  modeled  his  come- 
dies after  the  tragedies.    His  comedies 
were  popular  in  Greece,  and  among  his 
followers  are  distinguished  Phorme8,Mag- 
nes,  Crates,  Cratinus,  Eupolis,  Pherecre- 
tea  and  Aristophanea      With  all  these, 
personal  satire  was  the  chief  object,  and 
magistrates,  as  well  as  private  persons,were 
called  by  name  and  exhibited  on  the  stage. 
The  old  comedy  of  the  Greeks  was  thor- 
oughly national,  with  somewhat  of  a  polit- 
ical tendency.    It  was  in  vain  prohibited 
by  laws  and  decrees  of  the  people.    At 
the  end  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  comedy 
received  a  new  character  and  form.    The 
middle  comedy,90  called,  now  began.    The 
new  oligarchy  deprived  the  people  of  the 
privilege  of  ridiculing  the  measures  of 
government     It  was  strictly  prohibited 
to  bring  living  persons  by  name  on  the 
stage,  and  the  chorus,  till  then  the  chief 
instrument  of  vituperation,  was  abolished ; 
whilst,  widi  the  representations  of  gen- 
eral characters,  corresponding  masks  were 
introduced,  instead  of  those  imitating  the 
countenances  of  particular   individuals. 
Even  Aristophanes  was  obliged  to  submit 
to  these  regulations  in  his  last  produc- 
tions, and  thus  comparative  decorum  ^ 


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kilroduced  into  the  repreoentationSb  The 
subjects  of  comedy  continued  to  be  taken 
jSpom  mythology  and  history ;  but  the  de- 
scriptions of  tiie  ridiculous  were  more 
general  than  formerly,  when  they  were 
ofleu  entirely  individual  The  chorus 
rarely  appeared.  To  the  new  comeebf 
of  the  Greeks  belongs  Menander,  about 
dOO  B.  C^  who,  by  Sie  keenness  of  his 
wit,  and  the  regularity  of  his  pieces,  began 
a  new  period  of  die  Greek  comedy.  Of 
him  and  Philemon  fragments  only  have 
come  down  to  us.  (For  a  particular  ac- 
count of  the  character  of  the  Greek  com- 
edy, as  distinguished  from  the  tragedy, 
we  refer  the  reader  to  the  excellent  Lec- 
tures on  Dramatic  Literature,  by  A.  W. 
Schickel.)  Tragedy  consisted,  originally, 
of  lyric  and  epic  son^  sung  in  honor  of 
Bacchus,  at  the  festival  of  the  vintage. 
The  traces  of  its  origin  are  lost.  (See 
Gruk  Liierctture.)  The  invention  of  tra- 
gedy is  generally  ascribed  to  Thespis 
(q.  v.),  who  was  followed  by  Phrynichua 
The  true  creator  of  the  tragedy  was  JEs- 
chylus  (q.  v.);  Thespis  had  only  one 
actor,  who  from  time  to  time  relieved 
the  chorus  by  declamation,  ^schylus 
changed  this  representation  into  real  ac- 
tion, by  making  use  of  two,  sometimes 
three  or  four  actors,  and  inventing  the 
dialogue.  Being  as^sted  by  the  tiberality 
of  the  government,  he  increased  the  num- 
ber of  his  actors,  who  now  became  the 
principal  object  of  interest  with  the  spec- 
tatORs:  the  chorus,  on  the  otlier  hand, 
became  less  prominent;  its  songs  were 
shortened,  though  they  still  remained  very 
long,  and  were  always  written  in  a  tone 
of  tJie  highest  lyrical  elevation,  which 
somenmes  appears  even  in  the  dialogue. 
iEschylus  aimed  more  at  sublimity  than 
beauty.  There  are  many  traces  of  rude- 
ness in  his  plays,  yet  they  are  wonderfully 
grand.  The  action  is  simple  in  the  ex- 
treme. The  cboiiis  no  longer  chants 
songs  which  have  no  connexion  with  the 
play,  but  it  forms  a  part  of  one  whole,  is 
the  adviser  of  kings,  the  confidant  of  the 
persons  of  the  action,  the  comforter  of  tlie 
unhappy,  the  terror  of  tyrants.  Inst^ul 
of  wine  lees,  with  which  the  actors  of 
Thespis  had  besmeared  their  faces,  i£s- 
chylus  introduced  masks ;  and,  by  means 
of  a  long  gown  and  the  eolkumua  (q.  v.), 
die  loffy  stature  of  the  heroes  was  imi- 
tated. The  accommodations  for  the  spec- 
tators were  improved,  and  machinery  ^nd 
scenery  were  introduced.  iEschylus  gen- 
erally instructed  his  actors  himself,  in  the 
declamation  of  his  pieces.  Sophocles 
'q.  v.)  followed  him,  and  showed  himself 


a  master  of  the  tragic  art:  he  knew  better 
than  his  predecessor  how  to  excite  com- 
passion, and  to  move  the  human  heart 
£uripides  (q.  v.)  was  superior  to  both  ia 
this  respecty  but  he  is  not  so  hapf^  in  the 
plan  and  execution  of  his  plays.  These 
three  great  poets  carried  the  Greek 
ly  to  its  perfection.  Many  poets 
lowed  them,  but  only  the  three  just 
named  have  left  works  which  have  come 
down  to  us.  (See  Bockh  Ueber  die  gfiech- 
iaehm  Tragiker^-^n  the  Greek  Tragedi- 
ans. )  The  Romans,  a  practical  nation,  and 
not  possessing  that  keen  sense  of  beauty 
which  we  find  in  ancient  Greece,  never 
accomplished  much  in  this  branch.  The 
earliest  specimens  of  the  drama  in  Itfdy 
were  the  Fabtd<B  JteUcoMty  so  called  from 
Atdla,  a  city  of  the  Oscians,  whence  the 
performers  in  these  entertainments  came 
to  Rome.  Plautus  and  Terence  were 
imitators  of  tlie  new  Greek  comedy.  Of 
the  Roman  tragedy,  the  dramas  which  go 
under  the  name  of  Seneca  are  the  only 
B[)ecimeus  extant  (See  SenMO,  and  Bor 
niua.)  When  the  enormous  accumulation 
of  wealth  in  Rome,  and  the  total  depravity 
of  morals,  had  corrupted  almost  every 
thing  which  ancient  Rome  and  Greece 
had  produced,  the  theatte  became  little 
better  than  a  show-place,  where  spectacles 
were  eidiibited,  rather  than  plays  per- 
formed. In  the  beginning  of  the  middle 
ages,  when  every  thing  noble  was  buried 
under  the  deluge  of  barbarism,  the  dra- 
matic art  was  lost,  or  existed  only  among 
the  lowest  classes  of  the  people,  in  plays 
improvisated  at  certain  festivals,  for  in- 
stance, the  carnival.  These  were  attacked 
as  heathenish,  immoral,  and  indecent  ex- 
hibitions; but  the  favor  which  they  en- 
joyed among  the  people,  and  the  spirit  of 
the  times,  induced  the  cleigy  to  encourage 
theatrical  exhibitions  of  subjects  from 
sacred  history.  These  were  called  mys- 
teriea  (q.  v.),  and,  in  all  the  southern  coun- 
tries or  Europe,  as  well  as  in  Germany 
and  England,  preceded  the  rise  of  the 
nadonal  drama.  (See  Ancitnl  MifsterieSy 
especially  the  English  Mvrade-'Plaus,  by 
William  Hone,  Loodon,  1823.J  Of  this 
kind  were  the  ridiculous  Fufta  Asmarioj  in 
which  mass  was  read  by  persons  dressed 
like  asses,  and  every  means  taken  to  divert 
the  people  in  churches,  on  the  occurrence 
of  the  festival  of  Easter.  So  popular 
were  these  extravagances,  that  even  the 
decrees  of  popes  against  them  were  for  a 
long  time  of  little  avail.  Witli  Albertino 
Mussati  (bom  1360)  a  better  kind  of  drama 
arose.  He  wrote  some  tragedies,  and  the 
drama,  in  Italy,  was  divided  into  the  em* 


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DRABfA. 


dila  and  the  cammedia  dtW  arU^  which 
last  IS  8Ui>poeed  to  be  derived  from  the  an- 
cient FqJouUe  AUUaruE  and  the  ndnvL  Car- 
dinaJ  Bibbiena  wrote  the  first  genuine  Ital- 
ian comedy — tlie  Calandria — an  account 
of  which  would  startle  the  reader,  who 
should  be  told  that  it  was  perfonned  for 
the  amusement  of  the  holy  fathers  of  the 
church,  and  the  iirincipal  clergy,  in  the 
presence  of  the  ladies  of  the  court.  Ari- 
osto  and  Machiavelli  wrote  dramas ;  and 
of  tlie  Mandragola  of  the  latter,  Voltaire 
sews,  that  it  is  worth  all  the  comedies 
of  Aristophanes ;  which  shows,  at  least, 
that  it  is  a  truly  valuable  performance. 
The  comedy  was  cultivated  by  many 
Italians,  including  numerous  ecclesiastics. 
Leo  X  was  a  great  patron  of  the  theatre. 
Aliiert  is  tlie  most  important  of  the  dra- 
matic writers  of  Italy  ;  yet  his  comedies 
are  to  be  considered  ratlier  as  bitter  sa- 
tires. His  comedies  are  mora  tragic 
than  his  tragedies.  (See  •^//im,  and 
Goldoni)  The  other  European  nations 
cultivated  the  dramatic  art  much  later 
than  the  Italians.  The  English  and 
Spaniards  devoted  their  attenUon  to  it 
almost  at  the  same  time  ;  the  former 
reaching  their  acme  in  Shakspeare,  the 
latter  in  Lope  de  Vega.  The  history  of 
the  English  theatre  and  tlie  drama  is  nat- 
urally divided  into  two  parts,  the  first  of 
which  begins  with  Elizabeth,  and  ends 
with  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  The  Puri- 
tans then  prohibited  all  kinds  of  plays, 
and  the  theatres  were  shut  up  for  13 
years.  With  Charles  II  the  drama  reap- 
peared, and  exhibited  a  licentiousness 
hardly  equalled  by  that  of  any  other 
Christian  nation.  No  species  of  literature 
was  more  admired  and  more  debased  than 
thi&  From  the  close  of  the  17tli  to  that 
of  the  18th  century,  British  comedy  was 
cultivated  with  much  success  by  Cibber, 
Farquhar,  Congreve,  Sheridan  and  others. 
In  tragedy,  during  the  same  period,  the 
Britisli  have  httle  to  boast  of,  and  at  pres- 
ent the  theatre  of  Britain  is  at  a  very  low 
ebb.  The  French  drama  was  in  a  mis- 
erable state  before  Comeille.  *^  It  was," 
says  Schlegel,  '*in  its  childhood,  and  that 
not  a  healthy  and  promising  childhood, 
but  a  crippled  one."  Comeille,  Racine, 
Voltaire,  Moliere,  Scarron,  Boursault, 
&c.,  are  some  of  the  most  distinguished 
dramatists.  The  theory  of  the  unities, 
to  which  the  French  have  so  tenaciously 
adhered,  is  so  opposed  to  wliat  the  Eng- 
lish and  Germans  call  true,  elevated 
poetry,  that  the  latter  have  l)een  Uttle 
satisfied  with  the  French  tragic  muse, 
whom  they  consider  cold,  stiff  and  un- 


poetical ;  but  French  comedy  is  univer- 
sally admired.  So  much  has  been  said 
about  the  difference  between  tragedy  and 
comedy— a  difference  greater  than  exists 
between  any  other  species  of  poetry  that 
fiill  under  the  same  general  class — and  the 
'  explanations  of  what  constitutes  this  dif- 
ference are  oflen  so  unsatisfiictoiy,  tliat 
we  may  be  excused  for  introducmg,  at 
some  lengtli,  the  remarks  of  Schlegel  on 
this  subject,  in  his  work  above  mentioned : 
**  Tragedy  and  comedy  bear  the  same 
relation  to  one  another  as  eamesmess  and 
mirth.  Bodi  these  states  of  mind  bear 
the  stamp  of  our  common  nature;  but 
earnestness  belongs  more  to  the  moral, 
and  mirth  to  the  sensual  side.  The  crea- 
tures destitute  of  reason  are  incapable  of 
either.  Earnestness,  in  the  most  exten- 
sive signification,  is  the  direction  of  our 
mental  powers  to  some  aim.  But  as  soon 
as  we  begin  to  call  ourselves  to  account 
for  our  actions,  reason  compels  us  to  fix 
this  aim  higher  and  higher,  till  we  come 
at  last  to  the  highest  end  of  our  existence ; 
and  here  the  desire  for  what  is  infinite, 
which  dwells  in  our  being,  is  thwarted 
by  the  hmits  of  the  finite,  by  which  we 
are  fettered.  All  that  we  do,  all  that  we 
effect,  is  vain  and  perishable ;  Death  stands 
every  where  in  the  back  ground,  and 
every  good  or  ill  spent  moment  brings  us 
in  closer  contact  with  him.  And  even  if 
a  man  has  been  so  singularly  successful 
as  to  reach  the  utmost  term  of'^life  without 
misfortune,  he  must  still  submit  to  leave 
all  that  is  dear  to  him  on  eartli.  There  is 
no  bond  of  love  without  separation,  no 
enjoyment  without  grief  for  its  loss. 
When  we  contemplate,  however,  all  the 
relations  of  our  existence ;  when  we  re- 
flect on  its  dependence  on  an  endless 
chain  of  causes  and  effects;  when  we 
consider  that  we  are  exposed  in  our 
weakness  to  struggle  with  the  immeas- 
urable powers  of  nature,  and  with  con- 
flicting desires  on  the  shores  of  an  un- 
known world ;  that  we  are  subject  to  all 
mamier  of  errore  and  deceptions,  every 
one  of  which  is  capable  of  undoing  us; 
that,  in  our  passions,  we  carry  our  own 
enemy  in  our  bosoms;  that  cveiy  mo- 
ment demands  from  us  the  sacrifice  of 
our  dearest  inclinations,  in  the  name  of 
the  most  sacred  duties,  and  that  we  may, 
at  one  blow,  be  robbed  of  ail  that  we 
have  acquired  by  toils  and  difficulties; 
that,  with  every  extension  of  irassessioii, 
the  danger  of  loss  is  proporUonally  in- 
creased, and  we  are  the  more  exposed  to 
the  snares  of  hostile  attack, — then  every 
feeling  mind  must  be  filled  by  melancholy. 


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DRAMA. 


S99 


against  which  piere  is  no  other  protection 
than  the  consciousness  of  a  destiny  above 
this  eartlily  life.  This  is  tlie  tragic  tone ; 
and  when  the  mind  dwells  on  the  consid- 
eration  of  the  possible,  as  an  existing  real- 
ity ;  when  that  tone  is  inspired  by  the 
most  striking  examples  of  violent  revolu- 
tions in  human  destiny,  either  from  dejec- 
tion of  soul,  or  after  powerful  but  inef- 
fectual struggles, — ^then  tragic  poetry  has 
Its  origin.  We  thus  see  that  tragic  poetry 
has  its  foundation  in  our  nature,  and,  to  a 
certain  extent,  we  have  answered  the 
question,  why  we  are  fond  of  mournful 
representations,  and  even  find  somethhig 
consoling  and  elevating  in  them?  As 
earnestness,  in  die  highest  degree,  is  the 
essence  of  the  fragic  tone,  the  essence  of 
tiie  comic  is  mirth.  The  dispoation  to 
mirth  is  a  forgetfulnessof  all  gloomy  con- 
nderations,  in  the  pleasant  feeling  of  pres- 
ent happiness.  We  are  tlien  inclined  to 
▼iew  every  thing  in  a  sportive  lisht,  and 
to  admit  no  impressions  calcuwted  to 
disturb  or  ruffle  us.  The  imperfections 
of  men,  and  the  incongruities  in  their 
conduct  and  relations,  are  no  longer  an 
object  of  dislike  and  compassion,  but 
serve  to  entertain  the  mind.  The  comic 
poet  must,  therefore,  carefully  abstain 
from  whatever  is  calculated  to  excite 
moral  disgust  with  the  conduct  of  men, 
or  sympathy  witli  their  situation,  because 
this  would  bring  us  back  to  a  tone  of 
earnest  feeling.  He  must  paint  their 
irregulanties  as  arising  out  of  the  pre- 
dominance of  tlie  sensual  part  of  tneir 
nature,  and  as  constituting  a  mere  ludi- 
crous infirmity,  which  can  be  attended 
with  no  ruinous  consequences.  This  is 
uniformly  what  takes  place  in  what  we 
call  comedy^  in  which,  however,  there  is 
still  a  mixture  of  seriousness,  as  I  shall 
show  in  the  sequel.  The  oldest  com- 
edy of  the  Greeks  was,  however,  en- 
tirely gay,  and,  in  that  respect,  formed 
tfie  most  complete  contrast  with  their 
tragedy.  Not  only  the  characters  and 
situations  of  individuals  were  worked 
up  into  a  picture  of  the  true  comic,  but 
the  state,  the  constitution,  the  gods,  and 
nature,  were  all  fimtastically  painted,  in 
the  most  extravagantly  ridiculous  and 
laughable  colors." 

We  shall  now  say  a  few  words  respect- 
ing the  so  much  talked  of  unities  in  the 
dnma.  In  consequence  of  a  passage  in 
the  Poetics  of  Aristotle,  the  French,  prin- 
cipally through  the  influence  of  Boi- 
leau,  adopted  the  theory  of  the  three 
unities  in  a  drama, — those  of  action,  place 
9ad  time, — and  this  theoiy  has  recom- 


mended itself  so  strongly  to  the  national 
taste,  that  a  strict  observance  of  the  uni- 
ties is  considered,  by  the  French,  one  of 
the  chief  merits  of  a  dramatic  production. 
The  reader  who  wishes  to  form  a  correct 
idea  of  the  theory  of  Aristotle,  may  con- 
sult witli  advantage  the  work  of  Schlegel, 
above  mentioned.  Tlie  French  have< 
construed  it  to  mean,  in  substance,  as 
follows:  1st,  that' the  action  of  the  drama 
must  be  one;  the  interest  or  attention 
must  not  be  distracted  by  several  plots, 
but  every  thing  must  be  subservient  to 
the  main  action;  2dly,  all  tlie  actions 
must  take  place  on  theisame  spot,  or  very 
nearly  so,  m  order  that  the  illusion  may 
not  be  disturbed ;  and,  3(lly,  every  tiling 
ought  to  happen  on  the  same  day,  for  the 
same  reason.  These  tliree  rules  are  all 
true  to  a  certain  degree.  The  unity  of 
action  is  as  necessary  in  a  drama  as  in 
any  production  of  the  fine  arts ;  the  whole 
must  be  essentially  one;  but  the  Ger- 
mans and  English  think  it  absurd  to  con- 
fine unity  of  action  within  such  narrow 
limits  as  the  French  do.  On  the  contra- 
ry, as,  in  a  picture  of  Raphael,  many  groups 
exist,  all  uiterestin^,  yet  all  contrihuting 
to  form  one  great  picture,  and  subservient 
to  the  main  object  of  the  work ;  so  they 
think  it  not  only  allowable,  but  an  excel- 
lence, to  introduce  a  number  of  actions  in 
a  drama,  if  tliey  are  so  connected  as  all 
to  make  but  one  whole.  What  a  variety 
of  character  and  action  is  to  be  found  in 
Romeo  and  Juliet!  and  yet  how  closely 
is  every  thing  connected!  how  directiy 
every  scene  draws  towards  the  great  tragic 
end !  The  grandeur  of  a  lofiy  dome  is 
not  diminished  by  the  statues  and  bas- 
reliefs  which  it  may  contain.  The  two 
other  unities — those  of  place  and  time — 
may  also  be  too  ser\'ilely  followed.  As  for 
disturi)ing  the  illusion,  Schiller  very  truly 
says,  that  every  thing  on  the  stage  is 
different  from  reality.  Who  thinks  that 
the  liffht  of  the  lamps  is  daylight  ?  Who, 
we  am,  ever  found  such  a  precise  square 
as  the  stage  in  a  forest  ?  or  who  ever  saw 
people  in  real  life  turning  their  fiices  all 
to  one  point,  as  the  actora  necessarily  do, 
that  tiieir  action  may  be  seen.  The 
French  consider  it  a  great  fault  if  an  actor 
turns  his  back  towaids  the  audience.  Is 
not  this  inconsistent  ?  Be«des,  is  not  the 
very  theory  of  unity  of  time,  which  requires 
all  the  events  in  a  drama  to  happen  on  one 
day,  entirely  at  variance  with  nature  ?  and 
which  is  easier,  to  consider  all  the  events 
represented  in  a  drama,  all  the  develope- 
ments  of  the  actions,  as  happening  in  one 
day,  or  to  transport  ourselves,  in  imagina- 


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DRAMA— DRAWING. 


tion,  from  one  place  to  another,  and  sup- 
pose weeks  and  tnonths  to  pass  between 
the  falling  and  rising  of  the  curtain  ?  Yet 
there  is  no  doubt  that  the  performance 
may  make  too  great  claims  on  our  imagi- 
nation. It  is  impossible  to  settle  precisely 
the  limits  within  which  the  dramatic 
writer  should  confine  liimself.  As  long 
as  he  can  avoid  offending  the  imagination 
by  the  abruptness  of  his  transitions,  he 
may  be  considered  as  not  havin|^  over- 
stepped the  just  bounds.  The  hbertiea 
allowed  in  tlie  drama,  as  in  all  the  higher 
branches  of  art,  must  depend  very  much 
on  the  genius  of  the  artist  Since  the 
revolution,  particularly  since  1814,  a  new 
dramatic  school  has  been  formed  in  France, 
which,  departing  from  the  ancient  strict- 
ness of  the  dauie  drama,  so  called,  ap- 
proaches more  and  more  to  the  German 
and  English,  or  the  ronumJtic  dhzmo,  so 
called.  Madame  de  Stael,  in  her  L^JSU- 
fnagne,  treats  this  subject  at  some  length. 
We  must  refer  the  r»ider,  for  further  ui- 
fbrmation  on  this  interesting  subject,  to 
Augustus  William  SchlegePs  work,  l/efrer 
dnanatMie  KunH  und  lAtUratuTy  Heidel- 
berg, 1809  (On  dramatic  Art  and  Litera- 
ture; translated  into  English,  by  John 
Black,  London,  1815),  which  niav  be  con- 
sidered at  once  as  a  model  of  the  higher 
species  of  criticism,  and  a  specimen  of 
German  erudition  and  philosophy. 

Dramaturot  ;  the  science  which  treats 
of  the  rules  fbr  composing  a  drama  and 
representing  it  on  the  stage,  as  &r  as  the 
subject  can  be  brought  under  general 
rules.  It  comprehends  the  whole  poetry 
of  tlie  drama,  and  the  theoiy  of  dramatic 
renresentation.  No  work  embracing  the 
subject  in  its  whole  extent  has  yet  been 
published.  The  splendid  lectures  of  Sclile- 
gel  on  dramatic  art  and  literature  approach 
nearest  to  it  The  fhst  who  published 
a  woric  under  this  name  was  Lessing. 
Tieck's  Dramaturgical  Essays  deserve  to 
be  mentioned  here. 

Drapery.    (See  Costume,) 

Draught  ;  tlie  depth  of  a  body  of  wa- 
ter necessarv  to  float  a  ship ;  hence  a  ship 
is  said  to  draw  so  manv  feet  of  water, 
when  she  is  borne  up  by  a  column  of 
water  of  that  particular  depth;  for  in- 
itonce,  if  it  requires  a  body  of  water 
whoee  depth  is  equal  to  12  feet,  to  float  or 
buoy  up  a  ship  on  its  sur&ce,  she  is  said 
to  draw  12  feet  water;  and,  that  this 
draught  may  be  more  readily  known,  the 
ieet  are  marked  on  the  stem  and  stern- 
post  from  the  keel  upwards. 

Draughts  ;  a  game  played  on  a  check- 
«nd  board,  like  the  chess-board,  with  24 


pieces,  which,  by  angular  movements,  are 
enaMed  to  take  each  other,  according  to 
certain  rules,*  until  one  of  die  parties  has 
lost  all  his  men,  or  is  placed  m  a  situa- 
tion to  lose  them  all,  when  the  game  is  at 
an  end. 

Drawback,  in  commerce ;  an  allowance 
made  to  merchants  on  the  re-exportation 
of  certain  goods,  which  in  some  cases 
consists  of  me  whole,  in  othera  of  a  part, 
of  the  duties  which  had  been  paid  upon 
the  importation.  A  still  more  equitable 
arrangement  than  that  of  drawbacks,  is, 
to  allow  the  merchant,  who  imports  any 
commodity  which  he  may  probably  wish 
to  export  again,  to  deposit  it  in  the  puUic 
warehouses,  giving  a  bond  for  the  pay- 
ment of  the  duties,  should  he  dispose  of 
it  fcnr  home  consumption.  This  is  called 
h&tutingf  and  is  allowed  to  a  considerable 
extent  in  England. 

Drawing,  considered  as  a  distinct 
branch  of  art,  is  the  elder  sister  of  paint- 
ing, and,  in  the  courM  of  dme,  became 
connected  with  geometry.  It  is  the  art 
of  representing,  by  means  of  lines,  upon  a 
flat  surface,  the  forms  of  objects,  and  their 
positions  and  relations.  The  attempt  to 
imitate,  by  lines,  the  forms  which  we  see 
in  nature,  is  the  commencement  of  all 
drawing.  According  to  a  Greek  tradition, 
drawing  and  sculpture  took  their  rise  to- 
gether, when  the  daughter  of  Dibutades 
drew  the  outline  of  the  shadow  of  her 
lover  upon  the  wall,  which  her  father  cut 
out  ana  modelled  in  clay.    We  can  distin- 

Suish,  in  the  eariiest  attempts  at  drawing, 
ifferent  epochs,  which  are  found  in  al- 
most all  nations: — 1.  Objects  were  deline- 
ated only  with  rude,  shapeless  lines ;  e.  g., 
an  oval  represented  a  head.  2.  In  order 
to  make  such  drawings  more  striking  to 
the  eye,  the  sketch  was  filled  up  with 
black,  or  some  other  color,  and  then  the 
eyes,  eyebrows,  nose,  mouth  and  hah* 
were  marked  with  white  upon  the  daiic 
surface.  To  all  these  figures  the  name 
was  attached,  and,  in  general,  explanatory 
words,  such  as  we  find  upon  all  the  old 
vases.  This  custom  was  continued  by 
the  Greeks,  even  in  the  most  flourishing 
period  of  the  art  of  drawing  among  them ; 
fbr  the  figures  of  the  great  picture  of 
Polygnonis,  at  Delphi,  were  dengiiated 
by  such  inscriptions.  In  the  Sd  epoch,  an 
attempt  was  made  to  give  animation  to 
pictures,  by  representing  the  diflerent  col- 
ors of  the  drapery ;  bu^  as  yet,  there  was 
no  attempt  at  perspective.  In  this  man- 
ner Helen  and  Andromache  embroidered 
tapestry,  as  described  in  the  ]>oeros  of 
Homer.    In  the  4th  period,  the  want  of 


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prominence  in  the  figures  was  remarked. 
Ardices  and  Telephanes  (probably^  ficti- 
tious names)  began,  by  drawing  hnes  in 
the  back  ground  to  produce  the  appear- 
ance of  shadow,  and  to  give  prommence 
to  their  figiu-es.  In  later  times,  Polido- 
ro  di  Caravaggio  delineated  in  this  way 
many  frescoes  in  Rome,  where  he  used 
only  a  anele  color,  but  produced  the 
shadinff  by  Unes  drawn  thus,  in  the  man* 
uer  called  hatching.  These  works  are 
caJiled  al^c^  or  pevvtureshachies.  This 
manner  of  drawing,  however,  was  very 
hard.  Philocles  and  Cleanthes  invented 
the  monochrome^  or  picture  with  one  color. 
In  the  monochrome^  the  color  used  was 
mixed  with  white,  so  that  this  resembled 
the  manner  that  is  now  called  en  camayeu. 
This  was  the  first  step  from  drawmg  to 
proper  painting,  which  is  distinguished  by 
Laving  the  back  ground  of  the  picture 
filled.  The  Greeks  were  very  caretul  and 
particular  in  their  instruction  in  drawing. 
Pampfailus,  the  teacher  of  Apelles,  wish- 
ed his  pupils  to  remain  with  him  10  years. 
There  were  three  stages  of  instruction: 
in  the  first,  firmness  of  hand  and  of  stroke 
was  obtained,  and  the  learners  drew  with 
styles  upon  tablets  covered  with  wax  ;  in 
the  second,  fineness  and  delicacy  of  stroke 
was  studied,  while  the  learner  labored 
with  the  style  upon  smooth  tablets,  made 
of  boxwood,  and  sometimes  upon  mem- 
branes, or  upon  the  skins  of  wild  beasts, 
properly  prepared,  and  covered  with  wax. 
In  the  third  stage,  freedom  and  ease  were 
to  be  acquired ;  here  the  pencil  was  used 
instead  of  the  style,  and  with  it  black  or 
red  sketches  were  drawn  upon  white  tab- 
lets, or  white  sketches  upon  black  tablets. 
The  tablets  used  were  covered  either  with 
chalk  or  gypsum.  Line-drawing  was 
carried  to  the  highest  perfection,  ai3  was 
the  glory  of  the  greatest  masters.  The 
rivaldiip  of  Apelles  and  Protogenes  in 
such  lines,  drawn  with  distinguished  deli- 
cacy and  skill,  and  displaying  a  master's 
hand,  is  well  known.  This  fineness  and 
clearness  of  outline  is  also  the  chief  merit 
of  the  celebrated  vase  painters.  Some- 
thing hard  and  dry  was  round  in  the  pic- 
tures executed  on  such  outlines,  and  it 
may  well  be  maintained  that  this  manner 
of  drawing,  through  the  influence  of  the 
Byzantine  school  on  the  west  of  Europe, 
gave  rise  to  the  dry  and  meager  s^le  of 
Sie  old  Italian  as  well  as  of  the  old  I)utch 
school. 

When  we  consider  the  art  of  drawing 
as  it  exists  at  the  present  time,  we  per- 
ceive that  the  kinds  of  drawing  ai^  three — 
with  the  pen,  wit^  crayons,  anci  with  Indian 

▼oil.  IV.  26 


ink,  or  nmilar  substances.  Artists  some- 
times eniploy  colored  and  sometimes  white 
paper ;  in  the  former  case,  the  li^htsure  pro- 
duced by  white  crayons ;  but  m  the  latter 
case,  they  ore  produced  by  leaving  the  paper 
uncovered.  The  drawings  with  tlie  pen 
have  always  something  hard  and  disagree- 
able, yet  they  give  st^idiness  and  ease  to 
the  hand,  and  are  peculiarly  serviceable  to 
landscape  painters.  There  are  two  differ- 
ent ways  of  drawing  with  the  pen ;  either 
the  drawing  is  daricened  on  the  shaded 
side  with  lines,  or  the  outline  only  is  given 
by  the  pen,  and  the  shades  are  delicately 
touchea  in  with  India  ink.  This  mode  is 
peculiarly  adapted  to  architectural  draw- 
mgs.  The  crayon  drawings  are  the  most 
common,  and  Uie  most  suitable  for  be^- 
ners,  because  anv  faults  can  be  effaced  or 
covered  over.  Artists  make  use  of  black, 
as  well  as  of  red  cravens ;  and,  when  tlie 
ground  is  colored,  they  produce  the  light 
by  means  of  white  crayons.  If  the  crayon 
is  scraped,  and  the  powder  rubbed  in  with 
little  rolls  of  paper  or  leather,  the  drawing 
becomes  exceedingly  delicate  and  agreea- 
ble, though  its  outline  is  deficient  in  strict 
precision.  This  manner,  which,  f]X)m  the 
French  hame  of  the  rolls  used,  is  also 
called  ct  Pestompe^  is  pecuharly  suitable 
for  large  masses,  and  shades,  and  chxaro- 
acuroj  and  for  producing  a  harmonious 
effect  of  light  There  are  also  crayon 
drawings,  where  the  principal  colors  of 
the  objects  painted  are  delicately  sketched 
with  colored  pencils.  These  are  pecu- 
tiarlv  suitable  for  {)ortraits.  To  this  kind 
of  drawings  belong  likewise  those  made 
with  lead  and  silver  pencils,  upon  paper 
and  parchment,  which  are  suitable  for 
the  delicate  delineation  of  small  objects. 
In  some  cases,  drawings  of  this  descrip- 
tion are  sofdy  touched  with  dry  colors. 
There  is  another  style  of  drawing,  in 
which  India  ink,  or  sepia  and  bistre  inter- 
mingled with  carmine  and  indigo,  are 
used.  The  lights  are  produced  by  leaving 
the  white  surface  uncovered.  This  mode 
produces  the  finest  effect,  and  is  very 
much  used  in  the  representation  of  all 
kinds  of  subjecta  There  are  various 
classes  of  drawings,  as  sketches,  studies, 
academy  figures,  cartoons,  &c.  Sketches 
are  the  first  ideas  of  the  subject  of  a  ])ic- 
turc,  thrown  off  hastily,  to  serve  as  the 
basis  of  a  future  drawing.  They  are 
made  with  charcoal,  witli  the  p^n  or  the 
pencil.  To  the  rapidity  of  their  execu- 
tion may  be  ascribed  the  animation  per- 
ceptible in  the  sketches  of  great  masters, 
of  which  there  are  rich  collections.  Stud-^ 
its  are  copies  of  single  parts  of  subjects, 


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DRAWING. 


made  either  after  life  or  from  models  ;  as 
heads,  hoDds,  feet,  sometimes  aJso  whole 
figures.  Drawings  from  skeletons  and 
anatomical  preparations,  those  of  drapery, 
animals,  plants,  flowers,  scenery,  &c^  are 
also  called  by  this  name.  Academy  Jig- 
ures  are  drawn  from  living  models,  who 
stand  in  academies  of  fine  arts  and  other 
establishments,  intended  for  the  education 
of  artists.  The  models,  male  and  female, 
of  all  ages,  are  placed  in  different  situa- 
tions and  attituaes,  on  an  elevated  spot, 
by  lamp  light.  The  pupils  stand  round 
and  draw,  under  the  direction  of  profess- 
ors. Experienced  painters  and  sculptors 
likewise  continue  to  draw  from  living 
models,  either  in  private  or  in  company. 
The  most  perfect  figures,  of  course,  are 
selected.  In  order  to  study  drapei^,  a  lit- 
tle figure  of  wood,  with  movable  limbs,  is 
placed  so  that  the  student  can  draw  from 
It  The  drapery  is  often  put  on  wet,  that 
it  may  follow  more  closely  the.  form  of 
the  body,  and  tliat  the  folds  may  be  more 
marked  and  expressive.  Cartoons  (q.  v.) 
are  drawings  on  gray  paper,  of  the  same 
size  as  the  paintings  whicFi  are  to  be  copied 
from  them.  These  arc,  for  instance,  large 
oil  paintings,  fresco  pictures,  &c  Artists 
make  use,  also,  of  other  means,  in  order  to 
transfer  tJie  outlines  of  a  painting  upon 
another  canvass,  if  they  wish  to  copy  very 
faithfully.  If  the  copy  is  to  be  on  a 
larger  or  a  smaller  scale  than  the  original, 
it  is  customary  to  place  on  each  canvass 
frames  of  wood,  the  space  enclosed  by 
which  is  divided,  by  means  of  threads, 
into  quadrangular  compartments.  The 
compartments  on  the  original  are  larger 
or  smaller  than  the  others,  as  the  case 
may  be.  The  artist  then  draws  in  each 
square  of  iiis  canvass  what  he  finds  in  the 
corresponding  square  in  the  original.  If 
tiie  copy  is  intended  to  be  precisely  of  the 
same  size  with  tlie  original,  the  outlines 
are  oflen  traced  through  a  black  gauze, 
from  which  they  are  afterwards  transfer- 
red by  pressure  to  the  canvass  of  the  copy. 
This,  it  is  true,  does  not  give  any  distinct 
forms,  but  it  indicates  precisely  the  spot 
where  every  object  is  to  be  placed,  which 
saves  much  time.  If  the  intention  is  to 
copy  the  outlines  of  the  original  exactly,  it 
is  necessary  to  make  a  aS(jM^  that  is,  a 
paper  saturated  with  vanush,  and  quite 
transparent,  which  is  put  on  the  painting ; 
the  outlines  are  drawn ;  then  the  paper  is 
blackened  with  crayons  on  one  side,  put 
on  the  new  canvass,  and  the  outlines  are 
followed  h^  some  pointed  instrument,  and 
thus  truis&rred  to  the  canvass.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  it  is  never  allowable  to  take  a 


copy  in  this  wi^y  from  very  valuable  pic- 
tures. The  sketches  of  great  masters  are 
always  valued  very  highly,  l»ecause  they 
show  most  distinctly  the  fire  and  boldness 
of  their  first  conceptions.  But  for  this 
very  reason,  because  their  excellence  de- 
pends on  the  freedom  with  which  tliey 
are  throMm  ofl^  it  is  far  more  difficult  to 
make  copies  from  tliem  than  flrom  finished 
paintings.  The  great  schools  in  painting 
differ  quite  as  much  in  respect  to  drawing 
as  in  respect  to  coloring.  The  style  of 
drawing  of  the  old  Itauan  school  is  as 
hard,  dry  and  meager  as  that  of  the  old 
German  school.  The  defects  of  the  for- 
mer are  more  oflen  redeemed  by  beautifiil 
forms  and  just  proportions,  whilst  in  the 
latter  a  meaning  is  frequently  expressed 
which  inclines  more  to  poetry  than  to  art. 
At  a  later  period,  the  Roman  school  be- 
came, in  Italy,  through  the  influence  of 
Raphael's  exquisite  sense  of  the  beautiful 
and  expressive  in  form,  and  through  the 
study  of  tlie  antique,  the  true  model  of 
beautiful  drawing.  The  Florentine  school 
strove  to  excel  the  Roman  in  this  respect, 
and  lost,  by  exaggeration,  the  superiority 
which  it  might,  perhaps,  otherwise  have 

Sained  fh)m  its  anatomical  correctness  and 
eep  study  of  the  art  The  masters  of  the 
Florentine  school  oflen  foreshorten  too 
boldly.  In  the  Lombard  school,  delicate 
drawing  appears  through  enchanting  col- 
oring ;  but  perhaps  it  is  more  true  to  nature 
and  feeling  than  to  scientific  rules.  The 
Venetian  school,  in  reference  to  the  other 
schools  of  Italy,  lias  many  points  of  resem- 
blance, good  and  bad,  with  the  Dutch 
school,  in  reference  to  Grermany.  In  the 
Venetian  school,  tlje  drawing  is  oflen  lost 
in  the  glow  and  power  of  the  coloring; 
and  it  is  very  oflen  not  tlie  nobleness  of 
the  figures  and  ideas  in  the  drawing,  but 
the  richness,  boldness  and  glowing  nature 
of  the  painting,  which  deUght  u&  The 
Frendi  school  was,  in  Foussin's  time, 
very  correct  in  drawing  ;  and  he  was 
justly  called  the  French,  Raphael,  At  a 
later  period,  the  style  of  this  school  be- 
came maniirL  David  introduced  again 
a  purer  taste  in  drawing,  and  a  deep  study 
of^the  antique.  This  study  of  the  antique, 
together  with  the  precision  of  their  draw- 
ing, are  the  distinguishing  characteristics 
of  the  modem  French  school.  In  Ger- 
many, there  cannot  be  said  to  be  any  gen- 
eral style  of  drawing  peculiar  to  her  artists. 
The  many  distinguished  artists  of  that 
country  have  formed  themselves  individu- 
ally, by  the  study  of  nature  and  works  of 
art;  and  whilst  some  of  the  loiost  cele- 
brated painters  are  distinguished  for  cor- 


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DRAWING— DBEBBEL. 


303 


rect  drawing,  others  are  seproached  fi>r 
the  want  of  it,  in  some  of  their  finest  pic- 
ture&  On  the  whole,  their  drawing  is  not 
so  correct  as  tliat  of  the  French.  Many 
young  German  artists  unfortunately  con- 
sider the  naSveU  of  the  ancient  masters  of 
their  country  as  beauty,  and  strive  to  imi- 
tate it 

DaAwi!fo  Slate,  sometimes  called 
black  chalky  is  a  fine-grauied,  soft  stone, 
pretty  nearly  allied  to  clay  slate  or  argilUte, 
a  rock  along  with  which  it  always  occurs. 
It  adheres  slightly  to  the  tongue,  and  feels 
fine  and  rather  meager.  It  soils  more  or 
less,  and  writes ;  hence  its  use  as  a  mark- 
ing or  drawing  material  The  best  kind 
comes  from  Italy,  Spain  and  France. 

Dratton,  William  Henry,  a  states- 
man of  the  American  revolution,  and  an 
able  pohtical  writer,  was  bom  in  South 
Carolina,  in  September,  1742.  In  1753, 
he  went  to  England,  and  was  placed  in 
Westminster  school ;  thence  he  removed, 
in  1761,  to  Oxford,  where  he  continued 
nearly  three  years,  when  he  returned  to 
South  Carolina.  In  1771,  he  was  ap- 
pointed, by  the  British  |^veroment,  privy 
counsellor  for  the  province,  and  became 
conspicuous  by  his  defence  of  tlie  rights 
of  his  countiy  against  the  encroachments 
and  irregalarities  of  the  crown  officers 
and  judges.  In  1774^  he  accepted  the 
office  of  an  assistant  judge  of  the  prov- 
ince. When  the  continental  congress 
was  about  to  sit  at  Philadelphia,  he  wrote 
and  published  a  pamphlet  under  the  sig- 
nature of  Dreemany — a  production,  of 
which  Ramsay,  in  his  Histoiy  of  South 
Carolina,  observes,  that  ^  it  substantially 
chalked  out  the  Hne  of  conduct  adopted 
by  the  congress."  The  lieutenant-gov- 
ernor suspended  him  from  his  place  in 
the  king's  council,  in  consequence  of  his 
representation  of  American  grievances, 
and  the  ^  bill  of  American  rights,"  which 
he  submitted  to  the  congress  in  his 
pamphlet  As  soon  as  the  revolution  be- 
gan, he  became  an  efficient  leader,  and, 
in  1775,  was  chosen  president  of  the  pro- 
vincial congress.  In  March  of  the  next 
year,  he  was  elected  chief  justice  of  the 
colony,  in  wbich  character  he  delivered 
to  the  grand  jury  political  charges  of  the 
most  energetic  character.  He  published, 
b^des,  a  pamphlet,  refuting  the  sugges- 
tions in  fiivor  of  lord  Howe's  plan  of  a 
reconciliation  with  the  mother  country. 
Independence — unqualified  uidependence 
— was  his  constant  advice.  In  the  year 
1777,  Mr.  Drayton  was  invested  with  full 
powers,  as  president  of  South  Carolina, 
and,  early  in  the  following  year,  was  elect- 


ed a  delegate  to  the  continenta]  congress. 
In  this  body  he  took  a  prominent  part  His 
speeches  and  writings  against  the  propo- 
sitions of  the  three  British  commissioners 
were  particulariy  celebrated.  The  congress 
employed  him  on  various  important  mis- 
sions. The  censure  which  he  pronoun- 
ced upon  major-general  Charies  Lee's 
conduct  at  the  battle  of  Monmouth,  caused 
that  officer  to  challen&e  him.  The  rea- 
sons which  he  assigned  for  declining  the 
duel  are  such  as  became  a  true  patriot 
and  honorable  man. — ^Mr.  Drayton  con- 
tinued in  congress  until  September,  1779, 
when  he  died  suddenly  at  Philadelphia, 
in  the  thirty-sixth  year  of  his  age.  His 
political  resolution  and  sagacity,  his  lite- 
rary attainments,  his  domestic  virtues, 
and  his  polished  manners,  rendered  him 
valuable  to  his  country,  and  dear  to  all  his 
associates.  He  lefl  behind  a  considerable 
body  of  historical  materials,  which  his 
only  son,  John  Drayton,  revised  and  di- 
gested, and  published  at  Charleston,  in 
1821,  in  two  octavo  volumes,  under  the 
title  of  Memoirs  of  die  American  Revolu- 
tion, from  its  Commencement  to  the  Year 
1776,  inclusive,  as' relating  to  the  State  of 
South  Carolina,  and  occasionally  referring 
to  the  States  of  North  Carolina  and  Geor- 
gia.   The  work  is  much  esteemed. 

Drebbel,  Cornelius ;  a  natural  philoso- 
pher and  philosophical  instrument  maker, 
txnm  at  Alkmaer,  in  North  Holland,  in 
1572,  possessed  a  great  spirit  of  observa- 
tion, and  a  sufficient  fortune  to  enable  him 
to  perform  his  mechanical  and  optical 
experiments.  He  soon  became  so  famous, 
that  the  emperor  of  Germany,  Ferdinand 
II,  intrusted  to  him  the  instruction  of  his 
sops,  and  appointed  him  imperial  coun- 
sellor. In  die  troubles  of  1630,  he  was 
made  prisoner  by  tbe  troops  of  Frederic 
V,  elector  palatine,  and  plundered  of  his 
property.  He  was  liberated  by  the  inter- 
ference of  James  I  of  England,  the  fiither- 
in-law  of  Frederic,  who  delighted  in  the 
conversation  of  learned  men,  and  to  whose 
court  he  repaired.  From  this  time,  he 
lived  in  London,  constantly  occupied  In 
scientific  pursuits,  and  died  there  m  1634. 
The  accounts  which  his  contemporaries 
give  of  his  experiments  are  not  to  be 
trusted,  on  account  of  the  ignorance  and 
credulity  of  the  time.  It  is  certain  that, 
in  mechanics  and  optics,  he  possessed 
great  knowledge  for  the  age.  He  invent- 
ed several  mathematical  instruments,  and 
the  thermometer  (about  1630),  which  HaU 
ley,  Fahrenheit  and  Reaumur  afterward 
brought  to  perfection.  The  invention  of 
telescopes,  which  has  been  also  attributed 


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DREBBEL— DRESDEN. 


to  him,  probably  belongs  to  Zachariah 
Janson  (1590).  His  Tradcdua  de  JSTatura 
EUmentorum  et  Qmnta  Esseniioy  published 
by  Joh.  Ernst  fiurggrav,  Leydeo,  1608, 
passed  through  several  editions.  His 
jEpistola  de  Machina  Astronomica  pmetuo 
ncbiH,  was  published  at  Leyden,  16Sa),  by 
Joach.  Morsius.  A  letter  in  German  to 
the  emperor  Rodolph  II,  in  which  he 
describes  an  instrument  of  his  called  Ma- 
china musica  perpdtui  mobUiSf  is  contained 
in  Har8d6rffer's  DdicuB  phfsicO'Tnathemat' 
tea,  2d  vol. 

Dresden,  one  of  the  finest  places  of 
Germany,  the  residence  of  the  kings  of 
Saxony,  is  situated  in  the  circle  of  Meis- 
sen, on  the  Elbe,  which  separates  Dresden 
Proper  from  the  Neustaclt  (New  Town). 
Di^en  has  more  than  55,000  inhabitants. 
It  consists  of  the  Royal  Residence  or  Dres- 
den Proper,  and  the  Neustadt  (so  called 
since  1732,  and  handsomely  built  since 
the  time  of  Augustus  II,  formerly  Old 
Dresden),  and  of  Friederichstadt  (formerly 
Ostra,  hud  out  since  1670).  Among  the 
objects  worthy  of  notice  are,  the  stone 
bridge  across  the  Elbe,  552  feet  long,  con- 
sisting of  16  arches,  with  a  raised  foot- 
path of  flag  stones,  round  stone  seats  and  an 
iron  railing ;  the  equestrian  statue  o^  Au-* 
gustus  II,  erected  in  1736,  in  the  Neubtadt, 
made  of  gilt  bronze ;  the  CathoMc  church 
for  the  court,  and  several  pictures ;  among 
others,  the  Ascension  of  Christ,  by  Mengs ; 
the  famous  gallery  of  pictures ;  the  royal 
library,  and  the  cabinet  of  antiques,  to- 
gether with  a  collection  of  porcelain,  and 
the  first  attempts  of  Bottcher ;  the  gallery 
of  the  casts  of  Mengs  (besides  the  an- 
tiques) ;  tlie  cabinet  of  natural  history ;  the 
.arsenal,  and  the  cabinet  of  works  of  art ; 
the  great  garden ;  the  garden  of  Briihl, 
with  a  small  collection  of  pictures.  In 
the  vicinity  of  Dresden,  the  Plauensche 
Grund  (valley  of  Plauen)  and  the  vale  of 
Seifersdorf  are  well  known  to  the  lovers 
of  nature.  Besides  these,  may  be  men- 
tioned the  royal  summer  residence,  Pilnitz ; 
the  fortress  of  Kouigstein ;  the  Sonnen- 
stein  (at  present  an  insane  hospital) ;  the 
Saxon  Switzerland  (q.  v.) ;  and  the  heights 
of  Kesselsdorf,  rendered  famous  by  a  bat- 
tle in  the  seven  years*  war.  The  city  suf- 
fered much  in  this  war.  In  1760,  it  was 
bombarded  by  Frederic  the  Great  nine  days, 
and  has  been  frequently  exposed  to  the 
devastations  of  war.  The  importance  of 
Its  situation  occasioned  the  building  of  a 
fort,  probably  as  early  as  the  dth  century. 
The  Austrians  occupied  the  city  in  1809 
without  injuring  iL  In  the  following 
yeara,  they  commenced  pulling  down  the 


fortifications,  but  desisted  from  it  on  the 
breaking  out  of  the  Russian  war.  Mar- 
shal Davoust  caused  a  pier  and  two  arches 
of  the  bridge  to  be  blovm  up  (March  19, 
1813),  which  the  Russian  government 
rebuilt  in  1814.  The  campaign  of  1813 
was  most  ruinous  for  the  city  and  its 
environs.  Afler'nine  years  of  war  and  suf- 
fering, on  the  7th  of  June,  1815,  peace 
and  mdustnr  returned  to  the  Crerman  Flo- 
rence,  as  Herder  calls  Dresden.  Since 
that  time,  dwelling-houses,  gardens  and 
parks  have  taken  the  place  of  the  former 
fortifications.  The  city  is  also  distin- 
guished for  its  excellent  literary  institu- 
tions, among  which  are  tlie  surgical  and 
medical  academy,  and  a  veterinary  school, 
which  is  connected  with  it ;  the  militaiy 
academy ;  tlie  academy  for  noblemen, 
established  since  1725 ;  the  academy  of  fine 
arts,  with  a  school  for  architecture.  The 
last  academy,  enlarged  since  1763,  has  a 
branch  in  Leipsic,  and  an  exhibition  year- 
Iv  (3d  of  August). — ^We  may  here  say  a 
few  words  on  the  collections  of  art  The 
gallery  of  pictures,  one  of  the  finest  in  the 
world,  was  begun  very  early,  but  first  be- 
came of  much  impc»tance  under  Augus- 
tus II,  king  of  Poland  and  elector  of  Sax- 
ony. It  owes  its  most  valuable  treasures; 
however,  to  Augustus  III,  a  prodigal 
monarch,  who  exhausted  his  countty  1^ 
his  extravagances.  He  purchased  the 
gallery  of  pictures  of  Modena  for  $912,000, 
and  many  single  pictures;  among  them 
RaphaePs  masterpiece,  the  Madonna  di 
Sisto.  The  gallery  is  rich  in  pictures  of 
the  different  schools,  with  the  exception 
of  the  old  German.  From  the  Dutch 
school  there  are,  among  others,  30  Ru- 
bens, 18  Van  Dykes,  many  Rembrandts, 
Ostades,  Gerard  Dows,  Tenniers,  Wou- 
vermanns,  &c.  Of  the  old  German  schod, 
Holbein's  Madonna,  a  sublime  work,  is 
particularly  distinguished.  Of  the  French 
school,  there  are  many  Claude  Lorraines. 
Poussins,  Le  Bruns  and  others.  Of 
the  Italian  school,  the  ^llery  is  rich  in 
pictures  of  Correffgio,  including  his  fa- 
mous Night ;  of  Kaphael,  the  Madonna 
di  Sisto,  the  Madonna  della  Seggiola  and 
others.  There  are  also  works  of^ Leonar- 
do da  Vinci,  Giuho  Romano,  Andrea  del 
Sarto  Battoni,  Titian  (his  famous  Venus), 
Garofalo,  Paul  Veronese,  Guide  Reni,  Car- 
racci,  Carlo  Dolce,  and  every  distinguished 
Italian  painter.  There  are  150  pieces  in 
pastel.  This  collection  is  liberally  open 
every  doy  to  all  visitors.  Six  pieces  of 
tapestry,  from  designs  by  Raphael,  a  pres- 
ent from  |)ope  Leo  X,  which  were  lost, 
have  lately  been  found  again.    The  gal- 


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DRESDEN  UN  1813. 


305 


leiy  of  pictures  in  the  sarden  of  BrQlhl  is 
likewise  valuable.  The  AugusUum,  or 
collection  of  antiques,  was  commenced  as 
early  as  the  16th  century.  It  contains 
some  excellent  statues,  amonff  which  are 
distinguished  three  iemale  figures  fitim 
Hercu  laneum.  The  cabinet  ofengravings 
is  one  of  the  richest  in  the  world.  It  con- 
tains 200^000  pieces,  and  the  rarest  pro- 
ductions of  the  art.  The  cabinet  of  casts 
contains  copies  of  all  the  most  important 
antiques,  made  under  the  direction  of  Ra- 
phael Men^  in  Italy.  The  collection  of 
porcelain  us  valued  at  several  millions. 
Dresden  being  thus  rich  in  treasures  of  art, 
and  favored  by  a  beautiful  natural  situa- 
tion, is  the  summer  resort  of  many  for- 
eigners, especially  since  the  artificial  min- 
erai  waters  have  been  prepared  in  the 
beautiful  garden  of  Struve. — Dresden  was 
the  centre  of  operations  in  the  contest  of 
1813,  when  ahnost  all  the  powers  of  £u^ 
rope  were  arrayed  against  Napoleon.  Be- 
sides the  political  importance  of  Dresden 
as  a  capital,  the  possession  of  the  Elbe,  by 
means  of  the  fortresses  of  Torgau,  Witten- 
berg and  Magdeburg,  was  another  nK>tive 
which  induct  Napoleon  to  place  himself 
with  his  whole  army  h  cheual  (that  is,  on 
both  sides)  of  the  river;  and  the  whole 
neighborhood  resembled  a  great  fortified 
camp,  firom  which  he  could  pour  out  his 
columns,  with  equal  ease,  on  Prague, 
Breslau,  or  Berhn.  The  kins  of  Saxony 
had  lefl  his  capital  Feb.  7, 1813.  March  7, 
a  division  of  French  and  Saxons,  consist- 
ing of  only  3500  men,  pursued  on  their 
retreat  from  Poland  by  the  Russian  light 
troops,  entered  Dresden.  The  12th,  mar- 
shal Davoust,  with  12,000  men  and  20 
cannon,  marched  from  Meissen,  where  he 
had  burnt  the  bridge,  to  Dresden.  The 
CoBsacks  kept  up  a  continual  skirmishing 
before  the  Neustadt  The  19th,  marshcd 
Davoust  left  Dresden  with  his  corps,  with 
the  exception  of  a  garrison  of  3000  men, 
under  general  Durutte.  The  Neustadt 
was  surrendered  the  22d,  to  a  division  of 
Cossacks.  A  few  days  after,  several  hun- 
dred Cossacks  swam  across  the  Elbe,  and 
Durutte  left  Dresden  to  the  Russians,  un- 
der Winzingerode,  who  was  followed  by 
the  anny  of  BKicher,  which  passed  the 
Elbe  April  16th,  at  Dresden.  The  second 
Russian  army,  under  MiloradowitBch,  fol- 
lowed, and,  after  the  entir  of  the  emperor 
Alexander  and  the  king  of  Prussia,  another 
division  of  16,000  men.  May  2d  was 
fought  the  bloody  batde  of  Liitzen  (q.  v.), 
ttfter  which  the  two  sovereigns  returned  to 
Dresden,  and  their  troops  crossed,  without 
intenrupdon,  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe, 
26*     ' 


by  Meissen  and  Dresden.  May  8th,  the 
Russians  occupied  only  the  Neustadt,  and 
the  French  army,  under  Napoleon,  en- 
tered Dresden.  On  tliis  and  the  following 
day,  a  violent  firing  was  begun  from  the 
walk  and  houses.  On  the  morning  of  tlie 
10th,  the  allies  retreated  to  Bautzen,  close- 
ly followed  by  the  French.  The  coun- 
try was  devastated,  and  many  villages 
burnt  down.  The  kliiff  of  Saxony  re- 
turned May  12.  The  PrencU  were  ac- 
tively employed  in  fortifying  the  Neustadt. 
Afler  the  battles  of  Bautzen,  Wurschen 
and  Hochkirch  (19th,  20th,  and  21st  of 
May),  there  were  more  than  20,000  wound- 
ed men  to  be  provided  for  in  Dres- 
den :  the  slightly  wounded,  and  many  of 
the  sick,  were  distributed  in  tlie  houses  of 
the  citizens.  The  distress  of  the  city  was 
increased  during  the  armistice  often  weeks, 
during  which  nearly  30,000  soldiers  had 
to  be  provided  for.  A  fortified  camp,  con- 
nected, by  two  bridges,  with  the  fortress 
of  Konigstein,  and  capable  of  containing 
60,000  men,  was  laid  out  at  the  foot  of  the 
Lilienstein.  On  the  right  bank,  the  works 
round  the  Neustadt  covered  the  roads  to 
Berlin,  Warsaw  and  Bautzen ;  pother  ex- 
tensive line  of  retrenchments  surrounded  ' 
the  suburibs  of  the  old  city,  round  which 
large  bodies  of  troops  encamped  on  both 
bamLS.  At  this  time,  Mettemich  and  Bubna 
came  to  Dresden,  but  the  negotiations  were 
broken  off,  and  the  war  was  renewed  the 
17th  of  August  Dresden  was  the  centre 
of  operations  of  the  French  army.  Au- 
gust 15th,  Napoleon  passed  through  Baut- 
zen to  Silesia ;  and  Vandamme,  witli  40,000 
men  from  the  Lower  Elbe,  passed  to  the 
right  bank  of  the  Elbe,  between  the  17th 
and  19th,  and  moved,  with  Poniatowski, 
towards  Rumburg  and  Gabel  on  the  fron- 
tiers of  Bohemia.  But  the  grand  army  of 
the  allies,  under  prince  Schwarzenberg, 
unexpectedly  advanced,  in  four  divisions, 
finom  the  passes  of. tlie  Bohemian  nioun- 
tams,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Elbe.  The 
Russians,  under  Wittgenstein,  drove  mar- 
shal St.  Cyr,  with  his  20,000  men,  from 
the  strong  positions  of  Giesshubel  and 
Pima.  Whilst  Bi^cher  occupied  Nafjo- 
leon  on  the  frontiers  of  Silesia,  the  princi- 
pal force  of  the  allies  advanced  to  the 
great  line  of  communication  of  the  French 
in  Saxony ;  and  it  was  resolved  to  take 
Dresden.  The  Russians  and  Prussians, 
under  Wittgenstein  and  Kleist,  now  ad- 
vanced from  Pima;  but  the  Austrians 
were  obliged  to  take  a  longer  route,  upon 
the  road  of  Commotau.  Couriers  were 
despatched  with  the  infonnation  to  Napo- 
leon, who  inunediately  returned  to  Dres- 


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DRESD£N  IN  18ia 


den.  The  25th,  the  allies  surrounded  the 
city.  On  this  day,  the  allied  army  was 
wholly  united  before  Dresden,  and,  in- 
cluding the  reserve,  consisted  of  120,000 
men.  Napoleon  advanced,  ^vith  the  flow- 
er of  his  army,  by  forced  marches,  and 
entered  the  city  on  the  26th,  with  part  of 
his  guards,  after  having  despatched  Van- 
damme  in  the  direction  of  Pima.  Be- 
tween iKwn  and  evening,  more  than 
60,000  men  had  marched  from  the  Baut- 
zen road,  thi-ou^h  the  city,  to  die  field  of 
batde.  About  4  o'clock  in  the  afternoon, 
after  the  whole  body  of  the  guard,  and 
the  cavalry  under  Latour-Maubourg,  had 
passed  die  Elbe,  the  allies  advanced  to 
the  city  in  six  columns.  The  Prussians 
drove  the  young  guard  to  the  walls  of 
Anton's  garden,  where  the  latter  were 
driven  back  by  the  balls  of  their  own 
conu^des,  and  obliged  to  renew  the  com- 
bat At  the  same  time,  tlie  city  was  bom- 
barded. In  tlie  evening,  the  French  un- 
dertook a  general  attack.  The  guards, 
supported  by  16  cannon,  drove  the  Prus- 
sians out  of  the  suburbs,  and  tlie  allies 
perceived  the  impossibility  of  taking  a 
city  defended  by  100,000  meii^  and  strong- 
ly fortified.  At  night,  they  withdrew  their 
forces  into  their  former  position  upon  the 
heights.  August  27,  tlie  French  were  re- 
enforced  by  the  corps  of  -Marmont  and 
Victor.  Napoleon  made  several  ineffect- 
ual attacks  on  the  centre  of  the  allies ;  and 
hero  Moreau  (q.  v.)  was  mortally  wounded 
by  a  cannon  ball,  at  no  great  distance  from 
the  emperor  Alexander.  About  noon,  the 
king  of  Naples  (Murat),  with  the  columns 
under  Victor,  and  the  French  and  Saxon 
cavalry  under  Latour-Maubourg,  succeed- 
ed in  surrounding  and  overpowering  the 
AiJBtrians.  More  than  10,000  men,  with 
general  Mesko,  were  made  prisoners. 
Meanwhile  the  commander  of  the  allies, 
hearing  that  Vandamme  had  passed  the 
Elbe,  near  Konigstein,  on  the  25th,  and 
was  advancing  towards  Pirna,  decided  on 
a  retreat,  which  was  accomplished  in  the 
night  The  king  of  Naples  pursued  onlv 
to  Marienburg.  The  allies  lost,  in  killed, 
wounded  and  prisoners,  30,000  men.  The 
French,  in  these  two  bloody  days,  had 
more  than  10,000  men  wounded :  the 
number  of  killed  was  considerable,  but 
cannot  b©  given  exactly.  There  were 
now  24  hospitals  in  the  city.  Afler  the 
27th  August,  the  star  of  Napoleon  de- 
clined. The  news  of  Oudinot's  defeat 
near  Grossbeeren  (q.  v.),  of  the  defeat  of 
Macdonald  on  the  Katzbach  (q.  v.),  and 
of  the  defeat  of  Vandamme,  near  Culm 
(q.  v.),  rapidly  followed  each  other.     The 


marches  and  countermarches  of  the 
French  army  now  caused  great  injury  ia 
the  vicinity  of  Dresden.  Three  new  re- 
trenchments were  thrown  up  before  the 
Altstadt,  Meissen  was  to  form  an  outwork 
of  Dresden,  and  tlie  French  army  seemed 
to  be  able  to  bid  defiance  to  tlie  allies  from 
this  strong  position.  The  alhed  army  ad- 
vanced anew  from  Bohemia.  The  defeat 
of  Ney  at  Dennewitz  (q.  v.l  September  6th, 
and  the  advance  of  Bliictier,  on  the  lOth, 
towards  Hermbut,  compelled  the  French 
emperor  to  retire  from  the  frontiers  of  Bo- 
hemia to  Dresden,  and  to  turn  upK>n  the 
right  bank  of  the  Elbe.  These  marches 
devastated  the  country,  and  turned  it  into 
a  desert  The  14th,  Napoleon  advanced 
again  to>vards  the  fiontiers  of  Bohemia, 
and  penetrated,  on  the  15th,  to  Culm ;  but 
his  guards  were  driven  back  at  Nollendorf, 
with  considerable  loss,  by  Colloredo,  on 
the  16th:  on  the  21st,  he  returned  to 
Dresden.  The  Austrians  occupied  Frey- 
berg  on  the  17th :  detachments  fix>m  tho 
army  of  the  crown  prince  of  Sweden 
advanced  to  Leipsic,  and  Blucher  formed 
a  junction  with  Bubna.  Napoleon  drove 
back  the  Prussians  to  Bautzen,  but  was, 
on  the  24th,  again  in  Dresden.  He  now 
entirely  abandoned  the  right  bank  of  the 
Elbe,  and  concentrated  his  forces  on  the 
left.  The  28di  and  29ai,  the  aUies  at- 
tacked the  bridge  at  Meissen  without  suc- 
cesa  The  forces  of  Napoleon  marched 
tlirough  Freyburg  towards  Chemnitz,  and 
tiirough  Rossen  towards  Leipsic  The 
unexpected  passage  of  Blucher  over  tbe 
Elite,  at  Wartenburg  (3d  of  OctoberV,  de- 
cidetl  the  march  of  Napoleon  from  Dres- 
den (October  7).  The  kin^  of  Saxony 
followed  him.  (See  Letpnc,  BatUe  of,) 
About  30,000  men,  under  St  Cyr  and  the 
count  von  der  Lobau,  remained  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  Dresden.  Bubna  stormed,  on  the  8th, 
the  bridge  of  Pima,  and  the  allies  attacked 
the  outworks  of  the  Neustadt  At  the 
same  time,  16,000  Russians  under  Tolstoi, 
Iwanoff  and  Markoff^  approached  Dresden, 
to  cover  the  march  of  Benningsen  towards 
Leipsic.  On  the  17th,  St  Cyr  drove  Tol- 
stoi back  to  Dohna,  with  a  loss  of  six  can- 
nons and  some  hundred  men  on  the  side 
of  the  Russians ;  but,  on  the  20th,  the  Rus- 
sians obliged  the  marshal  to  retreat  to- 
wards Dr^en,  which  was  now  entirely 
surrounded,  as  the  Austrian  generals 
Cliasteler  and  Klcnau  had  joined  Tolstoi 
on  the  20th.  The  city,  which  was  cut 
off  from  all  supplies,  suffered  more  and 
more  from  want  of  provisions.  St  Cyr, 
however,  prepared  for  the  most  obstinate 
resistance:   he  barricaded   the   suburbsi, 


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307 


converted  a  number  of  dwelling-houses 
into  block-houses,  and  destroyed  inost  of 
the  gardens  round  the  city.  November  6, 
10,000  infantry  and  1000  cavahy,  under  the 
count  von  der  Lobau,  with  200  wagons, 
marched  out  from  die  Neustadt,  on  their 
way  towards  Torgau ;  but  they  were  driven 
back,  near  Reicbenberg,  by  the  prince  of 
Wied-Runkel,  and  returned  to  the  city  in 
the  evening.  Famine  and  disease  rased 
among  the  soKliers  and  inhabitants.  More 
than  §00  corpses  were  daily  carried  from 
the  hospitals,  and  from  200  to  300  deaths 
occurred  every  week  in  the  city.  No- 
vember 11,  articles  of  capitulation  were 
agreed  to  by  Klenau,  but  not  retired  by 
prince  Schwarzenberg.  The  garrison 
were  made  prisoners  of  war.  6000  sick 
remained  in  the  hospitals.  Dresden  re- 
ceived a  strong  Russian  garrison,  and  be- 
came the  seat  of  the  Russian  administra- 
tion, under  the  prince  Repnin.  The  ex- 
cellence of  Napoleon's  tactics  was  never, 
perhaps,  displayed  to  greater  advantage 
than  in  the  batde  of  Dresden,  a  master- 
piece of  military  skill. 

Dress.    (See  Clotkmg.y 

Drinker,  Edward,  a  man  remarkable 
for  longevity,  was  bom  Dec.  24, 1680,  in 
a  small  cabin,  near  the  present  comer  of 
Walnut  and  Second  streets,  in  the  city  of 
Philadelphia,  and  died  Nov.  17,  1782,  m 
the  103d  year  of  his  age.  The  banks 
of  the  Delaware,  on  which  the  city  of 
Philadelphia  now  stands,  were  inhab- 
ited, at  the  time  of  his  birth,  by  In- 
dians, and  a  few  Swedes  and  Hollanders. 
He  often  talked  to  liis  companions  of  pick- 
ing whortleberries  and  catching  rabbits 
on  spots  now  the  most  improved  and  pop- 
ulous in  die  city.  He  recollect^  the 
second  time  William  Penn  came  to  Penn- 
sylvania, and  used  to  point  out  the  place 
where  he  had  been  told  the  cabin  stood, 
in  which  Penn  and  his  friends  that  ac- 
companied him  were  accommodated  upon 
their  first  arrival.  At  twelve  years  of  ace,, 
he  went  to  Boston,  where  he  served  his 
apprenticeship  to  a  cabinet-maker.  ,In 
the  year  1745,  he  returned  to  Philadel- 
phia with  his  familv,  where  he  Uved  until 
the  time  of  his  death.  He  was  four  times 
married,  and  had  eighteen  children,  all 
of  whom  were  by  his  first  wife.  Not 
long  before  his  death,  he  heard  of  the 
birth  of  a  grand-child  to  one  of  his  mnd- 
children,  the  fifth  in  succession  to  himself. 
— He  retained  his  mental  faculties  till  the 
last  year  of  his  life.  Even  his  memory 
was  out  htde  impaired.  He  not  only  re- 
membered the  incidents  of  his  chilcuiood 
and  youth,  but  the  events  of  latter  years; 


and  so  faithful  was  his  memory,  that 
the  members  of  his  fiunily  never  heard 
him  tell  the  same  story  twice,  but  to  dif- 
ferent persons  and  in  diflferent  companies 
His  eye-sight  failed  him  many  yeare  be- 
fore his  death,  but  his  hearing  was  per- 
fect His  appetite  was  good  till  withm  a 
few  daysv before  his  death;  but  he  bad 
lost  all  his  teeth  thirty  years  previous  to 
that  event,  in  consequence,  it  was  said,  of 
drawing  excessively  hot  smoke  of  tobacco 
into  his  mouth.  He  had  been  die  subject 
of  seven  successive  sovereigns,  and  saw 
Penn  conclude  his  treaty  with  tiie  In- 
dians. 

Droit  d'Aubaine.  (See  wfu&otne,  DroU 
tP.)  A  work  has  lately  been  published  un- 
der the  tide  of  Droit  dfAvhaint  de  la  Granck- 
Brdagne^par  C.  H.  Okey,Avocat  Anglais, 
which  explains,  in  a  concise  form,  the 
rights  of  foreigners  in  England. 

.Droits  Reunis  (FreruhY;  united  im- 
posts ;  the  name  given,  in  France,  to  an 
indirect  tax  imposed  on  wine,  cider,  beer, 
spirits,  salt,  tobacco,  playing-cards,  stage- 
coaches, &c.  The  name  originated  from 
the  circumstance,  that  these  and  similar 
taxes  were  united  into  one  (uhmmstration 
ghUrak  des  droiis  riwda  (general  admin- 
istration of  the  united  imposts).  It  affords 
annually  from  120  to  150  millions  of 
francs,  and,  of  course,  forms  a  very  im- 
portant branch  of  the  French  administra- 
tion, with  which,  however,  the  inconven- 
iences are  connected,  which  always  attend 
indirect  taxes,  if  they  are  high,  and  it  be- 
comes an  object  to  evade  them ;  because 
not  only  many  ofticers  are  reouired  to 
watch  the  persons  from  whom  the  taxes 
are  to  be  obtained ;  but  a  strict  observation 
must  also  be  kept  over  the  ofiicers  them- 
selves, that  they  may  not  connive  at  frauds 
upon  govemment  In  1812  and  1813,  all 
the  laws  respecting  the  droits  rhaws  were 
collected  by  order  of  the  durector-gen- 
eral,  since  their  number  had  increased 
so  much,  that  neither  the  officers  nor  the 
people  could  know  them  all.  The  gen- 
eral direction  of  the  whole  is,  in  Paris, 
under  a  counsellor  of  state :  he  and  ^five 
administrators  form  the  general  council, 
which  decides  all  doubSuI  cases.  In 
each  department  is  a  director,  under 
whom  are  the  inspectors  and  otiier  infe- 
rior officers.  The  director  sends  evenr 
fortnight  the  amount  which  he  has  col- 
lected to  Paris.  The  directors  make  a 
journey  every  three  montiis  through  their 
district,  close  their  accounts,  and  make 
three  copies  of  a  statement  of  tiieir  reports 
and  expenditures,  of  which  one  copy  re- 
mains in  the  hands  of  the  inspector,  one 


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aoe 


DROITS  REUNIS—DROPSY. 


goes  to  Paria,  and  one  to  the  director  of 
Uie  department.  This  system  tends  to 
prevent  the  enormous  abuses  which  pre- 
vailed in  the  whole  tax  department  before 
the  revolution. 

DROBfi£ ;  a  liver  of  France,  in  the  east- 
ern part  of  the  kingdom.  It  rises  near 
Valdrome,  and  falls  into  the  Rhone  about 
eleven  miles  south  of  Valence.  The  river 
gives  its  name  to  a  department.  (See  De- 
partment.) 

Dromedary.    (See  Camd.) 

Dropst;  a  preternatural  collection  of 
serous  or  watery  fluid  in  the  cellular 
substance,  or  different  cavities  of  the 
body.  It  receives  diflerent  appellations, 
according  to  the  particular  situation  of 
the  fluid.— When  it  is  diffused  through 
the  cellular  membrane,  either  generally 
or  partially,  it  is  called  anasarca;  when 
it  is  deposited  in  the  cavity  of  the  cra- 
nium, it  is  called  hydrocephalus ;  when 
in  the  chest,  hydroihoraxy  or  hydrops  pecto- 
ris; when  in  the  abdomen,  ascites;  in 
the  uterus,  hydromHra ;  and  within  the 
scrotum,  hydrocele. — ^The  causes  of  these 
diseases  are  a  family  disposition  thereto, 
frequent  salivations,  excessive  and  long- 
continued  evacuations,  a  free  use  of  spir- 
ituous liquors  (which  never  fail  to  de- 
stroy the  digestive  powers,)  scirrhosities 
of  the  liver,  spleen,  pancreas,  mesentery, 
and  other  abaominal  viscera;  preceding 
diseases,  as  the  jaundice,  diarrhoea,  dysen- 
tery, phthisis,  asthma,  gout,  intermittents 
of  long  duration,  scarlet  fever,  and  some 
of  the  exanthemata ;  a  suppression  of  ac- 
customed evacuations,  the  sudden  striking 
in  of  eniptive  humon,  ossification  of  the 
valves  of  the  heart,  polypi  in  the  right 
ventricle,  aneurism  in  the  arteries,  tumors 
making  a  considerable  pressure  on  the 
neighTOring  parts,  permanent  obstruction 
in  the  lungs,  rupture  of  the  thoracic  duct, 
exposure  for  a  length  of  time  to  a  moist 
atmosphere,  laxity  of  the  exhalants,  def^t 
in  the  abeorhents,  topical  weakness,  and 
genera)  debility. — ^The  flrst  of  these  spe- 
cies which  we  ahcdl  describe  is  ascttis 
(firom  ^Kii,  a  sack  or  bottle;  so  called 
fit>m  its  botde-Iike  inrotaberancy ),  or  dropsy 
of  the  belly,  a  tense,  but  scarcely  elastic, 
swelling  of  the  abdomen  from  accumu- 
lation of  water.  Ascites  is  oflen  pre- 
ceded by  loss  of  appetite,  sluggishness, 
dryness  of  the  skin,*  oppression  at  the 
chest,  cough,  diminution  of  the  natural 
discharse  of  urine,  and  costiveness.  After 
the  swellinff  has  commenced,  it  increases 
until  the  whole  belly  becomes  uniformly 
swelled  and  tense.  The  distension  and 
sense  of  weight  vary  somewhat  with  the 


position  of  the  body,  being  greatest  on  the 
side  on  which  the  patient  lies.  As  the 
collection  of  water  becomes  more  consid- 
erable, the  difiiculty  of  breathing  is  much 
increased,  the  countenance  exhibits  a  pale 
and  bloated  appearance,  an  immoderate 
thirst  comes  on,  the  skin  is  dry  and  parch- 
ed, and  the  urine  is  very  scanty,  tiiick, 
and  high-colored,  and  depoeites  a  lacteri-  . 
tious  mdiment.  The  pulse  is  variable, 
being  sometunes  considerably  ouicker, 
sometimes  slower  than  is  natural.  The 
operation  of  tapping  should  be  performed 
only  where  the  distension  is  very  great, 
and  the  respiration  or  other  important 
functions  unpeded;  and  it  will  often  be 
best  not  to  draw  off  the  whole  fluid  at 
once.  Great  care  must  be  taken,  also,  to 
keep  up  a  sufiicient  pressure,  by  a  broad 
bandage  over  the  abdomen,  as  even  fatal 
^ncope  has  arisen  from  the  neglect  of 
this.  The  contraction  of  the  muscles  will 
be  promoted  by  friction.  The  remedies 
for  this  disease  are  cathartics,  diuretics, 
gentie  friction  of  the  abdomen  with  oil, 
&c.  Tonic  medicines,  a  nutritious  diet, 
and,  if  the  complaint  appeare  giving  way, 
such  exercise  as  the  patient  can  take 
without  fatigue,  with  other  means  of  im- 
proving the  general  heahh,  ought  not  to 
be  neglected. — ^Another  species  of  dropsy 
is  called  anasarca  (from  ^m,  through,  and 
eip^y  flesh).  It  is  occasioned  by  a  serous 
humor,  spread  between  the  skin  and 
flesh,  or  rather  by  a  general  accumula- 
tion of  lymph  in  the  cellular  system. — 
This  species  of  dropsy  shows  itself  at 
firet  by  a  swelling  of^  the  feet  and  ankies 
towards  the  evening,  which,  for  a  time, 
disappeara  again  in  the  morning.  The 
tumefaction  is  soft  and  inelastic,  aiid, 
when  pressed  upon  by  the  finger,  re- 
tains its  mark  for  some  time,  the  skin 
becoming  much  paler  than  usual  By 
degrees,  the  swelling  ascends,  and  occu- 
pies the  trunk  of  the  body ;  and,  at  last, 
even  the  flice  and  eyelids  appear  full  and 
bloated :  the  breathing  then  becomes  dif- 
ficult, the  urine  is  smul  in  quantity,  high- 
colored,  and  deposits  a  reddish  sediment; 
the  belly  is  costive,  the  perspiration  much 
obstructed,  the  countenance  yelkiw,  and  a 
considerable  degree  of  thu^,  with  ema- 
ciation of  the  whole  body,  prevails.  To 
these  symptoms  succeed  torpor,  heaviness, 
a  troublesome  cough,  and  a  dow  fever. 
In  some  cases,  the  water  oozee  out  tlirough 
the  pores  of  the  cuticle ;  in  others,  being 
too  grofls  to  pass  through  them,  it  raises  the 
cuticle  in  small  bHsters ;  and  sometimes 
the  skin,  not  allowing  the  water  to  escape 
through  it  is  compressed  and  hardened, 


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309 


and  18,  at  the  same  time,  so  much  dis- 
tended as  to  give  the  tumor  a  considerable 
degree  of  firmness.  In  some  few  cases, 
the  disease  goes  off  by  a  n)ontaneous  cri- 
sis, by  vomiting,  purging,  &c.  Wliere  the 
qnandty  of  fluid  collected  is  such  as  to 
disturb  the  more  important  functions,  the 
best  mode  of  relieving  the  patient  is  to 
make  a  few  small  incisions  with  a  lancet, 
not  too  near  each  odier,  through  the  in- 
teguments on  the  fore  and  upper  part  of 
each  tliigh ;  the  discharge  may  be  assisted 
by  pressure.  In  the  use  of  issues  or  blis- 
ters, there  is  some  risk  of  inducing  gan- 
grene, especially  if  applied  to  tlie  legs; 
and  the  same  has  happened  from  scari- 
fications with  the  cupping  instrument. 
Absorption  may  be  piromoted  bv  friction, 
and  bandaging  the  parts,  which  will,  at 
the  same  time,  obviate  further  effusion; 
but  most  powerfully  by  the  use  of  differ- 
ent evacuating  remedies,  especially  diose 
which  occasion  a  sudden  considerable 
discharge  of  fluids.  Emetics  have  been 
often  employed  with  advantage ;  but  it  is 
necessaiy  to  guard  against  w^cening  the 
stomach  by  the  fifequent  repetidon  of 
those  which  produce  much  nausea. — 
Cathartica  are  of  much  greater  and  more 
general  utility.  Diuretics  are  universally 
proper.  Digitalis  is  often  a  very  powerful 
remedy.  Opium,  and  some  other  narcot- 
ics, have  been  occasionally  useful.  In  the 
use  of  diuretics,  the  patient  should  not  be 
restricted  fit>m  drinking  freely.  It  is  very 
desirable  to  promote  evacuation  by  the 
skin.  Sometimes  much  relief  is  obtain- 
ed by  promoting  perspiration,  locally,  by 
means  of  the  vapor  bath.  Mercury  has 
been  much  employed.  Regular  exercise, 
such  as  the  patient  can  bear  (the  limbs 
being  properly  supported,  esjpecially  by 
a  well-contrived  laced  stocking),  ought 
to  be  enjoined,  or  diligent  friction  of  the 
skin,  particularly  of  the  affected  parts,  em- 
ployed when  the  tumefaction  is  usually 
least,  namely,  in  the  morning.  The  cold 
bath,  duly  regulated,  may  also,  when  the 
padent  is  convalescent,  materially  con- 
tribute to  obviate  a  relapse. — ^The  next 
species  of  dropsy  which  we  shall  consider 
is  hydrocephalus  (from  hSt^,  water,  and 
M^Xq,  the  head) ;  hydrocephahmt,  hydrtnr 
ctphaL'us ;  dropsy  of  the  brain,  dropsy  of 
the  head.  It  is  sometimes  of  a  chronic 
nature,  when  the  water  has  l)een  known 
to  increase  to  an  enormous  quantity,  ef- 
fecting a  separation  of  the  bones  of  the 
head,  and  an  absorption  of  the  brain. 
Pain  in  the  head,  particularly  across  the 
brow,  stupor,  dilatation  of  the  pupils,  nau- 
sea, vomiting,  preternatural  slowness  of 


the  pulse,  and  convulnons,  are  sjrmptoms 
of  this  disease.  Hydrocephalus  is  almost 
peculiar  to  children,  being  rarely  known 
to  extend  beyond  the  age  of  twelve  or 
fourteen;  and  it  seems  more  frequently 
to  arise  in  those  of  a  scrofulous  and 
ricketty  habit  than  in  others.  It  is  an  af- 
fection which  has  been  oliserved  to  per- 
vade families,  affecting  all  or  the  greater 
part  of  the  children  at  a  certain  period  of 
their  life ;  which  seems  to  show  that,  in 
many  cases,  it  depends  more  on  the  gen- 
eral habit,  than  on  any  local  affection,  or 
accidental  cause.  The  disease  has  gen 
erally  t)een  supposed  to  arise  in  conse- 
quence either  of  mjuries  done  to  the  brain 
itself,  by  blovra,  fidls,  &C.,  from  scirrhous 
tumors  or  excrescences  within  the  skull, 
from  origincd  laxity  or  weakness  in  the 
brain,  or  from  general  debility  and  an  im- 
poverished state  of  the  blood.  With  re- 
spect to  its  proximate  cause,  very  opposite 
opinions  are  still  entertained  by  medical 
writers,  which,  in  conjunction  with  the 
equivocal  nature  of  its  symptoms,  prove  a 
source  of  considerable  enibarraeBment  to 
the  young  practitioner.  When  recoveries 
have  taken  place  in  hydrocephalus,  we 
ouf;ht,  probably,  to  attribute  more  to  the 
efforts  of  nature  than  to  the  interference 
of  art  It  is  always  to  he  regarded  as  of 
difficult  cure.  The  treatment  should  be 
prompt  and  active.  The  inflammatory 
action  should  be  lessened,  and  then  ab- 
sorption promoted.  After  taking  some 
blood  by  oleeding  or  by  leeches,  die  tor- 
pid bowels  are  to  be  evacuated  by  some 
active  cathartic,  and  their  activity  kept  up, 
in  the  progress  of  the  complaint,  by  calo- 
mel or  some  other  mercurial  preparation. 
Mercurv  also  contributes  nowerfidly  to 
rouse  tJie  absorlxsnts.  After  the  bow- 
els are  cleared,  some  evaporating  lotion 
is  to  be  applied  to  the  shaved  scalp, 
and  the  antiphlogistic  regimen  observed. 
Sudoriflc  medicines  will  generally  be 
proper,  asmsted  by  the  warm  bath.  Blis- 
ters may  lie  applied  to  the  temples,  behind 
the  ears,  or  to  the  nape  of  the  neck.  If 
the  progress  of  the  disease  is  arrested,  the 
strength  is  to  be  established  by  a  nutri- 
tious diet  and  tonic  medicines. 

Droskt  ;  a  kind  of  light,  four-tvheeled 
carriage,  used  by  the  Russians.  It  is  not 
covered,  and  its  side  seats  contain  a 
greater  or  less  number  of  persons.  The 
K>wer  wheels  are  covered  with  wings, 
which  keep  ofl"  the  mud. 

Drosometer  ;  an  instrument  for  ascer- 
taining the  quantity  of  dew  which  falls.  It 
consists  of  a  balance,  one  end  of  which  is 
furnished  with  a  plate  fitted  to  receive  the 


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DROSOMETER— DROWNING, 


dew,  the  other  contauaiig  a  weight  pro- 
tected fix>m  it 

Drouais,  John  Germain,  bom  at  Paris, 
1763,  the  most  distinguished  painter  of  the 
school  of  David.  His  desire  of  going*  to 
Rome  to  study  the  great  works  of  art,  in- 
duced him  to  enter  the  lists  for  the  ffceat 
j^rize,  which  consiBted  of  a  pension  for 
tour  years ;  but,  being  dissatisfied  with  his 
work,  he  destroyed  it,  and  left  the  prize  to 
another.  When  reproached  for  this  by 
his  master,  who  saw  with  surprise  the 
remains  of  his  picture,  be  said,  *^  Are  yon 
satisfied  with  me  ?**  "Perfectly,'' answer- 
ed David.  "  Well,  then,  I  have  piined 
the  prize,"  retunied  Drouais;  "this  was 
my  aim ;  the  prize  of  the  academy  be- 
lonfls  to  another,  to  whom  it  may  be  more 
usdul  tlian  it  would  have  been  to  me; 
the  next  year  I  hope  to  deserve  it  I7  a 
better  work.**  In  1784,  Drouais  again 
entered  the  lists.  The  Canaanitish  woman 
at  the  feet  of  Jesus  was  the  fruit  of  bis 
study.  He  was  publicly  crowned,  and 
led  in  triumph,  by  his  fellow  students,  to 
their  master.  He  accompanied  him  as  a 
pensioner  to  Rome,  where  he  studied  and 
copied  the  greatest  masters.  His  Dying 
Gladiator,  and,  particularly,  his  Marius  at 
Mintumse,  on  being  exhibited  in  Paris, 
gained  him  and  David's  school  a  new 
triumph.  He  now  sketched  his  Philoc- 
tetes  at  Lemnos ;  but  his  career  was  sud- 
tlenly  checked  bv  an  inflammatory  fever, 
which  put  an  end  to  his  life  before  he  had 
completed  his  25th  year,  and  while  he 
was  en^niged  on  a  picture  of  Caius  Grac- 
chua  His  rivals  and  his  friends  united 
in  erecting  a  monument  to  him  in  St 
Mary's  church  (in  the  Via  Lata). 

Drouet,  Jean  Baptiste ;  post-master  at 
St  M^n^hould;  bom  1763.  It  was  he 
who  recognised  Louis  XVI,  in  his  flight 
through  St  M^n^bould,  and  caused  liim 
to  be  arrested  at  Varennes.  In  Septem- 
ber, 17^  he  was  chosen  member  of  the 
convention  from  the  department  of  the 
Mame,  and  voted  for  the  death  of  Louis. 
In  September,  1793,  he  was  sent  to  the 
noithem  anny.  In  October  of  tliis  year, 
he  was  taken  prisoner,  and  carried  to  Mo- 
ravia. Having  attempted  to  make  his 
escape  by  springing  from  a  window^  he 
broke  his  leg,  and  was  retaken.  In  Nov., 
1795,  he  was  exchanged  at  Basle,  with 
Camus,  Beumonville,  and  others,  for  the 
daughter  of  Louis  XVI,  and  entered  the 
council  of  the  five  hundred,  as  an  old 
member  of  the  convention.  INssatisfied 
with  the  moderate  system  which  at  that 
time  prevailed  in  France,  he  became,  with 
RabcBuf,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Jacobin 


conspiracy ;  and,  on  this  account,  was  ar- 
rested (May  11, 17961  but  made  his  escape, 
and  fled  to  Switzerland.  He  was  finally 
acquitted,  and  returned  to  France.  In 
1799,  lie  was  sub- prefect  at  St  M^n^houki. 
During  the  hundred  dai^s  (see  Cent  Jotiry), 
he  was  a  member  of  tJie  chamber  of 
deputies^  In  1816,  he  was  banished  from 
France  as  a  regicide. 

DaowNiNO  is  a  sort  of  death  caused  by 
imqiersing  the  exterior  opening  of  the 
respiratory  tube  in  a  liquid.  Actual  death 
is  often  preceded  by  apparent  death  (a«- 
phfxiaf  q.  v.) ;  and  it  is  possible,  if  this  state 
nas  not  continued  too  long,  to  resuscitate 
a  person  apparendy  drdwned.  This  cir- 
cumstance has  led  to  carefiil  investigations 
of  the  nature  of  dtowning,  and  wso,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  seaaand  large  rivers^ 
to  the  erection  of  public  institutions  for 
the  resuscitation  of  pereons  apparently 
drowned.  This  kind  of  death  fumishes^ 
likewise,  a  difiScult  subject  for  medical 
jurisprudence,  and  gives  occasion  to  the 
inquiry,  wheAKr  a  body  found  in  the 
water  was  actually  drowned,  or  whether 
life  was  lost  in  some  other  way ;  and 
great  attention  bos  been  paid  to  tlie  marks 
of  this  sort  of  death,  wliich  are  to  be 
found  upon  the  body.  But,  uotwitfa^ 
standing  all  this  pains,  much  unceitainty 
still  hangs  over  the  subject  This  re- 
mark is  true,  as  weH  of  the  manner  in 
which  death  is  the  conseauence  of  im- 
inersion,  as  of  the  signs  or  having  been 
drowned,  and  the  means  of  resuscitating 
from  apparent  death.  If  a  person  vohin- 
toiiiy  immerses  his  head  m  water,  he  per- 
ceives a  roaring  in  bis  ears,  a  tickling  in 
his  nose,  a  pressure  upon  his  breast,  and 
a  k ind  of  stupid  fooling*  If  a  man,  unable 
to  swim,  falls  into  the  water,  he  instino- 
tively  makes  every  exertion  to  escape  from 
it;  he  holds  his  breath,  moves  his  head 
up  and  backwards,  lays  hold  of  every 
solid  body  which  presents  itself,  and  evui 
grapples  at  the  bottom  of  tlie  water. 
These  struggles  continue  a  longer  or 
shorter  time,  according  to  the  strength 
and  presence  of  mind  of  the  unhappy 
subject:  at  last,  he  sinks,  exhausted,  ben- 
comes  unconscious,  strives  to  breathe, 
draws  in  water,  and  life  is  gone.  If  the 
body  is  taken  from  the  water,  it  is  com- 
monly found  to  be  very  cold;  the  limbs 
are  stift^,  the  countenance  distorted,  livid, 
and  often  pale,  the  eyes  half  open,  the  pu- 
pils enlarged,  the  mouth  filled  vnth  foam, 
the  breast  and  region  of  the  upper  stomach 
expanded.  Sometimes  the  bo<iy  is  still 
warm,  though  it  cannot  be  reiininiated,  the 
countenance  blue  and  distorted,  the  veins 


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DROWNING. 


311 


of  the  neck  much  swoDen.  ThiB  takes 
place  when  one  is  drowned  in  alcohol,  or 
in  marshy  or  warm  water,  or  when  a  per- 
son, in  a  state  of  intoxication,  or  with  a  full 
stomach,  or  a  heated  body,  fails  overboard. 
On  opening  the  body  of  a  person  who  has 
been  drowned,  the  epiglottis  is  found  to  be 
raised,  bloody  foam  appears  in  the  wind- 
pipe and  bronchial  passages,  the  lungs 
are  soft  and  distended,  a  large  quantity 
of  black  fluid  blood  is  collected  in  the 
right,  and  less  in  the  left  cavity  of  the 
heart,  a  litde  water  is  in  the  stomach,  and 
the  vessels  of  the  brain  are  swelled  with 
blood.  Death  is  sometimes  caused  by 
sufibcation  and  want  of  air,  and  some- 
times as  in  iqx>p]exy :  in  the  latter  case, 
it  happens  veiy  speedily,  and  a  little 
water  $s  sufficient  to  produce  it,  if  the 
person  ialls  upon  his  face.  In  this  case, 
when  the  body  is  opened,  the  foam  in  the 
wind-pipe  is  vmnting,  and  the  Teasels  of 
the  head  are  fiiUer.  The  various  con- 
stituents of  the  water,  such  as  irrespirable 
gases,  contribute  also  to  modify  and  com- 
plicate the  mode  of  death. 

The  following  are  the  methods  of  treat- 
ment recommended  by  the  London  Hu- 
mane Society  for  the  Recovery  of  Persons 
in  a  State  of  Suspended  Animation.  As 
drowning  is,  probably,  the  most  fiequent 
accident  by  which  animation  is  suspend- 
ed, we  give  all  the  rules  of  the  society  here, 
and  shall  refer  fiom  jFVeezw^,  Hangings 
Sui^  to  this  article. 

Cautitms,  Lose  no  time.  Avoid  all 
rough  usage.  Never  hold  the  body  up  by 
the  feet ;  nor  roll  the  body  on  casks  ;  nor 
rub  the  body  with  salts  or  spirits ;  nor  in- 
ject tobacco  smoke  or  infusion  of  tobacco. 

Re$toratwe  Meam,  If  apparendy  drown- 
ed, send  quickly  for  meidical  assistance; 
but  do  not  delay  the  following  means  :-!— 
Convey  the  body  carefully,  wim  the  head 
and  shoulders  supported  in  a  raised  posi- 
tion, to  the  nearest  house.  Strip  the 
body,  and  rub  it  dry ;  then  wrap  it  in  hot 
blankets,  and  place  it  in  a  warm  bed,  in  a 
warm  chamber.  Wipe  and  cleanse  the 
mouth  and  nostrils.  In  order  to  restore 
the  natural  warmth  of  the  body,  move  a, 
heated  covered  warming  pan  over  the 
bock  and  spine;  put  blwlders  or  bottles 
of  hot  water,  or  heated  bricks,  to  the  pk 
of  the  stomach,  the  arm-pits,  between  the 
thighs,  and  to  the  soles  of  the  feet;  fo- 
ment the  body  with  hot  flannels ;  but,  if 
poauble,  immerse  the  body  in  a  warm 
oath,  as  hot  as  the  hand  can  bear  without 
pain,  as  this  is  preferable  to  the  other 
means  for  restoring  warmth  ;  rub  the 
body  briskly  with  the  hand ;  do  not,  how- 


ever, suspend  the  use  of  the  other  means 
at  tlie  sanv  time.  In  order  to  restore 
breathing,  introduce  the  pipe  of  a  com- 
mon bellows  (where  tlie  apparams  ,of  the 
society  is  not  at  hand)  into  one  nostril, 
carefully  closing  the  other  and  the  mouth ; 
at  the  same  time  drawing  downwards,  and ' 
pushing  gently  backwards,  the  upper  part 
of  the  windpipe,  to  allow  a  more  free 
admisnon  of  air ;  blow  the  bellows  gendy, 
in  order  to  inflate  the  lungs,  till  the  breast 
be  a  litde  raised ;  the  mouth  and  nostrils 
should  then  be  set  free,  and  a  moderate 
pressure  made  with  the  hand  upon  the 
ohest  Rejieat  this  process  till  life  ap- 
pears. 'Electricity  to  be  employed  early  by 
a  medical  assistant.  Inject  into  the  stom- 
ach, by  means  of  an  elastic  tube  or  syringe, 
half  a  pint  of  warm  brandy  and  water,  or 
wine  and  water.  Apply  sal  volatile  or 
hartsbojrn  to  the  nostrils. — ^If  apparendy 
dead  from  intense  cold,  rub  the  body  over 
with  snow,  ice  or  cold  water.  Restore 
warmth  by  slow  degrees ;  and  after  some 
time,  if  necessaiy,  employ  the  means  rec- 
emmended  for  tlie  drowned.  In  these 
accidents,  it  is  highly  dangerous  to  apply 
heat  too  early. — ^If  apparendy  dead  from 
hanging,  in  addition  to  die  means  recom- 
mended for  the  drowned,  bleeding  should 
eariy  be  employed  by  a  mediccd  assistant. 
— ^If  apparendy  dead  from  noxious  vapors, 
&c.,  remove  the  body  into  a  cool,  fresh 
air.  Dash  cold  water  on  the  neck,  fiice 
and  Ineast,  frequently.  If  the  body  be 
cold,  ai^ly  warmth,  as  recommended  for 
the  drowned.  Use  the  means  as  above 
recommended  for  inflating  the  lungs. 
Let  electricity  (particularly  in  accidents 
from  lightning)  ne  early  employed  by  a 
medicaTassistant. — ^If  apparendy  dead  from 
intoxicadon,  lay  the  body  on  a  bed  with 
the  head  raised  ;  remove  the  neckcloth, 
and  loosen  the  ckythes.  Obtain  instantly 
medical  assistance,  as  the  treatment  must 
be  regulated  by  the  state  of  the  patient; 
but,  in  the  mean  time,  apply  cloths  soaked 
in  cold  water  to  the  head,  and  botdes  of  hot 
water,  or  hot  bricks,  to  the  calves  of  the 
legs  and  to  die  feet^— -If  apparendy  dead 
from  apoplexy,  the  patient  should  be 
placed  m  a  cool  air,  and  the  clothes  loos- 
ened, pardcularly  about  the  neck  and 
breast.  Bleeding  must  be  early  employed 
by  a  medical  assistant ;  the  quantity  regu- 
lated by  the  state  of  the  pulse.  Cloths 
soaked  in*  water,  spirits,  or  vinegar  and 
water,  should  be  applied  to  the  head, 
which  should  be  instandy  shaved.  AH 
stimulants  should  be  avoided^ — ^In  cases 
of  coup  de  aoleU,  or  strokes  of  the  sun,  the 
same  means  are  to  be  used  as  in  apoplexy. 


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DROWNING— DRUIDS. 


Ckntrd  ObservaUom,  On  restoration  to 
life,  a  tea-spoonful  of  warm  water  should 
be  given ;  and  then,  if  the  power  of  swal- 
lowing be  returned,  smalt  quantities , of 
warm  wine,  or  weak  brandy  and  water, 
warm ;  the  patient  should  be  kept  in  bed, 
and  a  disposition  to  sleep  encouraged, 
except  in  cases  of  intoxication,  apoplexy 
and  coup  de  soleii.  Great  care  is  requisite 
to  maintain  tlie  restored  vital  actions,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  to  prevent  undue  excite- 
ment The  treatment  recommended  by 
the  society  is  to  be  persevered  in  for  three 
or  four  hours.  It  is  an  erroneous  opinion 
that  persons  are  irrecoverable  because 
life  does  not  soon  make  its  appearance; 
and  it  is  absurd  to  suppose  that «  body 
must  not  be  meddled  with  or  removed 
without  the  permission  of  a  coroner. 

Droz  ;  the  name  of  three  celebrated 
mechanicians :  1.  Pierre-Jacquet,  bom 
at  Chaux-de-Fond.  Aspiring  to  be 
something  more  than  a  mere  workman, 
he  endeavored  to  perfect  the  different 
parts  of  clock-work,  and  succeeded  in  at- 
taching to  common  time-pieces,  at  a  small 
expense,  machinery  which  produced  mu- 
sic resembling  the  chime  of  bells,  and  the 
music  of  a  nute^  His  attempts  to  dis- 
cover the  means  of  effecting  a  perpetual 
motion,  led  him  to  important  discoveries. 
He  contrived,  among  other  thincs,  a  pen- 
dulum, which,  being  composed  of  two 
metals  of  unequal  mlatability,  remained 
unaffected  bv  heat  or  cold.  He  after- 
wards made  Ids  celebrated  writing  autom- 
aton, which,  by  means  of  machinery 
contained  within  the  figure,  was  made  to 
move  its  fingers  and  hands,  and  to  form 
handsome  letters.  His  last  work  was  an 
astronomical  clock.  He  was  surprised 
by  death  before  this  was  fini^ed. — 2. 
Henri-Louis-Jacquet,  son  of  the  preceding, 
bom  1752,  at  Chaux-de-Fond.  From  his 
earliest  youth,  he  was  employed  in  me- 
chanical works.  At  the  age  of  22,  he 
went  to  Paris  with  some  of  the  products 
of  his  labor ;  among  which  was  an  au- 
tomaton, representing  a  young  female, 
which  played  different  tunes  on  the  harp- 
sichord, followed  the  notes  in  the  music 
book  with  her  eyes  and  head,  and,  having 
finished  playing^  rose  and  saluted  the 
company,  in  Paris,  he  caused  one  of 
the  workmen,  taught  by  his  father,  to 
make  a  pair  of  artificial  hands  for  a  youn ir 
man  who  was  mutilated,  by  means  of 
which  he  was  enabled  to  perform  most 
of  the  necessary  offices  for  himself. 
^  Young  man,"  said  the  fiunous  Vaucan- 
son  to  Droz,  when  he  saw  this  work,  **  you 
begin  where  I  should  be  willing  to  end." 


He  died  1791,  at  Naples,  where  he  had  gone 
for  the  recovery  of  his  health. — Jean-Pierre 
united  himself,  in  178^  with  Bouiton,  in 
Birmingham,  for  the  purpose  of  striking  all 
the  English  copper  coin.  He  made  for  the 
French  mint  a  stamping  machine,  which, 
with  one  stroke,  and  less  expenditure  of 
power  than  is  required  in  the  usual  process, 
stamps  both  sides  and  the  rim  of  coins. 

Droz,  Joseph,  formerly  member  of  the 
parliament  ot  Besani^on,  bom  1773,  be- 
came a  member  of  the  French  academy 
at  Paris,  in  1824,  made  himself  known,  in 
1806,  by  his  Esscd  ntr  VAi  d^itrt  htu- 
reux  (4th  ed.,  1825);  by  his  Elogedt 
Mantctt^  (3d  ed.,  1815) ;  bv  his  itudes 
9ur  U  beau  dans  Us  Arts  (lol5),  and  his 
Mkmovrts  de  Jacques  Fawel,  In  his  Phi- 
losophie  moraUj  he  showed  himself  a  deep 
thinker,  a  scholar,  and  a  good  writer.  At 
the  time  of  his  election  to  the  French 
academy,  the  poet  Laraartine  was  his  com- 
petitor. His  inaugural  address  (July  7, 
1,825)  contains  some  excellent  remarks  on 
the  moral  influence  of  literature.  *^Rfaut 
icrire^  said  Droz,  ^a!oec  sa  consdenct,  en 
prisence  de  Dieu,  dans  Pinterit  de  rhxmamUy 

Druids.  These  priests  of  the  Celts,  or 
Gauls,  resembled,  in  many  respects,  the 
Bramins  of  India :  they  formed  a  distinct 
caste,  possessing  the  greatest  authority,  be- 
ing the  learned  men  and  philosophers  of 
these  people,  and  having  also  veiy  giBat 
authority  in  the  govemment  of  the  state. 
Julius  Caesar  has  left  more  information 
concerning  them  than  any  other  writer. 
According  to  him,  they  performed  aU  pub- 
lic and  private  sacrifices,  explained  the 
doctrines  of  their  religion,  distributed  all 
kinds  of  rewards,  administered  justice  at 
stated  times,  and  determined  the  punish- 
ment which  should  be  inflicted  on  ofifend- 
ers.  Whoever  opposed  their  decisions, 
was  excommunicated  by  them,  and  there- 
by deprived  of  all  share  in  religious  wor- 
ship. They  could  even  pronounce  this 
curse  against  a  whole  people;  and,  in 
fact,  their  power  had  hardly  any  limits. 
They  appointed  the  highest  ofiScers  in  aJI 
the  cities,  and  these  dared  not  undertake 
any  thuig  without  their  advice  and  direc- 
tion. They  were  free  from  taxes  and  aU 
public  burdens  Instmction  in  religious 
and  all  other  kinds  of  knowledge,  the  art 
of  war  alone  excepted,  was  intnisted  en- 
tirely to  them.  They  gave  oral  instruction 
in  the  form  of  verses,  which  often  had  a 
hidden  meaning,  and  which  were  com- 
mitted to  memory.  Accordinff  to  Ciesar, 
they  beKeved  ia  the  immortidity  of  the 
soul,  and  its  transmigration  through  dif- 
ferent bodies.     They  taught,  moreover, 


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t)RUI]>S--DRUItY  LAKE  THEAlHEk 


313 


the  nature  and  motions  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  the  magnitude  of  the  universe  and 
the  ecutb,  the  nature  of  things,  and  the 
power  of  the  gods.  They  also  practised 
astrology,  magic  and  soothsaying.  Ac- 
cording to  PUny,  tliey  were  not  ignorant 
of  natinral  philosophy  and  phvsic.  They 
had  a  wonderful  reverence  mr  the  holy 
misdetoe  (a  parasitical  plant,  which  grows, 
not  from  the  earth,  but  on  other  plants, 
particularly  on  the  oak,  and  which,  even 
at  the  present  time,  is  celebrated  as  a 
remedy  for  epilepsy)!  This  they  looked 
«pon  as  the  holiest  object  in  nature,  and 
as  a  panacea:  they  likewise  esteemed  the 
oak  sacred,  from  which  circumstance 
they  have  derived  their  name.  The 
Druids  had  a  common  superior,  who  was 
elected  by  a  majority  of  vbtes  from  their 
own  number,  and  who  enjoyed  his  diff- 
nit^  for  lif^  Their  principal  seat  was  m 
Britain.  The  temples  of  the  Druids  bear 
a  strong  resemblance  to  those  of  India. 

DauM.  Instruments  which  produce  a 
0ound  by  means  of  a  tightly  extended 
skin,  aie  common  in  abnost  every  part  of 
the  world.  The  tambourine  is  found 
among  most  nations ;  the  ancients  call- 
ad  it  tympammL  AU  these  instruments 
are  used  both  for  profane  and  sacreil 
purpoaes.  But  the  peculiar  use  of  the 
drum  for  military  puiposes  seems  to  have 
been  introduced  among  the  Europeans 
in  the  time  of  the  crusadesL  There  are 
very  many  different  kinds  of  drums  in  the 
East,  described  bv  Niebuhr,  the  father,  in 
lus  Rei$ebeMihmmmg,  i.  180,  with  his 
wen  known  accuracy.  The  kettle  drum, 
the  base  drum,  tambourine,  and  other 
kinds,  are  all  common  in  the  East.  The 
drum,  as  a  military  instrument,  is  used 
both  to  beat  the  march  and  to  give  signals. 
No  man,  who  has  not  experienced  it,  can 
imagine  the  exciting  power  of  the  drum. 
The  fiuigued  and  exhausted  soldier  is  at 
once  animated  by  its  sound ;  and  in  battle 
it  preserves  order,  and  inspires  courage 
in  a  body  attacking  en  eoUmne.  The 
French  drummers  perform  admurably, 
and,  under  Napoleon,  a  great  number 
firere  attached  to  each  battalion.  A  drum 
which  has  acquired  historical  celebrity,  is 
that  which,  by  the  order  of  Zisca,  was 
covered  with  Fiis  own  skin,  that  he  might 
atill  aid  in  battle,  where  he  had  so  oflen  eom- 
laanded,  even  after  he  had  become  blind. 

DaiTMifoifD,  William,  a  Scottish  poet, 
bom  in  1585,  was  educated  at  the  univer- 
sity of  Edinburgh,  after  which  be  spent 
four  years  in  foreign  travels,  residing^  for 
a  part  of  thetime,at  Bourges,  to  study  the 
civil  kw.    On  his  retuin  to  Scotland,  be 

vaL.  IV.  27 


refflj^ned  all  idea  of  the  law,  and,  retiring 
to  his  romantic  seat  of  Hawthomden, 
gave  .himself  up  to  the  cultivation  of 
poetry  and  polite  literature.  A  dangerous 
illness  fostered  a  serious  and  devout  tarn 
of  mind,  which  was  evinced  by  his  first 
productions,  The  Cypress  Grove,  in  proses 
containing  reflections  upon  death,  and 
Flowers  of  Sion,  or  Spuitual  Poems. 
The  death  of  a  young  laay^  to  whom  he 
was  about  to  be  married,  rendered  home 
insupportable,  and  drove  him  again 
abroad.  He  remained  on  the  continent 
eight  years.  In  his  forty-fifth  year,  he 
was  married,  and  aeain  took  up  his  resi- 
dence at  Hawthomden.  He  died  in  De- 
cember, 1649,  in  his  sbcty-fourth  year. 
As  a  historian,  Drummond  claims  littia 
notice.  His  Histoiy  of  the  Jameses,  pub- 
lished after  his  death,  shows  a  total  de- 
ficiency of  historic  talent  He  is  now  re- 
membered only  as  a  poet  There  is 
much  sweemess  and  melody  in  his  verse, 
and  although  tinged  with  the  conceits  <» 
the  Italian  school,  there  is  muck  genuine 
imagery  and  truth  of  feeling  in  all  his 
poetiv,  but  particularly  in  his  sonnets, 
which  are  replete  with  tenderness  and 
delicacy.  An  edition  of  Drummond^i 
poems  was  published  in  1791. 

DauNKENifEss  is  made  a  crime  by 
some  codes  of  laws.  A  statute  of  Con- 
necticut provides  thst  if  a  man  is  ^  found 
drunk  so  as  to  be  bereaved  and  disabled 
in  his  reason  and  understanding,  appear- 
ing either  in  his  speech,  gesture  or  be- 
havior,'' he  shall  be  subject  to  a  fine,  for 
the  use  of  the  town,  of  one  dollar  and 
thirty-four  cent&  The  fine  for  the  same 
offence,  in  New  Jersey,  is  one  dollar,  and 
the  party  is  liable  to  be  put  in  the  stocks, 
if  it  be  not  paid.  In  Delaware,  it  is  Hve 
shillings.  But  this  vice  does  not  appear 
among  the  crimes  and  misdemeanors  of 
the  statute-book,  in  the  codes  of  all  the 
United  States.  The  English  statutes  of 
4  James  I,  chapter  5,  and  21  James  I^ 
chapter  7,  provide,  that  if  any  person  shall 
be  convicted  of  drunkenness,  he  shall  for-' 
foit  five  shillings,  to  be  levied  by  distress^ 
and,  for  want  of  a  distress,  shall  be  set  in. 
the  stocks.    (See  Intoxicatum.) 

Drupe  ;  in  botany,  a  sifnple  succulent 
firuit,  containing  a  bard  kernel  or  stone. 
Peaches,  cherries,  &c.,  are  drupes. 

Dru&t  Lane  Theatre,  one  of  tha 
principal  theatres  in  London,  was  estab- 
lished in  the  reign  of  James  I,  under  the 
name  of  the  Phasmx.  After  the  restora- 
tion, patents  for  stage  performances  were 
issued,  and  10  of  the  actors  were  called 
lam^s  seriMintf,  which  usage  stiU  exists. 


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914 


DftUKY  LANE  THEATRE— D&USUS. 


[b  1671,  it  was  burnt  down,  and  was 
rebuilt  by  sir  C.  Wren,  but^ain  con- 
sumed,  Feb.  24, 1609,  and  rebuilt  by  B. 
Wyatt,  1811.  It  was  opened  with  an 
address  composed  by  lord  Byron.  The 
interior  was  entirely  rebuilt  ui  1823,  and 
is  estimated  to  be  capable  of  containing 
3611  persons.  The  price  of  admittance 
into  the  pit  is  Ss.  6cL  ;  into  the  boxes^  7^. 
Druses  ;  a  people  of  Syria,  inhabitin/?  a 
tract  of  country  about  1165  square  miles, 
in  the  mountains  Libanus  and  Anti-Liba* 
nus.  They  are  about  160,000  in  number, 
40,000  of  whom  are  able  to  bear  arms. 
Their  pretended  descent  from  the  Franks, 
who  came  to  this  region  in  the  time  of  the 
crusades,  is  a  fable.  Their  name  is  de* 
rived  from  one  of  their  religious  teachers. 
At  the  end  of  the  16th  centunr,this  people 
began  to. excite  attention  in  Europe,  par- 
ticularly on  account  of  their  religion,  con- 
cerning which  they  maintain  tibe  utmost 
secrecy.  The  sacred  books  of  the  Druses, 
which  were  concealed  in  the  earth,  con- 
tain doctrines  which  prove  the  selfish 
policy  of  their  authors,  and  are  a  disgrace 
to  humanity.  The  layman  who  should 
accidentally  become  acquainted  with  the 
contents  of  these  books,  was  punished 
with  death.  The  docuines  of  the  Druses 
are  a  mixture  of  those  of  the  Sadduoees, 
the  Samaritans  and  the  Mohammedans. 
The  Druses  were  formerly  governed  by 
many  sheiks  or  lords,  but  one  by  the  name 
of  Ibrahim  contrived  to  make  himself 
master  of  the  whole  nation,  and  thereby 
became  formidable  to  the  Turka  In  the 
beginning  of  the  17th  century,  tlie  Druses, 
under  the  renowned  emir  Fakreddin  (usu- 
ally called  Fakardm)j  reached  the  summit 
of  their  power;  but  this  leader  was,  in 
1631,  stranffled  at  O)nstantinople ;  and, 
although  other  princes  were  placed  over 
them,  they  never  recovered  ttieir  former 
reputation.  They  endeavored,  indeed,  bv 
the  assistance  of  the  Rusoans,  in  177^ 
to  regain  then:  fi*eedom;  but  they  were 
soon  obliged  to  become  again  dependent 
on  the  Turks.  They  are  now  governed 
by  emus  (princes),  who,  in  their  turn,  are 
subject  to  a  grand  emir :  they  are  tributa- 
ries of  the  Porte,  but  are  almost  entirely 
independent,  cultivating  the  soil,  and  pro- 
ducing wine  and  biIIl  Their  religion 
divides  the  people  into  wise  men  (<ica(e», 
learned  or  mitiated)  and  secular  persons 
^oJodj  or  laymen,  i^orant,  unimtiated). 
They  have  no  public  worship,  but  they 
fiequent  Christian  and  Monammedaa 
churches :  they  have,  neveitbeleflB,  some 
symbols  and  penons  devoted  to  religious 
wwship. 


Drusus.  There  were  several 
guished  Romans  of  this  name  ^— 1.  Marcus 
Livius  ( B.  C.  123)  was  tribune  of  the  peo- 
ple with  Caius  Gracchus.  He  was  also 
the  father  of  Livia,  the  wife  of  M.  Cote 
and  the  mother  of  Cato  of  Utica.  He 
opposed  the  projects  of  the  popular  &- 
vorite,  Caius  Gmrchus,  so  strenuously,  that 
the  patricians  called  him  ttiepatronug  stmot- 
his.  By  his  victories  in  Thrace,  he  made 
the  Danube  the  boundary  of  the  republic, 
was  honored  with  a  triumph,  and  died  in 
the  office  of  censor,  B.  C.  110^—2.  His  son, 
Marcus  Livius  (grandfather  of  Livia,  unft 
of  Aug<U3tus),  was  distinguished  lor  his 
talents,  energy  and  ek>quence;  but  liis 
zeal  often  led  him  to  neglect  the  regidar 
forms  of  prooeoding  in  the  repubtic,  while 
his  extravagant  munificence  and  high  opin- 
ion of  himself  sometimes  caused  him  to 
commit  imprudent  actions.  Rome  was 
then  divided  by  the  disputes  of  the  senate 
and  the  equestrian  order.  The  power  of 
tlie  latter,  which,  since  the  time  of  the 
Gracchi,  had  risen  to  its  utmost  height, 
excited  the  jealousy  of  the  senate,  who 
struggled  zealously  for  their  old  but  ncyw 
almost  lost  authority.  Dnisus  endeavored 
to  gain  over  the  people  to  the  psity  of  the 
senate,  by  the  division  of  lands,  to  which 
the  senate  agreed  with  the  utmost  rehic- 
tance,  and  to  gain  the  Roman  allies  by  the 
promise  of  citizenship.  He  came  forwafd, 
relying  on  this  assistance,  as  a  mediator 
between  the  hostile  parties.  He  proposed  to 
supply  the  vacant  seats  of  the  senatms  vrith 
knights,  and  to  allow  the  new  magistrates 
the  judicial  authority,  which,  fix)m  the  time 
of  the  Gracchi,  had  belonged  to  the  kni^iss 
alone,  but  before  that  time,  to  the  sena* 
tors.  He  suQceeded  in  this  plan,  notwith^ 
standing  the  most  violent  opposition  from 
both  parties.  But  the  jealousy  with  which 
each  party  guarded  its  rights,  and  the 
rash  and  violem  manner  in  which  Drusus 
had  effected  the  union,  rendered  him  %ut- 
popular  with  botli  parties.  When,  there- 
fore, he  proposed  to  grant  the  nght  of 
citizenship  to  the  allies,  for  thefar  services 
to  the  senate,  that  body  rejected  the  prop- 
osition decidedly,  eo  that  Dnisus  could 
effect  nothing.  On  his  retum  to  his 
house  from  an  assembly  of  the  people, 
accompanied  by  a  number  of  the  Latuis, 
he  was  stabbed  at  his  door,  by  an  un- 
known hand.  He  died  a  lew  hou»  aAnv 
with  these  words — **  When  will  the  rniub- 
lic  again  possess  such  a  citizen  as  I  nsve 
been."  His  death  (&  C.  98)  was  the  sig- 
nal for  the  beginning  of  the  social  vnuv 
which  had  been  so  kmc  tfareaceD]]ic>^ 
3.  Claudius  Nei<s^  son  m  Tiberins  Neio 


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DRU3US— DRYOEN. 


aift 


and  0f  livja  (afterwards  wife  of  the  em- 
peror Augustus),  and  brother  of  Tiberius, 
who  was  aHerwards  emperor,  was  sent  as 
questor,  with  bis  brother,  against  the  ]Ui»- 
tians,  whom  he  subdued.  He  then  sup- 
(Nressed  an  insurrection  in  Gaul,  defeat- 
ed the  Germans  who  dwelt  beyond 
the  Rhine,  passed  the  river,  and.  van- 
quished tlie  Sicambri  and  Bructeri,  and 
made  the  Frisians  tributary  to  the  Ro« 
man&  He  was  the  first  Roman  general 
who  ventured  upon  tlie  Nortliera  ocean. 
Afler  these  campaigns,  he  became  pretor 
(11  fi.  C.\  but  returned  in  the  next  spring 
to  Germany,  subdued  many  tribes  as  fax 
as  the  Weser,  and  commenced  the  erec- 
tion of  fortresses.  On  this  account,  he 
was  honored  with  an  ovation  at  Rome,  and 
was  appointed  proconsul ;  the  army  salu- 
ted him  with  the  title  of  imperaior,  whkh 
was  not,  however,  sanctioned  by  August 
tus.  B.  C.  9,  he  was  made  consul,  hut 
returned  soon  after  to  Germany,  and  pen- 
etrated as  far  as  the  Elbe,  but  was  unable 
to  pass  the  river.  He,  however,  ordered 
trophies  to  be  erected  there,  to  testify  his 
progress.  He  died  in  the  same  yean 
whue  on  bis  retum,  in  the  30th  year  of 
his  age.  The  canal^' uniting  the  Rhine 
with  the  Yssel,  was  his  work;  and  the 
place  called  Dnuenheim,  in  Alsace,  where 
ne  encamped  ibr  some  time,  received  its 
name  from  him.  By  his  wife  Antosia, 
lie  had  a  daughter,  Livia,  and  two  sonS| 
CremoanicuB  and  Claudius,  who  aflerwards 
became  emperors.  Rome  lost,  in  Dnisus, 
a  man  equally  distinguished  in  the  field 
and  the  council,  and  one  of  her  most  vir- 
tuous and  noble  citizens.  (See  A.  Bene- 
dict Wilhelm's  work,  Lie  Fekkiige  des 
JVbt)  Claudiu$  Dntnu  in  dem  n&rdL 
DeutschL  (Halle,  1836). 

DavADS ;  wood-nymphs,  in  the  mythol- 
ogy of  the  Arcadian  Greeks ;  supposed  to 
be  the  tutelar  deities  of  trees  in.  groves, 
particulariy  of  the  oak ;  hence  their  name. 

Dryden,  John,  one  of  the  most  eminent 
English  poets,  was  bom,  according  to  the 
most  probable  accounts,  on  the  9th  of 
August,  1631,  in  tlie  parish  of  Aid  winkle- 
All-Saints,  in  Northamptonshire.  His  fiu 
ther  posB^sed  a  small  estate,  and  acted 
as  a  justice  of  the  peace  during  the  pro- 
tectorate. The  subject  of  this  article,  his 
eldest  son,  received  his  early  education  in 
the  country,  and  was  then  removed  to 
Westminster  school,  whence  he  was  elect- 
ed to  a  scholarship  in  Trinity  college, 
Cambridge,  and  took  his  degree  of  bache- 
lor of  aits.  His  fiuher  dying  in  1654,  he 
fluoceaded  to  the  possession  of  his  estate, 
mtgect,  however,  lo  considerable  dedue* 


tions  ibr  the  widow  and  younger  chikhmk 
He  immediately  removed  to  London,  un- 
der the  auspices  of  his  rekition,  sir  Gilbert 
Pickering,  one  of  Cromwell's  council  and 
house  of  lords.  On  the  death  of  Ohver, 
he  wrote  Ins  celebrated  Heroic  Stanzas 
on  that  event — one  of  the  first  of  his 
poems,  that  evinced  the  loftiness  of  ex- 
pression and  imagery  which  characterize 
his  maturer  efforts.  At  the  restoration, 
he  greeted  the  king's  return  in  a  poem, 
entiued  Arirtta  Redux^  which  was  quickly 
followed  by  a  Panegyric  on  the  Uorona- 
tion.  In  1661,  he  produced  his  first  play, 
the  Duke  of  Guise,  and,  in  the  next  year, 
the  Wild  Gallant.  In  1663,  also,  ap- 
peared his  poem  addressed  to  the  chan« 
ceilor  Hyde,  and  his  Satire  on  the  Dutch. 
Setting  aside  the  drama,  to  which  his  at- 
tentiou  was  unremitting,  his  next  publica- 
tion of  conseouence  was  the  ^^nmu  nurab" 
His,  publishea  in  1667.  His  reputation, 
both  as  a  poet  and  a  rovalist,  was  by  this 
time  so  well  established,  that,  on  the  death 
of  sir  William  Davenant,  be  was  appoint- 
ed poet  laureate  and  historiographer,  with 
a  salary  of  £200  per  annum.  He  soon 
after  published  his  Essay  on  Dramatie 
Poeiy,  wliich  he  had  written  in  1665^  in 
bis  retirement,  during  the  plague ;  previ- 
ously to  which  he  hii2l  married  lady  Eliz- 
dseth  Howard,  daughter  of  the  eari  of 
Berkshire.  He  now  became  profession- 
ally a  writer  for  the  stage,  by  entering  into 
a  contract  with  the  patentees  of  the  lung's 
tneatre,  to  supply  three  plays  a  year.  The 
earlier  dramatic  productions  of  Dryden 
were  written  in  rhyme — a  curcumstance 
which  fiwored  the  rant  that  disfigured 
them  in  common  with  knost  of  the  trage* 
dies  of  the  day.  To  correct  this  fauk, 
VilBers,  duke  of  Buckingham,  in  coi^unc- 
tiou  with  other  wits,  composed  the  Re- 
hearsal, in  which  celebrated  burlesque 
Dryden  was  openly  ridiculed,  in  the  char- 
acter of  Bayes.  In  1679,  he  joined  lord 
Mulgrave,  in  an  Essay  on  Satire ;  and,  in 
1681,  at  the  express  desire  of  Charles  II, 
he  composed  his  fiimous  political  poem, 
entitled  Absak)m  and  Achitophel,  iu  which 
the  incidents  of  the  rebellion  of  Absalom 
against  David  are  admirably  applied  to 
Charles  II,  the  duke  of  Monmouth  and 
the  intriguing  earl  of  Shaflesbury.  The 
severity  of  this  production  raised  him  in- 
numerable enemies,  whom  he  still  further 
enraged  by  his  Medal,  a  Satire  on  Sedi- 
tion, written  on  the  occasion  of  a  medal 
struck  by  the  whig  party,  when  an  indict- 
ment against  Shaftesbury  for  high  treason 
was  declared  ignoramus.  The  rancor 
of  the  last  production  is  not  easily  to  be 


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DRYDEN— DRY-ROT. 


pmlleled.  HaTiog  succeeded  k>  well 
in  political,  he  next  essayed  litemiy  satire, 
attacking  Shadwell  in  his  Mac  Flecknoe. 
Soon  after  appeared  bis  Rdigio  Laici,  a 
compendious  view  of  the  arguments  in 
ftvor  of  revelation.  With  all  his  ability 
and  industry,  Dryden  suffered  tlie  anxiety 
attendant  on  straitened  circumstances. 
He  next  publislied  some  classical  transk- 
tions,  and  two  volumes  of  Miscellany 
Poems ;  and,  on  the  death  of  the  king, 
composed  his  Tkrenodia  AaguMlxB^  a 
Funeral  Poem.  On  the  accession  of 
James  II,  he  conformed  to  die  retmon  of 
the  new  sovereign.  One  of  tlie  fruits  of 
this  conversion,  was  his  controversial 
poem  of  the  Hind  and  tlie  Panther, 
the  very  absurdity  of  the  plan  of  which, 
overcome  as  it  is  by  the  force  and  beauty 
of  the  versification  and  execution,  is  high- 
ly honorable  to  the  noetic  talents  of  Yhy- 
den.  By  the  loss  or  his  places  and  pen« 
lions,  ui  consequence  of  the  revolution,  he 
had  nothing  to  trust  to  but  his  literary 
industry ;  and,  during  the  ten  concluding 
years  of  his  life,  when  he  vrrote  actually 
for  bread,  and  at  so  much  per  line,  he 
produced  some  of  the  pieces  which  have 
most  contributed  to  his  well  established 
6me.  Pasnnff  over  his  translations  of 
Juvenal  and  rersius,  and  various  minor 
works,  it  may  be  observed  that  he  com- 
menced his  celebrated  translation  of  Vir- 
5jl  in  1694,  and  it  was  sent  to  tlie  press  in 
697.  He  is  supposed  to  have  received 
£1900  for  this  hausty  but  able  translation. 
Soon  afler  the  appearance  of  Virgil,  he 
was  solicited  to  write  a  second  ode  for  St 
Cecilia's  day,  which  request  produced  his 
admirable  Alexander's  Feast,  tne  finest  lyric 
poem  in  the  English  language.  He  then 
undertook  to  modernize  Chaucer's  Tales, 
contracting  with  a  bookseller  to  fumisli 
10,000  lines  for  £300.  This  bargain  pro- 
duced the  collecdon  called  his  Fables,  some 
of  the  most  poetical  pieces  he  ever  compos- 
ed. He  soon  after  declined  in  health.  The 
immediate  cause  of  his  death  was  an  in- 
flammation in  one  of  his  toes,  which,  ter- 
minating in  a  mortification,  put  an  end  to 
his  life  May  1, 1700.  The  body  of  tiiis 
great  poet  was  interred  in  Westminster 
abbey,  next  to  that  of  Chaucer.  The 
place  was,  for  some  time,  undistinguished 
by  a  monument,  until  a  plain  one,  with  his 
bust,  was  erected  by  Sheffield,  duke  of 
Buckingham.— Although  reserved  and 
SBtumine,  Dryden  was  friendly  and  hu- 
mane, domestic  in  his  habits,  and  affec- 
tionate towards  his  family.  That  the  pen 
of  such  a  man  sliould  be  so  freely  prosti- 
tuted to  party  rancor  and  venal  panegyric, 


appears  surprising;  and  it  is  equally  so, 
that,  although  regular  in  his  own  mannen, 
few  went  beyond  him  in  the  dramatic 
licentiousness  of  the  age.  His  narrow 
circumstances  may  have  occasioned,  but 
are  not  a  sufficient  apdogy  for  these 
blemishes.  As  a  dramatic  poet,  he  has 
wit,  force  and  majesty,  but  very  little  of 
nature  or  propriety.  His  comedy,  frith 
the  exception  of  the  Spanish  Friar,  is  alto- 
gether inferior ;  and,  of  all  his  tragedies, 
Don  Sebastian  and  All  for  Love  alone  are 
spoken  of  at  present  He  stands  unrival- 
led in  point  of  versification,  and,  in  fuhiess 
and  variety  of  harmony,  and  a  fine  flow- 
ing and  resistless  current  of  numbers,  he 
has  never  been  surpassed.  His  style  in 
prose,  chiefly  exhibited  in  the  critical  es- 
savs  prefixed  to  his  works,  forms  an  ex- 
cellent specimen  of  gemiine  Enrlish 
composition.  Of  recent  editions  of  his 
works,  we  may  refer  to  the  prose  works, 
by  Malone  (1800, 4  vols.,  8vo.|;  his  poeti- 
cal works,  edited  by  Todd,  with  notes  by 
Walton  (1812,  4  vols.,  8vo.);  and  tiie 
whole  of  his  works,  by  sir  Walter  Scott 
(1818, 18  vols.,  8vo.). 

Drt-Rot  ;  a  term  or  name  appUed  to 
a  rapid  decay  of  any  vegetable  matter, 
when  it  has  the  appearance  of  being  tol- 
erably dry,  but,  in  general,  is  applied  only 
to  timber  when  in  that  state,  and  is  so 
named  in  contradistinction  to  the  common 
mode  of  decay,  by  being  exposed  to  the 
alternate  states  of  wet  and  dry.  There 
are  a  great  number  of  causes  for  this 
species  of  decay :  some  are  quite  simple, 
othera  are  very  complicated ;  yet,  what- 
ever may  be  the  original  cause,  simple  or 
compound,  the  effects  are  the'saroe,  name- 
ly, to  render  the  timber  useless,  by  de- 
stroying its  elasticity  and  toughness,  ren- 
dering it  insufficient  to  resist  any  consid- 
erable pressure,  and,  indeed,  for  any  of 
the  useful  purposes  to  which  timber  is 
applied.  When  timber  is  in  a  tolerably 
dry  state,  any  means  which  will  absorb 
or  extract  its  oxvgen  from  the  other  com- 
ponent ports  will  leave  it  in  the  state  com- 
monly called  dnf  nUm,  Moist,  warm 
situations,  with  httie  or  no  current  of  air, 
are  the  most  likely  to  generate  this  eviL 
The  effluvia  from  timber  in  such  a  state 
of  decay  will  rapidly  carry  its  effects  to 
the  circumjacent  timber,  however  diy  it 
may  appear ;  and  any  sort  of  timber  will 
be,  in  a  very  littk)  time,  rendered  quite 
useless.  When  timber  is  exposed  to  any 
considerable  degree  of  moisture  and  heat, 
funffi  of  various  shapes  and  texture,  ac- 
coraing  to  the  species  of  timber,  and  other 
causes,  will  appear  upon  it ;  and  although 


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DHY-ROT— PUBUN. 


»7 


this  fungous  mutter  be  leally  an  effect  of 
tlie  diy-rot,  yet  it  is  as  truly  a  cause  of  the 
same  eviJ.  There  are  do  means  of  restor- 
ing rotten  timber  to  a  sound  state,  and  tbe 
dry-rot  con  only  be  cured,  as  it  is  called, 
by  removing  the  decayed  and  affected 
parts,  eleanug  .away  all  the  fungi,  and 
destroying  its  vegetaung  principle,  with, 
which  the  hard  materials,  such  as  bricks 
or  stone,  may  have  been  impregnated. 
For  this  purpose,  a  strong  solution  of  iron, 
copper,  or  zinc,  is  used  with  advantage. 
Th^  with  the  admissioa  of  a  laige  quan- 
tity of  air,  is  very  advantageous.  Itfimy 
persons  have  written  on  tlie  subject;  tod 
tbe  nostrums  proposed  are  as  numerous 
as  their  authorsr  but  uo  means  of  check- 
ing the  evil  can  be  depended  upon,  ex- 
cept that  of  removing  the  corrupted  and 
contagious  matter,  and  admitting  a  free 
circukitiou  of  air.  Much  also  may  be 
done  by  cutting  timber  in  winter,  and 
proper! V  seasonmg  it,  by  steeping,  it  in 
^water  for  some  time,  and  then  th^u^- 
}y  drying  it  before  it  is  used  in  build- 
in«. 
Dshamt;  a  Persian   poet.    (See  /ch 


Ds 


JsHiNois  Kh^it.  (See  Gengis  Khan.) 
DuAii,  in  granmiar ;  that  number  which 
is  used,  in  some  languages,  to  designate 
two  tiling  whilst  another  number  (the 
plural)  exists  to  express  many.  The  duai^ 
m  sooie  lanffuages,  is  a  firmly  established 
{[ranunatical  form,  as  in  the  Attic  dialect ; 
m  other  languages,  it  is  used  only  iu  cer- 
tain cases,  wim  certain  words,  or  only 
fiunt  traces  of  it  are  to  be  recognised. 
Tbe  Sanscrit  has  a  dual  number.  Of 
modem  languages  v/hich  have  a  literature, 
Arabic  is  the  only  idiom  which  has  re- 
tained it.  That  copious  language  has  a 
dual,  to  designate  two  things ;  a  particular 
plural  form,  to  express  from  tluee  to  nine 
objects;  the  plural,  for  several  of  any 
number  whatever;  and  the  plural-plural, 
formed  from  the  plural  (though  only  in 
some  words),  ta  designate  ten  or  any 
larger  or  indofinile  number.  Even  for 
suratantives  wbich  escpress  a  number  of 
thingfs  as  a  species  or  animals  or  plaats, 
tbe  Arabians  nave  a  ohaiacteristical  singu- 
lar, of  which  also,  a  {^ural  may  be  made. 
(See  Silvestre  de  Sacy's  Grvaimairt  Arabt, 
torn,  i.,  pp.  702, 704,  / 10.)  In  the  Ameri- 
can languages,  traces  of  the  dual  are  veiy 
often  met  with,  from  Greenland  to  Amu- 
cania.  (See  William  von  Humboldt's 
Diacourse  Udttr  den  DuaUs^  read  in  the 
academy  of  sciences  at  Berlin,  April  26, 
1827,  printed  at  Berlin,  1828;  a  treatise 
which  does  not  pretend  to  exhaust  the 


sul^ject,  but  will  asaiat  a  scholar  ia  miduBg 
fhrther  iBvestijeatioBS.) 

DoAUSM ;  Dualist.  L  Dualism  is  the 
philosophical  expositiou  of  tlie  nature  of 
things  by  the  adoption  of  4wo  dissimilar 
primitive  principles,  not  derived  from  each 
other:  such,  for  insbmce,  are  the  ideal 
and  the  real,  or  the  material  and  the 
thinking  substance.  Dualism  may  be 
either  dogmatical,  or  critical,  or  scep- 
ticaL  la  a  stricter  sense,  dualism  is  con* 
fitted  to  (a)  the  adoption  of  two  funda- 
mental beings,  a  good  and  an  evil  one,  as 
is  done  in  3ie  Oriental  religions;  (6),  to 
the  adoptioo  of  two  different  principles 
in  man,  viz.,  a  spiritual  and  a  corporeal 
principle:  this  is  called  the  pstfckologieal 
dualimn.  He  who  embraces  this  view  is 
called  a  duaUsL  Opposed  to  the  systeu* 
of  dualism  is  momfin,  which  is  either 
idealism  or  realism,  spiritualism  or  mate- 
rialism. 2.  In  theology,  dualiam  is  the 
doctrine  of  those  who  noaintain  that  only 
certain  elected  persons  are  capable  of  ad- 
mission to  eternal  happiness,  and  that  all 
the  rest  will  be  subjected  to  eternal  con- 
demnation. 

DuBLin,  the  metropolis  of  Ireland,  is  sit- 
uated in  t)M  province  of  Leinster  and  coun- 
ty of  Dublin,  within  a  mile  of  the  bay  of  that 
name,  which  is  of  a  circular  form,  and 
about  six  miles  in  diameter,  and  into 
which  .the  river  Lafky  runs,  afler  divid- 
ing the  city,  through  which  its  course  is 
nearly  west  to  east,  into  equal  parts. 
Though  spacious,  this  bay  is  neither  com- 
modious nor  safe,  particularly  in  winter. 
Its  defects  are,  in  part,  remedied  by  a 
magnificent  wall  of  stone,  whi<?h  runs  out 
into  the  bay  the  distance  of  8564  yards^ 
and  is  terminated  by  a  Hght-house.  On 
the  opposite  side  of  the  harbor  is  another 
light-house,  together  with  a  pier  and  har- 
bor ;  and,  late^,  a  pier  has  been  be^n  at 
Duiileaiy,  a  village  on  the  south  side  of 
the  bay,  and  two  and  a  half  miles  within 
its  mouth.  From  the  point  of  Ringsend, 
where  the  Lififey  enters  the  bay,  it  is  en>- 
banked  on  either  side  with  a  noble  wall 
of  fi^eestone,  forming  a  range  of  beautiful 
and  spacious  quays  tliroug^  the  whole 
city.  The  river  is  crossed  in  its  course 
through  the  city  by  seven  stone  bridges. 
Dublin  is,  besides,  nearly  insulated  by  two 
canals,  which  ^ve  great  advantages  for 
inland  communication.  The  houses,  with 
the  exception  of  the  princ*nRl  public  struc* 
tures,  are  ^erally  brick,"  and  fiom  three 
to  five  stones  higk  In  the  okl  part  of  the 
city,  tlie  streets  are  irregular,  akhouffh 
those  which  range  parallel  to,  and  at  right 
angles  with,  the  liflfey,  are  uniform  and 


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318 


DUBLIN— DUBOIS. 


capaoiocis.  FewdtieBofits  size  can  boatt 
of  a  greater  number  of  magnHicent  and 
useful  buildinga  The  castle,  which  was 
completed  and  flanked  with  towers  in 
1313,  is  situated  about  the  centre  of  the 
city,  and  is  the  seat  of  govemmenL  The 
catitle  chapel,  recently  rebuilt,  is  an  exqui- 
aite  specimen  of  Gothic  architecture.  The 
other  public  buildings  are,  the  royal  ex- 
change, the  commercial  buildings,  the 
com  exchange  or  burgh-quay,  the  linen 
hall,  the  custom-house  (in  front  375  by 
909  feet),  the  stamp-office,  the  poet-officeu 
and  the  parliament  house  (now  convertea 
into  the  national  bank).  Opposite  to  the 
east  front  of  the  custom-house  are  the 
government  wet  docks ;  and  adjacent  to 
the  port-office  is  Nelson's  pillar,  Taised  to 
the  height  of  130  feet  In  the  centre  of 
oollege-green  is  an  equestrian  statue  of 
William  ]II,  erected  in  1701.  In  the 
PhoBnix  park,  an  obelisk,  210  feet  high,  has 
been  erected  in  honor  of  the  duke  of  Wei- 
linffton.  On  the  east  side  of  college-green 
is  Uie  grand  front  of  Trinity  college,  which 
18  of  rortland  stone,  of  the  *  Corinthian 
order.  This  building  extends  in  depth 
600  feet  The  park  is  in  the  rear  of  the 
college,  and  contains  25^  acres,  adorned 
with  fine  trees.  Dublin  university  (viz., 
its  provost,  fellows,  and  scholars  arrived  at 
21  years  of  age)  returned  two  members  to 
the  parliament  of  Ireland,  and  still  returns 
one  to  that  of  the  United  Kingdom.  Dub- 
lin contains  19  parishes,  2  cathedrals,  19 
parish  churches,  besides  several  chapels 
of  the  established  religion;  2  meeting- 
houses of  tlie  church  of  Scotland,  7  of 
other  dissenters,  4  of  Methodists,  2  of 
takers,  1  Lutheran  Danish,  1  French 
Oiilvinist,  and  about  26  Roman  CathoKc 
chapels.  St  Patrick's  cathedral  is  an  an- 
tique building,  in  a  low  and  ruinous  part 
of  the  town,  erected  in  1190,  decorated 
with  a  steeple  in  J  370,  and  a  very  lofty 
spire  in  1750.  Christ  church,  built  in 
1038,  the  ancient  catliedral  of  Dublin,  n 
another  venerable  pile,  containing  some 
curious  monuments.  St  George's  church 
is  a  superb  edifice,  lately  built,  with  a 
magnificent  front  and  lofly  spire.  No 
clt}",  for  its  size,  abounds  more  in  charitable 
institutions.  These  are,  in  genend,  well 
endowed,  and  some  of  them  are  Sfilendid 
buildings.  The  royal  barracks  are  in  the 
west  end  of  the  town,  near  the  river. 
At  the  west  of  the  city,  opponte  to  the 
Phoenix  park,  is  the  royal  hospital  of  Kil- 
mainham,  for  the  reception  of  disabled 
and  superannuated  sokliers,  on  the  plan 
of  the  Chelsea  hospital.  Dublin  is  a  cor- 
porate body,  vrith  a  chief  magistrate,  who 


has  the  title  of  kird  mayor,  elected  annaidl^ 
fh>m  the  aklermen,  who  are  25  in  number, 
ejected  for  Ufu  fiom  citizens  who  have 
served  as  sherifis :  two  sheriffs  are  chosen 
annually  from  the  common  council,  who 
are  96  in  number,  and  are  trienni^ly 
elected  from  their  respective  guilds  by  the 
fi-eemen,  a  very  numerous  body,  amount- 
ing to  perhaps  2000.  The  freemen  of 
Dublin,  in  conjunction  with  its  fifeeholdera, 
also  return  two  membeis  to  the  united 
parliament  Population,  185,881 ;  60  miles 
W.  of  Holyhead  in  Wales,  and  330  N.  W. 
London ;  Ion.  (P  IS'  W. ;  hit  53^  2V  N. 

Dubois,  William,  cardinal,  prime  min- 
ister of  the  duke  of  Orieans,  regent  of 
France,  was  the  son  of  an  apothecary,  and 
was  bom  in  1656,  in  a  small  town  in  the 
province  of  Limousin.  At  the  age  of  12 
vears,  he  was  sent  to  Paris;  and,  after 
having  studied  in  the  college  of  St  Mi- 
chael, he  obtained  the  place  of  private  tutor. 
He  afterwards  became  acquainted  with  the 
sub-tutor  of  the  duke  of  Chartres,  M .  de 
St  Laurent,  who,  having  become  infirm, 
was  assisted  in  his  duties  by  Dubois. 
Dubois  ingratiated  himself  into  the  fkvor 
of  his  pupil,  and,  after  the  death  of  St 
Laurent,  vras  choeen  to  succeed  him. 
From  this  time  he  played  two  parts — that 
of  a  tutor  and  tliat  of  a  pimp  to  his  young 
master.  Louis  XIV  wished  to  marrv  bis 
nephew  to  his  natural  daughter.  Mile,  de 
Blois.  Monsieur,  the  king%  brother,  was 
not  averse  to  the  match,  but  the  king  was 
too  well  acquainted  with  the  haughty 
spirit  of  the  duchess  to  expect  her  consent 
Dubois  was  therefore  employed  to  gain 
her  and  the  voung  prince.  His  address 
was  successful,  and  he  was  rewarded  vrith 
the  abbey  cf  St  Just,  in  Picardy.  Louis, 
who  had  become  sensible  of  his  talents, 
allowed  him  to  join  the  French  ambasea- 
dor  at  London.  Here  the  chevalier  Du- 
bois made  some  important  acquaintances, 
through  the  influence  of  St  Evremont 
He  was  particulariy  connected  with  lord 
Stanhope,  whose  friendship  vras  the  source 
of  his  future  fortune.  Dubois  returned  to 
France,  and,  under  the  modest  title  of  a 
secretaiy,  soon  became  the  privy 'counsel- 
lor of  the  duke  of  Orleans,  and  oveneer 
of  his  household.  He  encountered,  with 
success,  the  numerous  obstacles  and  ene- 
mies opposed  to  his  advancement  In  1715^ 
the  duke  was  declared  regent ;  and  Dubois, 
not  less  ambitious  than  aitful,  now  ventured 
to  indulge  extravagant  hopes&  In  spite  of 
the  opposition  of  Uie  most  influential  per- 
sons, he  v^as  appointed  by  the  duke  coun- 
sellor of  state.  The  intrigues  of  the  Span- 
ish court,  at  that  time  under  the  direction  of 


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DUBOI&-INJCAT. 


Ae  carddMd  Alberaniy  swe  the  duke 
much  trouble,  and  made  him  deeuxnis  of 
a  powerful  ally.  Dubois  directed  hia  at- 
tention towards  England,  and  ofiered  to 
conduct  a  secret  n^rotiation  with  the  court 
of  that  country.  His  acquaintance  with 
lord  Stanhope  was  now  very  useful  to 
him.  He  succeeded  in  overcoming  the 
dislike  of  George  I  to  the  peraon  of  the 
le^t,  and,  in  1718,  concluded  the  triple 
alliance  between  England,  France  and 
Holland.  It  has  been  asserted  that  Du« 
bois  sold  himself  to  England;  but  this  is 
not  true ;  on  the  contrary,  it  was  neces- 
Miy  for  him  to  buy  others,  to  succeed  in 
his  negotiations.  He  was  rewarded  by 
the  place  of  minister  of  foreign  affiiira^ 
and  now  began  to  aspire  to  the  highest 
dignities  of  the  church.  The  archbish- 
opric of  Cambrey  having  become  vacant, 
IJubois  ventured  to  request  it  of  the  ng^ntv 
although  he  was  not  even  a  priest  The 
xegent  was  astonished  at  his  boldness ;  but, 
as  the  king  of  England  united  with  Du- 
bois in  bis  request,  he  obtained  it,  and,  in 
one  morning,  received  all  the  ofders,  and, 
a  few  days  after,  the  archbishopric.  By 
luB  coosununate  address,  he  ootained  a 
cardinal's  hot,  and,  in  1722,  was  appointed 
prime  minister.  His  power  bad  now  no 
Bounds;  but  his  excesses  had  rendered 
him  infirm.  He  was  scarcely  able  to  get 
in  and  out  of  his  carriage,  and  yet  he  a{>- 
peared  on  horseback  for  the  sake  of  receiv- 
mg  military  honon  at  a  review.  The  ex- 
ertion caused  an  mtemal  injury,  of  which 
he  died  Aug.  10, 1723.  The  duke  of  St. 
Simon  has  given  an  accurate  picture  of 
him:  *' Dubois  was  a  little,  thin,  meager 
man,  vrith  a  polecat  visage.  All  the  vices, 
falsehood,  avarice,  hcentiousneas,ambition, 
and  the  meanest  flattery,  contended  in  him 
for  the  mastery.  He  lied  to  such  a  decree 
as  to  deny  his  own  acdons,  when  taken 
in  the  fact.  Notwithstandinff  an  affected 
stammering,  which  he  had  a£>pted  for  the 
purpose  of  gaining  time  to  penetrate  the 
motives  of  (Shers,  his  rich,  instructive  and 
tnfii^iiAt|f^g  conversation  would  have  ren- 
dered him  aaieeable,  had  it  not  been  for 
the  mist  of  nJsehood  which  issued  from 
evenr  pan^  and  rendered  even  his  gayeQr 
UBpfeaiBant  In  s|»te  of  his  debaucbeiy, 
he  was  very  industrious.  His  wealth  was 
iaunense,  and  his  revenue  amounted  to 
millionsL  His  memory  was  hated  and 
ridiculed.  Even  the  inscription  on  his 
tomb  is  a  satire ;  for,  after  enumerating 
all  his  offices  and  dignities,  it  concludes, 
joKdibra  d  sUMiara  bona,  wdoTy  moriuo 

DuBos,  Jean  Baptisle ;  one  of  the  ear- 


liest Frendi  wrims  who  endeavored  to 
found  a  theory  of  the  arts  on  geimfal  priu- 
ciples.  He  enriched  the  tlMoiy  of  the 
aits  by  his  comparison  of  poetry,  painting 
and  music  {R^UxumM  nor  la  Poi$it^  £ 
Pewiwrt  a  la  Murnqut,  Paris,  1719;  6th 
ed.,  1755,  in  3  vols.).  The  foundatkm  on 
which  he  rested  his  theory  was^  the  neces- 
sity which  eveiy  one  feels  of  exercisiug 
the  powers  of  his  mind,  and  of  setting  his 
invention  at  work.  He  was  bom  at  ]£miu- 
vaiS)  in  1670,  studied  there  and  at  Paris, 
and  was  placed,  in  169)5,  in  the  office  of 
foreign  affiurs,  under  the  minister  De 
Torcy,  who  gave  him  important  commis- 
sions in  G^many,  Italy,  England  and 
Holland.  In  these  journeys,  he  collected 
the  information  cmiceming  the  arts  which 
his  book  contains.'  After  his  return  to 
France,  he  obtained  a  benefice,  a  pension, 
and,  in  1792,  was  elected  perpetual  secre- 
tary of  the  French  academy.  He  distin- 
guished himself  as  a  historian  by  his  /fo- 
tocre  dk  la  Ijigue  dt  Cambrav  (Paris,  1731, 
2  vols.,  Idmo.),  and  by  his  NSsUnre  critique 
de  PEtabHuement  de  UMonarekieF)rangmee 
done  lee  Gaulee  ( Amsterdain,  1743^  2  vols., 
4to.  and  15hno.).  Vokaire  ranks  him 
among  the  writers  who  were  an  honor  to 
the  age  of  Louis  XIV.  He  died  at  Paris, 
1742. 

DuGAifOfi.    (See  Dufreine*) 

Ducat  is  a  gold  or  silver  coin.  For  its 
vahie,  see  Come, — In  Switzerland,  ducats 
wnoelMSchUdJhmken.  TheDutch  duc- 
ats, which  are  coined  in  great  numbers, 
are  the  most  used  in  commerce,  and  are 
to  be  found  in  all  quarters  of  the  worid. 
In  the  northern  countries  of  Europe,  and 
particulariy  in  Russia,  the  dealmgs  in 
money  and  f;oods  are  carried  on  moedy 
lyy  means  of  this  coin.  The  exportation 
of  ducats  is,  therefore,  an  important  branch 
of  Dutch  commerce.  This  coin  and  the 
name  are  derived  fh>m  Longinus,  a  duke 
of  Ravenna,  m  the  6th  cemury :  the  first 
issue  of  them  has  also  been  ascribed  to 
St  Roger  II,  of  Apuba,  who,  in  1140, 
coined  ducats  liearing  the  figure  of  Christ, 
and  the  inscription,  SU  fiH,  CkruAe^  datui, 
quem  iu  regit^  itU  dueatue.  The  Vene* 
tians  took  his  ducats  for  their  pattern  in 
1280:  they  were  found  to  constitute  a 
convenient  medium  of  exchange,  were 
adopted  by  Genoa,  and  thus  came  into 
general  use.  This  standard  of  coin  was 
also  adopted  in  Hungary ;  and,  for  a  k)ng 
time,  all  fbreign  coins  Ixwe  the  name  or 
Ongri  or  Hungarianij  in  Italy,  where  the 
trade  of  the  worid  was,  at  this  period, 
concentrated.  They  were,  in  many  kinds 
of  business,  the  favorite  standard  of  rack- 


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mJCAT— DUC1& 


oning.  They  did  oot  become  lo  common 
in  Gennanv  till  a  muck  lat^  date.  The 
golden  bull  of  Charles  IV  gave  to  all  the 
members  of  the  empire  the  privilege  of 
issuing  gold  coins,  with  any  stamp  they 
chose ;  mit  these  were  only  gold  guilders^ 
equivalent  to  the  favorite  florin.  The 
ducats  most  generally  met  with  are  the 
old  Dutch  ducats,  bearinff  the  impression 
of  an  anned  figure,  which  gave  way,  for 
a  short  time  only,  to  the  figure  of  Louis, 
king  of  Holland.  They  circulated  almost 
as  merchandise,  but  had  been  frequently 
counterfeited  in  the  Grisons.  The  coun- 
terfeits were  very  good  to  appearance, 
both  in  weight  and  sound.    (See  Coins.) 

Ducatoon;  a  Dutch  gold  coin  (also 
called  Rtwdtr)  worth  about  20  florins  (see 
Coin»U  also  an  Itali&n  silver  coin  cur- 
rent tor  about  $1,09.  The  Dutch  gold 
ducatDon  is  a  national  coin,  only  circulat- 
ing in  the  country.  There  is  also  a  silver 
ducatoon,  used  particularly  in  the  East 
India  trsde.  There  is  kkewise  a  French 
silver  coin  of  this  name,  of  nearly  the 
same  value  as  the  Italian  ducatoon. 

DucHjBSira,  or  Du  Chxsns,  Andr6  (Ltt^ 
Cfteffttiis,  DwJiamts^  Qiierceiamis),  fit>m 
his  historical  researches,  has  been  called 
the  fk&er  of  French  history*  He  was 
bom  1584,  at  Isle  Bouchard,  in  Touraine; 
he  smdied  at  Loudon  and  Paris,  was 
^>pointed  royal  geo|[mpher  and  histori- 
ographer, and  died  m  1640.  His  most 
important  worics  are,  his  collection  of 
French  historians  {Huknim  Fhmeerum 
Seriptons^  3  vols.,  to  wluch  his  son  Fran* 

Sis  Duchesne  added  a  4th  and  5th  from 
9  papen  lefl  by  his  father),  which  the 
French  government  have  since  several 
times  expressed  a  wish  to  have  completed ; 
kis  Huioritt  Abnaanorum  Ser^pioru  ab 
Aim  838— laao ;  and  his  ^nealogicai 
works,  which  throw  much  light  on  the 
history  of  France.  The  number  of  his 
writingB  is  very  great;  some  were  pub- 
lished by  his  son  aiier  his  death*  He  lelk 
more  than  a  hundred  folios  in  mknu'^ 
script. 

Ducis,  Jean  Francois,  a  French  dra* 
made  poet,  known  by  his  adaptation  of 
many  pieces  of  Shakspeare  to  the  French 
theatre,  was.bom  at  Versailles,  and,  late  in 
life,  became  a  writer  for  the  stage.  His 
first  piece,  called  An&ut,  was  unsuooess* 
fill,  and  those  which  followed  it  sbsMd 
the  same  hiB,  His  Hamlet  attracted 
much  attention,  as  it  was  the  first  of 
Bhakspeare's  plays  wftneh  appeared  on  the 
Frencn  stage.  This  ^y  and  his  next, 
Romeo  and  Juliet,  and  likewise  those 
which,  appeavsd  later,  were   so  much 


changed,  to  adapt  Aem  to  ^m  French 
taste,  that  the  tkle,  in  some  instmecs,  ia 
almost  the  only  thing  which  reminds  us 
of  the  originaL  These  changes,  however, 
only  added  to  the  applause  with  which 
they  were  received  in  France.  He  after- 
wairds  endeavored,  in  his  (Edipt  cha  M- 
m^,  to  imitate  the  Greeks;  but  he  soon 
returned  to  Shakspeare,  and  translated  suc- 
cessively Lear,  Macbeth,  Oihdio  and  other 
plays.  Abufiur  or  the  Arabian  Family  is 
one  of  the  best  of  his  original  pieces.  His 
style  is,  petiiaps,  harsh,  but  sometimeB 
noble,  and  full  of  tragic  dignity.  He  suc- 
ceeded Voltaire,  in  the  academy,  in  1778. 
He  was  subsequently  secretary  to  Louis 
XVIII.  He  remained  true  to  this  mon- 
arch under  all  circumstances,  and,  wliile 
on  the  pomt  of  starving,  refhsed  the  place 
of  a  senator,  with  40,OU)  francs  a  year,  and 
the  cross  of  the  legion  of  honor,  ofifersd 
him  by  Bonaparte.  The  remm  of  Louis 
XVII I  made  his  ok)  age  happy.  He  was 
ffradfied  when  the  kinc  recited  some  of 
his  verses  to  him  at  his  first  audience. 
^  I  am  more  happy,"  said  he,  ''than  Boi- 
lean  and  Racine;  they  recited  tfaev  verses 
to  Louis  XIV ;  the  kinff  recites  nrine  le 
me."  He  died  March  31, 1817,  at  Ver- 
saillea  His  (Eiwfnt  appeared,  in  1819,  at 
Paris,  in  3  vols.  Campenon  published,  at 
Paris,  in  1834,  LMrts  nrlaVwfU  QtnuL 
H  Us  ierUs  de  J.  F.  Duets. 

Duck  (otint,  Lin.) ;  a  very  extensile 
and  natural  genus  of  water  birds,  which 
are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  It  has 
been  divided  by  namrallsts  into  an  infin- 
ity of  diflferent  genera;  to  such  a  degree, 
iiideed,  that,  according  to  some  of  the  dis- 
tinctions which  have  been  made,  it  wouM 
be  impossible  to  leave  the  females  of 
several  mecies  in  the  same  genus  with  the 
males.  The  nrince  of  Musignano  is  of 
opinion,  that  tney  might  be  advantageoua- 
ly  separated  into  four  subntenera,  in  which 
we  shall  fbllow  him.  Theee  are  anser^ 
or  goose,  cj/fgtiuf ,  or  swan,  oiuu,  or  duck^ 
MnafisUgyla.  We  have  thirty*one  specien 
of  this  interesting  genus,  inhabiting  Neitfa 
America,  being  within  one  of  the  number 
found  in  Europe :  of  these,  twenty^^one  are 
common  to  the  two  contineiiti^  leaving  ten 
peculiar  to  America,  and  eleven  to  Eu- 
rope. The  mallard,  or  common  wild 
duck  {Ahosekas\is  found  both  in  Emt^ 
and  America.  This  is  the  original  stock 
of  the  domesticated  duck,  which  appeals 
to  have  been  reclaimed  at  a  very  esriy 
period.  It  is  fi>und  in  eveiy  firesh  'water 
lake  and  river  of  the  U.  States,  in  wintei^ 
but  seldom  frequents  the  sea  shores  «t 
I.    During,  the  mtnuMi^  it  re- 


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BUCK. 


321 


Aides  in  the  north,  along  with  the  im- 
menae  flocks  of  other  water-fowl  that  retire 
thither  for  the  purpose  of  breeding.  A 
few  paiiBy  however,  occasionally  met,  re- 
main in  the  Middle  States  during  the 
whole  year.  The  nest  is  usually  placed 
in  the  most  solitary  recesses  of  a  marsh  or 
bog,  among  coarse  grass,  reeds  and  rush-* 
es,  and  gen««lly  contains  fiom  twelve  to 
^xteeneggSfOfaduUneenish-white.  The 
flesh  of  tlSd  wild  duck  is  held  in  general 
estimation,  and  various  methods  are  re- 
sorted to,  in  order  to  obtain  these  birds  in 
quantities.  In  Picardy,  in  France,  vast 
numbers  are  taken  in  decoys^  and  sold  in 
the  Paris  market,  where,  in  one  season, 
thirty  thousand  francs  have  been  paid  for 
the  produce  of  the  small  lake  of  St.  Lam- 
bert. Thev  also  aboOnd  in  Lincolnahire, 
in  £ngland,  and  are  there  taken  in  great 

fuantities,  by  neariy  the  same  means  as  in 
Icardy.  Pennant  had  an  account  sent 
liim  of  the  produce  often  decoys,  which, 
in  one  winter,  amounted  to  thiitv-two 
thousand  two  hundred.  We  are  indebted 
to  Wilson  (American  Omitholosy)  for 
an  enumeration  of  several  simple  and 
effiMstive  contrivances  made  use  of,  in  this 
country,  for  the  capture  of  these  wary 
birds.  In  some  ponda^  frequented  by 
them,  five  or  six  wooden  figures,  cut  and 
painted  to  represent  ducks,  and  sunk,  by 
pieces  of  lead  nailed  to  the  bottom,  so  as 
to  float  at  the  usual  depth  on  the  surface, 
are  anchored  in  a  fiivorable  position  to  be 
raked  finom  a  concealment  of  brash,  &c. 
These  attract  the  passing  flocks,  which 
alight,  and  Uius  expose  themselves  to  cer- 
tain destraction.  In  winter,  when  de- 
tached pieces  of  ice  are  occasionally  float- 
ing in  the  river,  some  of  the  gunners  on 
the  Debiware  paint  theur  boats  white,  and, 
laying  themselves  flat  in  the  bottom,  direct 
them  ahnost  imperceptibly  near  a  flock, 
before  the  ducks  have  distmguished  them 
from  a  floating  piece  of  ice.  On  land,  an- 
other stratagem  is  sometimes  practised 
with  great  success.  A  ticht  hogshead  is 
sunk  m  the  marsh,  or  mud,  near  the  place 
nvhere  ducks  are  accustomed  to  feed  at  low 
water,  and  where,  otherwise,  there  is  no 
shelter;  the  edges  and  top  are  artfiiUy 
concealed  with  tufls  of  long,  coarse  grass 
and  reeds  or  sedse.  From  within  this, 
the  gunner  watches  his  collecting  prey, 
and  usualty  commits  great  havoc  In 
China,  the  sportsman  covers  his  head  with 
a  calabash,  pierced  with  eye-holes,  and, 
thus  equipped,  wades  into  the  water, 
Jmeping  only  his  head  above  the  surface, 
and,  on  arriving  amidst  a  flock,  seizes  them 
by  the  legs,  fiutens  them  to  his  girdle,  and 


thus  takes  as  many  as  he  wishes,  without 
disturixng  the  rest  (See  Wilson's  Am, 
OmithoL;  J^etmani^B  BriLZool<m,  vol  2.) 
— Muswvyduek  (A.  mo§duUa).  This  well 
known  bud  is  the  largest  of  the  duck 
kind,  and  approaches  nearly  to  the  size 
of  a  goose.  It  has  obtained  its  name 
firom  a  strong  smell  of  musk,  which  ex- 
hales from  Its  body,  and  not  because  it 
comes  from  Russia,  as  has  been  supposed. 
The  Muscovy  ducks  are  tamed  m  great 
auantifles  in  the  West  Indies,  and  are 
found  wild  in  Guiana,  where  Uiey  nestle 
on  the  trunks  of  trees,  cUme  upon  the 
water'to  edge.  They  feed  in  the  morning 
upon  a  plant  called  wild  rice,  and  seklora 
permit  tne  sportsman  to  approach  within 
gunshot*— GtimMi«f-&adk  duck  (A.  vaUU* 
neria).  This  delicious  bird  is  peculiar  to 
tins  countiy,  and  was  known  to  the  epi- 
cure long  before  it  was  described  by  the 
naturalist  We  are  indebted  to  Wilson 
for  the  first  account  of  it  He  gave  it  the 
name  of  the  plant  on  which  it  feeds,  and 
which  had  been  called  after  the  celebrated 
YalUsnerii  The  canvass-back  ducks  ar- 
rive in  the  U.  States,  fix>m  the  north,  about 
the  middle  of  October,  and,  principally, 
assemble  in  the  numerous  rivers  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  Chesapeake  bey. 
On  the  Susquehannah,  they  are  called 
eanooM'hacks,  on  the  Potomacj  uhiU-haekM^ 
and  on  James'  river,  ahddrakes.  When 
they  first  arrive,  they  are  venr  lean ;  but, 
fifom  the  abundance  of  their  &vorite  food, 
tliey  become  fat  about  November.  They 
are  sometimes  found  in  such  mukitudeB 
as  to  cover  several  acres.  From  the  mat 
demand  for  these  ducks,  and  the  nigh 
price  they  always  command,  various 
methods  are  empk>yed  to  decoy  them 
within  gun-shot  The  most  successful  is 
that  termed  iMng,  in  which  they  are 
enticed  to  approach  the  shore,  by  means 
of  a  dog  properly  trained.  The  article  in 
Wilson's  work  is  extremely  interesting, 
and  Mr.  Ord  has  made  a  long  and  valua- 
ble addition  to  it  The  canvass-back  is 
constantly  attended  by  another  species,  the 
widgeon  (A.  Americana),  which  manages 
to  make  a  good  subsistence  from  his  la- 
bors. This  bird  is  extremely  fond  of  the 
tender  roots  of  that  particular  species 
of  plant  on  which  the  canvass-back  feeds. 
The  widgeon,  which  never  dives,  watches 
the  moment  the  canvass-back  rises,  and, 
before  he  has  his  eyes  weU  opened, 
snatches  the  morsel  fix>m  his  mouth,  and 
makes  of!l--The  other  American  species 
of  ducks  are.  A,  cUfpeata,  or  shoveller,  re- 

•  Several  pair*  of  wfld  Muscovy  ducks  have 
bean  killed,  at  difitrent  periods,  in  our  rivers. 


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DUCK— DUCTIUTY. 


maikaUe  ibr  the  atrapge  fetm  of  hs  bilL 
^ttreparOf  or  gadwall,  which  is  more  rune 
in  America  thui  in  Europe.  A.  aeuU^ma- 
tail,  or  sprigtail,  rem&H^dble  for  the  form 
of  its  tail ;  it  is  abundant  in  both  hemi- 
sphereo.  A.  ohtCMm,  black  or  duaky  duck, 
peculiar  to  thia  continent,  and  very  abun- 
dant; this  18  perhaps  the  moat  sagacious 
and  timid  of  all  the  American  ducks. 
Ji.  tpoasoy  summer  or  wood  duck;  not 
more  remaikable  for  its  great  beauty,  in 
which  it  stands  pre&ninent,  than  for  its 
habits,  its  migratioiis  being  directly  oppo- 
sed to  those  of  the  other  species.  «^.  dii- 
oorv,  bhie-winged  teid.  j2.  crecea,  green- 
winged  teal  (See  TeaL)  A,  tnotftmsio, 
eider  duck  (q.  tA  -^  ptnfnciUala^  bkMsk 
or  surf  duck.  This  is  common  to  both 
hemispheres,  but  is  very  rare  in  Europe. 
dd^.yUsco,  velvet  duck,  also  found  in  both 
hemispheffes;  its  flavor  is  rank  and  fishy, 
and  it  is  therefore  seldom  sought  after. 
A  tngroy  scoter  ;  found  both  in  Europe 
and  America  ;  these  birds,  and  a  few 
others  <^  the  same  fishy  flavor,  are  ex« 
empted  finom  the  imerdict  which  forbids 
Homan  Catholics  the  use  of  aaiinal  food 
on  certain  days,  on  the  supposition  of 
their  being  cold-blooded,  and  partaking  of 
the  nature  offish.  .^  ru6uia,  ruddy  duck } 
this  species  was  veiy  rare  in  Wilson^ 
time,  but  hss  since  become  more  plenty. 
JL  ftrinoy  red-head;  common  to  both 
continenlB ;  it  approaches  vety  near  to  the 
canvass-back  in  delkacy ;  its  usual  weight 
is  about  one  pound  «id  three  auarters. 
A,  auriUa,  scaup  dock  or  bkie-bill,  a  well 
known  and  common  species  in  both  eon- 
fjiiients.  A.  rufiiarqws^  tufted  duck;  a 
species  confounded  with  the  A,  Jidigula 
ik  Europe,  until  the  differences  were 
pointed  out  by  the  prince  of  Musignano. 
(See  Jmim.  Acad.  Mit.  Sci,  voL  a)  A. 
cioi^tila,  goUen-eye;  common  to  both 
hemispheres.  A  albeoUt^  buffet-head,  or 
butter^ball  ;  peculiar  to  this  countiy, 
where  it  is  common.  A  f^acidisy  long- 
tailed  duck,  south  southerly,  oldwife; 
common  to  both  eontinents,  remarkable 
for  the  long  and  slender  middle  feathers 
of  its  taiL  A  labradoria^  pied  duck ;  a 
beautiful  and  rare  species,  peculiar  to 
America.  A  Msft-iotitca,  harlequin  duck ; 
a  magnificent  species,  found  on  both  con- 
tinents; it  derives  its  name  from  the 
singularity  of  4ts  .markings  ;  along  the 
coast  of  New  England  it  is  called  the 
ML 

Duck  ;  a  sort  of  strong,  brown,  linen 
Gh>th,  used  chiefly  by  sail-inakerB. 
Dcckino-Stool.    (See  Cwkmg'StocL) 
Ducjuos,  Charles  Pineau,  known  as  a 


novelist,  a  deaeriber  of  character  and  man- 
ners, a  writer  of  menoiirs,  and  a  gramooa- 
riaii,  bom  1705^  at  Dinant,  received  a 
good  education  at  Paris»  early  turned  his 
knowledge  to  profit,  in  1799  was  choeen 
member  of  the  academy  of  inscriptions^ 
in  1748  member,  and  soon  after  secretary 
of  the  French  academy.  Though  be  re- 
sided at  Paris,  he  waa  elected  mayor  of 
his  native  town  in  1744.  When  the  states 
of  Bretagne,  in  reward  of  their  zeal  for 
the  welfiire  of  the  kingdom,  were  permit- 
ted to  nominate  such  of  their  number  aa 
they  thought  most  worthy  of  the  royal 
fiivor,  Duclos  was  unanimously  elected 
one  of  the  number,  and  received  lettera 
of  nobility.  Not  lon^  before  his  death,  he 
was  appointed  histonogrspher  of  France, 
in  Voltaire's  place.  He  died  at  Paris, 
1772,  Among  the  best  of  his  novels,  are 
Qn^e99iafm  d»  ComU  dt  B^  (1741, 
12mo.) ;  and  of  bis  memoiiSi  his  MimtnrtM 
8urks  Mayrs  da  XVUlm  Siede  (1751, 
12mo.) ;  both  full  of  acute  and  atriking  re- 
marks^ especia^y  on  women  and  love.  Mis 
Conndfy^iomgurkiMBntndeceSLtekBn 
fiill  of  striking  aketches  of  charaeier,  and 
deep  knowledge  of  human  nature.  His 
liiAoiy  of  Louis  XI  is  etteemed,  but  shows 
the  hsjid  of  the  novelist.  Of  more  value 
are  his  M^moires  secrett  svr  k^  Bignts  de 
LouiiJUVntXy.  This  worit  waa  com- 
posed in  his  character  of  historiograpbeCi 
He  also  distinguialied  himself  in  hia  jKe- 
WMrqwB  sur  la  Grammain  geniraU  dc 
Pofi'Rojfal  (1764, 12mo.),  asa  grammarian. 
Desessans  published  the  (Eiwns  tmnlda 
dt  Ducha  (Pans,  1809,  10  vols.).  The 
last  volume  contains  a  fragment  of  bis 
autobiography.  In  the  entertaining  AH^ 
w/oirtB  at  Madame  d'Epincijf^  the  character 
of  Duclos  is  represented  in  no  very  kvor- 
able  light 

DncTiLiTT ;  the  extensibility  and  cohe- 
sion of  particles,  which  enables  metal  to 
be  drawn  into  wire  without  breaking. 
The  ductility  of  some  bodies,  especiaify 
ofgold,  is  very  surprising.  A  single  grain 
of  gold  may  bt  stretched  under  the  ham- 
mer into  a  leaf  that  will  cover  a  bouse, 
and  yet  the  leaf  remain  so  compact  ss  not 
to  trsusiuit  the  rays  of  light,  nor  even 
admit  spirit  of  wine  to  transude.  But 
M.  R^umur  has  sliown  the  ductility  of 
gold  to  be  still  greater.  What  is  called 
gold-wirej  every  body  knows,  is  only  sil- 
ver gilt  The  cylinder  of  silver,  cover- 
ed with  leaf  gold,  is  drawn  through  the 
hole  of  an  iron,  and  the  gilding  is  ex- 
tended with  the  wire,  to  whatever  length 
it  mav  be  stretched.  Now,  M.  Reau- 
mur shows,  that,  in  the  common  way  of 


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DUCTILITY— DUDLEY. 


drawing  gold  wire,  a  cylinder  of  silrer, 
twenty-two  inches  long,  and  fifteen  lines 
in  diameter,  is  stretched  to  1,163,580  feet, 
«r  is  (SQifiSQ  times  longer  than  before, 
which  amounts  to  about  ninety-seven 
Jeagiie&  To  wind  this  thread  on  silk,  for 
use,  it  is  first  flattened,  in  doin^  which  k 
Btretehes  at  least  one  seventh  further,  so 
that  the  twenty-two  inches  are  now  111 
leagues ;  but  in  the  flatteiung,  instead  of 
one  seventh,  it  couid  be  stretched  one 
iburth,  which  would  bring  it  to  130  leagues. 
This  appears  a  prodigious  extension,  and 
Tet  it  iS'  nothing  to  what  this  gentleman 
lias  proved  gold  to  be  capable  oti 

DudUUtf  of  (Ha98.  W  hen  glass  is  pen- 
etrated with  the  heat  of  fire,  it  can  he 
managed  like  soft  wax,  and  may  be  drawn 
out  into  threads  exceedingly  long  and 
fine.  Ordinary  spinners  do  not  form  their 
threads  of  silk;  flax,  or  the  like,  with  half 
the  ease  and  expedition  the  glass-^nnen 
do  threads  of  th's  brittle  matter.  Some 
of  them  are  made  into  plumes,  and  used 
in  other  works;  they  are  made  much 
finer  than  hair,  and  bend  and  wave, 
like  hair,  with  every  wind.  Two  work- 
men are  employed  in  making  them ;  the 
first  holds  one  end  of  apiece  <»  glass  over 
the  flame  of  a  lamp,  and,  when  the  heat 
has  softened  it,  the  second  operator  applies 
a  glass  book,  and  draws  out  a  thread  of 
glass,  which  still  adheres  to  the  mass; 
then,  fitting  his,  hook  on  the  circumference 
of  a  wheel  about  two  feet  and  a  half  in 
diameter,  he  turns  the  wheel  as  ftst  as  he 
pleases,  till  it  is  covered  with  a  skeiti  of 
glass  thread.  The  parts,  as  they  reeede 
mm  the  flame,  by  gradually  cooling, 
become  more  cohesive :  the  parts  near- 
est the  fire  are  always  the  least  cohe- 
flrre,  and,  consequently,  must  give  way 
to  die  eflbrt  made  to  draw  them  to- 
wards the  wheel.  These  threads  are 
oommonly  of  a  flat  oval  shape,  being 
three  or  four  times  as  broad  as  thick: 
Bome  of  them  seem  scarcely  bigger  tlian 
the  thread  of  a  silk-worm,  and  are  sur- 
prisingly flexible.  If  the  two  ends  of 
such  threads  are  knotted  together,  they 
may  be  drawn  and  bent  till  ^e  aper- 
turts,  or  space  in  the  middle  of  the 
knot,  does  not  exceed  one  fimrth  of 
a  line,  or  one  ftirty-ei^hth  of  an  inch, 
in  diameter.  The  flexibility  of  glass  in- 
creases in  proportion  to  the  fineness  of 
ti^e  threads;  and,  probably,  had  we  the 
art  of  drawing  threads  as  fine  as  a  sin- 
der's  web,  we  might  weave  BtufiGs  and 
cloths  of  them,  but  could  never  make 
them  long  enough  to  be  serviceable.  (For 
fiuther  i^rmatioD,  see  DmnXnUtif*) 


Du-Defpaitd,  Madame.  (See  Ikjfand,) 
DcDLET,  £dmund;  noted  in  English 
history  as  an  instrument  of  Henry  VO,  in 
the  arbitraiy  acts  of  extortion  practised 
during  the  latteryeara  of  his  reign.  He 
was  bom  in  146S^  of  an  ancient  and  re- 
spectable fiunily ;  and  was  educated  at  die 
university  of  Oxford.  Becoming  a  stu- 
dent of  the  law  at  Gray's  Inn,  he  arrived 
at  such  eminence  in  his  profession  as 
recommended  him  to  the  &vor  of  the 
king,  who  made  much  use  of  his  services, 
and  conferred  on  him  various  offices  and 
emoluments.  In  1505,  he  was  made 
speaker  of  the  house  of  commons,  and, 
through  his  influence,  several  enactments 
took  place,  oppressive  to  the  people  and 
profitable  to  the  monarch.  On  the  ao- 
cession  of  Heniy  VIII,  he  perished  on  the 
Bcafibld,  August  18,  151jO,  with  his  assocr- 
«te,  sir  Riebard  Emson  (who  was  the  son 
of  a  sieve-maker  at  Towcester). 

Dodi^et,  John,  duke  of  Northumber- 
land ;  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  bora 
in  1502,  and,  afler  his  father's  execution, 
was  restored  in  blood  by  act  of  parlia- 
ment In  1542,  he  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  as  viscoUnt  Lisle,  in  right  of  his 
mother,  who  inherited  that  title*  Soon 
after,  he  was  made  KG. ;  and,  at  len^, 
the  post  of  lord-high-admiral  was  confep- 
red  on  him  for  life.  He  served  with  rep- 
utation in  Scotland  and  France,  and  was 
lefl,  by  Henry  Vlil,  one  of  the  executors 
named  in  his  will,  as  a  kind  of  joinc- 
regent  during  the  minority  of  Edwand  VI. 
Under  that  prince,  he  manifested  the  most 
insatiable  ambition,  and  obtaiiied  vast  ac- 
cessions of  honors,  pownr,  and  emolu- 
ments. At  first,  hejoined  Ins  interest  with 
that  of  the  duke  of  Somerset,  the  king's 
uncle,  whom,  however,  at  length  he  uo- 
dermined  and  destroyed.  He  had  been 
advanced  to  the  titles  of  earl  of  Warwick 
and  duke  of  Nortliumberland ;  and,  after 
the  fall  of  his  rival,  his  authority  was 
almost  unbounded^  The  illness  of  the 
king,  over  whom  he  had  gained  complele 
ascendency,  alarmed  his  fears,,  and  he 
endeavored  to  strengthen  his  interest  by 
marrying  his  son,  lord  Guilford  Dudley, 
to  lady  Jane  Grey,  descended  from  the 
younger  sister  of  Henry  VIII,  and  per- 
suaded Edward  to  settle  the  crown  on 
his  kinswoman  by  will,  to  the  exdosian 
of  his  two  sisters,  the  princesses  Muy  and 
Elizabeth.  The  death  of  the  king^  die 
abortive  attempts  to  pkce  tady  Jane  Grqr 
on  the  throne,  and  the  ruin  of  ail  thoos 
concerned  in  the  scheme,  are  among  the 
most  familiar  events  in  the  annals  of  Lng- 
laad.    Northumberland  himself  was  be- 


Digitized  by 


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SM 


DUDLEY. 


headed  on  Tower-hiU,  August  2S2, 1553. 
He  profesBed  himself  a  Catholic  a  short 
time  before  his  execution,  and  died  in  that 
faith,  though  the  avowed  object  of  the 
plot  was  to  secure  the  estabhshment  of 
Protestantism  in  England. 

DuDLET,  sir  Henry  Bate,  baronet,  was 
bom  at  Fenny  Compton,  August  25, 
1745.  His  father,  the  reverend  Henry 
Bate,  was  rector  of  North  Fannbridffe,in 
Essex,  in  which  benefice  his  son  Henry 
succeeded  him  at  his  death;  but  the 
emoluments  of  the  living  being  but  trifling, 
he  established  the  Morning  Post  news- 
paper, and,  in  1780,  the  Morning  Her- 
ald, commencing  also,  about  the  same 
time,  the  Courier  de  VEwnpt — a  journal 
printed  in  the  French  language — and  the 
English  Chronicle.  At  this  period,  he 
was  a  contributor  to  the  Probationary 
Oaes,  the  Rolliad,  and  other  works  of  a 
similar  class.  In  1761,  the  advovroon.of 
the  rectory  of  Bradwell-juxta-Mare  was 
purchased  in  trust  for  him,  subject  to  the 
life  of  the  reverend  Geoige  Pawson.  In 
1784,  he  assumed  the  name  of  DudUy,  in 
compliance  witli  the  will  of  a  relation. 
Mr.  Pawson  dying  in  1797,  Mr.  Dudley 
presented  himself  to  the  vacant  benefice ; 
iMit  the  bishop  of  London  refused  insti- 
tution, and  a  compromise  was  at  len^ 
effected.  In  1612,  he  received  the  hv- 
ing  of  Willingham,  in  Cambridgeshire. 
Shortly  after,  he  obtained  a  baronetoy, 
and,  in  1816,  the  dignity  of  a  prebend  in 
Ely  cathedral,  which  he  retained  till  the 
day  of  his  death,  February  1, 1824.  Sir 
Heniy  distinguished  himself  as  a  useful 
magistrate;  while  his  literaiy  abilities 
were  manifested  in  the  composition  of  a 
variety  of  dramaticj>ieces.  Among  these 
are  the  Flitch  of  Bacon,  vmtten  for  the 
purpose  of  introducinff  his  fiiend  Shield 
to  tne  public ;  the  Woodman ;  the  Rival 
Candidates  ;  the  Blackamoor  Washed 
White  (at  the  representation  of  which, 
party  spirit  ran  so  high  as  to  produce  a 
serious  conflict,  in  which  swords  were 
drawn,  &C.,  among  the  audience);  the 
Travellers  in  Switzerkmd ;  and  the  popu- 
lar piece  At  Home.  In  his  earlier  yean, 
the  vrarmth  of  his  temperament  betrayed 
nim,  notwithstanding  his  cloth,  into  seve- 
ral quarrels.  The  cause  of  two  of  these 
rencontres  waa  Mrs.  Hartley,  an  actress 
celebrated  for  her  beauty.  A  third,  of  more 
equivocal  character,  fought  with  Mr.  Sto- 
ney  Bowes,  made  a  great  noise  at  the  time. 
Sir  Henry,  at  the  time  of  his  decease,  was 
a  magistrate  for  seven  English  oountiea, 
and  four  in  Ireland. 

DiTDLBT,  Robert,  eeri  of  Leicester,  was 


the  fifth  son  of  the  duke  of  Northumber- 
land, and  was  bom  about  1532.  He  vras 
knighted  when  young,  and  was  made  gen- 
tleman of  the  bed-chamber  to  Edward  VI. 
Though  involved  in  the  criminal  designs  of 
his  fiither,  and  included  in  the  sentence  of 
attainder  passed  against  him  on  the  acces- 
sion of  Maiy,  he  was  pardoned,  and  em- 
ployed by  that  queen.  After  Elizabetii 
ascended  the  throne,  Dudley  soon  acquir- 
ed the  distinction  of  being  her  favorite. 
Offices,  honors  and  wealth  were  shower- 
ed on  him  with  an  unqMuring  hand.  He 
was  appointed  master  of  the  horse,  knight 
of  the  garter,  and  f^ivy  counsellor;  and 
he  received  grants  of  the  princely  domains 
of  KenilworUi,  Denbigh,  and  Chirk  cas- 
tle. In  1560,  the  death  of  his  wife  took 
place,  at  Cumnor-hall,  in  Bericahire.  This 
event,  according  to  popular  opinion,  as 
appears  from  Aubrey,  involved  Dudley  in 
the  guilt  of  murder.  If  he  sacrificed  the 
life  of  his  consort,  in  the  hope  of  manying 
the  queen,  his  ambitious  views  were  dis- 
appointed. Elizabeth,  however,  encour^ 
afled  him  to  aspire  to  the  hand  of  Maiy 
of  Scotland,  who  rejected  him  with  dis- 
dain. In  1564,  he  was  created  baron 
Denbigh  and  eari  of  Leicester,  and  was 
the  same  year  elected  chancellor  of  Ox- 
ford university,  having  previously  be&i 
chosen  to  the  same  omce  at  Cambridge. 
About  1572,  he  appears  to  have  married 
the  baroness-dowager  Sheffield,  lady  Dou- 
glas Howard,  by  whom  he  had  children, 
but  whom  be  disowned  as  his  wife,  and 
even  compelled  her  to  marry  another  per- 
son. In  1575,  be  gave  a  princely  enter- 
tainment to  the  queen,  at  Kenilworth  cas- 
de ;  the  festivities  of  which  are  described 
in  a  picturesque  manner,  in  the  celebrated 
romance  of  Kenilworth,  and,  in  defiance 
of  chronok>gy,  connected  with  the  death 
of  Leicester's  fint  wife.  Leicester,  in 
1578,  offended  the  queen  by  his  marriage 
with  the  widow  of  Walter  Devereux,  em 
of  Essex.  He,  however,  recovered  her 
favor,  and,  in  1585,  was  appointed,  throusfa 
her  influence,  governor  of  the  Netherlanas^ 
then  recently  emancipated  fitmi  the  Span- 
ish yoke.  His  conduct  in  this  station  did 
not  give  satisfiiction  to  the  queen,  or  to 
the  states  over  wliich  he  presided,  and  he 
was  recalled  the  following  year.  He  re- 
turned to  his  command  in  June,  1587; 
but  he  was  finally  di^laoed  a  few  months 
after,  and  retunied  to  Enaland.  He  was 
accuised  of  miseonduct  by  lord  Buckhurst 
and  others;  but  Elizabeth  still  retained  so 
much  partiality  for  him,  that  she  support- 
ed him  against  all  his  enemies ;  and,  on 
the  prospect  of  the  Spanish  invasion,  in 


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DUDLEY— DUEL. 


aas 


1588,  she  appdDted  him  commaDder  of 
the  forces  assembled  at  Tilbury,  for  the 
defence  of  the  kingdom.  Leicester  died 
September  4,  the  same  year,  at  Combu- 
ly  ]iark,  in  Oxfordshire,  and  was  interred 
in  a  chapel  of  the  collegiate  church  of 
Warwick,  where  a  splendid  monument 
was  raised  to  his  memory. 

Duel  (from  dudkunj  derived  fix>m  duo) 
is  a  combat  between  two,  at  a  time  and 
place  appointed,  in  consequence  of  a  chal- 
lenge, and  so  is  distinguished  from  an 
encounter,  taking  place  without  any  pre- 
vious arran^menL  The  custom  of  duel- 
ling was  derived  from  the  northern  nations ; 
the  judicial  combat  and  the  private  duel, 
upon  the  principle  of  tlie  point  of  honor, 
having  both  been  unknown  to  the  an- 
cients. The  Germans,  Danes  and  Franks 
carried  the  practice  of  the  judicial  combat 
so  fiu*,  that  none  were  excused,  e^ccept 
women,  sick  people,  cripples,  and  such  as 
were  over  60  years  of  age.  Even  eccle- 
siastics and  monks  were  obliged  to  main- 
tain their  controversies  by  a  champion  in 
arms ;  and  this  singular  species  of  ju- 
risprudence was  not  confined  to  crim- 
inal accusations,  but  the  titles  to  estates 
were  decided  in  the  same  manner.  At 
len^,  however,  this  mode  of  trial  was 
limited  to  those  accusations  of  capital 
ofiences,  in  which  there  was  no  other 
testimony,  and  in  which  common  fame 
pronounced  the  accused  party  to  be  guilty. 
The  par^  vanquished  was  punished  by 
hanging,  beheading,  or  mutilation  of  mem- 
bers. A  judicial  combat  was  authorized 
by  Gundebald,  king  of  the  Burgundians, 
as  early  as  A.  D.  S)l.  Fleta  (1. 1.  c.  33) 
says  it  is  a  combat  between  two,  to  prove 
the  truth  in  respect  to  their  controversy, 
and  the  party  who  conquers  shall  prevail 
in  the  sait.  The  practice  of  trying  rights 
to  land,  as  well  as  the  ffuilt  or  innocence 
of  an  accused  party,  by  combat  under 
judicial  authority,  very  naturally  suggest- 
ed the  decision  of  personal  quarrels  in 
the  same  way  (particularly  those  in  which 
the  point  of  honor  was  concerned),  and 
all  cases  in  which  there  was  no  adequate 
redress  provided  in  the  ordinary  tribunals. 
The  example  of  Francis  I  of  France,  and 
Charles  V  of  Spain,  gave  a  sanction  to 
this  mode  of  arbitration.  On  the  break- 
ing up  of  the  treaty  between  these  sove- 
reigns, and  the  declaration  of  war  by  the 
French  and  English  heralds,  at  the  court 
of  Charles,  Jan.  3;  1528,  the  emperor,  in 
replying  to  the  dedaration  of  the  French 
monareh,  desired  the  herald  to  acquaint 
his  sovereign,  that  he  would  henceforth 
consider  him,  not  only  as  a  base  violator 

voju  IV.  S» 


of  public  ftith,  but  as  a  stranger  to  the 
honor  and  integrity  becoming  a  gentle- 
man. On  receiving  this  message,  Francis 
immediately  sent  back  the  herald  widi 
a  cartel  of  defiance,  gave  the  emperor  the 
lie  in  form,  challenged  him  to  single  com- 
bat, and  required  htm  to  appoint  Sie  time, 
place  and  weapons.  Charles  accepted 
the  challenge ;  but,  after  many  messages 
concerning  the  anian^ments  for  the  com- 
bat, accompanied  wim  mutual  reproaches, 
bordering  on  the  most  indecent  scurrility, 
all  thoughts  of  the  duel  were  given  up. 
But  this  afiair,  though  it  thus  terminated 
without  any  rencounter,  is  supposed  to 
have  had  a  great  influence  in  producin§[ 
an  important  change  in  manners  all  over 
Europe.  Upon  every  insuh  or  injuiy, 
which  seemed  to  touch  his  honor,  a 
gentleman  thought  himself  entitled  to 
draw  his  swoid,  and  to  call  on  bis  adver- 
sary to  give  him  satisfaction.  Such  an 
opinion  becoming  prevalent  among  men 
of  fierce  courage,  of  high  spirit,  and  rude 
manners,  where  offence  was  often  given, 
and  revenge  always  prompt,  led  to  the 
sacrifice  of  many  lives.  This  **  detestable 
practice  of  duelling,  introduced,"  aa  the 
council  of  Trent  say,  ^  at  the  instigation 
of  the  devil,"  raged  with  the  greatest 
violence  in  France,  where  it  is  calculated 
that  6000  persons  feU  in  duels,  during  10 
years  of  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  His 
celebrated  minister.  Sully,  remonstrated 
against  the  practice ;  but  the  king  connived 
at  it,  supposing  that  it  tended  to  maintain 
a  military  spirit  among  his  people.  But 
afterwards,  in  1602,  near  the  close  of  his 
reign,  he  issued  a  very  severe  decree 
against  it,  and  declared  it  to  be  punishable 
with  death.  This  decree  was  opposed  ly 
Sully,  as  being  so  far  beyond  the  senti- 
ments of  the  people  on  the  subject,  that 
it  could  not  be  carried  into  execution; 
and  experience  proved  the  correcmess  of 
Sully's  opinion.  Under  Heniy's  succes- 
sw,  the  cardinal  Richelieu  introduced  a 
law,  that  every  person  who  should  fight  a 
duel  should  lose  his  offices  and  pensions,  a 
thiid  of  his  property,  and  be  exiled  for  three 
yeara  from  the  kingdom.  Duels  soon  de- 
creased. Two  noblemen  were  executed  for 
this  offence  in  1627.  In  1632,  two  noble- 
men killed  each  other  in  a  duel ;  their 
corpses  were  hung  upon  the  gallows,  with 
the  legs  uppermost.  (Mercurt,  XIII,  450.) 
Duete  are  not  severely  punished  by  the 
present  French  code.  **  It  must  be  admit- 
ted," says  Mr.  Robertson,  in  connexion 
with  his  account  of  the  challenge  between 
Charies  and  Francis,  **that  to  tiiis  absurd 
custom  We  must  ascribe,  in  some  degree, 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


DUEL. 


the  extcaoidiiiary  gootlenefiB  and  complai- 
aance  of  modem  maimerB,  and  that  re- 
spectful atteution  of  one  man  to  another, 
wliich,  at  present,  render  the  sociaJ  inter- 
couises  of  life  far  more  agreeable  and 
decent  than  among  the  most  civilized 
nations  of  antiquity."  Duelling  sprunff 
up  as  a  branch  of  the  chivalrous  spirit  of 
the  middle  ages ;  and  the  remnant  of  that 
spirit,  which  has  survived  to  our  own 
tmies,  and  which  makes  an  insult,  or  an 
injury  to  honor,  insupportable,  has  pre- 
served this  custom,  in  opposition  to  the 
exhortations  and  denunciations  of  the 
teachers  of  religion,  and  the  prohibitioDS 
and  penalties  of  the  laws,  which  have 
been  levelled  against  it  in  all  civilized 
countries.  A  duel,  provoked  from  a  spirit 
of  revenge  and  thirst  of  blood,  shocks  the 
moral  sense,  and  excites  the  horror  of 
mankind,  little  less  than  a  cold-blooded 
assassination.  But,  wliere  a  man  bums 
with  a  sense  of  atrocious  insult,  which 
no  laws  can  redress,  and  resorts  to  the 
duel,  not  from  a  spirit  of  revenge,  but 
as  the  ouly  means  supplied  wliich  he 
considers  to  be  left  him  for  vindicating 
his  honor,  although  this  remedy  ia  ever 
so  inadequate,  and  even  absurd,  and  al- 
though it  is  liable  to  so  great  abuse,  still, 
in  such  a  case,  the  general  sentiment,  in 
spite  of  all  laws  to  the  contrary,  regards 
a  challenge  with  tolerance ;  and  it  is  these 
instances  that  sustain  the  practice  of 
duelling,  and  defeat,  in  a  great  degree, 
the  execution  of  die  laws  against  duels. 
As  far  as  men  are  impelled  to  combat  by 
these  motives,  as  Sully  remarked  to  Hen- 
IV  IV,  the  threat  of  the  punishment  of 
death,  by  the  law,  has  feeble  influence 
with  them ;  since  they  expose  their  lives 
in  tlie  combat  itself,  in  order  to  avoid 
what  thev  consider  a  greater  evil  than 
death.  This  evil  is  one  iqflicted,  in  many 
instances,  by  the  public  opinion,  and  de- 
pends on  the  customs  of  particular  socie- 
ties. Thus,  in  France,  Spain  and  Italy, 
a  blow  with  the  hand  is  a  mortal  injury ; 
and  that  it  is  so  is  matter  merely  of  pubhc 
opinion,  for  in  England  and  the  U.  States, 
tills  is  by  no  means  so  burning  a  diflmce. 
But,  in  botli  of  the  latter  countnes,  a 
stroke  with  a  whip  is,  by  the  public  opin- 
ion, rendered  exceedingly  galling.  After 
tUl,  however,  pardes  in  the  heat  of  resent- 
ftient,  and  the  high  excitement  of  their 
sensibilities,  are  apt  greatly  to  overrate  the 
importance  of  the  supposed  disparage- 
ment of  their  reputation ;  and  the  nrivoUty 
of  the  occasion  woukl  frequendy  make 
'  I  suly  ects  of  ridicule,  if  they  were  not 
I  of  life  and  dottb.    And,  though  the 


public  are  cGsposed  to  paffiate  them,  in 
extreme  cases,  sdll  the  laws  very  proper- 
ly prohibit  the  practice  <^  duelling,  m 
ioto.    Accordingly,  the  laws  of  En^and 
make  killing  in  a  duel,  after  time  for 
reflection  and  deliberation,  murder.    ^A 
party,"  says  Mr.  Russdl,  in  his  treatisB  on 
crimes,  ''killing  another  in  a  deliberate 
duel,  is  guilty  of  murder,  and  cannot  help 
himself  by  alleging  that  he  was  first  struck 
by  the  deceased;  or  that  be  had  often 
declined  to  meet  him,  and  vras  prevailed 
upon  to  do  80  by  his  importunity ;  or  that 
it  was  his  intent  only  to  vindicate  faia  rep- 
utation ;  or  that  he  meant  not  to  kill,  but 
only  to  disarm  his  adversary.     He  has 
deliberately 'engaged  in  an  act  highly  un- 
lawful, and  he  must   abide  the  conse- 
quences."   Such  is  the  law  of  England, 
but  it  does  not  prevent  duels ;  and  the 
pardes  concerned  in  then*  often  come  off 
with  impunity.    In  the  U.  States^  there  is 
a  very  considerable  diversity  in  the  laws 
of  the  diiferent  states  on  this  subject,  at 
the  time  of  writinc  this  article,  in  1890. 
In  Maine,  tlie  puniumient  for  challenging, 
fighting  a  duel,  or  acting  as  second,  is 
solitary  imprisonment  not  over  a  year, 
confinement  to  hard  labor  not  more  than 
20  years,  and  disqualification  for  office  ftw 
90  years ;  for  accepting  a  challenge,  im- 
prisonment not  exceeding  a  year,  and  dis- 
qualification fi>r  ofilce  5  years:  :n  Ver- 
mont, for  kilMng  in  a  duel,  death;   for 
sending  or  acceptinff  a  challenge,  a  fiiw 
of  from  $50  to  $1000,  and  absolute  dis- 
qualificadon  for  <^ce :  in  Massachusetts, 
for  fighting,  in  case  death  does  not  ensue, 
or  cmdlenging,  accepting  a  challenge,  or 
being  second,  the  same  as  in  Maine:  in 
Rhode  Iskind,  for  fighting,  though  death 
does  not  ensue,  carting  to  the  gallows, 
with  a  rope  about  the  neck,  sitting  on  the 
gallows  an  hour,  and  imprisonment  not  ex- 
ceeding a  year,  either  or  bodi :  in  Connec- 
ticut, for  sending  or  accepting  a  cballenf(e, 
a  fine  of  $3000,  bonds  for  good  behavHur 
during  life,  and  disqualification  for  office ; 
for  delivering  a  cfaallenffe,  the  same,  ex- 
cepting the  bonds:  in  New  Jeraey,  for 
challenging,  or  bearing  a  challenge,  or 
aiding,  a  fine  not  over  $500,  or  imprison- 
ment not  more  than  2  years,  or  both; 
for  fighting,  or  being  second,  or  aiding, 
a  fine  not  over  $1000,  and  imprisonment 
to  hard  labor  not  more  than  2  yean: 
in  Pennsylvania,  for  challenging,  or  bear- 
ing a  challenge,  a  fine  not  over  $500,  and 
impriscmment  of  1  year :  in  I>elaware,  for 
fighting  a  duel,  or  sending,  besrin^  or 
aocepdng  a  challenge,  or  aicUng  therem,  a 
fino  of  $1000^  impriseniaent  for  three 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


DUEIr-DUGUAY-TROUIN. 


raoaths,  and  abBolute  disqualification  ibr 
office:  in  Maryland,  for  sending  or  ao« 
ceucing  a  ehallei^,  diaqualifieation  for 
office ;  for  killing  an  antagonist  in  a  duel, 
or  wounding  faim  so  that  he  sbaU  die 
within  a  year  and  a  day,  confinement  in 
tlie  penitentiary  not  less  than  5i,  nor  more 
than  IS  years:  in  Virginia,  for  killing  in  a 
duel,  death ;  for  challenging,  or  accepting 
a  challenge,  disqualiiication  for  office :  in 
Louisiana,  for  an  insuk,  with  intent  to  pro* 
voke  a  clwdlenge,  a  line  of  $50  to  $300, 
and  close  iinprisonment   from  5  to  30 
days;   for  giving   or  acceptnog  a  chal- 
lenge, imprisonment  from  2  to  6  months, 
and  suspenaon   of  political  rights  for  4 
years;   Ibr   fighting,  without  wounding, 
imprisonment  firom  6  to  12  months,  and 
suspension  finom  polidcal  rights  6  yeara; 
for  wounding,  but  not  mortally,  or  so  sa 
to  occasion  a  permanent  bodily  disabil* 
ity,  imprisonment  from  12  to  18  raonthsi 
and  suspension  from  political    rights  8 
years ;  for  killing  in  a  due),  imprisonment 
from  2  to  4  years,  and  absolute  forfeiture 
of  certain  polidcal  rights.     In  many  of 
the  states,  c^  which  the  statutes  make  no 
special  provision  for  the  case  of  killing  in 
a  duel,  it  is  either  murder  or  manslaugh* 
ter,  by  the  general  law.    The  laws  of  Illi* 
Bois,  and  some  other  states,  require  certain 
oflkers  of  the  state  to  make  oath,  either 
that  they  have  not,  within  a  certain  time, 
been,  or  will  not  be,  coneemed  in  a  duel 
''Some  advocates  for  duelling,**  says 
Coke,  ^  allege  the  combat  of  David  and 
Goliath,  in  vindication  oi  the  practice  f 
and  there  are  some  other  instances  on 
record,  of  single  combats  proposed,  which 
Coke  looks  upon  in  a  more  fiivorable 
ligiit      He  mentions  that  Edward  III, 
in  the  16th  year  of  his  reign,  proposed 
a  speedy  trial  of  all  riglit  in  controversy 
between  him  and  the  French  king,  by  a 
personal   combat  with  his  rivaL     And 
Ricliard  II,  of  England,  having  a  contro* 
versy  with  the  king  of  France,  concerning 
tlie  title  to  the  French  crown,  '*  it  was,'' 
says  Coke,  **  an  honorable  ofier  that  Rich- 
ard made  to  Charies,  the  French  king,  fbr 
saving  of  guiltless  Christian « blood,  and  to 
put  an  end  to  that  bloody  and  lingering 
war,  through  his  uncle,  the  duke  of  Lan- 
caster,'' that  the  war  should  be  concluded, 
1,  by  a  personal  combat  between  them- 
selves ;   or,  2,  between  themselves,  with 
tluree  of  their  uncles  on  each  side ;  or,  3| 
by  a  eeneral  battle,  at  an  appointed  time 
and  place,  between  all  the  forces  that  they 
could  respectively  muster.    The  duke  of 
Lancaster,  accoiding  to  his  commission, 
made  these  offers  to  Charles,  the  king  of 


France,  *^  but  king  Charies  liked  none  of 
their  offers."  In  1196,  in  the  eighdi  year 
of  the  reign  of  Richavd  I,  Philip,  king  of 
France,  sent  this  challenge  to  Richard  I 
of  England,--'' that  king  Richard  woukl 
eboose  five  for  his  part,  and  the  king  of 
France  would  ehoose  five  for  his  part, 
which  might  fight  in  lists  for  trial  of  all 
matters  in  c<Mitroversy  between  them,  for 
the  avoiding  of  shedding  of  more  guiitleas 
blood.  Richard  accepted  the  ofier,  with 
the  condition  that  either  kin^  might  be 
of  the  number,  but  this  condition  would 
not  be  eranted."  Upon  which  Coke  re^ 
miurks,  Uiat  "  these  and  the  like  offers,  aa 
tiiey  proceeded  fitim  high  courage  and 
greamess  of  mind,  so  had  they  been  lawful 
&  they  had  been  warranted  by  public  au-  • 
tbori^.  To  take  away  all  motive  and  ex* 
cuse  for  the  duel,  Heiuy  I V  of  France  erect- 
ed a  comrl  ofhanorj  to  try,  and  administer 
redress  in,  those  cases  which  are  the  usual 
subjects  of  martial  arbitrament  But  this 
did  not  supplant  the  mode  of  decision  by 
combat ;  and  no  court  of  this  sort  seems  to 
be  now  in  existence,  or,  at  least,  in  the 
course  of  practical  administratioB,  in  an^ 
eountry ;  and  whether  it  be  at  all  pracu- 
oable,  remains  yet  to  be  determined. 

DuFRBsifE,  or  Du  FaBSjiB,  Charles,  lord 
of  Cange,  hence  oflen  called  Ductmge ;  a 
man  of  letters,  who  did  much  for  the  his- 
tory of  the  middle  ages,  especially  as  re- 
nidfl  his  own  country,  as  well  as  for  the 
Byiantine  history.  He  was  bom  in  1610^ 
at  a  fiutn  near  Amiens,  of  a  respectabla 
fiimily,  and  studied  in  the  Jesuits'  college^ 
at  that  place,  afterwards  at  Orleans  tmd 
Paris.  At  this  last  place  he  became  par- 
liamentary advocate,  in  1631,  and,  in  1645^ 
royal  treasurer  at  Amiens,  from  which 
place  he  was  driven  by  a  pestilence,  in 
1668,  to  Paris.  Here  he  devoted  himself 
entirely  to  literature,  and  published  his 
great  works,  viz.,  his  Glossary  of  die  Greek 
and  Latin  peculiar  to  the  Middle  Ages  and 
tlie  Modems ;  his  ITutoria  Byzaniuia  (Paris^ 
1680,  foL) ;  the  Annals  of  Zonaras ;  die  Nu- 
mismatics of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  other 
important  works.    He  died  in  1688. 

Duouay-Trouin,  Ren6,  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  seamen  of  his  time,  bom, 
1673,  at  St  Malo,  was  the  son  of  a  rich 
merchant  and  skilful  navigator.  He  made 
his  first  voyage  in  1689,^  in  a  vessel  of  18 
guns,  which  Tiis  family  fitted  out,  in  the 
war  against  England  and  Holland.  His 
courage  induced  his  fiunily  to  trust  hum 
with  a  ship  of  14  guns.  Being  driven  on 
the  coast  of  Ireland,  he  burnt  two  ships, 
and  took  a  fort,  in  spite  of  the  opposition 
of  a  numerous  garnson.     He  was  once 


Digitized  by 


Lioogle 


DUGUAY-TROUm— DUKE. 


taken  prisoner,  and  carried  into  Plymouth. 
He  there  sained  the  love  of  an  Engtish 
female,  who  procured  him  his  lil^rty. 
He  once  more  made  a  cruise  on  the  coast 
of  England,  and  took  two  ships  of  war. 
Duguay-Trouin,  now  in  his  21st  year,  at* 
tnicted  the  attention  of  the  government 
Louis  XIV  sent  him  a  sworn.  He  cap- 
tured great  numbers  of  English  and  Dutch 
fillips  on  the  coast  of  Spain  and  Ireland ; 
in  1696)  he  took  a  great  part  of  the  out- 
ward bound  Dutch  fleet,  under  Wasse- 
naer ;  in  1697,  he  entered  the  royal  ma- 
rine, as  a  captain.  He  signalized  liimaeif 
00  much  in  the  Spanish  war,  that  tlie  king 
l^nted  him  letters  of  nobility,  in  which 
It  was  stated,  that  he  had  captured  more 
than  300  merchant  ships,  and  20  ships  of 
war.  By  the  capture  of  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
1611,  he  brought  the  crown  more  than  25 
millions.  Under  Louis  XV,  he  rendered 
important  services  in  the  I^evant  and  the 
Mediterranean.  He  died  at  Paris,  1736. 
His  memoirs  appeared  there,  in  1740,  in  4 
vols.    His  Eloge  was  written  by  Thomoa 

DuJARDiif,  Charles,  a  painter,  bom 
1640,  at  Amsterdam,  a  scholar  of  Ber- 
ghera,  excelled  in  painting  landscapes^ 
animals,  and  scenes  in  low  hfe.  He  went 
to  Italy  when  young,  and  was  a  member 
of  the  society  of  painters  at  Rome,  among 
whom  he  was  called  Barba  di  Becco, 
His  works  met  with  general  approbation. 
On  his  return  to  his  nadve  country,  he 
contracted  considerable  debts  at  Lyons,  to 
free  himself  from  which  he  married  his 
old  and  rich  landlady.  He  went  with 
her  to  Amsterdam,  where  his  pictures 
were  valued  very  highly.  He  soon  se- 
cretly left  his  home  in  that  city,  probably 
from  dislike  to  his  wife,  and  went  to 
Rome,  where  he  was  welcomed  by  his  old 
friends  and  admirei«,  and  lived  at  great 
exfjense.  Thence  he  went  to  Venice, 
where  he  died,  in  1678,  in  the  prime  of  life. 
His  landscapes  have  spirit  and  hannony, 
his  figures  expression,  and  his  coloring  the 
brilliancy  which  disdnguishes  his  school 
His  paintings  are  rare,  and  command  a 
high  price.  He  also  published  52  land- 
scapes, etched  with  much  spirit  and  ease. 

Duke  (from  the  Latin  dux,  leader,  com- 
nvmder).  Among  the  ancient  Gennan 
triljes,  the  military  leaders  were  chosen 
by  the  people  (reges  ex  nobilitatej  duces 
ex  viriute  sumunt,  says  Tacitus),  with 
whom,  however,  the  whole  legislative 
power  remained:  this  is  the  natural  and 
probably  the  common  origin  of  the  princes 
of  all  nations.  By  degrees,  as  appears 
from  Marculphus,  and  Gregory  of  Tours, 
the  oath  of  allegiance  was  introduced 


among  the  Franks,  which  was  taken, 
not  only  by  the  followers  of  the  prince 
(comiiesi  but  also  by  the  people  at  large, 
who  still  continued,  however,  to  hold  Oie 
legislative  power.  The  counts  and  dukes, 
after  this  time,  were  no  longer  chosen  by 
the  people,  but  by  the  prince.  Dukes 
were  set  over  provinces  or  districts,  to 
regulate  the  military  affairs,  and  counts  ta 
administer  justice,  and  to  collect  the  taxes. 
(See  Count,)  Charlemagne  suflered  the 
dignity  of  the  dukes  to  cease,  because 
their  power  seemed  to  him  too  dangerous. 
But  the  mcuiwons  of  fbreisn  tribes  into 
Germany  made  the  reestablishment  of 
dukes  necessary  under  his  successors.  In 
847,  the  emperor  Louis  appointed  a  duke 
of  Thuringia,  to  protect  the  frontiers 
against  the  Wendes,  or  Vandals,  a  Scla- 
vonic tribe.  The  power  of  the  dukes  now 
gradually  increased,  their  dignity,  like  tliat 
of  counts,  became  hereditaiy,  and  they 
soon  became  powerful  memben  of  the 
German  empire.  An  archbishop  of  Co- 
logne, Bruno,  was  the  first  who  bore  fin 
9S&)  the  title  of  archduke,  which,  since  tne 
time  of  the  emperor  Frederic  III  (1453), 
has  been  given  excluavely  to  the  princes 
of  the  house  of  Austria.    All  the  Austrian 

frinces  are  archdukes.     The  kings  of 
oland  styled  tliemselves  grand-dukes  of 
Lithuania;   and  Maximilian  II,  emperor 
of  Germany,  gave  this  title  of  grand-duke 
to  the  dukes  of  Florence.    Napoleon  con- 
ferred the  arch-ducal  dignity  on  several 
German  princes,  which  the  congress  of 
Vienna   confirmed  to  them.     In    other 
countries,  duke  is  only  a  tide  of  nobility, 
as  duca  in  Italy,  due  in  France,  and  duke 
in  England.    In  the  two  first  countries^ 
dukes  are  the  second  in  rank  among  the 
nobles;  in  the  latter,  the  highest    IVapo- 
leon  created  dues,  after  he  had  assumed 
the  title  of  emperor,  and  gave  them  titles 
generally  taken  from  places  or  countries 
m  which  they  had  distinguished  them- 
selves; as,  for  instance,  Duroc  was  cre- 
ated duke  of  Friuli.    In  England,  the  first 
hereditary  duke  was  the   black   prince, 
created   by  bis  father,  Edward   III,  in 
ld3a    The  duchy  of  Cornwall  was  be- 
stowed upon  him,  and  was  thenceforward 
attached  to  the  eldest  son  of  the  king, 
who  is  considered  duxnatus.    The  duchy 
of  Lancaster  was  soon  after  conferred  on 
his  third  son,  John  of  Gaunt,  and  hence 
arose  the  s]iecia]  privileges  which  these  two 
duchies  still  in  fuut  retain.    In  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth,  in  157^  the  ducal  order  was 
extinct,  and  not  revived  till  the  creation  of 
Villars  duke  of  Buckingham,  by  James  I. 
There  are  now,  besides  the  brothers  of 


Digitized  by 


Lioogle 


DUKE— DUMB  AND  DEAF. 


aQ» 


the  kinff  of  England,  who  ne  all  dukes, 
19  Engliah  dukes.  The  coronet  of  an 
English  duke  consists  of  ei^ht  strawbeny 
leaves,  on  a  rim  of  sold.  His  style  is,  tnati 
highy  potent  and  nooU  prince^-your  grace. 
Ii)  the  distribution  of  the  empire,  under 
Cpnstantine,  dux  was  the  title  borne  by 
a  military  provincial  governor.  Qn  the 
division  of  the  empire,  13  duces  were 
nominated  in  the  East  In  the  Bible,  the 
word  dukes  is  used.  Gen.  xzxvi.  15,  for  the 
duces  of  the  Vulgate. 

DuLwicH ;  a  village  in  Surry,  England, 
noted  for  the  QMege  ^  God*s  Q\fty 
five  miles  S.  E.  London.  The  gallery 
of  paintings  at  Dulvtrich  college  is  one  of 
the  finest  collections  in  the  world.  Dul- 
wicb  is  charmingly  situated,  and  the  de- 
lightful walk  to  the  village,  after  leaving 
the  long  and  noisy  streets  of  the  metropo- 
lis, adds  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  gallery, 
where  the  pieces  of  Cuyp  and  other  mas- 
ters seem  to  reflect  the  beautifiil  scenery 
on  which  you  have  just  been  gazing.  In 
that  collection  you  find  paintings  of  aU 
charactexB  and  schools,  from  the  comic, 
and,  sometimes,  almost  too  natural  Teniers 
and  Wouvermann,  up  to  Cuyp,  Claude, 
Paul  Potter,  and  the  grave  Ruysdael. 
The  gallery  contains,  likewisie,  many  works 
of  Munlto,  Vandyke,  Rubens,  Rembrandt, 
Poussin,  Salvator  Rosa,Caravaggio^  Guer- 
cino,  Paul  Veronese,  Guido,  Axidrea  del 
Sarto,  and  Titian.  Of  the  lost  there  is  a 
nymph,  a  picture  in  which  this  glorious 
artist  expressed,  perhaps  more  than  in 
any  of  his  other  productions,  that  luxu- 
riant beauty  and  giowinff  voluptuousness, 
which  so  often  inspired  nim.  The  galle- 
ry at  Dulwicli  is  also  advantageously  dis- 
tmguiahed  firom  many  others  in  England, 
by  the  fiicility  of  admittance.  Not  a  few 
of  the  greatest  works  of  art  are  immured  in 
the  retired  seats  of  the  nobility,  and  only 
seen,  if  at  all,  after  tedious  auplications, 
which  contrast  very  disagreeably  with  the 
facility  of  reception  in  Italy. 

DuMAJEiSAis,  C^sar  Chesneau,  a  philol- 
ogist, bom  in  1676,  at  Marseilles,  early 
liMt  his  father,  his  fortune  was  dissipated 
by  the  extravagance  of  his  mother,  and 
a  library,  which  he  inherited,  was  sold. 
The  idea  of  losing  the  latter  so  disturbed 
the  boy,  then  but  seven  years  old,  that  he 
concealed  all  the  books  of  which  he  could 
possess  himself.  He  became  an  advocate, 
married  unhappily,  kept  a  school,  and 
died  in  misery,  1756.  His  merits  were 
overlooked  by  his  own  age,  and  his  best 
works  remained  for  a  long  time  unknown. 
D'Alembert  aptly  calls  mm  the  I^  Fon- 
laine  of  philosophers.    De  Gerando,  in  « 


pixs  dissertation,  presented  to  the  French 
ustitute  in  1S05,  has  justly  appreciated 
the  merit  of  this  profound  inquirer.  His 
works  were  published  at  Pans,  1797,  in 
seven  vols.  The  principal  are,  A  New 
Method  of  teaching  tlie  Latin  Language ; 
a  Treatise  on  Tropes;  the  Principles  of 
(generalj  Grammar ;  and  his  contributions 
to  the  Encyclop»dia. 

Dumas,  Mattnieu  (count),  a  distinguish- 
ed French  ceneral,  bom  1758,  at  Mont- 
pellier,  served  as  a  colonel  In  the  war  of 
the  American  revolution.  In  1789,  he 
entered  the  national  guard,  under  La 
Fayette.  In  1792,  he  exerted  all  his  in- 
fluence to  prevent  the  declaration  of  war 
against  Austria.  In  the  reign  of  terror,  he 
concealed  himself.  In  September,  1795, 
he  was  chosen  member  of  the  council  of 
eldera.  In  1797,  he  spoke  energetically 
against  bringing  up  the  troops,  whom  the 
duectoiy  mA  sent  for  to  occupv  the  capi- 
tal, and  was  condemned  to  cfeportation* 
He  fled  to  Germany.  In  1799,  he  pub- 
lished, at  Hamburg,  a  well  written  jour- 
nal, entided  Pricis  des  ^huments  mUi» 
tains,  which  showed  his  profound  knowl- 
edge of  the  military  art.  After  the  18th 
Brumaire,  he  returned  to  France.  In 
1600,  he  was  at  the  head  of  the  staff  of 
the  second  army  of  reserve,  and  served  in 
the  campaign  of  1801,  in  Switzerland. 
In  Auguist,  1802,  he  formed  the  plan  of 
a  legion  of  honor.  He  was  afterwards 
general  of  division,  and  chief  of  the  stafC 
In  1805,  he  served  in  the  grand  army  in 
Germany,  in  this  latter  capacity.  In 
1612,  he  accompanied  Napoiepn  in  the 
Russian  campaign,  as  intendent-general 
of  the  army,  and  was  at  last  taken  prison- 
er at  the  suirender  of  Dresden,  lie  has 
since  continued  his  Pricis  des  ^vinemeHts^ 
19  vols,  of  whicli  had  appeared  in  1825, 
with  8  vols,  of  Adas,  folio.  The  19th 
volume  extended  to  the  end  of  the  war  of 
1807. 

Dumb  and  Deaf,  or  Deaf  Mutes. 

Deti/hess.  The  sensation  which  we  caH 
hearinff  is  produced  by  the  vibradons  of 
the  anr,  striking  on  the  tympanum  or 
drum  of  the  ear,  and  communicated  to 
the  auditory  nerve,  by  means  of  a  series 
of  small  bones  connected  in  a  veiy  re- 
markable manner.  When  the  tympanum 
becomes  insensible  to  these  impulses,  a 
person  is  termed  (2ea/^,*  although  the  vi- 
brations may  still  be  communicated,  in 
some  cases,  through  the  bones  of  the  head, 
by  means  of  a  stick  placed  between  the 
teeth,  or,  as  the  Code  of  Jusdnian  states 
to  have  been  practised  in  the  case  of 
dying  persons,   by   speaking   with   the 


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DUMB  AND  DEAF. 


immth  close  to  the  top  of  tbe  bead. 
The  Eustachian  tube  extends  from  the 
tympanum  into  the  mouth;  and  some- 
times sounds  are  better  distinguished  by 
opening  the  mouth,  when  the  external 
opening,  only,  is  obstructed.  Hence  the 
liabit  of  ^  listening  with  the  mouth  open." 
Deafness  occurs  in  every  degree,  from 
that  which  merely  impairs  tlie  accuracy 
of  the  ear  in  distinguishing  faint  or  similar 
sounds,  to  tliat  state  in  which  there  is  no 
more  sensation  in  this  organ  than  in  any 
otlier;  and  sound  is  felt  in  almost  every 
part  of  the  body,  as  a  mere  vibration. 

^^IrticuUdwn  and  Dundmofs,  Articula- 
tion is  acquired  by  imitating  the  sounds 
which  we  hear  uttered  by  others,  and  cor- 
recting the  voice,  by  means  of  the  ear, 
until  the  imitation  is  precise.  Deafness, 
therefore,  in  every  degree,  aifccts  the  dis- 
tincmess  of  articulation,  and,  if  it  is  so 
great  that  the  subject  can  no  longer  dis- 
tinguish between  articulate  sounds,  he  is 
incapable  of  acquiring  s}>eech,  in  the  or- 
dinary manner,  and  becomes  dumb  in  con- 
sequence of  his  deafness.  A  case  has  oc- 
curred vndiin  the  knowledge  of  the  writer, 
in  which  entire  deafness,  taking  place  at 
the  age  of  18,  so  affected  the  articulation, 
that  tne  individual  was  no  loncer  intelli- 
gible, even  to  his  friends.  This  result 
will  not  be  prevented  by  any  degree  of 
hearinff  less  than  we  have  mentioned ;  for 
most  deaf  and  dumb  persons  can  hear 
some  sounds;  and  some  can  distinguish 
the  high  from  tlie  low,  who  perceive  no 
difference  in  articulations.  Only  a  few 
mutes  are  found,  who  owe  this  defect  to 
feebleness  of  mind,  or  to  any  imperfec- 
tions in  the  organs  of  speech.  These  re- 
marks show  the  fallacy  of  the  idea,  that 
the  want  of  speech  is  owin^  to  the  want 
of  mental  capacity — a  prejudice  which 
has  been  chenshed  by  the  usual  name  of 
deaf  and  dumb,  which  we  hope,  for  this 
reason,  as  well  as  for  euphony,  will  be 
changed  for  that  of  deafmutt^  which  may 
be  employed  both  as  a  noun  and  an  ad- 
jective. 

JStwmher,  The  number  of  deaf  mutes 
varies  materially  in  different  countries, 
and  situations,  and  classes  of  men.  In 
the  U.  States,  partial  examination  leads  to 
the  belief  that  there  is  one  deaf  mute  for 
every  2000  inhabitants.  In  some  coun- 
tries of  Europe,  there  is  one  for  every 
ISOO  or  1700;  in  others,  one  for  eveiy 
1000 :  and,  in  some  locations,  the  propor- 
tion is  three  or  four  times  as  great  as  this. 
TIms  proportion  has  been  found  greatest 
in  some  districts  or  portions  of  cities  re- 
inarkable  for  the  dampMess  and  impurity 


of  the  air.  Tbe  gfeater  number  of  these 
unfortunate  persons  is  found  among  the 
poorer  classes ;  and  hence  It  has  been  sup- 
posed, that  the  defect  is  frequently  caused 
by  tbe  want  of  tbe  necessary  supplies  and 
attentions  during  infancy  or  disease. 

Origin,  A  laree  number  of  deaf  mutes 
are  bom  deaf;  but  it  appears  from  the 
reports  of  the  American  asylum,  that 
more  than  half  tlie  pupils  of  that  institu- 
tion lost  their  hearing  by  accidents  or  dis- 
eases, chiefly  fevers  and  diseases  of  chil- 
dren. 

Causes  and  Cure.  The  immediate  caus- 
es of  ordinaiy  dumbness  are  known  to  be 
various.  In  some  few  cases,  it  is  owing 
to  an  imperfection  or  injury  of  some  part 
of  the  organs  of  speech,  and,  of  course,  is 
irremediable.  In  other  cases,  it  seems  to 
arise  from  obstroctions  in  the  external  or 
internal  passage  of  the  ear.  Cures  have 
sometimes  been  effected  by  removing 
these  obstructions  by  means  of  instru- 
ments or  injections,  especially,  of  late,  by 
doctors  Itord  and  Deleau,  of  Paris,  who 
throw  injections  into  the  Eustachian  pas- 
sage, by  means  of  a  flexible  tube  passed 
through  the  nostrils.  Doctor  Deleau  is 
reported,  by  a  committee  of  the  French 
institute,  to  have  relieved  or  cured  several 
deaf  persons,  by  injections  of  atr,  long 
continued ;  but  he  does  not  estimate  the 
probable  number  of  cures  in  deaf  mut«« 
at  more  than  one  in  ten.  Perforation  of 
the  tympanum  is  sometimes  useftil  in  ren- 
dering it  more  easy  to  remove  obstruc- 
tions which  may  be  discovered ;  and  for 
this  purpose,  it  is  deemed  important  to 
perform  it  by  means  of  curular  discs, 
closing  with  a  spring,  which  remove  a 
portion  of  the  membrane,  and  leave  a  per- 
manent opening.  In  other  cases,  and  in 
the  usual  mode,  this  operation  often  pro- 
duces ereat  suffering,  and  has  not  been 
generally  useful.  In  81  cases  of  perfora- 
tion at  &roningen,  in  Holland,  only  three 
were  permanently  relieved,  and  these  in 
a  very  partial  degree.  In  the  greater  pro- 
portion of  deaf  mutes,  no  dejfect  is  visible, 
and  no  applications  appear  to  be  useful 
In  a  number  of  anatomical  examinations 
of  deceased  deaf  mutes,  at  Paris,  tbe  ear 
was  found  jierfect  in  all  its  parte.  The 
inference  has  therefore  been  made,  that 
the  disease  conasts  in  a  paralysis  of  the 
auditory  nerve — a  conclusion  which  seems 
to  be  sustained  by  the  fact,  that,  in  some 
cases,  a  cure  has  been  eflTected  by  actual 
cautery  on  the  back  of  the  head,  and 
that  galvanism  has  sometimes  given  tem- 
porary relief.  According  to  the  esti- 
mates we  have  mentioned,  the  number  of 


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DUMB  AND  DEAF. 


331 


deaf  mutes  in  the  U.  States  is  about 
6000,  and  in  Europe  not  less  than  140,000 ; 
all  of  whom,  by  their  deafness  (which  we 
see  is  usually  beyond  the  reach  of  reme- 
dies), are  shut  out  from  the  intercourse 
of  society,  and  the  ordinary  means  of 
acquiring  knowledge.  The  situation  and 
character  of  such  a  large  class  of  unfortu- 
nate persons  are  subjects  of  deep  interest 

Chmmumcaiiofiu — JSTatwraL  hamguafte. 
The  necessity  of  communication,  and  uie 
want  of  words,  oblige  the  deaf  mute 
to  oliserve  and  imitate  the  actions  and 
expressions  which  accompany  various 
states  of  mind  and  of  feeling,  to  indicate 
objects  by  their  appearance  and  use,  and 
persons  by  some  peculiar  mark,  and  to 
describe  their  actions  by  direct  Imitation. 
In  this  way,  he  and  his  friends  are  led  to 
form  a  dialect  of  that  uniyersal  language 
of  attitude,  gesture  and  expression,  by 
wluch  tlie  painter  and  tlie  sculptor  con- 
vey to  us  every  event  of  history,  and  every 
feeling  of  the  soul — which  becomes  a 
substitute  for  words  in  the  hands  of  the 
pantomimic  actor,  and  which  adds  force 
and  clearness  to  the  finest  effusions  of  die 
orator — in  other  words,  the  natural  sign 
language, 

Descrifiumqf  the  Language.  The  terms 
of  this  language  are  ot  two  kinds — the 
descriptive  and  the  characteristic  or  in- 
dicative signs.  Descriptive  signs  involve 
an  account  (more  or  less  complete)  of  the 
appearance,  qualities  and  uses  of  an  ob- 
ject, or  the  circumstances  of  an  event,  for 
the  purpose  of  description  or  explanation, 
and  must,  from  their  nature,  bo  varied, 
like  a  painting,  only  by  the  point  of  view 
from  which  the  objects  are  described,  or 
the  capacity  and  acciuucy  of  the  person 
that  describes.  The  indicative  signs,  on 
the  contrary,  which  are  employed  in  com* 
mon  conversation,  are  usually  mere  ab- 
breviations of  tiiese,  involving  a  single 
striking  feature  of  the  person,  or  object,  or 
event ;  as  an  elephant  is  indicated  by  its 
trunk,  a  flower  by  its  fragrance,  or  a  town 
by  a  collection  of  roofs.  The  signs  of 
persons  are  usually  conventional,  and  de- 
rived fix>m  some  feature,  or  mark,  or 
habit,  but  often  from  an  accidental  cir- 
cumstance in  dress,  &c.,  which  struck  the 
deaf  mute  on  first  seeing  the  person,  and 
is  still  referred  to  when  it  no  longer  exists. 
It  is  obvious  that,  in  this  class  of  sisns, 
there  is  ^[reat  room  for  dialects,  accordintf 
to  the  situation,  capacity  and  habits  of 
observation  of  the  individual,  and  that 
much  may  be  done  for  its  improvement, 
by  a  proper  selection. 

EsUnt  ^  (he  ISgfi  Language.     The 


sign  languapie,  lika  every  other,  varies  in 
its  extent  with  the  intelligence,  the  wants, 
and  the  circle  of  ideas  of  those  who  use 
iL  When  empk>yed  by  an  insulated  deaf 
mute,  it  will  usually  exhibit  only  the  ob- 
jects of  the  first  necessity,  and  the  most 
common  impulses,  like  the  language  of  a 
savage  tribe.  When  his  ideas  exnand, 
from  age  or  observation,  he  will  find  new 
modes  of  expressing  them ;  and,  when  bis 
education  is  begun,  an  intelligent  deaf 
mute  will  oflen  express  ideas  in  this  lan- 
guage, for  which  it  is  difficult  to  find  ex- 
pressions in  words.  When  a  number  of 
deaf  mutes  are  brought  together  in  a  sin^ 
gle  institution,  selections  and  combinationB 
of  their  various  dialects  are  formed ;  the 
best  are  gradually  adopted  b^  all ;  and  a 
new  and  more  complete  form  of  the  hm- 
guage  is  the  result—as  in  nations  collected 
by  civilisation.  This  process,  carried  on 
for  half  a  century  in  the  institution  of 
Paris,  and  some  others  in  Europe,  under 
the  observation  and  direction  of  intelligent 
men  possessed  of  hearing,  has  produced 
a  language  capable  of  expressing  all  the 
ideas  we  convey  by  articulate  sounds, 
with  clearness,  though  not  always  with 
equal  brevity,  and  which  those  who  value 
it  least  admit  to  surpass  speech  in  the 
force  with  which  it  communicates  the 
feelings  and  states  of  mind.  Like  pain^ 
ing  (as  CondiUac  observes),  it  has  the  im- 
mense advantage  of  presenting  a  group 
of  ideas  at  once,  which  lose  much  of  thor 
force  and  beauty,  by  being  detailed  in  the 
successive  words  and  artificial  arrange 
ments  of  written  language.  The  eye,  Sia 
hand,  the  whole  bc^y,  speak  simuhaue* 
ously  on  one  subject ;  the  representation 
changes  eveiy  moment,  and  these  peculiar- 
ities, with  the  elliptical  fiirm  of  e3q)ressioo 
which  is  adopted  in  conversation,  give  a 
rapidity  to  communication  by  the  sign 
language,  which,  on  common  sobjects, 
among  those  fiuniiiar  with  it,  surpasses 
that  of  speech.  If  we  remark  the  new 
shades  of  meaning  given  to  the  aame 
words,  by  the  varvmg  attitude  and  gen- 
eral expression  of  the  speaker,  and  the 
accuracy  with  which  a  nice  observer  wiU 
discover,  in  these  signs,  the  thoughts,  and 
feelings  and  intentions^  even  of  one  who 
wishes  to  conceal  them,  we  shall  find 
reason  to  believe  that  they  are  capable  of 
conveying  the  roost  delicate  shades  of 
thought  Generic  and  abstract  terms,  as 
their  objects  do  not  exist  in  nature,  have  no 
corresponding  terms  of  equal  clearness  in 
the  ngn  language;  and  the  abbreviated 
mannw  m  which  we  express  relations  by 
conjunctioos^  propositions^  relatives  and 


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DUMB  AND  DEAF* 


iBflectionsi  cin  only  be  iroittfed  by  adoot- 
mg  ■nrnlar    cooTentional   eigncs    which 
do  not  easily  fall  in  with  the  idiom  of 
the  language.    In  these  respects,  there- 
fore, the  sign  language  wants  the  algebraic 
brevity  and  accuracy  which  are  found  in 
artificial    languages,  and    which   render 
these   so    mvaluable    aa    mediums    of 
thought,  and  iustniments  of  philosoph- 
ical investigation ;  at  the  same  time,  it  Is 
oapabla  of  describing  what  is  conveyed 
by  these  forms,  with  an  accuracy  at  least 
as  groat  as  that  of  words,  by  circumlocu- 
tion and  esuDple.    It  is  worthy  of  re- 
mark, that  the  order  of  expression,  in  tha 
sign  language,  is  that  which  we  tenn 
wvtrted—^e  subject  before  the  quality, 
the  object  before  the  action,  and,  general- 
ly, the  thing  modified  before  the  modifier. 
This  language,  in  its  elements,  is  to  be 
found  amonff  aU  nations,  and  has  ever 
been  the  medium  of  communication  b&> 
tween  voyagers  and  the  natives  of  newly 
discovered  countries.    It  is  employed  by 
many  savage  tribes  to  supply  the  paucity 
of  expression  in  their  language,  or  to  com- 
municate with    other  tribes,  as  in   the 
Sandwich  islands,  and  in  North  America. 
Among  the  Indians  of  the  western  terri- 
tory of  the  United  States,  major  Lone 
found  it  an  organized  language,  employed 
between  tribes  who  spoke  different  artic- 
ulate languages.    The  accounts  received 
fiT>m  hinnel^  as  well  as  his  work,  show 
that  It  corresponds,  almost  in^ecisely,  with 
that  in  use  in  the  school  or  Paris ;  and  a 
Sandwich  ishuider,  who  visited  the  Amer- 
ican asylum  for  deaf  mutes,  gave  a  nar- 
rative of  his  lifo  in  the  sign  langnaffe, 
which  was  perfectly  understood  by  tne 
pupils.    If  testimony  be  wanting  that  it 
sdjl  retains  its  universal  character,  in  its 
cultivated  form^  the  writer  of  this  article, 
who  acquired  it  in  this  form,  can  stale, 
that  he  has  employed  it,  or  seen  it  em- 
ployed, with  success,  in  communioatinff 
with  an  Ameriean  Indian,  a  Sandwich 
islander,  a  ChuMse,  and  the  deaf  and  dumb 
in  various  pans  of  the  U.  States,  in  Eng- 
land, Soothuid,  France,  Germany,  Switzer- 
land and  Italy.    The  more  tively  nations 
of  Europe,  bek>nging  to  the  Celtic  race, 
the  French  and  Itafaans,  &c.  make  great 
use  of  this  language,  in  connexion  with 
words,  and,  sometimes,  even  without  them. 
The  more  phlegmatic  people  of  the  Teu- 
tonic race,  m  England  and  Ckrrmany,  are 
ao  httie  disposed  to  it,  and  so  much  less 
able  to  acquire  or  undeistand  it,  thait  tb^ 
fegard  it  as  a  species  otf*  affectation  or  buf- 
foonery in  their  southern  neighbors;  ttid 
lo  this  oiicunstaaoa  it  is  probably  owing^ 


that  it  has  been  so  extensively  rejected, 
among  these  nations,  as  an  auxiliary  in 
the  education  of  the  deaf  mute. 

J^atvral  SUiU  of  the  deaf  MuU.  The 
natural  condition  of  the  deaf  mute  may 
be  inferred  from  the  account  we  have 

S'ven  of  his  laneuage.    It  is  obvious  that 
e  mere  loss  of  hearing  cannot,  in  itself^ 
diminish  the  nattnal  vigor  of  any  other 
faculty,  either  of  body  or  mind.    He  tnusL 
however,  l)e  desdtute  of  aU    ideas   of 
sounds;  but  these  form  so  small  a  part 
of  the  circle  of  our  ideas,  in  comparison 
with  those  derived  fiiom  sight,  that  they 
cannot  seriously  affect  him.    His  concep- 
tions, derived  through  the  medium  of 
sight,  are  usually  more  accurate  than  ours, 
his  recollections  more  vivid,  and  his  pow- 
ers of  description  more  striking,  because 
his  attention  is  more  undivided.    His  dis- 
crimination of  feelings  and  character  is 
often  intuitive,  and  he  frequently  divines 
the  subject  of  conversation  from  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  spneaker.     The  tremen- 
dous part  of  lus  misfortune  is  the  inter- 
ruption of  communication  with  his  fellow 
men,  on  all  subjects  except  the  primary 
wants  and  impulses,  which  arises  from 
the  imperfect  character  of  his  sif(n  lan- 
guage, m  an  uneducated  state.    His  ideas 
are  very  much  limited  to  the  objects  and 
events  be  wimesses,  and  die  exterior  re- 
lations of  things ;  and  he  is  shut  out  fifom 
aJl  the  knowledge  derived  from  history 
and  tradition.     Past  sfies,  distant  coun- 
tries, a  funire  worid,  aDeity,  are  all  be- 
vond  his  reach.    In  regard  to  the  com- 
bination and  application  of  the  ideas  which 
he  acquires,  he  is  still  in  the  state  of  na- 
tions in  the  infancy  of  society,  and  cannot 
be  aided  or  directed  by  others,  in  his 
efforts  to  reason.    After  extensive  obser- 
vation and  in(}uiry,  we  cannot  hear  of  or 
find  a  single  mstance  in  which  a  person, 
bom  deaf,  has  conceived  of  a  First  Cause, 
firom  a  view  of  the  works  of  nature,  with- 
out education.    They  describe  themselves 
as  looking  at  tiiese  objects  like  the  brutes. 
Even  those  whose  niends   have  made 
great   efforts  to  communicate   religious 
truths  seMora  have  an  idea  of  the  I>eity, 
as  a  Creator  or  Benefiictor ;  and  a  deaf 
mute  at  Chartres,  in  France,  who  had 
been  taught  to  perform  all  the  rites  of  the 
Catholic  churcfi,  and  was  deemed  very 
devout,  on  receiving  his  hearing,  stated 
tiiat  he  had  no  conceptions  of  any  diing 
but  the  external  forms  of  religion.    Con- 
science, iu  them,  derives  aH  its  harht  ih>m 
tlie  observation  of  the  conduct  m  others, 
and  the  instinctive  impulses;  but  recog- 
no  invariable  law,  and  oAen  leaves 


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PUMB  AND  DEAF. 


these  unfbrtunate  pereioiis  to  oomniit  groes 
crimes,  without  any  sense  of  girilt  la 
short,  they  are  enveloped  in  intellectual 
and  moral  darkness,  in  the  midst  of  the 
clearest  light 

HiHonf  of  the  Art  of  htrirudion.  Men- 
tion is  made  of  deaf  mutes  in  the  writ- 
ings of  Plinv ;  and  they  were  declared/bjr 
the  Code  of  Justinian,  incapable  of  civil 
acts.  No  attempts  appear  to  have  been 
made  to  give  them  instruction,  until  the 
latter  part  of  the  15th  century,  when  we 
ire  merely  told  ^  Agricola,  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Heidelberff,  in  Germany, 
of  a  deaf  mute  who  had  been  instructed. 
In  tlie  middle  of  the  16th  century,  Pascha, 
a  clergyman  of  Brandenburg,  mstructed 
a  daughter,  who  was  a  deaf  mute,  by 
means  of  pictures.  But  the  first  effort  for 
tfiis  interesting  object,  of  which  we  have 
a  di^nct  account,  was  made  by  Pedro 
de  Ponce,  a  Benedictine  monk,  of  the 
Spanish  kingdom  of  Leon,  who  instructed 
four  deaf  mutes,  of  noble  lamilies,  to 
write  and  speak,  in  1570.  In  1620,  John 
Bonet,  another  Spaniard,  published  the 
fifst  book  known  on  this  suoject,  contain- 
ing an  account  of  the  method  which  he 
adopted  in  a  similar  course  of  instruction, 
and  accompanied  by  a  manual  alphabet, 
from  which  that  now  in  use  at  Paris  was 
derived.  In  1659,  the  instruction  of  deaf 
mutes  was  attempted,  with  apparent  suc- 
cess, by  doctors  HQldeF4LDd  Wallis,  both 
of  whom  published  accounts  of  theur 
method&  At  about  the  same  time,  Van 
Helmont,  in  Holland,  published  an  in- 
genious treatise  on  the  manner  of  fonning 
articulate  sounds,  the  principles  of  which, 
he  says,  he  had  applied  with  success  to 
the  instruction  of  a  deaf  mute.  In  1691, 
John  Conrad  Amman,  a  Swiss  phyncian 
in  Leyden,  published  a  mmilar  work ;  but 
he  and  his  predecessoi?  appear  to  have 
devised  and  executed  their  plans  without 
any  knowledge  of  those  who  had  pre- 
viously attempted  the  same  thing.  In 
1704,  the  methods  published  in  Spain, 
England  and  Holland,  were  first  applied, 
in  Germany,  by  Kerger,  apparendy  with 
much  ingenuity  and  success,  and  some 
improvements.  He  was  soon  followed 
by  a  number  of  laborers  in  the  same  field, 
of  whom  Amoldi  appears  to  have  been 
the  most  distinguished.  In  1743,  the 
practicability  of  instructing  deaf  mutes 
was  first  publicly  demonstrated  in  France, 
by  Pereira,  a  Spaniard,  before  the  acade- 
my of  sciences^  who  gave  their  testimony 
to  its  success.  About  the  same  time, 
this  branch  of  instruction  was  attempt- 
ed in  France,  by   several  otheFS,  among 


whom  Deschamps,  Emaud,  and  Yanin 
were  best  known.  In  1755,  Heinicke  in 
Germany,  De  I'Ep^e  in  France,  both  of 
whom  were  led  to  feel  an  interest  in  deaf 
mutes  thrown  accidentally  in  their  way, 
ibrmed  each  an  independent  system  of 
instruction,  established  the  first  institu- 
tions for  the  education  of  deaf  mutes,  at 
Paris  and  Leipsic,  and  may  be  justiy  re- 
garded as  the  founder  of  the  two  ffreat 
schools,  into  which  the  instructers  of  the 
deaf  mutes  have  since  been  divi<led.  In 
1764,  Thomas  Braidwood,  of  Edinburgh, 
devised  a  system  of  instruction,  in  whicli, 
as  in  that  of  Heinicke,  articulation  was 
the  chief  object.  Both  these  persons,  for 
a  Umg  time,  refused  to  communicate  their 
inventkms,  except  for  a  compensation^ 
and  under  seal  of^  secrecy ;  and  their  prin- 
ciples have  scarcely  extended  beyond  the 
countries  in  which  they  originated.  De 
TEp^e  devoted  his  fbrmne  and  his  life  to 
the  instruction  of  his  pupils,  and  the  gm- 
tuitous  communication  of  the  art  to  all 
who  would  learn  it ;  and,  in  consequence 
oir  his  efforts  an^  instructions,  schools 
were  founded  by  Silvestri  at  Rome,  Stork 
at  Vienna,  Guyot  at  Gnmingen,  and  Ul- 
rich  in  Switzerland,  wliich  still  exist  in 
the  hands  of  their  disciples.  The  system 
of  De  I'Ep^e  was  materially  improved  by 
Sicard,  his  pupil  and  successor  in  the 
institution  of  Paris,  who  is  admitted  to 
h^vfi_  surpassed,  his.master,  and  to  rank 
vrith  him  as  one  of  the  greatest  benefac- 
tors of  the  deaf  mute.  Towards  the  close 
of  the  last  century,  Assarotti,  of  Genoa, 
established,  by  his  own  benevolent  efforts, 
an  institution  which  ranks  among  the 
fust  in  Europe,  and  formed  a  system  of 
instruction,  based,  indeed,  upon  that  in 
Sicard's  works,  but  involving  important 
improvements,  which  entitle  him  to  be 
considered  the  founder  of  the  Italian 
school. 

European  InsHhitiena.  From  the  last 
report  of  the  Paris  institution,  with  some 
additional  accounts,  it  appears,  that  there 
are  now  81  establishments  for  deaf  mutes 
in  Europe;  of  which  Spain  has  1,  Portu- 
gal 1,  Italy  6^  Switzeriand  4,  Baden  4, 
Wurtembuig  3,  Bavaria  1,  Prussia  8,  the 
rest  of  Gennany  10,  Denmark  %  Sweden 
1,  Russia  1,  Holland  4,  Great  Britain  10, 
and  France  26.  Sixty-two  of  these  have 
been  established  within  the  last  30  years. 
A  few  in  Great  Britain,  and  in  Germany 
and  Switzerland,  are  conducted  on  the 
system  of  Heinicke  and  Braidwood.  The 
rest,  including  several  in  Great  Britain, 
adopt  the  fundamental  principles  of  De 
PEp^e  and  SicanL 


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DUMB  AI^D  DEAF. 


^TiKrkanlnsiihdiUms.    The  fi»t  instruc- 
tion of  deaf  routes  in  America  was  given 
in  Virginia,  bv  a  descendant  of  Braid- 
wood,  who  adopted  the  system  of  con- 
cealment, like    nis  ancestor.     A   small 
school  was  formed  ;    but  we  have  not 
learned  the  results,  and  believe  it  has 
ceased  to  exist    The  first  insdtution  for 
this  purpose,  and  which  now  ranks  among 
the  most  distinguislied  of  the  kind,  was 
the  American  Asylum,  projected  in  1815, 
and  established  in  1817,  in  Hartford,  Con- 
necticut, by  the  efforts  of  the  Reverend 
T.  H.  Gallaudet,  aided  by  Mr.  I^aurent 
Clerc,  a  distinffuished  pupil  of  Sicard,  and 
sustained  by  Uie  contributions  of  gentle- 
men in  that  town.    The  course  of  instruc- 
tion is  based  on  tlie  system  of  Sicard,  but 
with    important   improvements   by   Mr. 
Gallaudet     Asylums  for  the  deaf  mute 
were  subsequently  founded  m.  Philadel- 
Dhia,  at  Canajohane,  in  the  state  of  New 
York,  in  Ohio,  and  in  Kentucky,  all  of 
which  obtained  their  system  of  instruction 
from  the  American  Asylum ;  and  this  in- 
stitution is  thus  entitle^  to  the  praise  of 
having  given  birth  to  an  Anoerican  school 
of  instructers,  and  to  an  American  i^stem 
of  education  for  the  deaf  mute,  whose  re- 
sults have  excited  surprise  in  Europe,  and 
have  even  been  declared  to  be  utterly  im- 
probable, from  their  superiority  to  those 
usually  produced.     An  asylum  was  es- 
tablished in  the  eity  of  New  York^  a£ 
about  the  same  time  with  tlieAmencaiii 
Asylum,  which  has  not  derived  its  system 
irom  any  existing  institution.    The  legis- 
latures of  Maryl^d  and  most  of  the  states 
north  of  tins  have  granted  annual  supplies 
for  the  education  of  their  indigent  deaf 
mutes,  at  some  one  of  these  institutions ; 
other  states  have  profiosed  to  establish 
asylums,  and,  by  a  bill  now  before  the 
congress  of  the  U.  States,  a  tract  of  land 
is  granted  to  every  such  institution.   If  the 
deaf  mutes  in  the  U.  States  be  estimated 
at  1  for  every  2000,  or  1000  for  every 
2,000,000  of  inhabitants,  the  annual  in- 
crease for  one  generation,  supposing  it  to 
be  30  years,  will  be  33  for  every  2,000,000; 
and,  if  the  course  of  instruction  occupy  4 
or  5  years,  150  deaf  mutes,  for  every 
2,000,000,  ouffht  to  be  continually  under 
instruction.   According  to  this  calculation, 
the  five  existing  institutions  are  sufficient 
for  the  existmg  8,000,000  of  inhabitants 
north,  of  Tennessee  and  Virginia ;  and  it 
only  remains  to  establish  two  or  three 
others,  at  central  points^  for  the  Southern 


SyMemBofhubructiinL  The  objects  to  be 
accomplished  in  the  education  of  a  deaf 


mute,  are  to  tcaoh  him  an  entire  kui* 
guage,  and  to  give  him  all  that  mass  of 
moral,  religious  and  ordinary  knowledge 
that  is  necessary  for  him,  as  a  social  and 
immortal  being,  for  which,  in  other  chil- 
dren, 12  or  15  years  of  constant  intereourse 
with  society,  and  much  study,  are  deemed 
necessary ;  all  this  is  to  be  dcme  in  six, 
and  oflen  even  in  three  years.    It  is  obvi- 
ous that,  to  accomplish  this,  some  method, 
more  rapid  in  its  results  than  the  aidinaiy 
one,  must  be  adopted.    The  earli^  in- 
structers of  the  deaf  mute  usually  had 
only  one,  or  a  very  few  pupils,  and  have 
given  us  hints  for  instruction,  rather  than 
a  system.     The  first  account  which  we 
have  of  the  reduction  of  this  art  to  a  reg- 
ular and  permanent  form,  is  in  the  works 
of  Heinicke  atid  De  I'Ep^e.     Heinieke» 
like  many  of  his  predecessors,  considered 
the  want  of  speech  as  tlie  great  mieibr- 
tune  of  the  deaf  mute,  and  made  it  the 
great  object  of  instruction  to  teach  him  to 
articulate,  in  order  to  aid  the  progress  of 
his  own  mind,  as  weH  as  to  enable  him  U^ 
communicate  with  others  in  this  maimer. 
We  are  told  by  the  suecessor  of  Heinicke 
IB  the  Leipsie  school,  tliai  the  followiog 
"  are  and  were  the  views  and  principles 
of  Heinicke  and  his  disciples :"— -that  ^  we 
think  in   articulate  words,   and   eannet 
think  in  written  words;"  ^'that  written 
words  can  never  lead  to  the  develope- 
ment  of  ideas,  in  children  boni  dea£f 
and  that  *^no  freedom  in  thought,  or  m 
the  use  of  language,  can  be  produced 
without  articulation,  either  by  agns  or  by 
written  language."     If  it  were  credible 
that  sounds  were  more  aUied  to  abstract 
ideas  than  objects  of  sight  are ;  if  we  eouki 
forget  that  we  often  have  ideas  for  which 
we  cannot  easily  find  words,  the  facts  we 
have  stated  concerning  the  language  of 
signs,  and  the  capacity  of  several  hui^ 
dred  pupils,  educated  merely  by  signs,  in 
the  French  and  American  institutions,  to 
read  and  write,  and  converse  and  reason, 
prove  the  entire  ftdlacy  of  these  views; 
and  the  argument  ak  ignoraniia  cannot 
be  adduced,  at  this  day,  on  that  subject, 
without  difierace.    Those  who  follow  this 
system  admit  the  use  of  the  sign  language 
in  the  early  stages  of  instruction,  but  se^ 
to  banish  it  as  early  as  possible,  conmder^ 
ing  it  as  a  rude  language,  incapaUe  of 
improvement,  and  which  retards  the  ex- 
pansion of  the  pupirs  mind,  and  renders 
It  less  necessary  fbr  him  to  attend  to  writ- 
ten language.    They  adopt  the  methods 
of  the  early  instructers,  in  waidng  for  occ«* 
sions  to  teach  words  and  explain  phrases. 
They  rely  upon  repeating  the  word  oc 


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DUMB  AND  DEAF. 


335 


phrase  in  the  appropriate  drcuinatanceft, 
and  in  c^uestions  and  answers,  as  the  means 
of  makuiff  it  understood,  rather  than  on 
direct  explanation,  or  examples  presented 
by  the  sign  language.  Too  many  of  this 
school  foraet  one  o€  the  fundamental 
maxims  of  Heinicke—^  first  ideas,  tbeti 
words" — and  occupy  the  pupil  for  a  long 
time  with  mere  mechanical  articulation. 
In  one  school,  months  are  passed  in  the 
mere  study  of  names  attached  to  pictures, 
without  the  least  attempt  to  excite  or  en- 
lighten the  mind  by  means  of  signs ;  and 
usually  a  year  is  passed,  at  a  period  of 
life  when  most  of  the  mental  faculties  are 
ripe  for  devetopement,  in  the  mere  exer- 
cise of  memory  (in  learning  names  of  ob- 
jects, and  qusoiliies,  and  actions),  which 
only  requires  the  powers  of  an  infant,  and 
would  be  aided,  instead  of  retarded,  by  the 
expansion  of  the  mind,  as  the  experience 
of  tlie  other  schools  fully  proyea.  Reli- 
gious instruction  is  rarely  attempted,  in 
Siia  school  before  the  second  jear,  or 
until  it  can  be  given  in  words,  m>m  the 
befief  that  it  cannot  be  given  correctly  fay 
signs ;  and  in  the  school  of  Leipsic,  it  is 
even  deferred  to  the  third  year.  The  at- 
tentioa  of  De  I'Ep^  and  odier  instructere 
of  the  same  views,  was  called  espeoiajly 
to  the  iolelleotual  and  moral  wants  of 
the  deaf  mute ;  and  thev  deemed  it  most 
important  first  to  develope  his  powers, 
and  cultivate  his  feelings;  and,  next,  to 

£'ve  him  such  a  knowledge  of  written 
nguage  as  is  indispensable  to  the  ac- 
quisition of  knowledge,  and  the  cosunu- 
nication  of  his  wants.  They  found  the 
onl^  medium  of  conveying  truth,  or  ex- 
plaming  terms^  in  the  sign  language 
which  we  have  described.  They  em- 
ployed it  in  its  natural  state,  to  explain 
the  firat  ample  terms.  They  discovered 
diat  it  was  capable  of  extennon,  and  they 
preserved  and  cultivated  it,  as  we  have 
mentioned,  as  a  language  intelligible  to 
tbe  pupil,  by  which  they  could  always 
refer  to  any  objects  of  thought  or  feeling, 
physical,  intellectual  or  moral,  and  thus 
form  ori^nal  explanations  of  new  words, 
and  avoid  the  error  which  might  arise 
from  the  imperfection  of  previous  expla- 
nations. Words  they  considered  as  ar- 
bitrary engna,and  De  TEp^e  maintained, 
that  the  instruction  of  the  deaf  mute,  like 
that  of  a  for^gner,  ought  to  consist  in  a 
course  of  transbttiom  and  retrenslation 
fiom  the  known  to  the  unknown  lan- 
guage. To  aid  in  this  process,  be  added 
a  series  of  metiiodical  and  conventional 
aifpos,  founded  on  analogy,  for  the  partis 
€&B  and  inflections  of  language.    These 


were  used  chiefly  in  instruction,  in  order 
to  render  the  translation  complete,  as  well 
as  to  indicate  the  character  and  naeaning 
of  the  connectives.  He  does  not  appeal 
to  have  practised  fiilly  upon  his  own  prin- 
ciples, but  occupied  himself  too  exclusive- 
ly with  the  intellectual  improvement  of  his 
punHs,  and  with  single  words,  and  seems 
to  nave  despaired  of  enabling  them  to  use 
language,  in  its  connexion,  except  in  a 
mechanical  manner.  Sicaid  endeavored 
to  complete  the  plan  of  his  master,  by  the 
imnrovement  of  the  signs  employed ;  and 
to  nim  and  ins  pupils  we  owe,  more  than 
to  any  othera,  the  peifection  which  this 
language  has  attained.  He  also  endeav- 
ored to  avoid  the  error  of  De  I'Ep^,  by 
explaining  the  theoiy  of  grammar,  and 
the  formulas  of  the  various  species  of 
propositions,  and,  in  this  way,  was  led  into 
a  counie  of  metaphysical  and  philosc^hi- 
cal  lessoBs,  which  later  instructers  have 
found  too  extensive  and  too  litde  praeti- 
caL  According  to  the  system  adopted 
under  his  direction,  the  first  year  was  oc- 
cupied with  a  vocabulary  of  names,  of 
adjectives,  and  of  verbs  in  three  simple 
teases,  with  simi>le  religious  and  other 
narratives  in  the  sign  limguage.  It  was 
only  in  the  second  year,  that  words  were 
shown,  in  their  connexion,  in  short  phra- 
ses; the  pronouns,  prepositions,  and  the 
full  inflectk>n  of  the  verbs,  were  taught, 
and  religious  uistruction  ^ven,  in  wri^ 
ten  lansaage.  In  the  thud  and  fourth 
yean,  the  organs,  senses,  and  operations 
of  the  mind,  and  the  theoiy  of  sentences, 
were  expkiined,  original  description  and 
definitions  lequired,  and  in  the  fourth 
year,  books  were  put  into  the  hands  of 
the  pupils.  Tiirott^boui  the  courm,  pub- 
lic lectures  Ivere  given,  in  which  wntten 
accounts  of  Bible  history  and,  rdfigious 
truth  were  explained  in  the  sign  language ; 
but  no  devolional  exercises  in  this  lan- 
guage were  ever  connected  with  them,  or 
practised  by  the  pupils. 

American  Sifatem,  This  system  has 
been  materially  modified  in  the  seho<d  of 
Paris  itself  and  in  several  othcre  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  whidi  adopt  the 
same  principles.  As  the  American  sys- 
tem of  instruction,  devised  by  Mr.  Qal- 
laudet,  without  any  knowledge  of  othera, 
except  tluLt  of  Paris,  on  which  it  is  found- 
ed, comprises  most  of  these  improve- 
mentSy  with  some  othera  of  great  impor- 
tance, peculiar  to  itael^  we  cannot  do  better, 
within  the  limits  allowed  us,  than  to  de- 
scribe this  as  we  have  found  it,  in  his 
own  statement,  and  in  the  American 
Asylum.     Mr.  GaUaudet  has  comhinfld 


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DUMB  AND  DEAF. 


the  fundamental  principle  of  Heinicke — 
«  fiint  ideas,  then  words*— with  that  of  De 
I'Ep^e — that  ^the  natural  language  of 
signs  must  be  elevated  to  as  high  a  degree 
of  excellence  as  possible,  in  order  to  serve 
as  the  medium  for  giving  the  ideas  clear- 
ly, and  explaining  them  accurately."  He 
lias  added  another  of  no  small  importance 
— that,  as  words  describe  rather  the  im- 
pression, or  states  of  mind  produced  bv 
external  objects,  than  those  essential  qual- 
ities which  are  beyond  our  reach,  the 
process  of  learning  them  would  be  facil- 
itated by  leading  the  pupils  to  reflect  on 
their  own  sensations  and  ideas;  and  he 
states,  as  the  result  of  his  experience,  that, 
among  deaf  mutes  of  equal  capacities, 
^  those  who  can  be  led  to  mark  or  de- 
scribe, with  the  greatest  precision,  the 
operations  of  their  own  mind,  uniformly 
make  the  most  rapid  progress  in  the  ac- 
quisition of  written  language,  and  of  reli- 
gious truth."  A  leading  object,  therefore, 
in  connexion  with  the  fiist  lessons,  in 
which  sensible  ideas  are  presented  and 
named,  is  to  establish  a  free  communica- 
tk>n  with  the  pupil,  in  the  sign  language, 
in  reference  to  his  feelings  and  thoughts, 
as  excited  by  the  objects  which  he  sees, 
or  the  events  of  his  own  life.  He  easily 
comprehends  those  of  others,  and  is  thus 
led  to  learn  the  names  of  the  simple  emo- 
tions and  acts  of  the  mind.  Hence  he  is 
brought  to  think  of  an  invisible  agent, 
which  we  term  the  tovl^  as  the  feeling 
and  percipient  being;  and,  by  a  natunu 
transition,  is  led,  %  the  use  of  si^s 
alone,  to  the  Great  Spirit,  as  the  First 
Cause ;  to  his  character,  as  our  Creator  and 
Benefiictor ;  and  to  a  knowledge  of  his 
law  and  our  future  destiny.  In  this  man- 
ner, the  deaf  mutes  in  the  American  Asy- 
lum (and,  we  presume,  in  othera  derived 
fit>m  it)  are  made  acquainted  with  the 
simple  truths  of  religion  and  morality  in 
one  year ;  a  period  in  which,  in  most  Euro- 
pean institutions,  they  are  scarcely  ad- 
vanced beyond  the  knowledge  of  sounds, 
and  the  names  of  sensible  objects,  quali- 
ties and  actions,  or  the  most  common 
phrases.  By  communicating  this  instruc- 
tion in  the  natural  sign  language,  pupils, 
wliose  inferior  capacity  or  advanced  age 
would  not  allow  ttiem  to  acquire  enough 
of  written  language  to  receive  religious 
truth  through  this  medium,  have  been 
eariy  prepared  to  enjoy  its  blessings  and 
hopes,  and  feel  its  sanctions  as  a  restraint 
upon  their  conduct,  which  rendere  dieir 
^veniraent  more  easy,  while  it  aids  them 
m  the  formation  of  correct  habits.  An- 
other plan,  which  is  not  known  to  have 


been  ever  employed  befbre  its  introduc- 
tion by  Mr.  Gallaudet,  in  1817,  was  to 
conduct  the  daily  and  weekly  devotional 
exercises  by  signs ;  and  the  deaf  mutes 
have  been  thus  taught  to  address  the 
Father  of  their  spirits  in  their  own  natural 
language,  and  have  been  admitted  to  the 
new  privilege  of  social  worahip.  In  ap- 
plying the  &^  principles  to  ^e  course  of 
instruction  in  language,  an  important  Im- 
provement has  b^n  made,  by  combining 
words  into  phrases  as  early  as  poesibie, 
and  thus  teaching  the  pupil  how  to  Use 
them.  The  idea  of  each  phrase  is  firat 
explained  by  the  mgn  language,  and  then 
translated  into  words,  and  men  retrans- 
lated by  the  pupil  into  his  own  language. 
The  process  is  carried  on  for  more  dim- 
cult  words,  and  the  phrases  are  lengthened 
until  they  become  narrative&  xhe  -ac- 
quisition and  use  of  the  connectives  are 
aided  by  the  methodical  signs  of  De  l*Ep6e 
and  Sicard.  The  pupil  is  called  upon,  at 
intervals,  to  express  his  own  ideas  in 
vmting,  and  to  explain  by  signs  what  is 
vnitten  by  othera.  An  Important  addi- 
tional improvement  is  **to  employ  the 
pupil,  as  eariy  as  possible,  in  the  study  of 
lx>oks  written  in  an  easy  style,  explained 
bv  signs  when  necessary,"  so  as  to  lead 
him,  by  his  own,  and  oflen  by  his  unaided 
efforts,  to  become  acquainted  widi  the 
arrangement  of  words,  and  the  idioms  of 
written  language.  He  is  led  gradually  to 
infer  the  rules  of  grammar  from  a  series 
of  examples,  instead  of  committing  them 
to  memory ;  and  the  theory  of  language 
is  reserved  for  the  later  yeare  of  instruc- 
tion, when  the  pupil  is  femiliar  with  its 
practical  use.  The  methods  of  instnic- 
tion  in  the  elements  of  arithmetic,  geogra- 
phy and  history,  do  not  differ  materially 
from  those  usually  employed,  except  that 
much  aid  is  derived  from  explanatory 
signs;  and  experiments,  made  in  some  of 
the  schools  of  Europe  prove,  tiiat  these 
mav  be  usefully  employed  to  illustrate 
vanous  subjects  to  persons  possessed  of 
hearing. 

ArHculaUon,  While  tiie  instnictere  of 
the  school  of  De  PEp^e  and  Sicard  unite 
in  denying  that  articulation  is  necessary 
to  the  deu  mute,  as  a  means  of  mental 
developement,  they  admit  its  great  value 
as  a  supplement  to  intellectual  education, 
if  it  be  attainable.  But  tiiey  difler  as  to 
the  practicability  and  expediency  of  at- 
tempting to  teach  it  generally.  Of  its 
great  practical  value  in  darkness,  or  in 
cases  of  sudden  danger,  there  can  be  but 
one  opinion ;  and  it  n  certiunly  important 
that  every  deaf  mute  should  be  taught 


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337 


some  cry  of  distress,  or  perhaps  a  few 
words  for  such  occasions;  for  some  do 
not  know  how  to  use  their  voice  even  to 
this  extent  The  power  of  articulating, 
even  imperfecdy,  may  also  be  of  great  im- 
portance to  the  deaf  mute,  where  iffnorance 
m  writing  is  combined  with  a  pmegmatic 
inattention  to  signs,  in  those  among  whom 
he  is  situated.  But  that  it  is  not  indish 
pensabte,  as  an  ordinary  means  of  com- 
munication, is  proved  by  the  fact,  that 
the  pupils  of  the  French  and  American 
schools  find  no  difficulty  in  makinff  them- 
selves intelligible  to  those  around  them, 
either  by  wnting  or  signs,  on  all  necessa- 
ry subjects.  Articulauon  is  learned  and 
recollected  by  the  deaf  mute,  as  a  set  of 
movements  and  sensations  in  the  organs 
of  speech.  It  is  taught  by  pointing  out 
to  the  pupil  the  powers  of  the  vowels  and 
consonants,  and  the  position  of  the  lips, 
teeth  and  tonsue,  and  by  making  him  feel 
witli  his  hand,  or  a  silver  instrument,  all 
the  perceptible  movement  and  vibrations 
of  the  throat  and  interior  organs,  which 
are  requisite  for  their  pronunciation.  He 
is  then  required  to  imitate  this  position, 
and  to  force  a  quantity  of  air  from  the 
lungs,  sufficient  to  produce  the  sound,  and 
is  taught  to  read  the  articulations  of  oth- 
ers, by  observing  the  position  of  the  or- 
gans and  the  countenance.  The  facility 
of  doing  this  will  depend  much  upon  the 
pliability  of  the  organ  of  speech,  and  the 
nature  of  the  language  to  be  learned.  We 
observed,  as  would  naturally  be  supposed, 
tiiat  the  soft  and  regular  language  of 
Italy,  in  a  climate  where  we  have  otlier 
evidence  of  a  superior  pliancy  in  the  vocal 
powers,  was  acquired,  with  tolerable  suc- 
cess, by  a  short  period  of  daily  practice. 
But  the  harsh  and  guttural  sounds  of  the 
northern  languages,  and  the  irregularity 
which  is  found  m  the  pronunciation  of 
some  of  them,  present  several  additional 
difficulties,  which  are  perhaps  increased 
by  the  frequent  diseases  of  the  vocal  or- 
gans produced  by  a  cold  climate.  Those 
mstructers  who  attempt  to  teach  all  tlieir 
pupils  these  languages,  are  usually  com- 
pelled to  make  it  a  constant  and  individ- 
ual exercise,  and  to  make  and  to  demand 
efforts  painful  to  the  teacher,  and  pupil, 
and  spectator,  with  only  a  partial  success. 
Of  a  numlwr  of  speakers,  whom  we  have 
seen  and  heard  of,  in  various  countries, 
thus  taught,  few  would  have  been  intelli- 
gible to  a  stranger  so  readily  as  by  signs ; 
and  their  tones  were  extremely  disagree- 
able. On  the  other  hand,  we  have  seen 
a  few  deaf  mutes  who  are  capable  of 
speaking  in  a  manner  perfectly  inteUi^- 
voL.  IV.  29 


ble,  and  of  reading,  firom  the  lips  and 
countenance,  what  was  said  by  others. 
They  were  such,  however,  as  either  re- 
tained some  remnant  of  hearing,  or  had 
been  the  subjects  of  individual  instructions 
for  a  series  of  years.  We  presume  the 
truth  lies  in  that  middle  courae,  now  adopt- 
ed by  the  school  of  Paris,  and  by  some 
advocates  of  articulation,  who  have  had 
an  opportunity  of  observing  it  in  all  its 
forms.  They  believe  that,  by  that  por- 
tion of  the  pupils  of  every  institution, 
whose  organs  are  pUable,  and  who  have 
some  remnant  of  sensibility,  either  in 
the  external  or  internal  ear  (those  term- 
ed denU  sowrda  in  the  Paris  school),  the 
acquisition  may  be  made  with  a  degree 
of  ease  and  perfection,  which  renders  it 
a  desirable  and  important  branch  of  in- 
struction for  such'  portion  of  the  pupils  in 
every  institution.  They  are  equally  con- 
vinced, tiiat  to  attempt  to  teach  articula- 
tion to  those  entirely  destitute  of  sensibil- 
ity in  the  ear,  or  who  cannot  exercise  the 
organ  of  speech  without  difficulty  or  pain, 
is  a  useless  labor,  and  may  produce  dis- 
ease in  the  pupil ;  as  more  than  one  in- 
stance proves.  Ou  the  last  point,  some 
have  maintained  that  the  exercise  of  the 
lungs  is  important  to  the  pupil,  while 
others  have  declared  the  contrary.  We 
believe  here,  also,  much  will  depend 
on  individual  organization,  and  that  the 
general  question  will  be  modified  much 
by  tiie  climate,  and  nature  of  tiie  lan- 
guage to  be  taught  Most  of  the  schools 
ror  deaf  mutes  employ  a  manual  alpha- 
bet, for  the  more  rapid  communication 
in  words  ; — ^in  England,  usually  made 
with  both  hands,  and  elsewhere  with  one. 
This  alphabet,  with  writing,  on  paper  and 
in  tiie  air,  and  the  use  of  natural  and  con- 
ventional signs,  are  found  adequate  means 
of  communication  for  those  who  cannot 
acquire  articulate  language.  (See  the 
Geachichte  des  Taubstummen-  UnterrickUs  tn 
^anien  und  Ihmkreich  von  ^ewnum ;  the 
Jilicke  auf  dor  Tavbstummenhildung  von 
Beich  (of  Leipsic) ;  the  Supplement  to  the 
Encyaopedia  BriUmmcoL^  article  Deaf  and 
Dumb  ;  SuUo  Slato  dei  Sordi  muti,  &C., 
dd  Abbate  Boffutti,  Milan;  Jowmal  des 
Soitrds-nvueis  m  Bebian;  Dd  Ehicaiian 
des  Soxirds^muetSyparM,  de  Gerando,  Paris.) 
For  an  account  of  the  different  American 
institutions,  see  Hartford,  J^tw  Yorky  Phil- 
addphiOy  &c. 

DuMMER,  Jeremy,  an  eminent  American 
scholar  and  political  writer,  was  bom  in 
Boston,  and  was  graduated  at  Harvard  col- 
lege in  1699.  At  the  university  of  Utrecht, 
he  passed  several  years,  and  obtained  a 


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DUMMEB— DUMONT. 


doctor's  degree.  He  afterwards  went  to 
England,  with  tlie  intention  of  pursuinc^ 
tlie  career  of  a  minister  of  die  gospel. 
Here  he  formed  political  connexions  of  a 
hi^h  order.  The  celebrity  which  he  ac- 
quired as  a  writer  and  man  of  business 
caused  him  to  be  chosen,  in  1710,  agent 
for  the  province  of  Massachusetts,  la 
this  capacity,  he  exerted  liis  great  abilities 
and  influence  with  constant  zeal  for  the 
benefit  of  his  constituents;  but,  in  the 
course  of  some  years,  his  political  attach- 
ments and  general  deportment  rendered 
him  so  unpopular  at  home,  that,  in  1721, 
be  was  dismissed.  Dummer  contracted 
irreligious  opinions  and  ticentious  habits, 
owing,  said  his  enemies,  to  his  personal 
intercourse  with  lord  Bolingbroke,  who 
employed  him  in  secret  negotiations,  and 
promised  him  a  high  office,  which  was 
never  ffiven.  He  wrote  pn  admirable 
pamphlet  in  defence  of  the  New  England 
charters,  when  tliey  were  direatcned,  in 
1721.  This  woiic  constitutes  the  best 
specimen  of  his  Englisli  st^le,  which  is 
uncommonly  elegant  and  forcible.  His 
Latin  dissertadons  in  dieology  and  philos- 
opliyliave,  also,  much  merit.  He  died 
in  1739,  having  spent  the  last  few  years  of 
his  life  in  literary  retirement. 

DuMONT,  Stephen,  was  bom  at  Geneva, 
in  1759,  of  a  famihr  which  had  suffered 
great  reverses  of  fortune.  From  his  in- 
fancy, he  had  to  contend  with  adversity. 
He  early  displayed  superior  talents,  spirit 
and  intelliffeuce,  was  desdned  to  the  ec- 
clesiasdcal  career,  and  was  ordained  a 
minister  of  the  Protestant  church  in  1781. 
He  attached  himself  to  the  democradc 
party  in  Geneva,  and,  when  the  opposite 
pai^  gained  the  ascendency,  he  went 
to  Petersbui^,  where  he  was  appointed 
pastor  of  the  French  reformed  church. 
His  talents  for  the  pulpit  caused  his  ac- 
quaintance to  be  sought  by  the  eminent 
men,  Russians  or  strangers^  who  were  at 
the  court  of  Catharine  II.  He  had  re- 
mained there  but  eighteen  months,  when 
lord  Lansdowne  invited  him  to  England, 
with  the  intendon  of  employing  him  to 
finish  the  education  of  his  son.  It  was 
in  the  house  of  this  statesman  that  he 
formed  intimate  connexions  with  some  of 
the  men  who  have  done  most  honor  to 
Great  Britain,  particularly  sir  Samuel 
Romilly.  The  French  revolution  brought 
him  to  Paris  in  the  year  1789.  He  was 
soon  called  to  associate  himself  with  the 
men  who  were  selected,  for  dieir  strength 
and  inteliiffence,  to  duect  the  destinies  of 
France.  It  is  asserted  that  the  fiunous 
address  of  the  king^  proposed  by  Mini- 


beau,  July  9, 1789,  to  obtain  the  sending 
back  of  die  troops,  was  composed  by  Du- 
mont.    They  undertook  together  a  jour- 
nal, the  Courier  of  the  Provinces,  designed 
to  develope  and  render  popular  the  new 
doctrines ;  and,  as  was  likely  to  happen  in 
such  a  parmership,  the  most  assiduous  as 
well  as  the  most  important  labor  fell  upon 
Dumont — ^As  soon  as  scenes  of  violence 
and  cruelty  began  to  sully  the  cause  of 
liberty,  Dumont  quitted  Paris,  and  return- 
ed to  England,  before  the  sickness  of  Mi- 
rabeau,  who  died  April  2, 1791.    When 
the  details  of  the  reign  of  terror  reached 
Dumont  in  England,  he  was  overcome 
with  grief^  and  remained  for  some  years 
plunged  in  sadness.     What  contributed 
the  most  to  draw  him  fix>m  diis  state  of 
depression,  was  his  increased  intimacy 
with  Jeremy  Bentham,  whom  he   had 
known  since  1788.    The  enthusiasm  of 
Dumont  for  Bentham  was  kept  up,  with- 
out deviation  or  division,  to  the  end  of  his 
life.     The  Elnglish  laviryer  was  for  him 
uniUen  reason.  *  He  sometimes  said  of 
what  he  most  admuned  in  other  philoso- 
phers. ^^  It  is  convincing ;  it  is  truth  itself; 
It  is  almost  BmtiiamicV — ^It  is  well  known 
that  Mr.  Dumont  has  edited  many  of  the 
works  of  this  distinguished  lawyer,  after 
divesting  die  ideas  of  the  uncoudi  garb  in 
which  the  author  had  clothed  them.    Du- 
mont   has  spoken   of  the    manuscripts 
which  his  fnend  put  into  his  hands  as 
^  a  first  draft,"  ^  unfinished  manuscripts," 
**  not  corrected,"  **  fragments  or  simple 
notes."    (Preface  to  the  Treatise  on  Pun- 
ishments,)    This  was  pointing  out  but  a 
small  part  of  their  imperfections.    But  it 
is  from  this  source  that  he  drew  out  all 
the  philosophv  of  Bentham.  ^  The  public 
had  afterwards  an  occasion  to  judce  of  Mr* 
Beutham's  style  (when  he  published  him- 
self), of  his  obscurity,  his  neologism,  his 
pleasantries,  at  the  same  time  grotesque 
and  learned.  Mr.  Dumont,  judging  that  the 
manuscripts  of  Mr.  Bentham  would  never 
be  published,  or,  if  they  were,  in  the  origi- 
nal form,  would  produce  no  impression, 
succeeded  in  having  them  given  up  to 
him  to  do  what  he  wished  with  them. 
Bentham  "refused  at  the  same  time  any 
participation  in  the  work,  and  declared  that 
he  should  in  no  wav  hold  himself  respon- 
sible for  it"     (Theory  of  PuniskmeniSt 
pref.  10.)    Dumont,  then,  penetrating  to 
the  original  ideas,  remodelled,  and  n^e 
them  over  asain,  so  far  as  not  only  to 
chance  entirely  the  style  of  the  work,  but 
also  me  ai^gumentation,  distribution,  some- 
times even  the  results.  Suppressing  mucb» 
sometimes  adding,  always  making  more 


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DUMOm'— DUMOURIEZ. 


perfect^  he  finally  produced  a  system 
which  haa  powerfully  excited  thought  and 
reflection  all  over  Eiuope.  The  works 
produced  by  this  singular  fusion  of  two 
minds  into  a  single  one,  were  published 
in  the  foUowing  order: — 1.  Treatise  on 
Civil  and  Penal  Legislation  (Paris,  1802» 
3  vols.;  3d  edi^  Pans,  1690);  2L  Theoiy 
of  Rewards  and  Punkhments  (London, 
1811,  3  vols.) ;  a  Tactics  of  Legislative 
Assemblies,  followed  by  a  Treatise  on  Po- 
litical Sophisms  (Geneva,  1616»  2  volsi) ; 
4.  Treatise  on  Judicial  Proo&  (Paris,  1823, 
2  vols.);  5.  Of  the  Oiganization  of  the  Ju- 
diciary and  Codification  (Paris,  1828,  1 
vol.).  Numerous  manuscripts  of  Ben- 
tham,  which  bad  already  received  the  first 
labor  fit>m  Dumont,  still  remained  in  his 
hands,  and  he  dispoised  of  them  in  fkvor 
of  one  of  his  nephews. — ^When  Geneva 
recovered  her  independence,  in  1814,  M. 
Dumont  hastened  oack  to  his  countiy, 
where  his  attempts  to  introduce  liberal 
principles  into  the  constitution  of  this  httle 
state,  exposed  him  to  much  political  per- 
seeutioB  ;  but  he  succeeded,  eventually, 
in  effecting  some  important  improve- 
ments. He  afterwards  labored  assiduous- 
ly to  introduce  an  improved  penal  code, 
and  was  a  member  of  a  committee,  ap- 
pointed in  May,  1817,  for  this  purpose. 
A  great  deal  of  time  was  spent  by  Du- 
mont, and  the  other  members  of  the  com- 
mittee, in  digesting  a  plan,  which,  how- 
ever, was  not  laid  before  the  leg»lature 
at  the  time  of  his  death,  in  September, 
1829.  He  was  also  active  in  getting  up  a 
penitentiaiy,  for  which  he  drew  up  a  plan 
in  1824,  and  which  is  in  veiy  successfiil 
operation.  He  died  at  l^lilan,  while  on  a 
party  of  pleasure,  in  September,  1829. 

DuMOURiEZ,  Charles  Francois,  born  at 
Cambray,  1739,  of  a  noble  fkmily  of  Pro- 
.vence,  joined  the  army  in  Germany,  under 
marshal  E^ea,  in  1757,  and  was  ap- 
pointed a  commissary.  He  then  served 
as  a  comet  in  the  reiriment  of  Escars. 
The  day  before  the  batue  of  Ck)stercamp, 
he  was  wounded  and  taken  prisoner ;  m 
1761,  was  made  a  captain ;  dismissed  ia 
1763,  and  presented  with  the  cross  of  St 
Louia  Too  active  to  remain  unemployed, 
he  offered  his  services  to  the  Genoese,  and 
then  to  PaoH ;  and,  both  parties  declining 
his  proffers,  he  went  on  his  own  account 
to  Corsica,  then  returned  to  France,  and 

Kroposed  a  plan  for  reducing  the  island, 
ut  was  not  listened  to.  Hereupon  he 
went  to  Spain,  visited  the  Portuguese 
fipontiers,  and,  in  1766,  wrote  his  well 
known  Essay  on  Portugal  (1768).  The 
conquest   of  Coiuca   being  determined 


upon,  Dumouriez  went  as  quaiter-master- 
general  of  the  small  army  which  was  sent 
Slither,  and  was  aflerwards  made  coloneL 
He  had  firequent  quarrels  with  all  the 
generals,  especially  with  Marboeu£     In 

1770,  the  government  gave  him  the  com- 
mission to  oppose  the  measures  of  the 
Russian  court,  at  the  confederation  of 
Bar.    He  took  part  in  the  campaign  of 

1771,  against  the  Russians.  In  1773,  he 
was  sent  by  the  king  on  amisBion  to  Swe- 
den, but  was  arrested  at  Hamburg,  by 
D'AiguiUon,  to  whom  the  mission  was 
not  agreeable,  and  put  in  the  Bastile.  In 
1776,  he  was  appouited  one  of  the  com- 
missioners to  examine  whether  a  na- 
val dock  should  be  constructed  on  the 
coast  of  the  English  channel,  and,  in  1778, 
made  an  unsuccessful  application  for  the 
command  of  Cherbourg.  In  1788,  he 
was  appointed  brigadier.  In  1789,  he 
came  out,  in  a  pamphlet,  in  fiivor  of  the 
principles  then  in  vogue,  but  fiuled  in  ob- 
taining, as  he  wished,  the  rank  of  general 
He  therefore  returned  to  Cherbourg,  where 
he  was  made  commander  of  the  national 
guard  in  that  city,  and  governor  of  Lower 
Normandy.  At  the  end  of  the  year,  he 
again  returned  to  the  capital,  where  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Jacobin  club. 
He  aflerwards  sought  to  effect  a  union 
with  Mirabeau,  wim  whom  be  had  for- 
merly been  at  variance.  About  tiiis  time, 
he  was  made  field-marshal  of  the  twelfUi 
division  of  the  army ;  but,  being  dissatis- 
fied with  a  post  where  he  had  little  op- 
portunity to  distinguish  himself^  he  staid 
m  the  cafNtal,  and  courted  more  than 
ever  the  Jacobin  party.  After  leaiinf 
«ie  ministry,  in  which  he  had  been  placed 
for  some  time,  he  was  made  lieutenant- 
general  in  the  army  of  Luckner,  on  the 
northern  fiontiera,  and  was  invested  with 
the  coimnand  of  this  army  after  the  de- 
parture of  Lafayette  (19th  of  August). 
The  Prussians,  Austrians,  and  tuiited  emi- 
grants, had  tiien  made  themselves  mnsters 
of  Longwy  and  Verdun,  and  were  ad- 
vancing upon  Champagne.  He  took  his 
position  at  Grandpie,  and  occupied  the 
nve  passes  of  the  woody  heights  of  Ar- 
ffonne ;  but,  when  the  pass  of  Croix  aux 
Sois  was  forced  by  the  Austrians,  he  re- 
tired to  St.  M^n^hould,  while  Kellennan 
maintained  bis  position  at  Valniy  (Sept 
20, 1792),  and  then  opened  a  negotiation 
with  the  king  of  Prussia.  In  .October,  he 
returned  to  Paris,  and  formed  a  plan  with 
the  executive  council  for  the  winter  cam- 
paign. On  his  return  to  the  army,  he 
issued  a  proclamation,  calling  u|K)n  the 
Belgians  to  rise  against  their  sovereign, 


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DUMOURIEZ— DUNCAN. 


and,  November  6,  assaulted  the  Austrian 
camp  at  Jemappe.  Notwithstanding  their 
amaU  numbers,  the  imperial  troops  did 
not  yield  till  after  a  long  and  bloody  bat- 
de  ;  after  which  he  took  up  his  winter 

Suarters  on  the  Meuse  and  the  Roer.  At 
lis  time,  his  hosdlity  to  the  muiister 
Pache,  with  whom  he  hod  been  at  open 
variance  during  the  whole  campaign,  for 
neglecting  the  supplies  of  his  army,  broke 
out  into  an  open  quarrel.  He  tlien  re- 
paired to  the  capital,  with  the  view,  as  he 
tells  us  in  his  Memoirs,  of  delivering  the 
king,  whose  trial  w&s  then  beginning. 
On  a  second  journey  thither,  he  saw  many 
more  deputies  on  the  side  of  the  Giron- 
dists ;  but  he  had  little  influence,  and  was 
himself  accused  in  the  convention.  Feb- 
ruary 15,  he  opened  the  campaign  with 
the  bombardment  of  Maestricht,  and, 
from  Breda  and  Clundert,  both  which 
places  he  had  captured,  he  made  his 
attack  on  Holland.  The  greatest  part 
of  his  troops,  however,  whom  he  had 
scattered  in  wiuter-quartere,  were  in  no 
condition  to  meet  the  prince  of  Coburg. 
This  general,  March  1,  assaulted  the 
French  outposts  on  the  Roer,  overcame 
them,  and  threatened  Maestricht  Du- 
mouriez  now  drew  together  his  troops  to 
the  plains  of  Tirlemont,  gave  battle  to  the 
Austrians  at  Neerwinden,  and  vras  de- 
feated, owing,  according  to  his  own  ac- 
count, to  the  mismanagement  of  Miranda, 
who  commanded  the  left  wing.  He  met 
with  another  loss  at  Louvain,  and  found 
himself  obliged  to  retreat  These  disas- 
ters were  the  signal  for  his  downfall.  All 
who  wished  his  ruin  now  rose  against 
him.  On  his  arrival  at  the  French  fron- 
tiers, four  commissioners,  and  the  minis- 
ter Beurnonville,  who  were  sent  to  arrest 
him,  were  delivered  by  him  into  the  hands 
of  the  Austrians.  He  then  issued  a  proc- 
lamation, in  which  he  promised  the  resto- 
ration of  the  constitutional  monarchy,  in 
the  person  of  the  heir  to  the  crown,  but 
was  attacked  by  the  Versailles  volunteers, 
com|)eUed  to  cross  the  Scheldt,  and  to  fly 
to  the  prince  of  Coburg  (April  4, 1793). 
The  convention  set  a  price  of  300,000 
livres  upon  his  head.  At  first,  he  retired 
to  Brussels,  afterwards  to  Cologne.  The 
elector  refusing  him  a  residence  in  Mer- 

fentheim,  he  went  to  Switzerland,  and,  in 
uly,  passed  over  to  England,  which,  how- 
ever, he  was  compelled  to  quit,  by  com- 
mand of  lord  Grenville,  rovcxl  about,  for 
some  time,  in  Switzerland  and  Germa- 
nv,  and,  at  last,  settled  near  Hamburg. 
Here  he  published  his  Memoirs.  There 
was  no  paity,  except  that  of  the  Mountain, 


for  which  this  political  Proteus  did  not 
declare  himself,  in  some  of  the  various 
pamphlets  that  he  published  during  his 
exile.  In  1805,  at  the  time  of  the  bat- 
tle of  Austerli^  he  was  in  Teschen. 
It  is  certain,  that,  in  1803,  he  was  made 
counsellor  of  war  to  the  duke  of  York ; 
but  he  did  not  keep  the  office  long. 
Shortly  after  the  battle  of  Eylau,  he  wrote 
his  Jugement  sur  Bonaparte,  adnssi  d  la 
Nation  Fran^aise  et  h  vEurope*  During 
the  S))anish  and  Portuguese  war,  he  was 
very  active  in  communicating  plans  to  the 
English  government,  and  to  the  Spanish 
and  Portuguese  authoritiea  In  the  Nea- 
politan revolution,  in  1821,  he  also  com- 
municated plans  of  defence  to  the  par- 
liament The  British  ministry  granted 
him  an  annual  fiension  of  £1200*  He 
died  March  14,  1823,  at  Turville  parb^ 
near  Henley-upon-Thames,  England,  at 
the  age  of  84.  Of  his  Memoirs  (Ham- 
burg, by  Hoffmann)  there  has  appeared  an 
enlarged  edition  of  4  vols.,  in  the  Paris  Col- 
lection of  Memoira,  by  ^udouin.  There 
is  a  ver}r  complete  article  on  Dumouriez 
in  the  BiograpkU  des  ConUmforaifu. 

Dun  (hul) ;  a  Celtic  or  ancient  Teuton- 
ic word,  fi;om  which  comes  the  French 
word  Amiy  and  the  final  syllable  dumtm 
in  Latin,  as  Au^wiodunum  (Autun).   The 


same  word  is  found  in  Dunkirk  (church 
of  the  hills|.  In  Low-German,  the  word 
Dlimt  is  still  used  for  sandy  hills  on  the 
sea-shore.  It  is,  perhaps,  from  the  same 
root  with  the  German  Ikhnen,  DunsL  In 
several  English  names,  the  syllable  dun 
is  used  in  a  sense  corresponding  to 
down.  Denmark  (Icelandish,  Dawnmark) 
is  in  part  composed  of  a  word  of  simi- 
lar sound  and  signification.  It  means  tow 
country, 

Duncan,  Adam,  viscount,  a  naval  offi- 
cer of  distinguished  skill  and  courage, 
was  bom  in  Scotkind,  in  1731,  went  to 
sea  when  young,  obtained  a  lieutenancy 
in  1755,  was  made  master  and  command- 
er in  1759,  and  was  a  post  captain  in 
1761.  In  that  station  he  served,  in  the 
following  year,  at  the  taking  of  Havanna ; 
and,  in  17/9,  he  shared  in  the  victory  of 
admiral  Rodney  over  the  Spaniards.  In 
1789,  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  rear- 
admiral  of  the  blue ;  and,  by  negular  gra- 
dation, in  1794,  he  became  vice-admiral 
of  the  white  squadron.  The  following 
year,  he  was  appointed  commander  of  the 
North  Sea  fleet;  when,  after  a  tedious 
and  harassing  service  of  two  years,  occu- 
pied in  watching  the  motions  of  the 
Dutch,  in  the  harbor  of  the  Texel,  admi- 
ral Duncan  found  himself  obtiged  to  leave 


Digitized  by 


Lioogle 


I>UXCAN-.DUNliaK. 


841 


hk  statioD,  and  aail  to  Yamiouth  roads,  in 
coDseqoence  of  the  nutinoua  diapootion 
of  his  saikniB.  The  Dutch  fleet  put  to  aea, 
which  was  no  sooner  made  known  to  ad- 
miral Duncan's  men,  than  they  returned 
to  their  duty,  and  he  immediately  sailed 
in  pursuit  of  the  enemy,  came  up  with 
them,  defeated  them,  and  captured  the 
commander,  admiral  De  Winter,  and 
eight  of  his  ships.  The  conqueror  was 
rewarded  with  the  title  of  viscount  Dun- 
can, and  a  pension  of  £3000  a  year.  He 
died  August  4, 1804. 

DrxNDAS,  Henry,  viscount  Melville,  was 
bom  in  1740,  smdied  at  the  uuiversity  of 
Edinburgh,  and,  in  1763,  was  admitted  a 
member  of  the  &culr^  of  advocatea  He 
obtained  tlie  post  of  solicitoi^general  in 
1773,  that  of  lord-advocate  in  1775^  and 
was  made  joint  keeper  of  the  signet  for 
Scotland  in  1777.  In  1762,  he  was  ap- 
pointed treasurer  of  the  navy,  and  mem- 
ber of  the  privy  council ;  but  he  continued 
only  a  short  time  in  office,  the  coalition 
between  lord  Nortli  and  Mr.  Fox  having 
displaced  his  party.  The  triumph  of  his 
opponents  was  but  temporaiy;  and,  on 
tlieir  retreat  from  power,  he  resumed  his 
office  under  Mr.  Pitt,  whose  firm  partisan 
he  approved  himself  during  their  joint 
lives.  On  the  passing  of  the  set  of  par- 
liament for  regulating  the  affiiirs  of  the 
East  India  company,  Mr.  Dundas  was 
appointed  president  of  the  board  of  con- 
trol ;  in  1791,  he  was  made  secretary  of 
state  for  the  home  department ;  and,  in 
1794,  he  became  secretary  at  war.  On 
the  resignation  of  Mr.  Pitt,  he  also  re- 
tired from  public  life ;  and,  when  the  for- 
mer resumed  the  helm  of  state,  he  was 
appointed  first  lord  of  the  admiralty.  In 
1605,  he  was  impeached,  before  the  house 
of  lords,  of  hieh  crimes  and  misdemean- 
ors in  bis  former  office  of  treasurer 
^  the  navy.  As  the  evidence  adduced 
against  him  did  not  directly  implicate 
him  in  the  malversation  proved  against 
his  deputy,  he  was  acquitted.  He  did 
not,  however,  hold  any  situadon  after- 
wards, except  that  of  privy  counsellor. 
His  death  took  place  in  May,  1811.  He 
was  created  viscount  Melville  in  1801, 
and  was  succeeded  in  that  title  by  his 
son. 

DuincxR.  (See  Ephtaktf  also  Bcqh- 
iuU.) 

Ddztkirk  (French,  Ihmkarquty  ngnij^ 
ing  the  cfturcA  on  ifte  doiwn»\  about  $7 
miles  firom  Calais,  a  strong  commercial 
city,  containing  24^00  inhabitants,  in 
French  Flanders  (Depart  du  Nord),  was 
£xmerly  ft  constant  cause  of  jealousy  be- 
99* 


tween  England  and  France.  It  was  cap- 
tured fit>m  the  Spanish,  in  1656,  by  the 
French  and  English  in  conjuncdon, 
Cromwell  having  formed  an  alliance  with 
the  French.  It  was  now  put  into  the^ 
hands  of  the  English,  and,  in  1062, '"> 
bouffbt  of  Charles  11,  by  Louis  XIV,  for 
£400,000.  Louis  made  every  exertion  to 
fortify  the  place,  and  to  improve  the  har- 
bor. This  is  capable  of  accommodating 
200  large  vessels  at  anchor,  and  is  one  of 
the  most  convenient  in  Europe.  In  the 
wan  between  Eufland  and  !■  ranee,  the 
freebooters  of  Dunkirk  did  great  injury  to 
tlie  English  and  Dutch  trade.  This,  to- 
gether with  the  increasing  prosperity  of 
the  place,  induced  England  to  make  it  a 
principal  ccmdition  of  the  peace  of  Utrecht 
(1713),  that  France  should  demolish  tlie 
fortifications,  and  destroy  this  master-piece 
of  military  architecture.  The  French  at- 
tempted, by  digging  anew  canal  to  Moer- 
dyk,  a  league  from  Dunkirk,  to  indemni^ 
themselves  for  the  loss  thiey  had  sustained 
by  the  treaty :  the  inhabitants  of  Dunkirk 
also  occupied  themselves  in  quietly  re- 
storing the  harbor ;  but  the  English,  from 
time  to  time,  urged  the  destruction  of 
these  works.  The  peace  of  Paris,  1763, 
which  Elngland  dictated,  repeated  the 
conditions  of  the  peace  of  Utrecht  in  rela- 
tion to  Dunkirk.  Lord  Chatham  replied, 
in  answer  to  the  attempts  of  count  Jttussi, 
the  French  negotiator,  to  arrange  other 
terms  with  r^ird  to  Dunkirk,  that  the 
people  of  England  considered  the  demo- 
lition of  Dunldrk  as  a  perpetual  memo- 
rial of  the  subjugation  or  France,  and  the 
minister  who  should  dare  to  change  the 
conditions  of  this  treaty  would  risk  his 
head.  An  English  commissioner  was 
even  established  there  to  superintend  the 
execution  of  the  treaty,  who  was  to  be 
supported  by  France.  But,  by  the  peace 
of  Paris,  1783,  this  article  was  annulled. 
The  restoration  of  the  town  was  after- 
wards attempted,  as  far  as  the  condition 
of  France  permitted.  The  importance  of 
the  place  induced  the  duke  of  York,  in 
August,  1793,  contrary  to  the  advice  of 
Coburg,  to  advance  with  his  own  division, 
from  the  main  body  of  the  Austrian  ar- 
my, before  Dunkiric,  and  make  vigorous 
preparations  for  pushing  the  siege.  The 
surrender  was  daily  expected,  when  the 
approach  of  general  nouchard,  with  a 
superior  force,  and  the  vigorous  sorties  of 
the  besieged,  compelled  the  duke  to  raise 
the  aiege,  and  retire  in  haste,  with  field- 
marshal  Freitag,  under  whom  he  com- 
manded. Dunkirk  is  a  fiiee  port,  and,  in 
peace,  has  an  extensive  commerce.    The 


Digitized  by 


Lioogle 


349 


DUNKIRK— DUNSTAN* 


manuiactiife  of  tobacco  in  thk  place  is 
important 

DuNNiifo,  John,  lord  Aahbuiton,  an 
eminent  lawyer,  was  the  son  of  an  attor- 
ney at  Aaliburton,  in  Devonshire,  where 
he  was  bom,  Octo))er  18, 1731.  He  was 
educated  at  the  free-school  of  his  native 
place,  and  served  his  clerkship  to  his 
father;  but,  early  determining  to  study 
for  the  bar,  he  pursued  a  course  of  assid- 
uous application,  both  before  and  after  his 
admission.  The  first  thin||;  which  estab- 
lished his  character,  was  his  employment, 
in  1759,  to  draw  up  a  defence  or  the  East 
India  coinpany  against  the  claims  of  the 
Dutch.  This  memorial,  being  esteemed  a 
masterly  production,  gained  him  consid- 
erable practice;  which  was  prodigiously 
augmented  by  his  becoming  counsel  for 
Wilkes  in  all  the  causes  produced  by  the 
question  of  the  general  warrants.  He  dis- 
tmguished  himself  in  such  a  manner,  on 
this  popular  occasion,  as  to  obtain  the 
character  of  a  sound  constitutional  law- 
yer;, and  his  practice  soon  after  became 
the  most  lucrative  at  the  English  bar.  In 
1766,  he  was  chosen  recorder  of  Bristol, 
and,  in  1767,  solicitor-general,  which  of- 
fice he  resigned  in  1770,  in  consequence 
of  tlie  resignation  of  his  patron,  lord  Shel- 
burne,  by  whose  interest  he  had  been 
chosen  member  for  Calne,  in  Wiltshire. 
From  the  time  of  his  resignation,  he  re- 
mained a  firm  opponent  to  the  ministry 
who  conducted  the  American  war ;  and, 
on  the  return  of  lord  Sbelbume  to  power 
in  1782,  he  was  made  chancellor  of  the 
duchy  of  Ijancaster,  and  advanced  to  the 
peerage  by  the  title  of  lord  Ashburton. 
He  died  August  18, 1783,  leaving  one  son, 
the  present  fX)Sses8or  of  the  titles. 

DuNois,  Jean,  count  of  Orleans  and  of 
Longueville ;  bom  1402,  died  1468 ;  a  nat- 
ural son  of  Louis,  duke  of  Orleans  (who 
was  murdered  by  the  duke  of  Bui^ndy), 
and  of  the  wife  of  Cany.  Dunois  nuule  the 
name  *^  Bastard  of  Orleans'*  illustrious  by 
his  military  exploits.  He  began  his  career 
with  the  defeat  of  Warwick  and  Suffolk, 
whom  he  pursued  to  Paris.  Being  be- 
sieged by  the  English,  he  defended  Or- 
leans with  the  greatest  courage  until 
relieved  by  the  maid  of  Orieans.  To  the 
comit  of  Orleans  belongs,  almost  entirely, 
the  honor  of  expel luig  the  enemies  of  his 
countiy  from  Normandy  and  Gkiienne. 
In  1441,  he  gave  them  their  death-blow 
at  Chatillon ;  and  it  may  tmly  be  said,  that 
Charles  VII  was  indebted  to  him  for  his 
crown.  Dunois  received  fi^om  him  the 
title  of  "  deliverer  of  his  countiy,"  the 
county  of  Longueville,  and  the  dignity  of 


hiffh-cbamberiain  of  France.  Louis  XI 
valued  him  no  less.  Nolwithatanding 
this,  Dunois  was  the  eoul  of  the  league 
which  was  formed  against  Louis^  under 
the  name  of  the  league  for  the  puhUc 
good.  I 

Duns,  John,  commonly  called  Dimt 
ScottUy  an  eminent  scholasdc  divine  of 
the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries, 
was  bora  at  Dunstance,  near  Alnwick,  in 
Northumberland,  and  vras  admitted,  when 
young,  into  an  institution  belonging  to  the 
Franciscan  fiiars  at  Newcastle,  whence 
he  was  sent  to  Merton  colle||[e,  Oxford. 
Becoming  celebrated  for  his  skill  in  scho- 
lastic Geology,  civil  law,  logic,  and  mathe- 
matics, he  was,  in  1301,  appointed  divin- 
ity professor  at  Oxford ;  and  the  fame  of 
his  teaming  and  talents  drew  crowds  of 
scholars  from  all  parts.  In  1304,  he  was 
sent  by  his  superion  to  Paris,  in  the  uni- 
versity of  which  city  he  was  admitted  to 
the  highest  honon,  and  appointed  pro- 
fessor and  regent  in  the  theological 
schools,  in  which  situation  he  acquired 
the  title  of  ^the  most  subtle  doctor." 
Nothing,  however,  could  be  more  barren 
and  useless  than  the  chimerical  abstraction 
and  metaphysical  refinements  which  ob- 
tamed  him  this  title.  Duns  opposed  Aqui- 
nas on  the  subject  of  grace ;  and  hence 
the  Scotists  are  opposed  to  the  ThondgU, 
The  immaculate  conception  of  the  Vii^^ 
Maiy  was  another  of  the  tenets  which 
divided  these  fierce  antagonists ;  and  it  is 
believed  by  many  authon,  that  it  was 
Duns  who  first  propounded  it.  In  the 
year  1308,  he  was  sent  to  Cologne,  by  the 
head  of  his  order,  to  teach  theology,  but 
was  cut  off  by  an  apoplexy,  and,  as  a  dis- 
puted account  asserts,  buried  before  he 
was  actually  dead,  as  was  discovered  by 
an  examination  of  his  grave.  His  death 
happened,  according  to  some  virriters,  in 
his  thirty-fourth,  and  to  others,  in  his  forty- 
third  year.  He  left  behind  him  numerous 
works,  which  were  collected  by  Lucas 
Waddingius,  in  12  vokk,  folio,  Lyons^ 
1639. 

DtTNSTAN,  St.,  an  Anglo-Saxon  divine 
and  statesman  of  the  1^  century,  alike 
celebrated  in  legendary'  and  authentic  his- 
tory, was  bom  at  Glastonbury,  in  925, 
and  was  educated  under  Irish  ecclena»- 
tics,  who  were  inmates  of  the  fiunous  ab- 
bey at  that  place.  He  acquned  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  Latin  language  and  of  philos- 
ophy, and  studied  the  Scriptures  and  the 
writings  of  the  fathers ;  besides  which^  he 
became  skilled  in  music,  painting,  carving, 
and  working  in  metals.  He  was  intro- 
duced, early  in  lifis,  to  the  court  of  king 


Digitized  by 


Lioogle 


DUNSTAN— DUPIN. 


Atfaelfltan,  by  his  uncle  Athelm,  arcblmh- 
op  of  Canterbuiy.  Some  mdiscretion,  or 
the  jealousy  of  rivals,  competled  him  to 
retire  from  court ;  and  the  disappoiDtnieiit 
of  his  prospects,  togetlier  witli  a  danger- 
ous fix  of  sickness,  seriously  impressed  his 
mind,  and  led  him  to  seek  for  tranquillity 
in  the  monastic  life.  He  took  the  vows 
at  Glastonbury,  and  devoted  himself  with 
ardor  to  the  duties  of  his  profession.  So 
entirely  had  he  relinquished  all  views  of 
secular  ambition,  that  he  divided  between 
the  church  and  the  poor  a  valuable  estate, 
bequeathed  to  him  by  a  wealthy  Saxon 
lady,  as  well  as  his  paternal  inheritance, 
wliich  devolved  to  nim  at  this  period. 
On  the  deatli  of  Athelstan,  Edmund,  the 
brother  and  successor  of  that  prince,  in- 
vited him  to  court ;  and  Edred,  the  next 
king,  made  him  his  prime  minister  and 
principal  director  in  civil  and  ecclesiasti- 
cal affiiirB.  On  the  death  of  Edred,  his 
nephew  Edwy,  who  viras,  probably,  not 
more  than  fourteen  yetu[s  of  age,  ascended 
the  throne.  The  enmitv  of  the  profii^te 
courtiers  was  particularly  directed  against 
Duostan,  who  was  obliged  to  flee  flora 
his  native  country.  He  took  refuge  in 
Flanden,  where  he  remained  till  he  was 
recalled  to  England  by  king  Edgar,  to 
whom  the  imprudent  Edwy  had  been 
oUiged  to  cede  a  part  of  his  dominions. 
DuMtan  vras  made  bishop  of  Worcestei^ 
and,  when  Edgar  became  possessed  of  the 
whole  kingdom,  was  raised  to  the  see  of 
Canterbury.  In  this  station,  his  influence 
was  exerted  in  promoting  the  introduction 
of  the  rule  of  St  Benedict,  which  incul- 
cated vows  of  chastity  into  the  monastic 
institutions  in  England.  The  secular 
priests,  who  were  generally  married,  were 
expelled  fiom  reh^ous  houses,  and  re- 
placed by  Benedicune  monks,  wherever 
the  power  of  Dunstan  extended.  During 
the  reign  of  fklgar,  he  was  supported  in 
the  execution  of  his  plans  by  the  royal 
authority ;  but,  under  Edward  the  Martyr, 
he  experienced  great  opposition  from  the 
patrops  of  the  secular  clergv ;  and,  after 
Ethebvd  II  became  kins,  his  influence 
still  flirther  declined,  and  he  thencefor- 
ward interfered  but  little  in  public  aflairs. 
He  died  in  968.  Few  characters  in  Eng- 
lish history  have  been  more  variously 
represented  than  that  of  Dunstan.  The 
mrniks  represent  him  as  the  most  learned 
and  accomplished  prelate,  and  most  emi- 
nent statesman  of  his  age.  Popular  tra- 
dition paints  him  as  a  master  of  magic 
arts,  subjecting  demons  to  his  power. 
Modem  Protestant  writeis  have  imputed 
the  imaginaiy  miracles  of  Dunstan  to  his 


hypocrisy,  overiooking  their  real  origm 
in  popular  misconception.  Osbem,  wno 
wrote  the  life  of  Dunstan  a  centuiy  after 
his  decease,  flnt  appears  to  have  propa- 
gated the  legendary  tales  which  have  been 
so  injurious  to  his  fame,  and  of  which  no 
notice  is  taken  by  a  contemporary  auouy- 
mous  biographer,  whose  memoir  of  die 
saint  lias  been  published  liy  the  Bollan- 
dists,  and  has  every  mark  of  autlien- 
ticity. 

DuPATT,  Jean  Baptiste  Mercier;  bom 
1746)  at  Rochelle.  In  1767,  he  became 
advocate-general  to  tlie  parliament  of  Bor- 
deaux, afterwards  prtndtni  h  mortier  of 
that  body,  drew  upon  himself,  by  his  love 
of  strict  justice,  the  persecutions  of  the 
ministerial  despotism  which  oppressed 
France  in  the  last  years  of  Louis  XY. 
Having  written,  in  me  name  of  the  par- 
liament of  Bordeaux,  against  the  duke  of 
Aiguillon,  when  this  nobleman  became 
minister  (1770),  he  was  sent  to  Pierre-en- 
Cise  (a  fortress  at  Lyons,  once  a  state- 
prison),  and  afterwards  banished,  until  the 
accession  of  Louis  XVI.  Being  acquaint- 
ed witli  the  defects  of  the  ancient  admin- 
istration of  justice  in  France,  he  made 
every  exertion  to  expose  them.  The  me- 
monal  by  which  he  preserved  the  lives 
of  three  uinocent  citizens  of  Chaumont, 
who  were  condemned  to  the  wheel,  de- 
serves particular  mention.  His  other 
works  are,  Rtflmoms  kisUnriques  sur  Us 
Linx  crimindUs,  a  valuable  work ;  various 
Diswun  (KodhniqiUM ;  and  LUires  9ur  Vha- 
He  en  1785,  which  appeared  1788,  in  2  vols. 
These  letters,  among  many  prejudiced 
views,  contain  some  excellent  observa- 
tions on  the  arts,  and  interesting  descrip- 
tions of  natural  scenery ;  but  his  style  is 
often  disfiffured  by  labored  ornaments. 
He  died  1788,  at  Paris.^His  sod  (diaries 
Mercier),  bom  at  Bordeaux  September 
29,  1771,  died  at  Paris  November  12, 
1825..  He  was  the  restorer  of  sculpture 
in  France^  a  member  of  the  institute,  and 
professor  in  the  icole  des  beaux  arts;  was  at 
first  an  advocate,  served  during  the  revo- 
lution as  a  dragoon,  then  as  dessinaUur 
giogrt^^  and  finally  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  studied  sculpture,  under  the 
direction  of  Leinot,  and,  during  a  resi- 
dence of  eight  years,  made  himself  known 
by  numerous  worka  His  principal  pro- 
ductions are  Ajax  pursued  by  Neptune  ; 
his  equestrian  statue  of  Louis  XIII 
(1816) ;  and  Orestes  pursued  by  the  Fu 
riesL  Cortot,  his  successor  in  the  acade- 
my, completed  some  of  his  works. 

DupiN,  Andr6  Marie  Jean  Jacques,  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  Parisian  jurists 


Digitized  by  LjOOQ IC 


344 


DUPIN. 


and  advoeateB  of  our  time,  bom  1783^  at 
Vany,  km  his  father  early,  by  an  act  of 
revolutiooary  videnoe.  The  midnight  in* 
vasion  of  his  paternal  manaion,  the  search 
for  papers,  and  all  tlie  circumstances 
which  accompany  the  seizure  of  a  ftitber 
of  a  family,  made  a  deep  impression  on 
his  mind,  and  contributed  to  excite  in  him 
that  hatred  of  arbitrary  power,which  he  has 
ever  since  displayed.  During  the  impris- 
onment of  his  &ther,  his  motlier  occupied 
herself  with  the  education  of  her  two 
oldest  sons.  The  history  of  Rome  afford- 
ed her  tlie  means  of  kindling  in  them  a 
love  of  freedom  and  glory.  After  the 
liberation  of  their  father,  he  himself  be- 
came tlieir  instructer.  In  his  23d  year, 
Dupin  commenced  the  practice  of  his 
profession :  afler  the  restoration  of  the  Jaw- 
schools,  which  had  been  suspended  at  the 
beginning  of  the  revolution,  he  was  the 
first  who  defended  a  thesis:  this  made 
him  the  oldest  lawyer  of  the  new  schools. 
He  also  distinguished  himself  as  a  writer, 
by  his /Vmc^pta /urit.  In  1815,  he  became 
a  member  of  the  chamber  of  deputies, 
and  was  distinguished  for  his  boidnem. 
He  opposed  the  proposition  to  bestow  on 
Napoleon  the  title  of  savior  ofki$  cwwnin^ 
voted  for  the  abdication  of  the  emperor, 
and  desired  that  the  chamber  of  deputies 
sliould  declare  itself  a  national  assembly, 
and  opposed  the  proclaiming  of  Napoleon 
II.  After  the  return  of  the  kin|^,  Dupin 
devoted  himself  exclusively  to  jurispru- 
dence, and  was,  together  with  fierryer, 
the  defender  of  Ney.  He  drew  up  some 
powerful  memorials  on  this  subject,  and 
that  in  which  he  endeavored  to  save  the 
marshal,  on  the  ground  of  the  convention 
of  July  3,  1815,  was  very  well  received, 
but  produced  only  an  addition  to  his  own 
refNitation.  His  eloquence  was  more 
successfbl  in  the  following  year,  when  he 
defended  the  Englishmen,  sur  Robert  WU» 
son,  Mr.  Biuce  and  Mr.  Hutchinson,  who 
were  accused  of  having  assisted  in  the 
escape  of  Lavalette.  He  never  refiised 
his  aid  to  any  of  those  who  were  perse- 
cuted in  these  times  of  party  hatred.  He 
defended  the  fieedom  of  the  press  by  his 
writings,  fiiU  of  the  spirit  of  liberty,  and 
his  able  speeches,  always  ready  to  unmask 
the  arts  and  the  revengeful  spirit  of  a  pow- 
erful partv.  Dupin  united  distinguished 
talents  with  tlje  noblest  sentiments;  and 
the  disinterestedness  which  he  displayed 
in  his  professional  duties,  is  every  where 
known.  Beskles  the  work  already  men- 
tioned, he  has  pubKsfaed  several  on  the 
Roman  and  French  hiw,  and  a  good  edi- 
tion of  Burlamaqui's  Natural  Law,  in  5 


vok.     His  Miimmrf,  Plmdoyen  dL  Oh*- 
SMttiitiontf,  are  collected  in  13  vols.,  4to. 

DcpiN,  Charles,  brother  of  the  preced- 
ing, distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of 
ffeometry,  engineering  and  hydraulica, 
bom  17q4,  became,  in  1801,  a  pupil  in  the 
polytechnic  school,  founded  by  ^lapoleon, 
at  Paris,  apptied  himself  with  zeal  to 
ji;eometry,  and  devoted  his  matliematical 
knowledge  to  the  good  of  the .  state. 
During  Napoleon's  wars,  he  served  in 
the  fleet,  and  was  employed  in  construct- 
ing the  harbor  of  Antwerp.  In  1808, 
he  joined,  as  a  volunteer,  die  squadron 
under  admiral  Gantheaume,  and  went 
with  him  to  Corfii.  He  remained  in  the 
Ionian  isfends,  where  he  became  secre- 
tary to  the  newly  estabhshed  Ionian 
academy.  He  founded  the  Olympian 
prizes  for  writings  in  the  ancient  and 
modem  Greek,  for  which  all  the  Greeks 
in  Europe  and  Asia  were  invited  to 
contend.  In  Corcyrs,  he  made  a  trans- 
htion  of  the  Olynthian  orations  of  De- 
mosthenes, and  an  essay  concerning  this 
orator.  In  1811,  he  left  the  Ionian  isl- 
ands, and  went  to  Italy.  Here  he  pub- 
lished some  profound  geometrical  inqui- 
ries. In  1813,  he  was  at  Toukm,  and 
was  the  means  of  savins  the  beautifiil 
decorations  for  galley  which  Pugel  had 
executed  for  Louis  Al V ;  and  these  me- 
morials of  the  naval  gloiy  of  France  be- 
came the  ornaments  of  the  museum, 
founded  by  Dupin,  in  the  arsenal  at  Tou- 
lon. He  began  here  his  account  of  the 
naval  architecture  of  the  18th  and  Idth 
centuries,  which  he  continued  to  the  jrear 
1815.  Afier  die  second  peace  of  Paris, 
he  made  a  joumey  to  England ;  and,  dur- 
ing a  residence  ot  twenty  months  in  that 
country,  he  tmvelied  in  diffeicnt  direc- 
tions. The  fruit  of  this  journey  was  his 
Treatise  on  the  Marine,  the  Bridges  and 
the  Roads  of  France  and  England.  After 
his  retum,  in  1818,  he  became  a  member 
of  the  academy  of  sciences,  and  read  at 
their  sittings  several  valuable  treatisea. 
When  the  new  conservatory  of  arts  and 
manufectures  was  estabUshed,  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  practical  mechanics; 
Smce  loSX),  has  appeared  his  Fey^ipes 
itsM  la  Chmuk'Brdiigne — a  comprehen- 
sive account  of  the  excellences  and  de- 
ficiencies of  the  English  administmtioa 
in  regard  to  the  army,  navy,  artilleiyy 
roads,  municipal  regulatiom^  mines,  in- 
dustry and  commerce.  Dupin  does  noc 
always  judge  the  rival  of  his  country  with 
impartiality ;  there  is,  however,  much  jus- 
tice in  his  criticisms  on  many  of  the  insti- 
tutions of  the  iflknd,andon  the  great  abuaei 


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DUPIN— DUPUIS. 


345 


of  the  goveniment  Dupin's  Ihrees  prrh 
dudvoes  et  commerciaUs  oe  la  Fhtnee  ap- 
peared at  Paris,  1827, 1  voL  4ta  Dupin 
was  a  member  of  the  chamber  which  was 
dissolved  in  1830. 

DupoNTDE  Nemours,  Pierre  Samuel, 
bom  at  Paris,  December,  1739,  distin- 
guished as  well  for  his  knowledge  and 
talents  as  for  his  mild  and  benevolent 
character,  his  excellent  principles  and  his 
blameless  life,  lived  almost  unknown,  at 
Paris,  as  a  private  man  of  letters,  until 
1773|  when  his  principles  of  philosophy 
and  polidcal  economy,  set  forth  in  his  Le$ 
ihfhitmbriiUs  du  CHoym,  excited  the  dis- 
pleasure of  the  minister  Choiseul,  and 
obliged  him  to  leave  France.  Several 
foreign  princes  ofiered  him  a  reception, 
and  conferred  honors  upon  him.  He  re- 
turned, however,  to  his  native  country, 
and  accepted  of  a  small  place,  given  him 
by  Tuivot,  minister  of  finance.  In  1783 
and  17^  with  doctor  Hutton,  the  English 
agent,  he  negotiated  the  basis  of  the  treaty 
by  which  the  independence  ef  the  United 
States  was  acknowledged.  As  inspector- 
general  of  commerce  and  manu&ctures, 
and  as  a  counsellor  of  state,  he  afterwards 
did  much  to  encourage  French  industiy. 
In  1787  and  1788^  he  was  appointed,  by 
Louis  XVI,  secretary  to  the  assembly 
of  the  notables.  In  1789,  he  became  a 
member  of  the  first  national  assembly, 
where  he  distinguished  himself  by  his 
principles,  his  courage,  his  talents,  and  his 
firm  opposition  to  the  intrigues  of  Actions. 
He  was  twice  president  of  the  national 
assembly,  and  always  supported  moderate 
principlesL  Under  Robespierre,  he  was 
imprisoned,  and  nothing  but  the  fall  of  the 
tyrant  preserved  him.  lie  was  afterwards 
a  member  of  the  council  of  elders.  After 
the  directory  was  abolished,  he  went  to 
America,  in  1798.  In  1802,  he  returned 
to  France,  but  did  not,  at  that  time,  take 
any  office,  notwithstandinff  the  ofien 
made  him  by  Napoleon.  The  confidence 
of  his  fellow  citizens  followed  him  in  his 
retirement,  as  was  shown  by  his  appoint- 
ment to  several  important  offices.  In 
1814,  Dupont  was  made  secretary  of  the 
provisional  government  which  prepared 
the  way  for  the  return  of  the  house  of 
Bourbon  to  the  throne  of  France.  After 
Napoleon's  return  fit>m  Ellm,  he  went 
again  to  America,  of  which  country  his 
two  sons  had  already  become  citizens. 
Here  he  terminated  his  useful  life,  August 
6, 1817,  at  the  advanced  kge  of  78. 
DtJPOifT  DE  L'Etaho.  (See  Bw^en.) 
DuFins,  Charies  Francois,  a  member 
of  the  national  institute,  ixum  at  Trie-ie- 


Chateau,  near  GisorB,  in  174^  was  in- 
Btracted  by  his  father  in  mathematics  and 
surveying.  The  duke  de  la  Rochefou- 
cault  sent  him  to  the  cMhrt  (THarcovfi, 
to  pursue  his  studies ;  and,  in  his  24th 
year,  he  was  made  professor  of  rhetoric  at 
Lisieux.  His  intimacy  with  Lalande,  and 
his  own  inclination,  led  him  to  devote 
himself  particulariy  to  mathematics ;  the 
knowledge  and  the  prejudices  of  that 
learned  man  had  a  great  influence  on 
him.  In  1778^  he  invented  the  telegraph, 
which  was  afterwards  improved  by  the 
luothera  Chappe.  His  Menunrt  twr  fOri- 
gme  dts  ConHeUations  et  sur  PExoiicaHon 
de  la  fable  par  VJktrtmomie  (1781),  is  fiiil 
of  originality  and  learning.  In  1788,  he 
became  a  member  of  the  aeadhnie  du 
inscriptiona  et  heUea-ldtreiy  and  went  to 
Paris,  where  he  was  named  one  of  the 
four  commissionera  of  public  instruction, 
to"  ascertain  the  resources  of  all  the  insti- 
tutions for  education  and  learning  in  Paris. 
As  a  member  of  the  national  convention, 
he  was  constant  in  his  support  of  mode- 
rate measures.  On  this  account,  he  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  council  of  five 
hundred;  and  the  reputation  which  he 
tiiere  acquired  fi>r  activity  and  informa- 
tion, procured  him  admission  into  the 
national  institute.  The  tribunat  and  the 
legislative  body  proposed  him  as  a  senar 
tor.  His  work,  Ongine  de  ious  lea  CulU$^ 
ou  laBiligum  vmverseUe  (1794,  3  vols., 
4to.,  with  an  atlasl  was  severely  criticised 
in  Germany,  Holland,  France  and  Italy, 
but  is  a  remarkable  monument  of  his 
learning.  In  this  work,  he  attempted  to 
explain,  not  only  all  the  mysteries  of  an- 
tiquity, but  also  the  origin  of  all  religious 
traditions.  An  abridgment,  in  one  volu me, 
afterwards  followed.  His  two  works  on 
the  Pelasgi,  their  origin  in  Ethiopia,  their 
spreading  over  Lybia,  Cyreuaica,  and  the 
north  of  Africa,  and  thence  to  Spain, 
Greece  and  Italy,  attracted  jpeat  atten- 
tion. His  treatises  on  the  zodiac  of  Den- 
derah  (q.  v.),  and  on  the  Phcenix,  suc- 
ceeded. In  his  last  work,  Mhnoire  ex- 
plieaHf  du  Zodiaqw  chronologupie  et  nw- 
tholaffi^  (1806,  4to.,  engravings),  he 
maintained  that  the  astronomical  and  re- 
ligious opinions  of  tiie  Greeks,  Egy|itians, 
Chinese,  Persians  and  Arabians,  had  a 
common  origin.  He  died  at  his  estate 
near  Dijon,  1809,77  yeanokl,  and  left, 
in  manuscript,  a  work  on  cosmogony 
and  theogony,  the  object  of  which  was 
to  confirm  the  theory  he  had  laid  down 
in  his  Origine  de  tow  Us  Chdtes.  He  also 
endeavorwl,  in  this  work,  to  explain  hie- 
roglyphics. 


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846 


DUPUYTREN— DURER- 


DvrvrrKEBi,  OuiUaume ;  the  most  dk- 
tiDguiBhed  French  Bui^geoD  of  our  time, 
profeesor  of  medical  science  in  the  facul^ 
of  medicine  in  Paris,  and  chief  surgpeon 
in  the  Htitd  Dku;  bom  1778,  at  Pierre- 
Buffi^re.  He  made  such  n^Md  progress  in 
his  studies  that,  in  his  17thvear,  he  was  ap- 

f  Dinted  prosector  in  the  £coU  dt  SanUy  at 
aris,  and,  soon  after,  lectured  on  surgery 
and  anatomy  to  large  audiences.  In  18(XS, 
he  was  made  second  surgeon  in  the  HUd 
DieUf  and,  in  1815,  became  the  head  of 
this  great  hospitaL  As.  an  operative  sur- 
ceon,  be  has  gained  great  reputation  by 
his  boldness  md  skil^  and  the  improve- 
pients  which  he  has  introduced.  He  has 
invented  some  new  instruments,  and  im- 
pfoved  others ;  as,  for  instance,  his  specu- 
lum, for  the  removal  of  the  uterine  poly- 
pus by  cauterization,  and  his  instrument 
for  couching;  we  are  also  indebted  to 
him  for  some  valuable  discoveries  in  path- 
oloffical  anatomy.  He  has  written  snv- 
etaT  sui^eal  treatises,  some  of  which 
have  been  published  singly,  and  some  are 
collected. 

DvquBsirB,  Abraham,  a  French  admi- 
ral, under  Louis  XIV,  was  bom  at  IKeppe, 
in  1610,  and  acquired  bis  knowledge  of 
naval  afiaira  under  his  fiither,  who  was 
an  experienced  captain.  In  hiiB  17tli  year, 
he  was  in  the  sea-fiffht  off  RocheUe,  and 
distinguished  himself,  during  and  after  tlie 
year  1637,  in  the  war  against  Spain.  In 
1644,  he  entered  the  service  of  Sweden. 
He  was  recalled,  in  1647,  to  France,  and 
commanded  the  expedition  against  Na- 
ples. Bordeaux,  which  lud  rebelled,  he 
reduced,  notwithstanding  the  assistance 
aftbrded  it  by  Spain.  In  the  Sicilian  war, 
be  thrice  defeated  the  combined  fleets  of 
Holland  and  Spain,  under  the  renowned 
De  Ruyter.  After  be  bad  reduced  Al- 
gien  and  Genoa  to  the  necessi^  of  sup- 
plicating tlie  mercy  of  Louis  AlV,  the 
king  conferred  upon  him  the  fine  estate 
of  Bouchet,  and  made  it  a  marquisate, 
with  the  title  of  Duquum,  More  tlian 
this  he  could  not  do,  because  Duquesne 
was  a  Protestant  He  was,  aim,  the  only 
person  exempted  firoro  the  banishment  df 
his  sect,  occasioBed  by  the  repeal  of  the 
edict  of  Nantes.  He  died  at  Paris,  m 
1688.  Mildness  and  modes^  tempered  his 
heroic  character;  and  De  Kuvter  was  his 
model  He  left  four  sons,  of  whom  the 
most  ftimoua,  Heniy,  marquis  of  Du- 
quesne, was  also  distinguished  as  a  naval 
character. 

Dn&ANoo;  a  town  in  Mexico,  capital 
of  the  province  of  New  Biscay,  or  Du- 
rango;  835  miles  N.  W.  Mexico;  km. 


103^35^  W.;  \bl24^W  N.:  population, 
accordingto  Humboldt,  12,000;  according 
to  Pike,  40,00a  It  is  a  bishop*^  see. 
The  town  is  situated  on  an  eleva- 
tion, 6845  feet  above  the  sea.  The 
air  is  heakhy,  the  siurrounding  country 
feitile,  producing  an  abimdance  of  wheat, 
maize,  fhuts,  £c^  and  the  trade  of  the 
town  is  considerable. 

Durante,  Francesco,  a  celebrated  com- 
poser, bom  1693^  at  Naples,  received  bia 
first  instruction  fiom  the  fiimous  Alexan- 
der Scarlatti.  The  £une  of  Pasquini  and 
Pittoni  drew  him  to  Rome,  whither  he 
went  to  perfect  himself  in  the  knowledge 
of  counterpdnt  He  then  returned  to 
Naples,  as  maettro  di  eopeUa  (director  of 
the  musical  choir),  and  composed,  almost 
exchiaively,  for  the  church.  In  vocal 
chiuvh  musict  he  attained  a  high  degree 
of  eminence.  He  also  educated  the  most 
celebrated  musical  masten  of  the  18ch 
centurjr  in  Naples— rPergolese,  Sacchini, 
Piccini,  Guglielmi,  Traetta,  JomeUi,  &c— 
and  died  at  Naples,  1755,  at  the  age  of  62. 

DuREB,  Albeit;  bora  at  Nurembeig, 
147L  His  &ther  was  a  skilAU  goldsmidi 
of  Hungary,  and  himself  instructed  his 
son  Al^Ttf  D&rer's  talent  early  devel- 
oped itaelf ;  and,  although  he  had  made 
great  progress  in  his  fatlier's  profesnon 
by  the  time  be  was  15,  his  indination  took 
a  decided  turn  for  painting.  Michael 
Wohlgemuth,  then  the  best  painter  in 
Nuremberg,  became  his  instructerin  I486. 
Having  finished  his  studies,  he  entered 
upon  bis  travels,  and,  in  1490,  travelled 
through  Germany  and  Alsace.  In  14^ 
he  passed  through  CJobnar  and  Basle,  and, 
in  1491,  returned  home.  Here  he  exe- 
cuted his  masterpiece,  a  drawing  of  Or- 
pheos.  To  please  his  father,  be  married 
the  daughter  of  Hans  Fritz,  a  celebrated 
mechanic;  but  this  connexion  imbittered 
his  life,  and  perhaps  brought  him  to  an 
eariy  grave.  In  1505,  he  went  to  Venice 
to  accomplish  himself  in  bis  art  His 
abilities  excited  envy  and  admiration.  He 
painted  the  Martyrdom  of  Bartholomew, 
for  St  Mark^  church,  which  painting  was 
purchased  by  the  emperor  Rodolpb,  and 
removed  to  Prague.  He  also  travelled  to 
Bologna,  to  improve  his  knowledge  of 
perepective.  This  journey  had  no  efiect 
upon  his  style.  At  his  return,  in  1507, 
begins  the  proper  era  of  his  greatness. 
In  1590,  he  again  visited  the  Netlieriands, 
probably  for  amusement  only.  His  lame 
spread  far  and  wide.  Maximilian  I  ap- 
pointed him  his  court-painter,  and  Charles 
V  confirmed  him  in  this  office,  bestowing 
upon  him»  at  the  same  time,  the  painter'^ 


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DURER-IHJROC. 


2H7 


ooAt  of  anns,  viz^  three  escincheons  ai^ent, 
m  a  deep  azure  field.  Durer  was  in  favor 
with  high  and  low.  All  the  artists  and 
learned  men  of  his  time  honored  and  loved 
him,  and  his  early  death,  in  1528,  was 
greasy  lamented.  Profound  application, 
great  facility  in  the  mechanical  part  of  hia 
art,  and  a  remarkable  talent  of  imitation, 
were  the  characteristics  of  Durer,  and 
enabled  him  to  exert  a  great  uifluence  on 
the  chuncter  of  Genuaii  art  He  was  the 
fiist  in  Germany  who  taught  the  rules  of 
perspective,  and  of  the  proportions  of  the 
numan  body,  according  to  mathematical 
principles.  His  treatise  on  proportions 
was  occasioned,  it  is  said,  by  his  studies 
on  the  picture  of  Adam  and  Eve.  He 
DOC  only  made  use  of  the  burin,  like  his 
predecessorB,  but  was  also  the  inventor 
of  etehkig,  or,  if  not  the  inventor,  the  fust 
who  excelled  in  the  art  He  invented  the 
method  of  printing  wood-cuts  with  two 
colors.  His  great  mathematical  knowl- 
edge enabled  him  to  form  a  regular  ^atem 
of  rules  for  drawing  and  paintinjj;.  He 
wrote  the  first  book  on  fortification  in 
Germany,  and  showed  how  to  cast  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet  according  to  fixed 

Sioportions,  by  geometrical  calculations, 
e  was  particulariy  eminent  as  a  por- 
trait painter.  He  had  the  power  of 
catching  the  exact  expression  of  the 
features,  and  of  defineating  all  the  pas- 
sions. Among  his  best  engravings  in 
copper  are  his  Fortune,  Melancholy,  Ad- 
am and  Eve  in  Paradise,  St  Hubert,  St 
Jerome,  and  the  SWiaaerPaMum(8o called), 
in  16  plates.  Amon^  his  best  wood-cuts 
are  the  OnaUr  Pastum  (so  called),  in  13 
plaies ;  the  Smaller  Passion,  with  the 
fiontispiece,  37  pieces ;  the  Revelation  of 
St  John,  with  the  frontispiece,  15  plates ; 
the  life  of  Mary,  2  prints,  with  the  thontis- 
piece.  Baitsch,  however,  has  made  it 
more  than  probable,  diat  Dfirer  himself  did 
not  engmve  in  wood.  He  only  made  the 
drawings  on  wooden  tablets,  which  were 
then  cut  by  form-cutters,  of  whom  there 
were  many  skilful  ones  at  that  time.  Dfi- 
rer  has,  also,  much  merit  as  a  writer.  He 
labored  to  purify  and  elevate  the  German 
language,  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  his 
friend,  W.  Pirkheimer.  His  writmgs, 
which  were  afterwards  translated  into 
Ladn,  French,  &c.,  were  published,  in  a 
collected  form,  at  Amheim,  by  J.  Jansen 
(1603,  folio).  J.  J.  Roth  has  written  a  life 
of  him  (Leipeic,  1791). 

DvRBBS,  in  law,  is  restraint  or  compul- 
sion ;  and  it  is  a  general  principle,  that  a 
eontr«ct  made  under  compulsion  is  not 
bixiding;  and  many  aoti  will  be  excused 


on  this  ground,  which  would  otherwise 
be  blamable.  There  may  be  very  differ- 
ent degrees  of  constraint,  from  absolute 
necessity  down  to  a  slight  motive  of  fear ; 
and  the  motives  of  fear  may  be  of  very 
different  strength ;  for,  if  a  man's  life  is 
endangered  by  his  refusal  to  do  an  act,  the 
law  considers  him  to  be  under  the  high- 
est compulsion,  and  contracts  made  under 
such  motives  are  not  binding.  Duress 
may  take  place  in  two  different  ways:  1. 
by  actual  imprisonment,  and,  2.  by  threats, 
per  mtiuu.  If  a  man  be  illegally  confined 
to  compel  him  to  sign  a  deed,  he  mav 
'  avoid  it ;  but,  if  he  be  legally  imprisoned, 
and,  to  gain  his  liberty,  signs  a  deed  or 
agreement,  it  will  bind  him.  This  is  not 
the  duress  contemplated  by  the  law. 
Compulsion  will  excuse  acts,  which,  done 
voluntarily,  and  from  choice,  would  be 
capital  cnmes ;  for,  by  compulsion  of  an 
enemy,  a  man  may  do  acts  whicli,  had  they 
been  of  his  fi^e  choice,  would  have  been 
treason,  and  yet  be  excused.  But  the 
evil  committed  must  be  in  some  propor- 
tion to  that  feared,  os  a  man  would  not 
be  excused  for  homicide,  to  avoid  even  a 
serious  injury  to  himself.  But  in  regard 
to  civil  transactions,  a  smaller  degree  of 
restraint  will  be  the  ground  of  avoiding 
an  obligation.  It  has  been  adjudged  that, 
if  one  make  a  deed  to  avoid  the  duress 
done  by  merely  taking  bis  cattle,  in  other 
words,  to  procure  their  liberation,  if  they 
were  unlawfully  detained,  the  deed  may 
be  avoided.  A  son  may  allege  the  duress 
of  a  fiither,  a  husband  that  of  his  wife,  a 
servant  tiiat  of  his  master,  and  a  master 
that  of  his  servant,  in  avoidance  of  a  deed. 
A  marriage,  as  well  as  any  other  contract, 
made  by  one  under  duress,  may,  on  tiiis 
groimd,  be  avoided. 

DuRoc,  Michael,  duke  of  Friuli,  grand- 
rnarshal  of  tlie  palace,  senator,  general  of 
division,  mnd-cordon  of  the  legion  of 
honor,  and  of  neariy  all  the  orders  of  Eu- 
rope, was  bom  at  Pont-&-Mousson,  in  1773. 
His  fe^er  was  of  an  ancient  family  of 
Auvergne ;  having  liecotne  a  captain  and 
knight  of  St  Louis,  he  married,  and  estab- 
lished himself  in  Lorraine.  Young  Duroc 
was  eariy  destined  for  the  army,  and 
studied  at  the  military  school  of  Pont-A* 
Mouflson.  March  1, 1792,  be  was  made 
lieutenant  of  artillery.  He  then  served  in 
the  republican  armies.  Honorable  men- 
tion is  made  of  his  name  in  the  bulletins 
of  the  Italian  army,  particularly  at  the 
siege  of  Mantua,  and  at  the  battle  of 
Sismone,  in  1796.  He  served,  during  the 
first  campaign  in  Italy,  as  aid-de-camp 
of  the  genend  of  artilleiy,  Lespina 


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DUROC. 


Being  subsequently  appointed  aid-de-camp 
to  seDeral  Bonaparte,  be  soon  made  bim- 
self  conspicuous  for  coolness,  courage  and 
ability.  He  distinguished  bimself  at  the 
battle  of  Grimolano,  where  he  was  wound- 
ed, and  his  horse  was  killed  under  him. 
At  the  pessa^  of  the  Izonso,  in  Friuli, 
he  was  inenuoned  as  one  of  the  bravest 
and  most  able  officeia.  The  title  of  duke  of 
Friuh,  which  he  received  ten  years  after- 
wards, was  chosen  in  allusion  to  his  con- 
duct at  Izonso.  Duroc  followed  general 
Bonaparte  into  Epypt,  and  was  promoted 
to  the  rank  of  chief  of  battalion  the  25th 
of  Brumaire,  year  VL  During  this  cam- 
paign, in  which  his  services  were  of  the 
greatest  value,  his  name  was  again  men- 
tioned with  honor,  after  the  battle  of  Sa- 
hhia,  the  successftil  result  of  which  was 
mainly  owing  to  his  valor.  Duruw  tlie 
expedition  into  Syria,  at  the  siege  of  JaflB^ 
Duroc,  seeing  the  grenadiers  faJiing  at  the 
foot  of  the  breach,  and  wavering,  put 
himself  at  their  head,  'and  engaged,  hand 
to  hand,  witli  several  Turks.  The  army, 
seeing  him  disappear  in  a  tower  which 
was  defended  witli  great  fury,  gave  him 
up  for  lost,  but  soon  received  him  with 
shouts  on  seeing  him  appear  on  the  top, 
master  of  the  tower  and  of  the  ramparts. 
After  having  distinguished  himself  on 
several  occasions,  betore  St  Jean  d'Acre, 
he  was  severely  wounded  by  the  bursting 
of  a  howitzer,  in  one  of  the  last  assaults 
made  during  the  siege,  the  most  bloody  and 
obstinate  in  the  military  annals  of  France. 
He  distinguislied  himself  no  less  at  the 
battle  of  Aboukir.  Beinff  named  chief 
of  brigade,  he  accompanied  general  Bona- 
parte on  his  return  to  France;  he  was 
almost  the  only  aid-de-camp  of  the  com- 
mander-in-chief who  survived  the  expedi- 
tion: four  had  been  killed  in  the  cam- 
paign. Duroc  took  part  in  the  events  of 
the  18th  Brumaire,  and,  a  few  days  after, 
was  sent  to  the  court  of  Berlin,  where  he 
was  received  with  great  distmction.  This 
embassy  contributed  to  preserve  tlie  peace 
between  these  two  countries.  War  con- 
tinuing between  France  and  Austria,  the 
first  consul  set  out  on  the  campaign, 
which  was  tenninated  at  Marengo.  Du- 
roc accompanied  him  as  first  aid-de-camp. - 
His  name  is  honorably  mentioned  in  the 
account  of  the  passage  of  tlie  Ticino, 
where  be  was  one  of  the  first  to  leap  into 
a  boat,  at  the  head  of  the  grenadiers. 
After  the  peace  of  Amiens,  he  was  sent, 
on  diplomatic  missions,  to  tlie  courts  of 
St  Petersburg,  Stockholm  and  Copen- 
hagen. On  his  return,  he  was  promoted 
to  the  rank  of  general  of  brigade  and  gov- 


ernor of  the  Tuileries ;  and,  on  the  Mi 
Fructidor,  year  X,  he  vtras  made  general 
of  division.  When  the  first  consul  as- 
sumed the  title  of  emperor,  he  made  Duroc 
fnnd  marshal  of  the  palace.  The  court- 
ier and  favorite  never  ceased  to  be  a  sol- 
dier. He  accompanied  Napoleon  in 
all  his  campaigns.  In  1605,  he  was 
chaiged  with  a  mission  to  the  Prussian 
court,  at  the  time  when  Napoleon  was 
marching  against  Vienna.  He  rejoined 
the  army  previously  to  the  battle  of  Aus- 
teriitz,  and  took  the  command  of  the 
division  of  grenadiers,  which  had  been 
left  without  a  head,  in  consequence  of  the 
wound  of  Oudinot  At  the  battle  of  Ain- 
terlitz,  he  also  commanded  a  division  of 
this  chosen  corps.  During  the  campaij^ 
in  Prussia,  in  1806,  Duroc  was  commis- 
sioned to  sign  the  treaty  of  peace  with  the 
king  of  Saxony ;  and,  at  a  later  period,  he 
was  the  principal  negotiator  of  the  armi- 
stice which  preceded  the  peace  of  Tilsit. 
He  followed  Napoleon  to  Spain,  and 
during  the  campaign  of  Wagram.  At 
the  b^e  of  Esslingen,  he  arranged  and 
directed  his  batteries  in  such  a  way  as  to 
arrest  the  progress  of  the  enemy  in  a 
decisive  movement  After  the  battle  of 
Znaym,  Napoleon  sent  him  to  the  arch- 
duke Charles,  to  negotiate  an  armistioe. 
On  the  return  fix>m  the  Russian  cam- 
paign, in  1812,  Duroc  reoiganized  the 
imperial  guard,  which,  at  tliis  time,  and 
on  severalother  occasions,  he  commanded. 
Before  his  last  departure  for  the  army,  he 
was  appointed  senator.  Duroc  finallv 
followed  Napoleon  to  Germany,  in  1813, 
and  was  killed,  May  23,  after  the  battle  of 
Bautzen,  in  entering  the  village  of  Mer- 
kersdor^  by  a  ball,  which  also  killed  gen- 
eral Kirschncr,  with  whom  he  was  con- 
versing behind  the  emperor.  This  ball 
was  the  last  which  fell  on  that  dav ;  and 
the  piece  fix>m  which  it  was  dischaised 
was  at  so  great  a  distance,  and  surrounded 
by  so  many  obstacles,  that  it  is  incon- 
ceivable how  it  could  have  reached  the 
place.  Napoleon  visited  Duroc  on  his 
death-bed,  and  mingled  teara  with  his 
fiuewell.  He  lost  in  him  a  true  counsel- 
lor, a  iiiithfiil  fiiend,  and  one  of  his  bravest 
officers.  The  deaths  of  the  duke  of  Fri- 
uli and  of  the  duke  of  Montebello  are  the 
two  events  on  which  Napoleon  showed 
the  greatest  sensibilitjr.  Succesmvely 
charged  with  the  most  important  duties, 
military  and  political,  the  duke  of  Friuli 
was  ever  remarkable  for  a  moderation 
rare  in  a  soldier,  for  ability,  disinterested- 
ness, modesty,  firmness,  and  a  presence  of 
mind  which  never  deserted  him.     For 


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DUROC-*IHJTEN8. 


849 


15  yeaiB,  he  was  the  confidant  and  friend 
of  that  extraordinary  man.  When  Napo- 
leon left  France,  in  ^815,  and  einbaric'- 
ed  on  board  the  Bellerophon,  he  wished 
to  live  in  England,  under  the  name  of 
colonel  Duroc.  Seven  years  afterwards, 
we  have  another  proof  of  the  constant 
and  aftectienate  remembrance  which  Na- 
poleon retained  of  him.  He  left  to  his 
daughter  one  of  the  largest  legacies  be- 
queathed by  his  will. 

DussELDORF ;  Capital  of  the  government 
of  DCbaseldorf,  in  the  Pmssian  province  of 
Juliers-Cleves-Berg,  formerly  the  capital 
of  the  duchy  of  Bm,  situated  in  a  beauti- 
ful plain  on  the  lOiine  and  the  Dftssel, 
which  unite  under  its  walls.  It  was  bom- 
barded by  the  French  in  1794,  and  the 
castle  and  many  of  the  finest  buildings 
were  destroyed.  The  town  is  one  of  the 
finest  on  the  Rhine ;  some  of  the  streets 
are  regularly  laid  out ;  the  houses  are  of 
brick.  It  contains  2300  houses  and  26,600 
inh^tants,  and  is  divided  into  the  Old 
Town,  New  Town  and  Charles's  Town. 
The  New  Town  was  built  by  the  elector 
John  William.  The  buildings  resemble 
palaces,  and  the  principal  street  is  adorned 
^th  Ume-trees.  Chaiies's  Town  owes 
its  existence  to  the  elector  Charles  Theo- 
dore, fix>m  whom  it  derives  its  name.  It 
has  recently  been  much  embellished,  and 
cfintains  several  spacious  squares.  The 
collegiate  church,  and  principal  parochial 
cliurch,  which  contains  tlie  tombs  of  the 
ancient  dukes  of  Juliers  and  Berg  (among 
which  the  marble  mausoleum  of  the  duke 
John  is  distinguished),  deserve  mention. 
The  Jesuits'  church,  which  is,  however, 
too  much  ornamented ;  the  bronze  statue, 
by  Crepello,  of  the  elector  John  William 
(a  great  patron  of  the  arts,  to  whom  Dii»- 
seldorf  was  indebted  for  its  prosperity), 
which  stands  in  the  mariiet-place,  and  a 
marble  statue  of  the  same  elector,  by  the 
same  artist,  in  the  yard  of  the  castle  (the 
beautiful  caisde  itself  is  in  ruinsj ;  the 
observatory,  in  what  was  formerly  the 
Jesuits'  college,  and  the  fine  scientific 
apparatus,  are  also  worthy  of  attention. 
The  gallery  of  paintings,  containing  the 
richest  collection  of  the  works  of  Rubens^ 
and  other  creat  artists  of  the  Dutch  and 
Flemish  schools,  and  formerly  the  chief 
ornament  of  Diiaseklori;  has  been  removed 
to  M&nich ;  only  the  valuable  collection, 
containing  14^1  original  designs,  23,445 
copperplates  and  casts  in  plaster,  is  still 
letajned  for  the  use  of  the  academy  of  arts 
at  DfisseldorC  The  town  has  some  im- 
portant silk  and  cotton  manu&ctories  and 
sugar  refineries,  with  glaas  founderies  and 

VOL.  IV.  20 


vinegar  and  soap  manufketories.  Dfiasel- 
dorf  is  one  of  tlie  prindpal  commercial 
towns  on  the  Rhine. 

Dutch  Lanovaoe,  Literature, 
Schools  of  Art,  &c    (See  MUurlandsA 

DuTBNS,  Louis,  bom  at  Tours,  1730,  or 
Protestant  parents,  died  in  London,  1812L 
At  the  time  of  his  death,  which  happened 
at  an  advanced  ase,  he  was  histonom- 
pher  to  the  king  of  England,  and  nteinber 
of  the  academy  of  sciences  in  London,  and 
of  the  Paris  academy  of  inscriptions. 
Being  convinced,  by  some  unsuocessfijl 
attempts  in  tragedy,  mat  he  had  no  genius 
for  poetry,  he  obtained,  with  some  difil- 
cul^,  the  place  of  a  tutor.  He  became 
the  fiiend  of  many  distinguished  men, 
who  enriched  him  with  pensions,  bene- 
fices and  legacies.  He  was  three  times 
British  charge  tPtjfmru  to  Turin,  travel- 
led through  Europe  several  times,  and 
formed  an  ac<juaiiitance  with  manvof  the 
learned  men  m  difilerent  parts  of  the  con- 
tinent His  works  have  been  often  repub- 
lished, and  show  the  variety  of  his  learning, 
refined  by  intercourse  with  the  polite 
world.  He  published  the  works  of  Leib- 
nitz, at  Geneva,  in  6  vols.,  not  quite  com- 
plete. The  prefiice  to  the  mathemati- 
cal part  is  highly  esteemed  bv  mathe- 
maticiana  Dutens  made  himself  known 
as  a  poet  by  the  two  collections  Le 
Caprice  poUuiue  and  Poesies.  His  Re- 
eherckes  avr  rOrigine  dts  DiwwoerUa  at' 
trUnUes  aux  Mademes  show  the  extent  of 
his  reading,  but  rate  the  knowledge  and 
invention  of  the  ancients  somewhat  too 
high.  His  Jhcnn  ou  Appd  au  hon  Sent^ 
of  which  he  printed  several  successive 
editions,  contams  severe  remarks  upon 
Voltaire  and  Rousseau.  In  general,  he 
was  an  opponent  of  the  French  philoso- 
phera,  and  attacked  them  on  every  occa- 
sion. In  his  G2uwe$  miUts  (London, 
4  vols.)  may  be  found  his  Ligique  cu 
VAri  de  rtdsonntr.  His  HUtoire  deeequi 
s'ett  pas9i  pour  U  RHabUgsemmt  d^une 
Rigence  mAngUterrt  (1789)  has  historical 
interest  Dutens  also  composed  a  work, 
rather  alien  from  his  common  pursuits,  On 
the  Genealogy  of  the  Heroes  of  Romance. 
Three  volumes  of  ^dffiotreffJ'un  Foya^^ 
qui  se  rtpoat  (Paris,  1806)  were  received 
with  general  approbation.  The  3di  vol., 
entitle  IhdeMuma^  contains  anecdotes 
and  observations.  An  earlier  work  of  m 
similar  kind  wa»  interesting  as  a  sort  of 
scandalous  chronicle  of  the  distinguisbed 
men  of  his  time ;  but  he  thought  it  advi*^ 
able  to  destroy  the  whole  ^tion  before  it 
was  made  puUic,  and,  what  is  rarely  the 
case,  he  aeconqiliBhed  his  object 


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IHrnB8-J>UVAU 


Dum^    (See  Repmu^) 

DuvAhy  Valentine  Jaineniy,  librarian  of 
tbe  emperor  Francis  I,  bom  in  1695^  waa 
the  eon  of  a  poor  peasant  in  the  village  of 
Artonay,  in  Champagne.  In  his  10th 
year,  he  lost  his  parenta;  in  his  Hth  year, 
being  driven  from  bis  native  place  by  the 
•^vant  of  employment,  half  Amished,  and 
soon  after  attacked  by  tbe  smaU  pox,  be 
wandered  about  in  tbe  open  country,  in 
the  teiTible  winter  of  1709.  Providence 
eonducted  him  to  the  cell  of  the  good 
heimit  Palemon,  who  received  him,  per- 
mitted him  to  share  his  labora,  and  taught 
bim  to  read.  Here  Duval  became  devout 
without  beuig  superstitious.  He  then 
exchanged  this  quiet  retreat  for  another  at 
St  Anne,  near  Luneviile.  Here  his  only 
company  was  four  ignorant  hermits ;  his 
employment,  tending  sii(  cows,  and  bis ' 
only  means  of  improvement,  some  volumes 
of  tbe  Blaue  Biblioihek;  but  be  finally 
succeeded  in  learning  to  write.  An  epit- 
ome of  arithmetic,  which  fell  into  his 
bands,  hisbly  interested  his  youthful  mind. 
In  the  solitude  of  a  forest,  he  received  his 
first  ideas  of  astronomy  and  geography. 
In  order  to  procure  the  means  of  educat- 
ing himself^  he  killed  game,  and,  in  a  few 
months,  the  proceeds  of  his  toils  funiished 
him  with  a  little  stock  of  money.  Hap- 
pening to  find  a  gold  seal  engraved  with 
a  coatof  arm%  he  had  it  advertised  by  the 
minister  of  the  place.  An  Englishman 
by  the  name  of  rorster  appeared  aB  the 
owner,  and  Duval  gave  it  up  to  him  on 
condition  that  he  would  explain  to  him 
tbe  coat  of  arms.  Surprised  by  this  hon- 
esty and  curiosity,  Forster  rewarded  him 
so  bountifully,  that  his  Ubrary,  which  had 
been  gradually  forming  out  of  the  hunting 
fund,  was  uicreased  to  200  volumes,  while 
he  spent  nothing  on  personal  or  external 
conveniences.  Engaged  in  his  studies, 
Duyal  paid  httle  attention  to  his  herd,  and 
tliereby  displeased  the  hermits.  One  of 
them  even  threatened  to  bum  his  books. 
This  roused  the  spirit  of  DuvaL  He 
seized  a  fire-shovel,  drove  the  brotlier  out  of 
hisowncell,andshuthimselfupinit.  The 
other  brothers  came  with  the  superior,  but 
he  refused  to  open  the  door  till  they  had 
agreed  to  pass  over  all  that  had  happened, 
and  to  allow  him^  in  future,  two  hours  a 
day  for  studying,  while  he,  on  his  part, 
waa  to  serve  them  10  years  more  for  his 
clothes  and  victuals.  Duval  was  now 
secure.  He  pursued  his  studies  with  more 
zeal  than  ever  in  the  forest  where  his 
eows  were  grazing.  He  was  found  one 
day  by  the  youn^  princes  of  Lorraine, 
while  thus  busy  with  his  maps  and  charts. 


They  made  him  an  oiler,  on  the  spot,  ot 
placing  him  with  the  Jesuits,  at  ront-Jk 
MousBon.  He  accepted  it,  but  only  on 
condition  diat  his  liberty  should  not  be 
sacrificed  by  it.  He  soon  made  such 
rapid  progress,  that  duke  Leopold  took 
him  witli  him  to  Paris,  in  1718,  to  see 
what  efl^t  this  new  scene  would  have 
upon  him.  But  Duval  declared  thai  all 
the  pomp  of  the  city  and  its  works  of  art 
were  fiur  inferior  to  the  majesty  of  the  rising 
or  setting  sun.  On  his  return,  Leopola 
appointed  him  his  librarian,  and  made  him 
professor  of  history  in  the  academy  at  Lune* 
ville.  These  ofiioes,  and  the  lessons  which 
he  gave  to  the  young  Engfishmen  studying 
there  (among  whom  wastbe&mous  Chat- 
ham), afforded  him  the  means  of  rebuild- 
ing his  old  hermitage  of  St  Anne.  Whea 
Lorraine  was  ceded  to  France,  he  re- 
moved, with  tbe  hbrary  under  his  care, 
to  Florence,  where  he  staid  10  yeara 
The  emperor  Francis  invited  him  to  Vi- 
enna, to  form  a  collection  of  medals. 
Here  he  died  m  1775.  With  all  his  leam- 
mg,  Duval  was  exceedingly  modest  His 
(jSwortBypricitUea  dk  Minu  narsa  Fie,  were 
published  at  Peteiabui^,  B&le,  and  Straa- 
Durg,  in  tbe  year  1784,  in  two  volumes 
quarto. 

DuvAi*,  Alexander,  member  of  the 
French  academy,  and  one  of  the  moet 
popular  writers  for  the  theatre  in  oar  time, 
was  bom  in  1767,  at  Remie%  entered  tbe 
navy,  and  served  in  the  American  war 
under  admiral  De  Grasse.  He  was  then 
appointed  secretary  of  the  deputation  of 
the  states  of  Bretague  to  Paris.  Circum- 
sumoes  obliged  him  to  leave  that  city,and 
he  served  as  geographical  ennneer  m  the 
construction  of  the  canal  of  Dieppe.  His 
paasion  for  the  theatre,  in  1791,  led  him 
to  the  ThSdbrt  Drwncms  as  an  actor.  He 
was  soon  induced,  oy  the  dangers  of  his 
country,  to  return  to  the  military  service^ 
and  acted  as  a  volunteer  in  the  first  cam- 
paign of  the  revolutionary  war.  After  his 
return  to  the  French  theatre,  he  was 
involved  in  the  same  fiite  with  the  other 
actors,  and  escaped  the  scaffold  with  his 
comrades  only  by  the  courage  of  a  secro- 
tary  in  tlie  committee  of  general  security, 
who  ventured  to  conceal  the  papers  reliv- 
ing to  the  accusation.  He  was  liberated 
by  the  events  of  the  9th  lliermidor,  and 
relinquished  the  theatre  to  devote  himself 
solely  to  literamre,  in  wbkh  he  soon  carae 
to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  sucoeas- 
ful  writers  of  comedy  and  the  opera.  We 
have  about  50  pieces  from  him,  of  wbioh 
many  have  been  admitted  into  die  Fmeh 
B^ptfinne.     His  little  pieoep)  JMoifoii  a 


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DUVAL-^DWARFS. 


881 


/ffl«n  Vy  and  several  others,  are  among 
the  most  popular  pieces  on  the  French 
and  German  stages.  (See  his  (Euvre$ 
Computes^  Paris,  18S22,  9  vol8.)--Hi8  broth- 
er, Amatiiy  Duval  (q.  v.),  distinguished 
for  his  knowledge  of  anciei^t  and  modem 
literature,  exerted  a  highly  beneficial  in- 
fluence on  him  by  his  criticisms. 

DovAL,  Amaufy ;  one  of  the  most  emi- 
nent scliolara  of  France;  bom  1760,  at 
Renne&  He  fitted  himself  for  the  prac- 
tice of  law  at  an  early  ace,  and,  in  his 
20th  year,  distinguished  himself  as  an 
advocate  in  the  parliament  of  Bretagne, 
where,  amongst  other  things,  he  gained 
great  reputation  by  his  defence  of  a  young 
man  who,  in  a  fit  of  jealoue^,  had  shot  his 
rivaL  He  soon,  however,  left  his  profes- 
sion for  diplomatic  pursuits,  and,  in  1785^ 
was  made  secretary  of  legation  at  Naples. 
In  Italy,  he  visited  all  the  monuments  of 
antiquity,  and  collected,  during  his  resi- 
deaoe  of  several  years  at  Naples,  rich 
materials  for  a  woik  on  antiquities,  which 
he  had  long  been  contemplatinff.  He 
remained  some  time  in  Italv,  after  the 
setuni  of  the  embassy  with  which  he  was 
connected,  in  order  to  prosecute  his  re- 
searehes.  When  he  was  in  Rome,  in 
1799,  he  obtained  a  aecretaiyship  by 
means  of  BaaseviUe,  then  ambassador  of 
the  French  republic,  and  in  the  insurrec- 
u6fi  gC  J«s.  1#93,  iii  wlheh  m«  ambassa- 
dor lost  his  hie,  he  was  himself  in  great 
danger.  He  was  rescued,  by  a  scalier, 
fiom  the  hands  of  the  populace,  and  put 
in  prison.  Having  obtained  hid  liberty  in 
the  course  of  a  few  days,  he  was  sent,  by 
bis  own  vnsh,  to  Naples.  He  soon  aban- 
doned a  profession  which,  at  a  time  when 
all  the  European  courts  were  closed 
against  the  ambassadore  of  the  French 
republic,  oftered  no  prospects  to  his  am- 
bition. He  now  devoted  himself  to  lite- 
rary labors,  and,  in  company  with  Champ- 
fort,  Ginguen^,  Say  and  others,  com- 
menced the  Dicade  phSotophupte,  in  which 
he  took  a  very  active  part,  till  this  peri- 
odical was  united  with  the  Merewre  de 
fVtmce,  in  the  year  1806,  when  it  took  the 
name  of  iSeviie,  which  Duval  continued  to 
publish  till  1814.  During  this  period,  he 
thrice  won  the  prize  offered  by  the  French 
institute  on  questions  in  polidcal  economy, 
ethics  and  antiquities.  Under  the  direc- 
tory, he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
department  of  arts  and  sciences,  in  the 
ministry  of  the  interior,  and  held  it  till 
1815,  when  he  slrnred  the  fate  of  most  of 
the  other  officers,  who  were  superseded 
by  men  of  the  old  school  of  politics.    In 


1811,  be  became  a  member  of  the  insti- 
tute, in  the  class  for  history  and  literature^ 
to  which  tlie  old  name  of  acadanu  of  in- 
scripHona  mid  jSne  arts  has  again  been 
given.  He  belongB  to  the  committee  en- 
caged in  the  continuation  of  the  literaiy 
bistoiy  of  France,  which  was  commenced 
by  the  Benedictines.  Among  bis  other 
writings  are  to  be  noticed  his  prize  easav 
on  auci^it  and  modem  burials  (Deg  iSe- 
puUurea  ckez  les  Anciem  et  U$  Jlfoieme«j; 
nis  work  on  the  monuments  of  Pans 
(Pans  et  ses  Monumewj  3  vols.,  folio); 
and  the  Essays  and  Observations  on  tlie 
Theatre  of  the  Romans,  published  1^  hinii 
and  his  brother,  the  uruitful  dramatio 
writer,  Alexander  DuvaL  (q.  v.) 

Dwarfs.  In  ages  when  knowledge 
depends  mostly  on  tradition,  it  is  natural 
for  the  human  mind  to  people  the  world 
virith  a  thousand  imaginary  beinea.  Such 
are  dragons,  giants  and  dwarts;  all  of 
which  have  some  foundation  in  reality^ 
and  afford  amusement  to  the  imagination, 
even  after  experience  has  corrected  the 
beUef  in  the  reality  of  their  marveilous 
character.  We  need  hardly  say,  that  the 
pygmies  of  the  ancients,  and  the  Quimos^ 
whom  Commerson  tells  us  that  he  dis- 
covered, are  as  fabulous  as  the  renowned 
Lilliputiana  The  dwarfs  which  actually 
exist  are  deviations  of  nature  from  her 
geneml  rule ;  asd  the  tcmr  ike^  is  a 
vague  one,  as  we  cannot  sav  how  small  a 
person  must  be  to  be  so  called.  Thera  is 
no  instance  on  record  of  dwarfs  distin- 
guished for  talents.  Their  figiues  are  some- 
times perfectly  well  proportioned.  Ther 
have  generally  one  trait  in  common  with 
chi]dren-«»a  very  high  opinion  of  tlieir 
own  litde  person,  and  great  vanity.  The 
Romans  used  dwarfe  for  several  purposes; 
sometimes  in  gladiatorial  exhibitions,  on 
account  of  the  ridiculous  contrast  which 
they  afforded  to  their  opponents.  To- 
wards the  end  of  the  middle  ages,  and 
even,  in  some  countries,  as  kite  as  the 
beginning  of  the  last  century,  dwarfe  were 
a  nahionable  appendage  to  the  courts  of 
European  princes^  and  the  families  of  the 
nobles.  Who  does  not  recollect  the  nu- 
merous pictures  of  those  times,  with  a 
Negro  or  a  dwarf  in  tlie  back -ground? 
They  seem  to  have  been  great  favorites 
with  the  ladies  of  the  family.  They  were 
sometimes,  also,  used  as  fools.  Peter  the 
Great  carried  this  fency  for  dwarfs  to  a 
great  extent.  He  assembled  individuals 
of  this  kind  from  all  parts  of  his  empire, 
and  ordered  the  femous  marriage  of  tho 
dwarfik  At  the  court  of  Coustautinople, 
a  number  of  dwarfe  are  always  main- 


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DWARF&-DWIGHT. 


tained,  as  pages.  Those  who  happen  to 
be,  at  the  satne  time,  deaf  and  dumb,  and 
have  been  mutilated,  are  particularly  val- 
ued, and  reserved  for  the  sultan. 

DwELLiifo.    (See />inmci2,^and  J9<ifrtto- 
fibn.) 

DwioHT,  Timothy,  an  eminent  divine, 
was  bom  of  reputable  parents,  at  North- 
ampton, in  Massachusetts,  May  14, 1758. 
He  was  admitted  a  member  of  Yale  col- 
lege in  September,  1765,  when  he  had 
just  passed  nis  Idth  year ;  and,  after  leav- 
mg  coUege,  he  took  charge  of  a  gmmmar- 
school  at  New  Haven,  where  he  taught 
for  two  years.  While  hi  this  situation, 
his  time  was  resularly  divided :  six  hours 
a  day  in  school;  eight  houis  in  study; 
and  the  remaining  ten  hours  in  exercise 
and  sleep.  In  1771,  he  became  a  tutor  in 
Yale  college,  where  he  remained  for  six 
years.  At  the  age  of  19,  Mr.  Dwight 
commenced  writing  the  Conquest  of  Ca- 
iiaan,  a  r^lar  epic  poem,  founded  on  a 
portion  of  sacrea  history.  It  was  con- 
cluded in  1774,  but  was  not  published 
tmtil  1795.  On  receiving  the  denee  of 
roaster  of  arts  (1772)^  he  deliverea  a  Dis- 
sertation on  the  HistoiT,  Eloquence,  and 
Poetry  of  the  Bible,  which  was  immedi- 
ately printed,  and  afterwards  republished, 
both  in  this  country  and  in  Europe.  He 
was  also  deeply  engaged,  during  his  res- 
i«l«n«o  m  ooUego  ae  a  tutov,  in  the  Study 
of  the  higher  branches  of  the  mathemat- 
ica  About  this  period,  he  attempted,  1^ 
restricting  his  diet,  to  remove  the  necessity 
of  bodily  exercise ;  but,  after  puisuing  his 
couise  of  abstinence  and  study  about  a 
year,  he  became  subject  to  severe  attacks 
of  the  bilious  colic,  which  so  wasted  his 
strength,  that  it  was  with  the  utmost  diffi- 
culty he  could  be  removed  to  Northamp- 
ton. His  physician,  having  administered 
successfuUy  for  his  present  relief,  advised 
the  daily  use  of  strong  bodily  exercise,  as 
the  only  means  of  restoring  his  constitu- 
tion. Adopting  this  system,  he  miked 
upmuxis  of  aoOO,  arid  rode  upwanls  of 
9000  miles,  in  the  course  of  a  twelve- 
month. The  result  of  this  was  the  per- 
fect restoration  of  his  health,  which  con- 
tinued good  for  the  ensuinff  40  yeara  of 
bis  life.  The  college  vras  broken  up  in 
the  month  of  May,  1777,  the  students 
leaving  New  Haven,  and  pursuing  their 
studies  under  their  respective  preceptors, 
in  situations  less  exposed  to  the  incursions 
of  the  enemy.  Mr.  Dwight,  with  his 
class,  went  to  Wetherafield,  where  he 
remained  with  them  till  September.  He 
was  this  summer  licensed  as  a  preacher, 
by  a  committee  of  the  noithem  associa- 


tion, in  his  native  county  of  Hampshire ; 
and,  in  addition  to  teachmg  his  pupils,  he 
preached  during  the  summer  of^  1777 ; 
and,  in  September  of  the  same  year,  he 
was  nominated  chaplain  in  the  army.  In 
addition  to  the  duties  of  his  statibn,  he 
contributed  not  a  little  to  heighten  the 
enthusiasm  of  the  soldiera  by  writing 
several  patriotic  songs,  which  enjoyed  a 
deserved  popularity.  The  circumstance 
of  his  father's  death,  in  October,  1778, 
obliged  him  to  reagn  his  office,  in  order 
to  assist  his  mother  in  the  support  and 
education  of  her  family.  He  accordingly 
removed  his  own  family  to  Noffthamptoo, 
where  he  resided  five  years,  laboring  on 
the  farm  through  the  week,  preachine  to 
difterent  congregations  in  the  neighbor- 
hood on  Sundays.  He  likewise  estab- 
lished a  school,  in  which  he  received  a 
large  number  of  pupils,  and  employed 
two  assistants.  He  was  twice  elected, 
about  the  close  of  the  revolutionary  war, 
a  member  of  the  legislature  of  the  state. 
In  1783,  he  was  ordained  minister  of 
Greenfield,  a  parisli  in  the  town  of  Fair- 
field, in  Connecticut  Immediately  upon 
setding  at  this  place,  doctor  Dwight  opened 
an  academy,  which  soon  acquired  a  rep- 
utation then  unequalled  in  this  country. 
A  large  number  of  pupils,  from  all  parts 
of  the  Union,  as  well  as  finom  abroad,  re- 
sorted to  this  school,  where,  in  the  course 
of  his  Id  years'  reMdence,  he  taught  mar^ 
than  1000  scholars ;  adopting,  to  a  certain 
extent,  the -system  since  called  the  fnont- 
UniaL  In  the  year  1787,  the  college  of 
Princeton,  New  Jersey,  conferred  up<m 
him  the  degree  of  D.  D.  In  1794,  he 
published  a  poem,  in  seven  parts,  under 
the  title  of  Greenfield  Hill,  which,  as  well 
as  the  Conquest  of  Canaan,  was  repub- 
lished in  England.  On  the  death  of  the 
reverend  doctor  Styles,  in  1795,  doctor 
Dwight  was  elected  president  of  Yale 
college,  which  was  in  a  depressed  state. 
His  reputation  soon  brought  to  the  college 
a  great  accession  of  students.  When  he 
entered  the  office  of  president,  the  pro- 
fessorship of  theology  was  vacant,  and, 
several  fruitless  attempts  having  been 
made  to  fill  it,  he  engaged  to  perform  the 
duties.  He  was  annually  elected  to  this 
chair  for  10  successive  years,  at  the  end 
of  which  period  the  appointment  was 
made  pennanent,  and  he  continued  to  fill 
it  for  the  remainder  of  his  life.  In  the 
year  1797,  at  the  request  of  the  ceneral 
association  of  Connecticut,  he  undertook 
the  revision  of  doctor  Watts's  version  of 
the  psalms,  to  supply  such  as  were  omit- 
ted, and  to  make  a  selection  of  hymni 


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BWIGHT— DYEING. 


•depled  to  pubKe  womh]|k  Li  1800,  he 
■ubinitted  his  work  to  a  joiot  oommittee 
of  tliat  body  aoud  of  the  geocini  aeaerMy 
of  the  Preabyterian  church,  by  wiiom  it 
was  approved  aiid  recommended.  JBo- 
rides  making  many  alterations  in  the  ver* 
■ion  of  doctor  Watts,  he  wrote  33  entire 
psalms.  In  the  year  1796,  he  commenced 
traveliiog,  during  tlie  college  vacations, 
porticulany  in  May  and  September,  for 
the  sake  of  exercise,  and  continued  this 

rctioe  through  the  remainder  of  his  life, 
these  exclusions,  principally  through 
the  New  England  states  and  New  York, 
he  took  notes,  and  aflerwards  vnrote  them 
out,  for  the  gratification  of  his  fiimily. 
This  work  was  published  after  his  death, 
in  four  voUimes,  octava  It  embraces  an 
account  of  the  natural  aspect  of  the  terri- 
tories over  which  he  travelled,  and  of  the 
condition  of  sodeQr  in  those  states.  It 
also  contains  notices  of  eminent  men  of 
that  portion  of  the  Union,  and  anecdotes 
iUustrative  of  the  history  and  customs  of 
the  aborigines.  Doctor  Dwigbt  died  Jan- 
uary 11,  1817,  after  repeated  and  severe 
attacks  of  a  disease,  the  character  of  which 
was  not  well  undentood.  His  death  was 
regarded  as  a  severe  loss  to  the  cause  of 
learning  and  religion  in  his  country.  Be- 
sides the  works  aheadv  mentioned,  is  his 
Theolocy,  being  a  collection  of  his  theo- 
logical lectuiea,  which  has  been  published 
since  his  death,  and  has  passed  through  sev- 
eral editions,  in  the  U.  States  and  England. 
DTBiite  is  a  chemical  art,  and  eonsists 
in  fixing  upon  cloths  of  various  kinds  any 
color  which  may  be  desired,  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  that  they  shall  not  easily  undergo 
any  alteration,  by  the  agents  to  which  the 
doth  is  ordinarily  exposed.  The  chief 
materials  of  stuff  to  be  dyed  are  wool,  silk, 
cotton  snd  linen ;  of  which  the  former 
two  are  more  easily  dyed  than  the  latter. 
Wool,  in  its  preparation  for  dyeing,  re- 
quires to  be  cleansed,  by  scouring,  from 
a  fiitty  substance,  called  the¥o2fc,  which 
is  contained  in  the  fleece.  This  is  done 
by  means  of  a  weak  alkahne  solution, 
whioh  converts  the  yolk  into  soap.-  Pu- 
trid urine  is  commonly  employed,  on  ac- 
count of  its  cheapness ;  the  ammonia  it 
contains  being  sufficient  to  remove  the 
crease.  Silk,  when  taken  from  the  cocoon, 
js  covered  with  a  kind  of  vajnisb,  which, 
because  it  does  not  easily  yiekl,  either  to 
water  or  alcohol,  requires  also  the  aid 
of  a  sU^ht  portion  of  alkali.  Much  care 
Js  necessary,  however,  in  this  operation, 
sinee  the  silk  itself  is  liable  to  be  corroded 
and  discolored*  Fine  soap  is  commonly 
Aised;  but  even  this  is  said  to  be  detri- 
30* 


.  and  the  white  China  silk,  which 
is  supposed  to  be  prepared  without  sosp^ 
has  a  lustra  superior  to  the  £uxopeaii. 
The  preliminary  process  of  washing  is 
intended  to  render  the  stuff  to  be  dyed 
as  clear  as  possible,  in  order  that  tlio 
aqueous  fluid,  to  be  .afterwards  applied^ 
may  be  imbibed,  and  its  contents  adhere 
to  the  minute  internal  surfaces.  Another 
preparation,  and  one  which  constitutes,  in 
reality,  an  important  part  of  the  dyeing 
process^  consists  in  applying  to  tlie  stun 
a  material  to  which  it  adheres ;  and  after- 
wards tlie  desired  color  is  obtained  by 
the  application  of  another  sulistance.  We 
might  dye  a  piece  of  cotton  black,  by  im- 
meraing  it  at  once  in  ink ;  but  the  color 
would  be  neitlier  good  nor  durable,  be- 
cause the  particles  of  precipitated  matter 
are  not  surociently  comniiimted  to  enter 
the  cotton,  or  to  adhere  to  it  firmly.  But. 
if  the  cotton  be  soaked  in  an  infusion  of 
galls,  then  dried,  and  afterwards  immers- 
ed in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron,  the 
acid  of  galls  being  every  where  diflused 
tlirough  the  ikbric,  it  will  receive  the  |iar- 
tides  of  oxide  of  iron,  at  the  very  instant 
of  their  transition  Grom  the  fluid  to  the 
solid  state;  by  which  means  a  perfect 
covering  of  the  black,  inky  matter  will  be 
applied  in  close  contact  with  tlie  surftuse 
of  the  most  minute  fibres  of  the  cotton. 
The  name  of  twrdanU  is  applied  to  tliose 
substances  which  unite  with  the  difierent 
stufis,  and  augment  their  afi[inity  for  the 
various  coloring  matters.  There  exists  a 
great  number  of  mordants ;  some,  how- 
ever, are  very  feeble  in  their  activity, 
while  othen  are  attended  with  too  much 
expense  for  common  stuf&;  ^ome  alter 
the  colofB  which  they  are  intended  to 
combine,  or  modify  their  shades:  hence 
it  results,  that  there  are  but  a  small  num- 
ber which  can  be  employed.  These  are 
alum,  acetate  of  alumine,  muriate  of  tin, 
and  uut-^Us.  The  mordant  is  always 
dissolved  in  water,  into  which  the  stuflii 
to  be  dyed  are  plun^d.  If  the  mordant 
be  universally  applied,  over  the  whole 
piece  of  goods,  and  this  be  afterwards  im- 
mersed in  the  dve>  it  will  receive  a  ting» 
over  all  its  suriace ;  but  if  it  be  ap^ad 
only  in  parts,  the  dye  will  strike  in  thosD 
-parts  only.  The  former  process  consti- 
tutes the  art  of  c^fejng,  properly  so  oalledi 
and  the  latter  the  art  of  printmg  wooUeni^ 
cottons,  or  linens,  called  calu^-printmg* 
In  the  art  of  printing  piece  gcxKis,  the 
mordant  is  usually  mixed  wiui  gum  or 
Btareh,  and  applied  by  means  of  hlockfi 
or  wooden  engravings,  in  relief  or  of 
^sapper  plates^  m  the  cok»w  are  brought 


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854 


'  DTEINO. 


6ut  br  iinmenion  in  reawb  fiUed  with 
miitable  cotnpositioiM.  The  latter  fluids 
are  termed  baths.  The  foUowhig  are  the 
proceBBes  adopted,  when  alum  is  the  moi^ 
dant  employed :  1.  Mwn  mordant  fir  nUL 
Into  water  containing  the  60th  part  of  its 
weight  of  alum,  at  the  ordinary  tempera- 
ture of  the  air,  the  siflc  is  plunged,  and 
allowed  to  remain  for  34  hours,  when  it  is 
withdrawn,  drained  and  washed.  If  the 
liquid  is  wanned,  it  is  found  that  the  silk 
absorbs  less  of  the  mordant,  and  that,  of 
course,  it  combines  less  easily  with  the 
coloring  matter,  besides  losing,  in  part,  its 
natural  gloss.  2.  Alum  monkmifir  wooL 
When  it  is  wished  to  combine  wool  with 
this  mordant,  after  its  cleansing  has  been 
effected,  it  is  plunged  into  a  boilinff  solu- 
tion, coniposed  of  8  or  900  pans  of  water, 
and  25  of^alum,  where  it  is  allowed  to  re- 
main during  3  hours ;  when  it  is  taken 
out,  suffered  to  drain,  and  washed.    Pre- 

auently  a  little  cream  of  tartar  is  added  in 
lis  process,  in  order  to  engage  the  excess 
of  acid  in  the  alum,  as  well  as  the  portion 
arising  from  a  slight  decomposition  of  the 
alum  by  the  oily  matter  of^the  wool  3, 
Mum  mordant  fir  cotton^  hemo  and  Jlax, 
This  operation  is  efiected  by  plunging  the 
body  to  be  imbued  with  this  montent  into 
water  sligfady  warmed,  and  which  con- 
tains one  quarter  of  its  weight  of  alum, 
and  leaving  it  24  hours,  at  the  common 
temperature  of  the  air;  when  it  is  with- 
drawn, washed  and  dried.  The  cotton 
will  be  sufficiently  imbued  with  the  mor- 
dant, if  allowed  to  remain  in  the  solution 
only  7  or  8  minutes,  pressing  it  a  little, 
without  twisting  it,  however,  on  taking  it 
out,  and  not  immersing  it  in  the  colorinff 
bath  until  12  or  15  hours  afler.  In  aU 
ahjm  mordants  for  wool,  the  alum  of  com- 
merce may  be  employed ;  but  when  silk 
or  cotton  is  to  be  dyed,  especiaJly  if  the 
colors  are  bright,  it  is  necessaiy  to  make 
use  of  the  alum  of  Rome,  or  of  that  which 
is  equally  pure ;  that  is  to  say,  of  alum 
which  does  not  contain  above  l-500th  of 
its  weight  of  sulphate  of  iron ;  otherwise 
there  will  be  a  great  quantity  of  oxide 
of  iron  adhering  to  the  fabric,  which 
will  affect  the  shade  we  desire  to  obtain. 
The  coloring  matters  to  be  traimferred  to 
the  various  stufls  are  either  soluble  or 
insoluble  in  water.  When  they  are  solu- 
ble in  water,  which  is  most  generally  the 
case,  they  are  dissolved  in  it  at  a  boiling 
temperature ;  and  the  material  to  be  dyec^ 
after  having  been  duly  prepared,  and  im- 
pregnated with  the  mordant,  is  plunged 
into  it,  where  it  u  allowed  to  remain  for  a 
eartain  timSi  and  at  atempenture  varying 


with  the  nature  ai  the  stuff.  When,  on 
the  contrary,  the  coloring  matter  is  in- 
soluble in  water,  its  solution  is  efiected  in 
some  other  fluid,  and  the  article  to  be 
colored  (prepared  as  in  the  former  case, 
with  the  exception  that  the  application  of 
the  mordant  is  omitted)  is  immersed,  and 
the  coloriiuf  matter  is  preciphated  by  the 
addition  of^a  third  body.  Silks  are  dyed 
at  a  temperature  which  is  gradually  in- 
creased from  86°  to  ITS'"  Fahr.  If  the 
bath  is  heated  above  86°,  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  process,  the  efiect  of 
the  mordant  is  diminished,  and  the  de- 
sired shades  of  color  will  not  be  produced. 
For  the  same  reason,  in  dyeing  hemp  and 
flax,  the  temperature  should  not  exceed 
97®  Fahr.  Cotton  and  woollens  may  be 
dyed  at  a  boiling  heat.  Various  mecoan- 
ical  contrivances  are  made  use  of  in  im- 
mersing the  different  materials  to  be  dyed 
into  the  coloring  sohition,  so  as  to  cause 
all  their  parts  to  be  equally  affected  at  the 
same  time.  As  soon  as  tliey  are  with- 
drawn from  the  coloring  bath,  they  are 
washed  in  a  large  quantity  of  water,  in 
order  to  deprive  them  of  thoee  paitieles 
of  coloring  matter  that  are  merely  super- 
ficial. The  following  are  the  dye-sttifls 
used  for  producing/uf  cotors:  1.  BUuk, 
The  cloth  is  impregnated  with  acetate  of 
iron  (iron  liquor),  and  dyed  in  a  bath  of 
madder  and  logwood.  2.  PwrpU.  The 
preceding  mordant,  diluted,  with  the  same 
dyeing  bath.  3.  Crimson*  The  mordant 
for  purple,  united  with  a  portion  of  acetate 
of  alumine,  or  red  mordant,  and  the  above 
bath.  4,  Red,  Acetate-of  alumine  is  the 
mordant  (see  Mumine),  and  madder  is 
the  dye-stuff.  5.  PaU  red,  of  different 
shades.  The  preceding  mordant,  diluted 
with  water,  and  a  weak  madder  badt. 
6.  Bnwn  of  Pompadour.  A  mixed  mor- 
dant, containing  a  somewhat  larger  pro- 
porticm  of  the  red  than  of  the  black,  and 
the  dye  of  madder.  7.  Orange,  The  red 
mordant,  and  a  bath,  first  of  madder,  and 
.then  of  quercitron.  8.  Ydkw.  A  strong 
red  mordant,  and  the  auerdtron  bath, 
whose  temperature  sboukl  be  consider- 
ably under  tlie  boiling  point  of  water. 
9.  Blue,  Indigo,  rendered'  soluble  and 
greenish-yellow  colored,  by  potash  and 
orpiment.  It  recoveiv  its  blue  color  by 
exposure  to  air,  and  becomes  firmly  fixed 
upon  the  cloth.  An  indigo  vat  is  also 
made  by  difilising  indigo  in  water,  with 
quicklime  and  copperas.  These  substan- 
ces are  supposed  to  act  by  deoxidizing  indi- 
go, and,  at  the  same  time,  rendering  it  solu- 
ble. Golden  ifye.  The  cloth  is  immersed 
ahemately  in  a  solution  of  copperas  and 


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DYEIN6-DYNAMI0  THEORY. 


fime-water.  The  nrotozide  of  iron,  pro- 
ci|Mtated  on  the  nbre,  soon  pooBeSy  by 
absorption  of  atmospherical  ozygeUf  into 
the  golden-colored  deutoxide.  B^.  The 
prmf  ng  substances,  in  a  more  dilute 
state.  Blut  vat,  in  which  white  spots  are 
left  on  a  blue  ground  of  dotb,  is  made 
by  applying  to  these  points  a  paste,  com- 
posed of  a  solution  or  sulphate  of  copper 
and  pipe-clay,  and,  after  they  are  dried, 
immening  it,  stretched  on  frames,  for  a 
definite  numlier  of  minutes,  in  the  yel- 
lowish-green vat,  of  1  port  of  indigo,  3 
of  copperas,  and  2  of  bme,  with  water. 
Gnen.  Cloth  dyed  blue,  and  well  wash- 
ed, is  imbued  with  theaceute  of  alumine, 
dried,  and  subjected  to  tlie  oiiercitron 
bath.  In  the  above  cases,  unaef  9,  the 
cloth,  after  receiving  the  mordant  paste, 
is  dried,  and  pat  through  a  mixture  of 
cow-dung  and  warm  water.  It  is  then 
put  uito  the  dyeing  vat  or  cooper.  The 
foregoing  colors  are  also  proauced  ftrora 
decoctions  of  the  different  colorinf^  woods ; 
but,  as  they  possess  but  litde  fixity  when 
thus  ftHrmod,  they  are  denominated  the 
jWilwe  colors.  1.  Bed  m  made  from 
Brazil  wood  and  peach  wood.  3.  Blaek, 
A  strong  extract  or  galls  and  deuto-nitrate 
of  iron.  3.  Pwrj^  Extract  of  logwood 
and  the  deuto-nitrate  of  ux>n.  4.  xeUow. 
Extract  of  <juercitron  bark,  or  French 
berries,  and  nitro-muriate  of  tin.  5.  Blue. 
Pruasian  blue  and  solution  of  tin.  Fugi- 
tive  colon  are  thickened  with  gum  traga- 
canth,  and  are  sometimes  sent  to  market 
without  being  washed. 

Dtke,  John,  an  agreeable  poet,  of  the 
secondary  class,  was  bom  at  Aberglamey, 
in  Caermarthenahire,  in  1700,  and  edu- 
cated at  Westminster  schooL  Being  left, 
by  the  death  of  his  fiither,  at  liberty  to 
follow  his  own  inclination,  he  became  a 
pupil  to  Richardson,  the  painter,  and  trav- 
elled through  Wales  a»  an  itinerant  artist, 
but  never  seems  to  have  gained  ai^  dis- 
tinction in  that  capacity.  In  17S&,  he 
made  himself  known  as  a  poet,  by  the 
puUication  of  his  celebrated  Gronjgar  HilL 
The  intermixture  of  moml  reflections,  in- 
troduced in  an  easy  maimer,  with  the 
description  of  rural  scenery,  has  rendered 
th»  poem  highly  and  deservedly  popular. 
After  the  publication  of  Groogar  Hill,  he 
went  to  Rome  for  professional  improve- 
ment, and  published,  in  1740,  a  pMm  in 
blank  verse,  under  the  title  of  the  Ruins 
of  Rome.  Not  appearing  likely  to  suc- 
ceed in  his  profession,  he  was  recom- 
mended to  take  orden,  and  was  acoord- 
ly  ordained  by  doctor  Thomas,  hiahop 
He  then  mairiod^  and  ;tetifed 


to  a  small  living  in  Leieeatfli^re,  which  he 
soon  afterward  exchanged  for  another  in 
Lincolnahire,  to  which  a  second  was  aub- 
sequently  added.  In  1757,  he  oublished 
tus  largest  poem,  the  Fleece,  in  five  books, 
a  very  ingenious  production*  He  died  in 
1753.  His  poems,  which  comprise  a  few 
more  pieces  than  those  already  mentioned, 
were  published  in  1  vol.  8vo.  17G1. 

Dtkx,  Van.    (See  Vcgnd^kt.) 

DTff  AMXTER,  measurer  of  increase,  ou- 
gomktrt ;  an  instrument  for  measuring  the 
magni^ing  power  of  telescopes.  It  con- 
sists of  a  small  tube,  with  a  transparent 
plate,  exactly  divided,  which  is  fixed  to 
the  tube  of  a  telescope,  in  order  to  meas- 
ure exacUv  the  diameter  of  the  eistinct 
image  of  the  e^e-glass. 

Dtitamics  is  Uie  science  of  raovinff 
powers,  or  of  the  action  of  forces  on  solid 
bodies,  when  the  result  of  that  action  is 
motion.  JHeekamcs,  in  its  most  extensive 
meaning,  is  the  science  which  treats  of 
quantity,  of  extensioii,  and  of  motion. 
Now,  that  branch  of  it  which  considers 
the  state  of  solide  at  rest,  such  as  their 
equilibrium,  their  weight,  pressure,  &C., 
is  called  sUeties ;  and  that  which  treats  of 
their  motion,  AmamicM,  So  when  fluids^ 
instead  of  solids,  are  the  subiectB  of  in- 
vestigation, that  branch  whicn  treats  of 
their  equilibrium,  pressure,  &c.,  is  called 
h^drotUtt%e»f  and  tlmt  which  treats  of  their 
motion,  h^drwfynandct. 

Dynamic  Aifo  Atomic  Theories  ;  the 
names  given  to  two  celebrated  systems^ 
explanatory  of  the  essential  constitution 
of  matter.  In  the  dynamic  theory,  ev- 
er^ body  is  considered  as  a  space  filled 
with  continuous  matter ;  porosity  then  be- 
comes an  accidental  quality,  but  com- 
pressibiliQrand  dilatabiuty  essential  prop- 
erties, llie  state  of  a  body  depends  en- 
tirely on  certain  attracting  and  repellinc 
forces;  and  its  volume  must  change  with 
every  change  in  the  relative  proportions 
of  these  forces.  All  the  varieties  of  mat- 
ter are  explained  by  supposing  the  exist- 
ence of  certain  primitive  simple  substan- 
ces, the  difierent  combinations  of  which 
produce  all  bodies.  When  two  substances 
combuie  chemically,  they  must  be  con- 
sidered, on  this  system,  to  penetrate  each 
other  mutually.  The  partisans  of  the 
atomic  theory  suppose  every  body  to  be 
composed  of  indivisible  and  impenetrable 
particles,  which  they  term  aUmu,  These 
are  almost  infinitely  small,  with  void 
spaces  between  them,  so  that  this  theory 
makes  porosity  essential  to  matter.  The 
atoms  are  not  in  contact,  but  are  kept  in 
their  rehoive   poatiops,  at  certain  di»- 


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DYKAMIC  THECMtY— DYSPEPSIA. 


tmncefi,  by  certain  attractive  and  fepukWe 
^rces ;  fivm^  whence  it  ariaeS)  that,  in  the 
volume  of  each  body,  tltere  is  nmeh  more 
void  space  than  matter.  On  this  svstem, 
die  diversities  in  bodies  may  be  explained, 
either  by  an  essential  difference  in  the 
atoms  themselves,  or  by  a  difference  in 
their  form,  size,  position  and  distance. 
When  two  substances  combine  chemical- 
ly, the  atoms  of  one  penetrate  tlie  inter- 
stices of  the  other,  and  the  atoms  of  the 
two  combine  so  intimately,  that  they  be- 
come, in  a  manner,  new  sorts  of  constitu- 
ent pardcles,  excepting  that  they  are  not 
simple,  but  compound. 

DrifAMOMETER.  lustmmentB  for  meas- 
uring the  relative  strengtli  of  men,  and  also 
of  animals,  are  so  call^. 

Dtspepsia  (iovntti/ta,  from  i^tf  bad,  and 
cW'ic;  digestion) ;  difficulty  of  digestion. 
Tlie  strict  etymology  of  the  term  mipties 
an  im|>erfect  or  disMtiered  condition  of  the 
function  of  digestion.  Systematic  writers 
have  been  not  a  little  perjilexed  to  find  an 
appropriate  location  fbr  this  affection  in 
their  artificial  arranffements ;  and  tliis  dif- 
ficulty must  exist  whilst  symptoms,  which 
are  always  fluctuating,  are  admitted,  as  the 
elements  of  nomenclature  and  arrange- 
menty  into  systems  of  nosology.  From 
the  same  circumstance,  dififerent  symp- 
toms of  the  afifection  have  received  the 
character  of  sefHunte  diseases,  as  apepei% 
bnidypepsia  {fip>ivtf  slow),  anorexia,  car^ 
dialgia,  &c  These  are  no  more  than 
difiTerent  grades  in  the  symptoms,  or  vari- 
eties of  the  affection,  and  are  not  different 
diseases.  The  disorder  of  the  digestive 
flmction  is  the  most  frequent  and  previul* 
uig  of  the  ailments  tliat  afflict  man  hi  the 
civilized  state;  aJt  classes  and  all  ages 
suffer  from  its  attacks.  Few  are  so  ha|)- 
py  as  to  (Niss  through  a  life  of  ordinary 
duration,  without  undervoing  a  protracted 
struggle  with  this  malady,  and  experienc- 
ing its  torments.  Once  let  it  be  fully 
established,  and  the  comfort  of  existence 
disappears,  or  is  regained,  in  most  cases, 
tediously,  and  at  the  price  of  the  most 
ascetic  sel^deniaJ.  Ttie  greater  preva- 
lence of  dysfiepsia  or  indigestion,  in  mod" 
eni  times,*  arises  tVom  the  mors  fii«ouent 
injury  done  to  the  stomach  and  its  fimc- 
tions,  directly,  by  the  habits  of  luxurious 
indulgence,  which  have  been  exceedingly 
increased  and  extended;  and,  indirectly, 
by  the  multiplication  of  intellectual  and 
moral  agitations,  from  the  extension  of  the 
oomraercial  and  fuiancial  operations  of 
society,  the  greater  activity  and  employ- 
ment of  the  intellectual  faculties,  and  aug- 
mentation of  political,  social  and  individ- 


ual revenea.  Something,  too,  is  to  ba 
ascribed  to  the  mere  change  of  namea. 
We  call  tiiat  ik^gpeoma  now,  which,  for- 
meriy,  was  turned  Uver  diseoit^  bUiouM 
iHtarder,  &e.  A  large  proportion  9f  the 
discomfort  product  by  this  malady, 
arises  from  an  ignorance  of  the  digestive 
functions,  leading  to  their  abuse  and  pre- 
mature derangement,  and  may  be  obvi- 
ated, to  a  great  extent,  by  instniction  as  to 
rhe  nature  of  these  functions,  and  their 
natural  exercise.  A  general  view  of  the 
digestive  organs  and  functions  is,  there- 
fore, requisite  to  an  understanding  of  their 
disorclers,  the  means  to  prevent,  and  the 
methods  to  remedy  thenn.  All  organized 
or  animated  beings  hold  their  existence 
under  the  condition  of  renewing,  inces- 
samlv,  the  elements  of  their  composition, 
by  the  appropriation  to  themselves  of 
exterior  matters.  The  simple  animals 
(polypi,  &c.)  find,  in  the  medium  in  which 
they  live,  and  finom  which  diey  directly 
receive  them,  the  principles  serving  for 
their  composition.  The  decomposition 
of  animal  and  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil 
prepares  the  aliment  or  nutritive  principle 
of  vegetables,  which,  being  held  in  solu- 
tion by  water,  is  absorbed  by  their  root& 
In  all  these  beings  there  are  no  digestive 
organs  or  functions.  The  pre]iaration  of 
their  nutriment  is  effectea  by  physical 
operations  exterior  to  themselves,  and  over 
which  they  have  no  •control  In  the 
higher  Or  complete  animals,  or  in  man, 
the  case  is  very  diflerent  Nature  does 
not  present  to  them  the  nutritive  elements 
in  a  state  fitted  to  be  uitroduced,  at  once, 
into  the  interior  organism,  and  to  be  em* 
ployed  in  its  composition.  Their  diment 
consists  of  the  nutritive  principles  in  a 
Compound  state,  intimately  combined  with 
other  substances,  from  wliich  they  rsquira 
to  be  disengaged.  This  is  aocompli^ed 
liy  the  animal  itself,  which  is  provided 
with  especial  organs  or  apparatus  and  func- 
tions for  this  purpose.  Digestion,  then, 
oonsisis  in  the  disengagement  of  the  nu* 
tritive  elements  from  their  combinational 
and  their  reduction  to  the  molecular  state, 
admitting  tlieir  introduction  into  the  ves- 
sels, and  Uieu*  difiliision  throughout  the 
or^ism,  for  the  purposes  of  its  compo- 
sition. It  is  a  process  analo^us  to  the 
decomposition  or  the  aliment  of  vegetables 
in  the  soil,  and  is  effected,  like  all  decom* 
positions,  by  analogous  or  chemical  ope- 
rations. In  this  clasB,  die  procuring  of 
the  aliment  is  the  act  of  the  animal,  do» 
pendhig  on  its  vohintaiy  powers,  anid  m 
controlM  by  a  great  variety  of  eircun- 
stances^  affeotiag  the  quantity  aad  qualilj 


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DYSPEPSIA. 


9S7 


of  the  food.  The  organs  composing  the 
digestive  apparatus  in  man  are  numerotu. 
They  are  the  mouth,  armed  with  teeth, 
for  mechanically  breaiking  down  the  food 
by  mastication;  the  salivary  glands,  fur- 
nishing a  fluid  intimately  combined  with 
the  food,  in  mastication,  and  collected  in 
the  stomach,  which  is  its  reservoir;  the 

E'  lynx,  a  muscular  and  membranous 
,  for  the  reception  of  the  masticated 
js  from  the  mouth ;  the  OBsophagus,  a 
muscular  and  membranous  tube,  for  con- 
ducting the  bolus  into  the  stomach ;  the 
stomach,  a  muscular  and  membranous 
bag,  or  enlargement  of  the  alimentaiy 
canal,  secreting  a  fluid  or  fluids,  and  a 
reservoir  of  the  salivaiy  and  odier  secre- 
tory fluids  of  die  interior  surflices,  and  in 
vdiich  the  food  is  subjected  to  the  decom- 
posing process,  until  reduced  to  a  pulpy 
mass,  called  (%fiie,  consisdng  of  the  nu- 
tritive and  innutritive  elements,  in  a  state 
of  mechanical  mixture;  the  duodenum, 
or  second  stomach,  in  which  the  chymous 
mass  is  submitted  to  the  action  of  the 
biliary  and  pancreatic  fluids,  and  in  which 
the  nutritive  elements  begin  to  separate 
from  the  innutritive  matters,  and  to  be 
absortied  by  the  lacteals,  the  roots  of  the 
animal  economy ;  the  hver  and  pancreas, 
furnishing  bile  and  a  species  of  saUva, 
which  are  mixed  with,  and  act  on,  the 
chyme  in  the  duodenum;  the  jejunum 
•lid  iieum^  or  small,  intestines^  m  the 
course  of  which  tlie  separation,  begun  in 
the  duodenum,  is  completed,  and  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  nutritive  principles  forming 
chyle  are  absorbed ;  and,  lastly,  the  large  in- 
testines, a  reservoir  for  all  the  excrements 
tious  principles,  and  which,  in  it,  are  con- 
verted into  f»ces.  The  whole  of  these 
organs  compose  the  apparatus  of  diges- 
tion, but  all  are  not  of  equal  importance. 
The  stomach  and  duodenum  are  the  most 
eminent  organs,  and  those  whose  condi- 
tion exercises  the  greatest  influence  over 
the  powers  of  digestion.  This  apparatus 
is  intimately  connected,  and  a  natural  state 
of  each  of  its  parts,  and  a  due  exereise  of 
the  function  of  each,  are  essential  to  the 
healtliy,  undisturbed  performance  of  di- 
gestion. This  connexion  is  maintained 
Sirough  the  ganglionary  system  of  nerves, 
which  not  only  unites  these  oi|;ans  to- 
gether, but  combines  them  with  all  theur 
conceries,  appropriated  to  the  perfect  elab- 
oration of  the  nutritive  and  sustaining 
principles  of  the  economy.  The  stomach 
IS  the  centre  of  the  digestive^  apparatus, 
and  may  be  regarded  in  neariy  the  same 
view,  for  the  wh<^e  ci£  the  organs  con- 
ncMBted  with  individual  nutritioD.    It  ovres 


this  chaiftder  to  its  intimate  union  with 
the  great  solar  plexus,  the  centre  or  brain, 
if  it  may  be  so  termed,  of  the  ganglionaiy 
system,  regulating  the  nutritive  fimctions. 
It  is  also  immediately  associated  with  the 
brain,  through  the  medium  of  the  eighth 
pair  or  pneumo-gastric  nerves,  and  thus 
IS  placed  in  rehition  with  the  exercise  of 
the  moral  and  mtellecmal  fiw^ultiea  The 
stomach  is  consequently  exposed  to  be 
disordered  in  its  functions  by  violent  im- 
pressions from  these  feculdes,  as  they  are 
abo  liable  to  be  affected  bv  the  disordered 
conditions  of  the  stonuich.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  have  these  diversified  connexions 
pointed  out,  to  possess  a  clear  understand- 
mg  of  the  numerous  and  veiy  diflferent 
sources  fit>m  which  disturbances  reach 
the  process  of  digestion.  A  few  words 
virill  now  b&  necessaiy  as  to  digestion 
itself.  It  is  not  all  substances  that  are 
fitted  for  aliment,  and  are  susceptible  of 
digestion.  Food  is  mtended  for  the  reno- 
vation of  the  body.  It  must  consist  of  the 
same  elements  as  the  animal  structure, 
and  be  capable  of  becoming  oi^ganized 
and  livmg.  It  must  then  contain,  at  least, 
three  elementary  animal  principles — hy- 
drogen, caii>on  and  oxysen ;  and  much  of 
it  contains,  also,  a  fourth—azote.  These 
elements  form  secondary  compounds,  in 
which  state  alone  they  constituta  aliment: 
floch  are  albumen,  niMin,  gelatin,  osma- 
zomev  oU,  engan,  farina,  mucilage,  and 
other  animal  and  vegetable  compounds. 
In  all  these  substances,  the  molecules  are 
eamly  separable  without  being  chemically 
decomposed,  which  is  one  of  the  primaiy 
requisites  of  disestibility,  and  to  e^ct 
which  is  the  chief  object  of  digestion.  The 
masticated  and  insa&vated  food  passes  in- 
to the  stomach.  Here  it  is  macerated  in 
the  saliva  collected  in  the  stomach,  and 
in  the  proper  liquid  secreted  by  the  villi 
o€  the  gastric  mucous  membrane,  at  a 
temperature  of  104^  Fahr.  This  liquor  is 
called  goHriejuiee.  Its  true  nature  is  not 
accurately  determined,  but,  as  &r  as  ex- 
cmination  has  ascertained,  it  resembles 
saliva  mixed  with  a  small  portion  of  hio- 
tic  or  muriatic  acid.  The  stomach,  in  a 
healthy  state,  always  contracts  on  its  con- 
tents, so  that  its  parietes^  in  digestion,  are 
always  in  contact  with  tlie  foM.  During 
digestion,  the  stomach  has  a  constant  ver- 
micular motion,  its  muscular  fibres  con- 
tracting, successively,  from  the  smaller  to 
the  lai^  end.  The  food  is  thus  agitat- 
ed, acquires  a  rotatory  movement,  and  is 
mingled  with  the  fluids  of  the  stomach. 
In  a  short  time,  the  change  accomplished 
in  the  stomach  commences;  it  becomes 


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DYSPEPSL\. 


pulpy,  and  then  reduced  to  a  semifluid 
of  a  light,  grayish  color.  From  tlie  uni- 
form pressure  of  the  stomach,  the  solid 
and  most  resisting  portions  are  forceil  into 
the  centre,  while  the  digested  and  more 
fluid  matter  is  found  on  the  surtkce,  and 
is  gradually  carried,  by  tlie  contraction  of 
the  muscular  fibres,  into  the  duodenum. 
W.  PhiUj)B  and  others  have  been  led  to 
sup()08e,  from  this  circuiiistauce,  that  the 
food  in  contact  with  tlie  parietes  of  the 
stomach  was  alone  digested;  but  it  is  a 
mere  physical  result,  as  uniform  pressure 
in  every  direction,  on  a  mass  of  different 
consistency,  will  always  drive  the  most 
fluid  to  the  circumfereuce.  The  pulpy, 
grayish  substance  resulting  from  tlie 
stomachic  digestion  is  called  c%m«.  (q,  v.) 
When  examined  witli  the  microscope,  tlie 
writer  of  tliis  article  has  always  found  it  to 
consist  of  an  immense  number  of  transpa- 
rent globules,  of  various  sizes,  inteniiLxed 
with  undissolved  fragments  of  tlie  fibres  of 
the  ahmentary  subsumce.  When  food  is 
ipasticated,  and  macerated  for  a  few  liours 
in  simple  saliva,  he  lias  found  it  to  pre- 
sent exactly  ttie  same  ap|>eaiauices  as  the 
cliyme  of  the  atomach.  TJte  digeHUm  ^f 
ikt  atomtu^  he  iryhrsfr&m  his  exptrmeiUi^ 
18  not  a  decomposityM  qf  the  alimenktry 
tnatUrf  bui  if  a  timpU  (Hsmtegraiion  or 
reduclwn  of  it  inio  it9  coryfonarU  moUcnUa^ 
(he  animal  character  remaiimng  unchanged. 
The  chysiCy  h&viiig  passed  into  the  duo- 
denum, meets  with  the  pancreatic  liquor 
and  tJie  bile.  Wliat  are  the  positive 
changes  induced  by  these  fluids,  certainly 
is  not  accurately  known.  The  acids  of 
the  chymous  mass  are  neutralized  by  the 
alkaline  priiicii>les  of  the  bile,  the  picro- 
mel  and  coloring  matter  of  which  appear 
to  coalesce  with  the  unassimilable  princi- 
ples of  the  food,  and  assist  in  their  con- 
version into  fieces.  A  chemical  modifica- 
tion in  some  of  the  aUtnentary  eleiuenta 
may  also  be  eflected.  It  is  certain  that 
chyle,  or  the  nutritive  principles  of  which 
blood  is  formed,  does  not  appear  in  die 
lacteals  until  aflier  the  action  of  the  bile 
and  pancreatic  fluid  on  the  chyme,  the 
product  of  the  stomachic  digeBtioii.  The 
action  of  the  slomaoh  on  ti^  food  is  that 
usually  designated  as  digestion^  and  it  is 
the  derangement  of  this  process  that  is 
usually  expressed  by  the  term  dysptj9iia. 
The  process  accomplished  in  the  duode- 
num is  also  a  true  digestion,  and  the 
symptoms  arising  from  its  disordered 
state  are  confounded  with  those  of  the 
stomachic  digestion,  in  the  general  ac- 
counts of  dyspepsia.  From  this  sketch 
of  the  fuuettoD  of  digestaooy  it  is  evidenti 


that  its  most  important  agents  are,  Ist,  the 
secreted  fluids  collected  in  the  stomach ; 
2d,  the  contracdle  movements  of  the 
stomach,  keeping  the  alimentaiy  mass  in 
constant  agitation,  mixing  it  with  the 
fluids  as  they  are  secreted,  and  remov- 
ing the  person  digested  or  reduced  into 
chyme ;  3i\,  the  application  of  tlie  biliary 
and  pancreatic  nuids  to  the  chyme  in 
the  ciuodenum;  and,  4th,  the  contractile 
movements  of  this  viscus.  Most  of  the 
derangements  of  the  digestive  functions 
may  be  traced  inunediately  to  a  departure 
from  a  natural  state  of  some  one  or  more 
of  the  above  requisites  of  digestion.  But  . 
this  deviaiion  fiom  the  natural  order  is, 
itself,  an  etlect.  The  secretions  are  prod- 
ucts of  organs,  and  all  excitement  of  the 
secretory  organ,  beyond  the  range  of 
healthy  action,  causes  vitiation  of  the 
secretion,  or  its  total  suspension.  The 
action  of  the  organ,  dimini^ed  below  the 
physiological  range,  is  attended  with  other 
vitiations  of  the  fluid,  or  the  cessation  of 
its  secretion.  Indigestion  or  dyspepsia  is 
a  consequence  of  both  these  conditions 
of  the  organs  furnishing  the  fluids  of  di- 
gestion. DigesdoB  is  a  very  stimulating 
process.  AU  functional  acdons  are  excit- 
ing. The  increased  demand  for  secreted 
fluids  renders  an  augmented  action,  and 
increase  of  blood  in  die  furnishing  organ, 
neoeesaiy  for  their  production.  The  pres- 
c&ce  of^  the  food,  drinks,  ^^  in  tbs 
stomach,  add  to  the  stimulation  of  diges- 
tion. If  tJie  stomach  of  an  animal  be 
examined  in  the  act  of  digestion,  the 
mucous  membrane  is  found  of  a  difFused 
scarlet  color.  The  movements  of  the 
stomach  essential  to  digestion  depend  on 
its  nervous  communications,  and  especial- 
ly on  the  integrity  of  the  eighth  pair  of 
nerves.  When  these  are  divided,  the 
stomach  and  cnsopbagus  are  paralysed; 
the  food  is  no  longer  agitated  and  mixed 
up  with  the  digestive  fluids,  and  it  often 
reguigitates  from  die  stomach  into  the 
CBsophagus.  This  experiment  proves  the 
influence  of  the  contractile  motion  of  tlie 
stomach  in  the  act  of  digestion.  The 
ganglionic  nerves  are  not  less  important, 
tiiough  their  specific  influence  caimot  as 
readily  be  detennined.  But  in  many 
cases  of  disease  of  these  ganglions,  vomit« 
big,  eructations,  pain  in  the  gastric  regioni 
and  impaired  digestion,  are  accompanying 
avmptoms.  Through  the  nervoys  system, 
tne  function  of  digestion  is  exposed  to 
numerous  disorders  from  moral  imprea- 
sioiis,  e8|)ecially  those  of  an  agitating  char- 
acter. From  the  preceding  principles,  it 
m  evident  that  dyspepsia  or  indigestion  in 


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DYSPEPSIA. 


not)  properly  ^leaking,  a  disease,  but 
rather  a  83'niptotT],  attached  to  diseases  of 
the  apparatus  of  digestion,  of  very  various 
and  even  opposite  character.  No  specific 
treatment  can,  therefore,  be  laid  down  for 
the  cure  of  dyspejieia,  but  each  case  re- 
quires to  be  managed  according  to  its 
peculiar  cwise  and  nature.  The  organ  of 
the  digestive  apparatus  tlie  most  frequent- 
ly productive  of  dyspeptic  symptoms  is 
the  stomach,  and  l)ie  most  usual  cause  oi 
dyspepsia  is  its  irritation  and  inflamma- 
tion. The  stomach  is  more  liable  than 
any  other  organ  to  these  states,  from  its 
direct  exposure  to  so  many  irritating  ag- 
gressions^ and  its  intimate  sympaSietic 
aHBmuuicationfl^  which  make  it  partici- 
pate in  the  irritations  of  almost  every 
other  oi^n.  The  sub-acute  and  chronic 
forms  ot  gastric  irritation  and  inflamma- 
tion, the  signs  of  which  have  only  of  late 
been  fully  appreciated,  are  tlie  disorders 
that,  in  seven  or  eight  cases  out  of  ten, 
are  termed  li^spepsieu  Hence  dyspepsia 
so  fitK)ueiitly  succeeds  to  febrile  diseases, 
especially  when  treated  by  emetics,  dras- 
tics, and  the  improper  use  of  tonics  and 
sdmulants,  which,  although  the  patient 
escapes  the  fever,  leave  him  a  martyr  to 
the  chronic,  disorganizing  and  pertiirbatf' 
ing  irritations  of  the  gastric  mucous  mem- 
biune.  Hence,  too,  dyspepsia  almost  in- 
evitably follows  continued  abuse  of  the 
^gestive  functions,  from  too  highly  sea- 
Boned  or  too  abundant  food,  and  stimulant 
drinks.  The  constant  stimulation  of  the 
stomach  finally  becomes  pathological  or 
morbid.  The  ample  proiongatioii  of  the 
fiinctiona]  excitement  essential  to  diges- 
tion, continued  from  meal  to  meal,  with- 
out permitting  the  stomach  to  revert-  to  a 
state  of  repose,  is  sufficient  to  consdtute  a 
ODK>rbid  state.  All  functions,  for  their  per- 
fect perfonnanee,  require  alternate  periods 
of  repose  and  octivi^.  Incessant  action 
irritates,  inflames,  and  finally  disorganizes 
the  structure  ef  the  organs.  A  second 
condition  of  the  stomach,  productive  of 
dyspepsia,  is  the  congestion  of  its  mucous 
tissue.  This  may  be  confined  to  the 
stomach  alone,  succeeding  to  an  attack 
ei  acute  gastritis,  or  following  on  its  pro- 
tracted irritation ;  or  it  may  be  an  atbend- 
ant  €o  a  general  congestion  of  the  whole 
portal  system  involving  most  of  the  «fo- 
doroinal  viscera.  Every  irritation  is  at- 
tended with  an  tMux  of  the  circulating 
fluids  into  the  structure  where  it  is  seated, 
proportioned  to  Its  intensity  and  the  vas- 
indarity  of  the  fjtructure.  This  ^rged 
rftate  often  continues  after  the  subsidence 
of  the  krilati6n  that  provoked  it,  and  pre- 


vents the  reMimpdon  of  the  healthy  func- 
tions. It  is  a  state  of  passive  congestion, 
and  often  exists  in  die  mucous  membrane 
of  the  stomach,  after  attacks  of  inflamma- 
don  or  acute  irritation,  and  embarrasses 
its  digesdve  operations.  In  all  the  exten- 
sive irritations  of  the  ahmentary  canal, 
especially  when  attended  with  fever,  hav- 
ing a  paroxysmal  character,  die  great 
portal  system  of  the  abdomen  becomes 
loaded  with  blood,  and  congestion  of*  its 
radical  vessels  ensues.  The  fiuictions  of 
the  viscera  are  then  disordered,  the  secre- 
tions are  defective,  and  indigestion,  cos- 
tiveness,  and  their  attendant  nervous  af- 
fections, are  the  necessary  consequences 
of  this  condition.  A  third  state  of  the 
stomach,  a  cause  of  dyspeptic  symptoms, 
is  precisely  the  reverse  of  the  prececting. 
Asthenia,  or  diminution  of  vitahty  and  ac- 
tions below  the  healthy  degree,  occasion- 
ally takes  possession  of  the  stomach.  Its 
circulation  is  then  deficient,  its  secreted 
fluids' are  defective  in  quantity  or  quality, 
its  sensibility  is  impaired,  and  digestion  is 
imperfect.  It  is  not  probable  that  gastric 
asthenia  is  ever  primiuve.  It  succcmkIs  to 
previous  irritation,  and  is  often  occasioned 
by  irritation  in  other  organs. — ^The  pre- 
ceding form  a  first  class  of  dyspeptic  dis- 
eases, which,  depending  entirely  on  the 
stomach,  may  be  termed  gastric  dbfspepsitu 
They  present  characters  totally  dinerent, 
and  require  a  very  opposite  treatment. 
This  class  embraces  tiiree  species. 

A  second  ekm  of  dyspeptic  diseases 
is  connected  with  the  duod^ium  and 
its  ftinctions.  Tills  viscus,  similarly  con- 
stituted to  the  stomach,  is  subject  to 
the  same  morbid  alterations.  Its  niuoous 
membrane  is  the  seat  of  irritation,  In  its 
various  grades,  and  productive  of  its  usual 
consequences— augmented  irritability,  sen- 
sibility, porversion  of  secretions,  vitiaticm 
of  structure,  and  (disorder  of  function. 
Dttodenic  irritation  most  commonly  ae- 
companies  gastric  irritation,  and  the  symp- 
toms of  the  two  are  blended  together.  It 
exists,  however,  in  many  inst^aces,  inde^ 
pendentiy,  and  then  niauifesis  (lalticular 
symptoms,  wliicli  are  often  termed  dy^- 
pqma.  It  is,  more  especially,  the  chromic 
inritstibn  of  the  duodenum,  that  passes  for 
dyspepsia.  It  is  not  probable,  that  con- 
irestion,  or  asthenia,  ever  afleet  the  duo- 
denum exclusively  to  the  detriment  of  its 
function.  When  these  states  prevail,  it  is 
in  conjunction  with  similar  conditions  of 
the  whole  digestive  apparatus.  At  least,  we 
have  no  knowledge  of  these  states  hmited 
to  the  duodenum. 

A  third  class  of  dyspeptic  diseases  d^ 


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DYSPEPSIA. 


pend  on  the  nervous  Oi^gans,  which  fur- 
nish nerves  to  tlie  digestive  viscera.  The 
^langiionic  i^Btem  of  nerves,  distributed  on 
each  side  of  the  spine,  from  the  head  to 
the  pelvis^  transmits  nerves  to  all  the 
oi^gans  connected  with  the  nutritive  func- 
tion. The  stomach,  especially,  is  larsety 
supplied  from  the  solar  plexus,  And  it 
receives,  likewise,  numerous  nervous  fila- 
ments from  the  pneumo-gastric,  placing 
it  in  connexion  with  the  functions  of  rela- 
tion. The  offices  of  the  ganglionic  sys- 
tem are  not  ascertained  with  precision. 
It  is,  however,  well  determined,  that  dis- 
eases of  the  ganglions  disorder  the  func- 
tions of  the  viscera  to  which  they  trans- 
mit nerves.  Hence  arises  an  order  of 
dyspeptic  symptoms,  independent  of  any 
immediate  affection  of  the  stomach,  but 
occasioned  by  disease  in  the  great  solar, 
or  other  neighboring  plexus.  The  disor- 
ders of  the  digestive  functions,  from  this 
cause,  are  various.  The  sensibility  of  the 
stomach  is  sometimes  greatly  increased, 
constituting  gastralgia.  At  other  times, 
the  secreted  fluids  of  the  stomach  are 
morbidly  acid.  The  stomach  appears,  in 
other  cases,  to  be  partially  paralysed,  and 
the  peristaltic  movements  necessary  for 
the  admixture  of  die  food,  and  the  gastric 
fluids,  and  the  continuous  passage  of  the 
chyme  into  the  duodenum,  are  suspended. 
At  the  same  time,  considerable  quantities 
of  flatus  collect  in  and  distend  the  stom- 
ach, preventing  its  actios  on  the  food. 
Mechanical  manipulation  of  the  abddmen, 
and  particularly  of  the  epigastrium,  after 
a  meal,  becomes  a  subedtute  for  the  natu- 
ral modon  of  the  stomach,  expels  the 
wind,  and  facilitates  digesdon,  that  would 
otherwise  be  laborious  and  painful.r~Dys- 
pepsia  or  indigestion,  flom  this  analysis 
of  its  modes  of  pioduction,  is  seen  not  to 
be  a  disease  of  unifonn  chiiracter,  aiul 
depending  on  an  identical  state  of  the 
digestive  organs.  It  is  attached,  as  a 
iymptom,  r^er,  to  a  variety  of  condi- 
tions, each  of  which  requites  to  be  man- 
aged in  its  i^ypropriate  mode.  It  is  not 
posrible  that  it  can  be  remedied  by  any 
one  genend  mode  of  treatment,  or  by  any 
set  of  specific  remedies.  The  most  com- 
mon causes  of  dyspepsia  axe  excesses  of 
various  kinds,  espedally  in  the  quantiQr 
of  food  ealen.    Host,  individuals,  m  this 


country,  err  in  this  respect  Meatatthree 
meals,  daily,  can  be  borne  only  by  the 
most  robust  fitimes,  and  b^  hard  laborera. 
Persons  of  a  sedentary  life  require  less 
nutriment;  the  economy  makes  less  de- 
mand on  the  stomach  for  supplies;  and 
if  it  be  compelled  then  to  labor,  it  is  at  its 
own  loss.  Exercise,  or  the  expenditure  of 
the  nutritive  elements  by  the  economy, 
and  the  quantity  of  food  to  be  digested, 
must  be  proportioned  to  each  other,  for 
the  preservation  of  health  and  the  due 
vigor  of  digestion.  This  fundamental 
principle  is  laid  down  in  an  axiom  by 
Hippocratefr^jMbmo  edena  sanuk  east  non 
poie^  mti  etiam  lahoraL — Db  Diata, 
lib.  L  Oood  cookeiy,  by  rendering 
jfood  more  digestible,  is  one  preservative 
against  dyspepsia.  The  food,  by  being 
rendered  tender  and  pulpy,  is  reduced  to 
chyme  in  a  shorter  period,  with  a  smaller 
expenditure  of  the  secreted  fluids,  and 
less  excitement  of  the  stomach,  than 
when  it  is  not  properly  concocted.  The 
art  of  long  and  healthful  living  will  de- 
pend on  a  pedect  system  of  cooking,  and 
a  rational  mode  of  eating.  The  powera 
of  the  stomach  difler,  in  individuals,  as 
much  as  the  force  of  their  muscles ;  and 
each  one  must  adopt  a  mode  of  nutrition, 
both  as  to  quantity  and  quality  of  food, 
suitable  to  the  wnnts  of  his  economy  and 
the  digestive  capacity  of  his  stomach. 
The  quality  of  food  is  a  frequent  cause  of 
dyspepsia.  Tough  and  badly  dressed 
meats,  and  cnide  vegetables,  are  among 
the  prominent,  causes  of  this  affliction,  as 
are  also  hot  bread  and  cakes^  heavy  asd 
fresh  bread,  and  the  daily  use  nf  hot  cof- 
fee for  breakfhst  In  enumerating  the 
more  common  causes  of  dyspeptic  flymp- 
toms,  we  ought  not  to  omit  the  firequent 
exaceiiMitions  of  the  malevolent  passions, 
as  anger,  hatred,  envy,  jealousy,  and, 
what  is  not  often  suspected,  excessive 
indulgence  and  abuses  of  the  venereal  pro- 
pensicjr.  Another  flruitful  source  of  the 
digesuve  disorden  is  found  in  the  eni^ 
ployment  of  emetics,  snd  in  a  fi!equent 
resort  to  saline  or  drastic  cathartic  medi- 
cines. When  a  constipated  habit  prevails^ 
it  should  always  be  overcome,  if  poseable, 
by  a  laxative  regimen,  and  the  aids  of 
purgatives  be  cautiously  and  rarely  in- 
voked. 


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aoi 


E. 


£  ;  the  second  vowel  and  the  fifth  letter 
of  the  English  alphabet.  The  sound  e 
(as  in  bendiy  or  long,  as  in  tlie  French 
ph^)  in  the  early  stages  of  all  languaffes, 
often  passes  into  i  (as  in  livery  or  the  Ital- 
iaii  t ),  into  a  (as  in  jcdhar),  and  into  o.  But 
of  the  langua^  of  modem  civilized  na* 
tions,  tduce  their  orthography  has  been  set- 
tled, the  English  gives  to  the  letter  e  the 
most  different  sounds ;  as  that  of  the  Ger- 
man short  e,  for  instance,  in  bet ;  that  of 
the  German  t,  as  in  revere,  he,  me ;  that 
of  the  German  a,  in  dai  (pronounced 
dark),  sergtaxd  (pronounced  sargecad;  tiX 
least,  this  mode  of  pronouncing  exists  in 
England) ;  that  of  u,  as  in  vaier,  warder. 
We  find  similar  sounds  of  e  in  different 
dialects  of  Germany ;  for  instance,  in  the 
dialect  of  Silesia,  where  spoken  most 
broadly,  Sede  (soul)  is  pronounced  as  an 
Englishman  would  pronounce  it,  whilst 
the  true  German  pronunciation  of  the 
word  is  as  if  it  were  written  SorU,  In 
Latin,  we  also  find  here  for  heri,  VergUitu 
for  Firplius,  Deana  for  Diana;  and,  in 
old  Itahan,  desiderio  and  disidario,  peggiore 
and  piggiore.  In  French,  e  is  pronounced 
in  three  different  ways — ^ihe  k  auvert,  6 
femU  and  e  nmd — all  three  in  the  word 
fermeii.  In  German,  there  are  four  differ- 
ent ways  of  pronouncing  the  letter  e ;  1. 
merely  as  an  aspiration,  or  very  short  in- 
deed, as  in  hatU  or  hoffen ;  2.  short,  like 
the  English  e  in  fret,  nut,  as  in  redd, 
rewnmi  3.  long,  hke  the  English  a  in 
fate,  as  in  redm,  predigen;  and  like  the 
French  k,  intvert,  or  like  tlie  German  a 
or  <e,  as  in  EUfid,  although  little  distinc- 
tion is  generally  made  between  the  two 
latter.  Some  provinces  generally  pro- 
nounce bodi  like  the  latter;  others  pro- 
nounce them  like  the  former,  or  like  a  in 
ffOe.  The  letter  e  may  be  called  an  in- 
truder into  the  German  language,  because 
it  has  taken  the  place  formerly  occupied 
by  full  and  melodious  vowels,  and  it  oc- 
curs too  often.  The  Greeks,  it  is  well 
known,  had  two  characters-^  or  epaiUm, 
and  If,  or  da,  the  latter  corresponding  to 
the  French  ^  mtoert,  if  it  was  not  pro- 
nounced, as  in  modem  Greek,  like  the 

VOL.  IV.  31 


Italian  t.  E,  in  the  Greek  numeratioD« 
ngnified  five.  Many  dictionaries  state, 
that  E  was  used  by  the  ancients  for  250f 
according  to  tlie ' 


E  quoque  ducentos  et  quinquaginta  tenebit  j 

but  this  was  only  in  late  and  barbarous 
times.  E,  as  an  abbreviation,  stands,  in 
English,  for  east.  On  ancient  medals,  it 
stands  for  the  names  of  cities  which  begin 
with  this  letter ;  for  exercUus,  effigies,  e&- 
tum,  or  for  hoi,  the  year,  iXtvflcpto,  liberty, 
&c.  The  letter  E,  on  modem  French 
coins,  signifies  the  mint  of  Tours ;  on  Prus- 
sian, the  mint  f(f  K&mgsoerg ;  on  Austrian, 
that  of  AorbfruT^.  (See  wvofrrmotioiu.) 
Eagle  ;  a  coin.  JSec  Coins*) 
Eagle  (f(dco\,  This  well  known  bird 
belongs  to  the  genus  falco,  which  has 
been  much  subdivided  by  modem  orni- 
thologists. In  the  present  article,  those 
species  only  vrill  be  noticed  which  belong 
to  the  subgenera  of  aquHa  and  haJHatus. 
The  eagle  has  been  elevated,  by  the 
popular  voice,  to  the  rank  of  the  no- 
blest and  most  courageous  of  the  rapa- 
cious birds.  Its  natural  fierceness  is  so 
great,  that  it  has  seldom  been  employed 
for  the  purposes  of  the  chase,  as  it  can 
never  be  rendered  sufficiently  tractable  to 
obey  its  keeper.  The  eagle  soars  to  a 
greater  height  than  any  other  bird,  from 
which  circumstance  tlie  ancients  consid- 
ered it  as  the  messenger  of  Jove,  **  Fid- 
vam  aqwlam  Jovis  nuniiam,^  Its  sense  of 
sight  IS  exquisite.  It  lives  for  a  great 
length  of  time,  even  in  the  captive  state. 
Mr.  Pennant  mentions  one  in  the  posses- 
sion of  a  gentleman,  which  he  had  kept  fo> 
nine  years,  and  the  person  from  whom 
he  had  received  it,  thirty-two.  The  prin- 
cipal species  are,  1.  the  falco  imperialia 
(Bechst),  or  imperial  eagle.  This  species 
is  the  largest  known.  It  is  distinguished 
by  a  large  white  spot  on  the  scapularsi 
transverse  nostrils,  black  tail,  marked  with 
gray  on  its  superior  portion.  The  female 
IS  mwn-colored,  witti  brown  spots.  It  is 
stouter  than  the  common  eagle.  It  inhab- 
its the  high  mountains  of  the  middle  of 
Europe;  and  to  this  species  may  be  refer- 


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EAGLE. 


red  all  the  acccunts  of  the  ancients  respect- 
ing the  strength,  courage  and  magnanimity 
of  these  birds.  2.  Jthlco  chrysatas  (golden 
eaf  le).  This  fine  bird  measures,  from  the 
pomt  of  the  bill  to  the  extremity  of  the 
toes,  upwards  of  three  feet,  and,  from  tip 
to  tip,  above  six,  weighing  from  12  to  18 
pounds.  The  male  is  smaller  than  the 
female.  The  Ull  is  of  a  deep  blue  color, 
the  cere  yellow,  the  eyes  are  large,  deep 
sunk,  and  covered  by  a  projecting  brow ; 
the  ids  is  of  a  fine  bright  yellow,  and 
sparkles  with  uncommon  lustre.  The 
gieneral  color  is  a  deep  brown  mixed  with 
tawny  on  the  head  and  neck ;  tlie  quills 
are  chocolate,  with  white  sliafls ;  the  tail 
is  black,  spotted  with  ash  color,  the  legs 
are  yellow,  the  toes  very  scaly,  and  the 
claws  remarkably  large.  It  occurs  in  va- 
rious parts  of  Europe  and  of  North  Amer- 
ica;  in  the  latter,  however,  it  is  rare. 

3.  JP.  fulmia  (common  or  ring-tailed  ea- 
gle) is  said  to  be  tlie  young  of  this  binL 
The  same  nests  are  made  use  of  by  eagles 
for  a  succession  of  years.  These  nests  are, 
in  fact,  of  great  bulk,  and  of  such  durable 
materials  as  to  be  almost  indestructible. 
They  are  built  in  dry  and  inaccessible 
situations,  of  large  twigs,  lined  with  seve* 
ral  layere  of  reeds  or  brambles ;  of  a  flat 
form,  several  feet  in  breadth,  and  of  such 
Btrenfftli  as  to  supi>ort  not  only  the  eagle 
and  ner  young,  but  likewise  the  large 
quantity  of  food  she  provides  for  them. 
This  is  so  great,  that  it  is  related  by  Smith, 
in  his  history  of  Kerry,  that  a  peasant 
procured  a  comfortable  subsistence  for  his 
lamily,  during  a  summer  of  famine,  by 
robbing  the  eaglets  of  the  *food  provided 
for  them  by  the  old  birds.  In  tlie  middle 
of  this  aerie,  the  female  deposits  two  or 
three  eggs,  and  sits  on  them  about  thirty 
day&  The  plumage  of  the  eaglets  is  not 
as  dark  as  it  becomes  when  tliey  arrive  at 
the  adult  state ;  but  a^,  famine  and  cap- 
tivity gradually  dimmish  their  natural 
colore,  and  give  them  a  faded  appearance. 

4.  White-tmled  eagle  (JP.  aUnciUay  This 
bird,  which  is  only  found  in  the  old  conti- 
nent, IS  inferior  in  size  to  the  golden 
eagle.  It  inhabits  &r  north,  and  is  ex- 
tremely ferocious ;  feeds  princifNilIy  upon 
fish,  and  usually  lays  two  or  three  effgs, 
building  its  nest  upon  lofly  tree&  n  is 
distinguished  by  its  black  bill  and  claws, 
and  white  talL  5.  The  sea-eagle  of  Europe 
{F.omfragus)  is  the  young  of  this  species, 
whilst  the  bird  on  which  Wilson  has 
bestowed  the  same  denomination  in  tliis 
country,  is  the  young  of  the  bald  eacle. 
6,  Great  eagle  of  Guiana  (F.  hcajtyia). 
This  bird  belongs  to  the  sub-^us  harpyia 


of  Cuvier,  and  is  furnished  with  a  terrible 
beak  and  clawa  Its  size  is  larger  than 
that  of  the  common  eacle ;  its  plumage  is 
ash-colored  on  the  head  and  neck,  black- 
ish-brown on  the  breast  and  sides,  whitish 
beneath,  rayed  with  brown  on  the  thigha 
It  has  long  plumes,  which  form  a  black 
tuft  on  the  back  of  the  head,  and  can  be 
raised,  giving  it  somewhat  the  physiogno- 
my of  an  owl.  This  bird  is  said  to  to  so 
powerful  as  to  have  destroyed  men  by  a 
blow  of  its  beak.  Its  usual  food  is  the 
sloth,  though  it  sometimes  carries  off 
fiiwns.  Tliere  can  be  no  doubt  but  that 
this  species  is  theys^uautdiof  Hemandes, 
tliou^h  this  author  is  guilty  of  great  exagr 
geration  when  he  says  it  is  as  large  as  a 
sheep.  7.  Bald  eagle  (JP.  leucocepfudtu). 
The  bald  eagle  is  the  most  distinguished  of 
the  North  American  species,  not  only  f]x>m 
his  beauty,  but  also  as  the  adopted  em- 
blem of  our  country.  This  bird  has  been 
known  to  naturalists  for  a  long  time,  and 
is  common  to  both  continents,  chiefly  fre- 

auenting  the  neighborhood  of  the  sea,  and 
ie  shores  and  cliffs  of  lakes  and  laree 
rivers.  He  is  found  during  the  whole 
year  in  the  countries  he  inhabits,  prefer- 
ring tlie  spots  we  have  mentioned  from 
his  great  partiality  for  fish.  The  follow- 
ing poetic  description  of  one  of  his  modes 
of^oDtaining  his  prey  is  given  by  Wilson : 
*^  Elevated  upon  a  high,  dead  limb  of  some 
gigantic  tree,  that  commands  a  wide  view 
of  the  neighboring  shore  and  ocean,  he 
seems  calmly  to  contemplate  the  motions 
of  the  various  feathered  tribes  that  pursue 
their  busy  avocations  below — the  snow- 
white  gulls,  slowly  winnowing  the  air; 
the  busy  tringcty  couraing  along  the 
sands;  trains  of  ducks,  streaming  over  the 
surface ;  silent  and  watchfiil  cranes,  hitent 
and  wading ;  clamorous  crows,  and  all 
the  winged  multitudes  that  subsist  by  tlie 
bounty  of  this  vast  liquid  magazine  of 
nature.  High  over  all  these  hovera  one, 
whose  action  instantly  arrests  all  his  atten- 
tion. He  knows  him  to  be  the  fish-hawk, 
settling  over  some  devoted  victim  of  the 
deep.  His  eye  kindles  at 'the  sight,  and, 
balancmff  himself  with  half-opened  winss 
on  the  branch,  he  watches  the  result. 
Down,  rapid  as  an  arrow  from  heaven, 
descends  the  distant  object  of  his  attention, 
the  roar  of  its  wings  reaching  the  ear  as  it 
disappears  in  the  deep,  making  the  sui^ges 
foam  around.  At  this  moment,  the  eager 
looks  of  the  eagle  are  all  ardor,  and,  level- 
ling his  neck  for  flight,  he  sees  the  fish- 
hawk  once  more  emerging,  struggling  witli 
his  prey,  and  mounting  in  the  air  witli 
screams  of  exultation.    These  are  a  agnal 


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363 


for  our  hero,  who,  laanching  into  the  air, 
instantly  gives  chase ;  soon  gains  on  the 
fbh-hawk;  each  exerts  his  utmost  to 
mount  above  the  other,  displaying,  in  the 
rencounter,  the  most  elegant  and  sublime 
aerial  evolutiona  The  unincumbered 
ea^le  rapidly  advances,  and  is  just  on  tlie 
poiut  of  reaching  his  opponent,  when, 
with  a  sudden  scream,  prolmbly  of  despair 
and  honest  execration,  tlie  latter  drops  his 
fish ;  the  eagle,  poisuig  himself  for  a  mo- 
ment, as  if  to  take  a  more  certain  aim, 
descends  like  a  whirlwind,  snatches  it  in 
his  grasp,  ere  it  reaches  the  water,  and 
bears  it  silently  away  to  the  woods." 
The  bald  eagle  also  destroys  quadrupeds, 
as  lambs,  pigs,  &c.;  and  there  are  well 
authenticated  instances  of  its  attempting 
to  carry  off  children.  When  this  bird  has 
ftsted  for  some  time,  its  appetite  is  ex- 
tremely voracious  and  indiscriminate. 
Even  the  most  putrid  carrion,  when  noth- 
ing lietter  can  be  had,  is  acceptable.  In 
hard  times,  when  food  is  very  scarce,  the 
eagle  will  attack  the  vulture,  make  it  dis- 
gorge the  food  it  has  swallowed,  and 
seize  this  disgusting  matter  before  it 
can  reach  the  ground.  The  nest  of  this 
species  is  usually  found  in  a  lofty  tree,  in 
a  swamp  or  morass.  It  is  large,  and, 
being  increased  and  repaired  every  season, 
becomes  of  great  size.  It  is  formed  of 
brge  sticks,  sods,  hay,  moss,  &c.  Few 
biras  provide  more  abundantly  for  their 
young  than  tlie  bald  eagle.  Fish  are 
daily  carried  to  the  nest  in  such  numbers, 
that  they  sometimes  lie  scaUered  round 
the  tree,  and  the  putrid  smell  of  the  nest 
may  be  disdnguished  at  the  distance  of 
several  hundred  yards.  The  eagle  is 
said  to  live  to  a  great  age— 60, 80,  or  even 
100  years. — In  poetry  and  the  fine  arts, 
the  eagle  plays  a  very  important  fiait. 
As  king  or  birds,  the  eagle  was  the  bird 
of  Jove,  the  carrier  of  the  lightning,  and 
thereby  expressive  of  sole  or  supreme 
dominion.  In  this  sense,  he  is  used  as 
the  emblem  and  symbol  of  nations, 
princes  and  armies.  He  was  the  hiero- 
glyphic sign  of  the  cities  Heliopolis,  Eme- 
sus,  Antioch  and  Tyre.  Among  the  at- 
tributes of  royalty,  which  the  Tuscans 
once  sent  to  the  Romans,  as  a  token  of 
amity,  was  a  sceptre  with  an  eagle  of 
ivory;  and  from  tliat  time  the  eagle  re- 
mained one  of  the  principal  emblems  of 
the  republic,  and  was  retained  also  by  the 
emperors.  As  the  standard  of  an  army, 
the  eagle  was  first  used  by  the  Per«aiis. 
Among  the  Romans,  they  were  at  first  of 
wood,  then  of  silver,  with  thunderbolts  of 
gold,  and,  under  Ciesar  and  his  succesB- 


ors,  entirely  of  gold,  witliout  thunderbolts. 
For  a  long  time,  they  were  carried,  as  tlie 
standards  of  the  legions,  on  a  long  pike, 
and  reverenced  as  their  peculiar  deities. 
Napoleon  chose  the  Roman  eagle  as  his 
banner.  It  was  of  metal,  gilt,  and  elevated 
on  a  long  staff;  but  the  royal  army  in 
France  no  longer  retains  this  standanl. 
The  double-headed  eagle  was  fin$t  found 
among  the  emperors  of  the  East,  who 
thereby  expressed  their  claims  to  the  East- 
em  and  Western  empires.  It  was  after- 
wards adopted  by  the  Western  emperors. 
The  German  emneror  Otlio  IV  had  it 
first  on  his  seal,  king  Philip  afterwaids 
made  it  the  impress  on  his  coins.  Aus- 
tria received  this  emblem  from  die  inher- 
itance of  the  East.  The  eagle  vrm  also 
adorned  by  the  kings  of  Prussia,  Poland, 
Sicily,  Spain,  Sardinia,  by  the  enifierors 
of  Russia,  by  many  princes,  counts  and 
barons  of  the  German  empire,  and  by 
the  U.  States  of  America.  Na|)oleon^ 
eagle  was  seated,  with  his  wings  folded, 
like  that  of  the  Romans.  The  eagle  of 
the  U.  States  stands  with  outspread  wings, 
guaniing  the  shield  below  him,  on  which 
are  the  stripes  and  stars  representiiig  tlie 
states  of  the  Union,  and  the  motto  E  pla- 
ribus  umtm, — ^The  eagle  is  also  tlie  badge 
of  several  orders,  as  the  black  eagle  and 
the  red  eagle  of  Prussia,  the  white  eagle 
of  Poland,  &c. 

Eaheinomacwe  ;  a  large  island  in  the 
South  Pacific  ocean,  and  the  most  north- 
ern of  the  two  constituting  New  Zealand, 
extending  from  lat.  34°  Sk  to  41°  SO'  S. 
Its  form  is  irregular.  From  lat.  37°  30^ 
to  3!>°  40^  S.,  the  breadth  is  from  150  to 
180  miles ;  afterwards  it  decreases  gradu- 
ally to  30  miles,  the  distance  from  caiie 
Tierawitteto  cape  Palliaer,its  most  south- 
em  point 

Ear  (ouru).  The  ear  is  the  organ  of 
hearing.  It  is  situated  at  the  side  of  tlie 
head,  and  is  divided  into  exteninl  and  iii- 
temal  ear.  The  auricula,  or  pinna,  com- 
monlv  called  the  ear,  constitutes  tlie  ex- 
ternal part  It  is  of  a  greater  or  less  size, 
according  to  the  individual.  The  pinna 
isfonned  of  a  fibrous  cartilage,  elastic  and 
pliant:  the  skin  which  covers  it  is  tliin 
and  dry.  There  are  also  seen,  ufion  the 
different  projecdons  of  the  cartilaginous 
ear,  certain  muscular  fibres,  to  which  the 
name  of  muscUs  has  been  given.  The 
pnna,  receiving  many  vessels  and  nerves, 
IS  very  sensible,  and  easily  becomes  red. 
It  is  fixed  to  the  head  by  the  cellular 
tissue,  and  by  muscles,  which  are  cailed, 
according  to  their  position,  mUerior,  supe- 
rior and  posterior.     These  muscles  are 


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EAIU-EAR-TRUMPETS. 


mucli  developed  in  many  animak :  in 
man,  they  may  be  considered  as  ample 
vestiges.  The  fiuaius  audUoriut,  or  audi- 
tory passage,  extends  fiom  the  concha  to 
the  membrane  of  the  tympanum  ;  its 
length,  variable  according  to  a^,  is  from 
10  to  12  lines  in  the  adult ;  it  is  narrower 
in  the  middle  than  at  the  ends ;  it  presents 
a  stight  curve  above  and  in  fronL  Its 
external  orifice  is  commonly  covered  with 
hairs,  hke  the  entrance  to  the  other  cavi- 
ties. The  middle  ear  comprehends  the 
cavity  of  the  tympanum,  the  little  bones 
which  ai'e  contained  in  tliis  cavity,  the 
mastoid  cells,  the  Eustachian  tube,  &c. 
The  tympanum  is  a  cavity  which  sepa- 
rates the  external  from  tlie  internal  ear. 
Its  form  is  that  of  a  portion  of  a  cylinder, 
but  a  little  irregular.  The  external  side 
presents  the  membrana  tymoanL  This 
membrane  is  directed  obliquely  downward 
and  inward :  it  is  bent,  very  slender  and 
transparent,  covered  on  the  outside  by  a 
continuation  of  the  skin ;  on  the  inade,  by 
the  narrow  membrane  which  covers  the 
tympanum.  Its  tissue  is  diy,  brittle,  and 
has  nothing  analogous  in  the  animal  econ- 
omy ;  there  are  neither  fibres,  vessels  nor 
nerves  found  in  it  The  cavity  of  the 
tympanum,  and  all  the  C4mals  which  end 
there,  are  covered  with  a  very  slender 
mucous  membrane :  this  cavity,  which  is 
alwavs  full  of  air,  contains,  besides,  four 
small  bones  (the  maUeus,  tncut,  09  orbieu- 
ktre^  and  «^pe«),  which  form  a  chain  from 
tftie  membrana  tympam  to  the  feneHra  ovor 
/»,  where  the  base  of  the  tU^  is  fixed. 
There  are  some  little  muscles  for  the  piu-- 
pose  of  moving  this  osseous  chain,  of 
stretching  and  uackening  the  membranes 
to  which  it  is  attached :  thus  the  in- 
ternal muscle  of  the  maUeiu  draws  it  for- 
ward, bends  tlie  chain  In  this  direction, 
and  stretches  the  membranes;  the  ante- 
rior muscle  produces  the  contrary  efiect : 
it  is  also  supposed  that  the  small  muscle 
which  is  placed  in  the  pyramid,  and 
which  is  attached  to  the  neck  of  the 
tAapts,  may  give  a  slight  tension  to  the 
chain,  in  drawing  it  towards  itsel£  The 
internal  ear,  or  labyrinth,  is  composed  of 
the  cochlea,  of  the  semicucular  canals,  and 
of  the  vestibule.  The  cochlea  is  a  bony 
cavity,  in  form  of  a  spiral,  from  which  it 
has  taken  its  name.  This  cavity  is  di- 
vided into  two  others,  which  are  distin- 
guished into  external  and  internal.  The 
partition  which  separates  them  is  a  plate 
set  edgeways,  and  which,  in  its  whole 
length,  is  partly  bony  and  partly  mem- 
branous. The  semicircular  canals  are 
three  cylindrical  cavities,  bent  in  a  semi- 


circular form,  two  of  which  are  disposed 
horizontally,  and  the  others  vemcally. 
These  canals  terminate  by  their  extremi- 
ties in  the  vestibule.  They  contain  bodies 
of  a  gray  color,  the  extremities  of  which 
are  terminated  by  swellings.  The  vesti- 
bule is  the  central  cavity,  the  point  of 
union  of  all  the  others.  It  communicates 
with  the  tympanum,  the  cochlea,  the  sem- 
icircular canals,  and  the  internal  meatus 
audUoriuSt  by  a  gr^  number  of  httle 
openiDgs.  The  cavities  of  the  internal 
ear  are  entirely  hollowed  out  of  the  hard- 
est iMut  of  the  temporal  bone:  they  are 
covered  with  an  extremely  thin  inem- 
brane,  and  are  full  of  a  very  thin  and 
limpid  fluid:  thev  contain,  besides,  the 
acousdc  nerve.  The  internal  ear  and  mid- 
dle ear  are  traversed  by  several  nervous 
threads,  the  presence  of  which  is,  perhaps, 
useful  to  hearing. 

Ear-Trumpets;  instruments  used  by 
persons  partially  deaf^  to  strengthen  the 
sensation  of  sound.  They  are  of  various 
forms,  and  are  intended  to  compensate  for 
the  want  of  the  external  ear,  or  to  aug^ 
ment  its  power  when  the  intenial  organs 
perform  tbeur  functions  but  imperfmly. 
The  puipose  of  the  external  ear,  both  in 
men  ancl  beasts,  is  to  collect,  by  its  funnel 
form,  all  the  rays  of  sound  (if  we  mav  be 
allowed  the  expression),  and  conduct  them 
to  the  internal  oigans,  the  seat  of  the 
sense  of  hearing.  All  the  artificial  instru- 
ments, tlien,  ought  to  resemble,  in  fbim, 
the  natural  ear.  In  ancient  times,  they 
were  made  like  a  trumpet,  of  moderate 
size,  and  usually  provided  with  handles, 
by  which  they  might  be  held  up  to  the 
ear.  They  were  so  fitted  that  the  smaller 
aperture  entered  the  ear,  and  the  wider 
was  directed  to  the  quarter  from  which 
tlie  sound  was  to  projceed.  But  these  in- 
stniments  were  soon  found  inconvenient^ 
both  on  account  of  their  size  and  the 
necessity  of  continually  holding  them  to 
the  ear.  Anotlier  objection  was,tljat  they 
did  not  sufficiently  conceal  the  defect  they 
were  designed  to  remedy,  and  therefore 
they  were  soon  thrown  aside.  New  in- 
struments w^re  made  vrithout  these  de- 
fects. One  resembles  a  small  silver  fun- 
nel, with  a  long  virinding  channel  in  its 
interior,  which  terminates  at  the  beginning 
of  the  auditoiy  passage.  On  the  broad, 
bent  rim  there  are  holes,  with  ribbons 
passing  through  them,  to  fix  the  machine 
to  the  external  ear.  A  second  form  con- 
sists of  a  lackered  tin  tube,  with  numerous 
windings,  having  the  narrow  end  commu- 
nicating with  the  auditory  passage,  and 
the  exterior,  wider  end  made  fast  to  the 


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external  ear.  In  the  same  way,  two  of 
these  instrumenta  might  be  connected 
by  an  elastic  hoop,  and  fitted,  at  the  same 
time,  to  both  eara.  A  third  instrument 
consists  of  a  sort  of  hoUow  tin  case,  curv- 
ing so  OS  to  fit  the  head,  having  a  broad 
aperture  in  the  middle  of  the  front  surfiice, 
and  terminated  by  two  tubes  bent  inwards. 
Tiiis  hoop  is  so  Axed  under  the  hair,  that 
the  aperture  in  the  middle  is  exactly  over 
the  upper  part  of  the  forehead,  and  the 
lateral  tubes  communicate  with  the  right 
and  left  auditory  passages.  The  great 
advantage  of  this  last  instrument  is,  tliat  it 
receives  directly  sounds  which  come  from 
before. 

Eakl  ;  a  degree  of  the  English  nobility, 
between  marquis  and  vipcount.  (For  tlie 
origin  of  the  title  and  the  dignity,  see  Mdar^ 
num.)  In  Latin,  tlie  earls  are  called  coirtt^, 
corresponding  to  the  count  or  Grttf  of  tlie 
European  continent.  (See  Couni.)  It  is 
now  oecorae  a  mere  title,  the  official  au- 
thority which  the  earls  formerly  possessed 
in  the  counties  having  devolvea  entirely 
on  the  sheriffs  (in  Latin,  mu-mtMiny  In 
official  instruments,  they  are  called^  ny  the 
king,  tnuhf  and  well  hdoved  cou«tn«-— an 
appellation  as  ancient  as  the  reign  of 
Henry  IV,  who,  being,  either  by  his  iviie, 
mother  or  sisters,  actually  related  or  allied 
to  every  eari  in  the  kin^ora,  artfully 
acknowledged  this  connexion  in  all  his 
liters  and  other  public  acta.  An  earl's 
coronet  is  composed  of  eight  pearls,  raised 
upon  points,  with  small  leaves  between, 
aoove  the  rim.  There  are,  at  present,  105 
earis  in  England,  5  in  Scotland,  and  19  ia 
Ireland.  Ab  the  earls,  for  some  time  after 
the  Norman  conquest,  were  called  counts^ 
their  wives  are  still  called  counUssea, 

Earl  Marshal  of  ENGi«AifD ;  a  great 
officer,  who  had,  anciently,  several  courts 
under  his  jurisdiction,  as  the  court  of  chiv- 
alry and  the  court  of  honor.  Under  him 
is  also  the  herald's  office,  or  college  of 
arms.  He  has  some  preeminence  m  the 
court  of  Marshalsea,  where  he  may  sit  in 
judgment  against  those  who  ofiend  within 
the  verge  of  the  king's  court. 

Earlom,  Richard^  a  mezzotinto  en* 
graver,  was  bom  in  London,  and  was  the 
son  of  the  vestry-clerk  of  the  parish  of  St 
Sepulchre.  His  taste  for  design  is  said  to 
have  been  excited  by  the  inspe«don  of  the 
ornaments  on  the  state-coach  of  the  lord- 
mayor,  which  had  been  painted  by  Cipri- 
anL  About  1765,  he  was  employed  by 
aklerman  Boydell  to  make  drawings  from 
the  celebrated  collection  of  pictiues  at 
Houghton,  most  of  which  he  afterwards 
adourably  engraved  in  mezzotinto.  In 
31  * 


this  btanch  of  art  be  had  been  his  own 
instructer,  and  he  introduced  into  tlie 
practice  of  it  improvements  and  instru- 
ments not  previously  used.  The  fruit  and 
flower-pieces  executed  by  Eariom,  after 
Van  Huysuin,  established  his  fame.  In 
history,  he  distinguished  himself  by  his 
engraving  of  Agrippina,  from  the  grand 
picture  by  West  He  also  engraved  some 
Oriental  scenes,  fix>m  paintings  by  Zofia- 
ni,  and  publisbeil  two  volumes  of  jilates 
from  the  Liber  VeritatU  or  sketch  book 
of  Claude.    He  died  Oct  9, 1823,  aged  79. 

Earnest  ;  a  part  of  the  price  paid  in 
advance,  to  bind  parties  to  the  perform- 
ance of  a  verbal  agreement  The  party  is 
then  obliged  to  abide  by  his  bargain,  and 
'is  not  discharged  upon  forfeiting  his  ear- 
nest, but  may  be  sued  for  the  whole 
money  stipulated,  and  damages.  No  con- 
tract for  tlie  sale  of  goods  not  to  be  deliv- 
ered inmiediately,  to  the  value  of  £10  or 
more,  is  valid,  unless  a  written  contract  is 
made  by  the  parties,  or  those  lawfuUy 
authorized  by  them,  or  earnest  is  given. 

Earth  ;  the  name  of  the  planet  which 
we  inhabit  We  may  view  it  in  regard  to 
its  physical,  mathematical  and  political 
condition.  (See  Get^aphf,)  Finst,  as  to 
the  form  of  the  earth:  to  an  observer 
whose  view  is  not  obstructed,  it  presents 
itself  as  a  cireular  plain,  on  tlie  circum- 
ference of  which  the  heavena  appear  to 
rest  Accorduigly,  in  remote  antiquity, 
the  earth  was  r^arded  as  a  flat,  circular 
body,  floating  on  the  water.  But  the 
great  distances  which  men  were  able  to 
travel  soon  refuted  this  Umited  idea  as  an 
optical  illusion ;  and,  even  in  antiquity,  the 
q>herical  fonn  of  the  earth  began  to  be 
suspected.  On  this  supposdtion  alone  can 
all  the  phenomena  relating  to  it  be  ex- 
plained. A  sphere  of  so  great  a  magni- 
tude as  our  earth,  surrounded  by  a  stra- 
tum of  air,  or  the  visible  firmament,  must 
present  to  the  eye  of  an  olwerver,  on  a 
plain,  the  appearance  j  ust  described.  But 
how  could  the  earth  appear,  fiom  every 
posnble  position,  as  a  suibce  bounded  by 
the  firmament,  if  it  were  not  a  sphere 
encircled  by  it  ?  How  else  could  the 
horizon  grow  wider  and  wider,  the  higher 
the  position  we  choose  ?  How  else  can 
the  fact  be  explained,  that  we  see  the  tops 
of  towers  and  of  mountains,  at  a  distance, 
before  the  bases  become  visible  ?  But 
besides  these  proo&  of  the  sphericity  of 
the  earth,  there  are  many  others,  such  as 
its  circular  shadow  on  the  moon  during 
an  eclipse,  the  gradual  appearance  and 
disappearance  of  the  sun,  the  inequali^ 
of  day  aiul  night,  the  changes  in  the  post* 


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tion  and  course  of  the  stan,  and  the  gnd- 
ual  disappearance  of  some  and  appearance 
of  otliera,  as  we  go  from  the  equator  to 
the  poles.  Finally,  if  the  earth-  were  not 
spherical,  it  would  lie  unpoesihle  to  sail 
round  it,  which  is  frequently  done.  The 
cause  of  tlie  eartli's  sphericity  is  very  evi- 
dent, if  we  consider  it  as  having  been,  at 
first,  a^ieldiiig  mass,  cafMible  of  assuming 
any  form :  tlien,  by  the  force  of  gravity, 
every  particle  contained  in  it  tending 
towards  the  common  centre,  the  globular 
form  is  the  necessary  consecjuence.  As 
to  the  objection  to  tlie  sphericity  of  the 
earth,  drawn  by  weak  and  ignorant  ^eo- 
pie,  from  the  imagination  that  oui  auupo- 
dn  (q.  V.)  would  fall  from  its  surface,  and 
many  similar  ones,  they  will  appear  to 
have  no  force  whatever,  when  we  con- 
sider that,  in  a  globe  of  the  magnitude  of 
the  earth,  every  thing  on  the  suiiace  tends 
to  the  centre,  and  that,  if  we  speak  of  what 
is  above  and  below,  the  whole  surface  of 
th^  earth  is  below,  and  the  surrounding 
atmosphere  above.  The  earth  is  not, 
however,  an  exact  sphere,  but  is  flat- 
tened at  the  poles.  Philosophera  were 
first  led  to  observe  this  by  the  varia- 
tion in  the  vibrations  of  the  pendu- 
lum under  the  equator  and  near  the 
poles.  It  was  found  that  the  pendulum 
performed  its  vibrations  slower  tlie  nearer 
It  approached  the  equator,  and  hence  was 
inferred  the  variableness  of  the  force  of 
gravity.  This  was  easily  explained  op  the 
theory  just  mentioned,  because,  the  circle 
of  daily  revolution  being  greatest  at  the 
equator,  all  bodies  revolve  proportionally 
fiister  there  thau  at  the  poles,  so  tliat  the 
centrifugal-  force  is  greater,  and  the  force 
of  gravity  less,  tlian  at  other  parts  of 
the  earth*s  surfiice ;  and  because,  at 
the  equator,  the  centrifupl  force  is 
exactly  opposed  to  that  of  gravity,  but 
towards  tJie  poles,  being  oblique  to  it, 
produces  less  effect  From  these  obeer- 
vationa  it  was  justly  inferred,  that  the 
earth  is  a  s|>here  flattened  at  the  poles,  or 
a  spheroid ;  and  this  form  was  sads&cto- 
rily  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the 
particles  of  a  yielding  mass,  which  re^ 
volves  on  its  own  axis,  depart  fit)m  the 
poles  and  tend  to  the  centre,  by  which  the 
poles  are,  of  course,  flattened,  and  the 
middle  elevated.  Various  measurements 
have  put  this  beyond  all  doubL  (See 
Miupertvisy  and  Condamine^  and  Degree, 
Meaguremeni  of.)  Another  important  de- 
sideratum for  a  more  intimate  acquaint- 
ance witli  tlie  earth  was,  to  fix  its  magni- 
tude. The  labors  of  the  ancients,  m  this 
respect,  were  all  finiitlesB^  owing  to  their 


want  of  suitable  mstramenta.  Accurate 
results  were  first  obtained  in  the  year 
1615.  WiUibrord  Snellius,  a  Dutchman, 
fint  struck  into  the  only  true  way,  and 
measured  an  arc  of  a  meridian  from  Alc- 
maar  to  Leyden  and  Bergen  op  Zoom,  by 
means  of  triangles.  Afler  bun,  the  meas- 
urements of  Picard,  and  the  later  ones  of 
Maupeituis,  approximated  nearer  the  truth. 
Theee  made  the  circumference  of  a  great 
drcle  of  the  earth  25,000  milea.  But  it  is 
to  be  remarked  that,  in  this  calculation, 
the  earth  is  regarded  as  a  perfect  sphere. 
Further  measurements  of  all  parts  of  the 
surface  of  the  earth  will  be  necessary  to 
find,  rigidly  and  accurately,  the  true  mag- 
nitude of  it  (See  JiccowU  qf  £rpm- 
menta,  to  determine  the  Figure  of  tht 
Earth,  iy  Means  of  ike  Pendulum,  ifc^ 
hp  Captain  Ed.  iSofrtnc  (London,  1^ 
£o.),  under  the  direction  of  the  board  of 
longitude.)  If  we  take  a  view  of  our 
eartli  in  its  relation  to  the  solar  system, 
astronomy  teaches  us  that,  contrary  to 

aipearances,  which  make  the  sun  revolve 
wut  the  earth,  tiie  earth  and  ten  other 
planets  revolve  about  tlie  sun,  and,  betng 
themselves  opaque  bodies,  receive  from 
the  sun  light  and  heat  The  earth  com- 
pletes its  revolution  round  the  sun  in 
about  365  days  and  6  hours,  which  forms 
our  common  year.  The  orbit  of  the 
earth  is  an  ellipse,  with  the  sun  in  one  of 
its  foci.  Hence  the  earth  is  not  equally 
distant  from  the  sun  in  all  parts  of  the 
year:  its  least  distance  is  estuuated  at 
93,336,000  miles,  and  its  greatest,  at 
95,464,572,  making  a  difierence  of  more 
than  2,000,000  of  miles.  In  winter,  we 
are  nearest  the  sun,  and  in  summer,  farthest 
from  it ;  for  the  difference  in  the  seasons 
is  not  occasioned  by  the  sreater  or  lees 
distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sim,  but  by 
the  more  or  less  oblique  direction  of  the 
sun's  rays.  The  length  of  the  path  trav- 
elled over  by  the  earth  is  estimated  at 
567,019,740  miles,  and,  as  this  immense 
distance  is  passed  over  in  a  year,  tlie  eaith 
must  move  17  miles  a  second—^  rapidity 
so  far  exceeding  our  conceptions,  tnat  it 
gave  very  just  occasion  to  the  pleasant 
remark  of  Lichtenberg,  that,  while  one 
man  salutes  another  in  the  street,  he  goes 
many  miles  bareheaded  without  catching 
cold.  BeeMes  this  annual  motion  about 
the  stm,  tlie  earth  has  also  a  daily  motion 
about  its  own  axis  (acconling  to  mean 
time,  in  23  hours,  56  minutes  and  4  sec- 
onds). This  diurnal  revolution  is  the 
occaffion  of  the  alternation  of  d^y  and 
night  But  as  the  axis  on  which  the 
eairth  perfonna  its  diurnal  rotation  fbncs, 


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EAETH— MOTION  OF  THE  EARTH. 


367 


with  its  path  about  the  sun,  an  angle  of 
331  deerees,  the  sun  aacends,  from  March 
21  to  June  21,  about  23|  deereea  above 
the  equator  towards  the  north  pole,  and 
descends  again  towards  the  equator  from 
June  21  to  Septenil)er  23 ;  it  then  sinks 
till  December  21,  about  23i  degrees  below 
tlie  equator,  towards  the  south  pole,  and 
returns  again  to  the  equator  by  March  21. 
This  anangement  is  the  cause  of  the 
seasons,  and  the  inequality  of  day  and 
night  attending  them,  which,  for  all  coun- 
tries lying  beyond  the  equator,  are  equal 
only  twice  in  the  year,  when  the  ecUptic 
coincides  with  the  equator.    The  moon, 
again,  revolves  about  the  earth,  in  a  similar 
eUiptical  path,  in  28  days  and  14  hours. 
Copernicus  first  hud  down  tliis  as  the 
system  of  the  universe. — To  tlie  physical 
knowled^  of  the  earth  belongs,  especially, 
tlie  consideration  of  its  sumce  and  its 
interior.     The  earth's   surface    contains 
over  196,000,000  square  miles,  of  which 
scarcely- a  tliird  part  is  dry  land;  the 
remaining  two  thirds  are  water.    Of  tlie 
sur&ce  of  the  earth,  Europe  comprises 
about  one  54th  part ;  Asia,  one  14tli ;  Af- 
rica, a  17th ;  and  America,  a  16th.    The 
islands  of  the  Pacific,  taken  together,  are 
somewhat  larger  than  Europe.    The  pop- 
ulation of  the  whole  earth  is  estimated  at 
fitHn  800  to  1000  millions.    The  ulterior 
of  the  earth  is  entirely  unknown  to  us,  as 
the  depth  to  which  we  have  been  able  to 
penetrate  is  notliing  in  comparison  with  its 
diameter.    Many  modern  speculators  are 
of  o|HnJon  tliat  the  interior  is  composed 
of  a  metallic  mass.   Respecting  the  origin 
and  gradual  formation  of  tlie  earth,  tliere 
are   various  hypotiieses.    (See  Geology; 
see  also  Dayfiude^  Degretj  &c. ;  and  Mounr 
torn,  Faleanoj  ISarthquakey  Curnniy  &c.) 

Earthy  MoHon  qf  ike.  The  earth  has 
two  motions,  the  daily  motion  round  its 
axis,  and  the  yearly  motion  in  its  orbit 
round  the  sun.  The  theory  of  the  motion 
of  the  earth  has  become  memorable  in  the 
hiAoiy  of  the  human  mind,  showing,  as  it 
doees  a  marked  ability  in  man  to  resist  the 
impressions  produced  by  appearances,  and 
to  believe  the  contrary  of  that  which  had 
been  believed  and  taught  for  many  cen- 
turies. The  theory  of  Copernicus  not 
only  founded  the  modem  system  of  astron- 
omy, but  made  men  eager  to  examme 
other  ardcles  of  their  creed,  afbr  they 
were  thus  convinced  that  they  had  erro- 
neously taught  and  believed  the  earth  to 
be  stationary  for  6000  years.  All  the 
opioJODS  of  the  ancients  respecting  the 
mocioo  of  the  earth  were  speculative  hy- 
potheses, arising  firom  the  Pythagorean 


school,  which,  as  we  know,  considered 
fire  the  centre  of  the  world,  round  which 
all  was  moving.  Thus  we  ought  to  ex- 
mentioned  by  Aristode  ui  his  Arenario. 
Aristarcbus,  as  a  Pythagorean,  held  the 
idea,  that  the  earth  revolves  round  its 
axis,  and,  at  the  same  time,  in  an  oblique 
circle  round  the  sun;  and  that  the  dis- 
tance of  the  stars  is  so  great,  that  tliis 
circle  is  but  a  point  in  comparison  with 
their  orbits,  and  therefore  the  motion  of  the 
earth  produces  no  apparent  motion  in 
tliem.  Every  Pythagorean  might  have 
entertiuned  this  idea,  who  considered  tlie 
sun  or  fire  as  the  centre  of  the  world,  and 
who  was,  at  the  same  time,  so  correct  a 
thinker,  and  so  good  an  astronomer,  as 
Aristarcbus  of  Sfuuos.  But  this  was  not 
tlie  Copemican  system  of  the  world.  It 
was  tlie  motions  of  the  planets,  their  sta- 
tions and  their  retrogradations,  which 
astronomers  could  not  explain,  and  which 
led  them  to  the  complicated  modons  of 
the  epicycles,  in  which  the  planets  moved 
in  cycloids  round  the  earth.  Aristarcbus 
Uvea  280  B.  C,  Hipparchus,  the  great 
astronomer  of  antiquity,  150  B.  C,  there* 
fore  130  years  later.  At  this  time,  all  the 
writings  of  Aristarcbus  were  extant,  and, 
hafl  tlie  Copernican  system  been  set  forth 
in  them,  Hipparchus  would  not  have  de- 
spaired of  expluinin(^  the  modons  of  the 
planets.  The  same  is  true  of  Ptolemy,  in 
whose  Ahnagest,  the  most  complete  work 
of  antiquity  on  astronomy,  this  system  is' 
not  mentioned  in  the  account  of  Aristar- 
chu&  EveiY  Copemican  speaks  of  the 
motion  of  the  earth,  but  not  every  one 
who  speaks  of  the  motion  of  the  earth  is  a 
Copemican.  Copernicus  was  led  to  the 
discovery  of  his  system  by  a  consideration 
of  the  complicated  motion  of  the  planetL 
and,  in  the  dedication  of  his  immortal 
work,  4>t  Revolutiombus  Orbiumy  to  pope 
Paul  III,  he  says,  that  the  truth  of  his 
system  is  proved  by  the  motion  of  the 
planets,  since  their  successive  stations  and 
retrogradations  are  the  simple  and  neces- 
safy  consequence  of  the  modon  of  the 
earth  round  the  sun ;  and  we  need  not  take 
refuse  in  the  complicated  epicycles.  Co- 
pernicus did  not  live  to  see  the  persecu- 
tions which  the  Roman  Catholic  priests 
raised  against  his  system.  They  began 
only  100  years  hiter  (about  1610),  when 
the  telescope  was  invented,  when  the 
moons  of  Jupiter  and  the  phases  of  Venus 
were  discovered,  and,  by  these  means,  the 
zeal  for  astronomy  had  been  highly  excit-' 
ed.  Eveiy  city  in  Italy  was  then  a  little 
Athens,  in  which  the  arts  and  sciences 


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MOTION  OF  THE  EARTH. 


flourished.  Galileo  obtained  high  distinc- 
tion, and  defended  the  new  sjrsteni  of  the 
world.  The  Rouvin  inquisition  sum- 
moned him  before  its  tribunal,  and  he 
was  com]K)lled  to  abjure  this  theory. 
(See  Galileo,)  The  general  sympathy  for 
the  iate  of  this  astronomer  increased  the 
popularity  of  the  system,  and  it  was  as 
violently  defended  on  one  side  as  it  was 
attacked  on  the  other.  Among  the  argu- 
ments against  the  motion  of  tiie  earth,  it 
was  alleged,  that  a  stone,  falfing  from  a 
tower,  did  not  fall  westward  of  the  tower, 
notwitiistandins  this  had  advanced  east- 
ward several  nundred  feet  during  the 
four  or  five  seconds  of  the  fall  of  the 
stone.  Copernicus  had  answered  justly : 
the  cause  of  its  remaining  near  the  tower 
is,  that  it  has  the  same  motion  eastward, 
and,  in  felling,  does  not  lose  tliis  motion, 
but  advances  with  the  earth.  Galileo  said 
the  same,  and  asserted  that  a  stone,  falling 
fh>m  the  top  of  the  mast  of  a  vessel,  at  full 
sail,  falls  at  the  foot  of  the  mast,  notwith- 
standing the  mast  advances,  perhaps,  10 
or  more  feet  during  the  fall.  Gassendi 
tried  these  experiments  in  tlie  harbor  of 
Maneilles,  and  the  stones  fell  at  the  foot 
of  the  mast,  notwithstanding  the  vessel 
was  under  full  sail.  Galileo  therefore 
maintained,  that  it  is  impossible  to  draw 
any  conclusions  concerning  the  motion 
of  the  earth  from  such  experiments,  ance 
bodies  would  fall  on  the  earth  in  motion 
precisely  the  same  as  on  the  earth  at  rest 
In  1G42,  Galileo  died.  In  the  same  year, 
Newton  was  bom.  He  proved,  in  1679, 
that  the  opinion  of  Galileo  was  erroneous, 
and  that  we  certainly  can  tiy  experiments 
on  the  motion  of  the  earth ;  that  the  balls 
would  not  deviate  westward,  but  would 
fall  a  little  eastward  of  the  plumbline, 
about  a  half  inch  at  the  heiffhtof  900  feet 
The  cause  is  this :  since  Sie  top  of  the 
tower  is  at  a  greater  distance  n-^  the 
axis  of  the  earth  than  its  base,  the  centrif- 
ugal force  must  be  greater  at  the  former 
Soint  than  at  the  latter;  the  ball,  infilling, 
oes  not  lose  this  impulse,  and,  therefore, 
advances  before  the  plumbline,  which 
strikes  the  foot  of  tlie  tower,  since  it  has  a 
less  impulse  eastward.  This  hint,  given 
by  Newton,  was  followed  by  Hooke.  He 
tned  experiments  on  the  motion  of  the 
earth,  at  a  height  of  160  feet,  and  asserts 
tliat  he  succeeded.  The  academy  ap- 
pointed a  committee,  Jan.  14, 1680,  m  the 
presence  of  which  he  was  to  repeat  his 
experiments.  Probably  they  were  not 
satisfactory,  since  they  have  never  been 
mentioned  in  tlie  Philosophical  lYansac- 
tiouB,  and  were  entirely  forgotten.    Only 


112  years  later,  a  young  geometrician  in 
Bologna,  Gughelmini,  attempted  to  repeat 
these  experiments,  which  had  been  con- 
fiidered  very  difficult  by  astronomers,  in 
the  tower  Degti  Asinelli,  in  that  city,  at  a 
height  of  240  feet  After  having  sur- 
mounted all  difficulties,  he  succeeded  in 
causinff  the  fall  of  16  balls,  which  percep- 
tibly deviated  eastward.  But  Gughel- 
mini committed  an  error  in  not  sus|)end- 
ing  the  lead  every  day  when  he  tried  his 
experiments,  of  which  he  often  made 
three  or  four  in  one  night  He  did  not 
drop  the  plummet  until  after  he  had  fin- 
ished all  his  experiments,  and,  as  it  did  not 
come  to  a  perpendicular  position  until  m. 
months,  on  account  of  stormy  weather,  the 
tower  in  the  meantime  was  a  little  bent, 
the  point  at  which  the  plummet  should 
have  fallen  was  altered,  and  his  experi- 
ments were  lost  This  bap^iened  in  1792. 
Benzenberg,  a  German,  performed  similar 
experiments  in  1804,  in  MichaeFs  tower, 
in  Hamburg.  He  let  fall  90  balls,  from 
the  height  of  235  feet :  the  balls  deviated 
fh)m  the  perpehdicular  four  lines  east- 
wand.  But  tbey  deviated,  at  the  same 
time,  H  line  southward,  probably  owing 
to  a  gentle  draft  of  air  in  the  tower.  He 
repeated  these  experiments  in  1805,  in  a 
coalpit,  at  Schlebusch,  in  the  county  of 
Mark,  at  the  height  of  260  feet :  there  the 
balls  deviated  from  the  perpendicular  five 
hnes  eastward,  just  as  the  theory  of  the  mo- 
tion of  the  earth  requires  for  the  latitude 
of  51®,  but  neither  southward  nor  north- 
ward. From  these  experiments,  Laplace 
calculated  that  the  chances  are  8000  to  1 
that  the  eaitli  turns  round  its  axis.  The 
invention  of  the  telescope,  by  means  of 
which  the  rotation  of  jupiter  was  soon 
observed,  but  still  more,  Newton's  discov- 
ery of  universal  gravity,  and  of  the 
nature  of  the  celestim  monons,  established 
the  theory  of  the  motion  of  die  earth ;  and, 
in  modem  times,  no  man  of  intelligence 
doubts  it  any  longer.  The  French  gen- 
eral AUix,  however,  endeavored  to  prove 
that  the  motion  of  the  planets  does  not 
depend  on  the  law  of  gravitation.  The 
flattening  of  the  earth  (see  Degree^  Meas- 
wrtmetU  oJ\  and  the  dinunution  of  gravity 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  equator,  proved  by 
the  experiments  of  Richers  and  others  on 
the  motion  of  the  pendulum  in  t^e  equa- 
torial re^ons  (see  Ptndydmn\  also  give  as 
convincing  proofs  of  the  rotation  of  the 
earth,  as  the  aberration  of  light  (q.  v.\ 
affords  of  the  revolution  of  the  earth  roond 
the  Sim.  Thus  the  human  intellect  has 
triumphed  over  the  evidences  of  flense, 
and  the  opposition  of  authority. 


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£ARTH(IIIAK£>-EARTHS. 


300 


£AmTHqcAKS ;  a  shaking  of  certain 
parts  of  tlie  earth's  surfiice,  produced  by 
causes  uot  perceivable  by  our  senses. 
This  motion  occun  in  veiy  difiereut  ways, 
and  in  various  degrees  of  yioience.  Some- 
times it  is  perpendicular,  throwing  por- 
tions of  tlie  ground  into  the  ajr,  and  niak- 
ing  otheiB  sink.  Sometimes  it  is  a  hori- 
zontal, undulating  motion,  and  sometimes 
it  ap|)earB  to  l>e  of  a  whirling  nature. 
Sometimes  it  is  quickly  over ;  sometimes 
continues  long,  or  recurs  at  intervals  of 
weeks,  days  or  months.  At  one  time,  it  is 
confined  witiiin  a  small  circle ;  at  another, 
it  extends  for  many  miles.  At  one  time, 
it  b  hardiv  percepdble ;  at  another,  it  is  so 
violent,  that  it  not  only  demolishes  tlie 
%Korks  of  human  art,  but  changes  the 
appearance  of  the  ground  itself.  Some- 
times the  surface  of  the  ground  remains 
unbroken ;  sometimes  it  buists  open  into 
clefb  and  chasms ;  and  then  occasionally 
appeara  the  tihenomenon  of  the  eruption 
of  gases,  and  also  of  flamoa,  with  the  ejec- 
tion of  water,  mud  and  stones,  as  in  vol- 
canic eruptions  The  eruptions  of  proper 
and  permanent  volcanoes  are  preceded  by, 
and  proportionate  to,  the  agitations  of  the 
earth  in  their  neighborho^.  These  ob- 
servations furnish  grounds  for  the  conclu- 
sion, that  eartliquakes  cannot  proceed 
from  external  causes,  but  arise  from  cer- 
tain powers  operating  within  the  circum- 
ference or  crust  of  £e  earth.  Moreover, 
all  the  phenomena  of  earthquakes  bear  so 
much  affinity  to  those  of  volcanoes,  tliat 
tliere  can  hardly  be  a  doubt,  tliat  both 
proceed  Grom  tlie  same  causes,  acting  dif- 
ferently, according  to  the  difference  of 
situation,  or  different  nature  of  the  surface 
on  which  they  operate.  A  volcano  differs 
from  an  earthquake,  principally,  by  having 
a  |)ermaneu(  crater,  and  by  the  reapi^ear- 
ance  of  the  eruptions  in  the  aame  place, 
or  in  its  immediate  vicinity.  All  the 
otlier  phenomena  of  a  volcano,  such  as 
the  suuterraiiean  thunder-Uke  noises,  the 
sliakiug,  raising  and  bursdng  asunder  of 
the  earth,  and  the  emission  of  elusdc 
fluids,  the  fire  and  flames,  the  ejection, 
too,  of  mineral  substances,  all  occur,  now 
and  then,  more  or  less,  in  earthquakes  as 
wull  as  in  vok^mic  eruptions,  even  when 
at  a  distance  from  active  volcanoes ;  and 
the  genuine  volcanic  eruptions  are,  as  has 
been  remarked,  accompanied  or  aimounc- 
ed  by  shakings  of  the  earth.  All  our 
observations  go  to  prove,  that  volcanic 
eni|Hioiis,  earthquakes,  the  heaving  of  the 
ground  from  within,  and  the  disruption 
of  it  in  the  same  way,  are  produced  by 
one  and  the  same  cause,  by  one  and  the 


same  chemical  process,  wliich  must  have 
its  seat  at  a  great  depth  beneath  the  pres- 
ent surface  of  the  earth.  The  most 
remarkable  earthquakes  of  modem  times 
are  those  which  destroyed  Lima,  in  1746, 
and  Lisbon,  m  1755 ;  m  the  latter,  30,000 
persons  were  killed.  It  extended  from 
Greenland  to  Africa  and  America.  A 
similar  fete  befell  Calabria,  in  1783,  the 
provuice  of  Caracas,  in  South  America, 
m  1812,  and  Aleppo,  in  Syria,  in  1822. 
Several  earthquakes  have  taken  place 
quite  kitelv,  in  South  America,  one  par- 
ticularly dreadful  at  Lima.  The  city  of 
Guatemala,  also,  was  neariy  destroyed  in 
tlie  spring  of  1830,  by  earthquakes,  which 
continued  five  days  successively. 

Easths.  The  term  earUi  is  applied,  in 
common  Ufe,  to  denote  a  tasteless,  inodor- 
ous, dry,  uninflammable,  sparingly-soluble 
substance,  which  is  difficuuly  fusible,  and 
of  a  moderate  specific  gravity.  Several 
of  the  earths  are  found  in  a  state  of  purity 
in  nature;  but  their  general  moae  of 
occurrence  is  in  intimate  union  witli  each 
other,  and  with  various  acids  and  metallic 
oxides.  Under  these  circumstances,  they 
constitute  by  far  die  greatest  part  of  the 
strata,  gravel  and  soil,  which  go  to  make 
up  the  mountains,  valleys  and  plains  of* 
our  globe.  Their  number  is  ten,  and  their 
names  are  sUex^  alumina,  magnesia^  limCj 
baryteSf  rirontUes,  zircon,  glucine,  yUna  and 
thorina.  The  four  first  have  long  been 
known  to  mankind;  the  remainder  have 
been  discovered  in  our  own  times.  Silex 
exists  nearly  pure,  in  large  masses,  forming 
entire  rocks,  as  quartz  rock,  and  constitut- 
ing the  chief  mgredient  in  all  granitic 
rocks  and  sandstones,  so  that  it  may  safely 
be  asserted  to  form  more  than  one  half  of 
the  crust  of  the  earth.  Alumine  is  found 
pure  in  tMTO  or  thi«e  exceedingly  rare 
minerals,  but,  in  a  mixed  state,  is  well 
known  as  forming  clays  and  a  lar^  fiuni- 
ly  of  rocks,  usually  called  argtllaceous. 
Lime,  an  eaith  well  known  from  its  im- 
portant uses  in  society,  occurs  combined 
with  carbonic  acid,  in  which  state  It  forms 
limestone,  marble,  chalk,  and  the  shells 
of  snails.  It  exists  also,  upon  a  huge 
scale,  in  combination  with  sulphuric  acid, 
when  it  bears  the  name  of  gipmm.  Mag- 
nesia is  rare  in  a  state  of  punty,  but  enters 
largely  into  the  composition  of  some  of 
the  primary  rocks,  especially  of  the  lime- 
stones. The  remainmg  eight  (if  we  ex- 
cept baiytes,  which,  in  combination  with 
sulphuric  acid,  is  oflen  met  witli  in  metallic 
veins)  are  only  known  to  the  chemist  as 
occurring  in  the  composition  of  certain  min- 
erals, which,  for  the  most  part,  are  exceed- 


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370 


EARTHS— EARWIG. 


jnghr  rare.  The  earths  are  veiy  similar 
to  the  alkalies  (q.  v.),  formiog,  with  the 
acids,  peculiar  salts,  and  resenibliD^  the 
alkalies  likewise  in  their  composition. 
They  consist  of  peculiar  metals  m  com- 
bination with  oxvgen,  and  compose  the 
greatest  part  of  the  solid  contents  of  the 
globe.  They  differ  from  the  alkalies 
principally  in  the  following  peculiarities : 
they  are  incombustible,  and  cannot,  in 
their  simple  state,  be  volatilized  by  heat ; 
with  difierent  acids,  especially  tlie  car- 
bonic, they  form  salts,  insoluble,  or  soluble 
only  with  much  difficulty,  and  with  fat 
oils,  soajjs  insoluble  in  water.  They  are 
divided  into  two  classes,  the  alkaline  and 
proper  earths.  The  former  have  a  greater 
similarity  to  the  alkalies.  In  their  active 
state,  they  are  soluble  in  water,  and  these 
solutions  may  be  ciystollized.  They 
change  the  vegetable  colors  almost  in  the 
same  way  as  alkalies,  and  their  affinity 
for  acids  is  sometimes  weaker  and  some- 
times stronger  than  that  of  the  alkalies. 
They  combine  with  sulphur,  and  form 
compounds  perfectly  similar  to  the  sul- 
pliureted  alkalies.  With  carbonic  acid, 
they  form  insoluble  salts,  which,  however, 
become  solulile  in  water  by  an  excess  of 
carbonic  acid.  The  alkaline  earths  are 
as  follows :  1.  barytes,  or  heavy  earth,  so 
called  from  its  great  weight ;  2.  strontites 
(q.  v.);  both  these  eanhs  are  counted 
among  the  alkalies,  by  many  chemists,  on 
account  of  their  easy  solumlity  in  water; 

3.  calcareous  earth,  or  lime,  forms  one  of 
tlie  most  abundant  ingredients  of  our  globe ; 

4.  magnesia  is  a  constituent  of  several 
minerals.  The  proper  earths  are  wholly 
insoluble  in  water,  infusible  at  the  greatest 
heat  of  our  furnaces,  and,  by  being  ex- 
posed to  heat,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree, 
they  lose  their  property  of  easy  solubility 
in  acids.  Some  of  tliem  are  incapable  of 
combining  with  carbonic  acid,  and  the 
remainder  form  with  it  insoluble  com- 
pounds. They  are  the  following :  1.  alu- 
niine ;  2.  glucme,  which  is  found  only  in 
the  beiyl  and  emerald,  and  a  few  other 
minerals ;  3.  yttria  is  found  in  the  gado- 
liuite,  in  the  yttrious  oxide  of  columbium, 
&c. ;  4.  zirconia  is  found  less  firequently 
than  the  preceding,  in  the  zircon  and 
hyacinth  ;  5.  si  lex.  The  eartlis  were 
regarded  as  ample  bodies  until  the  brill- 
iant researches  of  sir  H.  Davy  proved 
them  to  be  compounds  of  oxygen  with 
peculiar  liases,  somewhat  similar  to  tliose 
of  the  alkalies,  potassium  and  sodium. 
Some  of  tlie  heavier  of  the  earths  had 
often  been  imagined  to  be  analogous  to 
the  metallic  oxides ;  but  every  attempt  to 


eiiect  their  decorapostdon  or  reduction 
had  proved  unsuccessfliL  Ailer  ascer- 
taining the  compound  nature  of  the  alka- 
lies, DavT  submitted  the  earths  to  the 
same  mode  of  analysis  by  which  he  had 
effected  that  fine  discovery.  The  results 
obtained  in  h»  first  experiments  were  fees 
complete  than  those  afiorded  with  the  alka- 
lies, owing  to  the  superior  affinity  between 
the  principles  of  the  earths,  as  well  as  to 
their  being  less  perfect  electrical  conduc- 
tors. By  submitting  them  to  galvanic 
action,  in  mixture  with  potash,  or  with 
metallic  oxides,  more  successful  results 
were  obtained ;  and  a  method  employed 
by  Berzehus  and  Pontin,  of  placing  them 
in  the  galvanic  circuit  with  quicKsilver, 
terminated  very  fierfectly  in  anording  the 
bases  of  barytes  and  lime,  in  combination 
with  this  metal.  By  the  same  method, 
sir  H.  Davy  decomposed  strontites  and 
magnesia;  and,  by  submitting  silex, alu- 
mine,  zircon  and  glucine  to  the  action  of 
the  galvanic  battery,  in  fiision  with  potash 
or  soda,  or  in  contact  with  iron,  or  by 
fusing  them  with  potassium  and  iron, 
appearances  were  obtained  sufficiently 
indicative  of  their  decomposition,  and  of 
the  production  of  bases  of  a  metallic  na- 
ture. Thorina,  the  last  discovered  earth, 
was  decomposed  by  heating  the  chloride 
of  thorium  with  potassium.  The  metalUc 
bases  of  the  earths  approach  more  nearly 
than  those  of  the  alkaues  to  the  common 
metals,  and  the  earths  themselves  have  a 
stricter  resemblance  than  the  alkalies  to 
metallic  oxides.  Viewing  them  as  form- 
ing jiart  of  a  natural  arrangement,  they 
furnish  the  link  which  unites  the  alka- 
lies to  the  metals.  Accordingly,  many 
of  the  more  recent  systems  of  chem- 
istry treat  of  all  tliese  bodies  as  form- 
ing a  single  group  under  the  n^e  of  the 
metallic  class.  Still  (as  doctor  Ure  justly 
remarks),  whatever  may  be  the  revolu- 
tions of  chemical  nomenclature,  mankind 
will  never  cease  to  consider  as  eartlis  those 
solid  bodies  composing  the  mineral  strata, 
which  are  incombustible,  colorless,  not 
convertible  into  metals  by  all  die  ordinary 
methods  of  reduction,  or,  when  reduced 
by  scientific  refinements,  possesMng  but 
an  evanescent  metallic  existence.  (For  a 
more  particular  account  of  the  properties 
of  the  earths,  and  of  their  bases,  consult 
the  articles  relating  to  tiiem,  respectively, 
in  this  work.) 

Earwig  ;  an  insect  whose  name  is  de- 
rived from  its  supposed  habit  of  insinuat- 
ing itself  into  the  ears  of  persons  who  in- 
cautiously sleep  among  grass  where  it  is 
found.    It  is  extremely  doubtful  whether 


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EARWIG— EASTER  ISLAND. 


?n 


the  animal  intentionally. enten  the  ear; 
and,  indeed,  there  is  no  reason  whatever 
that  it  should,  except  from  mere  accident 
A  piece  of  an  apple  applied  to  the  orifice, 
is  said  to  entice  the  insect,  and  thus  re- 
lieve the  sufferer ;  where  this  fails,  a  few 
drops  of  sweet  oil  destroy  the  life  of  the 
earwig,  which  must  then  be  extracted  with 
a  proper  instrument  bv  a  physician.  A 
remarkable  fact,  in  relation  to  the  earwig, 
is  its  great  abundance  at  particular  times, 
and  its  subsequent  rarity.  From  tlie  ob- 
servations of  entomologists,  it  has  been 
proved  that  these  insects  migrate  in  con- 
siderable flocks,  selecting  the  evening  for 
their  excursions.  Much  damage  is  sus- 
tained by  ^rdeners  from  the  depredations 
of  tliese  httle  animals  among  fruit  and 
tender  vegetables,  which  constitute  their 
proper  fiwd :  occasionally,  however,  they 
feea  on  animal  substances,  and  even  de- 
vour each  other.  The  places  in  which 
the  species  of  this  small  genus  are 
found  are  chiefly  damp  and  cool  situa- 
tions, under  stones  and  the  bark  of  trees, 
among  chests  and  boxes  which  have  been 
long  undisturbed,  and  in  similar  haunts. 
In  die  systems,  the  family  which  is  formed 
of  the  original  genus  fojficula  of  Linnae- 
us, consists  of  two  genera,  fonficvla  and 
labidura;  to  which  another  is  added  by 
Leach,  the  characters  of  which  differ  in 
so  trifling  a  degree  from  the  preceding,  as 
to  prevent  its  l^ing  generallv  received  as 
distinct  It  is  even  doubtful  whether  the 
simple  disparity  in  the  number  of  joints 
in  the  antennse,  is  worthy  of  any  distinc- 
tion further  than  a  section.  The  forpctda 
auHcularia  is  a  small  insect,  about  three 
quartera  of  an  inch  in  length,  having  the 
wings  folded  under  veiy  short  and  trun- 
cate elytra  or  wing-cases,  and  the  extrem- 
ity of  the  abdomen  armed  with  a  homy 
forceps.  When  alarmed,  the  insect  ele- 
vates the  abdomen,  and  opens  these  for- 
ceps, in  order  to  defend  itself  from  the  at- 
tack of  its  enemies. 

East  ;  one  of  the  four  cardinal  points 
of  the  world,  being  the  point  of  the  hori- 
zon where  the  sun  is  seen  to  rise  when  in 
the  equator.  In  Italy  and  throughout  tlie 
Mediterranean,  the  east  wind  is  called  the 
levcmle.  (For  the  origin  of  the  word^  see 
Easter,) 

Easter;  the  festival  commemorating 
the  resurrection  of  Christ  The  Greek 
«««X«»  and  the  Latin  pascha^  from  which 
come  the  French  od^ftectf,  the  Italian  jEra^Tua, 
and  the  name  of^  the  same  festival  in  sev- 
eral other  languages,  originated  from  the 
notion  that  Christ  was  typified  by  tlie  pas- 
chal lamby  ordained  by  Moses  in  the  feast 


of  the  pasBover;  thos  Paul  says  (1  Cor,  v. 
7),  "For  even  Christ  our  passover  is  sacri- 
ficed for  us."  The  first  Christians  were 
therefore  considered  to  continue  tlie  Jew- 
isli  feast;  understanding  by  the  lamb, 
which  was  sacrificed  at  the  festival,  Jesus, 
who  suffered  for  mankind.  (See  Pawover.) 
Among  the  Greeks  and  Roman  Catliolics, 
Easter  is  the  most  joyful  festival  of  the 
church,  and  is  also  observed  with  great 
solemnity  by  the  English  church,  the  Lu- 
therans, and  tlie  European  Calvinists.  The 
Greek  and  Roman  Catholic  churches  did 
not  celebmte  it  at  precisely  tlie  same  time, 
and,  while  some  Christians  were  mouiniiig 
in  commemoration  of  the  passion,  others 
were  rejoicing  in  the  resurrection  of  the 
Savior.  In  the  second  century,  the  dis- 
pute became  warm.  The  Eastern  church 
would  not  discontinue  the  celebration  of 
the  feast  at  the  same  time  with  the  Jews ; 
whilst  the  Western  church  insisted  upon 
celebmting  it  without  the  paschal  lamb, 
and  beginning  it  on  Sunday,  the  day  of 
Christ*8  resurrection.  It  was  finally  set- 
tled by  the  Council  of  Nice,  in  825^  that 
the  feast  should  be  held  on  the  Sunday 
following  the  first  full  moon  afler  the 
vernal  equinox,  and  not  on  the  same  day 
with  the  Jews.  The  English  name  Easier^ 
and  the  Gennan  OHoti,  are  most  probably 
derived  from  the  name  of  the  feast  of  the 
Teutonic  goddess  Ostera^  which  was  cele- 
brated by  the  ancient  Saxons  early  in  the 
spring,  and  for  which,  as  in  many  other 
instances,  the  first  missionaries  wisely  sub- 
stituted the  Christian  feast  Adelung  de- 
rives ostem  and  easUr  from  the  old  word 
oster^  osterij  which  signifies  risiiy^^  because 
nature  arises  anew  in  spring.  This  is  also 
the  derivation  of  eastj  in  Crerman,  otUn. 
Easter-fires,  Easter-eggs,  and  many  other 
customs  and  superstitions,  have  all  their 
ori^n  from  the  ancient  heathen  feast, 
which,  as  the  celebration  of  the  resuirec- 
tion  of  nature,  was  very  appropriately  suc- 
ceeded by  the  festival  which  commemo- 
rates the  resurrection  of  Christ. 

Easter  Island,  or  Davis'  Island  ;  an 
island  in  the  South  Pacific  ocean,  Ion.  109® 
5(y  W.,  lat  7r&  S.  It  is  of  a  triangular  form, 
one  side  about  12  miles  long,  the  other 
two  about  9  each.  Square  miles,  about  14. 
Population  differently  estimated,  at  700, 
1500,  and  2000.  The  inhabitants  are  of  a 
tawny  color,  well  formed,  sagacious  and 
hospitable,  yet  thievish.  The  surfiice  is 
mountainous  and  stony,  and  tlie  hills  rise 
to  such  a  height,  that  they  are  visible  at 
the  distance  of  45  miles.  At  the  soutli- 
em  extremity  is  the  crater  of  a  volcano 
of  great  size  and  depth.    The  soil  of  the 


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EASTER  ISLAND— EAST  INDIA  COMPANIES. 


island  18  extremely  fertile,  but  not  a  tenth 
part  IB  under  ctiltivation. 

Easterit  Empire.  (See  Byxaadxnt  Emr 
pire,) 

East  Inuia  Cokpanies.  From  the 
earliest  times,  die  commercial  enteiprise 
of  tlie  Europeans  has  been  directed  to- 
wards an  immediate  intercourae  witli  the 
East  Indies ;  but  the  Arabian  empire,  and 
its  mercantile  grandeur,  at  first,  and  the  do- 
minions of  the  Persians  and  Turks  at  a 
later  period,  presented  insurmountable  bar- 
riers. The  commercial  shrewdness  of  die 
Italian  republics  did  not  succeed  in  en- 
tirely overcoming  these  obstacles;  and 
even  the  Venetian  commerce  with  India, 
extensive  as  it  was,  could  not  be  called 
direct  After  the  Turks  had  established 
themselves  in  Europe,  by  the  conquest  of 
Constantinople,  and  in  Africa,  by  that  of 
Egypt,  the  access  to  India  was  more  com- 
pletely shut  un,  and  the  enterprising  spirit 
of  the  mercliants  of  Christendom  was 
turned  to  tlie  dascoveiy  of  a  direct  chan- 
nel to  tliat  land  of  commerce.  The  west 
of  Europe  was  delivered  from  the  Sara- 
cens, and  the  warlike  spirit  which  had 
long  been  occupied  by  tne  contests  with 
tlie  infidels  required  some  new  scene  of 
activity.  The  sreat  Portuguese  prince 
Henry,  sumamed  the  JVotngofor,  directed 
this  energy  towards  the  ocean ;  and  not 
half  a  ceiituiy  had  elapsed  from  the  taking 
of  Constantinople,  when  Vasco  da  Gama 
(1498)  landed  in  Hindostan,  on  the  coast 
of  Malabar,  and  the  Portuguese  success- 
fully established  themselves  on  those  dis- 
tant sliores.  The  whole  commerce  of  the 
East  Indies  was  in  their  hands  for  nearly 
a  century — ^the  golden  age  of  Portugal. — 
The  efforts  of  Alpfaonso  Albui^uerque, 
Nuiio  da  Cunha  and  Francis  Xavier — the 
latter  with  8]>irituai  weapons,  and  the  for- 
mer by  force  of  arms — ^will  ever  be  remem- 
bered with  admiradon,  even  had  they  not 
been  sung  in  the  glorious  verses  of  Camo- 
i  ens.  During  eighty  years,  while  the  trans- 
portation of  Indian  productions  dirough 
Genoa,  Venice  and  the  Hanse  towns,  was 
constantly  diminishing,  Lisbon  was  the 
India  of  the  north  of  Europe.  The  Eng- 
lish and  Dutch  obtained  their  supplies  of 
Indian  spices  either  from  Lisbon  or  from 
Portuguese  merchants  in  Antwerp.  Ven- 
ice also  foimd  herself  supplanted  by  the 
military  power  of  the  Portuguese  and  the 
subjection  of  her  conimercim  friends,  the 
Saracens.  When,  however,  Philip  II,  in 
1580,  united  Portugal  with  the  Spanish 
monarchy,  aftd  soon  afker  commenced  his 
war  with  England,  against  whose  vessels 
fae  closed  the  ports  of  his  empire,  the  Brit- 


ish merchants  were  compelled  to  draw 
their  supplies  of  Indian  produce  from  the 
Netheriands.  The  Dutch  took  advantage 
of  this  circumstance,  and  raised  the  price 
of  pepper  to  three  times  its  former  amount 
But  die  revolt  of  the  Netherlands  from 
Spain  induced  Philip  II  to  take  decided 
measures  against  the  Dutch  commerce 
also,  and  the  capture  of  their  vessels  in  the 
port  of  Lisbon  compelled  the  Dutch  to 
engage  in  a  direct  tra(le  to  India :  the  Eng- 
fish  soon  followed  their  example.  Thus, 
during  the  last  ten  years  of  the  axtcenth 
century,  the  foundation  was  laid  in  Eng- 
land and  Holland,  nearly  at  the  some  time, 
of  those  great  commercial  corporations, 
called  E<ui  India  Companies,  They  are 
distinguished  from  the  Hanseatic  learue, 
and  other  earlier  unions  of  that  kind,  in 
being  merely  associations  of  individuals 
uniting  for  a  common  commercial  pur- 
pose, with  transferable  shares,  and  not  of 
political  bodies ;  and  also  by  having  bought 
their  privileges  and  rights  at  once  from 
their  own  goveniments,  while  those  of  the 
earlier  commercial  confederacies  were  ob- 
tained, together  with  their  political  privi- 
leges, by  successive  treaties.  As  such  an 
extensive  commerce  in  distant  parts  of  the 
world  requires  a  political  power  to  pro- 
serve  and  nrotect  it,  we  find  the  English, 
Dutch,  ana  other  smaller  East  India  com- 
panies, engaged,  soon  after  their  establish- 
ment, in  laboring  to  form  a  political  pow- 
er on  the  basis  of  wealth ;  which,  even  if 
it  succeeded,  would  not  accord  with  the 
politics  of  the  mother  country,  and  woald 
not  be  able,  for  any  great  length  of  tiaieY 
to  resist  the  reaction  that  would  arise  in 
the  conquered  countries. — I.  The  earliest 
East  India  company  was  the  Portuguese, 
although  essentially  different,  in  its  organ- 
ization, fnim  the  others.  By  the  union  of 
Portugal  with  Spain,  the  connexion  be- 
tween the  distant  Pomiguese  governments 
in  India  and  the  mother  country  became 
less  close.  Abuses  of  every  kmd,  illicit 
traffic  on  the  part  of  the  viceroys  and 
officers,  smuggling  and  piracy  became 
prevalent  Tlie  S()anish  government  per- 
ceived that  the  East  ludia  commerce,  if 
continued  on  account  of  the  crown,  would 
not  only  lie  unprofitable,  but  would  occa- 
sion an  annually  increasing  \og^  and  there- 
fore granted  the  exclusive  privilege  of  the 
East  India  trade,  in  1.587,  to  a  company  of 
Portuguese  merchants,  in  consideration  of 
the  annual  payment  of  a  considerable 
sum.  This  company,  in  attempting  to 
enforce  its  privilecips,  became  involved  in 
disputes,  equally  disadvantageous  to  both 
parties^  with  the  Portuguese  government 


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DUTCH  EAST  INDIA  COMPANY. 


373 


in  India,  which  was  engaged  in  the  smug- 
gling tnide ;  and  the  way  tor  the  enterpris- 
es of  the  Dutch  and  £nffhsh  could  not 
have  been  better  prepared  than  by  this 
weakening  of  the  Portuguese  power.  To 
this  may  be  added,  the  impatience  of  the 
Indian  nations  under  the  Portuguese  yoke, 
and  tJte  jealousy  and  hatred  entertained 
against  both  by  the  Arabians.  The  Eng- 
lish and  Dutch  companies  found  eveiy 
thing  in  that  state  of  division  which  is 
favorable  to  the  establishment  of  a  third 
party,  by  means  which,  in  any  other  case, 
would  be  entirely  inadequate.  This  ex^ 
plains  their  immediate  and  brilliant  suc- 
cess, notwithstanding  the  great  inferiority 
of  their  strength.  The  Portuguese  com- 
pany, on  the  contT;iry,  on  the  breaking 
out  of  open  war  between  England  and 
Holland  and  Spain,  soon, became  unable 
to  pay  tlie  annual  tribute' to  the  crown, 
and*gnulually  declined,  till,  in  1640,  on 
the  reestablish ment  of  Portuguese  inde- 
pendence by  king  John  IV,  of  the  house 
of  Bra^anza,  it  was  entirely  abolished. — 
From  Uiat  time,  the  insignificant  remains 
of  the  Portuguese  commerce  with  the 
East  Indies  have  been  in  the  hands  of  the 
ffovemment,  if  we  except  the  unsuccess- 
ful attempt  to  form  a  new  company  in 
1731. 

II.  Eight  years  afler  the  establishment 
of  the  first  Portuguese  company,  the  offer 
of  a  Dutchman,  Cornelius  Houtman,  who 
had  l^een  taken  prisoner  by  the  Spanish, 
and  had  become  acquainted  with  the  Por- 
tuguese East  India  trade,  induced  the 
merchants  of  Amsterdam,  who  had  al- 
ready made  three  unsuccessful  attempts  to 
discovers  passage  to  India  through  the 
Northern  ocean,  to  form  a  company,  un- 
der the  name  of  the  **  Company  of  Re- 
mote Parts,"  €md  send  their  first  commer- 
cial fleet  round  the  cape  of  Good  Hope 
to  India,  under  the  command  of  Houtinan. 
Four  small  vessels  were  equipped  with  a 
capital  of  70,000  guildera,  and  sailed  the 
2d  of  April,  1595,  fmm  the  Texel.  The 
example  of  Amsterdam  was  followed  in 
the  other  United  Provinces;  but  these 
comfMinies  soon  became  aware  that  they 
inteifered  mutually  with  each  other;  and, 
ManJh  20,  1602,  they  were  united  by  a 
charter  from  the  states  general,  confer- 
ring on  them  the  exclusive  privilege  of 
trading  to  the  East  Indies  for  twenty-one 
years,  together  with  all  necessaiy  civil  and 
military  powers.  The  former  companies 
remained,  in  some  measure,  distinct  from 
each  other,  and  the  six  cities  of  Am- 
steidam,  Middelburg,  Delft,  Rotterdam, 
Hom  and  Enkhuysen,  which  had  nutde 

voim  IV.  32 


the  first  attempts,  were  allowed  to  contin- 
ue the  commerce  fit>m  their  ports.  This 
company  be^n  its  openitiohs  with  a  cap- 
ital of  o|  millions  guilders ;  65  directors 
(Bewvndhebhersy^ivided  amongst  the  dif- 
ferent members,  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  shares,  so  that  Amsterdam  had 
twenty-five,  Middelburg  twelve,  and  each 
of  the  other  cities  seven — superintended 
the  equipment  of  the  vessels,  in  their  re< 
spective  ports ;  a  committee  of  fifteen  di- 
rectors, apportioned  in  the  same  manner, 
had  the  general  direction  of  affiurs.  In 
1622,  the  subject  of  the  renewal  of  the 
charter  being  before  the  states  general,  it 
appeared  that,  during  the  20  years  of  its 
existence,  30  millions  guilders,  that  is, 
more  than  four  times  the  amount  of  the 
original  capita],  had  been  divided  amongst 
the  stockholders;  besides  which,  a  great 
amount  of  capital  had  been  vested  in 
colonies,  fortifications,  vessels,  and  other 
property,  on  which  no  dividend  could  be 
made.  These  results  will  not  be  surpris- 
ing, if  we  consider  how  much  more  fa- 
vorable, was  die  condition  of  die  East  In- 
dies, in  every  respect,  for  republiciLns  and 
Protestants  than  for  Catholics  and  sub- 
jects of  a  monarchy.  The  Portuguese 
acted  on  die  principle,  that  without  a 
strong  military  force,  and  a  religion  com- 
mon to  the  conquered  and  ruling  nation, 
no  permanent  commercial  connexion 
could  be  formed ;  and  this  system  was 
pursued  for  a  century,  sometimes  with 
prudence,  but  more  frequently  with  great 
inhumanity.  The  Dutch,  on  the  contra- 
ry, with  their  indifference  to  the  moral  re- 
lations of  nations,  and  their  well  conduct- 
ed commerce,  were  well  calculated  to 
succeed.  Their  superiority  to  the  English, 
in  dieir  first  enterprises,  was  owing  not 
only  to  their  superior  skill  by  sea,  their 
youthful  republican  spirit,  and  the  greater 
amount  of  their  capital,  but  chiefly  to 
their  having  carried  on  all  their  operations, 
from  the  first,  with  a  common  capi&l, 
while  the  first  English  East  India  compa- 
ny, till  1610,  was  a  mere  association,  each 
member  of  which  transacted  business  on 
his  own  account,  merely  conforming  to 
certain  general  niles,  such  as  the  employ- 
ing the  company's  ships.  It  has  been 
proved  by  subsequent  results,  that  a  mere 
money  power  cannot  be  upheld  without 
an  entire  disregard  of  the  claims  of  hu- 
manity ;  and  the  example  of  the  first  Por- 
tuguese conquerors  has  convinced  en- 
lightened men,  that  the  dominion  of  Eu- 
ro;)eans  in  India  remains  insecure,  if  not 
founded  on  a  certain  moral,  legal  and  re- 
ligious community  with  the  inhabitants  of 


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374 


DUTCH  EAST  INDIA  COMPANY. 


the  coiiBtry,  The  dbarter  of  the  Dutch 
East  India  company  was  continued  till 
1644 ;  Rata  via  was  founded  in  a  very  fa- 
vorable situation  for  the  traffic  with  the 
Spice  islands,  the  chief  branch  of  the  In- 
dian trade;  34 — 41  freighted  vessels  an- 
nually left  the  pons  of  Holland  for  India ; 
I35-—34  merchant  vessels,  on  the  avera^ 
letumed.  The  commerce  witli  Japan  m- 
creased  rapidly,  and  the  extension  of  Por- 
uiguese  power  in  the  Brazils,  after  the  ac- 
cession of  the  house  of  Bi^aganza  to  the 
throne,  although  a  great  disadvantage  to 
the  Dutch  West  India  conifian]^,  promot- 
ed the  interest  of  the  East  India  compa- 
ny, by  directing  the  attention  of  the  Por- 
tuguese wholly  to  America,  and  leaving* 
fr^  scope  to  the  Dutch  in  Asia.  In  1641, 
Malacca,  the  capital  of  tlie  Portuguese 
East  Indies,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Dutch,  by  the  treason  of  the  governor.-^ 
But  tlie  increasing  activity  of  Uie  English 
and  French,  and  the  political  and  military 
establish  mentB  of  the  compaiw,  diminish- 
ed tiieir  profits,  and  it  was  difficult  to  raise 
the  1,600,000  guilders,  which  were  to  be 
paid  to  the  states  general,  in  1644,'  for  the 
extension  of  the  charter  till  1665.  Soon 
after,  however,  the  independence  of  the 
republic  of  tlie  United  Provinces  was  se- 
cured bv  the  peace  of  Westphalia — an 
event  which  was  of  great  advantage  to 
the  company,  and  enabled  them  to  found 
colonies  on  the  cape  of  Good  Hope. — 
Tlii.:  was  done  in  the  courae  of  20  years 
(from  1650),  at  an  expense  of  20  millions 
guilders.  These  colonies  were  a  great 
assistance  to  tlie  intereourse  between  Eu- 
rope and  India,  and  richly  repaid  the  ex- 
penses incurred.  In  16^,  the  conquest 
of  Ceylon  was  completed,  ailcr  a  vigorous 
defence  by  the  Portuguese ;  and  the  Tar- 
tar revolution  *iu  China  occasioned  the 
settlement  of  30,000  Chinese,  who  would 
not  submit  to  the  new  gofeniment,  in  the 
Dutch  island  of  Formosa.  These  proved  a 
valuable  accession  to  the  population.  Al- 
though tlie  direct  commerce  with  China 
had  to  struggle  with  insurmountable  dif- 
ficulties, the  indirect  communication 
through  these  emigrants,  who  were  well 
acquainted  with  the  countiy,  and  the  in- 
flux of  Chinese  productions  from  all  sides 
into  Batavia,  amply  recompensed  the  com- 
pany. They  were,  however,  deprived  of 
this  valuable  island  in  1661,  by  a.  Chinese 
adventurer,  named  Kaxinga,  whose  fiuni- 
ly  afterwaitls  ceded  it  to  the  emperor  of 
China.  The  enerav  of  the  company 
seemed  to  be  excited  bv  this  loss.  In  16^ 
the  moit  valuable  settlements  of  the  Por- 
tuguese on   the  coast  of  Malabar  were 


taken ;  and^  in  1666,  by  the  conquest  oi 
Macassar,  the  object  of  the  exertions  of  70 
years,  tliey  obtained  the  monopoly  of  the 
spice  trade.  At  tliis  time,  the  civil  and 
militai^  expenses  of  the  company,  exclu- 
sive of  the  expenses  of  the  war,  amount- 
ed to  3h  millions  guilders.  In  1665,  after 
much  opposition,  the  charter  was  renewed 
till  1700,  on  condition  of  the  payment  of 
a  large  sum  into  the  treasury ;  and  the  re- 
port of  the  company  showed  an  almost 
inconceivable  extension  of  commerce. — 
Their  fiictories  extended  from  the  cape 
of  Good  Hope  to  the  coasts  of  Arabia 
and  Persia.  They  were  mastera  of  all  the 
important  settlements  of  the  Poituguese, 
jfit>mSurat,  on  the  Malabar  coast.  Ceylon, 
with  its  cinnamon  fnd  ivory ;  the  pearl 
fishery  and  cotton  trade  on  the  coast  of 
Coromandel ;  Bengal  and  OrissSy  with  their 
silks  and  cottons,  rice,  sugar,  saltpetre, 
&C.,  were  in  the  hands  of  the  com|^any, 
as  was  also  the  commerce,  with  Pegu,  ra- 
am,  and  Tonquin,  only  interrupted  by 
some  temporary  accidenta  They  obtain^ 
ed  valuable  supplies  of  silver  and  copper 
from  Japan ;  carried  on  an  extensive  trade 
in  spices  with  Amboyna,  the  Banda  isl- 
ands, and  the  Molucca^,  &c.  Malacca, 
the  principal  seat  of  the  Portuguese  trade, 
appeared,  by  tiiis  report,  to  be  on  the  de- 
cline, tike  expense  of  protection  being  dis- 
proportioued  to  the  size  of  the  place ;  and 
the  straits  of  Sunda,  on  which  Batavia  is 
situated,  had  superaeded  the  straits  of 
Malacca,  as  the  general  passage  to  the 
fiuther  Blast  The  charter  of  the  compa- 
ny has  since  been  several  times  renewed, 
and  always  on  condition  of  tlie  pay- 
ment of  large  sums ;  from  1701—40 ;  then 
till  1775 ;  and  in  1776  for  30  yeara  more, 
for  the  sum  of  two  millions  guilders,  and 
the  annual  payment  of  360,000  guilders. 
Avarice  and  cruelty,  which  increased  with 
the  gradual  decay  of  the  republican  spir^ 
it,  and  the  decline  of  simple  and  mode- 
rate habits;  a  shameless  system  of  in- 
trigue towards  their  allies,  and  particular- 
ly their  incapacity  to  appreciate  the  mors! 
and  religious  character  of  the  nations  of 
India ;  and,  finally,  the  renewed  vigor  of 
the  British  company  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  18th  century,  and  the  change 
in  the  European  demand ;  the  preference 
given  to  other  spices ; — these  are  the  prin- 
cipal causes  of  the  decUne  of  the  Dutch 
East  India  company.  In  the  18th  centu- 
ly,  their  annals  abound  vrith  relations  of 
conspiracies,  insuirections,  and  geoeraHy 
unsuccessful  wara;  and,  in  1781,  we  find 
them  so  completely  broken  up  by  the  war 
with  E^ngiano,  and  by  enormous  political 


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expenses,  that  the  states  genera],  notwith- 
etanding  their  own  difficulties,  were  oblig- 
ed to  assist  them  with  a  loan.  In  the  first 
revolutionary  war,  the  company  lost  most 
of  their  possetisions,  and  were  obUged  to 
suspend  tlie  payment  of  their  dividends 
in  1796b  They  had  scarcely  taken  posses- 
sion of  what  was  restored  to  them  by  the 
peace  of  Amiens,  ]802  (England  retaming 
only  Ceylon),  when  every  thing  was  lost 
by  the  new  war ;  and  at  the  general  peace, 
they  retained  none  of  their  early  East 
India  possessions,  but  the  governments  of 
Balavia  and  Amboyna,  Banda,  Temate, 
Malacca,  Macassar,  and  some  scattered 
factories  on  the  coasts  of  Malabar  and 
Coroniaudel.  The  cape  of  Good  Hope 
and  Ceylonr  were  lost  to  them  for  ever. 
At  their  commencement,  the  Dutch  East 
India  conmany  had  enjoyed  the  advantage 
of  all  the  Portuguese  establishments ;  their 
forts,  magazines,  artillery  and  provisions 
for  defence,  their  commercial  and  political 
relations,  and  an  immense  booty  which 
the  capture  of  the  Portuguese  ships  on 
every  sea  afforded  them  ;  while,  on  the 
contrary,  the  English  had  to  struggle  for 
a  century  with  the  difficultv  of  gradually 
gaining  the  ground  on  which  to  plant  their 
commercial  lever.  But  the  very  circum- 
stance of  their  slow  progress  gave  a  firmer 
footing  to  their  power. 

III.  English ikuthuHa Company. -^The 
history  of  this  great  company  may  be  divid- 
ed into  four  periods.  During  the  first  four- 
teen years,  its  members  were,  in  a  great 
measure,  independent  In  the  following 
ninety-five  years,  although  it  had  a  com- 
mon capital,  its  operations  were  confined 
by  the  superiority  of  the  Dutch  in  the 
Indian  seas,  by  the  civil  wars  at  home, 
and  particularly  by  the  calling  in  ques- 
tion of  its  exclusive  privileges,  which 
were  merely  a  royal,  and  not  a  parlia- 
mentai^  grant  For  the  succeeding  forty 
yeans  it  enjoyed  all  its  rights  undisputed, 
and  (bunded  on  parliamentary  authority, 
but  confined  to  mere  commercial  trans- 
actions. And,  finally,  during  the  subse- 
quent seventy  years,  its  pohtical  power 
was  developed. 

1.  Period  from  1600  to  16ia  The  Eng- 
lish, in  their  first  attempts  to  reach  India, 
directed  their  course  to  the  north-west,  as 
the  Dutch  did  to  the  north-east  John 
Cabot,  in  the  employ  of  HeniT  VII,  had 
discovered  Newfoundland,  and  the  coasts 
of  North  America,  in  1497.  In  1553,  his 
son,  Sebastian  Cabot,  under  Edward  VI, 
engaged  in  a  second  enterprise  of  this 
kind.  The  king  chartered  a  company, 
which,  with  a  capital  of  £6000,  equipp<Ml 


three  vessels,  for  the  discoveiy  of  a  north- 
em  passage  to  India.  Part  of  this  expe* 
dition  was  lost  in  the  northern  ocean; 
another  part  landed  on  the  northern  coast 
of  Russia,  and  formed  commereial  con- 
nexions which  gave  rise  to  the  English 
Russian  company,  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  Hudson's  bay  company  owes  its  es* 
tablishment  to  tJie  attempts  to  discover  a 
nortli-west  passage,  which  have  been  con- 
tinued to  the  present  day.  The  English, 
at  the  same  time,  endeavored  to  penetrate 
to  India,  directly,  by  land,  and,  at  least,  to 
rival  the  Venetians,  if  they  could  not  con- 
tend with  the  Portuguese.  This  was  tlie 
main  object  of  the  English  Turicisii  com- 
pany, established  in  1581,  which,  howev- 
er, soon  became  convinced  of  the  iniprac- 
ticabilitv  of  the  attempt,  and  was  induced, 
by  sir  h  roncis  Drake's  account  of  his  cir- 
cumnavigation (1591),  to  send  out  tlu^ee 
ships  to  India,  under  the  command  of 
captain  Raymond,  on  tlie  route  of  the  Por- 
tuguese. This  attempt,  and  that  made  by 
Robert  Dudley,  in  1596,  failed  entirely. 
The  Spanish  war,  tlie  shutting  up  of  Lis- 
bon, and  the  avarice  of  the  Dutch,  gave, 
however,  a  new  vigor  to  the  enterprise 
of  the  London  merchants,  and.  Sept  22; 
1599,  a  society  was  formed  in  London, 
which,  in  the  course  of  two  centuries^ 
acquired  the  greatest  power  of  any  com- 
mercial association  on  record.  The  orig- 
inal capital  amounted  to  £30,133  sterling ; 
and  queen  Elizabeth,  Dec.  31, 1600,  grant- 
ed to  the  governor  and  company  of  mer- 
chants of  London  trading  to  the  East  In- 
dies, for  fifteen  years,  the  exclusive  righc 
of  trading  to  all  countries  froni  the  cape 
of  Good  Hope  eastword,  to  the  straits  of 
Magellan,  excepting  those  .which  were  in 
the  possession  of  iirieudly  European  pow- 
ers. Until  1613,  the  company  consisted 
merely  of  a  society  subject  to  particular 
regulations  ;  each  member  managed  his 
affairs  on  his  own  account,  and  was  only 
bound  to  conform  to  certain  general  rules. 
Notwithstanding  the  disadvantages  of  this 
arrangement,  tlie  profits  oT  eight  voyages 
amounted  to  171  per  cent 

2.  Period  fix>m  1613  to  1708.  At  this 
time  (1613),  tlie  capital  was  united,  and 
the  constitution,  in  consequence,  became 
more  aristocratic;  the  largest  stockholders 
having  tlie  principal  management,  and  tiie 

nt  moss  of  the  stockholders  having  on- 
nominal  control  in  the  general  meet- 
ings. These  latter,  in  reality,  had  only  in 
view  speculation  in  the  shares.  The  con- 
cerns of  the  company  were  so  prosperous, 
that,  in  the  course  of  four  years,  the  shares 
rose  to  the  value  of  203  per  cent,  and  tlie 


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ENOLISH  EAST  INDIA  COMPANY. 


Dutch  became  denrous,  though  they  did 
not  succeed,  to  unite  with  it  against  the 
Portuguese.  Its  factories  were  extended 
to  Java,  Sumatra,  Borneo,  the  Honda  isl- 
ands, Celebes,  Malacca,  Siam,  tJie  coasts 
of  Malabar  and  Coronmndel,  but  chiefly 
•to  the  states  of  tlie  Mogul,  whose  favor 
the  company  had  very  prudently  secur- 
ed. Their  success  was  such,  that,  a  new 
subscription  being  o])ened  in  1616,  the 
amount  raised  was  £1,629,040.  But,  in 
1G27,  complaints  were  made  of  bad  man- 
agement, and  abuses  of  all  kinjis,  fwuticu- 
larly  in  regard  to  tlie  private  couunerce 
of  tiie  officers^  which  has  always  been  of 
the  greatest  disadvantage  to  all  such  con>- 
panies.  The  oppositiou  to  the  royal  au- 
tliority,  under  the  Stuarts,  brought  into 
question  the  monopoly  of  the  company 
which  rested  on  a  royal  grant.  The  kings 
themselves  contributed  to  raise  these 
doubts,  by  granting  to  individuals  the 
privilege  of  undiug  to  India,  much  to  the 
disadvanuure  of  Qie  company.  During 
the  time  of  tlie  commonwealth,  the  public 
opinion  became  very  strong  against  mo- 
nopolies, and  Cromwell,  by  destroying  the 
charter,  in  1655,  attempted  to  make  the 
£a8t  India  trade  free.  But  this  was  im- 
practicable. To  give  up  the  company, 
was  to  destroy  the  whole  capital  of  jwwer 
and  influence  obtained  in  India.  After 
the  restoration  of  the  royal  fiutiily,  the 
charter  which  even  Cromwell  had  been 
obli^d  to  renew,  was  again  in  full  force. 
Dunng  the  short  peri^  which  elafised 
from  this  time  to  the  revolution  of  1688, 
tlie  company  obtained,  by  the  acquisition 
of  Madras  and  Bombay,  the  predominance 
on  the  coasts  of  Malabar  and  Coromandel, 
and  laid  the  foundation  for  the  extension 
of  its  possessions  into  the  interior  of  Hin- 
dostan,  and  for  tliat  power  which  rose  on 
tlie  ruins  of  the  empire  of  the  great  Mo- 
gul. The  afHurs  of  the  company  were 
not,  however,  in  a  prosperous  state ;  and, 
soon  afler  the  revolution,  the  question  was 
started,  whetlier  the  king  could  impose 
restrictions  on  commerce  by  a  charter, 
and  whether  a  sovereign,  who  fiossessed 
the  rights  of  sovereignty  conditionally, 
couUl  confer  them  oo  a  privileged  compa- 
ny. The  consequence  was,  that,  the  com- 
pany  not  being  able  to  perform  their  obh- 
gations,  on  account  of  the  losses  occasion- 
ed by  wars,  infidelity  of  officers,  exUtiva- 
gance,  &c.,  parliament  granted  a  charter 
to  a  new  East  India  company,  in  1698,  on 
condition  of  a  loan  of  £2,000,000  sterling, 
at  3  per  cent,  for  the  service  of  tlie  state. 
But  tiie  great  contentions  between  the 
tWG   companies  soon  made  it  necessary 


to  unite  them,  and  a  union  was  effecfed 
inl70& 

a  Period  from  1708  to  174a  In  1708, 
an  act  of  parliament  was  passed,  estal>lisb- 
ing  the  English  East  India  company  on  its 
present  footuig,  under  the  title  of  The  united 
Company  of  Merchants  of  England  trad- 
ing to  the  East  Indies.  Its  exclusive  privi- 
leges were  granted  till  1726,  after  which 
it  was  determinable  upon  three  years'  no- 
tice. The  capital  was  raised  by  tlie  sale 
of  tlic  shares :  one  share  (of  tlie  value  of 
£500)  gave  the  holder  a  vote  in  the  "  Gen- 
eral Court ;"  four  shares,  or  stock  to  the 
amount  of  £2000,  rendered  tlie  holder 
eligible  as  one  of  the  twenty-four  "  Direc- 
tors,** who  managed  the  government  of  the 
company.  The  shares  being  transferable, 
the  great  mass  of  stockholders  are  con- 
stantly changing,  and  take  no  pereonal  in- 
terest in  tlie  aftairs  of  the  company,  but 
merely  speculate  in  tlic  shares.  The  whole 
management  is  thus  lefl  to  the  directors, 
and  all  the  numberless  abuses  of  an  oli- 
garchical constitution  are  readily  intro- 
duced. The  local  afSiirs  of  the  company 
were  intrusted  to  the  three  councils  of 
Madras,  Bombay  and  Calcutta,  while  the 

Smeral  direction  was  retained  in  England, 
ut,  as  every  thing  depended  ultimately  on 
the  local  omcers  in  India,  the  pemicious 
abuse  prevailed  of  attempting  to  secure 
the  fidelity  of  the  superior  oflicers  by  al- 
lowing them  to  appropriate  to  themselves 
the  inferior  lucrative  posts.  The  renewal 
of  the  charter  in  17^  was  not  obtained 
without  great  difficulty,  and  against  a  pow- 
erful opposition.  The  company  therefore 
thought  it  advisable,  in  1744,  to  advance 
£1,000,000  sterling,  at  3  per  cent.,  for  the 
service  of  government,  in  consideration  of 
an  extension  of  their  grant  till  1780. 

4th  Period.  The  political  jiowerof  the 
English  in  India  commenced  in  1748. 
The  French  had  already  set  the  example. 
In  1746,  a  French  battalion  had  destroyed 
the  army  of  the  nabob  of  the  Camatic, 
and,  soon  after,  the  French  officers  suc- 
ceeded in  disciplining  Indian  troops  ac- 
cording to  the  European  method.  The 
inferiority  of  the  native  Indian  troops  op 
posed  to  European  soldiers,  and  the  fiial- 
ity  of  instructing  Indian  soldiers,  known 
b^  the  name  of  SeapoySf  in  the  European 
discipline,  was  tlius  proved.  Ambition 
and  avarice,  political  and  mercantile  cun- 
ning, could  now  acton  a  larger  scale ;  and 
the  independence  of  the  Indian  princes 
was  ffone  whenever  this  trading  comfiany, 
which  was  already  encroaching  uiion  all 
the  rights,  both  of  the  rulera  and  tne  peo- 
ple of  those  countries,  should  establish  a 


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ENGLISH  EAST  INDU  COMPANY. 


377 


pennaneot  militaiy  force.  Thus  far,  the 
military  orsaoization  of  the  company  had 
been  merely  on  the  defensive :  it  now  be- 
came able  to  act  offensively ;  aiid  the  en- 
tire difference  of  the  European  and  Indian 
notions  of  law  could  never  fail  to  furnish 
opportunities  to  put  tliis  new  means  of 
jMiwer  into  action.  The  rights  of  succes- 
sion, and  all  the  rights  of  princ^  subjects 
and  families,  were  so  much  disputed  on 
the  different  principles  of  the  Indian,  Mo- 
hammedan and  British  laws,  that  die  com- 
pany (which  oflen  interposed  as  arbitra- 
tor) easily  succeeded  in  extending  their 
legal  jurisdiction.  .  If  called  to  account 
in  Europe  for  any  of  its  undertakings, 
it  was  easy  to  uphold  the  correctness 
of  its  conduct,  politically,  on  the  ^uud 
of  self-defence,  which,  at  the  distance 
of  severed  thousand  miles,  could  not  be 
called  in  question ;  and,  in  legal  matters, 
by  taking  advantage  of  the  impenetrable 
labyrinth  of  law.  Edmund  Burke,  who 
experienced,  in  the  case  of  Hastings  (q.  v.), 
this  impregnability  of  the  company,  accus- 
ed them  jusdy  **  of  hxtovng  aM  every  iwm- 
arch,  prince  and  JkUe  in  Stdia,  broken  every 
contract,  and  rumed  even/  prince  and  everu 
state  who  had  trusted  iMmP  The  high 
officers  in  India,  whatever  great  names 
may  appear  amoog  them,  become  despot- 
ic from  situation:  1.  because  each  re- 
ceives an  inheritance  of  injustice,  which 
must  be  maintained;  %  because  public 
opinion  has  no  influence  ;'^  3.  because  no 
moral  and  religious  connexion,  nor  even 
that  of  language,  exists  between  the  ruled 
and  the  rulers ;  4.  because  no  fear  of  danger- 
ous insurrections  can  exist,  on  account  of 
the  great  division  of  the  Hindoo  and  Mo- 
hanunedan  classes  and  interests;  5.  be- 
cause the  officers  of  the  company  have  no 
object  but  to  make  money  with  a  view  of 
spending  it  in  England  as  soon  as  the^ 
have  accumulated  sufficient  to  satisfy 
their  wishes,  and  tlierefore  are  not  dis- 
posed to  make  opposition  against  abuses. 
In  1749,  the  robberies  of  the  company  be- 
^n  mrith  its  protection  of  the  pretender  of 
Tanjore.  Under  pretence  of  ille^timacy, 
the  nabob  of  this  district  was  dnven  out, 
£>r  the  pmrpose  of  obtaining  some  cessions 

*  The  East  Indian  g^ovemment  takes  ^at  pains 
to  prevent  the  expression  and  consolidaUon  of^pab- 
Itc  opinion.  Thus  newspapers,  which  are  so  finee 
in  England,  are  under  sUict  reg[ulalions  in  India. 
They  are  not  allowed  to  criticise  public  meas- 
ures or  pubKc  officers,  nor  to  say  any  thing  which 
may  cause  dissatisfaction  among  tlie  natives. 
Violence  always  produces  violence.  The  state- 
ment, at  the  end  of  this  i^rticle.  of  the  proportion 
of  the  English  to  the  natives  will  easily  show  why 
such  precautions  are  deemed  necessary. 


of  territory,  and  them  restored,  on  making 
furtiier  concessions.  The  rapid  progress 
of  the  company  in  the  art  of  extending 
their  possessions  appeal's  from  theu-  trea- 
ties witii  SuiTajuh-Dowlah,  the  nabob  of 
Bengal,  in  1757,  when  large  and  rich  prov- 
inces were  the  reward  of  their  faithless 
policy.  This  enlargement  of  territory 
caused  such  enormous  expenditures,  the 
difficulties  of  governing  increased  so  great- 
ly with  the  increase  of  power,  the  numerous 
officers  becai^ie  so  much  more  indepen- 
dent, rapacious  and  disobedient,  that  the 
finances  of  the  company  suffered.  The 
direction  in  London « was  now  nothing 
more  than  a  mere  control  of  the  real  gov- 
ernment, which  had  its  seat  in  India. 
Its  orders  were  antiquated  before  they 
reached  Calcutta.  The  governors  having 
tlie  advantage  of  being  on  the  spot,  it  was 
to  be  expected  that  tliey  would  obey  only 
when  personal  interest  required  it  Thus 
the  repeated  prohibition  to  cany  on  a  traf- 
fic in  the  interior,  with  salt,  tolMcco  and  be- 
tel nuts,  was  entirelv  disregarded,  with  the 
express  consent  of  the  East  Indian  coun- 
cils ;  and,  Ions  after  the  directors  had  for- 
bidden the  officers  of  the  company  to  ac- 
cept presents  from  the  Indian  princes,  it 
was  proved  that  they  had  o|)enly  received 
them,  to  the  amount  of  £6,000,000,  from 
the  family  of  the  nabob  of  Bengal  alone. 
On  this  account,  the  internal  situation  of 
the  company  became  constantly  worse, 
and,  in  1772,  it  was  compelled  to  raise  a 
loan,  at  first  of  £600,000,  from  the  bank, 
and  afterwards  of  £1,400,000  from  the 
government,  for  its  current  expenses.  The 
public  dissatis&ction  was  the  greater,  as  it 
had  been  expected  tliat  the  extension  of 
British  power  in  India  would  have  brought 
much  wealth  into  the  mother  country. 
At  the  same  time,  great  complaints  were 
made  against  the  unprincipled  conduct  of 
the  company's  officers  towards  the  princes 
and  people  of  India ;  and,  as  the  expected 
advantaj^  appeared  not  to  have  been  ob- 
tained. It  now  began  to  be  proclaimed, 
that  the  rights  of  humanity  had  been 
trampled  upon.  The  popular  hatred  was 
unjustiy  directed  against  the  directors; 
their  poWeV  was  to  be  limited ;  tiiev,  who 
had  to  manage  a  disobedient  world,  were 
to  be  still  more  cramped.  Control  was 
demanded ;  as  if  a  control  which  S3rmpa- 
thizes  with  the  oppressors,  and  has  no 
connexion  with  the  oppressed,  could  avail 
anything;  as  if  oppresidon  were  a  single 
act,  which  might  he  prevented  by  super- 
intendence, or  punished  like  a  crime:  and 
what  would  be  the  effect  of  a  controlling 
power  whose  coDounands  would  require 


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ENGLISH  EAST  INDIA  COMPANY. 


6 — 9  monthfl  to  be  conveyed  to  the  spot, 
and  OS  much  more  time  before  tlie  result 
could  be  known  in  Europe?  And,  if  the 
company  had  obtained  a  power  by  force, 
which  could  only  be  preserved  by  the  same 
means,  on  what  principle  should  the  con- 
trol act  ?  Burke's  famous,  but  unsuccess&l 
struggle  of  seven  years,  against  Hastings, 
and  ni  the  cause  of  humanity  in  India,  prov- 
ed«  tliat  the  only  possible  control  of  tiie  offi- 
cers in  India,  is  the  public  opinion  of  the 
British  nation.  One  party  asserted  that  all 
would  be  well  as  soon  as  the  company  di- 
vided its  power  widt  the  ministry.  An- 
other imrty  maintained,  that  all  that  was 
wonting  to  tlie  Hindoo  was  the  benefit  of 
British  law.  Some  thought  it  would  be 
S4ifficient  merely  to  increase  the  difficulty 
of  becoming  a  director.  Thus  the  incom- 
plete rcfonn  of  1773  took  place.  Instead 
of  £500,  £1000  was  made  necessary  to  give 
the  right  of  a  vote,  £3000  for  two  \otes, 
£6000  for  three  votes,  and  £10,000  for  four 
votes.  Only  six  directors  were  to  be  an- 
nually elected.  A  governor-general,  with 
four  counsellors  (at  first  named  by  parlia- 
ment, tliat  is,  by  the  ministry,  but  after- 
wards by  the  directors,  for  five  years),  was 
tso  be  placed  over  the  provinces  of  Bengal, 
Baharand  Orissa;  the  other  provinces  were 
to  be  dependent  upon  him.  As  a  coun- 
terpoise to  this  concentration  of  power,  a 
supreme  court  was  established  in  Calcut- 
ta, with  a  chief  justice  and  three  associate 
judges,  who  were  independent  of  thecom- 
])any,  and  were  ap{x>inted  by  the  crown. 
All  the  civil  and  military  correspondence 
of  the  company  was  to  be  communicated 
to  the  ministry.  Under  the  old  system,  in 
many  disputed  cases,  *  conscience,  or,  at 
least)  common  sense,  bad  decided;  but 
now,  tli^  introduction  of  a  new  and  strange 
legal  constitution  occasioned  the  ruin  of 
all  legal  relations.  The  court  decided  in 
the  case  of  every  complamt  made  against 
any  individual  who  was  directly  or  indi- 
rectly in  the  service  of  the  company,  as 
well  OS  all  complaints  relating  to  con- 
tracts in  which  the  parties  hud  submitted 
to  its  jurisdiction.  If  we  consider  that 
nothing  was  more  uncertain  than  thepex^ 
sonal  condition  of  the  Indian  and  Moham- 
medan inhabitants  of  Hindostan ;  that  the 
company  governed  some  provinces  imme- 
diately, others  indirectly,  oy  means  of  tlie 
nabobs ;  that  the  zemuidarB  were  some- 
times considered  as  the  independent  no- 
bility of  India,  sometimes  as  officers  of  the 
company,  &c. — ^it  follows,  that  the  court 
could  take  all  cases  into  its  own  hands,  or 
decline  them,  at  pleasure.  Immediately 
after  its  estoMishment,  it  gave  a  specimen 


of  the  spirit  by  which  it  was  actuated. 
Nunkomar,  who  had  accused  the  gov- 
ernor-general, Hastings,  was  convicted,  on 
insufficient  grounds,  of  for^ry,  and  hang- 
ed; which,  as  has  been  mgeniously  re- 
marked, is  about  the  some  as  fiunisiiing  a 
Mohammedan  for  bieaniy.  On  the  whole, 
tlie  histor}'  of  the  British  E^ost  India  trade 
justifies  the  assertion,  that,  exceiH  Burke 
and  the  family  of  Wellesley,  scarcely  a 
single  Englishman  has  ever  entered  com- 
pletely into  the  spirit  of  the  people  of  In- 
dia. When  the  inefficacy  of  the  meas- 
ures of  1773  was  sufficiendy  proved,  and 
the  finances  of  the  company  again  suffer- 
ed by  tlie  American  war,  the  establish- 
ment of  a  board  of  control  was  again  dis- 
cussed in  parliament,  and  on  broader 
grounds ;  from  1782  to  1784,  the  greatest 
men  of  Ensland  were  engaged  on  tliis 
important  subject.  The  famous  East  India 
bill  of  Fox,  which  proposer^  seven  com- 
missioners, to  be  appointed  by  parliament, 
and  invested  with  siipreme  power,  and,  as 
it  were,  the  right  of  protection  oyer  India, 
could  not  be  agreeable  to  the  court,  as  the 
principal  object  of  the  bill  was  to  dep»ive 
the  crown  of  all  influence  t>n  Indian  aflUrs, 
and  to  place  an  intermediate  power  be- 
tween tlie  king  and  India.  Pitrs  project, 
therefore,  took  effect.  A  hoard  o/conirol 
was  erected,  dependent  on  the  crown,  au- 
thorized to  superintend  the  civil  and  mili- 
tary government  and  the  revenues  of  the 
comi)any,  and  to  transmit  the  despatches 
of  the  directors  to  the  di^rent  presidencies. 
The  salaries  of  the  governor-general,  the 
president  and  the  council  were  fixed  by 
the  king.  We  have  thus  given  a  historical 
oudine  of  the  constitution  of  the  compa- 
ny. The  power  of  control  in  England, 
BO  far  as  any  exists,  is  in  the  hands  of 
the  muiistry ;  the  particular  direction 
of  the  government  is  sulnected  to  the 
conipony.  It  is  certain,  tnat,  since  the 
establishment  of  the  board,  much  less  is 
known  of  Indian  affairs  than  fbrmeriy. 
The  ministers  have  not  the  same  grounds 
for  occasional  invesdgation  ;  the  stock- 
holders, in  the  jeneral  meetings  of  tlie 
company,  can  effect  nothing,  even  if  de- 
sirous to  interfere,  while  the  board  and 
the  directors  agree ;  and  this  agreement  is 
tlie  more  firmly  established,  as  a  commit- 
tee of  secrecy  exists,  consisting  of  three 
directors,  which  can  consult  and  decide, 
with  the  concurrence  of  the  board,  with- 
out any  communication  with  the  other 
directors.  The  improvement  of  the  mond 
condidon  of  British  India  is  impossible, 
while  the  fear  of  a  result  like  that  which 
occurred  in  the  case  of  the  Nofth  Ameri- 


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ENGLISH  EAST  INDIA  COMPANY. 


9J9 


can  cobnies  praTentB  the  re^ilar  coloniza- 
tion and  estabUshinent  of  British  subjects 
'  in  India.  A  race  of  Englishmen  born  in 
India  could  alone  succeed,  in  tit*)  course 
^  of  time,  in  bringing  order  and  harmony 
into  the  jarring  interests  and  relations  of 
the  countiT.  The  political  importance  of 
the  East  Indies,  in  their  present  state,  to 
England,  is  too  great  to  allow  12s  to  expect 
an  essential  improvement  in  the  condition 
of  this  country.  A  taxable  population  of 
83,000,000  of  inhaUtants,  with  40,000^)00 
under  dependent  native  princes;  ananny 
of  200,000  men,  in  the  service  of  the  com* 
panv ;  about  16,000  civil  officers;  an  an- 
nual export  of  about  £14,000,000,  and  an 
import  to  the  same  amount,  from  all  parts 
of  the  world;  £4,000,000  paid  in  the 
shape  of  duties  to  the  British  government 
annually,  and  an  annual  contribution  of 
£11,000,000  for  the  general  circulation  of 
the  British  empire,  are  objects  which 
outweigh  all  moral  considerations.  The 
funded  8t6ck  of  the  company,  at  present, 
amounts  to  £6,000,000, their  indivisible  and 
fluctuating  property  to  about  £50,000,000, 
and  the  amount  of  their  annual  land-tax  is 
£28^,000,  half  as  large  asain  as  that  of 
Russia.  This  gigantic  political-mercan- 
tile association  will  exist  as  long  as  a 
Boiall  niilitary  power  is  sufficient  to  pre- 
vent a  ereat  nation  fix>m  attempting  to 
throw  off  the  yoke ;  as  long  as  the  system 
dtfmrt  It  commerce  en  niUan  d  dt  fwt  la 
guart  en  marchand  can  survive ;  as  long  aa 
the  pretensions  of  the  meii$^  the  oflbning  of 
European  fetheis  and  Indian  mothers,  do 
not  increase ;  and  the  Indians  and  Moham-. 
medans  remain  ignorant  of  the  real  weak- 
ness of  their  oppressors ;  that  is,  as  long 
as  the  course  of  nature  is  reversed.  Since 
1813,  all  British  subjects  have  been  per- 
nutted  to  trade  to  the  East  Indies,  under 
certain  conditions  advantageous  to  the 
companv,  which  has,  however,  claimed 
the  exclusive  commerce  in  tea.  As  the 
chaiter  of  the  East  India  company  is  to 
expire  in  1834  (having  been  renewed  the 
last  time  for  twenty-one  yearsl  interesting 
debates  will,  of  course,  take  place  in  par- 
.  Kamentas  to  its  continuation  or  abolition. 
In  the  sesnon  of  1830,  parliament  ap- 
pointed a  committee  to  inquire  into  the 
afiahns  of  the  company.  Hume,  M'lntosh 
and  Huskisson  are  members  of  it — It  ap- 
pears that  the  revenue  of  the  British 
pooBoosions  in  India  is  greater  than 
that  of  any  European  state,  excepting 
France  and  England.  In  1827—28,  it 
amounted  to  £23,035,164  in  1828—29,  it 
m  estimated  at  £23^,317.  The  inter- 
est «n  the  debt  is  about  £3,000,000  yearly ; 


the  total  interest  on  the  debt  and  cbaiges^ 
including  those  paid  in  England,  and  tike 
expenses  of  the  island  of  Sl  Helena,  was 
£26,314;344,in  1827— 28,  and  £23,9JM,503, 
in  1828—429 ;  the  surplus  of  charge  above 
revenue  was,  m  182&--6,  over  three  niil-^ 
lions;  the  estimated  surplus  revenue  in* 
1829,  £l,318,59a  Before  tiie  Burmese 
war,  there  was  a  surplus  of  revenue  over 
expenditure  of  one  million  and  a  half; 
but  in  the  twentv  years  preceding  1828^ 
29,  there  are  only  six  which  show  a  sur- 
plus revenue.  The  total  assets  of  the 
company,  including  property  of  every  de- 
scription, amounted  to  £18,406,039.  The 
rate  of  dividend,  since  1793,  has  beep  10^ 
per  cent  It  is  believed  that  the  value 
of  American  imports  from  England  into 
China  amounts  to  $800,000,  whilst  that 
of  the  company  amounts  to  £800,000. 
The  company's  tonnage  to  China  had  in- 
creased, tor  the  last  nine  or  ten  yeara^ 
5,000,  on  an  average.  The  East  India 
company  exported  tea  from  Canton,  frotn 
1824—25  to  1827—28,  and  sold  in  Eng- 
land and  the  Noith  American  colonies^ 
during  the  same  period,  as  follows : 

ExporUdfiom  Canton, 

Afl*  Is  11116  ftOflt, 

1824—25.            28,697,078  £1,900,666 

1825—26.            27,821,121  1,729,949 

1826-27.            40,182,241  2,368,461 

1827—28.            33,269^  2,086,971 
Sides. 

Eoflud.       N.Ain.  ooloniei. 

1824—25.  26,55^,327  . £3,741,402 

1825-26.  27,803,668  512,314  3,946,770 
1826—27.  27,700,978  723,081  3,567,737 
1827—28.  28,120,354  941,794  3,468,590 
From  Great  Britain  to  the  East  Indies 
and  China,  together  with  Mauritius,  in 
the  year  ending  January  5,  1829,  goods 
were  exported  at  the  declared  value  of. 
By  the  East  India  company,  .  £1,126,926    7    7 

'"'JS^iS^dff.'"'!   •  ♦'^^^ac  16  11 

Total, £5;W2,363    4~ 

In  produce  of  goods  of  the  East  Indies 
and  China,  were  Imported  into  Great 
Britain  in  the  year  ending  Jan.  5, 1829, 

By  the  East  India  company £5^76,905 

Free  trade,  including  Uie  privileged  >     *  ca«  g.v| 

Total £11^220,576 

The  amount  of  the  population  of  the 
British  East  Indies  cannot,  of  cotmtt,  be 
known  with  any  thing  like  accuracy ;  but 
the  following  is  probably  as  near  an  ap- 
proiimation  as  can  be  made : — ^In  the  Besr- 


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EAST  INDIA  COMPANIES— EAST  RIVER. 


gal  preadency,  58,000,000 ;  Madras  pran- 
dency,  16,000,000  ;  Bombay  presidency, 
11,000,000 ;  total  British,  85,000,000 ;  sub- 
sidiary aud  dependent  (say),  40,000,000; 
outports  in  the  bay,  &c.  (say),  1,000,000 ; 
total  under  British  control,  126,000,000; 
independent  states,  but  controlled  by  the 
British  arms  (say),  10,000,000 ;  approxi- 
mate total,  not  European,  136,000,000;  to- 
tal Europeans,  about  40,000;  about  one 
European  to  three  tiiousand  four  hundred 
natives,  or,  where  they  have  the  whole 
command  of  the  government  and  revenue, 
one  European  to  two  thousand  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-five  natives.— We  are 
glad  to  end  our  account  by  stating,  that, 
at  last,  the  English  have  abolished  the  gui- 
teesj  or  burning  alive  of  widows.  The  or- 
der is  dated  Dec.  4, 1829. 

IV.  The  French,  Danish  and  Swedish 
East  India  companies  have  been  of  little 
importance,  even  in  their  tnost  flourishing 
state,  to  the  commerce  of  the  world.  The 
French,  established  in  1664,  could  not 
succeed;  in  1796,  the  trade  was  again 
thrown  open.  A  new  company,  estab- 
lished in  1785,  exp'u^d  in  1791.  The 
East  India  company  in  Denmark  estab- 
lished in  1618,  and  several  times  renewed, 
finally  surrendered  its  possessions  to  the 
king  in  1777.  The  company  has  now  only 
the  Chinese  trade.  The  Swedish  East  In- 
dia compai^,  established  in  1731,  and  re- 
newed in  1766  and  1786,  still  exists  at  Go- 
thenburg. For  every  voyage  it  pays  $75,000 
in  silver  to  the  crown,  to  whicli,  on  its  es- 
tablishment, it  was  obliged  to  advance 
$3,000,000  in  silver,  of  which  one  million, 
not  on  interest,  is  merely  a  security,  and 
the  other  two  millions  are  considercKl  as  a 
loan. 

East  India  Fly  (lytta  gygas).  The 
color  is  a  deep  azure  or  sea-blue.;  all  parts 
of  the  insect,  head,  elvtra  or  wmg-cases, 
body  and  legs,  are  of  the  same  color,  with 
the  exception  of  tlie  under  part  of  the 
chest,  on  which  there  is  a  brown  spot  Its 
nze  is  from  three  fourths  of  an  inch  to  an 
inch  in  length,  being  nearly  twice  the  size  of 
the  lyUa  vencatori^if  or  cantharides.  They 
have  little  or  no  odor.  This  species  of 
cantharides  has  been  tried  at  the  Phila- 
delphia alms-house.  They  proved  to  be 
exceedingly  active  as  vesicatories,  and 
never  failed  in  their  ^fiect  They  produce 
a  vesication,  in  general,  much  earlier  than 
the  Spanish  fly,  and,  from  being  found  so 
much  more  active,  only  one  half  the  quan- 
tity is  added  in  making  the  tmplakrum 
eantharidis,    (See  CanUutrides.) 

East  Indies.  (See  IntHaj  and  the  dif- 
ferent articles,  as  Vakuttefy  Bengdy  &c) 


Easton  ;  a  post-4own  and  borough  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  capital  of  the  county 
of.Nortlmnpton;  60  miles  N.  of  Phila- 
delphia, n  W.  of  New  York ;  population, 
in  1820, 2370.  It  is  amated  on  the  Del- 
aware, at  the  junction  of  the  Lehigh  river 
and  canal,  and  also  near  the  western  end  of 
the  Morris  canal,  which  connects  it  with 
New  York.  It  is  regukurly  laid  out,  hand- 
somely built,  and  contiuns  a  court-house, 
a  jail,  three  churches,  has  vakiable  mills  in 
its  vicinitv,  and  is  a  place  of  considerable 
trade.  The  situation  of  the  town  is  low, 
and  it  is  surrounded  by  considerable  emi- 
nences. Here  is  a  bridge  across  the  Del- 
aware, 570  feet  in  length. 

Eastport;  a  post-town  and  seaport 
of  Maine,in  Washin^n  county,  atuated 
at  the  most  eastern  hmit  of  the  U«  States, 
on  Moose  island,  in  Passamaquoddy  bay, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Schoodic,  or  St 
Croix,  and  Cobecook  rivers ;  93  miles 
E.  Bangor,  260  E.  N.  E.  Portland,  370 
N.  E.  Boston;  Ion.  66°  56"  W ;  laL  44° 
54'  N.:  population,  in  1810,  1511;  in 
1820, 1937.  It  is  a  flourishing  commer- 
cial town,  and  contains  a  bank,  a  printing- 
oflSce,  4  houses  of  public  worship,  IQ 
ware-houses  and  stores,  and  225  dweihn^ 
houses,  all  of  wood,  i&nd  matay  of  them 
handsome.  Eastport  is  the  most  com- 
mercial town  in  the  eastern  part  of  Maine. 
It  is  very  well  situated  for  trade,  h&ving 
an  easy  communication  with  the  interior, 
by  the  rivers  which  flow  into  the  bay. 
Its  hark}or  is  one  of  the  best  in  the  U. 
States,  capacious  enough  to  contain  a 
large  navy,  and  of  safe  entrance.  The 
wharfs  are  built  nearly  40  feet  hi^h,  on 
account  of  the  extraordinary  tides  m  the 
bay  of  Fundy.  The  common  tides  hero 
rise  25  feet  The  shores  of  Moose  island 
and  the  other  smdler  islands,  have  all  the 
preparations  necessaiy  for  curing  fish,  and 
unloading  timber  and  other  articles  of 
commerce.  In  1820,  a  handsome  toll- 
bridge,  1200  feet  long,  was  erected  over 
the  ferry  between  Moose  island  and  the 
main  land,  connecting  Eastport  with  Peny. 
About  1500  tons  of  shipping  are  owned 
in  this  town.  The  exports  consist  of 
lumber,  and  provisions  of  various  kinds. 

East  River  communicates  with  the 
Hudson  in  the  bay  of  New.  York,  and  is 
formed  by  the  narrowing  of  Lons  Island 
sound,  which  opens  viith  a  broad  mouth 
at  the  eastern  end,  and  receives  a  strong 
impulse  from  the  tides  in  the  Atlantic 
This  channel  is  so  called  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  the  North  river  (the  Hudson).  As 
the  sound  contracts,  to  the  west  of  the 
broad  expanse  in  fiont  of  New  HaveOy 


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EAST  RIVER— EATON. 


381 


and  forms  what  is  called  East  rivers  the 
oceanic  currents  act  with  a  force  that  in- 
creases with  the  diminishing  width  of  the 
stream ;  and  this  causes  higner  tides  here 
than  at  any  other  place  around  the  island. 
Arriving  al  New  York  about  three  quarters 
of  an  hour  earlier  tlian  those  by  the  nar- 
rows, this  current  drives  upwards  along  the 
east  shore  of  tlie  Hudson,  many  miles  in 
advance  of  the  otiier  on  the  west ;  and  thus 
tlie  Hudson  has  two  tides,  which  hardly 
unite  their  action  till  they  have  passed 
Tappan  and  Haverstraw  bays.  Horil- 
Gmtj  HeU'GaU,  or  Hurl- Gate,  a  danger- 
ous and  veiy  crooked  strait  in  East  river, 
eight  miles  N.  E.  of  New  York,  was  called 
by  the  Dutch  HorU-Gatt,  signifying  whiH' 
pooL  The  strait  is  formed  by  projecting 
rocks,  that  confine  the  water  to  a  narrow 
and  crooked  channel,  occasioning  strong 
eddy  currents.  There  is  a  sufficient  depth 
of  water  for  any  vessel,  but  the  passage 
of  larse  ships  should  only  be  attempted 
with  skilful  pilots.  (See  L.  bland  Sound,) 
Eatoi^,  VVilliam,  remarkable  for  his  ad- 
ventures, was  bom  at  Woodstock,  Con- 
necticut, February  23,  1764.  He  was 
die  son  of  a  farmer,  in  straitened  circum- 
stances, and  one  of  thirteen  children.  He 
displayed  talent  in  his  childhood,  and  ac- 
quued  the  nidiments  of  a  good  English 
education.  When  about  16  years  of  age, 
he  enlisted  in  the  army,  in  which  he  re- 
mained for  a  twelvemonth,  in  the  capaci- 
ty of  waiter  to  an  officer.  In  1783,  he 
was  regularly  discharged,  with  the  rank 
of  sergeant  He  then  undertook  the  stud v 
of  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages,  which 
enabled  him  to  gain  admission  into  Dart- 
mouth college.  From  January,  1788,  to 
August,  1791,  he  taught  a  school  in  Ver- 
mont, devoting  himself  at  the  same  time, 
to  the  classics,  in  order  to  qualify  himself 
for  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  arts,  which 
he  obtained  from  the  coUege  in  the  last 
mentioned  year.  In  October  of  the  same 
year,  he  was  chosen  clerk  to  the  house 
of  delegates  of  the  state  of  Vermont,  and, 
in  1792,  received  a  captain's  commission 
in  the  American  army.  He  proceeded 
with  his  company  down  the  Ohio,  to 
the  western  army,  at  Legionville,  with 
which  he  continued  until  1794.  In  1797, 
he  was  appoinleu  consul  for  the  kingdom 
of  Tunis.  Here  ht.  became  involved  in 
negotiations  and  alterc<:tions  with  the  bey, 
which  he  conducted  with  extraordinary 
spirit,  and  at  the  frequent  rick  of  his  life. 
The  history  of  them,  as  lefl  by  himself^  is 
not  a  little  entertaining  and  curious.  His 
official  correspondence  and  private  journal 
are  full  of  sinking  anecdotes  and  descrip- 


tions. War  was  declared  by  the  bashaw 
of  Tripoli  against  the  U.  States,  in  1801. 
The  reigning  chief  was  a  usurper,  and 
the  lawful  one,  his  brother,  happened  to 
be  at  Tunis,  in  exile.  With  him  Eaton 
concerted  a  project  for  attacking  the  usiiq)- 
er  by  land,  while  the  American  squadron 
in  the  Mediterranean  operated  against 
him  by  sea.  In  1803,  he  returned  to  the 
U.  States,  and  opened  liis  plan  to  the 
goveriiment ;  but,  finding  that  no  aid  could 
be  had  fit)m  the  government,  he  set  out 
for  Egypt,  merely  with  the  character  of 
American  agent  He  sailed  with  the 
squadron  for  the  Mediterranean  in  Jul^, 
1804,  and  proceeded  to  Alexandria,  m 
Egypt,  where  he  arrived  in  November. 
In  the  following  month,  he  was  at  Grand 
Cairo,  where  he  leamed  that  Hamet  Ba- 
shaw, afler  a  series  of  vicissitudes  and 
disasters,  had  been  reduced  to  the  alter- 
native of  joining  the  Mamelukes,  and  that 
he  was  actually  with  them,  commanding 
a  few  Tripolitans  and  their  Arab  auxil- 
iaries, in  Upper  Egypt  Eaton  contrived 
to  obtain  nx>m  the  viceroy  of  Egypt  an 
amnesty  for  Hamet  Bashaw,  and  permis- 
sion for  him  to  pass  the  Turkish  army 
unmolested.  A  rendezvous  was  appoint- 
'  ed ;  they  met  near  Alexandria,  and  formed 
a  convention,  in  the  eighth  article  of 
which  it  was  stipulated,  that  Eaton  should 
be  recognised  as  general  and  commander 
in  chief  of  the  land  forces  which  were 
or  might  be  called  into  service  against  the 
common  enemy,  the  reigning  b^haw  of 
Tripoli.  The  forces  consisted  of  9  Amer- 
icans, a  company  of  25  cannoniers,  and  a 
company  of  38  Greeks,  the  bashaw's  suite 
of  about  90  men,  and  a  party  of  Arab 
cavalry;  which,  including  the  footmen 
and  camel-drivers,  made  the  whole  num- 
ber about  400.  Such  was  the  land  expe- 
dition against  Tripoli.  The  march  was 
pursued  with  a  great  variety  of  adventure 
and  sufferinff,  and  Bomba  was  reached 
April  15th,  yimere  the  U.  States'  vessels,  the 
Ar^s,  captain  Hull,  and  the  Homet,  had 
arrived  with  provisions,  to  enable  the  al- 
most famished  army  to  proceed  to  Deme. 
April  25,  they  encamped  on  an  eminence 
which  commands  thb  place,  and  imme- 
diately reconnoitred.  On  the  morning  of 
the  26th,  tenns  of  amity  were  offered  the 
bey,  on  condition  of  allegiance  and  fideli- 
ty. The  flag  of  truce  was  sent  back 
with  this  laconic  answer— ••  My  head  or 
yours  !**  Deme  was  taken,  after  a  furious 
assault,  but  its  possesion  was  not  secure. 
An  army  of  the  reigning  bashaw  of  Trip- 
oli, consisting  of  several  thousand  troops^ 
approached  the  town,  and  gave  battle  to 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


EATON— EBEL. 


the  Yictora,  May  13,  but  were  repulsed, 
with  cousiderable  loss.  June  2,  they  re- 
turned to  the  assault,  and  met  with  no 
better  ftite.  On  the  lOtli,  an  engagement 
took  place,  in  which  there  were  supposed 
to  be  not  less  than  5000  men  on  the  field. 
The  hopes  of  Eaton  were,  however,  sud- 
denly blasted  by  the  official  intelligence, 
received  on  the  11th,  that  the  American 
negotiators,  in  the  squadron  before  Tripoli, 
hail  concluded  a  peace  with  the  usuqier. 
Eaton  was  required  to  evacuate  the  post 
of  Deme,  and,  with  his  Greek  and  Amer- 
ican garrison,  to  repair  on  board  the  ships. 
It  was  necessary  for  him  to  do  this  clan- 
destinely, lest  his  Arabian  auxiliaries 
should  endeavor  to  prevent  him.  Hamet 
Bashaw  embarked  at  the  same  time ;  the 
Arabians  fled  to  the  mountains ;  and  thus 
ended  this  gallant  and  romantic  affair, 
which  is  stated,  in  the  official  correspond- 
ence of  the  American  commissioners,  who 
negotiated  the  peace,  to  have  had  the 
efrect  of  bringing  the  Tripolitans  to  terms. 
Eaton  returned  to  the  U.  States  in  August^ 
where  he  received  the  most  flattering 
marks  of  public  favor.  The  preadent,  in 
his  message  to  congress,  made  honorable 
mention  of  liis  merit  and  services.  A  res- 
olution was  moved  in  the  house  of  repre- 
sentatives, at  Washington,  for  presenting 
him  with  a  medal ;  but  the  motion,  afler 
beinff  warmly  debated,  was  rejected  by  a 
smaU  majority.  The  legislature  of  Mas- 
sachusetts bestowed  upon  him  a  tract  of 
land,  of  10,000  acres,  in  testimony  of  their 
sense  of  his  **  undaunted  courage  and  brill- 
iant services."  In  the  winter  of  1806 — 7, 
Aaron  Burr  endeavored,  without  effect,  to 
enlist  him  in  his  conspiracy.  On  the  trial 
of  Burr  at  Richmond,  he  gave  full  tes- 
timony against  him.  About  this  period, 
he  was  elected  a  representative  in  the 
legislature  of  Massachusetts.  A  few  years 
after,  this  bold  and  enterprising  man  fell 
a  victim  to  habits  of  inebriety,  which  he 
contracted  soon  afler  his  return.  His 
death  took  place  in  181 1.  Mr.  Eaton  was 
well  acquainted  with  French  and  Julian, 
and  with  history,  geography  and  tactics. 
His  official  and  private  correspondence  is 
marked  by  great  acuteness  and  energy. 
The  letters  and  journal  in  which  he  has 
lefl  the  history  of  his  life  on  the  coast  of 
Barbary,  and  his  celebrated  expedition  to 
Deme,  denote  no  common  powers  of  ob- 
servation and  description.  They  are  re- 
plete with  curious  remarks  and  incidents, 
and  qiay  be  found  in  an  octavo  volume, 
entitled  The  Life'  of  General  Eaton,  and 
published  by  one  of  his  friends  in  Mas- 
sachusetts, 


Eau  ;  a  French  word,  signifying  toaUry 
and  used  in  English,  witn  some  other 
words,  for  several  spuituous  waters,  par- 
ticularly perfumes;  as,  eau  dt  OXoffm^ 
eau  dt  luUf  eau  dt  Portugal^  d&c  The 
two  most  celebrated  are  the 

Eau  dt  Colognt,  or  water  of  Cologne,  a 
fragrant  water,  made  originally,  and  in 
most  perfection,  in  Cologne.  Formeriy 
many  wonderful  powers  were  ascribed  to 
this  water,  but  it  was  probably  never  so 
much  in  demand  as  at  present,  in  Europe 
and  America,  and  numberless  recipes  have 
been  given  for  its  manufacture.  It  was 
invented  by  a  person  named  Farina^  in 
whose  family  tlie  secret,  as  they  say, 
continues  to  be  preserved,  since  chemistiy 
has  not  been  a})le,  as  yet,  to  give  the  anal- 
ysis of  it  It  is  imitated,  however,  eyery 
where.  The  consumption  of  this  per- 
fume has  increased  much  ever  since  the 
seven  years'  war ;  and  there  exist,  at  pres- 
ent,- 15  manufactories  of  it  in  Cologne, 
which  produce  several  millions  of  botdes 
yearly;  much,  also,  is  manufactured  at 
Paris,  in  Saxony,  and  otlier  places.  One 
of  the  many  recipes  to  make  tau  dt  Co- 
logne is  the  following : 

Alcohol,  or  spirit  of  wine,  at  2CP    3  pints. 
Oleum  neroli*        "^ 


•de  cedrp 

-  de  cedrat 

-  cort  aurant 
-citri 

-  bergamot 
-rosmarin 


^dropsL 


Seed  of  small  cardamum  2  drachms. 
Distil  it  in  the  Mary-bath,  until  |  of  the 
alcohol  have  evaporated. 

Eau  de  Luce  {aqva  Lucioy  or  spirihu 
salis  ammonuici  succinatus);  invented  by 
a  person  named  Luee^  at  Lille,  in  Flan- 
deis;  a  volatile  preparation,  thus  made: 
ten  or  twelve  grains  of  white  soap  are  dis- 
solved in  four  ounces  of  rectified  spirit  of 
wine,  after  which  the  solution  is  strained, 
and  a  drachm  of  rectified  oil  of  amber  is 
added,  and  die  whole  is  filtrated.  After- 
wards, some  strong  volatile  spirit  of  sal 
ammonia  should  be  mixed  with  the  solu- 
tion. This  water  is  much  in  use  in  Eng- 
land. 

Ebb.    (See  TKde.) 

Ebel,  John  Godfrey,  an  eminent  statis- 
tical and  geographical  writer,  was  bom 
about  1770.  at  Frankfort  on  tlie  Oder,  m 
Prussia.  Hdving  finished  his  medical 
studies,  and  received  a  doctor's  degree,  he 
went  to  France,  where  he  became  ac- 
quainted with  Si^yes,  whose  writings  he 
*  Ethereal  oil  of  oraiig<^-flowers. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


£BEL— EfiEN. 


383 


did  much  towards  cireulatiiig  m  Germa- 
ny. In  1801,  he  went  to  Switzerland, 
where  he  lived  chiefly  in  Zurich.  He 
travelled  through  the  country,  during  his 
long  stay  there,  in  all  directions,  mdcing 
close  and  accurate  observationa  The 
fruits  of  his  inquuics  were  some  works 
which  give  us  the  most  valuable  accounts 
of  the  natural  and  statisticcd  condition  of 
Switzerland,  and  are  particularly  useful  to 
travellera.  His  Guide  to  the  Traveller  in 
Switzerland,  the  best  known  of  his  works, 
has  been  tnuislated  into  French  and  Eng- 
lish, and  is  a  model  for  every  work  of  this 
kind,  as  it  leaves  hardly  a  single  subject, 
which  can  have  interest  to  a  traveller, 
untouched.  In  his  Description  of  the 
Mountaineers  of  Switzerland  (Tubingen, 
1798—1802, 2' vols.),  he  gives  a  picture  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Appenzell  and  Glarus. 
His  work  on  the  Structure  of  the  Earth 
in  the  Al()s  (Zurich,  1808J  gives  a  gen^hil 
view  of  the  structure  or  the  earth,  and 
valuable  accounts  of  the  ffcolo^  of  the 
Alps.  In  the  time  of  the  Helvetic  repulv 
lic,  Ebel  was  honored  with  the  rights  of 
citizenship,  as  an  acknowledgment  of  his 
services  to  Switzerland. 

Ebeling,  Christopher  Daniel ;  bom 
1741,  at  Garmissen,  in  Hildesheim.  He 
studied  theology  at  Gottingen,  from  1763 
to  1767,  paying  particular  atteqtion  to 
ecclesiastical  history  and  exegesis,  which 
led  him  to  a  careful  study  of  the  Oriental 
languages,  especially  the  Arabic.  He  also 
studied  political  history,  Greek,  Roman 
and  Enfflish  literature,  and  the  fine  arts, 
for  whici)  he,  at  length,  retinquished  tlie- 
ology.  In  order  to  procure  himself  fur- 
ther advancement,  he  went  to  Leipsic  as 
a  tutor,  and,  in  1769,  accepted  a  place 
offered  him  in  the  academy  of  commerce 
at  Hamburg.  As  ffood  manuals  were 
wanted  for  tiie  study  of  modem  lan- 
guages, he  published,  for  the  academy  of 
commerce,  m  1773,  his  Miscellaneous  Es- 
says in  English  Prose,  which  passed 
through  six  editions,  and  were  soon  fol- 
lowed by  similar  manuals  for  the  Italian, 
French,  Spanish  and  Dutch  languages. 
For  the  same  reason,  he  applied  lumself 
more  to  the  study  of  geography,  and  pub- 
lished translations  of  many,  especially 
English  travels.  Encouraged  by  nis  con- 
nexions with  Hamburg,  the  academy  of 
commerce,  and  the  house  of  Biisching, 
he  soon  found  means  to  open  for  himsefi* 
new  sources  of  geographical  information. 
England,  Spain,  Portugal  and  America, 
especially  the  U.  States,  were  the  subjects 
of  his  particular  attention.  In  the  new 
edition  of  the  great  geography  of  BCis- 


ching,  he  undertook  an  account  of  Portu- 
gal and  the  U.  States  of  North  America. 
The  long  interm])tion  of  commerce  with 
foreign  countries,  and  the  author's  wish 
to  ^ve  his  work  the  highest  perfection, 
were  the  causes  of  the  slow  progress  of 
this  labor.  But  all  that  is  completed,  is 
justly  viewed  as  a  master-piece.  This  is 
the  acknowledged  opinion,  not  only  in 
Europe,  but  also  in  the  North  American 
states.  This  great  work  of  his  is  entitled, 
Geography  and  History  of  North  America 
(Hamburg,  1793—99,  5  vols.).  After  the 
removal  of  Wurm  fifom  the  academy  of 
commerce,  Biisching,  in  company  with 
Ebeling,  undeitook  the  management  of 
this  establishment,  and  they  published  the 
Library  of  Commerce.  In  1784,  Ebeling 
was  appointed  professor  of  history  and 
the  Greek  language  iii  the  Hamburg  gym- 
nasium ;  and  tlie  superintendence  of  the 
Hambuiig  library  was  afterwards  commit- 
ted to  him.  He  filled  both  offices  till  his 
death,  June  30,  1817,  with  great  reputa- 
tion. For  almost  all  the  literary  period- 
icals of  Germany  he  prepared  articles  in 
the  geographical  and  kindred  departments. 
In  his  earlier  years,  he  wrote  a  history  of 
Grerman  poetry  for  the  Hanover  Maga- 
zine, and  furnished  several  contributions 
to  the  Gennan  Library,  published  by 
Frederic  Nicolai,  and,  at  a  later  period, 
contributed  many  literary  articles  to  the 
New  Hamburg  Gazette.  His  frank,  cheer- 
ful and  amiable  manners  never  deserted 
him,  though,  for  nearly  30  years,  he  suf- 
fered a  partial,  and,  finally,  an  almost  total 
deafness,  and  was  thus  deprived,  among 
other  pleasures,  of  the  enjoyment  of  mu- 
sic, or  which  he  was  passionately  fond, 
and  in  which  he  had  made  uncommon 
attainments.  He  left  behind  two  collec- 
tions, perhaps  unique^  in  their  kind — a 
collection  or  from  9  to  10,000  maps,  and 
a  library  of  books  relating  to  America, 
and  containing  more  than  3900  volumes, 
which  was  purchased,  in  1818,  by  Israel 
Thomdike,  of  Boston,  and  presented  by 
him  to  Harvard  college,  in  Cambridge, 
Massachusetts. 

Eben,  Frederic  (baron  von),  smce  1821, 
general  in  thd  service  of  the  republic  of 
Colombia,  was  bom  in  1773,  at  Creutz- 
burg,  in  Silesia,  of  an  ancient  'fiimily. 
Young  Eben  early  distinguished  himself 
apd  receivied  the  Prussian  order  of  merit. 
In  1799,  he  became  knight  of  Malta,  and, 
in  1800,  entered  the  English  service.  The 
year  after  the  peace  of  1802,  he  received  a 
commisfflon  in  the  10th  regiment  of  light 
dragoons,  or  the  prince  of  Wales's  ovniL 
At  this  time,  he  composed  instructions  for 


Digitized  by 


Lioogle 


981 


EBEN— EBERT. 


the  service  of  the  fight  horse  and  of  the 
riflemen  in  tlie  Englii^  army ;  he  establish- 
ed, also,  at  the  command  of  the  prince,  a 
company  of  li^ht  horse,  after  the  manner 
of  the  Hungarian  hussars,  and  composed 
of  foreigners ;  and  his  manual  for  the  new 
arming  of  the  English  cavalry  was  intro- 
duced into  the  army  bvthe  conmianderin 
chi^  the  duke  of  York.  In  1806,  he  was 
Aiade  mi^or  in  a  reffiment  of  chasseurs ; 
in  1807,  he  served  titt  the  peace  as  a  vol- 
unteer in  the  Prussian  coips  under  gen- 
eral Blflcber,  and,  in  1808,  he  went,  with 
a  number  of  Portuguese  emigrants,  lo 
Oporto,  where,  in  December,  he  was 
made  commander  of  tlie  English  troops. 
After  the  embarkation  of  the  British  army 
at  Corunna,  Eben  formed,  from  the  scat- 
tered English  soldiers,  a  corps  of  a  tliou- 
sand  men,  which  joined  the  army  of  the 
present  duke  of  WellingUMi.  He  himself 
remained  in  Oporto,  from  which  place  he 
carried  the  English  military  chest,  and 
provisions  of  war  of  every  kmd,  in  aafoty 
to  Lisbon.  Here  he  established  a  small 
ooipe,  from  deserters  of  the  French  Swiss 
regiments,  and,  in  February,  1609,  led 
a  division  of  the  Lusitanian  legion  to 
Oaficia,  where  he  and  the  marquis  de 
la  Romana  directed  the  arming  of  the 
country.  Called  back  to  Portugal,  he 
accepted  the  post  of  commander  in  chief 
in  Bnga,  where  the  rebellious  populace 
had  murdered  the  Portuguese  general  Ber- 
nardin  Gomez  Freyre  <rAndrade,  and  his 
field-officers,  March  17, 1809 ;  but  he  was 
not  able,  with  his  undisciplined  troops, 
consisting  of  18,000  militia,  and  no  more 
than  995  regular  soldiers,  without  anrniu- 
nition,  to  maintain  himself  longer  than 
the  SOth  of  March  against  the  advancing 
French  army  under  Soult  With  the 
militaiy  chest,  colors  and  cannon,  he  made 
his  retreat  to  Oporto,  where  he  queUed, 
Maroh  26^  the  insurrection  of  the  people 
against  the  adherents  of  the  French,  of 
v^om  15  had  been  murdered ;  but,  on 
the  29th,  Soult  took  the  city  by  storm, 
and  Eben,  who  collected  again  the  scat- 
tered Portuguese  troops  near  Coimbra, 
lost  his  property  in  the  plunder  of  the 
city.  His  behavior  gained  him  the  es- 
teem of  the  nation,  so  that  the  bishop  of 
Oporto,  the  patriarch  ESeito,  who  con- 
ducted the  revolution  against  the  French, 
presented  him  with  a  gold  cross ;  and  all 
the  officers  recommended  by  him  were 
promoted.  Notwithstanding  this,  lord 
Beresford,  who  reorganized  the  Portu- 
guese army,  in  which  Eben  had  been  ac- 
knowledged as  colonel,  gave  him  who 
had  been  hitheito  ^  Brituh  major,  only 


a  commission  as  lleutenant-coloBel  in  tbot 
army.  Eben,  therefore,  asked  his  diB- 
mission,  which  was  mnted  to  him  by 
Beresford,  but  not  by  me  Portuguese  gov- 
ernment, which  made  him  governor  of 
SetuvaL  At  the  command  of  the  English 
ambassador,  he  accepted  the  post,  with 
the  commission  of  a  Portuguese  colonel. 
He  subsequently  commanded  the  loynl 
Lusitanian  legion  in  tl:e  battle  of  Busaco, 
in  the  lines  of  Torres  Vedras,  and  in  the 
pursuit  of  Maseena.  In  1811,  he  was 
made  Ueutenant-colonel  and  Portugese 
brigadier-general,  commanded  a  brigade 
of  infimtry  of  the  line  in  the  battlp  of 
Fuentes  d'Onoro,  in  the  blockade  of  Al- 
meida, before  Bndrigo  and  at  Badajoz. 
After  this,  in  1812,  he  commanded  the  corps 
in  Spain.  In  1813,  he  was  made  sovem- 
or  intriwt  of  the  province  TrBs-os-Montes, 
and,  in  1814,  he  was  appointed  a  colonel 
in'  the  English  army,  and  aid-de-camp  of 
the  prince  regent,  but  was  dismissed  m>m 
the  Portuguese  ser\'jce,  as  eldest  brigadier, 
under  the  pretext  that  he  had  been  for- 
merly an  officer  of  the  cavalry.  This 
took  place,  however,  without  the  cotisent 
of  the  Portugese  government  He  still 
remained,  with  the  permission  of  the 
prince  regent,  in  Portugal,  and  oft^red  his 
services  to  the  king,  in  the  army  of  Brazil ; 
but,  by  the  contrivance  of  his  enemies,  he 
was  implicated  in  the  pretended  conspira- 
cy of  general  Freyre  d'Andrade,  was  ar- 
rested, and,  on  insufficient  grounds,  was 
sentenced  to  exile.  Eben  lived  after  this 
at  Hamburg,  from  whence  he  petitioned  in 
vain  the  king  of  Portugd,  at  Rio  Janeiro, 
for  the  revision  of  his  trial.  The  Poitu- 
guese  ambassador  in  Hamburg,  however, 
assured  him  that  his  master,  the  king 
was  entirely  convinced  of  his  innocencf*. 
In  1821,  Eben  repaired  to  South  America, 
and  oftered  his  services  to  the  republic  <^ 
Colombia.  He  was  admitted,  as  a  briga- 
dier-general, into  the  army  of  the  repubhc, 
organized  the  army,  and,  after  the  victoiy 
of  Bolivar,  in  Ajpril,  1822,  cooperated  in 
the  occupation  of  Quito. 

Ebenezer  [Hebrtw ;  the  stone  of  help) ; 
the  name  of  a  field  where  the  Philistines 
defeated  the  Hebrews,  and  seized  on  the 
sacred  ark,  and  where,  afterwards,  at  Sam 
uePs  request,  the  Lonl  discomfited  the 
Philistines,  with  thunder,  &c.  On  this 
occasion,  Samuel  set  up  a  stone,  and  gavA 
it  this  designation,  to  indicate  that  the 
Lord  had  helped  them.  It  is  said  to  be 
about  40  miles  south-west  of  Shiloh.  The 
name  of  J55enezer  has  also  been  given  to 
a  town  in  Georgia,  Effingham  county. 

Ebbrt,  John  Arnold ;  a  poet  and  trana- 


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EBERT— EBRO. 


SBS 


btor,  pardcularlj  of  Engtish  works;  bom 
1733^  at  Hambuiig.  His  love  of  the  Eng- 
lish language  was  awakened  and  cher- 
ished by  Hagedorn,  who  contributed 
much  to  the  influence  of  English  litera- 
ture upon  the  Gennan.  Not  long  after 
the  efltablishment  of  the  CaroUnvmf  in 
Brunswick,  he  received  an  appointment, 
in  1748,  in  the  school  connected  with  it, 
and  instructed  the  hereditaiy  prince,  after- 
wards duke  of  Brunswick,  in  the  En^h 
language.  About  this  time,  he  conceived 
the  idea  of  translating,  and  thus  making 
known  to  his  countrymen,  the  best  Eng- 
lish poets  and  authors.  The  best  of  his 
translations  were  those  of  Young's  Night 
Thoughts,  which  guned  him  great  repu- 
tation as  a  translator;  and  Glover's  Le- 
onidas.  In  1753,  he  obtained  tlie  place 
of  regular  professor  in  the  Corof tnum,  and 
afterwards  the  station  of  court  counsellor. 
He  died  in  1795.  Ebert  had  a  lively^  fan- 
cy, and  a  warm  imagination.  His  writings, 
colleeted  by  himself^  appeared  under  the 
title  J.  A.  Ebert's  Epistles  and  Miscel- 
laneous Poems,  to  which  another  volume 
was  added  after  his  death  (Hamburg,  1789 
and  1795, 2  vols.). 

£BiO!fiTEs ;  a  sect  of  the  first  century, 
so  called  from  their  leader,  Ebion.  They 
held  several  dogmas  in  common  with  the 
Nazarenes,  united  the  ceremonies  of  the 
Mosaic  institution  with  the  precepts  of  the 
gospel,  observed  both  the  Jewish  Sabbath 
and  Christian  Sunday,  and,  in  celebratine 
the  Eucharist,  made  use  of  unleavened 
bread.  They  abstained  ftom  the  ftesh  of 
animals,  and  even  fiom  milk.  In  relation 
to  Jesus  Christ,  some  of  them  held  that 
he  was  bom,  like  other  men,  of  Joseph 
and  Mary,  and  acquired  sanctification 
only  by  his  good  works.  Others  of  them 
allowed  that  he  was  bom  of  a  virgin,  but 
denied  that  he  was  the  word  of  God,  or 
had  any  existence  before  his  human  gen- 
eration. They  said  he  was,  indeed,  the 
only  true  prophet ;  but  yet  a  mere  man, 
who,  by  his  virtue,  had  arrived  at  being 
called  Christ,  and  the  Swtof  God.  They 
also  supposed  that  Christ  and  the  devil 
were  two  principles,  which  God  had  op- 
posed to  each  other.  Of  the  New  Testa- 
ment they  only  recwed  the  Gospel  of  St. 
Matthew,  which  they  called  the  Gospel 
accar£ng  to  the  HArews,  (See  the  arti- 
cle f^cauirenes.) 

Ebont;  a  kind  of  wood,  extremely 
hard,  and  susceptible  of  a  very  fine  polish, 
which  is  much  used  in  mosaic,  inlaying, 
and  other  ornamental  works.  Its  color 
18  led,  black  or  green.  The  black  is  most 
esteemed,    and    is   imported  principally 

Toi*.  IV.  33 


from  Madagascar  and  the  Isle  of  France. 
Red  ehon^,  so  called,  though  its  color  is 
brown  striped  with  black,  is  less  compact 
and  is  also  brought  from  Madagascar.  The 
peen  is  softer  than  either  of  the  preced- 
ing, yields  a  fine  green  tincture,  wnich  is 
employed  in  dyeing,  and  is  brought  from 
the  West  Indies,  particularly  from  Toba- 
po,  as  well  as  from  the  above  mentioned 
islands.  The  best  is  jet  black,  and  free 
ftom  knots,  or  reddish  veins.  Ebonv  is 
imitated  by  subjecting  some  hard  kinds  of 
wood,  especially  that  of  the  pear  tree^  to 
a  hot  decoction  of  galls,  and,  when  this  is 
dry,  applying  ink  wita  a  stiflf  bmsh ;  a 
little  warm  wax  is  then  used  to  ^ve  it  a 
polish :  another  method  is  by  heating  and 
Duming  the  wood.  The  ebony-tree  (d^ 
ospvros  ebenum)  grows  wild  in  the  East 
Indies,  and  has  been  cultivated  for  many 
years  in  the  Isle  of  France,  which  sup- 
plies a  g]eat  part  of  that  consumed  in  Eu- 
rope. The  central  part,  or  heart'^wood, 
only  is  black ;  the  sap-wood  does  not  difier 
in  color  from  that  of  other  trees.  Seve- 
ral other  species  of  the  genus  aflSbrd 
ebony,  among  them  D.  deccmdra  and  do- 
cecandra  of  Cochin  China,  which  are 
used  in  that  countiy  for  cabinet  worit, 
&c.  The  species  of'^  diospyros  are  trees 
or  shrubs,  with  altemate  petiolate  and  co- 
riaceous leaves;  the  dowers  monopeCSf 
lous,  dioecious,  axillary,  and  sessile  or  sub- 
sessile.  Abotit  30  species  are  known,  one 
of  which,  the  persimmon,  is  found  in  the 
U.  States.  That  which  the  Greeks  used 
in  the  roost  ancient  times  was  procured 
from  India ;  but  it  was  unknown  in  Rome 
till  after  the  victories  obtained  by  Pompey 
over  Mithridates.  The  ancient  inhabi- 
tants of  India,  the  Greeks,  and  finally  the 
Romans,  made  frequent  use  of  this  fine 
wood,  inlaying  it  with  ivoiy  on  accoimt 
of  the  contrast  of  colors.  According  to 
Pliny,  the  statue  of  Diana  at  Ephesus 
was  of  ebony,  but  according  to  Vitruvius, 
it  was  of  cedar.  Artists  and  poets  used 
ebony  allegorically  for  the  attributes  of 
the  infemals,  nving  a  throne  formed  of 
it  to  Pluto  and  Proserpine,  and  making  the 
gates  of  hell  of  the  same  dark  and  dura- 
ble material.  It  is  also  used  at  the  present 
day  for  sculptural  decorations,  embellished 
and  inlaid  with  ivory,  mother  of  pearl, 
sQver  and  gold. 

Ebro  (I^tin,  Iherus\  a  river  in  Spain, 
once  the  boundary  between  the  territoiy 
of  Rome  and  Carthage,  has  its  source  in  u 
litde  valley  east  of  Reynosa ;  it  proceeds 
from  a  copious  spring  at  the  foot  of  an 
andent  tow^r,  caUed  FonHbre,  and,  afler 
tiaveising  many  open  and  fertile  districts^ 


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EBRO— ECCLE^UkSTICAL  ESTABLISHMENTS. 


passes  by  the  city  of  Tortosa,  where  there 
IS  a  bridge  of  boat9  over  it,  and  then  falls 
into  the  Mediterranean,  at  the  island  of 
Alfachs ;  but,  on  account  of  its  current  and 
many  rocks  and  shoals,  it  is  navigable  no 
bidier  than  Tortosa,  and  even  to  that  place 
only  for  small  craft  Length  about  350 
miles. 

EcBATANA ;  the  chief  city  or  ancient 
metropolis  of  Media,  built,  according  to 
Plinv,  by  Seleucus.  It  was  the  summer 
residence  of  the  Persian  and  Median  kings, 
and  existed  in  creat  splendor  at  a  very 
early  period  in  uie  histoiy  of  the  world. 
It  was  situated  on  a  rising  ground,  about 
12  stadia  from  Mount  Orontes,  and  1200 
stadia  south  of  Palus  Spauta.  Its  walls 
are  described  by  ancient  writers  in  a  style 
of  romantic  exaggeration,  and  particular- 
ly by  Herodotus  and  the  author  of  the 
book  of  Judith.  Daniel  is  said  by  Jose- 
phus  to  have  built  one  of  its  most  mag- 
nificent palaces,  some  of  the  beams  of 
which  were  of  silver,  and  the  rest  of  cedar 
plated  with  gold.  This  splendid  edifice 
afterwards  served  as  a  mausoleum  to  the 
kings  of  Media,  and  is  affirmed,  by  the 
last  mentioned  author,  to  have  been  entire 
in  his  lime.  There  are  no  traces  now  re- 
maining of  these  lofly  buildings;  and 
even  tlie  site  of  tliis  celebrated  ci^  has 
become  a  subject  of  dispute  among  mod-> 
em  travellers.  It  was  pillaged  by  the  ar- 
my of  Alexander. 

EccE  Homo  (L(ftin;  Behold  the  man !). 
This  name  is  often  given  to  crucifixes  and 
pictures  which  represent  the  sufiering 
Savior,  because,  according  to  John,  xix. 
5,  Pilate  broke  out  in  these  words,  when 
he  saw  with  what  patience  Jesus  suffered 
scourging. 

Ecclesiastical  Courts.  (See  CovrU.) 

Ecclesiastical  Establishments.  In 
the  following  article,  an  account  is  given 
of  the  numfisr  of  the  clergy,  and  the  ex- 
pense of  supporting  the  ecclesiastical  es- 
tablishments in  some  of  the  principal 
countries  of  Europe.  In  the  TuUeau  de 
la  Constitution  Politique  de  la  Monarchic 
Ihmgaise  aelon  la  Chcoie^  &c.  par  A.  Ma^ 
kuUj  is  the  following  account  of  the 
French  cler^ :  "The  Catholic  clergy,  be- 
fore the  revolution,  were  composed  of  136 
archbishops  and  bishops,  6800  canons  and 
priests  of  the  haa  choeurSy  attached  to  the 
cathedral  and  collegial  churehes,  44,000 
curates,  6400  succursaUstea  (a  sort  of  cu- 
rates, removable  by  the  bishops),  18,000 
vicars,  16,000  ecclesiastics,  with  or  with- 
out benefices,  600  canonesses,  31,000 
monks,  27,000  nuns,  10.000  servants  of 
the  church;  total,  159,996.    The  Catholic 


population  of  France  then  comprised 
25,000,000  souls.  The  der^  thus  form- 
ed the  hundred  and  sixW-eighth  part  of 
iL  The  possessions  of^the  clergy  then 
afford^,  according  to  the  statisdcal  ta- 
bles of  M.  C^r  Moreau,  121,000,000  of 
the  revenue.  The  French  dei^,  at  the 
commencement  of  1828,  according  to  the 
documents  collected  by  the  editor  of  the 
Alnumach  du  CUfqgiy  comprised  5  car- 
dinals, 14  arehbishops,  66  bishops,  5 
cordons  UeuSy  of  the  order  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  468  vicars-general,  684  titular 
canons,  1788  honorary  canons,  3083 
curates,  22,475  desseroans  (who  perform 
the  duties  of  the  titular  clergy),  5705  vic- 
ars, 439  chaplains,  639  almoners,  1076 
priests  resident  in  the  parishes,  or  autho- 
rized to  preach  or  hear  confession,  1044 
priests,  directors  and  professors  of  semi- 
naries. The  number  of  priests  deemed 
necessary  by  the  bishops  amounts  to 
52,457,  whicn  would  give  for  the  f»«9ent 
population  of  France,  excluding  the  Prot- 
estant sects,  one  for  each  550  souls.  The 
total  number  of  officiating  priests  is  36,649. 
In  1824,  the  number  was  estimated  at 
only  30,443.   Consequently,  15,808  are  re- 

auired  to  complete  the  number  desired  by 
le  heads  of  tiie  chureh.  Ifis  estimated, 
that  13,493  of  the  priests  employed  are 
over  sixty  years  of  age,  and  that  there  are 
2328  whom  age  and  infirmity  render  in- 
capable of  acwaf.  The  number  of  ec- 
clesiastical elhes  IS  44,244,  of  whom  9285 
are  iheolf^iensy  Z7^  philosopkes,  21,118 
are  in  the  seminaries,  7761  in  the  colleges, 
2355  with  the  curates.  The  whole  ex- 
pense of  supporting  the  Catholic  worship, 
according  to  the  osculation  presented  by 
M.  Charles  Dupin,  June  21,  1828,  to  the 
chamber  of  deputies,  is  62,845,000  finance. 
Before  the  revolution,  the  possessioiia  of 
the  clergy  afforded,  as  we  have  said,  121 
millions,  leaving  a  difference  of  expense  in 
favor  of  the  present  system,  of  58,155,000 
francs,  although  the  lower  ordere  of  the 
clergy  receive  a  much  ampler  compen- 
sation than  before,  and  the  clergy  are 
much  more  equally  distributed  among 
those  whom  they  are  to  serve.  In  18^ 
according  to  the  Mmanack  du  Clargi^  the 
whole  number  of  nuns  in  France  was 
19,340.  De  jure  or  de  facto,  there  exist 
3024  establishments  of  nuns,  to  wit,  1983 
definitely  authorized,  and  1041  en  expecta- 
tive.  There  are  but  a  small  number  of 
religious  houses  for  males  in  France. 
The  state  of  the  clergy  of  Spain  before 
the  revolution  is  thus  given  in  the  Duuio 
dt  la  Comma  for  July  1, 1821  :— 


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ECCLESIASTICAL  ESTABLISHMENT& 


387 


Archbishops  and  bishops, 62 

Canons  and  dignitaries, 2,399 

Prebends,    1,869 

Parish  rectois,     16,481 

Curates, 4,927 

Other  beneficed  clergy, 16^400 

Religious  men  of  the  greater  or- 
ders,      17,411 

Religious  men  of  the  minor  or- 
ders,    9,088 

Uermitands, 1,416 

Servants, 3^987 

Sacristans,  church  cleriLS,  ....  15,000 

Monks, 5,500 

Friaj^  with  shoes,     13^ 

Friars  without  shoes, 30,000 

Regular  congregationists,    ....  2,000 

Servants  of  regulars, 6,400 

Youths  in  their  houses, 1,800 

Total, 148^2 

Nuns  and  religious  women,  .  .    32,000 

Total  of  regular  and  secular 
clergy, 180,342 

Property  hdonging  io  (he  CUrgy. 

Pious  foundations  for  the^j        ^^^^ 
use  of  both  sexes,  con-  I  ^a^  k^a  nrtn 
sistin^    in    lands    and  f^®^^^'*^ 

buildings, J 

Estates  of  the  secular  clergy,  62,000,000 
Estates  of  the  regular  clergy,  62,000,000 

*^lf^P^;^^"|^^  £186,500,000 

exdusim  of  tUhes,  and  tNtnous  other  taxes 
and  dues  for  the  clergy.  The  population 
of  Spain,  in  1827,  was  estimated  m  Has- 
sel's  Historical  and  Statistical  Almanack, 
published  in  1829,  at  13,953^59.  The 
number  of  places  of  worship  may  be 
11,000.  At  the  period  of  the  Spanish 
revolution,  the  cortes,  by  a  decree  of  Oc- 
tober 24, 1821,  introduced  a  new  organi- 
zation of  the  Spanish  church,  abolishing 
all  the  monasteries,  excepting  ten  or 
twelve,  declaring  all  gifts  and  levies  to 
monasteries,  churches  and  hospitals  un- 
lawful, and  curtailing  the  whole  ecclesi- 
astical establishment,  so  as  to  effect  a 
saving  of  forty-four  and  a  half  millions  of 
dollars  annually  to  the  nation,  reckoning 
the  annual  expense  of  the  church  to  the 
nation,  before  the  revolution,  at  six  per 
cent,  on  the  church  properQr.  But  the 
king,  on  his  .restoration  to  absolute  power, 
October  1,  1823,  immediately  annulled  all 
the  decrees  of  the  constitutional  govern- 
ment, and  the  ecclesiastical  establishment 
was  placed  on  its  former  footing.  The 
Spanish  clerey,  however,  cx>ntribut0  con- 
siderably to  the  suppoit  of  thegovenuuent 


Their  contributions  are  as  follow :  1.  the 
suhsidiOf  or  voluntary  gift  of  £100,000  an- 
nually ;  the  exeusadOf  or  tithe,  of  the  tenth 
house  or  farm,  ori^nally  appropriated  for 
buildinff  and  repairing  churches.  Pope 
Pius  V  allowed  Philip  II  to  apply  the 
produce  of  this  tax  to  nis  wars  against  the 
mOdels.  It  is  now  applied  to  the  ordinary 
expenses  of  tlie  state.  The  king  has  the 
choice  of  all  the  houses  and  farms,  and 
■elects  the  most  valuable ;  so  that  this  tenth 
may  be  considered  equivalent  to  one 
eighth  or  one  seventh  of  all  the  tithes  of 
the  parish.  2.  The  tiercias  males  is  a  tax 
of  two-ninths  of  the  tithes  received  by  the 
clergy.  3.  The  tiaoeiio,  another  ninth 
part  of  the  tidies  annually  paid  to  the 
clersy.  4.  The  novales,  tidies  on  land 
newly  brought  into  cultivation.  5.  The 
diezmas  eo^tentos,  the  tithe  of  all  lands  orig- 
inally exemfiCed  from  clerical  jurisdic- 
tion. The  whole  of  the  above  taxes  are 
farmed.  These,  however,  are  not  the  only 
burden  imposed  on  the  clergy.  It  has 
for  some  time  been  the  practice  to  oblige 
them  to  pay  two  years'  revenue  upon  theit 
appointment  to  a  new  beneftce.  The 
payment  is  made  during  a  period  of  four 
years,  being  the  half  of  each  year's  in- 
come ;  and,  on  the  expiration  of  this  tenn, 
the  incumbent  is  sometimes  removed  to 
another  living,  to  undergo  the  same  deple- 
tory operation  during  another  four  years. 
In  consequence  of  this  policy,  tlie  Spanish 
clergy,  formerly  so  wealthy,  are  now,  in 
many  cases,  but  indifferently  provided  for, 
and  are  daily  becoming  of  less  conse- 
quence in  tlie  esdmation  of  the  people  as 
well  as  of  the  government  Many  of  the 
great  dignitaries,  however,  are  very  rich. 
Next  to  tlie  ecclesiastical  principalities  of 
Germany,  the  richest  Catholic  prelacies 
are  found  in  Spain.  The  archbishoprics 
of  Toledo,  Seville,  Santiago,  Valenria  and 
Saragossa  have  larger  revenues  than  any 
in  France,  or  any  other  country.  Some 
of  the  bishops  and  other  dignitaries,  also, 
have  very  considerable  incomes.  The 
bishop  of  Murcia  receives  annually  about 
£20,833  sterling,  and  the  bishop  of  Lerida 
£10,000.  The  possessions  of  some  of  the 
monasteries,  particulariy  some  of  the  Car- 
thusians ana  lerony mites,  include  the 
greatest  part  of  the  district  in  which  tliey 
are  situated.  These  religious  foundadons, 
while  they  depopulate  and  impoverish  the 
neighboring  country,  increase  poverty  and 
idleness  by  indiscriminate  charity. 

Latin  Catholie  Church  in  Hungary, 

Hearers, 4,000,000 

Places  of  wonhip, 3J230 


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988 


ECCLESIASTICAL  ESTABUSHMENTa 


Average  number  of  penons  to  a 
place  of  worahip, 1,240 

deraymen^ 5,469 

o  archbubops,  18  bishops,  16  titular  bish- 
ops, 274  prebendaries  and  canons,  6158 
working  clei^. 

Average  number  of  clei^men  to 

a  place  of  worship, 1| 

or  five  clergymen  to  three  places  of 
worship. 
ATerajTO  number  of  clergymen  to 

1000  persons, 1) 

Income, £314,214 

37  archbishops  and  bishops, ....  96,000 
274  prebends  and  canons, 58,000 

£154,000 

4,000,000  of  hearers,  at  £80,000 
per  miUion  of  hearers^  ....  £320,000 

This  is,  perhaps,  the  greatest  mstance  on 
the  continent  or  Europe  of  the  abuse  of 
church  property:  311  comparatively  idle 
churchmen  possess  themselves  of  nearly  as 
much  income  as  5158  workinr  clergymen, 
who,  with  scanty  means  of  eiastence,  labor 
in  the  ministry,  and  are  the  real  spiritual 
pastors  of  the  people,  llie  richest  benefices 
are  considered  a  provision  for  members  of 
the  sreat  families  or  Hiuigar}'.  Any  benefice 
producing  more  than  £15W0  a  ^ear,  pays  the 
surplus  to  the  fund  for  the  worlung  cleigy. 

CtihinMe  Comtek  qfHungay. 

Hearera, 1,050,000 

Places  of  worship, 1^1 

Clergymen, 1^ 

One  place   of  worship    for   every   750 

people. 
One  clergyman  for  every  place  of  wor- 
ship. 
Income— 1383  clergymen,  aver- 
ts £44  each, £60,896 

1,050,000  hearera,  at  £60,000  per 
million  of  hearera^ £63^000 

Lidkeran  Church  of  Hungwy, 

Hearers, 650,000 

Places  of  worship, 448 

Clergymen, 456 

One  place  of  worship    for   every  1500 

persons. 
One  clergyman  for  every  place  of  wor- 
ship* 
Income, £25,080 

Highest  sUpend,  £8&-«verage,  £55  for 
466  persons. 

650,000  hearera,  at  £40,000  per 
million  of  hearers, £96,000 

EttimaUd  Expenditurt  on  tte  Clergy  m 

Bahf, 
,  Heaien,  .  .  : 19,391,900 


The  Italians  are  all  Roman  Catholics. 
According  to  a  publication  called  Protpetto 
geograpfttco  ttatistico  degli  8iaH  Burapa, 
printedat  Blilan,  1820,  they  are  distributed 
as  follows : 
Kingdom  of  Sardinia,  (of  which  the 

jsland  520  900)^ 3,985/100 

Lombardo-Venetiau  kingdom,  sub- 
ject to  Austria,  .  .  .  T 4,I]7/)00 

Duchy  of  Parma, 590,000 

Dochy  of  Modena  (Reggio  and  Mi- 

randola), 360,000 

Duchy  of  Massa  and  Carrara,  .  .  .    30,000 

Duchy  of  Lucca, 127,000 

Grand  duchy  of  Tuscany,    ....  1,198,000 

States  of  the  Church, 2,490,000 

Republic  of  San  Marino, 7/)00 

K'mgdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  or 

Naples,    7,576,000 

(Of  which  the  island  of  Sicily 

1,660,000).  

19,391,900 
Malta,     104,600 
Corsica,  180,000 

284,600  Italians,  but  detached 
from  Italy. 

Places  of  worship, 16,170 

Clergymen, 20,400 

Estimated  at  one  working  dei^gyman  for 
every  1000  persons    (beinr   more  than  in 
France,  and  less  than  in  Spain),  and  1000 
dignitaries,  as  follows : 
1  pope, 
46  caramals, 
9a  ..w.kk;«k«^    f  Estimated  at  one  pre- 

853  other  dignitaries, 
19,400  working  clergymen. 

20,400 

One  clergyman  for  every  950  persons. 
One   place   of  wocship  for  eveiy  120O 

persons. 
Income, £776,000 

Being  at  the  rate  of  £40,000  per  million 
of  hearers. 

19,991,200  hearers,  at  £40,000 
per  million  of  hearers,  ....  £776,000 
This  table  is  taken  from  Remarks  oa 
the  Consumption  of  tlie  public  Wealth, 
by  the  Clergy  of  every  Nation,  &c.  (Lon- 
don, 1822),  and  is  said  to  have  been  framed 
with  the  assistance  of  a  gentleman  who 
had  resided  a  coiisiderame  time  in  the 
great  cities  of  Italy,  particularly  in  Rome, 
and  had  given  much  attention  to  the  sub- 
ject 

The  following  statements  respMBctiDg 
Russia  are  taken  from  the  Slaiistume  d 
Mneraire  de  la  RxusU^  par  J.  H.  SchnttZ' 
Ur,  Pans  and  St  Petersburg,  1829.  The 
population  is  estimated  at  55,000,000, 
The  cler^  of  Russia  may  be  estimated  at 
230,000  mdividuals  in  actual  sen-ice,  of 
whom  the  cities  comprise  about  60,000; 
over  190,000  bek)ng  to  the  orthodox  Greek 


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ECCLE9USTICAL  ESTABLISHMENTS. 


d8D 


church,  inclusiTe  of  the  lay  brothers,  the 
choristers,  &c ;  the  Catholic  clergy 
amount  to  more  than  30,000 ;  the  Protest- 
ant clergy  do  not  exceed  1000,  and  there 
«re  over  9000  MoUahs.  These  are  all  al- 
lowed to  many,  except  the  Catholics. 
Nearly  200,000  are  fathers  of  families,  and 
the  total  number  of  persons  connected 
with  the  clergy  may  be  computed  at 
900,000.  Their  condition  differs  accord- 
ing to  their  rank :  the  metropolitans,  the 
archbishops,  Inshops,  and  the  archiman- 
drites are  rich;  but  the  great  mass  of 
the  clei^  is  poorly  provided  for.  The 
monks  are  numerous,  and  are  supported 
at  the  expense  of  the  state;  but  their 
wants  are  few,  and  their  manner  of  living 
extremely  simple.  The  secular  clergy, 
which  is  under  the  superintendence  of 
the  bishops,  is  divided  into  protohiereis  or 
archpriests,  kUreiB  or  priests  (popes],  and 
deacons.  The  regular  clergy,  which  is 
also  called  the  black  der^  (tchomoie 
doukhoverutro)  comprises  the  archiman- 
drites^ the  igoianeiun  or  priors,  the  ^gtm- 
menm  or  abbesses,  the  monks  (monacki), 
and  nuns  (monachini),  and  the  hermits 
{vmutynmkt^  The  bishops  are  taken 
Irom  the  re^kur  clergy,  and  any  priest, 
who  desires  to  remain  attached  to  the 
ecclesiastical  order  afler  the  death  of 
his  wife,  must  enter  that  body,  and  is  then 
called  a  Jdero-monk.  The  revenues  of 
the  clergy  consisted  originally  of  tithes; 
but,  after  it  had  come  into  poascomon  of 
lai^  landed  estates,  cultivated  by  boors, 
its  support  was  derived  partly  fiom  their 
produce,  and  partly  from  the  raskol' 
wUekn-prikaze^  or  tax  paid  by  dissidents 
for  the  privilege  of  wearing  the  beard. 
The  management  of  the  revenues  was 
in  the  hands  of  the  patriarch,  until 
Catharine  I  established  a  coomiission  for 
the  purpose,  which  was,  however,  sup- 
pressed in  1742.  The  holv  synod  was 
then  intrusted  with  their  administration; 
and  it  appears,  from  an  enumeration  made 
by  order  of  the  empress  Elizabeth,  in 
1746,  that  839,546  male  boors  were  at- 
tached to  the  estates  of  the  clergy.  These 
estates  were  secularized  by  Peter  III,  in 
1762,  who  appointed  a  new  commission 
for  their  management  Catharine  II  be- 
pn  by  abolishing  this  board,  and  improv- 
mg  the  condition  of  the  clergy.  In  1764, 
she  secularized  all  the  ecclesiastical  posses- 
sions, reestablished  the  commission,  and 
assiffned  a  fixed  revenue  to  the  members 
of  the  clergy.  The  chambers  of  account, 
in  the  capitals  of  the  goverrnnents,  are  now 
invested  with  the  administratioh  of  these 
estates,  the  annual  revenue  of  which  is 
33» 


estimated  at  250,000  silver  rubles,  which 
is  expended  in  paying  the  salaries  of  the 
clergy.  Notwithstanding  this  seizure  of 
their  domains,  the  clergy  have  still  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  land  connected  with 
the  convents,  or  with  the  church,  but 
there  are  no  boors  attached. 

Ckurch  or  Kirk  of  Scotland. 

The  established  relig^ion  in  Scotland  is  the 
Presbyterian  or  Calvinistic  sect,  and  is  de- 
nominated the  kirk  of  Scotland. 

Hearers, 1,500,000 

According  to  sir  John   Sinclair,  in    1814, 

there  were  in  Scotland, 
Hearers  of  the  established  Presby- 
terian church,     1,407,584 

Dissenting  Presbyterians. 256,000 

Baptists.  Bereans,  Glassites,    ....  50,000 

Scotch  Episcopalians, ^,000 

Church  of  England, 4,000 

Roman  Cathofics, 50,000 

MeUiodists, 9,000 

Quakers, 300 

Total, ],8(H,824 

The  ijopulation  havine  increased  to 
2,000,000,  the  hearers  or  the  established 
church  may  be  estimated  at  1,500/)00  (in 

1822). 

Places  of  worship, 1,000 

One    place    of  worship  for  every  1,500 
persona^ 

Clergymen, 1,000 

Aven^;e  number  of  clei^men 

for  a  place  of  worship, 1 

Average  number  of  clergymen 

for  1500  persons, 1 

Income, £206^60 

Betnran  average  of  £230  for  938  clergy- 
men. Their  stipend  can  in  no  case  be  under 
£150:  it  averages  much  more;  and  then 
they  are  provided  Mrith  a  manse,  or  dwelling- 
house,  and  a  glebe  of  land. 

1,500,000  hearers,  at   £ia'>,000 . 

per  million  hearers, £202,500 

The  revenue  of  the  Scotch  clei^,  ac- 
cording to  the  Remarksj  is  derived  from  a 
chaive  on  the  rents  of  land,  paid  by  the 
landlord  throughout  Scotland.  It  is  a 
moderate  char^  amounting  to  about 
ninepence  sterlmg  an  acre  on  lands  in, 
cultivation,  and,  alUiough  it  is  called  teinds 
or  tithe,  does  not  amount  nearly'  to  the 
tithe  in  England.  An  estate  in  Scotland 
pays  £30  on  800  statute  English  acres, 
while  the  same  sum  of  £30  is  in  some, 
cases  paid  by  an  estate  of  80  acres  in 
England 

Tlie  average  ^Ttmber  of  Peopk  for  whom 
there  is  a  ChurcL 

In  France, 1,150 

In  Scotland, 1,500 

In  Spain, 1,000 

Digitized  by  LjOOQ IC 


390 


ECCLESIASTICAL  ESTABLISHMENTS. 


In  Portugal, 1,000 

In  Hungaiy,  Catholics, 1,^0 

In     do.        Calvinists,   ...«..•.  750 
In     do.        Lutherans, 1,500 

The  average  Munber  of  Persona  for  tekom 
there  is  a  Clergyman  proviaecL 

In  France, 1,150 

In  Scotland, 1,500 

In  Spain, 700 

In  Portugal, ^  .  700 

In  Hungary,  Catholics, 790 

In     do.        Cafvinists, 750 

In     do.        Lutherans, 1,500 

There  ere  in  Fraoce  about  9000  clergy- 
men generally  en^^aged  in  tuition,  who  have 
not  employments  m  the  church,  but  who  ren* 
der  occasional  and  regular  aid  to  the  minis- 
ters of  the  churches ;  £ey  are  the  remnants 
of  the  times  before  the  revolution;  their 
number  is  diminishing  fast,  and  is  not  renew- 
ed. Taking  these  mto  consideration,  there 
is  in  France  one  clergyman  for  every  830 
persons. 

The  following  estimates  are  taken  from 
the  Remarks  above  quoted,  as  are  also  the 
preceding  respecting  Scotland,  &c 

Estimated  Expenditure  an  the  Clergy  of 

(he  Establtshed  Church  of  England. 

In  Engi^nd  and  Wales. 

Hearen, 6,000,000 

The  whole  population  is  12,000,000 ;  if  one 
half  are  hearers  of  the  establishment,  it  is 
certainly  the  outside. 

Places  of  worship, 11,743 

Clergymen,    18,000 

Archbishops, S 

Bishops, 24 

Archdeacons, :  .  .  60 

Deans, 27 

Canons  and  prebends, 644 

IMgnitaries,     6d7 

Working  clergy,  rectors,  vicars,  cu- 
rates, and  chaplains, 17,343 

One  place  of  worship  for  every  500  hear- 
ers. 

One  clergyman  for  eveiy  333  hearers. 

One  archbishop  for  every  3,000,000 
hearers. 

One  prelate  for  every  233,000  hearers. 

Income, £^,600,000 

6^000,000      of     hearers,      at 
£1,266,000  per  million,  .  .  .  7,596*000 

EsHmaUd  Expenditwre  on  the  Clergy  of  Vie 
Established  Church  of  England  and 
Ireland, 

In  Ikblaiid. 

Hearers, 400,000 

According  to  the  populartion  retom, 
there  are  in  Iralaad  6,846>00D 
people  i  say 7,000/)00 


The  following  is  deemed  their  distribotioa 
into  sects : 

Roman  Catholics, d^JOOO 

Presbyterians, 800,000 

Churdi  of  England  and  Ireland,  .  .  400/)00 
Methodists  and  other  sects, dOO^lBOO 

Places  of  worship, 740 

Clergymen, « 1,700 

Archbishops, ^ 4 

Bishops, 18 

Deans, 33 

Archdeacons, % 34 

Canons,  prebends,  dte 500 

Dignitaries. SB7 

Working  clergy, 1,113 

(For  Tull  particulars,    see    EccUsiastical 
Register,  printed  by  Nolan,  Dublin.) 

One  place  of  worship  for  every  540  hear* 

era. 
One  clerg3aDan  for  every  235  hearers. 
One  archbishop  for  every  100,000  heareiB. 
One  prelate  for  eveiy  18,000  bearers. 

Income, £1,300,000 

400,000  hearera,  at  £3,250,000 

per  million  of  hearers, .  .  .  £1,300,000. 

Estimated  EmendUurt  on  ihar  own  CZer- 
gy^  by  the  People  who  are  not  hearers  of 
tfe  Established  C^rch. 

In  Ehgjlaio)  aivd  Wai.bs. 

Hearers, 6,000,000 

Places  of  worship, 8,000 

Clergymen, 8,000 

One  place  of  woi^hip  to  750  hearefs. 

One  clergyman  to  750  hearers. 

Income, £500,000 

Voluntary  contributions  at  an  arenge  rate 
of  £65  for  each  clergyman. 

6,000,000  of  hearers,  at  £85,000 
per  million, £510,000 

Estimated  Expenditure  on  the  Clergy  of 
that  Part  of  the  People  whose  Mmsters 
do  not  recewe  SHpenasfrom  the  KSHL 
In  Scotland. 

Hearers, 500,000 

(See  the  numbers  of  each  sect  in  the  table 
of  the  Scotch  kiri(.) 

Places  of  worship, .  3S3 

At  an  average  of  one  place  of  worabip  for 
every  1500  persons,  as  in  the  kirk. 

Clergymen, 400 

At  an  average  of  six  deigymea  to  five 
places  of  worship. 

Incx>me, £44,000 

Voluntary  contributions  at  an  average  of 
£110  each,  to  400  clergymen. 

A  jA&ce  of  worship  to  every  1500  hearen 
A  clergyman  to  every  1250  hearers. 
500,000  hearers,  at  £90,000  per 
mtllioD, £45^ 


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ECCLESIASTICAL  ESTABUSHMENT9— ECHELON. 


991 


JEihmaUd  ExpmdUwrt  en  their  awn  CUt' 
fyhyihe  pemde  of  hrdand  uho  art  not 
'  the  EMdihed  Church. 

Heaien, 6^600^000 

Compatad  as  foUcmt : 

Catholics, bJBOOflOO 

Presbyterians, 800,000 

Methodists,  aad  other  sects,    ....  200/000 

Places  of  worehip, 2378 

Clergymen, 2378 

One  place  of  worship  for  eveiy   2400 

hearers. 
One  clergyman  for  eveiy  2400  hearers, 

Income, £261,580 

Voluntary  contribution,  at  an  average  of 

£110  each,  for  2378  clei^gymen. 

6^600,000  hearers,  at  £40,000  per 
million  of  hearers, £264,000 


Govemmeni  grant,  yearly,  the  sum  of 
£13,487  to  certain  Protestant  ministers,  viz. 
to  Presbyterians,  £8,697 }  to  seceding  Pres- 
byterians, £4,034 :  to  other  Protestant  dis- 
'B,£736. 


To  theie  tables  sueceeil,  in  the  Re- 
marks abovementioned,  comparative  ta- 
bles, showing  in  one  view  the  expense 
of  supporting  the  ecclesiastical  establish- 
ments in  all  the  countries  of  Europe  and 
America.  These  latter,  it  must  be  recol- 
lected, .were  drawn  up  during  the  sboit 
swav  of  the  consdmtional  govemmenti  in 
Spain  and  Portugal,  when  the  expense  of 
the  church  in  these  countries  was  great- 
ly reduced.  The  following  comparison, 
therefore,  is  true  only  of  that  time : — 


ChriHictns  thnm^hind  the  World, 

Boman  Catholics.  Protestants.  Greek  Church 

In  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 5,800,000         15,200,000 

In  aU  the  rest  of  the  worid, 118ffl2,060         38,856,000         41,500,000 

Total, 124,672,000         54/)56,000         41,500,000 


Catholics, 124,672,000 

Protestants, 54,056,000 

Greek  Church, 41,500,000 

Total  of  Christians, 


Pay  to  their  cleigy, £6,106,000 

«  11,906,000 

«  760,000 


220,228,000  <"  £18,772,000 

Of  which  England,  for  21  millions,  pays  more  than  half  (as  tfam^  then  stood).    The 
restriction  in  me  preceding  paragraph  applies  to  a  similar  estimate  jn  our  article  CAmtcA* 


ECCLESIASTICAI.  HiSTORT.    (SoO  CAfis- 

fjdmiy. 

EccLBsiASTiCAi.  States.  (SeeCfturc^ 
SUda  of  the;  also  Cwi(if  P<^) 

EcHALOTE  {aUiumascahmeum) ;  a  kind 
of  onion,  a  native  of  Syria,  which  has 
been  cultivated  in  Europe  for  some  een- 
turies.  The  leaves  are  radical,  awl-shaped 
and  hollow;  the  stem  naked, 6  to 8 incMe 
iugh,  tnrnmated  by  a  globose  umbel  of 
purplish  flowers.  The  roots  are  pungent, 
tiut  have  an  ameabie  taste,  and  are  gene- 
ndly  preforred  to  the  onion  for  various 
purposes  of  cookery. 

EcHARn,  Lawrence ;  an  English  divine 
and  historian  of  the  last  century.  He  vrss 
bom  in  Suffolk  in  1671,  and  smdied  at 
Cambridge.  He  died  m  1790.  Among 
his  wottur  are.  The  Roman  History,  3 
vols.  8va ;  A  General  Ecclesiastical  His- 
toiT,  2  vols.  8vo.;  both  works  extending 
only  to  the  ageof  Constantine ;  A  History 
of  England  to  the  Revolution,  3  vols,  folio ; 
The  Gazetteer^  or  Newsman's  Interpreter. 

EcHSA  (hc^  from  hc^i  I  soimd),  in 
ancient  architectuie ;  the  name  which  the 
ancients  gave  to  the  sonorous  vases  of 
bronze  or  earth,  of  a  beU-like  shape, 
which  they  used*  in  the  construction  of 
their  theatres,  to  give  greater  power  to  the 
Toicea  of  their  aetoiSL    The  nae  of  these 


vases  vras  jnoportioned  to  the  magnitude 
of  the  buuding,  and  their  confonnatio& 
such,  that  they  returned  all  the  conconk 
from  the  fourth  and  fifth  to  the  double  oc- 
tave.  They  were  arranged  between  the 
seats  of  the  theatres  in  niches  made  for 
the  purpose ;  the  particularB  of  which  are. 
descaribed  in  the  fifth  book  of  Vitruviua. 
According  to  ^up  ancient  author,  sueh 
vases  were  inserted  in  the  theatre  at  Cor- 
inth, from  whence  Lucius  Mummitns  at 
the  taking  of  that  city,  transported  them 
to  Rome*  It  would  appear  that  sgrnyu* 
means  have  been  employed  in  some  of  the 
Gothic  cathedrals,  to  assist  the  voices  of  the 
priests  and  choristers;  for  in  the  choir 
of  that  at  Strasburg,  formeriy  belonging 
to  a  monastery  of  Dominicans,  professor 
Oberlin  discovered  similar  vases  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  vaulted  ceilings.  The 
student  is  refened  to  BCr.  Wilkin's  tran»> 
lation  of  Vitnivius  for  further  speculations 
on  this  curious  mode  of  construction. 

EcBXLOTf  {Ermch ;  a  ladder  or  stairway); 
used  in  military  language.  A  battalion^ 
rwiment,  &C.,  marches  en  ^Monj  or  par 
ithdon^  if  the  divisions  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed do  not  nuuvh  in  one  line,  but  on 
parallel  lines.  The  divisions  are  not  ex- 
actly behind  each  other,  but  each  is  to  the 


393 


ECHELON— ECHINUa 


to  give  the  whole  ihit  appearance  of  a 
stairway.  This  order  is  used  if  the  com- 
mander wishes  to  biing  one  part  of  a  mass 
sooner  into  action,  and  to  resenre  the 
other.  If  the  divisions  of  the  ichdon  are 
battalions,  these  ore  generally  from  100  to 
200  steps  from  each  other. 

EcHENEis ;  the  remora,  in  natural  histo- 
ry, a  senus  of  fishes  of  the  order  tharac" 
icu  Generic  character:  head  fiiniished 
on  the  top  with  a  flat»  oval,  transversely 
grooved  shield ;  gill-membrane,  with  ten 
rays,  according  to  Omelin,  and  six,  ac- 
cording to  Shaw ;  body  not  scaled.  There 
are  three  qiecies.  The  echineis  remora,  or 
Mediterranean  remora,  is  of  the  leugtli  of 
from  12  to  18  inches.  Among  the  an- 
cients, its  peculiarity  of  structure  and  hab- 
its was  connected  with  the  most  incredi- 
ble and  marvellous  circumstances,  which 
are,  however  detailed  with  all  possible 
gravi^  and  faith,  by  their  most  profound 
naturalists.  Pliny  states,  that  the  force  of 
the  tide,  the  current  and  the  tempest,  join- 
ing in  one  grand  impulse  with  oars  and 
sauB,  to  urse  a  ship  onwards  in  one  di- 
rection, is  cnecked  by  the  operation  of  one 
small  fish,  called  remora  by  the  Roman 
authors,  which  counteracts  this  apparent- 
ly irresistible  accumulation  of  power,  and 
compels  the  vessel  to  remain  motionless 
in  tlie  midst  of  the  ocean.  He  credits 
the  prevailing  report,  that  Antony's  ship, 
in  the  battle  of  Aciium,  was  kept  motion- 
less by  the  exertion  of  the  remora,  not^ 
withstanding  the  efforts  of  several  hun-^ 
dred  sailon ;  and  that  the  vessel  of  Calig- 
ula was  detained  between  Astura  and 
Antium  by  another  of  these  fish  found 
sticking  to  the  helm,  and  whose  sohtaiy 
efibrts  could  not  be  countervailed  hv  a 
crew  of  400  able  seamen,  till  several  of 
the  latter,  on  examining  into  the  cause  of 
the  detention,  perceived  the  impediment, 
and  detached  the  remora  fiom  its  hold. — 
The  emperor,  he  adds,  was  not  a  little  as- 
tonished, that  the  fish  should  hold  the  ship 
so  ftst  in  the  water,  and,  when  brought 
upon  deck,  appear  to  possess  no  power  of 
detention  over  it  whatever.  This  confid- 
ing naturalist  expresses  himself  as  perfect- 
ly convinced  that  all  fishes  possess  a  simi- 
lar power,  and  states,  as  a  notorious  ex- 
ample, the  detention  of  Periander's  ship 
by  a  porcellane,  near  the  cape  of  Glides. 
Quitting,  however,  the  ikbles  of  antiqui- 
ty, it  may  be  observed,  that  the  fins  of  the 
remora  are  fjarticulariy  weak,  and  thus 
prevent  its  swimming  to  any  considerable 
distance,  on  which  account  it  attaches'  it- 
self to  various  bodies,  inanimate  orfiving, 
being  found  not  only  fastened  to  ships, 
btt  i»  whales^  sharks,  and  other  fishes  f. 


and  with  such  extreme  tenacity  is  this 
hold  maintained,  that,  unless  the  effort  of 
separation  be  applied  in  a  particular  direc- 
tion, it  is  impossible  to  effect  the  disunion 
vnthout  the  destruction  of  the  fish  itself. 
As  the  remora  is  extremely  voracious,  and 
fiu*  from  fastidious  in  its  food,  it  may  at- 
tach itsdf  to  vessels  and  lai^  fish  with 
a  view  to  secure  subsistence.  This  fish 
will  oflen  adhere  to  rocks,  and  particular- 
ly in  boisterous  and  tempestuous  weather. 
The  apparatus  for  accomnlishing  this  ad- 
hesion consists  of  an  ovaJ  area  on  the  top 
of  the  head,  travened  by  numerous  dis- 
sepiments^ each  of  which  is  fringed  at  the 
edge  by  a  row  of  very  numerous  perpen- 
dicular teeth,  or  filaments,  while  tlie  whole 
oval  space  is  strengthened  by  a  longitudi- 
nal septum^  It  is  reported  by  some  au- 
thors, that,  in  the  Mozambique  channel,  a 
species  of  remora  is  employed  by  the  na- 
tives of  the  coast  in  their  pursuit  of  turtles 
vnth  mat  success.  A  nng  is  fixed  near 
the  tan  of  the  remora,  wim  a  long  cord 
attached  to  it,  sad,  when  the  boat  has  ar- 
rived as  neai^  as  it  well  can  to  the  turtle, 
sleeping  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  the 
remora  is  dismissed,  and  immediatelv  pro- 
ceeds towards  the  turtle,  which  it  fastens 
on  so  firmly,  that  both  are  drawn  into  the 
jDoat  with  great  ease. 

Echinus,  or  Sea  Ego;  a  marine  ani- 
mal, inhabiting  the  seas  of  most  coun- 
tries, and  subject  to  great  variety  in  the 
species.  Eehxmu  eKvlentutj  the  edible 
B>^  egg)  19  common  on  the  coast  of  Eu- 
rope, and  is  esteemed  as  an  ardcle  of  food. 
In  eystemadc  arrancements,  the  genua 
echinus  of  Linneus  has  been  muoi  di- 
vided, and  is  at  present  restricted  to  those 
species  which  have  an  orbicular,  oral  or 
globular  body,  covered  with  spines,  artic- 
ulated on  imperforate  tubercles^  These 
spines  are  veiy  slightly  attached,  and  fall 
off  the  dead  animal  on  the  least  friction ; 
in  consequence,  the  spedmena  which 
commonly  come  under  observation  are 
deprived  of  them  entirely.  Five  ranges 
of  pores  diverge  from  the  summit,  and  tend 
to  the  centre  beneath,  dividing  the  shell 
into  well  marked  sections.  The  mouth  is 
situated  on  the  inferior  surface,  in  the  cen- 
tre, and  is  armed  with  five  osseous  pieeea. 
or  plates ;  anus  superior.  Many  sjpecies 
are  ornamented  with  a  profusion  or  long 
and  pointed  spines,  while  in  others,  they 
are  quite  short  It  is  bv  means  of  these 
spines  that  the  animals  change  thenr  posi- 
tion, and  move  from  place  to  place.  The 
apparatus  of  the  mouth  is  provided  with 
strong  muscles,  and  is  well  caksulated  for 
cru^mff  the  hard  portions  of  the  animal^a 
food,    ui  the  Mme  eqpecies  the  coloni  va- 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ IC 


ECHIMUS— fiCKHUHL. 


1^  conndemUy,  the  trails  chanffi&g^how- 
ever,  on  the  death  of  the  asimaL  jBchini 
are  said  to  retreat  to  deep  water  on  the 
approach  of  a  storm,  and  preserve  them- 
selves from  injury  hy  attaching  them- 
selves to  submarine  bodies.  E.  fndo  is 
perhaps  the  largest  species  known,  and  is 
feund  not  uncommonly  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean. Many  iine  species  have  been  dis- 
covered in  a  fossil  state  imbedded  in 
chalk,  &c.,  m  beautiful  preservation.  Up- 
on the  coast  of  the  U.  States,  several  spe- 
cies of  recent  echini  are  found,  and  some 
also  occur  in  the  fossil  localities.  The  spe- 
cies constituting  tho  genus  have  not  been 
well  determined. 

Echo  ;  daughter  of  the  Air  and  TeHus ; 
a  nymph,  who,  according  to  fable,  was 
clianged  by  Juno  into  a  rock,  because  her 
loquacity  prevented  Juno  from  listening 
to  the  conversation  of  Jupiter  with  the 
ny ihpbs.  The  use  of  her  voice,  however, 
was  left  her  so  iar  as  to  be  able  to  repeat 
the  last  word  ^^ich  she  heard  from  o^- 
ers.  Another  account  is,  that  Echo  fell 
in  k)ve  with  Narcissus,  and,  because  he  did 
not  reciprocate  her  afiection,  she  pined 
away,  undl  nothing  was  left  but  her  voice. 

Echo.  When  sound  strikes  against  a 
distant  hard  surface,  it  is  reflect,  and 
heard  again  after  a  short  space ;  this  rep- 
etition is  called  echo.  If  the  sound  is  re- 
peated several  times,  which  is  the  case 
when  it  strike  against  objects  at  different 
distances,  many  echoes  are  heard.  This 
phenomenon  is  not  caused  by  a  mere  re- 
pulaon  of  the  sonorous  particles  of  air, 
for  then  every  hard  surface  wouki  pro- 
duce an  echo  ;  but  it  probably  requires  a 
decree  of  concavity  in  the  repelling  body, 
which  collects  several  diverging  fines  of 
sound,  and  concentrates  them  in  the  place 
where  the  echo  Is  audible,  or,  at  least,  re- 
flects them  m  parallel  hues,  without  weak- 
ening the  sound,  as  a  concave  mirror  col- 
lects in  a  focus  the  divei^ging  rays  of  light, 
or  sometimes  sends  them  back  parallel. — 
Still,  however,  the  theory  of  the  repulsion 
of  sound  is  not  distinctly  settled,  proba- 
bly because  the  nature  of  reflecting  sur^ 
faces  is  not  sufficientlv  known.  The  re- 
flecting surface  must  be  at  a  certain  dis- 
tance, in  order  that  the  echo  may  come  to 
the  ear  after  the  sound,  and  be  distinctly 
separated  fiom  it  Observation  proves 
that  sound  travels  1142  feet  in  a  second ; 
consequently,  an  observer,  standing  at  half 
that  distance  ftt>m  the  reflecting  object, 
would  hear  the  echo  a  second  later  than 
the  sound.  Such  an  echo,  then-,  would 
repeat  as  manjr  words  and  Gr^llables  as 
could  be  heard  m  a  second.  •  This  is  catt- 


ed a  pobfsyOabie  echo.  If  tde  distanoe  is 
less,  the  echo  repeats  fower  syllables ;  if 
only  one  is  repeated,  then  the  echo  is 
monosyllabic  The  most  practised  6ar 
cannot  distinguish,  in  a  second,  more  than 
from  9  to  19  succesnve  syllables,  and,  for 
a  vumoayUabie  echo,  a  period  of  at  least 
half  a  second  is  reqimte.  Hence  we  see 
why  arched  walks  and  halls  echo,  without 
producing  a  elear  and  distinct  sound. — 
Some  of  the  walls  are  too  near ;  and  some 
form  an  uninterrupted  series  of  surfaces 
at  different  distances,  and  the  ear  is  not 
able  to  distinguish  the  original  sound  from 
the  fiist  echo,  nor  to  separate  the  numer- 
ous echoes  which  are  thus  confounded 
with  each  other.  On  the  contrary,  if  sei^ 
era!  reflecting  surfhces  are  atdiflferentdis^ 
tances,  each  of  them  may  produce  a  dis- 
tinct echo,  of  which  tlie  first  is  the  strong- 
est, because  the  othera  are  weakened  by  a 
longer  passii^  through  the  air.  As  the 
reflection  of  sound  depends  on  the  same 
laws  as  those  which  regulate  the  reflection 
of  Hght,  on  which  the  science  of  oalop-' 
tries  depends,  the  doctrine  of  echoes  is 
sometimes  called  the  catoptrics  qf  sound  f 
a  better  name  is  eatmhonies,  or  eakh 
coustics.  The  place  oi^he  sounding  body 
is  called  the  phonic  centrcy  and  the  re- 
flecting place  or  object,  the  phonoccm^tie 
centre.  The  roost  celebrated  echoes  are 
that  at  Rosneath,  in  Scotland,  and  that  of 
the  Villa  Vimourtia,near  Milan,  which  re- 
peats a  word  30  or  40  times. 

EcKHEL,  Joseph  Hilaiy,  a  learned  Jesu- 
it, who  distinguished  himself  greatly  by 
his  works  on  coins,  medals,  and  other  re- 
mains of  classical  antiquity.  He  was  bom 
at  Enzersfeld,  in  Austria,  in  1737.  Afier 
becoming  a  member  of  the  society  of  St 
Ignatius,  he  virns  appointed  keeper  of  the 
imperial  cabinet  or  medals,  and  professor 
of  arehseology  at  Vienna.  He  died  in 
1796.  Eckhel  may  be  regarded  as  the 
founder  of  the  science  of  numismatics, 
the  principles  of  which  ara  elaborately  de- 
veloped in  his  treatise  entitled  Doctrina 
JWimmorufn  Feterum,  8  vols,  folio,  finished 
in  1796.  He  also  pubUshed  catalogues  of 
the  ancient  coins  and  gems  in  the  impe^ 
rial  cabinet,  and  other  learned  treatises* 
His  first  work  was  ATwrnni  veteres  anecdth 
«t,177i 

EcKBfdHL ;  a  village  on  the  Labor,  in 
the  Bavarian  circle  or  the  Regen,  remark- 
able for  the  battle  of  April  23, 1809.  Aus- 
tria, encouraged  by  the  national  war, 
which  had  Ix^n  kindled  in  Spain  a^nst 
Napoleon^  entered  the  contest  without 
alliesy'but,  trusting  chiefly  to  England  and 
the  PortCy  with  an  energy  greater  thftn 


Digitized  by 


Lioogle 


394 


£CKMUHL. 


she  Jiad  ever  before  displayed  She  called 
out  all  her  regular  forces,  and  the  militia 
lately  organized  by  the  arch-duke  John ; 
the  arch-duke  Charles  commanded  in  the 
character  of  generalissimo.  While  count 
Stadion,  with  Gentz  and  others,  sum- 
moned the  Germans  to  arms  by  procla- 
mations, and  conducted  the  negotiations, 
the  army  was  destined  to  put  an  end  to 
tlie  confederation  of  the  Ilhine,  and  the 
power  of  France  in  Grermany,  Poland  and 
Italy,  and  to  restore  to  Austria  and  the 
German  empire  their  former  independent 
position  in  the  European  system.  Six 
corps  ^armtt^  under  the  arch-cfuke  Charles, 
with  two  bodies  of  resei-ve,  in  all  220,000 
men,  guarded  the  Iser  and  Munich  (April 
161  and  the  Danube  and  Ratisbon  (April 
20] ;  the  seventh  coips,  under  the  arch- 
duke Feidinand  of  Este,  96,000  strong, 
took  possession  of  the  duchy  of  Warsaw ; 
and  two  corps,  80,000  stronc,  under  the 
arch-duke  John,  menaced  Italy,  the  Tyrol 
having  already  (April  11)  taken  up  arms 
in  favor  of  Austria.'  Napoleon's  victory 
at  Eckmuhl  decided  the  campai^  of 
1809,  on  the  Danube,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Ratisbon,  and  compelled  Austria  to  give 
up  her  offensive  operations,  and  to  reas- 
Bume  the  disadvantageous  attitude  of  de- 
fensive war.  The  operations  on  the  Dan- 
ube, during  the  five  days  from  the  19th 
to  the  23d  of  Afnril,  cannot,  therefore,  be 
disconnected  fiK>m  the  important  battle  of 
EckmlihL  Napoleon  lefl  Paris,  April  13, 
and  promised  the  king  of  Bavaria,  at 
Dillingen,  on  the  16th,  to  restore  him  to 
his  capital  within  a  fortnight,  and  to  make 
him  more  powerful  than  any  of  his  an- 
cestors; on  the  18th,  his  head-quarters 
were  at  Ingolstadt  Here  he  detennined 
to  concentrate  the  difierent  corps  of  his 
army  commanded  by  Davoust,  Oudinot, 
and  Mass^na,  the  Bavarians  mider  the 
command  of  Lefebvre,  and  the  Wtirtem- 
berg  troops  under  Vandamme,  in  all 
200,000  men;  Poniatownki,  in  ex^iecta- 
tion  of  the  Russian  auxiliary  corps,  was 
chari^ed  vrith  the  defence  of  Warsaw; 
the  viceroy  Eugene,  slep-son  of  Napoleon, 
was  to  protect  Italy ;  and  marshal  Mar- 
mont,  Dalmatia.  Napoleon  himself  pre- 
pared for  tlie  attack.  For  this  purpose, 
Oudinot,  by  the  affair  at  Pfaffenhofen,  on 
the  19th  April,  effected  a  iunction  with 
Mass^na,  on  the  20th ;  at  the  same  time, 
Davoust,  who  advanced  from  Ratisbon, 
attacked  the  arch-duke  Louis  at  Tann  (a 
town  in  the  Bavarian  circle  of  the  lower 
Danube)  and  Rohr,  while  the  Bavarians, 
under  Lefebvre,  fell  upon  his  rear.  Da- 
voust, with  the  Bavarians,  then  joined  the 


main  army,  under  Napoleon,  who  now 
commenced  the  attack  in  person.  While 
Davoust  kept  in  check  three  corps  of  the 
Austrian  main  army,  under  the  arch-duke 
Charles,  Napoleon,  with  the  Bavarians 
and  Wtirtembergera,  and  the  French  corps 
under  Lannes  and  Mass^na,  fell  upon  the 
Austrian  left  wing,  consisting  of  about 
60,000  men,  under  the  arch-duke  Louis 
and  general  Hiller,  at  Abensberg  (near  Rat- 
isbon), on  the  20th,  who  were  thus  cut 
off  from  tlie  Danube  and  the  arch-duke 
Charles. '  Charles,  meanwhile,  had  taken 
possession  of  Ratisbon  on  the  20th,  formed 
a  junction  with  the  cor|)S  which  advanced 
from  the  upper  Palaunate,  stormed  the 
heights  of  Abbach,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Danube,  on  the  21st,  and  taken  position 
at  Eckmiihl,  which  conunands  the  com- 
munication with  Ratisbon.  Here,  having 
concentrated  four  corps,  he  menaced  the 
victor  of  Abensberg  in  his  rear,  and  hoped 
to  make  himself  master  of  the  road  to 
Donauwerth,  on  which  the  possession  of 
Bavaria  depended.  But  Davoust  and 
Lefebvre  held  him  in  check  on  the  21st, 
and,  on  the  22d,  Napoleon,  with  the  di- 
visions of  Lannes  and  Mass^na,  the  W(ur- 
tembergers  and  the  cuirassiers,  advanced 
from  I^dshut  to  the  Danube,  and  at- 
tacked the  arch-duke,  at  two  o'clock  in 
the  afternoon,  at  Eckmuhl,  where  the 
Bavarians  and  Davoust  were  already  en- 
gaged. This  movement  decided  the  con- 
test The  Wiirtembergers  took  the  village 
of  Burghaiisen ;  the  Bavarian  ^uenl 
Seidewitz,  with  two  Bavarian  reffiuients 
of  cavahy,  carried  an  Austrian  battery, 
which  commanded  the  road  from  Land- 
shut  to  Ratisbon;  Lannes  flanked  the 
Austrian  left,  whilst  Davoust,  Lefebvre 
and  Montbrun  attacked  them  in  front. 
The  Austrians  olistinately  defended  their 
second  position,  and  the  ^Yurtemberg  in- 
fantry took  the  village  of  Eckmuhl  by 
storm.  At  this  time,  the  French  cavalry 
broke  the  Austiian  lines,  on  the  plain  in 
the  rear  of  EckmuhL  The  Austrian  in- 
fantry, thus  taken  in  flank,  were  tlirown 
into  disorder,  and  the  arch-duke  Charles 
himself  was  saved  only  by  die  fleetness 
of  his  horse.  Thus,  about  110,000  Austri- 
an troo[is,  under  an  able  general,  covering 
a  position  of  12  miles  in  length,  were  at- 
tacked from  all  quarters  by  about  130,000 
French  and  Grermans,  extending  over  a 
line  of  29  miles,  were  outflanked  on  their 
left  wing,  and  totally  routed.  During  the 
night,  the  arch-duke  passed  the  Daimbe, 
and  attecDpted  to  cover  his  retreat  by  de- 
fendinff  Ratisbon,  which  was  indifiler- 
ently  S>rtified«    Napoleon  moved  on  like 


Digitized  by 


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ECKflfUHL— ECLIPSE. 


S» 


a  storm.  The  French  cuiiaanen  chased 
the  Austrian  cavalry,  destined  to  cover 
Ratisbon,  over  the  Danube.  The  French- 
Bavarian  artilleiy  made  a  breach  in  the 
walls,  the  French  infantiy,  headed  by 
Lannes,  fiirced  their  way  into  the  city, 
and,  afler  a  bloody  comliat  in  the  streets^ 
Napoleon  became  master'  of  Ratisbon. 
Napoleon  was  slightly  wounded  in  his 
foot  by  a  spent  musket-ball,  on  the  23d. 
His  bulletin  of  the  24th  announced  that 
the  fruits  of  the  five  days'  campaign,  of 
the  three  victories  at  Tann,  Abensbei]g 
and  Eckmfihl,  and  the  combats  at  Frei- 
sing,  Landshut,  and  Ratisbon,  were  100 
cannon,  40  stands  of  colors,  50,000  pris- 
onera,  3  pontons  and  3000  wagons ;  and 
added,  **  m  four  weeks,  we  shall  be  in 
Vienna.**  Davoust,  duke  of  Auerst&dt, 
received  the  title  of  prince  of  Eckm&hL 
The  same  day,  Napoleon  abolished  the 
Teutonic  order  in  all  the  states  of  the 
confederation  of  the  Rhine.  The  conser 
quences  of  the  battles  of  Eckmuhl  and 
Ratisbon  were  veir  important  The  Aus- 
trian general  Jellachich  was  obliged  to 
evacuate  Munich,  which  the  king  of  Ba- 
varia reentered  on  the  25th.  ThQ  Aus- 
trian main  army,  strengthened  by  ^  the 
com  of  Bellewde,  retired,  under  ifae 
arcn-duke  Chanes,  to  Budweis,  in  Bohe- 
mia, and  was  concentrated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Danube,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Bisamberg,  and  on  the  Marchfield,  ready 
for  the  more  famous  combats  at  As- 
pem  and  Wagram.  Charles,  however, 
was  not  able  to  save  Vienna.  Napoleon 
advanced  alouff  the  right  bank  of  the 
Danube^  notwimstanding  the  insurrection 
in  the  Tyrol,  and  passed  the  Inn.  On 
the  3d  of  Blay,  general  Hiller  made  an 
obstmate  resistance  at  Ebensberg,  with 
35,000  men,  but  was  compelled  to  retreat 
to  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube.  The 
French  passed  the  Ems,  and  advanced  to 
the  capital  of  Austria,  which  capitulated 
May  12.  On  the  13th,  Napoleon  fixed 
his  head-quarters  at  Schonbrunn.  May 
20,  Napoleon  crossed  to  the  left  bank,  and 
thus  brought  on  the  memorable  battles 
upon  the  Marchfield,  that  of  Aspem,  or 
E^ing,  and  that  of  Wagram.  This 
whole  campaign  is  highly  interesting  and 
instructive  to  a  military  man,  who  may 
derive  useful  lessons  fixim  the  conduct  of 
both  parties;  firom  that  of  Napoleon,  who 
fblk>wed  up  a  grand  plan  with  unprece- 
dented ability  and  spuit ;  and  from  that 
of  Charles,  who  displayed  great  military 
skill  in  his  manoduvres,  as  was  always 
acknowledged  faj  the  victois. 
EcutcTics  (mm  the  Greek  UXuruAst 


select,  from  ixMym,  to  select)  is  a  name 
given  to  all  those  philoeophera  who  do 
not  follow  one  ^stem  entirely,  but  select 
what  they  think  the  best  parts  of  all  svs- 
tems.  Their  philosophy  is  also  called  eefec- 
tie.  In  tlie  history  of  philosophy,  this 
tenn  is  chiefiy  applied  to  that  sect  of 
Greek  philosophers,  who  strove  to  unite 
and  reconcile  the  opinions  of  Pytliagoras^ 
Plato  and  Aristotle,  and  to  bring  them  into 
one  harmonious  system. 

Eclipse. 

An  Eclqfse  of  the  Moon  m  a  privation  of 
the  light  of  the  moon,  occasioned  by  an 
interpooition  of  the  earth  between  the  sun 
and  the  moon ;  consequently,  all  eclipses 
of  tlie  moon  happen  at  full  moon ;  for  it 
is  only  when  tlie  moon  is  in  opposition, 
that  it  can  come  within  the  earth's  shadow, 
which  must  always  be  on  that  side  of  the 
earth  which  is  from  the  sun.  The  earth 
being  in  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  the  cen- 
tre of  its  shadow  is  always  in  that  pkme ; 
i(  tlieretbre,  the  moon  be  in  its  nodes,  that 
is,  in  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  the  shadow 
of  the  earth  will  fall  upon  it  This  shad- 
ow, being  of  considerable  breadth,  is  partly 
above  and  partly  below  the  plane  of  the 
ecliptic ;  if,  therefore,  the  moon  in  oppo- 
sition be  so  near  one  of  its  nodes,  that  its 
latitude  is  less  than  half  the  breadth  of 
the  shadow,  it  will  be  eclipsed.  But,  be- 
cause the  plane  of  the  moon's  orlnt  nudces 
an  angle  of  more  than  five  degrees  with 
the  pluie  of  the  ecliptic,  it  will  frequently 
have  too  much  latitude,  at  its  opposition, 
to  allow  it  to  come  within  the  shadow  of 
the  earth. 

Jn  EcUpH  of  the  Sun  is  an  occultation 
of  part  of^the  face  of  the  sun,  occasioned 
by  an  interposition  of  the  moon  between 
the  earth  and  the  sun ;  thus  all  eclipses  of 
the  sun  happen  at  the  time  of  new  moon. 
The  dark  or  central  part  of  the  moon's 
shadow,  where  the  sun's  rays  are  wholly 
inlereepted,  is  called  the  tcm&ra,  and  the 
light  part,  where  only  a  part  of  them  are 
intercepted,  is  called  the  pemtmbra ;  and 
it  is  evident,  that  if  a  spectator  be  situated 
on  that  part  of  the  earth  where  the  umbm 
&lls,  tliere  will  be  a  total  eclipse  of  the 
sun  at  that  place ;  in  the  penumbra  there 
will  be  a  partial  eclipse,  and  beyond  the 
penmnbra,  there  will  be  no  ecbpee.  As 
the  earth  is  not  alwaya  at  the  same  dis- 
tance fit>m  the  moon,  if  an  eclipse  should 
happen  when  the  earth  is  so  ftr  from  the 
moon  that  the  rays  of  light  proceeding 
from  the  upper  and  lower  liinbs  of  the 
sun  cross  each  other  before  they  come  to 
the  earth,  a  spectator  situated  on  the  earth, 
m  a  duect  line  between  the  oentrea  of  th* 


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sun  and  moon,  would  see  a  ring  of  light 
lound  the  daik  body  of  the  moon ;  such 
an  eclipse  is  called  anmdar;  when  this 
happens,  there  can  be  no  total  eclipse  any 
where,  because  the  moon's  umbra  does 
not  reach  the  earth.  People  situated  in 
the  penumbra  will  perceive  a  partial 
eclipse ;  and  an  ecHpse  can  never  be  an- 
nular longer  than  12  minutes  24  seconds, 
nor  total  longer  than  7  minutes  58  sec- 
onds ;  nor  can  the  duration  of  an  eclipse 
of  the  sun  ever  exceed  4  hours,  29'  44". 

The  sun  being  larger  than  the  earth,  the 
earth's  shadow  is  a  cone,  whose  base  is  on 
the  surfiice  of  the  eaith,  and  the  moon  is 
eclipsed  by  a  section  of  the  eaith^i  shadow. 
If  tlie  earth  were  laiger  than,  or  equal  to, 
the  sun,  its  shadow  would  either  perpetu- 
ally enlaige,  or  be  always  of  the  same  di'^ 
mension;  but,  in  this  case,  the  superior 
planets  would  sometimes  come  within  it, 
and  be  eclipsed,  which  never  happens. 
Therefofe  the  sun  is  laner  than  the 
eaith,  and  produces  a  shadow  from  the 
earth  of  a  conical  form,  which  does  not 
extend  to  the  orbit  of  Mara.  An  eclipse 
of  the  moon  is  partiei  when  only  a  part 
of  its  disc  is  within  the  shadow  of  the 
earth;  it  is  totd  when  all  its  disc  is  with- 
in the  shadow;  and  it  is  cenbrtd  when 
the  centre  of  the  earth'b  shadow  fiiUs  upon 
the  centre  6f  the  moon^  disc  Now,  the 
Bearer  any  part  of  the  p^iumbra  is  to  the 
umbra,  the  leas  light  it  receives  from  the 
sun ;  and  as  the  moon  enten  the  penum- 
bra before  she  enten  the  umbra,  she  grad- 
ually loses  her  light,  and  appeara  less 
brilliant  The  duration  of  an  eclipse  of  the 
moon,  from  her  tint  touching  the  earth's 
penumbra  to  her  leaviue  it,  does  not  ex- 
ceed five  houra  and  a  half.  The  moon 
does  not  continue  in  the  earth's  umbra 
longer  than  three  houre  and  three  quar- 
tern in  any  eclipse,  neither  is  she  totally 
eclipsed  for  a  longer  period  than  one  hour 
and  three  quaiten.  As  the  moon  is  ae- 
Uially  deprived  of  her  light  during  an 
eclipse,  eveiy  inhabitant  upon  the  face  of 
the  earth,  who  sees  the  moon,  sees  the 
eclipse.  An  eclipse  of  the  sun,  as  we 
have  said,  hiqipens  when  the  moon,  pass- 
wg  between  the  sun  and  the  earth,  inter- 
cepts the  sun's  light;  and  the  sun  can  on- 
ly be  eclipsed  at  the  new  moon,  or  when 
the  moon,  at  its  conjunction,  is  in  or  near 
<me  of  its  nodes.  For,  unless  the  moon 
is  in  or  near  one  of  its  nodes,  it  cannot 
appear  in  or  near  the  same  plane  with 
the  sun ;  without  which  it  cannot  appear 
to  us  to  pass  over  the  disci  of  the  sun. 
At  eveiy  other  part  of  its  orbit,  it  win 
have  so  much  noitbem  or  amtheni  lati- 


tude, as  to  appear  above  or  below  the  son. 
If  the  moon  be  in  one  of  its  nodes,  having 
no  altitude,  it  will  cover  the  whole  disc 
of  the  sun,  and  produce  a  total  eclinae, 
except  when  its  apparent  diameter  is  leas 
than  that  of  the  sun ;  if  it  be  near  one  of 
its  nodes,  having  a  small  degree  of  latitude, 
it  will  only  pass  over  a  part  of  the  sun's 
disc,  or  produce  a  partial  eclipse.  In  a 
total  eclipse  of  the  sun,  the  shadow  or 
umbra  of^the  moon  fidls  upon  that  part  of 
the  earth  where  the  eclipse  is  seen,  and  a 
spectator,  placed  in  the  shadow,  wiU  not 
see  any  part  of  the  sun,  because  the  moon 
will  intercept  all  the  rays  of  light  coming 
directly  from  the  sun.  In  a  partial  eclipse 
of  the  sun,  a  penumbra,  or  imperfect  shad- 
ow of  the  moon,  falls  upon  that  part  of 
the  eaith  where  the  partial  eclipse  is  seen. 
Were  the  oriint  of  the  earth  and  that  of 
the  moon  both  in  the  same  plane,  there 
would  be  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  eveiy  new 
moon,  and  an  eclipse  of  the  moon  every 
ftill  moon*  But  the  orbit  of  the  moon 
makes  an  angle  of  five  degrees  and  a 
quarter  with  the  pJane  of  the  earths  orbit, 
and  crosses  it  in  two  points,  called  the 
nodes.  Astronomers  have  calculated,  that 
if  the  moon  be  less  than  17^  21'  from 
either  node,  at  the  time  of  new  moon,  the 
sun  may  be  eclipsed ;  or  if  less  than  IP  34' 
fit>m  either  node,  at  the  full  moon,  the 
moon  may  be  eclipsed ;  at  all  other  times 
there  can  be  no  eclipse,  for  the  shadow 
of  the  moon  will  fall  either  above  or  below 
the  earth  at  the  time  of  new  moon ;  and 
the  shadow  of  the  earth  wiO  ftll  either 
above  or  below  the  moon,  at  the  time  of 
fbll  moon.  An  eclipse  of  the  sun  begins 
on  the  western  side  of  his  disc,  and  ends 
on  the  eastern;  and  an  eclipse  of  the 
moon  begins  on  the  eastern  side  of  her 
disc,  and  ends  on  the  western.  Hie  avei^ 
age  numbei"  of  eclipses  in  a  year  is  four, 
two  of  Oiesun,  and  two  of  the  moon ;  ana 
as  the  sun  and  moon  are  as  long  below 
the  horizon  of  any  particular  place  as  tfae^ 
are  above  it^  the  averaffe  number  of  visi- 
ble eclipses  in  a  year  Is  two,  one  of  the 
sun  and  one  of  the  moon.  (See  AfironO' 
nofA 

Ecliptic;  the  sun^  path;  the  great 
eirele  of  the  celestial  sphere,  in  which  the 
sun  appeara  to  descrioe  his  annual  course 
from  west  to  east  The  Greeks  observed 
that  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon  took 
place  near  this  eirele ;  whence  they  called 
It  the  eei^fHcy  from  edynes.  By  a  little 
attention,  we  shall  see  tliat  the  sun  does 
not  always  rise  to  the  same  height  in  the 
meridian,  but  seems  to  revolve  roimd  the 
eaith  in  a  spnal  (see  1%).    We  likewiae 


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observe  ereiy  day,  at  its  rising  and  setting, 
new  stars  in  tlie  neighboriio^  of  the  sun. 
It  will  also  be  seen,  that  the  sun  is  in  the 
equator  twice  a  year;  about  March  22 
end  September  SO.  The  points  of  the 
equator,  at  which  the  sun  is  statiouaiy  on 
these  days,  are  at  tlie  intersection  of  t^e 
equator  with  the  ecliptic.  June  21,  the 
sun  reaches  its  greatest  height  in  the 
heavens ;  and  December  21,  it  descends 
the  lowest.  Because  the  sun  appears  to 
turn  back  at  these  points,  they  are  called 
the  tropics;  and  the  times  at  which  the 
turning  appears  to  commence  are  called 
Bolstices  (soUtUicLj  solis  stationes).  At  these 
points,  the  sun  has  attained  its  greatest 
distance  from  tlie  eauator.  Tiiese  four 
points,  the  equinoctial  and  solstitial  points, 
are  distant  firom  one  another  a  quaiter  of 
a  circle,  or  90  degrees.  Each  of  these 
quadrants,  or  quarters  of  a  circle,  is  di- 
vided into  3  equal  arcs  of  30  degrees : 
thus  the  whole  ecliptic  is  divided  into  12 
equal  arcs  or  signs:  these  receive  their 
names  from  certain  constellations  through 
which  the  ecliptic  passes,  and  which  ex- 
tend each  30  degrees.  The  constellations, 
or  12  celestial  signs,  succeed  one  another 
hi  the  following  order,  from  the  vernal 
equinQX,  reckoned  towards  the  east : 

<Y>  Aries,  March  20. 
ii  Taurus,  April  20. 
n  Gemini,  Alay  21. 
22  Cancer,  June  2L 

rtf^  Virgo,  August  23. 
£^  Libra,  September  23. 
TT(.  Scorpio,  October  23. 
f  Sagittarius,  November  22. 
\J  Capricomus,  December  21. 
or  Aquarius,  Januaiy  19. 
3C  Pisces,  February  18. 

The  days  of  the  month  annexed  show 
when  the  sun,  in  its  annual  revolution, 
enters  each  of  the  Signs  of  the  zodiac. 
The  30  degrees  in  every  sign  are  divided 
hslo  ntinutes  and  seconds,  not  reckoned 
separately,  but  after  the  signs.  An  arc  of 
the  ecliptic,  for  example,  of  97°  li/  27", 
reckoned  from  Aries,  eastward,  is  called 
3  mgns,  7°  IS'  27"  long,  or,  what  is  the 
same  thine,  it  terminates  in  7*  15^  27"  of 
Cancer.  In  this  way  the  longitude  of  the 
Stan  is  given.  The  ecliptic,  like  all  cir- 
cle has  two  poles,  which  move  about 
the  poles  of  tlie  earth  eveiy  24  hours, 
and  in  this  manner  describe  the  polar  cir- 
cles. What  appears  to  be  the  path  of  the 
sun,  however,  is,  in  reality,  the  path  of 
the  earth.  The  planets  and  the  moon 
devolve  in  d^erent  planes ;  but  these  are 
▼OL.  IV.  34 


inclined  at  only  a  veiy  small  angle  to  the 
plane  of  the  ecUptic ;  hence  these  bodies 
can  be  but  a  small  distance  from  the 
ecliptic  The  plane  of  the  ecliptic  is  very 
imt^ortant  in  theoretical  astronomy,  be- 
cause the  courses  of  all  the  other  planets 
are  projected  upon  it,  and  reckoned  by  it 
By  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  we  under- 
stand its  inclination  to  the  equator,  or  the 
angles  formed  by  the  planes  of  these  two 
great  circles.  This  angle  is  measured  by 
the  arc  of  a  third  great  circle,  drawn  so  as 
to  intersect  the  two  others  perpendicularly, 
in  tlie  points  at  which  they  are  farthest 
apart  These  points  of  intersection  are 
90  degrees  distant  from  those  points  at 
which  the  equator  and  ecliptic  intersect 
each  otlier,  i.  e.  the  solstitial  points.  The 
ancients  endeavored  to  measure  the  obli- 
quity of  the  ecliptic.  According  to  Pliny, 
it  was  first  determined  by  Anaxiuiander ; 
according  to  Gaasendl,  it  had  been  ascer- 
tained by  Thales.  The  most  celebrated 
measurement  of  this  obliquity  in  ancient 
times  was  made  by  Pytheas^  at  Marseilles. 
He  found  it,  350  B.  C,  to  be  23°  49^  23^'. 
A  hundred  years  later,  according  to  Ptol- 
emv,  Eratosthenes  found  it  to  be  23°  51' 
20''.  Various  measurements  have  subse- 
quently taken  place,  even  down  to  our 
own  time ;  and  it  is  remarkable  tliat  al- 
most every  measurement  makes  the  angle 
less  tlian  those  which  preceded  it.  Among 
tlie  modem  estimates  are  that  of  Cassini, 
23°  28'  35" ;  of  La  CaiUe,  23°  28'  19" ;  of 
Bradley,  23°  28'  18" ;  and  of  Mayer,  23° 
28'  16":  the  obsei-vations  of  Delambre, 
Maskelyne,  Piazzi,  Bessel  and  others,  give 
this  important  astronomical  elemeiit,  for 
tlie  year  1800,  at  23°  27'  50".  In  resi)ect  to 
^e  decrease  of  the  inclination  of  the  eclip- 
tic, the  most  celebrated  astronomers  of  our 
time,  as  Lalande,  adopted  the  opinion  that 
this  decrease  continues  uninterruptedly. 
Louville  determined  the  annual  decrease 
to  be  1',  La  Caille  44",  and  Lalande  33". 
Several  philosophers  of  modem  times 
concluded,  from  these  observations,  that 
the  equator  and  the  ecliptic  were  formerly 
in  the  same  plane ;  tliat  tlie  shock  of  a 
comet,  or  some  mighgr  revolution  on  tlio 
earth,  gave  the  axis  of'^our  planet  this  in- 
clination, and  that,  for  thousands  of  years, 
the  axis  has  been  returning  to  its  orig- 
inal position,  which  it  will  reach  after 
190,000  years.  Laplace,  on  tlie  contraiyi 
in  his  Micammie  Celeste,  showed  that  tlits 
win  never  take  place,  but  that  the  de- 
crease of  the  angle  between  the  planes  of 
the  equator  and  the  ecliptic  depends 
merely  upon  a  periodical  effect,  arising 
from  the  action  of  the  other  planets ;  tha^ 


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ECUPTIC—EDDA. 


after  a  certain  time,  it  will  increaae  again, 
and  that  the  limits  of  variation  are  narrow 
and  fixed.  A  very  long  space  of  time 
will  be  required  to  make  satisfactory  ob- 
servations respecting  this  fact.  The  in- 
clination of  the  ecliptic,  or,  which  is  the 
same  thing,  the  inclination  of  the  axis  of 
the  earth  towards  Ihe  ecliptic,  is  subject  to 
another  change,  which  makes  it  increase 
and  decrease  alternately  for  lune  years, 
during  which  time  tiie  greatest  difference 
amounts  to  18" :  of  this  more  is  said  under 
the  article  J^utaium  of  the  EarOCs  Aeis. 
(See  Astnmomyy  Degrttj  EqumocHalf  Day 

Eclogue,  in  poetry ;  a  select  piece,  of 
any  sort;  in  general,  select  poems,  or 
several  poems  of  the  same  form;  thus 
the  satires  of  Horace  were  called  edoguef* 
Since  VirgiPs  Bucolics  received  tiiis  name 
(from  grammarians,  probably,  and  not  from 
the  poet),  the  term  eclogues  has  usually 
been  applied  to  what  Theocritus  callea 
i^b,j— «hort,  highly  finished  poems,  prin- 


cipally of  a  pastoral  nature.    (See  IdvL^ 
EcoNOHT,  Political.     (See  Pokivu 
EcoTUtmy,) 


Edam  ;  a  town  of  North  Holland,  near 
the  Zuyder-Zee ;  12  miles  north  of  Am- 
sterdam; Ion.  5°  a'  E.;  lat  52^  31'  N.; 
population,  2745.  It  is  built  in  a  trian- 
gular form,  and  has  a  ^ood  port,  formed 
by  the  river  Ey,  on  which  it  stands,  and 
which,  with  the  dam  thrown  up  against 
the  inundations  of  that  river,  gives  its 
name  to  the  town.  This  place  is  chiefly 
noted  for  its  trade  in  cheese :  in  1801,  not 
less  than  6,660,631  pounds  of  Dutch 
cheese  were  weighed  here.  The  two 
great  divisions  of  Dutch  cheese  are  sweet 
milk  and  cunls.  The  latter  is  also  called 
hmyne  [cummin)  dteese^  also  kagterL  The 
Edam  cheese  is  all  sweet  milk  cheese, 
which  is  again  divided,  according  to  its 
rind,  into  red  and  white.  Its  mean  price 
is  from  20  to  25  guikiers  for  100  pounds. 
A  large  quantity  goes  to  England.  The 
whole  annual  production  of  cheese  in* 
Holland  is  estimated  at  30  millions  of 
pounds. 

Edda  ;  two  collections  of  ancient  Ice- 
landic poems,  which,  as  they  came  from 
the  Norwegians  (Normans),  who  emi- 
grated to  Iceland,  are  of  German  origin. 
They  are  the  chief  source  of  die  mytholo- 
gy of  the  ffods  and  heroes  of  the  north  of 
Europe.  The  first  of  these  coUectiona, 
called  the  (Hder  or  Samundie  Edda,  is  said 
to  have  been  prepared  by  S&mund  Sigftis- 
Bon,  a  learned  Icelandish  cletvymaiL  and 
Are  Frode,  the  oklest  historian  of  the 
Boith,  who  lived  fix)iii  1056  to  11^  and 


studied  at  Paris.  Sigfusson's  life  has  been 
written  by  Ame  Magnteus,  and  is  annex- 
ed to  the  first  part  of  the  Edda.  But 
this  statement  of  its  origin,  as  well  as  its 
claim  to  the  general  name  EddOj  has  been 
denied.  It  consists  of  a  number  of  the 
poems  of  the  Scalds  and  the  most  ancient 
traditionary  sonss ;  hence  the  name  of  Oid 
Edda  (mother  of  poetry).  This  Edda  was 
formerly  concealed  and  forgotten  in  Ice- 
land for  400  years.  A  part  of  it  seems  to 
be  lost  for  ever.  In  1643,  the  best  copy 
extant  of  these  old  poems,  written  on 
parchment,  was  found  and  rescued  from 
decay  by  bishop  Brynjolf  Svensen.  The 
Edda  has  since  been  considerably  studied, 
and  the  following  portions  have  been  pub- 
lished : — BegthamgamdOf  Volusp<t  (proph- 
ecies), Hacamaal  (elevated  conversation),  • 
and  Kuna  Ccqnhde,  or  the  Runic  chapter 
(in  which  Odin  boasts  of  his  power  in 
ma^c  songs). — ^From  these  poems,  then 
complete,  and  other  soncs,  the  pnee  ex^ 
tracts  were  formed,  peniaps  1^  years 
later,  called  the  Younger  EddOf  ascribed  to 
Snorro  Sturleson,  lapnann  of  Iceland,  and 
sewer  of  kin^  Haco,  about  A.  D.  1200. 
This  extract  fonns  a  kind  of  system  and 
cydus  of  those  songs,  and  is  to  be  consid- 
ered as  a  rehgious  system  (of  courve,  no 
longer  believed  at  the  time  when  it  was 
compiled),  and,  as  a  compend  of  the  old 
Norse  poetry,  showing  the  versification 
and  grammatical  structure  of  the  lan- 
guage. It  is  of  much  importance,  too, 
on  account  of  the  numerous  hiatuses  in 
the  ancient  songs  of  the  country,  of  which 
it  often  gives  pessagea.  The  work  was 
ailerwards  still  more  extended  and  re- 
modeled. It  consists  of  three  parts,  of 
which  the  first  is  dogmatical ;  the  second, 
narrative;  and  the  third,  entitled  Scalda^ 
contains  an  alphabetical  index  of  the  po- 
etical idioms  which  are  found  in  the  pre- 
ceding parts.  The  Icelandk  text  of  this 
Edda,  with  numerous,  but  very  erroneous 
translations,  was  published  by  Reseniua^ 
Copenhagen,  1665, 4ta :  hence  it  is  also 
called  the  Resenian  Edda,  A  better 
edition  was  published  by  Rask,  Stock- 
holm, 1818.  Nyerup  published  a  Danish 
translation  (Copenhagen,  1806),  and  has 
done  much  for  the  ij^eral  elucklation  of 
the  Edda.  There  is  a  German  tninski- 
tion  by  B&hs  (Berlin,  1812).  The  firat 
part  of  the  Older  or  Samundie  Edda  ww 

Srinted  in  the  original  text,  1787,  by  the 
li^ensBan  institute,  animated  by  the  zeal 
of  Suhm,  accompanied  with  a  Latin  i 
lation  and  a  gkwsary,  both  prepared  [ 
pally  by  Gudemand  Maffneeus.    Th 
and  part  was  pohliahea  in  1818^  by  ths 


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MagnsBan  institiite,  containing  the  Voluii- 
darquidcty  and  all  the  poems  which  form 
the  connexion  of  the  Scandinavian  and 
German  heroic  era.  New  editions  and 
translations  of  the  parts  already  known, 
have  been  prepared  among  the  Germans, 
by  Denis,  Schimmelmann,  Grater,  Herder 
and  Fred.  Majer.  Some  of  the  sagas  of 
the  Edda,  before  unprinted,  have  been 
lately  published  by  von  der  Hagen  and 
Grimm,  in  the  original,  and  subsequently  in 
Grerman.  Adelung,  Schlozer,  and,  lately, 
Rtihs,  have  doubted  the  genuineness  and 
antiquity  of  the  Older  Edda.  Their  op- 
ponents are  P.  C.  MuUer  (On  the  Genu- 
mcness  of  the  Doctrine  Asa,  and  the  Val- 
ue of  the  Edda  of  Snorro,  Copenhagen, 
1811,  and  On  the  Origin  and  Decline  of 
Icelandic  Historiography,  with  an  Appen- 
dix on  die  national!^  of  the  old  Norse 
Poems,  Copenhagen,  1815),  von  der  Ha- 
gen, the  brothers  Grimm,  Docen,  and  oth- 
ers ;  and  truth  seems  to  be  on  their  side. 
For  not  only  the  inherent  verisimilitude 
and  peculiar  developement  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  Edda,  but  various  historical  traces, 
Touch  for  its  antiqiiity  and  genuineness. 
On  the  connexion  ot  the  German  .NUbelun- 

fenUed  and  the  Hddenbuck  (the  Book  of 
[eroes)  witb  the  Edda,  interesting  investi- 
gations have  been  instituted  by  the  authors 
bat  named. 

EoDTSTONE  Rocks  ;  well  known  to  sea- 
men who  navigate  the  English  channel, 
consisting  of  three  principal  ridges,  and  ex- 
tending SOO  to  700  feet  in  length.  They 
lie  nearly  in  the  fair  way  from  the  Start 
to  the  Lizard,  and  are  therefore  an  object 
of  the  utmost  importance  to  marinere. 
Hence  it  is,  that  on  the  summit  of  the 
largest  rock  a  light-house  has  been  erect- 
ed, to  serve  as  a  beacon  or  signal  to  avoid 
the  danger,  as  they  are  covered  at  the 
flood  tide,  but  become  dry  at  the  ebb. 
The  foundation  of  the  light-house  is  one 
entire  solid  mass  of  stones  to  the  height 
of  35  feet,  engrailed  into  each  other,  and 
united  by  every  means  of  additional 
strength.  It  is  about  80  feet  in  heidit; 
15  S.  S.  W.  Plymouth,  45  E.  Lizard  pomt ; 
lon.4°15'W.,lat.50«irN.  The  swell 
at  these  rocks  is  tremendous.  After  a 
storm,  when  the  sea  is  to  all  appearance 
quite  smooth,  and  its  surface  unruffled  by 
the  slightest  breeze,  the  ground-swell  or 
under-current  meeting  the  slope  of  the 
rocks,  the  sea  often  rises  above  the  light- 
house in  a  magnificent  manner,  overtop- 
ping it  as  with  a  canopy  of  foam.  Henry 
Winstanley,  in  16^  built  the  first  light- 
house, but,  in  1703,  perished  in  it,  having 
too  much  confidence  in  his  building's 


standing  any  storm.  Another  light-house 
stood  from  1709  till  1755.  The  third  was 
begun  in  1757,  by  the  late  Mr.  John 
Smeaton,  and  finished  in  1759.  It  has 
withstood  all  tlie  rage  of  the  weather. 
The  structure  of  the  ^fice  of  Mr.  Smea- 
ton is  highly  interesting.  In  the  beginning 
of  1830,  the  upper  structure  had  become 
80  racked,  that  it  was  deemed  necessaiy 
to  rebuild  it,  and  the  lighthouse  is  to  be 
relit  in  tlie  autumn  of  iSo. 

Edelinck,  Gemrd,  bom  at  Antwerp, 
1649,  was  a  painter,  and  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  of  engravers.  He  learned  the 
elements  of  his  art  in  his  native  city,  but 
fully  developed  his  talents  in  France. 
Louis  XIV  attached  the  artist  to  his  ser- 
vice by  marks  of  fiivor.  He  was  com- 
missioned to  engrave,  on  copper,  the  Hol^ 
Family  of  Raphael,  and  Alexander's  Visit 
to  the  Family  of  Darius,  by  Lebrun.  He 
executed,  likewise,  tlie  Battle  of  the  Four 
Cavaliers,  afler  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  In  his 
great  works  from  historical  pictures,  his 
choice  is  often  to  be  regretted.  Many 
paintings  first  obtained  celebrity  by  his 
masterly  en^viugs.  Edelinck  was  no 
less  happy  m  his  portraits,  and  left  a 
great  nuniber,  of  the  most  disdnguished 
persons  of  his  aire.  Man^  of  tliem  are 
found  in  Perrault^s  collectjon  of  famous 
men.  A  peciuliarlv  chaste  and  brilliant 
burin,  a  noble  style,  correct  and  easy 
drawing,  truth  and  inimitable  harmony 
of  execution,  have  raised  the  woricsof  tlus 
ardst  above  any  otliera  of  bis  nation.  Ed- 
elinck was  engraver  to  the  king,  and  coun- 
sellor of  the  royal  academy  of  painters, 
when  he  died,  in  1707,  aged  66.  Neither 
his  brother  nor  his  son  equalled  him. 

EoErr.    (See  ParcuHse.) 

Edeit,  sir  Frederic  Morton,  baronet ;  an 
English  diplomatist  and  statistical  writer. 
He  was  sent  ambassador  to  Beriin  in  1792, 
and  in  the  following  year  was  removed  to 
Vienna.  In  March,  1794,  he  quitted  that 
court  for  Madrid;  but,  returning  thidier 
again,  he  concluded,  in  May,  1795,  a  trea- 
ty of  alliance  offensive  and  defensive,  be- 
tween England  and  Austria.  He  died  at 
his  house  in  Pall-mall,  Nov.  14, 1809.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  work  of  considerable 
research,  endtled  The  Stale  of  the  Poor, 
or  History  of  the  Laboring  Classes  in 
Eiupland ;  1797,  3  vols.  4to. 

Edgar,  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
of  the  Saxon  kings  of  England,  was  the 
son  of  kinff  Edmund.  He  succeeded  to 
the  throne  m  959,  and  managed  the  civil 
and  military  afiflurs  of  his  kingdom  with 
great  vigor  and  success.  He  maintained 
a  foody  of  troops  to  control  the  mutinous 


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EDGAR— EDGEWORTH. 


NoithutDbrians,  and  repel  the  iDCuraions 
of  the  Scots,  and  fitted  out  a  powerful 
navy  to  protect  his  subjects  troin  the 
Danes.  By  these  precautious,  be  not  only 
prevented  invasion  from  the  Danes,  but 
secured  the  submissiou  of  the  independent 
provinces  of  Wales  and  Ireland,  and  the 
surrounding  islands.  Diu^ug  tlie  reign 
of  Edcar,  wolves  were  nearly  extirpated 
fiv>m  the  southern  parts  of  the  island,  by 
exchanging  a  tribute  from  Wales  for  pay- 
ment in  the  heads  of  these  animals.  His 
adventure  and  marriage  with  the  beauti- 
ful Elfrida,  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Devon- 
shire, are  well  known.  He  died  in  975, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Edward 
the  Martyr. 

Edoeworth  db  Firmont,  Henry  Es- 
sex, &ther-confessor  of  Louis  XVI ;  bom 
17^  in  Ireland,  in  the  village  of  Edge- 
worthtown.  His  &ther,  an  Episcopalian 
clergyman,  ado|)ted  the  CathoUc  faith 
with  his  family,  and  went  to  France. 
Henry  studied  first  under  the  Jesuits  at 
Toulouse,  and  then  at  the  Sorbonne  in 
Paris.  His  piety  and  virtue  obtauied  him 
the  confidence  of  the  princess  Elizabeth, 
sister  of  Louis  XVI,  who  chose  him  for 
her  confessor.  The  revolution  broke  out, 
and  tlie  king  was  thrown  into  prison. 
Elizabeth  was  an  an^l  of  consolation  to 
her  brother  during  his  confinement,  and 
by  her  means  Lmiis  was  first  made  ac- 
quainted with  the  character  of  Firmont, 
who  then  Uved  in  concealment  at  Choisy- 
le-Roi,  under  tlie  name  of  Essex.  When 
the  king  was  informed  of  his  condemna- 
tion, he  requested  a  delay  of  three  days, 
to  prepare  himself  to  appear  before  his 
Goo,  and  free  communication  with  a 
priest  of  liis  own  choice.  This  was 
jQdgeworth.  The  convention  assented  to 
Uie latter  request,  but  refused  the  respite. 
Edge  worth  discharged  the  duties  devolv- 
ing on  him  with  the  deepest  devotion. 
He  offered  personally  to  Attend  the  kinff 
to  the  place  of  execution.  Edgewortn 
ascended  the  scaffokl  with  lum ;  the  exe- 
cutioner placed  the  king  under  the  guillo- 
tine ;  Ed^worth  exclaimed,  ^  Son  of 
saint  Louis,  ascend  to  heaven  !**  and  the 
axe  felL  Edgeworth  succeeded  in  escap- 
ing firom  France  in  safety,  and  arrived  in 
England  in  1796.  Pitt  offered  him  a  pen- 
sion in  tlie  name  of  the  king,  which  he 
declined.  He  soon  after  followed  Louis 
XVIII  to  Blankeuburg,  in  Brunswick* 
and  tlience  to  Mittau.  As  he  had  devoted 
his  life  to  soothe  the  unhappv  in  the  true 
spirit  of  Christian  charity,  he  lost  it  in 
services  of  benevolence.  In  1807,  a  num- 
ber of  French  prisoners  of  war  were 


brought  to  Mittau,  where  Edgeworth  was 
living  with  Louis  XVIII.  A  contagious 
fever  made  the  most  dreadful  devastation 
among  them.  Edgeworth,  so  far  fix>ni 
being  repelled  by  the  danger,  devoted 
himself  to  the  care  of  the  sick,  and  was 
himself  attacked  by  the  disease,  of  which 
he  died  May  21,  1807.  The  duchess  of 
Angoul^me  attended  him  in  his  sickness  ; 
the  royal  family  followed  him  to  the 
tomb,  and  Louis  XVIII  wrote  his  ep- 
itaph. 

Edoeworth,  Maria,  a  distinguished  fe- 
male writer  of  the  day,  daughter  of  the 
well-known  ingenious  Ricliard  Lovell 
Edgeworth  (who  died  in  1817),  was  bom 
at  Edgeworthtown,  Ireland.  The  family 
was  originally  English,  and  settled  in  Ire- 
land in  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth. 
Her  mother  (died  1772)  was  the  first  of 
four  wives  of  Mr.  Edgewortii:  he  had 
married  her  in  Scotland,  while  he  was  yet 
a  student  in  the  university  of  Oxford.  Of 
this  wife  he  speaks  widi  little  afiiection  or 
respect,  in  his  account  of  himself  (Me- 
moirs of  R.  L.  Edgeworth,  continued  by 
his  daughter  Maria,  London,  1821);  nor 
does  miss  Edgeworth  herself  pay  her  a 
passing;  tribute  of  filial  love  when  her 
death  is  mentioned.  Maria,  who  was  the 
fiivorite  daughter  of  her  fiither,  must  have 
been  educated,  principally,  under  the  in- 
fluences of  his  second  and  third  wives, 
sisters,  by  the  name  of  Sneyd,  who  wen 
accomplkhed  and  amiable  women. — ^In 
1798,  miss  Edgeworth  made  her  firat  ap- 
peamnce  as  an  author  in  the  Treatise  on 
Practical  Education,  written  in  conjunc- 
tion with  her  fiither.  Her  numerous  nov- 
els, tales  and  essays,  have  been  chiefir 
directed  to  the  improvement  of  early  ed- 
ucation. Children  are  not  less  dehghted 
tlian  instructed  with  her  Moral  Tales, 
Popular  Tales,  Parents'  Assistant,  Early 
Lessons,  &C.,  which  convey  important 
moral  and  prudential  instruction  in  a  sim- 
ple, clear  and  attractive  form,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  furnish  many  valuable  lessons 
to  parents  and  instructers  in  regard  to  the 
best  methods  of  influencing  the  feeling^ 
awakenuiff  the  curiosity,  and  forming  the 
minds  and  hearts  of  die  young.  In  her 
other  works,  she  does  not  lose  sight  of  a 
moral  apphcation:  her  Patronage,  Belin- 
da, Absentees,  Tales  of  Faabionable  Life, 
&C.,  are  intended  to  correct  some  fiishiona- 
ble  folly,  some  national  defect,  or  some 
mental  or  moral  deformity.  Miss  Edge- 
worth  possesses  a  culdvatcMl  mind,  fiuniliar 
with  tlie  literary  riches  of  her  own  country, 
and  not  a  stranger  to  tiie  producdons  of  oth- 
er nations :  the  French  cridcs  bear  testimo- 


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EDGfiWORTH— EDINBURGH. 


401 


ny  to  her  acquaintance  with  the  maimerB 
and  literature  of  France,  and  many  of  her 
worics  have  been  translated  and  well  re- 
ceived in  that  ^country.  Her  writings  dis- 
play a  great  knowledge  of  life  and  of  the 
numan  heart,  a  happy  talent  of  conceiv- 
ing situations  and  incidents,  and  of  de- 
scribing manners  and  characters.  With- 
out possessing  great  brilliancy  of  imagina- 
tion, or  any  extraordinary  reach,  of  mind, 
she  unites  a  manly  judgment  with  a  fe- 
male tact,  and  affords  a  pleasing  example 
of  what  Locke  calls  a  round  wout  com- 
mon sense.  Her  works  have  enjoyed  an 
extensive  popularity  in  Europe,  and  liave 
been  often  republished  in  the  U.  States. 

£dg£worth,  Richard  Lovell,  a  gentle- 
roan  distinguished  for  the  versatility  of  his 
talents,  weM  bom  in  1744,  at  Bath,  of 
a  family  possessed  of  landed  proper^  at 
Edffeworthtown,  in  the  south  of  Ire- 
land. He  received  his  education  at  Trin- 
ity college,  Dublin,  and  Corpus  Chrisd, 
Oxford,  after  which  he  entered  at  the 
Temple,  but  not  probably  with  any  serious 
intention  of  adopting  the  law  as  a  profes- 
sion. Mechanics  and  general  literature 
chiefly  attracted  his  attention.  He  formed 
an  acquaintance  with  doctor  Erasmus 
Darwin,  Mr.  Thomas  Day,  and  other  men 
of  congenial  pursuits,  to  whose  researches, 
as  well  as  his  own,  what  may  be  termed 
practical  philosophy  is  not  a  little  indebt- 
ed. In  1767,  he  contrived  a  telegraph, 
with  regard  to  which,  'however,  he  had 
not  the  merit  of  having  started  the  origin- 
al idea,  neither  did  he  bring  it  into  general 
use.  After  redding  some  years  in  Eng- 
land, he  went  to  France,  where  he  was 
engaged  in  the  direction  of  some  worics 
on  the  Rhone  at  Lyons.  In  the  latter 
part  of  his  hfe,  he  resided  much  on  his 
own  estate,  occupying  himself  with  plans 
lor  C4>n8tructing  rail-roads,  dnuning  bogs, 
and  other  undertakings  for  the  improve- 
ment of  agriculture,  manufactures  and 
commerce.  Much  of  his  time,  too,  was 
devoted  to  literature,  and,  in  conjunction 
with  his  daughter,  the  celebrated  Ma- 
ria Edgeworth  (q.  v.),  he  wrote  a  Treatise 
on  Practical  Education,  one  on  Profession- 
al Education,  as  well  as  some  subsidiary 
works,  all  remarkable  for  the  air  of  good 
sense,  and  adaptation  to  the  exigencies  of 
common  life,  which  they  exhibiL  He  died 
in  June,  1817.  Mr.  Edgeworth  married 
four  wives,  of  whom  two  were  sisters. 

Edict  ;  a  public  proclamation.  In  an- 
ient Rome,  the  higher  officers  of  state, 
who  were  elected  annually,  publicly  de- 
clared, at  their  entrance  upon  office,  the 
principke  by  which  they  should  conduct 
34* 


their  administration.  This  was  done  par- 
ticularly by  the  iEdiles  (q.  v.),  who  super- 
intended buildings  and  markets,  and  by 
the  pretois,  as  supreme  judges.  These 
annual  proclamations,  by  which  the  de- 
ficiencies of  the  general  statutes  were 
supplied,  and  the  laws  were  adapted  to  the 
peculiar  wants  of  the  period,  graduallv 
acquired  a  certain  permanency,  as  each 
officer  retained,  unaltered,  most  of  the 
reflations  of  his  predecessor  (ecUctum  tra- 
laatium) ;  and  they  became,  in  fact,  the 
source  of  the  whole  system  of  Roman  law, 
which,  being  founded  on  the  official  au- 
thority of  the  authors,  was  called  i'u«  honora- 
riuvif  and  was  opposed  to  the  stnctly  fonnal 
\&w,jus  civile.  The  edidum  praiorisj  un« 
der  the  emperor  Adrian,  A.  D.  131,  was 
reduced  to  a  regular  form  (edictum  per- 
petuum)  by  Salvtus  Julianus,  and  received 
the  sanction  of  legal  authority,  although 
the  pretors  seem  to  have  retained  for  a 
long  time  their  privilege  of  issuing  edicts, 
till  all  legislative  power  fell  exclusively 
into  the  hands  of  the  emperor.  The 
form  of  the  edict  was  still  made  use  of 
occasionally,  although  general  principles 
were  often  brought  forward  in  the  de- 
cision of  particular  cases  (decrees  and  re- 
scripts). The  name  edict  has  since  been 
applied  in  several  monarchical  countries, 
as  a  graeral  term,  to  an  ordinance  of  the 
supreme  authority.    (See  Civil  Law.) 

Edict  of  Nantes.    (See  Huguenots.) 

Edile.    (SeeJEdile.) 

Edinburgh;  the  metropolis  of  Scot- 
land, about  a  mile  and  a  half  fit>m  the 
frith  of  Forth,  situated  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  county  of  Edinburgh.  The 
town  stands  on  high  and  uneven  ground, 
bein^  built  on  three  eminences.  'The  cen- 
tral ndge,  on  which  the  city  was  originally 
built,  IB  terminated  abruptly  on  the  west 
by  a  precipitous  rpek,  on  which  the  castle 
is  placed,  while  to  the  east  it  ^^ually  in- 
clines to  the  plain,  fit>m  which  rise  Ar- 
thur's seat,  Salisbury  crags,  and  the  Cal- 
ton  hill.  Both  sides  of  the  central  ridge, 
occupied  by  the  principal  street  of  &e 
old  town,  extendmg  from  the  castle  to 
Holyrood  house,  are  covered  with  build- 
ings closely  crowded  together,  and  de- 
scending from  the  main  street,  chiefly  in 
narrow  lanes,  with  little  regard  either  to 
health  or  cleanliness.  That  part  of  the 
town  built  on  the  southern  eminence  is 
much  more  spacious  and  pleasant  in  its 
appearance  than  the  centre  of  the  city, 
and  contains  several  elegant  squares.  Of 
these,  the  principal  is  George's  square. 
Here  are  also  the  Meadows,  a  tract  of 
ground  intersected  by  walks,  shaded  on 


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EDINBURGH. 


both  flideB  by  rows  of  trees.  The  two 
lidges  on  which  tlie  old  town  is  built  are 
connected  by  a  bridge,  which  crones  the 
low  street  called  the  Cowgate,  in  the  ra- 
vine between  tliem,  at  right  angles ;  on 
each  side  of  which  bricQ;e  houses  are 
nuiged,  and  a  sjMicious  and  neariv  level 
street  is  formed,  notwithstanding  the  ine- 
qualities of  the  ground.  The  new  town 
is  built  on  die  lower  and  northernmost  of 
the  ridges,  parallel  with  the  old  town, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  bridge, 
and  by  a  niound  of  earth  called  the  earthen 
mound.  Its  streets  and  squares  have  been 
constructed  with  great  elegance  and  regu- 
larity. St  Andrew^s  and  Charlotle  squares 
are  renoarkable  for  their  beauty.  An  ex- 
tension of  the  city  is  also  making  on  the 
inclined  plain  on  the  north,  and  towards 
the  west,  where  some  handsome  streets 
have  lately  been  built ;  also  the  octagon 
of  Moray  place,  the  finest  in  the  city. 
Ediubuigh  is  connected  with  Leith  by 
a  paved  road.  A  magnificent  entrance 
from  the  east  has  also  been  formed  along 
thesoud)  side  of  tlie  Calton  hill;  and  on 
the  summit  of  tlie  hill  a  national  monu- 
ment, after  the  model  of  the  Parthenon  at 
Athens,  has  been  begun.  Other  improve- 
ments are  at  present  going  on  with  a  view 
ofremedying  the  disadvantages  occasion- 
ed by  the  inequalities  of  the  ground  on 
which  Edinburgli  is  built  The  scenery 
around  Edinburgh,  owing  to  the  abrupt 
and  craggy  heights  of  the  Calton  hill  and 
Arthur's  seat,  which  suddenly  rises  800 
feet  fiom  the  surrounding  plain,  and  pre- 
sents the  rocky  heights  of  Salisbury  crags 
towards  the  city,  is  unconmionly  striking ; 
and  every  thing  has  been  done  to  display 
these  natural  advantages.  Around  the 
Calton  hill  several  wallis  have  Utely  been 
made  at  different  elevations,  from  which 
the  surrounding  town  and  country  are  seen 
to  great  advantage ;  a  walk  has  also  been 
made  on  the  still  higher  elevation  of  Salis- 
bury crags,  from  which  the  view  is  grand 
and  imposing. — Of  the  pubtic  works  and 
buiklingB  in  Edinbuigh,  the  casde  is  the 
most  remarkable.  It  is  situated  at  the 
western  extremity  of  the  old  town,  on  a 
rugged  rock,  which  rises  on  three  sides 
from  a  level  plain  to  the  height  of  150  to 
200  feet  At  the  oppomte  or  eastern  ex- 
tremity of  the  old  town  stands  the  palace 
and  abbey  of  Holyrood,  for  several  centu- 
ries the  residence  of  the  monarehs  of  Scot- 
land. The  abbey,  of  which  only  the  walla 
remain,  was  founded  in  the  year  1138,  by 
David  I ;  and  in  the  burying-place  within 
are  interred  several  of  his  successors.  The 
jielace  is  a  large  ^ladmngidar  edifice  of 


hewn  stone,  with  a  court  within,  sur- 
rounded by  piazzas.  The  palace  contains 
a  gallery  150  feet  long,  decorated  with 
imaffinaiy  portraits  of  me  kings  of  Scot- 
land, from  the  time  of  Fergus  I.  As  it 
now  stands,  it  is  not  of  high  antiquity. 
Its  north- west  towers  were  built  by  James 
V,  but  the  remaining  part  of  it  was  added 
during  the  reign  of  Cliarles  II.  The  ap- 
pearance of  the  Parliament  square,  in  the 
centre  of  the  city,  has  been  entirely  change 
ed,  in  consequence  of  two  fires,  which  oc- 
curred in  1824,  and  burnt  down  the  south 
and  east  sides  of  the  square.  On  the  site 
of  the  former  houses  an  elegant  structure 
is  now  ui  progress  for  the  acconuDodation 
of  the  couits,  to  be  connected  with  the 
former  buildincs,  partly  okl  and  partly 
new,  in  which  the  supreme  courts  at  pres- 
ent hold  their  sittings.  The  original  por- 
tion of  those  buildings  was  finished  in  the 
year  1640,  and  was  intended  for  the  re- 
ception of  die  Scottish  pariiament  For  the 
reception  of  the  advocates'  library,  the  rich- 
eat  collection  in  Scotland,  consisting  of 
more  than  70,000  printed  volumes,  imd  a 
smaller  one  belonging  to  the  writers  to  the 
signet,  apartments  attached  to  the  north- 
west corner  of  the  parliament  house  have 
lately  been  finished.  Neariy  opposite  to  the 
Parliament  square  stands  the  roval  ex- 
change, which  was  founded  in  the  year 
1753,  and  was  formerly  employed  as  a 
custom-house.  The  register-office,  in 
which  the  public  records  of  Scotland  are 
deposited,  was  founded  in  the  year  1774, 
and  is  distinguished  for    lightness,  ele- 

Since,  and  classical  simplicitv  of  design, 
f  die  churches,  the  metropolitan  church, 
dedicated  to  saint  Giles,  is  the  most  an- 
cient It  is  built  in  the  figure  of  a  cross, 
and  forms  one  side  of  the  Parliament 
square.  It  was  erected  into  a  colksnata 
church  in  1466,  but  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  nearly  600  yeara  before.  From 
the  centre  rises  a  squaire  tower,  surmounted 
by  slender  arches,  supporting  a  spire  161 
feet  in  height,  Uie  whole  exhibiting  tbe 
resemblance  of  an  imperial  crown.  Tbe 
other  churches  are,  Trmity  college  church, 
the  Old  and  New  GrayfHais,  the  Tron, 
the  Canongate,  St  Cuthbert's,  Lady  Yea- 
tar's,  St  Andrew's,  St  George's,  St  Ma- 
ry's, and  St  Vincent's,  with  five  chapds 
of  ease.  Besides  these  places  of  vrorship, 
there  are  four  for  the  Burghere,  three  for 
the  Antibur^hers,  four  for  the  Relief,  feur 
for  the  Baptists,  two  for  the  Independents, 
a  Gaelic  chapel,  and  one  each  for  the  Meth- 
odists, Cameronians,  Bereans,  GlaasiteB, 
Unitarians,  Uuakers,  and  Roman  Ca^o- 
Ijcsi  and  six  fer  the  £piscopaiiaii&    The 


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EDINBUR6H--EDINBURGH  REVIEW. 


403 


uoiversity  of  Edinlmr^h  has  long  «nce  at- 
tained general  celebnty.  It  was  founded 
in  the  year  1582^  when  there  was  only  one 
profeasor.  All  the  different  branches  of 
literature,  science  and  philosophy  are  now 
taught  in  this  seminary.  The  total  num- 
ber of  students  is  about  3000.  To  the 
university  is  attached  a  library  of  more 
than  50,000  volumes.  The  high-school, 
the  principal  grammar-school  of  the  city, 
was  establish^  in  1578.  Of  literary  asso- 
ciadonS)  the  principal  'is  the  royal  socie- 
ty, constituted  in  1782 ;  the  royal  society 
of  antiquaries,  and  the  Wemerian  socio- 
ty  ;  and  the  astronomical  institution. 
The  Highland  society  was  e8tal)lished  for 
advancing  the  interests  of  agriculmre, 
manufactures  and  arts,  in  the  Hiffhlauds 
of  Scotland.  It  distributes  annually  about 
£700  in  premiums  for  inventions  and  im- 
provements. There  are,  besides,  the  fac- 
ulty of  advocates,  and  the  royal  colleges 
of  physicians  and  surgeons.  The  princi- 
pal charitable  institution  is  Heriors  hos- 
pital, which  was  endowed  by  George  He- 
riot,  jeweller  to  James  VI,  for  educating 
and  maintaining  the  sons  of  burgesses  and 
freemen:  it  was  erected  in  iSiO,  at  the 
expense  of  £30,000,  after  a  Gothic  design 
of  Inigo  Jones:  it  consists  of  a  large 
quadrangle,  with  a  court  in  the  interior ; 
imd  it  is  crowned  with  columns,  turrets 
and  spires.  There  are,  also^  numerous 
other  hospitals,  three  charity  work-houses, 
an  asylum  ibr  the  industrious  blmd,  a 
Magdalene  asylum,  a  house  of  industry, 
and  a  society  for  the  suppression  of  beg- 
ipng;  and  four  dispensaries,  two  for  iS- 
roimng  advice  and  medicines  to  the  poor, 
and  two  for  curing  diseases  in  the  eye 
and  ear.  On  the  summit  of  the  Calton 
hill  is  Nelson's  monument,  a  circular  col- 
imm,  106  feet  in  height  There  are  13 
banking  companies,  of  which  the  bank  of 
Scotland,  the  royal  bank,  and  the  British 
linen  company,  are  incorporated  by  royal 
charter.  The  manu&ctures  of  Edinburgh 
are  principally  adapted  for  the  consump- 
tion of  its  inhabitants,  consisting  of  house- 
hokl  furniture;  travelling  carnages^  exe- 
cuted in  a  style  of  siipenor  elegance ;  of 
engraving  in  all  its  branches,  musical  in- 
struments, £&c :  there  are  also  manufac- 
tuna  of  glass  and  maible,  in  which  equal 
taste  and  skill  are  displayed ;  and  between 
dOO  and  400  weavers  are  employed  in 
the  working  of  linen,  silks,  saDnets,  and 
fine  shawla  There  are  also  brass  and 
inm  manufactures  and  distilleries  of  spir- 
its in  the  neighborhood;  and  Edinbuivh 
has  been  louff  noted  for  its  excellent  ale. 
The  trades  of  bookselling  and  printing  ore 


carried  on  to  a  great  extent ;  and  various 
periodical  and  other  works  are  published 
here,  which  have  deservedly  attained  ex- 
tensive celebrity.  Among  these  may  be 
mentioned  the  Edinburgh  Review  (su&e 
next  carHck)  and  Blackwood's  Masazine. 
There  are  two  newspapers  puoiished 
three  times  a  week,  three  twice  a  week, 
and  four  once  a  week.  The  places  of 
public  amusement  are  the  theatre,  the 
pantheon,  and  the  assembly-rooms.  A 
ffn^light  company  has  been  established. 
Edinburgh  is  a  royal  bui^h,  and  its  coun- 
cil sends  one  member  to  parliament.— 
The  origin  of  Edinburgh  is  lost  in  remote 
antiquity.  About  the  year  854,  according 
to  the  accounts  of  the  earlier  historians, 
Edinburgh  was  a  town  of  some  note.  In 
1215,  a  parliament  was  assembled  here 
for  the  first  time.  In  1437,  the  kings  of 
Scodand  usually  resided  in  it,  and  held 
regular  parliaments;  and  about  the  year 
145Qf  it  was  considered  the  metropolis  of 
Scotland.  Population  of  the  city  and  sub- 
urbs, including  Leith,  138,1235  ;  42  mika 
£.  Glasgow,  and  396  N.  N.  W.  London ; 
Ion.  3°  IQf  W.,  lat.  55^  58^  N.  A  Histoiy 
of  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  2  vols. 
8vo.,  was  published,  in  1830,  oy  Bower, 
Edinburgh  and  London. 

EniNBUROH  Aeview  (The  Quarterly). 
This  celebrated  journal  was  estabhshed  in 
1802,  at  a  time  when  the  periodical  literar 
ture  of  the  United  Kingdom  consisted  of 
works  conducted  with  inferior  talent,  and 
occupying  narrow  grounds.  Its  success 
was  immediate  and  very  great  Discuas- 
inff  all  the  great  subiects  of  literature, 
science,  philosophy  and  politics  with  free- 
dom, boldness,  spirit,  varied  learning,  acute 
reasonings  elegant  criticism,  a  piijuant 
satire,  and  profound  and  original  views, 
in  politics  it  has  supported  the  principles 
of  the  Fox  whigs;  in  religion,  it  is  more 
tlian  suspected  of  a  sceptical  leaning.  It 
is  said  to  have  originated  in  the  social  stud- 
ies of  a  number  of  young  men  in  Edin* 
burgh,  who  were  accustomed  to  meet  oc- 
casionally to  discuss  questions  in  evenr 
branch  of  science  and  philosophy.  It 
was  edited,  during  the  first  year,  by  the 
reverend  Sydney  Smith,  after  whom  Mr. 
Jeffrey,  then  a  young  Scotch  advocate  of 
more  talents  and  leisure  than  practice  in 
his  profession,  is  well  known  to  have  been 
the  editor,  and  one  of  the  most  fruitful 
contributors  during  the  long  time  which 
he  conducted  it  His  articles  relate  prinr 
cipall^  to  the  belle»-]ettrea.  Amonfthe 
principal  writers  are  to  be  found  the 
distinguished  names  of  Playfav,  Leshe, 
Mackmtosh^  Brougham^  Du{pdd  Stewart^ 


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404 


EDINBURGH  REVIEW— EDWARD  THE  MARTYR. 


doctor  BrowD,  besides  Macculloch  (on  po- 
litical economy  aad  Ireland),  Williams  (the 
advocate),  Macaulay,  &c.  Doctor  Brown 
was  tlie  author  of  the  article  on  Kant  (No. 
2),  but  owing  to  some  liberties  taken  with  a 
paper  intended  for  tJie  4th  number,  he  dis- 
continued his  contributions.  Plavfidr  wrote 
the  articles  relating  to  Laplace,  &c.  Sir  J« 
Mackintosh  is  the  author  of  numerous 
literar}',  historical,  and  political  articles, 
which  display  the  liberal  and  generous 
principles,  the  extensive  views  and  the 
varied  learning  of  a  statesman  andschokur. 
Mr.  Brougham,  however,  is,  perhaps,  the 
CofyphdBus  of  the  Edinburgh  Review :  he 
is  present  every  where,  possessing  a  sort 
of  mental  ubiquity,  in  parliament,  at  the 
bar,  in  the  popular  assemblies ;  leading  in 
'legislation,  literature,  politics,  science ;  de- 
livering lessons  of  wisdom  and  taste  in  the 
pages  of  the  Review,  and  diffusing  the 
lights  of  education  and  useful  knowledge 
among  the  laboring  classes,  by  means  of 
the  societv  formed  for  that  purpose,  of 
which  he  is  at  the  head.  The  great  infiu- 
enco  of  the  Edinburgh  Review  in  the 
hands  of  the  whigs  1^  to  the  establish- 
ment of  a  toiy  periodica],  as  a  counter- 
poise. The  London  Quarterly  Review 
was  established  in  1809,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Giiford.  Blackwood's  Magazine, 
a  work  of  a  smaller  calibre,  edited  first  by 
Lockhart  (now  editor  of  the  Quarterly), 
and  afterwards  by  Wilson,  owed  its  ex- 
istence to  the  same  cause.  The  multi- 
plicadon  of  quarterly  and  other  periodi- 
cals has  cooperated  with  the  diminution 
of  intellectual  power  in  the  Edinburgh  it- 
self, in  depriving  it  of  its  former  undinput- 
ed  supremacy.  The  editorship  has  late- 
ly passed  into  the  hands  of  Mr.  Napier. 
The  Edinburgh  Review  had,  at  one  Ume, 
12,000  subscribers.  This  Review,  and  also 
the  London  Quarterly,  are  republished,  and 
circulate  extensively,  in  the  U.  States. 

Edmund  I,  king  of  England,  an  able 
and  spirited  prince,  son  of  Edward  the 
Elder,  succeeded  his  brother  Atheliftan  in 
d41.  He  conquared  Cumberland,  which 
he  bestowed  on  Malcolm,  king  of  Scotland, 
on  condition  of  homage.  He  was  stabbed 
at  a  banquet  by  LeoT(  an  outlaw,  who 
entered  among  the  guests,  and  provoked 
the  king  to  a  personal  attack  upon  him. 
Edmund  immediately  expired  of  the 
wound,  in  the  sixth  year  of  his  reign, 

£dmui?d  II,  sumamed  JnmMt,  kinff  of 
England,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Ethelred 
II.  On  the  death  of  the  latter,  in  1016,  he 
waa  obliged  to  take  the  fiekl  against  Ca- 
nute, by  whom  he  was  defeated  at  Assing- 
deo,  in  Essex,  in  consequence  of  the  defec- 


tion of  Edric,  duke  of  Mercia.  A  com- 
promise was  then  effected,  by  which  the 
midland  and  northern  counties  were  as- 
signed to  Canute,  and  the  southern  to 
Edmund.  He  was  soon  after  nnodered 
at  Oxfoid,  at  the  instigation  of  the  tnitor 
Edric.  This  event  nuide  Canute  master 
of  the  entire  kingdom ;  but  the  line  of 
Edmond  was  again  partially  restored  by 
the  marriage  of  his  great  grand-daughter, 
Matilda,  to  Heniy  I. 

Edred,  king  of  England,  son  of  Ed- 
ward the  Elder,  succeeded  to  the  throne  oa 
the  murder  of  his  brother,  fkimund  I  (d47). 
He  quelled  a  rebellion  of  the  Northumbn- 
an  Danes,  and  compelled  Malcolm,  king 
of  Scodand,  to  renew  his  homage  for  h» 
English  possessions.  Although  active  and 
warlike,  he  was  extremely  superstitious, 
and  subservient  to  the  celebrated  Dunstan, 
abbot  of  Glastonbury.  Edred  died  after  a 
reign  of  nine  years,  and  left  the  crown  to 
his  nephew,  Edvry. 

Edridoe,  Henry,  ABA.,  FSA. ;  a  kmd- 
scape  and  miniature  painter  of  eminence, 
bom  at  Paddinj^n,  m  1768.  His  earlier 
portraits  are  principally  drawn  on  paper, 
with  black  lead  and  Indian  ink.  It  was  in 
later  years  only  that  he  made  those  elabo- 
rate and  high-finished  pictures,  uniting  the 
depth  and  richness  of  oil-painting  with  the 
fireedom  and  freshness  of  water-colors,  of 
which  there  are  so  many  specimens  in 
England.    He  died  in  182L 

Edward  the  Elder,  king  of  England, 
son  of  Alfiped  the  Great,  whom  he  suc^ 
ceeded  in  901.  EthelwaJd,  the  son  of  his 
father'b  elder  brother,  claimed  the  crown ; 
but  this  insuirection  ended  with  the  death 
of  Ethel  waM  in  battle.  The  reign  of  Ed- 
ward was  further  distinguished  by  suc- 
cesses over  the  Anglicised  and  rordgn 
Danes.  He  fortified  many  inland  towns, 
acquired  dominion  over  Northumbria  and 
East  Anglia,  and  subdued  several  of  the 
Welsh  tribM.  He  died,  aft«r  a  reign  of 
twenty-four  yean,  in  9^ 

Edward,  sumamed  the  Martyr^  kmg  of 
England,  son  of  Edgar,  succeeded  his 
father,  at  the  age  of  Sleen,  in  975.  His 
step-mother,  Elfiida,  wished  to  raise  her 
own  son,  Ethefavd,  to  the  throne,  but 
Mras  opposed  by  Dunstan,  through  whoee 
exertions  Edward  was  peaceab&  crown- 
ed. His  short  rdgn  was  chie^  distin- 
guished by  the  disputes,  between  Dun- 
stan and  die  foreign  monks  on  one  side, 
and  the  secular  cleivr  on  the  other. 
The  young  king  paid  little  attention  to 
any  tiimg  but  the  chase,  which  led  to  his 
unhappy  deadi.  Hunting  one  day  in  Dor- 
setshire, he  was  separated  fix>m  hia  at- 


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£DWABD  THE  BURTYBr-EDWARD  L 


405 


and  reiNurBd  to  Corfe  casde, 
where  Elinda  resided.  After  paying  his 
respects  to  her,  he  recjuested  a  glass  of 
liquor,  and,  as  he  was  dnnking  it  on  hone* 
back,  one  of  Elfrida's  servants  gave  him  a 
deep  fltab  behind.  He  immediately  set 
spuis  to  his  horse,  but,  feinting  from  loss 
of  blood,  he  was  dragged  in  the  stirrup 
until  he  died.  The  pity  caused  by  his 
innocence  and  misfortune  induced  the 
people  to  regard  him  as  a  martyr.  He 
had  reigned  four  yeara. 

Ed  w  A  an,  sumamed  the  Ccnftssor^ 
younger  son  of  Ethelred  H.  On  the  death 
of  his  maternal  brother,  Haidicanute  the 
Dane,  in  1041,  he  was  called  to  the  throne, 
and  thus  renewed  the  Saxon  line.  He 
was  not  the  immediate  heir,  as  his  brother, 
Edmund  Ironside,  had  left  sons;  but,  as 
he  received  the  support  of  Godwin,  earl 
of  Kent,  on  condition  of  marrying  liis 
daughter,  Editha,  his  claim  was  establish- 
ed. Edward  was  a  weak  and  supered* 
tious,  but  well-intentioned  prince,  who 
acquired  the  love  of  his  subjects  by  his 
monkish  sanctity,  and  care  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  justice.  He  gained  the  title  of 
saint  and  confessor  by  abstaining  from 
nuptial  connexion  with  his  queen.  Hav- 
ing been  educated  in  Normandy,  he  intro- 
duced so  many  nadves  of  that  country  to 
his  court,  that  the  French  lanouage  and 
manners  became  prevalent  in  England,  to 
the  great  disgust  of  earl  Godwin  and  his 
sons.  A  rebellion  took  place,  and  Edward 
was  forced  to  dismiss  his  foreign  favorites. 
Perceiving  that  the  youtli  and  weakness 
of  Ilia  son,  Edgar  Atheting,  would  not  se- 
cure the  succession  against  the  power  and 
ability  of  Harold,  the  son  of  Godwin,  he 
turned  his  eyes  upon  his  kinsman,  Will- 
iam of  Normandy,  in  whose  favor  it  has 
bec«  asserted,  with  little  probabihty,  that 
he  executed  a  will.  He  died  in  1066^ 
leaving  the  point  of  the  succession  unde- 
turmined;  and  with  him  ended  the  Saxon 
line  of  kings.  Edward  was  the  first  Eng- 
lish monarch  who  touched  for  the  kinrs 
evil.  He  caused  a  body  of  laws  to  be 
compiled  fit>m  those  of  Ethelbert,  Inaand 
Alfred,  to  which  the  nadon  was  long 
fondly  attached. 

Edward  I  (of  the  Norman  fme),  king 
of  England,  son  of  Henry  III,  was  bom 
at  Wuichester  in  1239.  The  contests  be- 
tween his  father  and  the  barons  called  him 
early  into  active  life,  and  he  finally  quelled 
aH  renstance  to  the  royal  authority,  by 
thedeci«ve  defeat  of  Leicester,  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Evesham,  m  1265.  He  then  pro- 
ceeded to  Palesdne,  where  he  si^ahzed 
his  valor  on  many  occasions,  and  mspired 


80  much  terror,  that  an  assassin  was  em* 
ployed  to  despatch  him,  from  whom  he 
received  a  wound  in  the  arm,  which,  m 
tradition  reports,  being  supposed  to  lie. 
from  a  poisoned  weapon,  was  sucked  by 
his  faithful  consort,  Eleanor  of  Castile. 
On  assuming  the  government,  he  acted 
with  great  vieor  in  tiie  repression  of  the 
lawlessness  of  the  nobles,  and  the  corrup- 
tion in  the  administration  of  justice ;  but 
often  evinced  an  arbitrary  and  grasping 
disposition.  In  1276,  he  summoned  Lle- 
wellyn, prince  of  Wales,  to  do  him  homage, 
and,  upon  his  refusal,  except  on  certain 
conditions,  commenced  the  war  which 
ended  in  the  annexation  of  that  priuci* 
pality  to  the  English  crown  in  1283.  Ed- 
ward then  ^)ent  some  time  abroad,  in 
mediating  a  peace  between  the  crowns  of 
France  and  Arragon,  and,  on  his  retum, 
commenced  his  attempt  to  destroy  the  in- 
dependence of  Scodand.  The  expense 
attendant  upon  tliis  strong,  but  unprinci* 
pled  policy,  was  such  that  Edward  was 
necessitated  to  use  every  expedient  to 
raise  supplies;  and,  fbr  this  purpose,  in 
the  twenty-tliird  year  of  his  reign,  he  sum- 
moned to  parliament  representatives  from 
all  the  boroughs  in  the  kingdom :  tliis  is 
therefbre  considered  by  some  authors  the 
true  epoch  of  the  formation  of  a  house  of 
commons  in  England.  After  his  rptum 
fh)m  the  Scottish  expedition  in  1296, 
which  terminated  in  the  capture  of  Baliol, 
he  became  involved  in  a  quarrel  with  his 
clersy,  who,  supported  bv  the  pope,  re- 
fused to  submit  to  a  tax  which  he  had  im- 
posed on  tiiem.  Edward  forced  their 
compliance,  by  placing  them  out  of  the 
protection  of  die  law.  His  frequent  ex- 
pedients to  raise  money  at  length  pro- 
duced great  discontent  among  the  nobles^ 
and  people  also,  which  obliged  him  to 
confirm  the  great  charter,  and  charter  of 
forests,  and  also  to  give  other  securities  in 
fiivor  of  public  liberty.  He  then  made  a 
campaign  in  Flanders  against  France^ 
which  terminated  with  the  recovery  of 
Guienne,  and  his  second  marriage  with 
Margaret,  the  sister  of  king  Phi  lip.  Mean* 
time  new  commotions  took  place  in  Scot- 
land, under  the  guidance  of  the  celebrated 
William  Wallace.  These  transactions 
recalled  Edward  from  Flanders,  who 
hastened  to  the  borders  vrith  an  army  of 
100,000  men.  The  events  of  this  mter- 
esting  campaign  cannot  be  detailed  here ; 
but  the  ignominious  execution  of  the 
brave  Wallace,  in  1303,  as  a  traitor,  fonns 
a  blot  in  the  character  of  Edward.  Nei- 
ther did  it  avail ;  once  Robert  Bruce  v^ras 
able,  in  1306,  to  place  himself  at  the  head 


Digitized  by  LjOO^IC 


406 


EDWARD  I— EDWARD  IH. 


of  a  B6W  confederacy.  Highly  indignant 
at  this  determined  spirit  of  resistance,  Ed- 
ward vowed  revense  against  the  whole 
Scottish  nation,  and,  assembling  another 
army,  was  on  the  point  of  passing  the  bor- 
der, when  he  was  arrested  by  sickness, 
and  died  at  Burgh-upon-Sands,  near  Car- 
lisle, July  7,  1307,  in  the  sixty-ninth 
year  of  his  age,  and  tliuty-ninth  of  bis 
reign.  Few  princes  have  exhibited  more 
viffor  in  action,  or  policy  in  council,  than 
Edward  I.  His  enterprises  were  directed 
to  pennanent  advantages,  rather  than  to 
mere  peisonal  ambition  and  temporary 
aplendor.  Nor  was  he  less  intent  upon 
the  uitemal  improvement  of  his  kingdom 
than  its  external  importance.  The  laws 
of  tlie  realm  obtainecl  so  much  additional 
•order  and  precision  during  his  reign,  tliat 
he  has  been  called  the  EngUak  JusHnian. 
He  passed  an  act  of  momnain,  protected 
«nd  encouraged  commerce;  and  in  his 
reign  fost  originated  tlie  society  of  mer- 
chant adventurers.  The  manners  of  this 
able  sovereign  were  courteous,  and  bis  per- 
4K>n  majestic,  although  the  disproporuon- 
ate  length  of  his  legs  gave  him  the  popu- 
lar surname  of  Longshanks,  He  left  a  sun 
and  three  daughters  by  his  first  wife,  El- 
eanor, who  died  in  1290,  and  two  sous  by 
^  second  wife,  Margaret  of  France. 

Edward  II,  kin^  of  England,  bom  at 
'Caernarvon  castle  m  1284,  and  the  first 
English  prince  of  Wales,  succeeded  bis 
iather,  Edward  I,  in  1307.  He  was  of  an 
agreeable  figure  and  mild  disposition,  but 
indolent  and  fond  of  pleasure.  After 
marching  a  little  way  into  Scotland,  with 
the  army  collected  by  his  lather,  he  re- 
turned, dismissed  his  troops,  and  aban- 
doned hinlself  entirefy  to  amusement 
His  first  step  was  to  recall  Piers  Graveston, 
a  young  Gfascon,  whom  his  father  had 
banished,  and  whom  he  created  earl  of 
Cornwall,  and  married  to  his  niece.  He 
then  went  over  to  France  to  espouse  the 
princess  Isabella,  to  whom  he  nati  been 
contracted  by  his  fiitlier.  Soon  after  his 
return,  the  barons  associated  against  the 
favorite,  Gaveston,  whom  they  more  than 
once  obliged  the  king  to  send  away.  He 
was,  however,  as  constantly  recalled  when 
the  immediate  danger  was  over,  until  an 
open  rebellion  took  pkce ;  and,  the  person 
of  Graveston  being  captured,  he  was  exe- 
cuted as  a  public  enemy.  In  1314,  Ed- 
ward assembled  an  iirmiense  army,  to 
check  the  progress  of  Robert  Bruce,  but 
was  completely  defeated  at  Bannockbum. 
After  the  deatii  of  Gaveston,  he  selected 
a  similar  minion  in  the  person  of  Hugh 
Spenser,  a  young  nobleman  whose  fiither 


was  living,  upon  whom  he  lavished  favois 
of  every  kind,  until  tlie  barons  again  re- 
belled, and,  the  parliament  dooming  the 
Spensers  to  exile,  the  king  was  obli^d  to 
confirm  the  sentence.  Edward,  however, 
on  this  occasion,  in  concert  widi  the  Spen- 
sers, contrived  to  raise  troops  and  attack 
the  barons,  at  the  head  of  whom  was  his 
cousin,  the  earl  of  Lancaster,  who,  being 
taken  prisoner,  was  executed  at  Pomfi^L 
Several  others  also  suftered,  and  tiie 
S[)enser8  were  enriched  with  the  spoils. 
Edward  subsequently  made  another  fniit- 
less  attempt  against  Scotland,  which  end- 
ed hi  the  conclusion  of  a  truce  of  thirteen 
years.  In  1324,  queen  Isabella  went  to 
France  to  settle  some  disputes  in  relation 
to  Guienne,  and,  whil^  there,  entered  into 
a  correspondence  with  several  English 
fijgitives,  in  whose  hatred  to  the  Spenseis 
she  participated.  Among  these  was  Roger 
Mortimer,  a  young  baron  of  the  Wekh 
marches,  between  whom  and  Isabella  a 
criminal  intercourse  succeeded,  in  conse- 

Suence  of  which  the  queen  was  still  more 
etennined  upon  the  ruin  of  her  weak  and 
unhappy  husband.  Having  fonned  an 
aasociauon  with  all  the  English  malcon- 
tents, and  bein^  aided  witii  a  force  by 
tlie  count  of  Hainaiilt,  she  embarked  for 
England  in  September,  1326,  and  landed 
in  Suffolk.  Her  forces  seized  the  Tower 
of  London  and  other  fortresses,  captured 
and  executed  both  the  Spensers  without 
trial,  and  at  length  took  tlie  king  prisoner, 
who  had  concealed  himself  in  WaJes,  with 
a  view  of  escaping  to  Ireland.  The  un- 
fortunate Edward  was  confined  in  Kenil- 
worth  castle,  and  in  January,  1327,  his 
deposition  was  unanimously  voted  in  par- 
liament, on  the  ground  of  iucapacir^  and 
misgovemraent  A  resignation  of  the 
crown  was  soon  after  extorted  from  hiin, 
and  he  was  transferred  to  Berkeley  castle, 
where  Mortimer  despatched  two  ruffian^ 
who,  it  is  said,  murdered  him,  by  thrusting 
a  red-hot  iron  into  his  liowels,  that  no  ex- 
ternal marks  of  violence  might  remain, 
21st  of  Sept,  1327,  in  the  twentieth  year 
of  his  reign  and  forty-third  of  his  afpe. 

Edward  III,  son  of  Edward  II,  by  Isa- 
bella of  France,  was  bom  in  1313.  On 
his  father's  deposition  in  1327,  he  was 
proclaimed  king,  under  a  council  of  re- 
gency, while  his  motlier's  paramour,  Mor- 
timer, really  possessed  the  principal  power 
in  the  state.  The  pride  and  oppression  of 
Mortimer  now  bec4une  so  intolerable,  tliat 
a  general  confederacy  was  fonned  against 
hiin,  at  the  head  of  which  was  the  young 
king  hunself,  who,  now  in  his  eighteentli 
year,  could  ill  brook  the  ascendency  o£ 


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EDWARD  m. 


407 


his  mother's  minion.  The  result  was  the 
seizure  of  Mortimer,  in  the  castie  of  Not- 
tiiiffham,  wliere  he  lodged  with  the  queen, 
and  bis  immediate  execution  upon  a  gib- 
bet The  queen  was  also  conhned  to  her 
house,  with  a  reduced  allowance,  and,  al- 
though treated  with  outward  respect,  nev- 
er again  recovered  any  degree  of  authori- 
ty.  Edward  now  turned  his  attention  to 
Scotland.  As^sted  by  some  principal 
English  nobles,  who  enjoyed  estate^  in 
that  country,  wliich  were  widilield  from 
them  contrary  to  the  terms  of  the  late 
treaty,  Edward  Balaol,  son  of  the  John  Bali- 
ol  to  whom  the  crown  had  been  awarded 
by  Edward  I,  raised  a  force,  and,  defeating 
the  Scots  in  a  great  battle,  set  aside  David 
Bruce,  then  a  minor,  and  was  crowned  at 
Scone,  in  l^SSL  Baliol,  beinff  driven 
awaj  on  the  departare  of  his  English  aux- 
iliaries, applied  to  Edward,  wlio  levied  a 
well-appointed  army,  with  which  he  de- 
fended tlie  regent,  Douglas,  at  tlie  femous 
battle  of  Halidown-hill,  in  July,  1333. 
This  victory  produced  the  restoration  of 
Baliol,  who  was,  however,  again  expelled, 
and  again  restored,  until  the  ambition  of 
Edward  was  called  off  by  a  still  more 
splendid  object  The  crown  of  France, 
by  the  Salique  law,  having  devolved  to 
Philip  de  Valois,  cousin-german  to  the  de- 
ceased kmg,  Charles  the  Fair,  Edward 
was  induct  to  claim  it  in  right  of  his 
mother,  that  monarch's  sister.  There  ex- 
isted other  claims  that  were  superior;  but 
these  consideradons  weighed  very  little 
with  a  young,  ambitious  monarch,  eager 
for  conquest  and  glory.  The  first  hostil- 
ities produced  nothing  of  much  moment 
Edward,  in  order  to  obtain  fresh  supplies, 
made  concessions  to  parliament  which  he 
never  intended  to  keep ;  and,  finding  his 
territory  of  Guienne  threatened,  he  sent 
over  a  force  for  its  defence,  and  quickly 
followed  himself,  accompanied  by  his  son 
Edward,  the  famous  black  prince,  all  his 
clxief  nobility,  and  30,000  men.  The 
memorable  battle  of  Crecy  followed,  Aug. 
25,  1346,  which  was  succeeded  bv  the 
siege  of  Calais.  In  the  mean  time,  David 
Bruce,  having  recovered  the  throne  of 
Scodand,  made  an  incursion,  at  the  head 
of  a  large  army,  into  England ;  but,  being 
met  at  Durham  by  a  much  inferior  force, 
raised  by  queen  rhilippa,  and  headed  by 
lord  Percy,  he  was  totally  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner,  with  many  of  his  principal 
nobles.  Philippa  went  over  to  her  hus- 
band at  Calais,  and,  by  her  interference, 
prevented  the  barbarous  execution  of  Eu- 
stache  de  St  Pierre  and  five  other  citizens, 
whom  Edward^  on  the  capitulation  of  the 


place,  had  determined  to  execute,  in  re  - 
venge  for  his  long  detention  in  the  sieg^. 
In  1346,  a  truce  was  concluded  with 
France.  The  year  1349  was  distinguished 
by  the  institution  of  the  order  of  die  car- 
ter ;  which,  owing  to  the  fame  and  chiv- 
alrous character  of  Edward  and  his  eldest 
son,  soon  became  one  of  the  most  illus*> 
triouB  orders  of  knigluhood  in  Europe. 
Philip,  king  of  France,  dying  in  1350,  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  John,  the  com- 
mencement of  whose  reign  abounded  with 
intestine  commotion,  and,  in  1355,  Ed- 
ward again  invaded  France  on  the  side 
of  Calau,  while  the  black  prince,  at  the 
same  time,  led  a  large  army  from  Gasco* 
ny.  Both  these  exi^itious  were  attend- 
ed with  much  plunder  and  devastation ; 
and  Edward,  being  recalled  home  by  a 
Scottish  inroad,  soon  repelled  it,  and  retal- 
iated by  carrying  fire  and  sword  from 
Berwick  to  Edinburgh.  During  this  time, 
the  prince  of  Wales  had  penetrated  from 
Guienne  to  the  heart  of  France,  where 
he  was  opposed  by  king  John,  at  the  head 
of  an  am^  nearly  five  times  more  Nu- 
merous. The  famous  battle  of  Poictiers 
ensued,  in  which  the  French  monarch 
being  taken  prisoner,  Edward  held  at  the 
same  time  in  captivity  the  kings  of  France 
and  Scotland,  the  moat  dangerous  of  his 
enemies.  John  was  taken  to  England, 
and  treated  with  the  greatest  respect ;  and 
David  was  soon  after  liberated  upon  ran- 
som. A  truce  had  been  made  with 
France  after  the  battie  of  Poictiers,  at  the 
expiration  of  which,  in  1359,  Edward 
once  more  passed  over  to  Calais  with  a 
lai^  array,  and  desolated  the  provinces 
of  Picardy  and  Champagne,  but  at  lengdi 
consented  to  a  peace,  which  was  con- 
cluded in  May,  1360.  Besides  the  stipu* 
lation  of  a  large  ransom  for  king  John, 
several  provinces  and  districts  in  tlje  soutli- 
west  of^  France  and  neighborhood  of  Cal- 
ais were  yielded  to  Edward,  who,  in  his 
turn  resigned  his  tide  to  the  crown  of 
France  and  duchy  of  Normandy.  The 
successor  of  John,  Charles  V,  invaded  the 
provmces  intrusted  to  prince  Edward,  tiien 
m  the  last  stage  of  declining  health,  and  Ed- 
ward had  the  mortification  of  witnesnng 
the  gradual  loss  of  all  his  French  posses- 
sions, except  Bordeaux  and  Bayonue,  and 
of  all  his  conquests  except  Calais.  In  the 
decline  of  life,  he  was  in  other  respects 
unfortunate :  becoming  a  widower,  he  fell 
into  a  species  of  dotage ;  and  an  artftd  nns* 
tress,  named  Alice  Piers,  so  abused  her 
influence,  that,  on  a  parliamentary  remon- 
strance, be  found  it  necessary  to  disuiisa 
her.    His  adminisuration  also  became  uo* 


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41)6 


EDWARD  in— EDWARD  IV. 


popular;  mid  faehad  the  affliction  of  wit- 
nessing bis  heroic  son,  Edward,  sink  a 
victim  to  a  lingering  iilnees ;  which  calam- 
ity he  surviyed  about  a  year,  dying  June 
21, 1377,  in  tlie  sixty-fifth  year  of  his.  age, 
and  fifty-first  of  his  reign. 

Ed  w  Alio,  prince  of  Wales,  sumamed 
the  Black  Prmce ;  one  of  the  most  chival- 
ric  and  heroic  characters  of  history,  the 
eldest  son  of  Edward  III  and  Philippa  of 
HainaulL  He  was  bom  in  1330,  and  at 
the  age  of  fifteen  accompanied  his  father 
in  his  invasion  of  France,  and  received 
from  him  the  honor  of  knighthood.'  The 
victory  of  Crecy,  which  king  Edward  left 
principaily  to  the  exertions  of  the  force 
under  his  son^a  command,  to  use  that  war- 
like king's  language,  **  showed  that  he 
merited  his  spurs*"  It  was  on  this  occa- 
sion that  he  assumed  the  motto  of  Ich 
dim  (I  serve),  used  by  aU  succeeding  prin- 
ces of  Wales,  and  derived,  it  is  said,  fi^m 
the  crest  of  the  king  of  Bohemia,  slain  in 
that  battle,  which  tradition,  however,  later 
antiquaries  seem  disposed  to  discredit 
In  1355,  he  commanded  the  army  which 
invaded  France  from  Gascony,  and  the 
next  year  fought  the  great  battle  of  Poic- 
tiers  (see  Edward  III),  and  distinguished 
himsetf  b^  the  courtesy  with  which  he 
treated  his  prisoner,  king  John.  By  the 
peace  of  Bretagne,  his  father  had  obtained 
the  provinces  of  Poictou,  Saintonge,  Peri- 

Siux,  Limousin,  &c.,  which  he  annexed  to 
uienne,  and  formed  into  a  soverei^lv 
for  his  son,  under  the  title  of  the  pnnci- 
pality  of  Aquitain.  There  the  prince  took 
up  his  residence ;  and  at  his  court  Pedro 
the  Cruel  sought  refuge,  when  driven 
from  his  tbroue-  by  his  natural  brother, 
Henry  of  Trastamare.  Edward  under- 
took  the  reestablish ment  of  this  tyrant, 
which  he  accomplished,  but  lost  his  health 
in  the  enterprise.  Disappointed,  by  the 
perfidy  of  Pedro,  of  the  stipulated  reim- 
Duraements,  the  taxes  be  was  obliged  to 
levy  on  his  new  subjects  rendernl  his 
government  unpopular;  and  an  apfwal 
was  made  to  the  king  of  France,  as  his 
Kege  lord,  who  summoned  him  as  his  vas- 
sal to  appear  at  Paris.  ^  I  will  come," 
replied  the  angry  ])rince,  **  but  it  sliall  be 
at  the  head  of  60,000  men."  His  health, 
however,  was  too  far  declined  to  enable 
him  to  take  the  field,  when  the  king  of 
France  invaded  his  dominions ;  and,  hav- 
ing suffered  the  nioitificadon  of  seeing  his 
generals  defeated,  he  withdrew  into  Eng- 
land, and  after  lingering  some  time,  died, 
June  8, 1376^  in  his  forty-sixth  year,  leaving 
an  only  son,  afterwards  Richard  II. 
£nwAU>  IV,  king  of  England,  was  bom 


in  1441.  His  fiithcr,  Richard,  duke  of 
York,  was  grandson  of  Edward,  eari  of 
Cambridge  and  duke  of  York,  fourth  sott 
of  Edwanllll,  while  the  Lancaster  branch 
descended  from  John  of  Gaunt,  the  third 
eon.  The  York  line  had  intermarried 
with  the  female  descendants  of  Lionel, 
the  second  son,  which  gave  it  the  prefer- 
able right  to  the  crown.  Edward,  on  the 
defeat  and  death  of  his  father  at  the  battle 
of  Wakefield,  asumed  his  title,  and,  hav- 
ing entered  London,  was  declared  king 
by  acclamation  in  1461.  Soon  after  his 
accession,  he  had  to  fight  for  his  crown 
against  an  army  of  00,000  Lancastrians 
assembled  in  Yorkshire ;  and  the  field  of 
Towton  confirmed  his  title  by  a  decisive 
victoiy.  Although  the  high-spirited  Mar- 
garet was  enabled,  by  the  aid  of  Louis  XI 
of  France,  again  to  take  the  field,  the  re- 
suh  of  tlie  battle  of  Hexham,  in  May,  1464, 
obliged  lier  to  return  to  Flanders,  and 
leave  her  husband,  the  imbecile  Henry,  a 
prisoner  in  the  hands  of  his  enemies,  who 
unmured  him  in  the  Tower  of  London. 
Freed  from  warlike  cares,  Edward  indulg- 
ed himself  in  the  gallantries  too  conunon 
to  his  age  and  station,  and,  by  a  marriage 
of  passion  with  Elizabeth  Woodville,  wid- 
ow of  nr  John  Grey  of  Groby,  a  Luicas- 
trian,  betrayed  himself  into  very  serious 
difficulties,  since,  at  the  same  time,  be 
had  despatched  the  eari  of  Warwick  to 
negotiate  a  marriage  fbr  him  with  Bona 
of  Savoy,  sister  to  the  <jueen  of  France : 
so  that  he  at  once  oftended  two  royal 
houses,  and  his  powerful  friend,  War- 
wick. Aided  by  France,  Warwick,  who 
had  contracted  his  daughter  to  tlie  Lan- 
castrian prince  Edward,  landed  with  Clar- 
ence and  some  other  lords  at  Dartmouth ; 
and  such  was  his  popularity,  that  be 
quickly  saw  himself  at  the  head  of  60,000 
men,  with  whom  he  marched  to  encoun- 
ter £dward«  They  approached  each  oth- 
er near  Nottinffham,  where  the  king,  by 
the  treachery  of  the  marquis  of  Montague, 
in  whom  he  placed  great  confidence,  nad 
nearly  l)een  betrayed  into  the  hanils  of  his 
enemies.  He  had  iust  time  to  mount  on 
horseback,  and  with  a  few  attendants  pro- 
ceed to  LYnn,where  he  instantly  embaiiced, 
and  reached  a  port  in  Holland,  leaving 
Warwick  in  full  possession  of  his  king- 
dom, eleven  days  afler  he  had  set  his  foot 
in  it.  Henry's  title  was  again  recognised 
bypariiainent,and  Warwick  and  Clarence 
were  declared  re^ts  of  the  kingdom. 
Edward,  who  at  first  had  been  received 
rather  coldly  by  his  brother-in-law,  the 
duke  of  Bur^ndy,  was  at  lengtli  secredy 
— '—J  by  lum  with  a  small  squadron  of 


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EDWARD  IV— CHARLES  EDWARD: 


409 


flhips,  and  a  force  of  about  2000  men,  with 
which  be  safely  reached  Ravenspur,  in 
Yorkshire.  Here  his  forces  quickly  in- 
creased by  partisan»from  all  quarters,  and 
he  was  soon  enabled  to  march  to  London, 
where,  through  the  influence  of  many  rich 
merchants  who  had  advanced  him  money, 
he  obtained  entrance  as  king,  and  the  un- 
fortunate Henry  again  became  prisoner. 
Warwick  advanced  against  him  as  far  as 
Bamet,  where,  on  the  14th  of  April,  1471, 
another  great  battle  was  fought,  which 
ended  in  the  death  of  Warwick,  and  a  de- 
cisive victory  on  tlie  part  of  Edward.  On 
the  same  day,  queen  Margaret  and  her  son 
Edward  landed  at  Weymouth, and  march- 
ed into  Gloucestershire,  where  she  was 
met  by  the  victorious  Edward,  who  totally 
defeated  her  at  Tewkesbury.  The  queen 
and  her  son  Edward,  being  taken  prison- 
ers, and  brought  into  the  presence  of  the 
victor,  Edwara  asked  the  latter  how  he 
dared  to  invade  his  dominions.  On  re- 
ceiving a  spirited  answer,  he  basely  struck 
the  captive  prince  on  the  face  with  his 
gauntlet — the  signal  for  immediate  massa- 
cre by  the  king's  brothers  and  other  nobles 
attendant  Margaret  was  thrown  into  the 
Tower,  where  Henry  VI  soon  after  died, 
but  whether  by  violence  or  by  disease  is 
uncertain.  Edward  now  once  more  re- 
signed himself  to  pleasure  and  fpyety, 
until  seized  with  a  desire  to  make  French 
conquests.  Baffled  by  the  arts,  intrigues 
and  money  of  Louis  XI  (which  he  con- 
deacended  to  accept),  these  attempts  ended 
in  nothing  of  importance.  The  latter  part  of 
his  reign  was  disturbed  by  his  jealousy  of 
bis  brother  Clarence.  The  consequence  of 
this  ill-will  was  the  attainder  of  Clarence, 
who  was  indulged  in  his  desire  of  meeting 
his  death  by  immersion  in  a  butt  of  Malm- 
sey wine.  Edward  was  preparing  for 
another  expedition  against  France,  when 
he  was  taken  off  by  sickness,  in  April,  1483, 
in  tlie  forty-second  ^ ear  of  his  age,  and 
twenty-third  of  his  reign.  He  left  two  sons 
and  five  daughters.  Edward  IV  possessed 
some  abihty  and  activity,  but  was, 
however,  more  showy  than  solid.  His 
▼alor  was  stained  by  cruelty,  and  he  was 
less  fitted  to  prevent  evils,  than,  by  his 
courage  and  enterprise,  to  remedy  tliem. 

Edward  V,  king  of  England,  the  eldest 
son  of  Edward  Iv,  was  in  his  thirteenth 
year  when  he  succeeded  his  father,  in 
1483.  His  uncle,  the  duke  of  Gloucester, 
the  regent,  caused  the  young  king  and  his 
brother,  who  were  lo^d  in  the  Tower, 
to  be  smothered  by  rufiians.  Two  bodies, 
answering  their  description,  being  found 
buried  at  the  foot  of  the  stairs  of  their 

TOL.  IV.  35 


apartment,  in  the  reign  of  Charies  II,  were 
taken  up  by  that  king's  order,  and  depos- 
ited in  Westminster  abbey. 

Edward  VI,  king  of  England,  son  of 
Henry  VIII,  by  Jane  Sevmour,  was  bom 
in  1^8.  At  his  father's  death,  he  was 
only  nine  years  of  age,  and,  as  he  did  not 
live  to  attain  majority,  the  public  acts  of 
his  reien  are  to  be  deemed  those  of  his 
counsellors.  His  education  was  intrusted 
to  men  of  the  first  character  for  learning, 
among  whom  were  sir  Anthony  Cooke 
and  sir  John  Cheke.  The  progress  of  the 
young  king,  whose  disposition  was  very 
docile  and  amiable,  was  great,  especially 
in  classical  acquirements,  and  a  rooted  zeal 
for  the  doctrines  of  the  reformation.  His 
reign  was,  on  the  whole,  tumultuous  and 
unsetded.  After  his  father's  death,  his 
maternal  uncle,  Seymour,  duke  of  Somer- 
set, became  protector;  but  his  adminis- 
tration raised  up  such  powerful  enemies, 
that  he  was  brought  to  the  scaffold.  Ed- 
ward was  much  afflicted  at  the  necessity 
of  consenting  to  his  execution,  and  with 
equal  reluctance  consented  to  the  death 
of  a  fanatical  female,  named  Joan  Bocher, 
who  was  sentenced  to  the  flames  for 
heresy.  When  Cranmer  urged  Edward 
to  sign  the  warrant  for  her  execution,  he 
lonff  resisted,  and  at  length,  overcome  by 
his  importunities,  told  him,  that  if  it  was 
wrong,  the  guilt  lay  with  him.  After  the 
death  of  Somerset,  Dudley,  duke  of  North- 
umberland, became  all  powerful,  and 
through  his  influence,  Edward,  in  a  de- 
clining state  of  health,  was  induced  to  set 
aside  the  succession  of  botli  his  sisters, 
and  to  settle  the  crovni  upon  tlie  ladv 
Jane  Grey,  claiming  through  his  father's 
younger  sister,  the  duchess  of  Suffolk. 
His  decease,  from  a  pulmonary  complaint, 
soon  afler  followed,  July  6, 15^,  in  the  six- 
teenth year  of  his  age,  and  seventh  of  his 
reiffn. 

Edward,  Charles,  called  the  Preteni- 
or,  grandson  of  James  II,  king  of  England, 
son  of  James  Edwanl  and  Clementine, 
daughter  of  prince  Sobiesky,  was  bom  in 
1720,  at  Rome,  where  his  father  enjoyed 
the  friendship  of  the  popes  Clement  XI 
and  Innocent  XIII.  The  last  scion  of 
the  royal  house  of  Stuart,  fix}m  the  very 
cimlle  he  was  inspired  with  an  impulse, 
that  induced  him,  at  the  eariy  age  of  22,  to 
attempt  the  recovery  of  the  tlirone  of  his 
ancestors.  Supported  by  tlie  court  of 
Rome,  he  went  to  Paris  in  1742,  disguis- 
ed as  a  Spanish  courier,  and  succeeded  in 
gaining  over  to  his  views  Louis  XV. 
15,000  men  were  on  the  point  of  sailing 
fiiom  DunkiriL  for  England,  when  the 


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410 


CHARLES  EDWARD— EDWARD& 


English  admiral  Norris  dispersed  the 
whole  French  fleet,  before  it  had  gained 
the  open  sea.  This  prevented  the  French 
court  fi-om  undertaking  a  second  expedi- 
tion ;  all  the  requests  of  Edward  were  m 
vain,  and  he  now  resolved  to  trust  to  his 
own  exertions.  With  borrowed  money, 
and  seven  trusty  officers,  he  landed  hke  a 
knight-errant,  June  27, 1745,  on  the  north- 
western coast  of  Scotland,  from  a  ship  of 
18  guns,  which  contained  arms  for  1500 
men.  The  attempt  succeeded,  and  he 
found  so  many  adherents  among  the  dis- 
contented Scotch  nobles,  who  went  over 
to  his  party,  together  with  the  Highland- 
ers under  them,  tliat  he  was  soon  at  the 
head  of  a  little  army.  With  thb  he 
marched  forward,  conquered  the  English 
troops,  which  advanced  to  meet  him  from 
Edinburgh,  captured  Pertli,  and  caused 
himself  to  be  proclaimed  regent  of  Eng- 
land, Scotland  and  Ireland.  He  also  took 
Edinburgh,  September  19, 1745,  where  he 
was  once  more  proclaimed  regent,  and 
Kurrounded  with  his  ministers  and  gene- 
rals. France  sent  him  support  Septem- 
ber 2i,  1745,  he  defeated  at  Preston  Pans 
an  army  of  4000  English.  He  set  the 
prisoners  at  lilierty.  His  force  was  now 
7000  strong.  With  trijs  he  advanced,  and 
laid  siege  to  Carlisle,  November  26,  which, 
afler  thi'ce  days,  surrendered,  and  suppli- 
ed him  with  a  great  number  of  arms.  He 
now  caused  his  father  to  be  proclaimed 
king,  and  himself  regent  of  England,  re- 
moved his  head-quarters  to  Manchester, 
and  soon  found  himself  within  100  miles 
of  London,  where  many  of  his  fiiends 
awaited  his  arrival.  The  rapid  successes 
of  the  adventurer  made  the  English  gov- 
ernment tremble ;  and  a  part  of  the  English 
forces  in  Germany  was  recalled.  Want 
of  support,  disunion  and  jealousy  among 
the  adherents  of  the  house  of  Stuart,  some 
errors,  and  the  superior  force  opposed  to 
him,  compelled  prince  Edward  to  retire 
in  the  bemnning  of  1746w  The  victoir  at 
Falkirk  (January  23,  1746)  was  his  last 
As  a  final  attempt,  he  risked  the  batde  of 
Culloden,  against  the  duke  of  Cumber- 
land, April  27,  1746,  in  which  his  army 
was  defeated,  and  entirely  dispersed.  The 
]>rince  now  wandered  about  for  a  long 
time  through  the  wilds  of  Scotland,  often 
without  fbod,  and  the  price  of  £30,000 
sterling  was  set  upon  his  head.  He  was 
at  last  discovered  b^  his  most  faithful 
fiiend  O^Neil,  a  Scottish  nobleman :  they 
escaped  detecticm  by  sailing,  in  a  misera- 
ble ski^  from  island  to  iwand,  and  wan- 
dering from  valley  to  valley,  pursued  by 
a  thousand  dangers ;  for  constant  Bearch 


wa0  made  for  Charles  in  eveiy  direction. 
At  Lochuanach,  he  was  formaate  enough 
to  meet  one  of  the  French  frigates,  which 
had  been  sent  for  his  rescue.  September 
29, 1746,  ^ve  months  after  the  defeat  of 
Culloden,  he  soiled  fix)m  Scotland,  and 
arrived  in  France,  destitute  of  every  tluDg. 
By  the  interest  of  madame  de  Pompadour, 
prince  Edward  now  received  an  annual 
pension  of  200,000  livres  for  life;  he  had 
also  12,000  doubloons  yearly  fit>m  Spain, 
The  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (1748)  de- 
prived  him  of  all  prospect  of  recovering  the 
throne  of  England ;  and  when  he  heard 
that  his  own  removal  from  France  was 
stipulated  in  the  articles  of  peace,  his  an- 
ger knew  no  bounds.  It  became  neces- 
sary to  cany  him,  under  a  guard,  to  thA 
frontiers  of  Italy.  He  went  to  Rome,  Uie 
residence  of  his  father,  James  HI;  but 
his  relations  to  the  Roman  court  were 
changed  after  his  father's  death,  Januaiy 
1, 1766.  His  often  ridiculous  requests  in 
regard  to  the  etiquette  to  be  observed  to- 
wards him,  which  he  made  mider  the 
name  of  count  of  Albany,  rendered  his 
presence  troublesome.  He  went  to  Flor- 
ence, till  Pius  VI  recalled  him  to  Rome,  by 
withdrawing  his  pension.  Tliat  his  fam- 
ily might  not  become  extinct,  he  married, 
in  the  52d  year  of  his  age,  April  17, 1772, 
a  princess  of  Stolberg-Gedeni.  But  his 
violence  led  to  a  separation,  in  1780.  (See 
Many)  Edward  now  became  addicted 
to  intoxication.  He  died  January  31, 1788, 
in  tlie  68th  year  of  his  life.  Three  years 
before,  he  sent  for  his  natural  dau^rhter 
from  France,  legitimated  her,  and  declared 
her,  on  his  roval  authority,  his  lawful 
heiress,  under  the  title  of  countess  of  Al- 
bany. His  body  was  carried  to  Frascati, 
and  entombed  in  a  style  worthy  of  a  king. 
A  sceptre,  crown,  sword,  and  the  escutch- 
eons of  England  and  Scotland,  adomed  his 
coffin,  and  his  only  brother  then  living, 
the  cardinal  of  York,  performed  the  fune- 
ral service  for  "  dead  king  Charies."  The 
cardinal  of  York  received  from  England 
an  annual  pension  of  £4000  sterling,  from 
the  year  1799,  and  died  at  Frascati,  July 
13, 1807.  The  Stuarts  ruled  in  Scotland 
400  years,  and  in  England  85  years. 

Edwards,  Bryan,  historian  of  the  West 
Indies,  was  bom  at  Westbury,  in  Wilt- 
shire, in  1743.  On  the  death  of  his  fiither» 
in  adverse  circumstances,  he  acquired  the 
protection  of  his  maternal  uncle,  a  peraon 
possessed  of  great  property  in  the  island 
of  Jamaica.  He  inherited  not  only  the 
large  fortune  of  his  uncle,  but  of  a  Mr. 
Hume,  of  Jamaica,  and,  becoming  an  emi- 
nent merchant,  returned  to  England,  and^ 


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EDWARDS. 


411 


in  1796,  took  his  seat  for  the  borough  of 
Grampoiuid,  which  he  represented  until 
his  death,  in  July,  1800.  His  first  publi- 
cation was  a  pamphlet,  entitled  Thoughts 
on  the  Trade  of  the  West  India  Islands 
With  the  U.  States,  1784 ;  this  was  fol- 
lowed by  his  Speech  on  the  Slave  Trade ; 
but  his  most  distinguished  performance  is 
his  History,  civil  and  commercial,  of  the 
Bridsh  Colonies  in  the  West  Indies,  1793, 
2  vols.  iXxK  A  new  edition  of  this  work, 
published  after  bis  death,  in  1801,  3  vols. 
@vo.,  includes  a  History  of  St.  Domingo. 
Air.  Edwards  also  pubhshed,  in  1796,  the 
Proceedings  of  tlie  Governw  and  Assem- 
bly of  Jamaica,  in  regard  to  the  Maroon 
Negroes,  8vo.  All  these  works  are  valu- 
able for  their  information,  and  are  written 
with  ease  and  elegance. 

Edwards,  Jonathan,  the  most  cele- 
brated of  American  metaphysicians  and 
theologians,  whom  Dugald  Stewart  de- 
scribes as  **  indisputably  the  ablest  cham- 
pion of  the  scheme  of  necessity  since  the 
time  of  Collins,"  was  bom  in  East 
Windsor,  Connecticut,  October  5,  170a 
His  father,  a  minister  of  the  gospel,  in- 
structed him  in  the  dead  lauguafies. 
Jonathan  entered  Yale  college,  in  New 
Haven,  in  September  1716,  where  he 
was  distinguished  for  good  morals,  dili- 
gence, and  proficiency  in  the  collea^ate 
studies.  At  fourteen,  he  read  with  pleas- 
ure Locke  on  the  Human  Understanding. 
His  habits  of  application  and  thought,  and 
his  delight  and  success  in  metaphysical 
studies,  were  extraordinary.  PaperB,  in 
his  hand-writing,  show,  that  at  fourteen 
he  conceived  the  design  of  composing  a 
complete  Treatise  on  Natural  Philosophy 
and  Natural  History,  including  Chemistry 
and  Geology.  His  piety,  his  devotion  to 
the  Bible,  and  his  propensity  for  theologi- 
cal inquiries,  were  equally  remarkable. 
In  1720,  be  took  his  first  degree,  and  re- 
mained nearly  two  years  at  Yale,  pre- 
paring for  the  ministry.  In  1722,  he 
went  to  New  York,  where  he  preached 
for  about  eight  months,  with  great  distinc- 
tion. In  September,  1723,  he  was  elected 
a  tutor  in  Yale  college,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  began  to  act  in  that  capacity,  but 
resigned  his  oflSce  in  1726,  in  order  to  be- 
come the  minister  of  the  people  of  North- 
ampton, where  he  was  ordained  Febru- 
aiy  15, 1727.— The  record  of  his  labois  as 
a  pastor,  divine,  and  metaphysical  writer, 
is  edifying  in  die  highest  degree.  His 
various  sermons  and  disquisitions  procur- 
ed for  him  a  wide  reputation.  His  Trea- 
tise on  Reli^ous  Afiections  was  imme- 
diately repuUished  in  England  and  Scot- 


land, and  placed  him  among  the  first 
writers  of  his  sect  After  more  than  three 
years  of  zealous  service  in  Northampton, 
a  total  rupture  occurred  between  him  and 
his  congregation,  owing  to  the  candor  and 
boldness  with  which  he  publicly  reproved 
certain  irregularities  of  some  young  per- 
sons of  the  principal  femilies  connected 
with  his  church.  An  ecclesiastical  coun- 
cil dismissed  him  in  June,  1750 ;  and,  in 
the  following  year,  he  accepted  a  call  to 
serve  as  a  missionary  among  tlie  Indians 
at  Stockbridge,  in  Massachusetts.  Here 
he  remained  six  years,  exerting  himself 
with  an  apostolical  spirit,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  prosecuting  the  deepest  investiga- 
tions m  mental  philosophy.  Here  he 
composed  his  fiunous  works  on  the  Free- 
dom of  the  Will,  and  on  Original  Sin.^ 
The  first  is  liis  masteqiiece,  and  worthy 
of  the  powers  of  a  Locke  or  Leibnitz.  It 
was  completed  within  the  space  of  four 
months  and  a  half.  The  date  of  its  first 
appearance  is  the  eariy  part  of  1754.  In 
1757,  he  was  chosen  president  of  the  col- 
lege at  Princeton,  New  Jersey,  and  ac- 
cepted this  invitation,  though  not  without 
reluctance,  on  account,  chiefiy,  of  his  de- 
sire to  accomplish  two  great  Hterory  enter- 
prises, which  he  had  faSgun  long  before — 
a  History  of  the  Work  of  R^emption, 
and  a  View  of  the  Harmony  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament  In  January,  1758, 
he  repaired  to  Princeton,  where  the  small- 

Eox  then  prevailed.  He  was  inoculated 
y  the  physician  of  the  college.  **  He  had 
the  malady  favorably,  but  a  secondary 
fever  set  in,  and,  by  reason  of  a  number 
of  pustules  in  his  throat,  the  obstruction 
was  such,  that  the  medicines  necessary  to 
check  the  fever  could  not  be  administered. 
This  disorder  put  an  end  to  his  life,  March 
22,  1758,  in  die  55th  year  of  his  age." 
This  eminent  man  gave,  to  die  last  mo- 
ment, an  admirable  example  of  Christian 
gatience,  resignation  and  hope.  He  left 
ve  daughters  and  three  sons.  One  of  his 
sons  was  president  of  the  college  at  Sche- 
nectady, New  York,  having  been,  like  his 
father,  a  tutor  in  the  institution  in  which 
he  was  educated ;  subsequently  dismissed 
from  a  parish  under  his  care  on  account 
of  his  religious  opinions,  setded  again  in  a 
retired  situation,  elected  to  the  president- 
ship of  a  college,  and  called  to  leave  this 
world  shortiy  after  his  inauguration,  and 
nearly  at  die  same  age  with  his  father. — 
The  physical  constitution  of  Edwards  (the 
father)  was  extremely  delicate;  but  his 
mind  was  so  active  and  well  disciplined, 
that  he  was  able  to  produce,  besides  the 
worits.  already  mentioned,  a  very  large 


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412 


EDWARDS— EEL. 


number  of  tracts  and  sermons.  Various 
narratives  of  his  life,  and  editions  of  his 
works,  have  been  printed  in  Great  Britain 
aud  die  United  States.  The  latest  is  in 
ten  octavo  volumes,  published  in  1830, 
at  New  York,  and  edited  from  original 
materials,  by  Sereno  E.  D  wight.  The 
first  volume  is  nearly  occupied  by  the  me^ 
moir  of  his  life,  comprising  his  resolu- 
tions, diaiy,  and  a  part  of  his  correspon- 
dence. The  description,  which  he  has 
furnished,  of  his  own  mind,  temperament, 
theoloffical  sentiments,  and  literary  pro- 
jects, deserves  particularly  to  be  consitlted. 
He  wrote  with  perspicuity,  tliough  not 
with  ele^nce,  and  generally  in  a  rugged 
and  negligent  style. 

Edwy,  kuig  of  England,  son  of  Ed- 
mund I,  succeeded  his  uncle  Edred  in 
955.  Taking  part  with  the  secular  clergy 
against  tlie  monks,  he  uicurred  the  con- 
firmed enmity  of  the  latter.  Having  call- 
ed Dunstan  to  account  for  his  share  in 
the  administration  in  the  preceding  reign, 
the  latter  refiised  to  attend  tlie  summons, 
and  was  in  consequence  banished.  His 
party  was,  however,  so  strong,  that  a  re- 
oellion  vras  excited,  and  Edwy  driven 
from  the  throne,  to  make  way  for  his 
brother  Edgar.  That  his  intrigue  or  mar- 
riage vrith  Elgiva,  may  have  given  a 
pretence  for  his  deposition  and  excommu- 
nication is  very  probable,  but  there  is  rea- 
son to  believe,  nom  his  youth  and  other 
circumstances,  that  the  stoiy  of  the  fate  of 
Elgiva,  as  related  by  Carte  and  Hume,  is 
materially  incorrecL    Edwy  died  in  959. 

Eel  ;  a  fish  well  known  from  its  peculiar 
form  and  savoiy  flesh.  Many  varieties 
of  eels  are  described  by  naturalists,  some 
tenants  of  fresh- water  streams,  others  in- 
habiting die  sea.  The  latter  acquire  a 
vast  size,  and  numerous  instances  are  on 
record  of  their  having  attacked  and  over- 
powered boys,  and  even  men,  while  bath- 
mg.  Gifted  with  prodigious  strength  and 
agility,  and  capable  of  inflicting  severe 
wounds  with  its  powerful  jaws,  the  sea  eel, 
or  conger,  must  prove  a  most  dangerous 
assailant,  when  encountered  in  its  native 
element  Fresh-water  eels,  inhabiting 
running  streams  with  gravelly  bottoms,  are 
said  to  be  uniformly  white  upon  the  belly, 
and  infinitely  more  delicate  than  those  of 
muddy  waters,  which  are  always  yellow, 
and  possess  a  peculiar  smell  and  flavor, 
very  disagreeable.  In  the  choice  of  its 
food,  the  eel  is  far  from  cleanly,  feeding 
indiscriminately  upon  all  kinds  of  small 
fish,  and  decayed  animal  matter ;  in  con- 
sequence of  which,  many  pei:sons  refuse 
to  eat  them.    In  the  seas  of  India,  there 


are  large  species  caught,  varied  unth  the 
most  b^utiful  colors,  resembling  serpents ; 
and  one,  in  particular,  has  so  much  the  as- 
pect of  one  of  these  reptiles,  as  to  bear  the 
name  of  snake  ed.  The  flesh  of  eels  is 
sapid  and  nourishing,  but,  owing  to  its 
fatness,  offensive  to  weak  stomachs.  Oil 
is  procured  from  sea  eels,  which  is  re- 
markably clear,  and  bums  veiy  brightly. 
A  curious  opinion  prevails  in  this  country 
as  to  the  properties  of  eel-skins  in  pre- 
ventuig  the  cramp,  so  dangerous  to  bath- 
ers. Soys  are  frequentiy  seen  with  one 
fastened  round  the  ankle  for  the  puryxifle 
of  averting  the  attack  of  this  dangerous 
spasm  while  in  the  vrater.  It  Is  needless 
to  observe,  that  the  virtues  ascribed  to  it 
are  very  apociyphal.  The  Romans  are 
said  to  have  fed  eels  upon  human  flesh ; 
and  one  of  the  most  cruel  of  the  emper- 
ors caused  his  slaves  to  be  thrown  alive 
into  the  fish-ponds  for  disobedience.  A 
similar  tale  is  related  of  Vedius  Pollio. 
Murttna  was  the  teim  used  to  express  the 
male  eel,  and  myrus  the  female.  The 
common  eel  belongs  to  the  subgenus  mu- 
ratia  of  Lacepede,  and  may  be  distin- 
guished thus :  dorsal  fm  commencing  very 
much  in  tlie  rear  of  the  pectorals ;  lower 
jaw  shorter ;  color,  olive-green  above,  sil- 
very or  yellowish  beneaSi.  In  the  sea 
eels,  or  congers,  the  dorsal  commences 
near  the  pectorals,  or  over  them,  and  tho 
superior  jaw  is  always  longest  The  con- 
ger of  our  seas  attains  the  length  of  five  or 
six  feet,  and  the  thickness  of  a  man's  leg. 
A  prejudice  exists  here  against  the  flesh, 
which  in  Europe  is  salted  in  large  quanti- 
ties. Some  kinds  of  eels  occur,  in  which 
there  are  no  perceptible  fins  whatever. 
Few  animals  are  more  tenacious  of  life ; 
they  continue  to  move  for  a  long  while 
when  deprived  of  the  head  and  skin,  pre- 
serving the  muscular  irritabili^  for  many 
hours  after  death.  Great  quantities  of  river 
eels  are  consumed  for  food  among  the  low- 
er classes,  and  the  numbers  taken  during  a 
night,  in  a  trap,  contrived  for  the  purpose, 
and  sunk  upon  the  bottom,  is  frequently 
enormous,  amounting  to  several  hundreds. 
A  barrel  or  box  is  used,  having  an  aper- 
ture cut  in  the  top,  to  which  is  attached 
a  stocking  or  tube  of  coarse  cloth,  which 
liaugs  down  in  the  interior ;  the  fish  enter 
witli  ease  from  without,  but  find  it  im- 
possible to  return.  At  day-light,  the  trap  is 
raised  to  the  surface,  and  the  captives  se- 
cured. In  England,  a  kind  of  trident  is 
used,  called  an  edspear,  A  fisherman 
wades  to  the  shallows,  and,  striking  his  spear 
in  the  mud  in  every  direction  around  him, 
the  eels,  reposing  on  the  bottom,  are  caught 


Digitized  by 


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EEL— EGEDE. 


413 


between  the  prongs,  and  shaken  into  a 
basket  The  respiration  of  most  subgen- 
era of  the  eel  family  is  conducted  tlirough 
lateral  openings  at  the  gills,  as  in  other 
fishes;  but  in  some  a  liferent  arrange- 
ment is  observed.  For  instance,  in  die 
tphagehranchua,  the  apertures  are  approx- 
imated under  the  throat,  and  in  tlie  syn^ 
hrtmchusj  tlie  external  orifice  of  the  gills 
18  a  single  hole  under  the  throat  A  great 
variety  is  observable  in  the  form  of  the 
air-bladder  of  these  fishes,  which  is  want- 
ing only  in  a  few  species.  Want  of  scales 
is  usually  mentioned  as  a  characteristic 
of  tiie  fiimily,  but  nevertheless  inaccurate- 
ly. Scales  do  exist;  but  they  are  veiy 
muiute,  and  so  imbedded  in  the  akin,  as 
to  be  imperceptible  in  tlie  recent  animal, 
though  sufficiently  evident  in  the  dried 
skin.  Some  marvellous  accounts  are  on 
record  of  the  migrations  of  eels  from  one 
river  to  another,  over  intervening  portions 
of  dry  land.  It  is  sufficiently  well  known, 
that  such  journeys  are  taken  by  these  fish, 
but  mostly  over  very  small  portions  of 
soil,  covered  with  damp  anas.  Authors 
relate  stories,  also,  of  eels  having  been 
rained  down  fit>m  the  clouds,  which  phe- 
nomenon is  accounted  for  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  raining  of  frogs,  small  fish- 
es, &C.,  frequently  mentioned  as  aston- 
ishing matters  by  the  ancient  writers. 
Eels  are  viviparous,  and  quite  productive. 

Effendi;  a  corruption  of  the  Greek 
word  tfWcvTiy?,  which  si^ifies  ton/,  or  ma$' 
ter,  in  the  modem  dialect,  and  is  pro- 
nounced cqfthendis,  or  aphendis.  It  is  a 
term  of  modem  use  in  the  Turkish  lan- 
guage, and  has  been  substituted  for  the 
Tartar  word  chdebi  (noble),  now  applied  to 
jiersons  of  inferior  rank.  Efferm  is  par- 
ticularlv  applied  to  the  civil,  as  aga  is  to 
the  military  officers  of  the  sultan ;  and 
both  are  used  in  conversation,  commonly 
joined  to  the  name  of  then-  office.  Thus 
the  sultan's  first  physician  is  called  Hakim 
effendif  the  priest  in  the  seraglio,  Jnum 
effendij  &c.  The  Has  effendi,  or  chan- 
cellor of  the  empire,  is  also  minister  of 
foreign  afiairs,  and  negotiates  witli  the 
amb^adors  and  interpreters  of  foreign 
nations.  Greek  children  are  in  the  habit 
of  calling  theu*  fathers  effendi  The  term 
is  oflen  used  much  in  the  same  way  as 
«r,  while  the  Greek  ku^os  may  be  com- 
pared to  our  Mr. 

Effiot,  to  execute  or  degrade  in.  The 
word  effigy  is  derive<l  from  the  Latin 
effigies,  picture  ;  and  the  phrase  at  the 
head  of  this  article  denotes  the  execution 
or  degradation  of  a  condemned  criminal, 
when  he  cannot  be  peraonally  apprehend- 


ed, by  subjecting  bis  picture  to  the  formal- 
ities of  an  execution ;  for  instance,  affixing 
the  picture,  with  a  rope  round  the  neck, 
to  the  gallows  (hanging  in  effigy).  This 
practice  is  still  condnued  sometimes  in 
Prussia,  and  probably  in  other  countriea 

Efflorescence;  a  term  applied  in 
chemistry  to  the  ciystals  of  certain  salts, 
which,  on  exposure  to  the  air,  part  with 
a  portion  of  their  water,  and  crumble 
down  into  a  white  powder.  (See  Ory«- 
tcUUzation,  under  the  article  Q^iesion,) 

EoALiT^  Philip,  that  is,  Philip  E<pudi- 
ty ;  the  name  adopted,  after  the  aboiidon 
of  monarchv  in  France,  by  Philip  Bour- 
bon Capet,  duke  of  Orleans,  (q.  v.) 

Egbert,  considered  the  firet  king  of 
all  England,  was  of  the  royal  family  of 
Wessex.  Egbert  served  in  the  armies  of 
Chariemagne.  On  the  death  of  Brithric, 
he  succeeded  him  as  king  of  Wessex,  in 
800.  He  reduced  the  other  kingdoms,  and 
rendered  them  dependent  on  him,  in  827. 
He  was  much  annoyed  by  tlie  repeated 
inroads  of  the  Danes.    Egbert  died  in  838. 

EoEDE,  John,  the  apostle  of  Greenland, 
was  bom,  1686,  in  Denmark,  and,  in  1707, 
became  a  preacher  at  Wogen,  in  Norway. 
Having  heard  that  Chrisdanity  had  been 
once  established  in  Greenland,  hnt  had 
become  extinct  in  the  country  for  want 
of  teachers,  he  was  filled  with  grief.  Af- 
ter the  most  careful  inquiry,  he  heard  that 
the  eastem  coast  of  Greenland  was  inac- 
cessible, on  account  *of  the  floating  ice, 
and  that  the  southem  was  inhabited  by 
savages.  He  resolved  to  visit  the  country, 
and  to  preach  the  gospel  to  the  uihabit- 
ants.  But  he  was  without  resources. 
The  merchants  in  Bergen  were  unwilling 
to  undertake  to  trade  with  Greenland,  and 
the  govemment  refused  his  petition  for 
ships,  money  and  men,  because  they  wero 
iutolved  in  a  war  with  Sweden  ;  the 
bishoiis  of  Bergen  and  Drontheim  praised 
his  noble  resolution,  but  were  unable  to 
help  him.  Having  collected  some  money 
to  aid  him  in  his  purpose,  he  resigned  hts 
charge,  received  from  the  Danish  govern- 
ment, after  die  conclusion  of  peace  with 
Sweden,  the  tide  of  royal  missionary  to 
Greenland,  with  a  small  pension  and 
three  ships,  one  to  remain  with  him,  an- 
other to  bring  back  the  news  of  his  arri- 
vfiJ,  and  a  tlurd  to  engage  in  the  whale 
fishery.  The  government  encouraged  die 
Berffen  merchants  to  establish  a  Green- 
land trading  company.  May  21,  1721, 
Egede  embarked,  with  46  persons  under 
his  command.  The  whaling-vessel  was 
wrecked;  the  other  two  reached  Green- 
land, but  an  extent  of  12  leagues  of  float- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQ  IC 


414 


EOEDE— E6ERT0N. 


ing  ioe  seemed  to  make  it  impoeBible  to 
land.  June  4,  they  finally  succeeded. 
The  appearance  of  the  countir  was 
wretched.  A  house  was  built,  and  called 
the  haven  of  hope.  The  conversion  of  the 
Greculanders  was  now  undertaken,  but 
offered  great  difficulties ;  and  the  whole 
colony,  tired  of  struggling  against  misery 
and  wretchedness  pi  every  desciiptjon, 
were  eager  to  return  to  Denmark.  £^e 
resolved  to  adopt  that  course ;  but  tlie  hrm* 
uesd  of  his  wife  prevailed  upon  them  all  to 
ramain,  and  trust  to  the  arrival  of  a  vessel 
&oin  Denmark  with  the  necessary  sup- 
phes.  June  27,  the  news  was  brought, 
that  t#ii  shifis-had  arrived  from  Demnark, 
with  the  iteeessary  articles,  and  letters 
which  contained  tlie  assurance  of  efficient 
support  In  the  mean  time,  Egede  had 
caused  his  son  Paul  to  paint  several  scenes 
fit>m  tlie  Bible,  perhaps  to  convey  to  the 
Greenlonders  some  idea  of  the  histonr,  or 
to  excite  their  curiosity.  As  this  did  not 
succeed,  he  took  up  his  residence,  witli 
his  two  sons,  among  tlie  natives,  in  onler 
to  learn  their  language.  He  carefully 
noted  down  every  wora  of  which  he  dis- 
covered the  meaning ;  he  oflen  performed, 
long  journeys,  at  tlie  peril  of  liis  life,  to 
visit  tlie  remotest  Greenhmders,  for  the 
)>urpose  of  gaining  their  confidence,  in 
which  he  succeeded  by  a  thousand  acts  of 
kindness;  he  also  endeavored  to  render 
the  trade  more  profitable  to  the  crown, 
which  sent  him  a  vessel  annually  with 
supplies.  Thouffh  he  was  unsuccessful 
in  learning  the  Tanguag;e,  his  two  sons, 
and  especially  Paul,  attained  it  with  little 
difficulty.  Egede,  therefore,  sent  him  to 
Copenhagen  for  four  years,  to  study  theol- 
ogy, that  lie  might  leave  liim  as  his  succes- 
sor in  Greenland.  Egede,  the  father,  after 
spending  15  years  in  Greenland,  amid 
innumerable  discouragements,  returned, 
in  1736,  to  Copenhagen,  to  make  new 
exertions  for  the  support  of  Christianity 
in  that  country.  The  government  ap- 
pointed liim  director  of  the  Greenland 
missions,  and  established  his  son  Paul  in 
tlie  office  of  missionary  there.  When 
a^e  rendered  him  incapable  of  the  exer- 
cise of  his  duties,  he  retired  to  the  island 
of 'Falster,  where  he  died,  1758.  His  wri- 
tings are  in  Danish,  and  have  been  tran^ 
lated  into  German.  They  relate  to  the 
natural  history  of  Greenland,  and  his  suf- 
ferings and  adventures  there. — His  son 
Paul  Egede,  bom  1706,  was  his  assistant 
from  tlie  time  he  was  12  years  old.  He 
vvcnt  to  Copenhagen,  in  17SS,  canying  with 
him  some  Greenlanders,  to  be  instructed  in 
various  trades :  they  all  soon  died  of  the 


small-pox.  Notwithstanding  a  strong  in- 
clination for  the  naval  service,  he  Bubmit- 
ted  to  the  wishes  of  his  fether,  emdied 
divinity,  and  took  charge  of  the  missioa 
in  Greenland.  In  this  undertaking  he 
embarked  in  1734,  carried  out  with  bim 
new  colonists,  and  remained  tiiere  till 
1740.  He  then  returned  to  Copenhagen, 
received  the  office  of  chaplain  in  the  hos- 
pital dedicated  to  the  Holy  Ghost,  and 
was  commisBioned,  also,  to  direct  the  af- 
fairs of  the  mission.  The  next  year,  he 
was  appouited  by  the  king  bishop  of 
Greenland.  He  (hed  in  17^.  We  have 
from  him  an  Account  of  Greenland,  ex- 
tracted from  a  Journal  kept  from  1721  to 
1788,  published  at  Coi>enha^n,  1789, 
12mo. ;  moreover,  a  Didionanum  Gnen- 
latuHcum,  Copenhagen,  1754;  a  Grom- 
matica  Grmnlandka ;  a  translation  of  the 
Gospels,  the  Pentateuch,  several  Danish 
prayera  and  liturgies,  and  the  Imitation 
of  Christ,  by  Thomas  i  Kempis,  in  the 
Greenland  tongue. 

Egeiun.    (See  Idocrait.) 

Egeria  ;  a  nymph  who  received  divine 
honore  among  the  Romans.  Numa  pre- 
tended to  have  secret  conversations  with 
her,  and  to  receive  from  her  the  laws 
which  he  gave  to  the  Romans.  Some 
say  Egeria  was  the  wife  of  Numa. 

EoERTON,  Francis  (duke  of  Bridgewa- 
ter);  an  English  nobleman,  very  highly 
distinguished  for  pubUc  spirit,  bom  in 
1726.  His  father,  the  first  person  who 
bore  the  tide  of  duke  of  Bridge  water,  had 
obtained,  in  1732,  an  act  of  parliament, 
authorizing  him  to  dig  a  canal  from 
Woreley,  one  of  his -estates,  containing 
very  vaJuable  coal  mines,  to  Manchester ; 
but  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  executing 
it  deterred  him  from  attempting  it.  Fran- 
cis Egerton,  by  the  dealn  of  bis  father 
and  elder  brother,  coming  into  possession 
of  the  great  estates  of  the  fimiily,  resolved 
to  complete  the  plan  of  his  father,  and 
succeeded,  by  the  help  of  Brindley  (q.  v.), 
a  self-taught  man  of  remarkable  ^uius^ 
To  effect  his  object,  he  hmited  his  per- 
sonal expenses  to  £400  a  year,  and  de- 
voted all  the  rest  of  his  income  to  his  great 
undertaking.  The  canal,  which  beara  the 
name  of  the  duke,  was  completed  in  five 
years,  afler  the  expenditure  of  immense 
sums,  and  enabled  him  to  supply  Man- 
chester and  the  neighboring  towns  with 
coal.  He  afterwards  extended  his  canal  to 
the  Mersey,  so  as  to  bring  Liverpool  into 
the  line  of  his  navigation.  The  suc^ress 
of  liis  imdenaking  was  so  great,  that  ca- 
nals were  now  projected  in  every  direc- 
tion.   Brindley  formed  the  grand  idea  of 


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EGERTON— EGINETAN. 


415 


establishing  a  water  commuiiication  be- 
tween London,  Bristol,  Liverpool  and 
Hull,  and  completed  it  in  part,  as  the 
duke,  in  1766,  b«gan  the  grand  trimk  nath 
igatvm,  so  callcMd,  whereby  the  rivers 
Trent  and  Mersey  were  united.  This  ca- 
nal, which  is  90  miles  long,  was  finished 
in  1777,  and  connects  Liverpool  and  Hull 
The  duke  of  Bridge  water  died  unmarried, 
in  1803.    (See  Canal,  and  Brindky.) 

Ego.  Birds,  reptiles,  fishes,  insects  and 
worms  bring  forth  eggs;  birds,  indeed, 
without  any  exception*  The  eggs  of  fish- 
es are  called  roe  or  tpaum.  They  contain 
the  germ  of  the  voung  animal,  and,  in 
this  respect,  resemble  the  seeds  of  plajits. 
Seeds  require  heat  and  moisture  to  devel- 
ope  tliem ;  and  a  great  part  of  their  sub- 
stance serves  for  me  nourishment  of  the 
germ.  So  it  is  with  eggs,  which  have,  in 
addition,  the  necessary  moisture  in  them- 
selves, and,  therefore,  only  need  external 
heat  for  their  developement  The  bird's 
e%^  consists  (1 .)  of  the  shell.  Immediately 
beneath  this  hard,  porous  covering  lies  firm- 
ly enclosed  (2l)  the  external  membrane, 
which  is  also  a  little  porous.  Next  comes 
(3.)  tiie  white  of  the  egg,  and,  lasdy,  (4.)  the 
yolk.  In  the  yolk  is  seen  a  smiall,  lens- 
shaped  speck,  in  which  is  found  a  htde 
oval  sack,  of  a  grayish  color.  This  is  the 
place  where  the  young  animal  is  developed. 
The  form  of  the  eggs  of  birds  is  generally 
more  or  less  of  an  oblong  round,  it 
is  different  in  other  oviparous  animals. 
Amongst  reptiles,  the  crocodile^  for  in- 
stance, has  a  cone-shaped  egff.  There  is 
a  great  variety  of  shades  in  me  colors  of 
birds*  eggs,  though  they  are  confined 
chiefly  to  white,  blue  and  green.  The 
spots,  points,  or  stripes,  with  which  many 
are  inarked,  run  in  coundess  desrees  ana 
shades,  from  red  into  gray,  ash-colored, 
&;c  The  egss  of  biHs,  especially  of 
hens,  are  a  pleasant  and  nutritive  food. 
Among  reptdes,  turdes  produce  eggs 
which  are  good  for  padng.  The  roe  of 
fishes  is  also  eaten,  and  caviare  is  com- 
posed wholly  of  tlie  eggs  of  fish.  The 
white  of  hens'  eggs  is  used  for  apphca- 
tions  in  complaints  of  the  eyes.  It  is  also 
made  use  of  for  clarifying  certain  liquors, 
whey,  sugar,  &c.  (See  CUxryicatym,) 
The  simple  white  of  eggs  also  furnishes  a 
shining  varnish  for  many  works  of  art, 
especiaUy  paintings  and  playing-cards. 
Mixed  with  powdered,  fi^i-bumt  lime, 
witli  brick-dust,  clay,  meal,  and  other 
substances,  according  to  circumstances,  it 
forms  a  very  strong  cement  To  preserve 
eggs  for  any  len^  of  tin^  they  must 
be  kept  from  the  air.    They  are  covered 


with  varnish  or  oil,  set  on  the  small  end, 
upon  a  perforated  board,  or,  which  is  still 
better,  they  are  placed  in  layers,  upon  the 
small  end,  in  very  dry  ashes,  in  chopped 
straw,  &C.,  enclosed  in  tubs  and  boxes,  and 
put  in  a  dry  place,  protected  from  severe 
cold  in  winter,  but  at  the  same  time,  not 
too  warm.*    (See  Haichiiw,) 

Egg-pulnt  (sdanwn  mdongtna) ;  a  her- 
baceous annual,  from  a  foot  CO  18  inches 
high,  a  little  branched,  and  more  or  less 
covered  with  a  substance  resembling  cot- 
ton :  the  leaves  are  oval,  sinuate,  ainl  pe- 
tiolate ;  the  flowers  large,  white,  or  p«ur- 
plisb,  lateral,  and  fi^quenUy  solitary ;  but 
sometimes  two  or  three  are  situated  upon 
a  common  divided  peduncle ;  the  calyx 
and  peduncles  are  rumished  with  a  few 
short  prickles ;  the  fiuit  is  very  lar^ 
smooth  and  shining,  and  generally  of  a 
violet  color,  but  sometimes  yellow  or 
white.  It  is  cultivated  in  the  warm  parts 
of  both  continents,  and  the  fruit  is  much 
used  as  an  article  of  food,  when  cooked, 
which  is  done  in  various  ways :  in  India, 
it  is  generally  served  up  with  sugar  and 
wine,  or  simply  sugared  water;  in  the 
south  of  France,  with  olive-oil.  There 
are  several  varieties,  one  of  which  bears  a 
white  fruit,  exactly  resembling  a  pullet's 
eg^y  and  has  been  sometimes  confounded 
with  anotiber  species,  which  is  acrid  and 
poisonous.  Egg-plants  are  now  much 
cultivated  in  some  parts  of  the  U.  States, 
and  have  become  a  well  known  article  in 
the  markets. 

EoiL  ScALLAO&iM ;  an  Icelandic  bard  or 
poet  of  the  10th  century,  who  distinguish- 
ed himself  by  his  warUke  expk>its  in  pred- 
atory invasions  of  Scotland  and  North- 
umberland. Haying  killed  in  combat  the 
son  of  Eric  Biodox,'king  of  Norway,  he 
was  doomed  to  death  on  being  subse- 

2uent]y  taken  {Misoner  by  that  prince, 
^ffil  demanded  permisraon  to  redeem  his 
life  by  giving  a  specimen  of  lus  powefs  as 
an  unprovisatore.  This  was  granted,  and 
he  inmiediately  composed  and  recited  a 
pDem  in  praise  of  Eric,  entitled  Egil'g 
hansom,  which  procured  him  his  life  and 
lib^ty.  This  piece  is  still  extant,  and  a 
Latin  version  of  it  was  published  by  Olaus 
Wormius,  in  his  LUeratura  Danica  JkSr 
quMma,  from  which  doctor  Percy  trans- 
lated it  into  English,  and  printed  it  in  his 
Northern  Antiquities. 
EoiNA.  (See  JEgina.) 
Eginetan  Stti^  of  Abt.  (See  JSEgi- 
nekmSb^) 

*  It  happens  not  very  rarely,  that  a  nnall^ej; 
is  found  within  one  of  common  size.    (See  / ' 


'•) 


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416 


EGINHARIV-EGMONT  ISLAND. 


Eoi9HARD  (Einard),  born  in  the  Oden- 
wakle ;  at  fint  the  companion  of  Charie- 
niagne,  then  his  private  secretary  and 
chaplain,  and  general  superintendent  of 
the  emperor's  nouses.  If  is  talents  and 
learning  gained  him  the  love  and  confi- 
dence of  Charlemagne,  in  whose  court  he 
was  educated,  and  induced  him  to  bestow 
on  Eginhard  his  daughter  Emma,  or  Im- 
ma,  in  marriage.  It  is  a  common  story,  the 
truth  of  which,  however,  is  much  doubt- 
ed, that  she  once  admitted  the  fair  young 
Gennan  to  a  nightly  interview  in  her  own 
room;  that  snow  fell  during  the  night, 
and  Emma  carried  her  lover  from  the 
casde  on  her  shoulders,  to  save  him  from 
detection;  the  emperor,  who  had  risen 
eariy,  saw  them  from  die  window,  and, 
instead  of  punishing,  united  them  in  mar- 
ria^.  On  tlie  death  of  the  emperor, 
Eginhard  left  his  wife,  entered  the  order 
of  Benedictine  monks,  and  became  first 
abbot  of  the  monastery  at  Seligenstadt,  in 
Darmstadt,  where  he  died,  839.  Egin- 
hard is  the  oldest  German  historian ;  and 
we  have  from  him  a  full  and  well-written 
history  of  the  life  (^Charlemagne,  which 
was  published  by  Schmink,  1711,  in  4to., 
witli  illust^tions  and  a  biography.  An 
edition  was  published  by  Bredow  (Helmst 
1806).  Egiuhard's  Annals  of  the  Franks, 
from  741  to  829,  appeared  also  in  1711, 
in  4to.,  at  Utrecht  His  letters,  which  are 
of  much  importance  as  contributions  to 
the  history  of  his  age  (Frankfort,  1714, 
fol.),  are  still  extant  A  plan  is  likewise 
ascribed  to  him  of  uniting  the  German 
ocean  with  the  Mediterranean  and  the 
Black  seas,  by  two  canals,  one  of  which 
was  to  form  a  connexion  between  the 
Moselle  and  Saone,  and  the  other  be- 
tween the  Rhine  and  the  Danube. 

Eois.    (See  JEgit.) 

EoisTHUs.    (See  ^AgamenmonJ) 

Eglantine  ;  one  ^  ihe  names  of  the 
sweetbrier  (roaa  rubifpnota);  but  there  is 
a  good  deal  of  confusion  in  its  application, 
and  it  is  oflen  given  indiscriminately  to 
other  species  of  rose. 

EoMONT,  Lamoral,  count  of,  was  bom 
1592,  of  an  illustrious  family  of  Holland. 
He  entered  tlie  military  service,  and  gained 
a  high  reputation  under  Charles  V,  whom 
he  accompanied  to  Africa  in  1544.  He 
distinguished  himself  as  general  of  cavalry, 
under  Philip  II,  in  the  battles  of  St  Quen- 
tin  (1557)  and  Gravelines  (1558).  Philip 
having  gone  to  Spain,  Egmont  took  part 
in  the  troubles  in  the  Low  Countries ;  he 
endeavored,  however,  to  adjust  the  difficul- 
ties between  the  duchess  of  Panna,  who 
governed  the  provinces,  and  the  nobles 


confederated  against  her.  He  even  swore, 
in  the  presence  of  this  princess,  to  sup- 
port the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  to  punish 
the  sacrilegious,  and  to  extirpate  hereticsL 
Still  his  connexion  with  the  prince  of 
Orange  and  his  most  distinguished  adhe- 
rents, made  him  an  object  of  suspicion  to 
the  court  of  Aranjuez,  and  Egmont,  with 
the  noble  Phihp  of  Montmorency,  count 
Horn,  became  the  victims  of  hate  and 
fanaticism.  The  duke  of  Alva,  who  was 
sent,  by  Philip  U,  to  the  Netheriands,  to 
reduce  the  insurgents,  ordered  them  both 
to  be  executed  at  Brussels,  June  5, 1563L 
Egmont  was  then  in  the  46ch  year  of  his 
age.  He  died  with  heroic  fiirnness.  The 
French  ambassador  announced  the  event 
to  his  court  with  these  words:  ''I  have 
seen  that  head  fiill  which  twice  made 
France  tremble.''  Egmont  had  before 
written  to  Philip  II,  tnat  **  he  had  never 
joined  in  any  undertaking  against  the 
Catholic  relidon,  nor  violated  his  duties 
as  a  loyal  subject'*  But  an  example  was 
thought  necessaiy  to  strike  terror  into 
others.  Philip  II  expressed  himself  thus 
on  the  subject :  **  he  had  caused  those  two 
heads  to  rail,  because  a  pair  of  such  sal- 
mon heads  was  worth  more  than  many 
thousand  frogs."  Egmont's  line  became 
extinct  in  Procopius  Francis,  count  of 
Egmont,  general  of  cavalry  to  the  king  of 
SDain,and  brigadier  in  the  French  service, 
wno  died  widiout  children,  at  Fraga,  in 
Arragon  (1707),  at  the  age  of  38  yean. 
(See  J.  J.  de  Cloet's  Eloge  kistoriqiu  du 
Conde  tPEgmofd,  &C.,  Brussels,  1825.) 
Maximilian  von  Egmont,  count  of  Buren, 
general  in  the  service  of  the  emperor 
Charles  V,  who  disdnguished  hinraelf  in 
the  wars  against  Francis  I,  belonged  to 
another  line. — ^A  well  known  drama  of 
Gothe,  called  Egmotitj  is  founded  on  the 
above  catastrophe;  yet  we  cannot  help 
thinking,  that,  if  poetry  oflen  gives  to  his- 
torical characters  a  fictitious  etevalion,  the 
reverbe  has  taken  place  in  this  instance, 
and  that  Egmont  in  history,  the  fatJier  of 
a  family,  is  peater  than  G6the's  Egmcnit, 
a  lover  and  imprudent  conspiiatpr. 

EoMoifT  IsLAifD,  in  the  Sout)i  Pacific 
ocean,  six  miles  long  and  four  broad,  is 
low,  and  full  of  trees.  Lon.  138°  dCX  W. ; 
lat  19°  W  S. 

Egmont  Island,  or  New  Gvernset; 
principal  island  in  the  group  called  Queen 
CharioiWs  ukauk,  in  the  South  Ptoific 
ocean.  According  to  the  account  given  of 
them  by  captain  Carteret,  the  inhabitants 
are  extremely  nimble,  vigorous  and  ac- 
tive, with  a  bravery  undismayed  by  the 
fire  of  musketry.     They  seem  as  fit  to 


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417 


live  in  the  water  as  on  land.  The  coon- 
try  in  general  is  mountainous,  covered 
with  woods,  and  intersected  with  many 
valleys  and  small  rivers.  This  island  is 
alK)ut  54  miles  in  length,  and  from  20  to 
32  in  breadth.  Lon.  166°  E. ;  laL  IP  S. 
EoRA,  EoER,  or  Chebbe  ;  a  town  in 
Bohemia,  in  Saatz,  capital  of  a  district; 
76  miles  west  of  Prague ;  Ion.  12°  21'  E. ; 
laL  50^  2f  N. ;  population,  8111 ;  houses, 
740.  It  was  formerly  imperial,  and  lias  a 
cnstle,  seven  churches,  an  hospital,  and  a 
Catliolic  gymnasium.  Near  it  are  some 
medicinal  springs,  the  waters  of  which 
are  exported  in  bottles,  sealed  with  Uie 
arms  of  the  town.  Wallenstein  was 
assassinated  here  in  1634.  The  popula- 
tion of  the  district,  23,000 ;  square  miles, 

loa 

EoRA,  or  EoBR ;  a  river  which  rises  in 
Bavaria,  and  runs  into  the  Elbe,  near 
Leitineritz,in  Bohemia. 

Egypt  (Mizraim,  Kham-Rahab ;  called 
by  tlie  Arabs,  Mtxr ;  by  the  Copts,  Khemi ; 
and  by  tlie  Turks,  El  KabU) ;  formerly  a 
mighty  empire,  the  seat  of  a  high  civihza- 
tion,  the  land  of  wonderful  creations  of 
human  power,  and  an  object  of  endless 
curiosity  to  the  philosophic  inquirer;  now 
a  Turkish  viceroyalty,  scarcely  a  fifth 
pavt  inhabited,  governed  W  a  pacha  or 
viceroy,  appointed  or  connrmed  by  the 
sultan.  This  pacha  is,  at  present,  Mo- 
hammed Ali,  a  man  of  great  &hilitv. 
jrpt  Ues  in  Nortli  Africa,  between  22° 
I  32°  N.  lat^  and  27°  and  34°  E.  Ion. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Mediterra- 
nean sea,  on  the  E.  by  the  Red  sea  and  by 
Arabia,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  the 
isthmus  of  Suez,  on  the  S.  by  Nubia,  and 
on  the  W.  by  Barca  and  the  great  desert. 
It  contains  about  200,000  square  miles,  of 
which  only  about  17,000  square  miles,  in 
the  valley  of  the  Nile  (600  miles  long, 
and  from  12  to  25  broad),  are  suscepdble 
of  cultivation.  The  population  is  dif- 
ferently estimated  at  from  2,500,000  to 
4,000,000.  Geographersdivide  it  into  Upper 
Egypt  (Sodd^  Middle  Eg^t  ( Voitam),  and 
Lower  Egypt  (Bahari),  mcluding  the  fer- 
tile Delta.  These  are  again  divided  into 
12  provinces,  each  of  which  is  governed 
by  a  bey,  and  which,  together,  contain 
about  2500  cities  and  villages.  Three 
chains  of  mountains  run  through  the 
country.  The  Nile  (the  Blue  river)  flows 
through  it  in  a  northerly  direction.  Be- 
sides Take  Moeris,  celebrated  in  antiquity, 
at  present  called  Bvicet  Karun  (Charon's 
lake),  and  almost  dried  up,  tliere  are 
others,  especially  the  natron  or  salt  lakes. 
The  climate  is  in  general  hot,  and  is  mod- 


erate in  Lower  Egypt  only.  The  great 
heat  produces  the  rankest  vegetation* 
The  simoom  (chamain^  a  formidable  south 
wind,  which  blows  at  mtervals  during  the 
first  50  days  after  the  vernal  equuiox,  the 
plague  and  ophthalmia  are  the  peculiar 
torments  of  Egypt  It  has  but  two  sea- 
sons— spring  and  summer :  the  latter  lasts 
from  April  to  November.  During  tliis 
period,  tlie  sky  is  always  clear,  and  the 
weather  hot.  In  the  spnng,  the  nights  are 
cool  and  refreshing.  The  greater  part  of 
the  land  is  arid,  and  covered  witli  burning 
sands;  but  wherever  the  waters  of  the 
Nile  are  conducted  in  canals  beyond  the 
natural  limits  of  their  overflow,  the  earth 
becomes  fertile,  and  firuts  thrive  virith 
great  luxuriance.  Com,  rice,  millet,  pulse, 
kitchen  vegetables,  melons,  sugar  cane, 
sweet  rush,  papjrrus  (peculiar  to  the  coun- 
try), flax  and  hemp,  onions,  carthamus  or 
siunron,  indigo,  aloe,  jalap,  coloquintida, 
saltwort  (saMa  9oda)y  cardamom,  cot- 
ton, palm-groves,  sycamores,  tamarinds, 
cassia,  acacias,  &c.,  cover  tlie  coun- 
try. There  is  not  a  great  variety  of 
garden  flowers,  but  roses  are  raised  ia 
large  quantities,  especially  in  the  manhy 
Fayoum,  and  rose-water  fonns  an  impor- 
tant article  of  export  The  soil  couaista 
of  lime,  with  numerous  shells  and  petri- 
feetions ;  -it  contains  marble,  alabaster, 
porphyry,  jasper,  granite,  conomon  salt^ 
natron,  saltpetre,  alum,  &c.  The  woods 
and  marsh^  rivers  and  plains,  furnish  a 
great  variety  of  animals,  including  hom- 
ed catde,  buflaloes,  asses,  horses,  camels, 
sheep  with  large,  fat  tails,  dogs,  cats, 
lions,  tigers,  hj^aenas,  jackals,  wolves,  fox- 
es, gazelles,  giraf^  storks,  ibises  (which 
devour  the  snakes  in  the  mud  of  the 
Nile),  hens  (the  e^  of  which  are  batched 
in  ovens),  crocodiles,  river-horses,  ichneu- 
mons, &c.  The  people  consist  of  Copts 
(embracing,  at  most,  30,000  famiUes), 
Arabs  ^who  are  the  most  numerous,  and 
are  divided  into  Fellahs,  or  peasants,  and 
Bedouins,  tlie  wandering  tribes  of  tlie 
deserts),  and  Tuiits,  the  ruling  people. 
The  Mfunelukes  have  been  driven  out  of 
the  country,  and  nearly  .exterminated. 
Besides  these,  tliere  are  Jews,  Greeks, 
Armenians,  d&c  The  Egyptian  generally 
has  a  strong,  active  flame,  tawny  com- 
plexion, gay  dispomtion,  and  a  good  heart, 
and  is  not  devoid  of  capacity.  He  is  tem- 
perate and  religious,  but  superstitious. 
The  prevailing  reli^on  is  that  of  Moham- 
med. The  prevAihng  language  is  the 
Arabic.  At  Cairo,  the  capital,  resides  the 
patriarch  of  the  Eastern  Christians.  The 
inhabitants  devote  themselves  to  agricuU 


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418 


EGYPT. 


ture^  the  raisiiig  of  bete  and  poultry,  the 
preparation  of  roee-water  and  sal-ammo- 
niac, the  manufacturing  of  leather,  flax, 
hemp,  silk  and  cotton,  of  carpets,  glass, 
potters'  ware,  and  cany  on  an  important 
commerce.  Constantmople  is  supplied 
with  grain  from  Egypt,  wliich,  when  a 
Roman  province,  was  called  the  granary 
of  Rome.  The  coasting  trade  is  consid- 
erable. Alexandria,  Damietta  and  Suez 
are  the  principal  harbors,  and  much  in- 
land tranie  is  carried  on,  chiefly  with 
Syria,  Arabia  and  Western  Africa. — Egypt 
was  once  the  theatre  of  enterprise,  civili- 
zation and  science.  An  ancient  astro- 
nomical observation  authenticates  the  tra- 
dition, that,  about  3363  B.  C,  the  Babylo- 
nian Hermes  (Thoth),  the  hero  of  mytho- 
logical antiquity,  went  to  Ethiopia  (as,  sub- 
sequently, Cecrops  from  Sais,  on  the  Nile, 
went  to  Attica),  and  founded  this  state  on 
the  model  of  that  to  which  he  himself 
belonged.  The  Ethiopians  and  Babvlo- 
nians  were  the  flrst  nations  enlightened  by 
Indian  civilization.  The  organization  of 
Ethiopia  was  probably  soon  followed  by 
the  migration  of  an  Ethiopian  colony  to 
Upper  Egypt,  then  inhabit^  by  Nomadic, 
pastoral  tribes.  Subsequently,  the  E^p- 
tians  became  the  third  among  the  nations 
of  antiquity,  distinguished  for  a  high  de- 
cree of  cultivation.  The  similarity  of  the 
mhabitants  and  their  languase  increases 
almost  to  certainty  the  probabili^  that 
Egypt  received  her  first  civilized  mhab- 
itants from  Ethiopia.  This  agrees  with 
the  Mosaic  account,  that,  after  the  flood, 
the  descendants  of  Ham  setded  in  Upper 
Egypt  Even  the  Israehtes,  under  Jo- 
fleph,  belonged  to  the  Nomades,  living  on 
the  fiDntiers,  till  they  migrated  again, 
under  tlie  conduct  of  Moses.  Although 
Egypt  had  Babylon  and  Ethiopia  ror 
models,  society  in  this  country  made  but 
slow  advances  towards  perfection.  The 
general  division  of  the  people  into  he- 
reditary castes,  and  the  mfluenc«  of  the 
priesthood,  checked  tlie  spirit  of  the 
Egyptians.  Before  the  time  of  the  enter- 
prising Sesostris,  they  had  but  httle  com- 
merce, especially  by  sea,  and,  consequent- 
ly, few  of^  the  collisions  with  foreign  na- 
tions which  spring  from  an  active  trade. 
This  was  another  reason  of  the  slow 
progress  of  Egypt  in  intellectual  culture. 
The  first  important  impulse  was  received 
when  the  Egyptians  were  subdued  by 
foreign  nations.  Previously  to  this,  how- 
ever, there  were  astronomers  in  the  coun- 
try. The  Egyptian  solar  year  contained 
13  months  and  five  supplementary  days, 
like  the  repubUcan  calendar  of  the  f'rench. 


The  form  of  the  earth  was  known 
to  Egyptian  scholars;  solar  and  lunar 
eclipses  were  calculated ;  the  moon  they 
regarded  as  another  earth ;  the  fixed  stars 
as  burning  torches ;  sun-dials  and  water- 
clocks  were  not  unknown  among  them  : 
the  immense  ring  of  Osymandyas  seems 
to  have  been  used  for  tliis  purpose,  and. 
they  appear  to  liave  been  acquainted  witli 
the  quadrant  They  must,  therefore,  have 
made  considerable  progress  in  arithmetic. 
The  arithmetical  figures  (the  same  that  we 
call  Arabic)  they  wrote  from  right  to  lefL 
The  overflowing  of  the  Nile  rendered 
geometiy  necessary  to  them;  and  their 
acquaintance  with  mathematics  is  evident 
fiom  the  instruments  for  measuring  the 
height  of  the  Nile  at  Syene,  Memphis,  and 
other  places  on  the  nver,  from  their  use 
of  the  water-screw,  fix)m  their  canals,  and 
the  sluices  of  lake  Mceris,  which  presup- 
pose a  knowledge  of  mechanics,  hydrau* 
lies  and  hydrostatics.  The  Egyptian  mu- 
sic is  the  basis  of  the  Hebrew,  Greek  and 
Roman.  The  first  musical  instrument — 
the  three-stringed  lyre  (see  Lafn)—yma 
invented  among  them  by  Hermes.  But 
this  discovery  was  soon  secluded  amon^ 
the  secrets  of  the  priests,  and  further  per- 
fected under  their  mystic  veil  In  this 
circumstance,  and  in  the  serious,  gloomy 
character  of  tlie  nation,  is  to  be  found  tbie 
reason  why  music  was  only  used  at  fUne- 
rals  and  the  public  worship  of  the  godsL 
Besides  the  lyre  above  mentioned,  they 
had  a  dichoid,  two  kinds  of  flutes,  the 
sistrum,  the  ketde-drum,  the  trumpet  and 
the  trianguhir  lyre.  Musical  notation 
seems  not  to  have  been  known  to  diem. 
Their  short,  simple  songs  were  committed 
to  memory.  Their  knowledge  of  natural 
history  was  confined  to  their  native  coun- 
try and  its  productions.  They  penetrated 
farther  in  chemistry  and  mmeralogy : 
their  metallic  encaustics,  their  artificial 
emerald,  tlie  inlaying  of  silver  with  a  blue 
color,  display  science  and  skill.  They 
probably  made  much  progress  in  the  art 
of  healing.  Every  disease  had  its  partic- 
ular physician.  Osiris,  Isis  and  ilennes 
were  die  gods  of  health.  The  Pat^t^phari 
(a  class  of  priests)  were  the  physicians. 
The  kin^,  as  well  as  the  lowest  peasant, 
was  subjected  to  the  regimen  prescribed 
by  them.  Their  dietetics  became  cele- 
brated in  other  countries.  Care  of  die 
skin,  a  thorough  cleanliness,  preserved  by 
fi^uent  bathing,  and  the  practice  of  cir- 
cumcision, were  their  principal  preacrip- 
tioiis.  From  their  skill  in  embalming  the 
dead,  we  may  judge  of  the  anatomical 
knowledge  of'^the  Egyptians.    Thdr  nat- 


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EGYPT. 


419 


ural  philofiophy  was  mysdcal;  they  as- 
cribed every  thing  to  the  iminediate  ope- 
ration of  the  gods :  on  this  depended  their 
^stem  of  ma^c.  In  the  arts,  their  profi- 
ciency was  various.  Their  sculpture  has 
an  insufferable  diyness,  stiffiiess  and  uni- 
formity ;  their  |)ainting  was  limited  to 
covering  stones,  wood,  cloths,  &c.,  with  a 
single  color,  or,  at  the  most,  to  illuminat- 
ing their  hieroglyphics,  variegating  ttiem 
with  colors  laid  on  without  taste.  The 
celestial  planispheres  on  the  ceiling 
of  the  sepulchre  of  Osymandyas,  and 
the  figures  on  the  ancient  tombs  of  the 
kings  of  Thebes,  exhibit  the  utmost 
stretch  of  tlie  Egyptian  pencil.  Their 
architecture  is  more  remarkable :  its  char- 
acteristic is  solidi^  rather  than  beauty,  as 
appears  from  their  labyrinths,  pyramids, 
obelisks,  temples,  mausoleums,  &c.  (See 
ArdnUdwrt^  HUitonf  of,)*  Robert  Vau- 
gondy,  in  his  Esscd  swr  VIEHoire  de  la 
G^agrapkit,  says  of  the  geography  of  the 
Egyptians,  that  they  made  the  first  maps  (in 
the  reign  of  Sesostris).  Gatterer  endeav- 
oro  to  prove  the  existence  of  ffeographical 
delineations  in  the  time  of  Joshua.  Their 
acquaintance  with  navigation  they  owed 
to  the  great  Sesostris;  previously,  th€^ 
hardly  dared  trust  themselves  to  rails  on 
the  overflowing  waters  of  the  Nile ;  tliey 
abhorred  the  sea;  it  was  the  Typhon 
which  devoured  the  Nile,  their  national 
god  (Osiris).  Their  first  coasdng  trade 
seems  to  have  been  caused  by  a  smug- 
fi[ling  trade  of  the  Phcsnicians,  and  by 
Inachus  leading  an  Egyptian  colony  to 
Greece,  in  Phcenician  vessels,  1836  B.  C. 
It  was  confined,  however,  to  the  natives 
of  the  northern  coasts.  The  inhabitants 
of  the  interior  were  repelled  from  the  sea 
by  superstition.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
navigation  of  the  Nile  became  more  im- 
portant afler  it  was  incorporated  with  the 

*  Chain}X)lliony  the  famous  explorer  of  Egyp- 
tian antiquities,  holds  the  following  language  at 
the  end  of  his  fifteenth  letter,  dated  Tbcbes  :— 
"  It  is  evident  to  me,  as  it  must  be  to  all  who  have 
thoroughly  examined  Egypt,  or  have  an  accurate 
knowledi^  of  the  Egyptian  monuments  existing 
in  Europe,  that  the  arts  commenced  in  Greece 
by  a  servile  imitation  of  the  arts  of  Egypt,  much 
more  advanced  than  is  vulgariy  believed,  at  the 
period  at  which  the  first  Egyptian  colonies  came 
lu  contact  with  the  savare  inhabitants  of  Attica 
or  the  Peloponnesus.  Without  Egypt,  Greece 
would  probably  never  have  become  the  classical 
land  of  the  fine  arts.  Such  is  my  entire  belief 
on  this  great  problem.  I  write  these  lines  almost 
in  th^  presence  of  bas-reliefs  which  the  Egyptians 
executed,  with  the  most  elerant  delicacy  of 
ivorkmanship,  1700  years  before  the  ChnsUan 
era.    What  were  the  Greeks  doing  then  V 

The  sculptures  of  the  monument  of  El  Asafiif 
are  ascotained  to  be  more  than  3500  years  dd. 


public  worship  of  their  divinities.  Sesos- 
tris the  Great  broke  down  the  obstructions 
of  reUgious  prejudice.  A  splendid  ship 
was  consecrated  to  Osiris,  and  thus  the 
cooperation  of  the  priesthood  was  gained. 
The  success  of  navigation  was  unplored 
in  the  public  prayers,  and  the  Egyptians 
now  committed  themselves  to  the  back 
of  the  malicious  Typhon.  Commerce 
was  thus  established,  and  carried  on  with 
various  degrees  of  success  and  activity, 
according  as  die  kingdom  was  more  or 
less  floimshing.  It  prospered  most  under 
the  Ptolemies.  Alexandria  became  the 
first  emporium;  the  famous  Pharos  was 
erected;  and  the  canal,  1000  stadia  in 
length,  joined  the  Red  sea  with  the  Medi- 
terranean. When  Egypt  became  a  Ro- 
man province,  after  the  death  of  Cleopa- 
tra, it  lost  its  previous  commercial  dis- 
tinction. The  Egyptians  were  particu- 
larly devoted  to  a^culture,  and  thdr 
measures  for  promoting  it  were  bold,  bodi 
in  contrivance  and  execution.  On  what 
principle  they  conducted  mining  may  be 
seen  fipom  dieir  vast  undertflSiings,  in 
which  whole  moimtains  were  dug  down, 
and  the  earth  was  washed  fit)m  the  ore  bv 
entire  rivere  turned  fiom  their  channels 
for  this  purpose.  Gold,  silver,  copper, 
lead,  tin  and  uon  were  the  principal  met- 
als know^  to  them.  The  trade  of  the 
Egyptians  was  confined,  for  a  lon^  time, 
to  the  sale  of  their  own  productions  to 
foreigners  who  visited  Eg^t  to  purchase 
them.  In  the  time  of  Psammetichus^ 
they  began  to  export  for  themselves.  The 
principal  trafiSc  by  land  was  carried  on  by 
means  of  caravans.  Measures,  weights 
and  money,  the  chief  instruments  of  trade, 
the^  were  acquainted  with,  and  a  good 
pohce  watched  over  justice.  To  ii^us* 
tiy,  this  trafiSc  was  necessarily  lucrative. 
Their  skill  in  weaving  and  coloring  sup- 
plied them  with  articles  of  exchange. 
These,  however,  they  did  not  carry  to  as 
high  perfection  as  they  might  have  done. 
If  we  contemplate  the  ancient  Egyptians 
in  their  private  life  and  political  character, 
taking  into  view  dieir  manners,  customs 
and  laws,  we  shall  find  a  solution  for 
many  perplexities  respecting  this  peculiar 
people.  The  gloomy  religion  of  the 
Egyptians  banished  gayety  from  their  pri- 
vate circles.  Pleasure  was  a  stranger  to 
them.  They  were  serious,  devout  and 
superstitious.  Songs,  dances  and  sports 
they  disliked ;  but  ttiey,  nevertheless^  pos- 
sessed a  great  degree  of  industry,  good 
temper,  politeness,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
a  vanitv  which  prepossessed  them  in 
favor  of  whatever  originated  with  them- 


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EGVM. 


selves.  As  the  Greeks  and  Romans  called 
all  foreign  nations  harhanansj  so  the  Egyp- 
tians gave  this  name  to  aU  the  nanons 
which  did  not  speak  their  language ;  but, 
in  spite  of  their  national  pride,  gratitude 
for  benefits,  whatever  raignt  be  the  coun- 
tiy  of  the  individual  conferring  them,  was 
ever  one  of  their  national  virtues.  The 
government  of  the  state  was  mosdy  in  the 
hands  of  females.  Every  priest  might 
have,  at  least,  one  wife :  to  the  laity,  the 
number  was  not  limited  by  law.  The 
husband  had  the  charae  of  the  domestic 
concerns ;  the  wife,  of  buying  and  selling, 
and  all  afiairs  that  were  not  of  a  domestic 
character.  The  Egyptian  viras  distinguish- 
ed for  temperance ;  ne  never  drank  wine ; 
his  only  dnnk  was  beer,  made  of  barlev ; 
his  bread  was  of  spelt ;  in  his  kitchen,  he 
used  vegetables  of  all  ldnd8,and  increased 
his  numerous  poultiy,  by  artificiaUy  hatch- 
ing the  egffs ;  beans  and  pork  were  inter- 
dicted, by  his  religion,  as  impure ;  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  he  was  fbrbinden  to  touch 
some  other  animals,  as  sacred.  His  dress 
was  very  simple.  The  respectable  mat- 
mn  was  distinguished  finom  the  maiden 
and  the  prostitute  by  a  veU,  which  the 
latter  were  not  allowed  to  wear.  The 
children  went  naked  till  of  considerable 
age.  Funerals  and  times  of  sa^ess  were 
the  only  occasions  of  parade  and  compe- 
tition in  expense.  The  sovereign,  how- 
ever, and  those  who  immediately  sur- 
rounded him,  glittered  in  all  the  pomp 
of  Oriental  magnificence.  The  power 
of  the  Pharaohs  (the  general  name  of 
the  earlier  kings  of  Egypt)  was  unlimited. 
At  their  pleasure,  they  could  throw  the 
grand  vizier  from  the  summit  of  his  pow- 
er, and  raise  to  their  own  side  the  lowest 
of  their  slaves,  as  the  histoiy  of  Joseph 
evinces.  The  spirit  of  industry  inherent 
in  the  Egyptian  was  tlie  support  of  pub- 
lic virtue,  and  the  police  took  care  that 
criminals  should  be  constantly  empk>yed. 
As  eariy  as  the  time  of  Joseph,  there  was 
a  work-house  for  imprisonea  slaves.  The 
unsocial  disposition  of  the  Egyptians,  iaind 
their  fear  of  offending  the  sods  by  inter- 
course vnth  strangers,  checked  their  im- 
provement, but,  at  the  same  time,  estab- 
lished their  independence,  their  nation- 
al character,  and  their  national  virtues. 
When  they  were  brought  into  closer  con- 
tact witii  tiie  Greeks,  tiieir  industry  was 
somewhat  abated,  so  that  Amasis  found  it 
necessary  to  enact  a  law,  which  obliged 
every  Egsrptian  to  report  annually  to  the 
mipenoT  authorities  his  name,  and  the  trade 
by  which  he  obtained,  or  itoped  to  obtain, 
a  subsistence.    Disobedience  to  this  law 


was  punished  with  death.  Justice  was 
administered  in  a  strict  and  speedy  man- 
ner. Written  laws  were  handed  down  by 
Menes,  Tnephactus,  Bocchotis  and  Ama- 
ns.  All  causes  were  tried  before  a  su- 
preme court  of  justice.  The  parties  them- 
selves were  obliged  to  conduct  them  in 
writing,  without  the  aid  of  advocates 
Perjury  and  murder  (even  of  a  slave) 
were  punished  with  death,  without  any 
chance  of  pardon.  Calumniaton  and  ialse 
accusera  received  the  punishment  bek>Dg- 
ing  to  the  crime  of  which  ther  chargra 
the  innocent  person.  Falsehood  was  pun- 
ished by  the  loss  of  the  tongue ;  forgery, 
by  the  loss  of  the  hands ;  desertion  mm 
the  army,  or  emigration,  by  infamy ;  and 
adultery,  by  flogpig.  The  king  had  the 
power  of  mitigatmg  any  of  these  punisb- 
ments.  But,  notwithstanding  the  appeiur- 
ance  of  unlimited  sovereignty,  the  will  of 
the  ruler  was  subject  to  the  power  of  the 
priests,  who  imposed  laws,  even  on  the 
private  life  of  tiie  monarch,  and  relaxed  or 
contracted  them  as  the  interest  of  their 
Older  required.  The  daily  duties  of  the 
Idng's  slaves  were  minutely  determined, 
his  bill  of  fare  reffulated,  rmy,  the  very 
secrecy  of  the  royal  bed-chamber  was  pen- 
etrated by  the  priests.  For  this  reason, 
they  were  his  physicians  in  ordinary. 
The  education  or  the  childrai  vma  in  uni- 
son with  the  rest  of  the  Ecyptian  eystem. 
The  children  were  carefiuly  brought  up 
to  the  trade  of  the  father,  and  instructed 
by  the  priests,  in  various  public  schoola 
Few  were  taught  reading  and  wiitinf; 
yet  the  Egyptians  were  we  first  people 
who  could  write,  that  history  mentions, 
after  the  Babylonians  and  Phcenidaoa 
They  wrote,  at  first,  on  stones  and  bricks; 
afterwards,  a  paper  was  made  of  papyrus, 
vdiich  continued  to  be  used  fyr  2000 
years,  and  even  after  the  invention  of 
parchment,  by  the  whole  literaiy  workL 
This  art  was  taught  to  those  only  who 
were  educated  for  merchants,  and  that  ia 
a  limited  degree;  for  it  was  the  system 
of  tiie  priests  to  keep  the  mass  of  the 
people  in  ignorance.  The  division  of  the 
people  into  seven  castes— priests,  soldiers, 
shepherds,  swineherds,  mechanics,  inter- 

Ereters  and  fishermen — sprang  paitiy  from 
K^al  circumstances,  many  districts  afford- 
ing  but  one  mode  of  subsifltence ;  partly 
from  the  pohcy  of  the  fniests,  since  it 
viras  necessary,  fbr  tiie  management  of  the 
machine  of  state,  that  strict  lines  of  de- 
marcation should  be  drawn  between  the 
various  constituent  parts  of  the  natioa 
At  the  head  of  them  all  stood  the  caste 
of  priests,    the    first    and    most   infln- 


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EGYPT. 


431 


Mitial.  Tbe]r  mainttdned  this  mnk  as 
leftchen  of  the  people  and  patrons  of  sci- 
CMMce.  From  them  all  the  ofBices  of  state 
were  filled;  they  were  the  physicians, 
judge&  architects,  astronomeFS,  astrolo- 
gers^ ice  But  they  held  their  knowl- 
edge, which  they  regarded  ^with  justice) 
fts  the  talisman  of  their  pohtical  impor- 
tance and  mighty  influence,  strictly  within 
the  limits  of  their  order.  The  religion, 
mytliology  and  philosophy  of  the  Egyp^ 
tians  varied  with  the  diflerent  periods  of 
their  pohtical  history.  Their  religion  and 
philosophy  were  one  thing  before  Moses, 
another  fix>m  the  time  of  Moses  to  that  of 
Herodotus;  and  thus  they  continued  to 
deviate  from  their  original  character  dll 
the  times  of  tlie  Ptolemies  and  the  Ro- 
mana  Their  whole  religion  and  mythol- 
ogy were  founded  on  ^ronomy ;  it  was 
natural  that  the  beneffcial  influences  of 
the  celestial  bodies  should  be  followed  by 
adonodon.  Osiris  and  Isis  (the  sun  and 
DKM>n)  were  the  two  principal  deities,  and 
the  Nile  was  thought  to  be  very  near- 
er related  to  them.  We  frequently  find 
OsiiiB  and  the  Nile  treated  as  one  deity. 
The  period  of  360  days,  computed  fit>m 
the  regular  inundadon  of  the  river  at  the 
summer  solstice,  constituted  the  relij^ous 
year.  The  natural  solar  year  consisted 
of  965  dajTS  and  6  hours.  The  planets, 
t«^getber  with  the  signs  of  the  zodiac^ 
were  revered  as  deities,  and  rulers  of  the 
days  of  the  week  and  hours  of  the.  day. 
The  ruler  of  the  first  hours  of  the  day  was 
the  patron  of  the  whole  day,  and  commu- 
nicated to  it  his  name ;  the  physical  char- 
acter and  the  agricultural  relations  of  each 
month  were  likewise  adored  as  divinities, 
under  the  12  signs  of  the  zodiac.  Thus 
was  the  religious  year  constituted.  The 
want,  subsequently  discovered,  of  five 
days  and  six  hours,  gave  rise  to  seven 
more  deities,  and  the  solar  year  was  intro- 
duced. These  symbolical  beings,  how- 
ever, were  regarded  as  actually  existent, 
the  authors  and  governors  of  time  and  the 
world ;  Osiris  and  Isis  were  considered  as 
beings  of  unlimited  power,  exercising  an 
immediate  influence  over  the  etuth  and  its 
inhabitants.  To  each  divinity  was  ss- 
signed  a  particular  order  of  priests,  into 
which  ieraales  were  never  admitted.  Pil- 
grimages and  sacrifices  were  a  part  of 
me  system  of  religion.  The  latter  were 
employed  for  the  expiation  of  sins.  The 
worshipper  placed  his  hand  on  the  head 
of  the  victim,  loaded  it  with  impreca- 
tions, and  its  last  gasp  was  the  seal  of 
h^  pardon.  Till  the  reign  of  Amaas, 
even  human  victims  were  oflfered.  Be- 
voi*  IV.  36 


sides  the  heorenly  bodies,  somekinds  of  an 
imals,  slso,  were  worshipped.  These  were 
not  regarded  as  mere  symbols,  but  adored 
as  actual  gods,  hke  the  Apis  and  Mnevia ; 
this  worship  arose  from  the  hiero^flyphics 
of  the  Egyptians.  (See  Hitroglyfkies,)  The 
most  remaritablephenomenon  in  the  phi- 
losophy of  the  Egyptians  is  the  doctrine 
of  tne  transmigration  of  souls  (see  Jlfe- 
tempstfi^hms),  which  was  the  immediate 
ofi&prmg  of  the  worship  of  the  stars.  Pla- 
to has  honored  the  metempsychosis  of 
the  Egyptians  bv  adopting  it  into  his  ^rs- 
tem,  as  a  symbol  of  the  moral  purificabon 
of  human  nature.  The  Egyptians,  how- 
ever, did  not  make  so  accurate  a  distinc- 
tion between  the  spiritual  and  corporeal  as 
this  philosopher ;  the  idea  of  the  soul,  as 
a  pure  inteihgence,  was  unknovm  to  them ; 
and  it  is  a  very  remarttable  fact,  that  the 
P^hagorean  doctrine  of  the  tranamigratiMi 
of  souk,  as  delineated  by  Aristotle,  although 
diflerent  fit>m  die  Egyptian,  is  equally  &- 
void  of  any  moral  sense. 

PoUticJ  History  of  Egypt.  If  we  go 
back  bevond  the  periocT  of  tradition,  to 
which  belong  the  fabulous  Pharaohs 
(kings),  Menes  (2000  years  before  Christ]^ 
Os^mandyas,  Mceris^  Sesostris,  Rbam]»- 
simtus,  &c.,  we  find,  on  the  extreme  con- 
fines of  history,  the  Pharaoh  of  Joseph, 
and  the  migrations  which  took  place  in 
the  storms  of  revolutions,  under  Cecrope, 
Moses  and  Danaus.  In  the  history  of 
foreign  states,  Shishak  is  named,  878  be- 
fore the  Christian  era,  as  the  Pharaoh  of 
Egypt,  and  the  ally  of  Jeroboam;  the 
Tnephactus  and  Bocchoris  of  Diodorua, 
and  the  Asychis  of  Herodotus,  are  ftmous 
as  legislators.  The  40  years'  subjection 
of  Egypt  to  the  Ethiopians,  the  internal 
anarchy  of  33  yeare,  die  dodecarchy  (reign 
of  twelve),  wliich  lasted  15  years,  pre- 
ceded the  monarchy  founded  by  Psam- 
metichus,  one  of  the  dodecarchs.  It 
lasted  fit>m  636  to  525  B.  C,  and  exhibits, 
besides  Psammetichus,  the  famous  names 
of  Necho,  Psammis,  Apries  or  Hophra, 
Amasis  and  Psammenitus.  This  period 
is  a  bright  spot  in  the  history  of  the  civili- 
zation of  Egypt.  The  kingdom  next 
became  subject  to  Cambyses,  and  be- 
longed to  the  Persian  empire,  till  after  its 
conquest  by  Alexander,  333  B.  C.  After 
the  division  of  the  Macedonian  empire, 
begins  the  splendid  period  of  the  Ptole- 
mies (see  Ptotendes,  and  the  .Mexandnan 
School).  Ptolemy  Lagus  or  Soter,  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus  (under  whom  the  foundation 
of  the  future  dominion  of  the  Romans  worn 
laid),  Ptolemy  Euergetes  I,  Ptolemy  Phi- 
k)paier,  Ptolen»y  Epiphanes,  Ptolemy  Phip. 


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EGYPT. 


kxnetor,  Euergetes  11,  Cleopatra  Minor 

iwith  Ptolemy  Soter  or  Lathyms,  and 
'tolemy  Alexander  I),  Ptolemy  Alexander 
II,  Berenice,  Ptolemy  Alexander  III, 
Ptolemy  Auletes,  Cleopatra  Tiyphana 
and  Berenice,  and  Cleopatra  with  Ptol- 
emy Puer,  under  the  ffiiardianship  of 
Ceesar  and  Antony,  are  the  names  of  the 
fulera  of  this  period,  several  of  whom  are 
&mous  in  the  history  of  science  and  ait 
The  suicide  of  Cleopatra,  after  the  victory 
of  Octavius  at  Actium,  transferred  the 
kingdom  into  the  power  of  the  Romans, 
and  it  now  became  a  Roman  province. 
This  took  place  30  years  B.  C^  and  Egypt 
remained  670  years  in  the  hands  ofthe 
Romans.  The  Christian  reliffion,  during 
this  period,  gained  footing  in  Uiis  country, 
and  was  accompanied  by  the  same  enthu- 
siasm, sectarism  and  mental  gloom,  which, 
in  the  earlier  history  of  Egypt,  had  ac- 
companied the  pagan  mysteries.  Ancho- 
rites and  monKS  had  their  origin  here. 
After  the  division  of  the  great  Ronum 
empire,  ui  the  time  of  Theodostus,  into 
the  Western  and  Eastern  empires,  Egypt 
became  a  province  of  the  latter,  and  sunk 
deeper  and  deeper  in  barbarism  and  woak- 
ness.  It  was  the  prey  of  the  Saracens, 
Amru,  their  ffenertd,  under  the  caliph 
Omar,  taking  Alexandria,  tlie  capital,  by 
assault.  This  happened  A.  D.  640,  when 
Ueracliut  was  the  emperor  of  the  East 
As  a  province  of  the  caliphs,  it  was 
under  the  government  of  the  celebrated 
Abbasides — Uarun-al-Raschid  and  Al- 
Mainon — and  ttiat  of  the  heroic  sultan 
Saladin.  The  last  dynasty  was,  however, 
overthrown  by  the  Mamelukes  (1250),  and 
under  these  formidable  despots  the  last 
shadow  of  former  greamess  and  civiliza- 
tion disappeared.  Selim,  sultan  of  the 
Turks,  eventually  (1516  to  1517)  con- 
quered tlie  last  Mameluke  sultan,  Tu- 
manbai,  and  Egypt  became  altogether  a 
Turkish  province,  governed  bv  a  pacha. 
It  has  since  been  the  theatre  of  continual 
internal  wars  of  the  Mameluke  beys 
against  the  Turkish  dominion,  which  has 
been  several  times,  especially  under  Ali 
Bey  (17661  nearly  extinguished  in  this 
country.  From  1798  to  1801,  Egypt  was 
occupied  by  the  French  Jiee  (&e  kUUrpart 
^  the  present  articUy  This  country  has 
subeequentlv,  more  than  ever,  engaged  the 
attention  of  the  statesman  and  scholar. 
We  behold  a  prince,  who  has  divested 
himself  of  many  prejudices  of  his  nation, 
and  has  taken  European  models  for  imita- 
tion, in  order  to  establish  anew  the  king- 
dom of  the  Ptolemies.  This  prince,  Mo- 
banuned  Ali  Pacha  (see  Mohammid  Mi 


Ptu^)^  18,  indeed,  merely  a  viceroy ;  but, 
excepting  the  usual  tribute,  accompanied 
vrith  presents,  and  bis  participation  in  the 
war,  by  sea  and  land,  against  the  Greeks, 
in  which  he  was  induced  to  engage 
(1823)  by  the  gift  of  Yemen,  Cypnia, 
Candia  and  the  Morea,  he  has  evinced  no 
particular  signs  of  submission  towasds  the 
Turkish  sultan.  In  fact,  he  governs  the 
province  witli  unlimited  sway.  His  poli- 
cy is  continually  becoming  more  folly 
established,  but  rests  on  despotism  and 
monopoly.  The  abilities  of  the  tyrant  are 
the  sole  support  of  the  system.  Moham- 
med Pacha  is  paiticulariy  attentive  to 
the  public  security;  he  takes,  therefore, 
all  Franks  under  lus  immediate  protec- 
tion, and  permits  no  abuse  of  the  Greeks. 
When  the  Morea  vras  conquered  by  his 
arms  (1825),  he  caused  all  the  Christian 
population  to  be  ti^oisplanted  to  the  coun- 
tries on  the  Nile.  He  is  attempting  to 
introduce  a  quarantine  system,  to  guard 
against  the  plague,  and  also  promotes 
vaccination.  An  agent  of  the  pacha,  by 
name  bmad  GibraUer,  travelled,  some 
years  ago,  in  Europe,  to  induce  meichanios 
to  remove  to  Eg^pt,  and  contract  a  com- 
mercial treaty  with  Sweden.  The  pacha 
has  done  much  for  the  commerce  and 
industry,  as  well  as  for  the  civilization  of 
Egypt  He  is  the  greatest  merchant  of 
the  country,  and  no  others  can  deal  with 
foreign  countries  without  his  consent 
The  income  of  the  pacha  is  more  than 
$30,000,000,  arising  from  poll  and  land 
taxes,  customs  ofthe  ports  of  Cairo,  Suez, 
Damietta,  Alexandria,  &c. ;  branches  of 
revenue  farmed  out,  including  various 
fisheries ;  from  the  mint,  from  the  sale  of 
the  cotton,  indigo,  silk,  sugar,  rice,  safSncm, 
wool,  ivory,  frankincense,  &&,  which  he 
monopolizes,  purchasing  them  at  a  low 
rate  from  his  subjects,  &c.  The  number 
of  vessels,  which  arrived  at  Alexandria  in 
the  vear  1829,  was  909;  in  1828,  the  ar- 
rivals were  891 ;  in  1827,  they  were  605l 
Of  the  arrivals  in  1829,  361  were  Aus- 
trian vessels,  1  American  from  Smyrna, 
4  Danish,  44  French,  200  English  and 
Ionian,  8  Dutch,  32  Papal,  1  Russian, 
135  Sardmian,  19  Sicilian,  5  Spanish, 
13  Swedish,  and  26  Tuscan.  Most  ofthe 
voyages  were  from  the  Archipelago,  or 
from  Tuikiah  pons.  Some  years  since^ 
Ibrahim,  the  pacha's  son,  fwced  the  Wa- 
habites  (q.  v.)  to  withdraw  to  their  deserts, 
and  his  second  son,  Ismael  Pacha,  under- 
took an  expedition  into  Nubia,  in  order  to 
extend  the  authority  of  his  &ther  there. 
Ismael  penetrated  (1820)  from  Syene  to 
Dongola,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile, 


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defeated  the  residue  of  the  Mamelukes^ 
and  reduced  Dongola  $o  an  Egyptian 
province.  At  the  same  time,  Mohammed 
completed  tiie  new  canal  of  Alexandria, 
called  by  him,  in  honor  of  the  sultan, 
Mahmutke  caavai;  a  vast  undertaking, 
commenced  Jan.  8,  1819,  under  the  su- 
perintendence of  six  European  engi- 
neers, with  about  100,000  laborers;  and 
their  number,  tliough  more  than  7000 
men  died  of  contagious  diseases,  was 
gradually  increased  to  290,000,  each  of 
whom  received  about  17  cents,  or  lOd 
sterling,  per  diem.  The  canal  was  com- 
pleted on  the  Idth  September.  It  extends 
nt>m  below  Saone,  on  the  Nile,  to  Pom- 
pey^s  pillar,  aud  is  47^  miles  long,  90  feet 
wide,  and  18  feet  deep.  This  is  the  first 
essay  towards  the  execution  of  his  plan 
of  restoring  the  ancient  commerce  of 
Alexandria  with  Arabia  and  the  Indies. 
Within  a  short  time,  he  has  established  a 
line  of  telegraphs,  a  printing-press  at  Bou- 
lac  near  Cairo,*  a  military  school,  and  a 
higher  institution  for  education,  principally 
to  form  dragomans  (i.  e.,  interpreters)  and 
other  public  officers.  The  teacheis  con- 
sist or  French  and  Italian  officers.  In 
1826,  he  sent  several  young  Egyptians  to 
France,  to  receive  a  European  educa- 
tion. Under  the  government  of  Moham- 
med, all  the  European  travellers,  whom 
the  love  of  discovery  now  draws  in  greater 
numbers  than  ever  to  those  sepulchi^s  and 
monuments  of  departed  civilization,  find 
protection  and  support.  But  it  is  impos- 
sible to  remove  all  the  obstacles  that 
suspicion,  the  hatred  of  foreigners,  and 
the  avarice  prevailing  among  the  Bedouin 
sheiks,  throw  in  the  way  of  3ie  European. 
Passing  over  the  earlier  travels  of  Brown, 
an  Englishman,  and  of  Hornemann  and 
Burckhardt,  Germans  (the  two  first  of 
whom  were  unable  to  discover  any  traces 
of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon),  we  will 
mention  some  of  the  latest  Among 
these,  the  travels  of  the  Italian  Belzoni,  in 
1819,  deserve  especial  notice.  The  Ital- 
ian chevalier  Frediani  (see  Frediaini)  has 
published  a  pompous  description  of  tlie 
mi  US  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon,  in 
his  letters  from  Schiwah,  dated  March 
30,  1820;  but  Gau,  a  Prussian  architect 
from  Cologne  (see  Oau\  contradicts  the 
accounts  of  Frediani ;  so  also  does  Dro- 
vetd,  late  consul-general  of  France  in 
Egypt  These  ruins  the  French  Cailli- 
aud  asserts  he  has  examined  and  meas- 

-  *  Several  works  have  already  been  issued 
from  this  press ;  among  others,  a  Dixionario  IteU- 
iano  tt  Arabiano,  Boiacco.  delta  9taam,  reaU, 


ured.  He  also  discovered  the  old  emerald 
mines  in  the  mountain  Zabarah,  and 
found  them  in  the  very  state  in  which 
they  had  been  left  by  the  engineers  of 
Ptolemy,  with  all  then*  implements,  fit>m 
vtiiich  we  can,  in  some  aegree,  deduce 
the  mode  of  mining  among  the  ancients. 
In  1820,  Cailliaud  accompanied  the  son 
of  the  viceroy  on  the  above-mentioned 
ejtpedition  to  Dongola.  The  travels  of 
Cailliaud  to  the  Oasis  of  Thebes,  and  the 
deserts  to  the  east  and  west  of  it,  were 

Eublished  by  Jomard.  The  travels  of 
[enry  Light  (a  British  captain  of  artillery) 
to  Egypt,  Nubia  and  the  Holy  Land,  are 
not  to  be  compared  with  those  of  Burck- 
hardt, but  they  are  not  without  interest, 
as  far  as  respects  the  pacha  of  Egypt, 
Jerusalem,  and  the  Druses.  The  four 
months'  journey  of  lieutenant  Fitz-Clar- 
ence  (aid  to  the  marquis  of  Hastings^ 
governor-general  of  India),  from  Bombay 
through  India  and  Egypt  to  London 
(1818),  are  more  iuterestmg.  We  ought 
to  mention  the  travels  of  two  English- 
men (Waddington  and  Hanbuiy),  who 
accoinpanied  the  pacha  on  his  expedition 
from  Efiypt  to  Nubia  (1820).  They  pre- 
tend to  have  examined,  minutely,  Dongo- 
la and  Darshegga,  and  to  have  discov- 
ered the  ancient  Saba,  subsequently  called 
Mer6c  In  1824,  captain  N.  F.  Gordon, 
of  the  English  navy,  undertook  to  travel 
up  the  Nile,  to  discover  the  sources  of  die 
Behr-el-Abiad.  He  only  reached  Villel- 
Medinet  (a  day's  journey  from  Sennaar), 
where  he  died.  Several  (Germans,  also, 
have,  within  a  short  time,  undertaken 
scientific  ex))editions  to  the  East  and 
Egypt ;  e.  g.,  Seetzen  (q.  v.),  Sieber  (q.  v.), 
whose  book  of  travels  describes  Crete, 
Cairo  and  Jerusalem ;  and  R&ppel,  fit>m 
Frankfort  on  the  Maine.  (See  J{friccL) 
With  the  same  view,  the  Prussian  gen- 
eral Menu  von  Minutoli  undertook  such 
a  courae  of  travels  in  August,  1820. 
Ehrenberg,-  who  accompanied  him,  has 
published,  in  Berlin,  his  discoveries  in 
natural  history.  They  were  support- 
ed in  the  enterprise  by  the  Prussian 
government  The  general  returned  to 
Germany  in  September,  1821,  and  pub- 
lished an  interesthig  work  respecting 
his  collections  and  discoveries.  The 
travels  in  Egypt,  however,  which  have 
lately  excited  most  interest  are  tliose  of 
Champollion  (q.  v.),  who  has  afaready,  by 
various  publications,  greatly  increased  our 
knowledge  respecting  this  country,  and 
from  whose  work,  now  publishing,  we 
have  reason  to  expect  much  additional 
infoimation.    We  also  hope  for  interest- 


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124 


CAMPAIGN  OF  THE  FRENCH  IN  EGYPT. 


ing  results  from  the  expedition  which  the 
grand-duke  of  Tuscany  sent  to  Egypt, 
and  which  has  recently  returned,  enriched 
with  many  treasures  of  art  and  science. 
(For  a  general  account  of  what  the  late 
discoveries  have  taught  of  the  ancient 
histoiy  of  Egypt,  and  for  a  popular  ac- 
count of  Egyptian  antiquities,  we  must 
refer  the  reader  to  the  marquis  Spineto's 
Lectures  on  the  Elements  of  Hieroglyphics 
and  E^fpUan  ^Antiquities  (London,  1829). 
For  in^rmation  respecting  the  Egyptian 
language,  we  refer  to  ^  compendious  dram- 
mar  of  the  Egyptian  Language^  as  con-- 
taineain  the  Coptic  and  &ihi&:  Dialects^ 
with  Observatiofis  on  the  Bashmuric,  to- 
gether  mth  Mphabets  and  Minerals  in  the 
lEeroglyphic  and  Enchorial  Characters^  by 
Henry  Tattam ;  with  an  »^ppendixy  consist- 
ing of  the  Rudiments  of  a  Dictionary  of  the 
ancient  Egyptian  Language^  tn  the  Encho- 
rial Character,  hy  Thomas  Young  (London, 
1830) ;  also  an  Account  of  Egyptian  An- 
Hquities,  hy  Doctor  Th,  xoung  (London, 
1823) ;  the  Twb  LeUers  of  ChaijwoUiofi 
the  Younger  to  the  Duke  EUfjcas  DAulps 
(Paris,  18^),  his  works  mentioned  uncler 
the  article  ChampoUion,  and  his  new 
work,  which,  according  to  the  latest  in- 
formation, will  soon  be  published,  and  give 
the  results  of  his  indefatigable  researches, 
during  his  stay  in  Egypt.  See  the  articles 
Hieroglyphics  (in  which  the  reader  will 
find  an  account,  also,  of  Egyptian  mythol- 
ogy), Mummies,  Pyramids,  NiU,  Esneh, 
Detiderah,  Rosetta  Stone,  &c. ;  also  the  note 
at  the  end  of  Constitution.  Respecting  the 
present  state  of  the  Egyptian  institutions, 
which  are  founded,  in  part,  on  the  an- 
cient division  into  castes,  L.  Reynier,  who 
served  in  Egypt  under  Bonaparte,  has 
published  an  instructive  statistical  woric, 
which  does  not,  however,  treat  of  the  an- 
cient history  of  the  country-— /)c  PEcoTUimie 
mihlique  et  rurale  des  Egyptiens  et  des 
Carthaginois  (Paris,  1823).  For  informa- 
tion concerning  the  modem  history  and 
administration  of  Egypt,  see  Felix  Men- 
gin's  Histoire  de  VEgypte  sous  le  Gouoeme- 
n^nt  de  Mohammed  Ahj ;  Paris,  1823, 2  vols., 
with  en^vings  and  maps.) 

Landing  and  Campaign  of  the  Drench 
in  Egypt.  By  the  two  cam^Migns  of 
1796  and  1797,  general  Bonaparte  had 
compelled  the  continental  powers  of  Eu- 
rope to  make  peace  with  France — a  re- 
sult ardently  desired  by  the  French,  to 
allow  their  country  time  to  recover  from 
the  deep  wounds  which  she  had  suffered 
durinff  the  convulsions  of  the  revolation, 
and  from  the  worthless  administrations 
that  bad  preceded  it     The  next  object 


was  to  force  England,  also,  to  a  peace,  as 
she  inflexibly  opposed  the  general  vrish 
of  Europe,  and  Bonaparte  was  appointed 
commander  in  chief  of  an  army  destined 
for  the  invasion  of  England.  In  Fetmi- 
ary,  1798,  he  visited  in  peraon  tfa|e  ooesiB 
of  the  Channel,  and  all  Europe  was  ex- 
pectuig  the  commencement  of  the  expe- 
dition, when,  in  May  of  the  same  year, 
the  ^neral  appeared  as  commander  in 
chief  at  Toulon,  where  an  expedition  bad 
been  fitting  out,  of  the  destination  of 
which  the  public  knew  nothing — a  cir- 
cumstance highly  remarkable,  as  so  many 
])crBons,  militonr  and  civil,  were  acquaint- 
ed with  it.  It  was  the  expedition  to 
Egypt  It  also  appears,  from  a  letter  writ- 
ten by  general  Bonaparte  to  the  minister 
Talleyrand,  dated  Passeriano,  27th  Fructi- 
dor,  year  V  (September  13, 1797),  that  one 
of  the  main  objects  of  this  great  under- 
taking was  to  put  the  French  in  posseBaion 
of  part  of  the  East  India  trade,  then  entirely 
in  the  hands  of  England,  by  the  conquest 
of  Egypt— a  plan  by  no  means  cbimericaL 
It  was  intended  to  establish  French  col- 
onies on  the  Nile,  and  thus  to  recompense 
the  republic  for  die  loss  of  St  Domingo, 
and  of  the  sugar  islands,  and  to  open  a 
channel  for  the  French  manufactures  into 
Africa,  Arabia  and  Syria,  where  they 
might  be  exchanged  for  commodities 
wanted  m  France.  Napoleon's  yiews 
were,  in  fact,  similar  to  those  which,  it  is 
said,  have  now  led  the  French  to  under- 
take the  conquest  and  colonization  of  Al- 
giers—an object  which  seems  to  be  gen- 
erally applauded.  It  seems,  also,  to  have 
been  intended  to  make  Egypt  a  mllitaiy 
position,  from  which  a  French  army  could 
march  into  India,  raise  the  Mahrattas 
against  the  English,  and  injure  the  pow- 
er of  the  latter  there.  On  this  point, 
we  refer  the  reader  to  the  count  St  JLeu's 
(Louis  Bonaparte's)  R^wnse  h  Sfr  hotter 
Scott,  Paris,  1829,  page  3a  The  directo- 
ry probably  encouraged  the  enteiprise 
witli  Xhe  further  object  of  getting  rid  of 
a  general  whose  victories  and  rapidly  in- 
creasing popularity  it  feared.  It  has,  in- 
deed, been  said,  that  it  was,  at  funsr,  deci- 
dedly opposed  to  the  plan ;  but  this  is  very 
improbable.  March  5,  Bonaparte  received 
the  decree  of  the  directory,  relative  to  the 
expedition  against  Egypt*    He  had  full 

*  Leibnitz  endeavored  to  tnni  Loius  XIV*s 
aUenlion  to  the  conauest  of  Egypt,  in  order  to 
deliver  G^tnair^  aoa  HoUaod  nom  his  attacks. 
Under  Louis  X  V ,  this  project  was  again  discussed, 
at  the  time  when  all  the  French  possessions  in 
America  were  in  danger ;  and  it  was  acain  renew- 
ed, when  the  alliance  of  Joseph  11  and  Catharine 
II  threatened  the  partition  of  Prussia. 


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CAMPAIGN  OF  THE  FRENCH  IN  EGYPT. 


425 


power  to  conduct  the  business  as  be  saw 
fit  Tbe  ministers  in  all  the  departmeut8> 
were  ordered  to  give  him  whatever  assist- 
ance he  should  require ;  and  be  had  full 
powers  to  act  according  to  his  discretion 
in  Egyi^ty  to  return  whenever  he  saw  fit, 
and  to  appoint  his  successor.  Napoleon 
now  collected  all  the  information  neces- 
sary for  his  own  direction ;  engaged  some 
of  the  moet  distinguished  saoanU  and  ar- 
tists of  France  to  accompany  him,  drew 
up  questions  and  problems  to  be  resolved 
in  Egypt,  and  informed  himself  accurate- 
ly respecting  the  commercial  connexions 
which  it  was  proposed  to  establish.  In 
fiict,  he  seems  to  have  always  viewed  this 
expedition  in  tlie  double  light  of  a  mili- 
taxy  and  a  scientific  enterprise.  The  be- 
ginning of  his  proclamation,  before  land- 
ing in  Egypt,  is  remarkable:  ^Bona- 
parte, member  of  the  national  institute  of 
France,  and  general  in  chief  of  the  army 
of  Egypt."  His  brother  Joseph  (count 
de  Survilliers)  suU  possesses  the  papen  of 
general  Bonaparte  relating  to  these  prepa- 
mtions ;  and  we  hope  tiiat  such  important 
and  interestins  documents  will  not  be  for- 
ever withheiu  finom  the  public,  as  they 
must  give  a  great  insight  into  Napoleon^ 
views.  The  number  of  these  papers  Is 
very  great  Bonaparte  was  to  leave  Paris 
in  April,  for  the  purpose  of  embarking ; 
but  despatches  fix>m  Rastadt,  and  firom 
the  French  ambassador  at  Vienna,  Bema- 
dotte,  made  a  new  rupture  with  Austria 
probable.  Bonaparte,  however,  left  Paris 
May  3,  and  went  on  board  of  the  Orient 
tbe  I9th.  The  fleet  set  sail  the  same  day, 
commanded  by  admiral  Brueys.*  Bona- 
parte's proclamation  issued  before  sailing, 
and  several  others,  either  prove  how  much 
he  himself  was  animated  by  tbe  military 
lame  of  ancient  Rome,  or  that  he  thought 
it  the  strongest  stimulus  to  the  French  sol- 
diers. Reports  had  been  carefiilly  spread 
to  divert  the  attention  of  the  English  to  oth- 
er points  ;  and  the  admual,  lord  St  Vincent, 
sent  rear-admiral  Nelson,  with  only  three 
vesseb  of  the  line,  four  frigates  and  one 
corvette,  to  watch  the  gulf  of  Lyons,  and 
to  prevent  the  French  fifom  leaving  it 
But  Nelson  arrived  too  late.  He  also  suf- 
fered severely  from  a  gale,  so  that  the 

*  The  fleet  cousisted  of  10  74^8,  with  1  ship  of 
190  and  2  of  80  guns,  2  Venetian  vessels  of  64 
guns,  14  frigates.  7%  corvettes,  &c.,  and  400 
transports,  from  Toulon,  Genoa,  Ajaccio,  Civita 
Veccnia,— one  of  the  greatest  naval  annameAts  that 
ever  sailed,  containing  40,000  soldiers,  and  10,000 
sailors.  The  fleet  which  sailed  for  Algiers  in 
April,  1890,  consisted  of  11  ships  of  the  line,  12 
fingates  of  60.  and  as  many  of  SO  guns,  with  cor- 
vettes, dtc. ;  m  the  whole,  97  men-of-war. 
36* 


French  fleet  was  not  molested.  Bona- 
parte had  an  assurance  from  the  directo- 
ry, that  the  minister  of  foreign  affairs 
should  go  to  Constantinople,  still  retaining 
his  office,  for  the  purpose  of  negotiating 
with  the  Porte,  and  preventing  it  from 
interfering  in  favor  of  the  Mamelukes. 
Talleyrand,  however,  never  went  This 
omission,  and  the  defeat  at  Aboukir,  prov- 
ed fatal  to  the  expeditioa  About  2000 
savants^  artists,  physicians,  surgeons,  me- 
chanics and  laborers  of  all  descriptions, 
accompanied  the  army.  The  flower  of 
the  troops  was  that  Italian  army,  whose 
valor  had  eflected  the  peace  of  Campo- 
Formio.  The  principal  officers  were 
Berthier  (who  was  averse  to  going  to 
Egypt,  because  in  love  with  the  marchio- 
ness Visconti),  Desaix,  Regnier,  Menou, 
Kieber,  Dumas,  Caffiuelli,  Murat,  Junot, 
Marmont,  Beljiaid,  Davoust,  Lannes,  Du- 
roc,  Louis  Bonaparte,  Eugene  Beauhar- 
nois,  and  others.  June  9,  the  armament 
appeared  before  Malta.  Bonaparte  solicit- 
ed of  baron  von  Hompesch,  the  grand  mas- 
ter, permission  to  procure  a  supply  of 
fresh  water  from  the  island.  His  refusal 
afforded  a  pretext  for  the  conquest  of  the 
island,  which  had  been  long  contemplat- 
ed. The  next  morning,  the  French 
had  landed  on  all  points,  and  at  evening, 
notwithstanding  a  brisk  cannonade,  were 
masters  of  the  island,  which  was  siuren- 
dered  at  midnight,  with  all  its  fortresses. 
The  victors  left  a  garrison  of  4000  men, 
and,  on  the  19th,  sailed  for  Alexandria. 
Jidy  1,  the  minarets  of  Alexandria  were 
seen,  and  Bonaparte  issued  an  order  on 
board  the  fleet,  in  which  he  exhorted  his 
arm^  to  endure  with  patience  the  diffi- 
culties before  them,  to  respect  the  religion 
of  Mohammed,  and  the  customs  of  the 
Egyptians,  not  to  plimder,  to  imitate  the 
Roman  legions  in  protecting  all  religions. 
Nelson  had  been  here  a  short  time  be- 
fbre  in  search  of  the  French.  The  ap- 
prehension that .  he  might  soon  return 
mduced  the  general  to  luuiten  the  disem- 
barkation of  the  troops.  This  was  ac- 
complished, without  interruption,  July  2, 
at  Marabout,  an  anchorage  to  the  east  of 
Alexandria,  notwithstanding  the  wind  and 
waves  were  unfavorable.  The  French 
army  marched,  without  cannons  or  horses, 
towards  Alexandria.  Bonaparte  was  him- 
self on  foot  Some  Arabs  attacked  the 
French;  general  Kieber  was  severely 
wounded.  On  tbe  5th,  Alexandria  was 
taken,  and  immediately  fortified.  Rosetta 
was  taken  at  the  same  time,  by  ffeneral 
Marmont,  and,  July  6,  the  whole  fleet 
was  moored  in  the  roads  before  Aboukir. 


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CAJtf PAIGN  OF  THE  FRENCH  IN  EGYPT. 


GairisoDS  were  left  in  Alei^uidria  (where 
Kleber  was  made  governor),  Roeetta  ajid 
Aboukir,  and  the  army,  now  '30fi00  strong, 
marched  in  5  divisions  towards  Cairo, 
the  capital  of  Egypt  Not  far  from  it, 
near  the  pyi^mids  of  Gizeh,  a  decisive 
battle  was  foughL  Murad  Bey  had  en- 
trenched himself  there,  with  about  20,000 
Mameluke  infantiy,  several  thousand 
Mameluke  cavalry,  and  40  pieces  of  can- 
non. The  well-directed  fire  of  tlie  French, 
and  the  resolution  with  which  they  used 
their  bayonets,  frustrated  all  the  attacks 
of  the  Mamelukes,  who  fled  to  the  con- 
tiguous deserts,  as  soon  as  the  camp  and 
villaffe  of  Embabey  were  taken  by  storm. 
All  the  cannon  and  400  camels  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  French ;  3000  of  th6  en- 
emy lay  dead  on  the  field ;  the  French  lost 
few  men  in  comparison.  This  happened 
on  tiie  23d,  and  Bonaparte  entered  Cairo 
on  the  24th ;  for  Ibrahim  Bey,  who  was  to 
cover  it,  afler  the  unfortunate  issue  of  the 
battle  of  the  pyramids,  was  driven  by  De- 
saix  over  the  deserts  to  Upper  Egypt  Na- 
poleon established  a  government  here,  con- 
sisting of  seven  members,  summoned  the 
sheiks,  mollas  and  sherifl^  who  promised 
to  acknowledge  the  French  republic,  and, 
on  his  side,  pledged  himself  to  respect  die 
Mohammedan  religion,  and  the  property 
of  the  inhabitants.  July  25,  general  Bo- 
naparte lefl  Cairo  to  pursue  the  Mam- 
elukes, and,  after  many  combats  with 
them,  returned  to  the  capital,  leaving 
Regnier  as  commandant  of  the  province 
of  Charquich.  On  his  return  to  Cairo, 
an  aid  of  Kleber  brought  him  the  news 
of  the  defeat  of  the  French  fleet  at  Abou- 
kir  (q.  v.)  by  Nelson.  The  defeat  was  in 
part  owing  to  the  ne^^Ii^ence  of  admiral 
Bnieys  and  vice-adnnral  Villeneuve,  who 
allowed  themselves  to  be  surprised,  when 
the  whole  fleet  was  taking  in  water,  and 
not  ready  for  battle,  and  who  have  always 
been  said  to  have  acted  against  the 
express  orders  of  general  Bonaimrte,  who 
had  directed  them  to  enter  the  harbor  of 
Alexandria,  or  to  sail  for  Corfu,  before  he 
lefl  the  shore  to  penetrate  into  the  coun- 
tn^.  Bourienne,  however,  in  his  Mimoires 
(Paris,  1829),  osserts  that  Bonaparte  never 
gave  such  orders.*  General  Bonaparte 
saw  his  communication  with  France 
threatened,  and  himself  exposed  to  the 
greatest  of  all  enemies,  want  Exaspe- 
rated by  the  transformation  of  so  impor- 
tant a  dependency  as  Egypt  into  a  French 

*  Bonaparte  wrote  an  afiectionate  letter  to  the 
widow  of  admiral  Brueys,  who  bad  been  killed  in 
the  battle  of  Aboukir,  rave  her  a  pension  after  he 
became  coiuul,  and  educated  her  sons. 


province,  the  Porte  declared  war  agaioft 
France,  September  2, 1796,  and  menaced 
an  attack  from  the  side  of  Asia.  The  in- 
habitants of  Cahro  rebelled.  Many  of  the 
French,  especially  the  gavantSy  artists  Und 
mechanics,  were  murdered ;  but,  after  a 
bk>ody  conflict  in  the  city,  September  23 
and  25i  the  insuj^nts,  who  nad  fled  to 
the  principal  mbsaue,  were  compelled  to 
surrender  unconditionally.  After  the  res- 
toration of  quiet,  Bonaparte,  having  or- 
ganized a  system  of  government  for  J^ypC, 
on  French  principl^  roarehed,  Febniary 
27,  1799,  with  about  18.000  men,  from 
Cairo  to  Syria,  took  the  foit  of  El-Ariah, 
in  the  desert,  then  Jaffii,  and,  having  coiu- 
quered  the  inhabitants  of  Naplous,  at  Zeta, 
procured  there  a  supply  of  provisioni^ 
which  he  greatly  needed,  in  curder  u>  be 
able  to  undertake  the  mege  of  St  Jean 
d'Acre,  and  was  again  victorious  at  JvfeL 
In  the  mean  while,  the  English,  who  bad 
appeared  before  St  Jean  d'Acre  under  air 
^dney  Smith,  had  succeeded  in  reinibre- 
ing  the  Turkish  garrison  of  this  place  widi 
several  hundred  infantry  and  aitilleiy,and 
introducing  ammuinition^  This  enabled 
the  Tiu-ks  to  repel  several  assaults,  and, 
notwithstanding  the  most  violent  ^n  fkom 
the  French  batteries,  to  susUiin  the  attack 
BO  long,  that  Bonaparte  was  obliged  to 
nise  the  siege.  During  this  siege^jenend 
Bonaparte  marehed,  with  25,000  men, 
towards  the  plain  of  Fiuli,  where  iOfiOO 
of  the  enemy  had  assembled.  On  the 
16th  and  17th  of  April,  they  were  besten 
in  the  memorable  battle  of  mount  Tabor, 
near  the  Jordan.  It  was  on  the  letroot 
from  St  Jean  d'Acre,  that  the  Turkish 
prisoners  were  said  to  have  been  put  to 
death  at  JaflTa,  and  the  French  8okiie»i 
sick  of  the  plague  in  the  hospitals,  poi- 
soned. (For  some  remaiks  on  this  sub- 
ject, see  the  article  JMl)  A  third  of 
the  army  bad  become  the  victims  of  war 
and  the  plague.  After  a  fatigtting  march 
of  26  days,  the  troops  arrived  at  Cairou 
A  Turkish  fleet  soon  afler  landed  1^000 
men  at  Aboukir,  who  took  the  fort  there. 
Bonaparte  quickly  led  his  best  troops 
thither,  stationed  himself  near  the  foun- 
tain between  Alexandria  and  Aboukir, 
and  ofiered  batde  to  the  Tuika,  July  2S. 
Mustapha  Pacha,  with  all  his  retinue  and 
artillery,  was  taken ;  2000  Tuiks  perished 
in  the  waves  or  in  batde,  and  the  renudn- 
der  of  the  army,  which  had  thrown  itsdf 
into  'the  fort  of  Aboukir,  was  compelled 
to  surrender  unconditionally  Aug.  2..  By 
this  victory,  general  Bonajiarte's  power  in 
Egypt  was  again  confinned.  At  this  pe- 
ri^ the  French  had  experienced  conaid- 


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CAMPAIGN  OF  THE  FRENCH  IN  EGYPT. 


m 


erable  rererses  in  Europe.  The  battle 
of  the  Trebia  had  been  lost,  the  French 
had  evacuated  the  Genoese  territoiy, 
Massena,  in  Switzerland,  waa  in  great 
danger.  General  Bonaparte  saw  the  dan- 
ger of  his  countiy,  and  the  loss  of  his 
conquests  in  Italy,  and  resolved  to  return, 
having  from  the  beginning  permission  to 
do  so  whenever  he  chose.  But  how 
could  he  have  known  the  state  of  things  in 
Europe  ?  It  has  been  oflen  asserted,  that 
he  obtained  his  information  from  English 
papers,  which  the  French  officere  had 
received  fit>m  the  English,  when  engaged 
in  the  exchange  of  prisoners.  But  would 
the  general  have  undertaken  so  important 
a  step  merely  on  the  authority  of  the 
Engbsh  papers,  which  wero  known  to 
contain  many  misrepresentations?  The 
fiict  is,  that  his  brother  Joseph  sent  a 
Greek  of  Cephaionia,  named  Bombaehi,  to 
induce  him  to  return.    The  order  which 

Sive  the  command  to  Kleber  waa  dated 
ugust  22,  1799,  and  contained  wise 
directions  respecting  the  army  and  coun- 
trv.  The  instructions  contain  two  keys 
of  Ciphers,  ^one  to  be  used  in  communica- 
tions to  the  directorv,  and  tlie  odier  in 
thoae  made  to  himself.  The  conclusion, 
also,  shows,,  that  it  did  not  escape  him 
how  necessary  it  might  become,  in  some 
future  time,  to  have  the  army  personally 
Attached  to  him.  By  the  time  his  de- 
|Mirture  was  known  to  the  army,  Bona* 
parte's  fricate  had  weighed  anchor.  Au- 
gust 23,  he  left  Aboukir  in  the  Miuron, 
a  Venetian  vessel,  commanded  by  rear-ad- 
miral Chmtheaume.  The  situation  of  the 
troops  under  Kleber's  command  became 
more  critical  every  day.  Greneral  Verdier 
repelled  a  new  disembarkation  of  the 
Turks,  in  November,  1799;  but,  for  an 
armv  that  could  not  be  recruited,  the 
smaileat  loss  was  serious.  The  advices 
fiom  Europe  were  not  encouraging ;  and, 
at  this  juncture,  Kleber,  having  been  in- 
formed tliat  the  grand  vizier  was  march- 
ing irom  Syria  to  Egypt,  with  a  large  ar- 
my, concluded,  Januair  24,  1800,  the 
treaty  of  El-Ariah,  with  the  vizier  and 
nr  Sidney  Smith.  By  this  treaty  it  waa 
jnnovided,  that  a  truce  should  be  granted 
to  the  French  for  three  months,  till  the 
ratification  of  the  treaty,  when  they 
should  evacuate  E^pt  But  the  letter 
of  Kleber  to  the  duectory,  in  which  he 
set  forth  the  miserable  state  of  the  army, 
and  ui^ged  the  ratification  of  the  trea^, 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English  admiral 
Keith,  and  was  sent  to  Engmnd.  It  was 
now  demanded  that  the  whole  French 
anny  ahouki  be  made  priaonen  of  war. 


Kleber  immediately  resumed  his  arms^ 
and  defeated  the  vizier  at  Heliopolia, 
March  18,  exacted  a  tax  for  the  payment 
of  his  soldiers,  formed  new  regiments  of 
the  Copts  and  Greeks,  gave  security  to  the 
coasts,  and  founded  magazines.  In  the 
midst  of  his  untiring  activity,  he  was 
murdered  in  Cairo  by  a  Turk,  June  14, 
and  the  command  devolved  on  Abdallaii 
Menou.  Meantime  the  English  govern- 
ment had  resolved  to  wrest  Egypt  from 
the  French.  March  1,  tiie  English  fleet 
arrived  before  Alexandria,  and,  on  the 
13th,  the  disembarkation  was  accomplish- 
ed at  Aboukir.  The  French,  about  4000 
men  strong,  gave  battle  on  the  next  day, 
but  were  forced  to  retire.  Aboukir  sur- 
rendered on  the  18th,  and  the  English 
entrenched  themselves  there.  On  the 
2l8t,  Menou  commenced  an  attack,  with 
10,000  men,  was  beaten,  and  threw  him- 
self into  Alexandria.  But  the  English 
general  Abercxombie  was  mortally  wound- 
ed, and  died  on  the  28th;  Hutchinson 
succeeded  him  in  die  command.  On  the 
28th,  reinforcements  were  brought  by  a 
Turkish  fleet,  and  the  vizier  was  now  ap- 
proaching from  Syria.  On  the  19th  of 
April,  Rosetta  surrendered  to  the  com- 
bined forces  of  the  English  and  Turka 
A  French  corps  of  4000  men  was  defeated 
at  Ramanieh,  bv  8000  English  and  6000 
Turks.  5000  French  were  obliged  to  re- 
treat, at  Elmenayer,  May  16,  by  the  vizier, 
who  was  pressing  forward  to  Cauro,  with 
20,000  men ;  and  the  whole  French  army 
was  now  blocked  up  in  Cairo  and  Ak»xan- 
dria.  June  20,  the  siege  of  Cairo  v^ras  for- 
mally commenced.  There  were  but  7000 
men  to  defend  the  city  against  40,000.  It 
capitulated,  June  27,  to  the  English  and 
TurioB,  on  condition  that  g^iend  Belliard 
and  his  troops  should  evacuate  the  city 
and  country,  should  be  transported  to 
France  at  the  expense  of  England,,  uid 
that  the  native  Egyptians  shoind  be  per- 
mitted to  accompany  htm.  August  17, 
they  embarked  at  Rosetta,  and  arrived  at 
Toulon  in  September,  1801,  about  13,000 
in  number,  of  whom  hardlv  4000  were 
armed.  General  Menou  still  remained  in 
Alexandria.  Admiral  Gantheaume  had 
sailed,  before  Belliaid's  arrival,  with  sev- 
eral ships,  of  the  line,  and  fiom  3  to  4000 
troops,  from  France,  and  arrived  before 
Alexandria,  but  was  compelled  to  hasten 
back  to  Toulon,  with  a  loss  of  4  corvettes. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  English  had  re* 
ceived  5000  firesh  troops  from  England, 
and  now  attacked  Alexandria.  They 
were  already  masters  of  castle  Marabout, 
when  Menou  requested  a  truce ;  to  which 


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428 


CAMPAIGN  OF  THE  FRENCH  IN  EGYPT. 


he  was  impelled  by  a  want  of  provinons, 
and  a  new  reinn>rcement  which  had 
joined  the  British,  consisting  of  6000  men 
under  general  Baird,  from  the  East  Indies. 
Menou  capitulated  September  2.  Alex- 
andria, wiUi  all  tlie  artillery  and  ammuni- 
tion, 6  French  ships  of  war,  and  many 
merchantmen,  together  with  all  the  Ara- 
bian manuscripts,  all  the  maps  of  Egypt, 
and  other  collections  made  for  the  French 
republic,  were  given  up.  The  French 
army  was  transported,  witli  its  arms  and 
baggage,  to  a  French  harbor,  which  they 
reached  at  die  end  of  November.  The  gar- 
rison of  Alexandria  had  comprised  above 
8000  soldien,  and  1307  marines.  Three 
years  and  six  months  had  elapsed  since 
the  finit  embarkation  at  Toulon.  Four 
weeks  after  the  loss  of  Egypt,  the  prelim- 
inaries of  peace  were  signed  at  London, 
October  1, 1801.*— This  expedition  to  the 
valley  of  the  Nile,  as  far  as  PhilaB,  on  the 
flrontiensof  Nubia---the  island  which  served 
as  the  extreme  frontier  post  of  the  Roman 
enipire  in  the  south  (a  Gennan,  named 
Waldeck,  however,  pretends  to  have  dis- 
covered a  pillar,  erected  by  Vespaaan's 
warriors,  at  the  foot  of  the  Mountains  of 
the  Moon)— was  attended  witli  important 
consequences  for  the  higher  interests  of 
humanity;  because  science  and  art,  in 
this  expedition,  went  hand  in  hand  with 
war.  Those  who  say  that  Napoleon  was 
not  a  friend  to  the  arts  and  sciences  will 
find  it  difficult  to  name  any  expedition,  in 
which  such  ample  provision  was  made 
for  their  advancement  These  campaigns 
revealed  to  scientific  Europe  treasures 
which  had  been  too  long  concealed  by 
tvronny  and  barbarism.  The  ancient 
Denderah,  Thebes,  Latopolis  and  Edfu 
were  disclosed,  with  their  temples,  pala- 
ces, ruins,  obelisks  and  catacombs,  to  the 
view  of  die  learned  men  who  accompanied 
the  expedition  to  Egypt  Secrets  which 
neither  Herodotus,  Strabo  nor  Diodorus 
had  been  able  entirely  to  penetrate,  and 

*  In  R.  R.  Maddcn's  Travels  in  Egypt,  Nu- 
bia, Turkey  and  Palestine,  in  the  yean  1824,  26, 
26  and  27,  London,  1829,  reprinted  in  P4iiladel- 
phia,  it  is  stated,  that  the  French  were  much  re- 
mtted  by  the  Egyptians,  and  extolled  as  bene- 
factors ;  that, ''  for  the  short  period  they  remain- 
ed, they  lea  manifold  traces  of  amelioration;^' 
and  that,  if  they  could  have  established  their 
power,  Egypt  would  now  be  comparativelv  civi- 
lized. This  reminds  us  of  the  regret  whicfi  most 
intelligent  Snaniards  now  rzpress  at  the  failure 
of  the  French  to  establish  theu-  power  in  Spain ; 
and  we  have  heard  Hessians  lament  the  4ofls 
of  many  institutions  established  in  the  kingdom 
of  Westphalia,  though  nobodv  can  deny  that 
Jerome's  government  was  defectii'e  m  a  high 


which  l^d  remiuned  ckisely  hidden  from 
the  view  of  all  modem  innvellers,  were  now 
unfolded.  The  so  long  misunderetood 
Egyptian  architecture  was  now  displayed 
in  all  its  grandeur ;  and  the  veil  was  rais- 
ed, which  had  formerly  covered  a  grp-at 
portion  of  the  history,  the  maimers,  the 
science  and  geography  of  this  country. 
In  one  and  me  same  spirit,  this  people 
inscribed  on  the  walls  ot  its  palaces,  tem- 
ples and  sepulchres,  the  ima^  of  its  gods 
and  kings,  the  forms  of  its  celestial  ob- 
servations, of  its  sacred  tisages  and  do- 
mestic life.  These  monuments  of  stone 
are  the  oldest  traces  of  the  human  mind, 
showing  to  us  the  customs  of  nations  in 
tlie  ages  reputed  fabulous.  The  study 
of  antiquities  and  legislation,  as  well  as 
the  history  of  Egypt,  teaches  anew  the 
great  trutn,  that  all  progress  in  tlie  ails 
fuid  sciences  has  an  intimiaie  connexion 
with  the  spirit  of  the  political  constitution 
and  government  of  a  country,  and  tlie  ne- 
cessity of  a  careful  observance  of  justice 
and  right.  We  now  know,  that,  of  all 
civilized  nations,  the  Egyptians  were  the 
first  to  observe  the  coiuse  of  t>ie  stars ; 
ranee  Europe  has  beeome  acquainted,  by 
means  of  the  French,  widi  the  sculpture 
and  architecture  in  which  the  Egyptians 
imbodied  in  stone  their  astronomical 
knowledffe.  Thus  the  zodiac  of  Dende- 
rah (see  Denderah),  now  in  Paris,  and  oth- 
er monuments,  show  the  progress  which 
this  iieople  had  made  in  astronomy. 
Previously,  no  one  suspected  the  exist- 
ence of  the  store  of  pafiynis  manuscripts, 
which  were  found  m  the  catacombs  of 
Thebes.  The  rich  decorations  of  tliese 
catacombs,  including  paintings  almost  un- 
injured by  time,  give  us  a  giimi»e  of  the 
habits  and  domestic  life  of  the  generation 
by  whom  they  were  built ;  and  the  dis- 
covery of  tlie  famotis  stone  of  Rosetta  has 
done  much  towards  affording  the  long- 
desired  clue  to  the  hieroglyphics.  (See 
Spohn.)  The  monuments  or  Egypt  wit- 
nessed the  rise  and  fall  of  Tyre,  Carthage, 
Athens  and  Rome,  and  yet  exist  When 
Plato  lived,  they  were  venerable  for  their 
antiquity,  and  will  command  the  admira- 
tion of  futtune  generations,  when,  perhaps, 
every  trace  of  our  cities  shall  have  van- 
ished. In  die  Egvptian  nation,  every 
thing  that  concerned  religion  and  govern- 
ment i)artook  of  the  character  of  eternity, 
in  a  climate  where  all  animal  and  vegeta- 
ble life  rises  speedily  to  perfection,  and  as 
speedily  decavs.  The  permanence  of  the 
instituuons  of  the  coimtry  was  certainly 
influenced  by  the  sight  of  the  public  moo- 
umenla^  on  which  time  had  tried  ito  cor* 


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EGYPT— EICHHORN. 


429 


roding  power  in  vain.  While  belioMing 
these  stupendous  works,  we  reflect  with 
awe  on  the  generations  th^t  have  passed 
away  since  tiicy  arose,  and  the  aces  that 
must  elapse  before  the  pyramios  shall 
bow  their  heads  to  the  dust  Every 
thing  that  zeal  in  the  cause  of  science, 
combined  with  the  most  extensive  knowl- 
edge, has  been  able  to  collect,  in  a  land 
rich  as  E^pt  is  hi  monuments  of  every 
kind,  and  m  the  rarest  curiosities,  is  com- 
prised in  a  work,  compiled  at  the  cost  of 
the  French  government,  by  tlie  commit- 
tee for  Egyptian  antiquities.  This  work 
corresponds,  in  the  grandeur  of  its  projpor- 
tions,  to  the  edifices  which  it  describes. 
The  Descrij^ion  de  VEgifpU^  ou  Reciie& 
dts  OhservcUions  et  des  Recherckes  jocndant 
rExpidition  de  VAmUe  Fran^aist^  ^  vols^ 
with  more  than  900  engravmgs  and  3000 
sketches  (tlie  last  number  appeared  in 
1836),  contains  all  the  transactions  of  the 
institute  of  Cairo.  The  first  of  tlie  three 
great  divisions  contains  the  antiquities, 
the  second  the  modem  condition,  and  the 
ihuid  the  natural  history  of  Egvpt  In 
compliance  with  the  wishes  of  Napoleon, 
only  a  few  copies  were  printed.  Of  these, 
a  small  number  were  sent  to  foreign 
courts.  None  of  the  essays  were  re- 
ceived till  after  a  previous  examination 
by  a  committee  consisting  of  tlie  scmanU 
and  artists  who  had  accompanied  the  ar- 
my under  Bonaparte  to  Egypt  Among 
these  were  BerthoUet,  Costar,  Degenettes, 
Fourier,  Girard,  Monge«  Cont^  and  Lau- 
rent The  place  of  the  two  last,  who 
died  during  the  progress  of  the  work,  was 
supplied  hy  Jomard  and  Jallois,  to  whom 
were  afterwards  added  Delille  and  De- 
viUiers.  Louis  XVIII  and  Charles  X 
caused  the  publication  of  tliis  valuable 
work  to  be  continued,  and,  in  1821, 
Panckoucke,  a  bookseller  in  Paris,  was 
permitted  to  undertake  a  new  edition,  and 
make  use  of  the  valuable  copperplates  of 
the  former  edition.  Jacotin's  splendid 
map  of  Egypt,  constructed  by  the  French 
engineers  on  tiie  spot,  is  annexed  to  the 
Atlas  of  Egypt  The  discoveries  of 
Charapollion  (q.  v.),  and  tlie  prevalent 
zeal  ror  investigating  the  **  country  of 
wonders,**  may  1^  said  to  have  had  their 
origin  in  tiie  French  expedition  to  Egypt 
The  chapter  on  this  expedition,  in  sir 
Walter  Scott's  Life  of  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte, is  very  deficient  and  incorrect 
The  account  of  this  expedition  and  of  the 
motives  which  prompted  it,  eiven  in  the 
third  and  eighth  chapters  of  tiie  second 
volume  of  Buchholz's  Geschichle  JSTapokon 
BoncqHsrU^a  (Histoiy  of  N.   Bonaparte)^ 


Berhn,  1839, 3  vols.,  is  better.  See  also  the 
memoirs  of  the  duke  of  Rovi^  (Savary). 
There  has  been  published,  quite  recently, 
the  first  livrcdson  of  VIEstoirt  scientifique 
d  militaire  de  PEocp^dition  Frangcdse  en 
EgvpU  (Paris,  18301  under  the  direction  of 
X.  B.  Saintine,  with  an  atlas,  preceded  by 
a  history  of  Egypt  from  the  earliest  times, 
and  with  an  account  of  the  administration 
of  Ali  Pacha,  and  likewise  Campagnt 
d'Egypte,  suite  de  PHistoire  de  France,  mar 
Jbiqaeta,  3d  vol.  by  F.  Fayot,  Paris,  1830. 

EoTPTUN  Mytholoot.  (See  CemxUry^ 
Charon,  and  tEeroglyphies,) 

Ehrenbreitstein  ;  an  important  for- 
tress, on  a  rock  upon  the  Rhine,  opposite 
Coblentz,  in  the  former  archbishopric  of 
Treves.  The  French  continued  to  block- 
ade it  in  1798  and  1799,  during  the  ne- 
gotiations for  peace,  till  at  length  it  was 
obliged  to  surrender  for  want  of  provis- 
ions, January  29,  and,  in  1801,  was  blown 
up.  At  the  bottom  of  the  rock,  near  the 
little  town  of  Thal-Ehrenbreitstem,  is  the 
castle  of  tiie  elector,  which,  however,  was 
in  great  part  destroyed  during  the  siege. 
In  180S,  the  dilapidated  fortress,  the  vil- 
lage, and  the  jurisdiction  appertaining  to  it, 
were  bestowed  upon  the  prince  of  Nassau - 
Weilberg,  by  way  of  indemnity.  They 
were  subsequendy  Ceded  to  Prussia,  an^ 
now  belong  to  the  Prussian  grand-duchy 
of  the  Lower  Rhine  (the  province  of 
Cleves-Berg).  The  fortress  has  been  late- 
ly rebuilt,  on  the  newest  and  most  ap- 
proved principles,  so  that  it  is  considered 
one  of  the  finest  fortresses  in  the  world. 
(See  Cokientz,) 

Ehrenstrceu  ;  a  Swedish  officer,  one 
of  the  principal  persons  engaged  in  the 
conspiracy  against  the  regency,  1793.  At 
the  death  of  Gustavus  III,  firom  whom  he 
had  received  several  marks  of  honor  and 
trust,  he  joined  a  conspiracy,  headed  by 
baron  Armfelt  (q.  v.),  to  overturn  the  re- 
gency, and  raise  the  young  king  to  the 
throne^  before  the  time  appointed  by  law, 
and  the  will  of  Gustavus  III.  The  plot 
was  accidentidly  discovered.  Armfeh  es- 
caped, and  the  whole  weight  of  vengeance 
fell  upon  his  accomplices.  Ehrenstroem 
defended  himself  with  eloquence  and  abil- 
\\y  on  his  trial,  but  was  sentenced  to  die. 
He  went  with  calmness  and  resolution  to 
the  scafibld ;  and  the  executioner  was  on 
the  point  of  giving  the  death  stroke,  when 
it  was  announced  that  his  sentence  was 
commuted  to  perpetual  imprisonment 
On  the  accession  of^  Gustavus  IV,  he  was 
releaseil,  and  withdrew  into  retirement, 
witii  a  pension  ftom  the  king. 

EiGHQORN,  John  God&ey,  one  of  the 


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EICHHORN— EICIISTAEDT. 


greatest  scholars  of  Germany  in  Oriental 
fiterature,  bibUcal  criticism,  and  literary 
and  general  histoiy,  bom  1752,  at  Dorren- 
ziramem,  in  the  principality  Hoheulohe- 
Ohringen,  was  at  first  rector  of  the  school 
at  Obnlruf,  in  the  principality  of  Gotha ; 
in  1775,  was  made  professor  at  Jena,  where 
he  remained  till  1788,  when  he  became 
professor  in  Grottingen.  He  eaVe  the  first 
evidence  of  his  knowledge  of  Oriental  lit- 
erature and  history  in  his  Histoiy  of  the 
Commerce  of  the  East  Indies  before  Mo- 
hammed (Gotha,  1775).  At  Gottingen, 
he  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  biblical  crit- 
icism. The  results  of  his  inquiries  were 
published  in  his  AUgenuxnt  BibUoihek 
der  biUischm  lAteratur,  from  1788  to 
1801,  closing  with  the  tenth  volume.  This 
work  is  connected  with  a  previous  vtroik 
published  bv  him,  from  1777  to  1786,  in 
18  parts,  called  Ra>€rtarium  flir  hiblische 
una  morgenlandische  IjUeratwr.    He  also 

Sublished  an  Introduction  to  the  Old  and 
few  Testaments  (tiie  former  went  through 
a  fourdi  edition  in  1^^) ;  also,  the  Apoc- 
lyphal  Writings.  These  last  works  were 
})ublished  afterwards  together,  under  the 
title  of  Critical  Writings,  in  a  revised 
edition  (Leipsic,  7  vols.,  1804^1814). 
These  works  contributed  much  to  spread 
a  sound  criticism  of  the  Scriptures,  fund- 
ed on  a  knowledge  of  sacred  antiquities, 
and  the  Oriental  modes  of  thinking.  To 
tliese  works  mav  be  added  his  Pnmitive 
Histoiy  {Ur^Jdchte),  published  at  Nu- 
remberg, 1790—93,  with  an  introduction 
and  notes,  by  Gabler,  in  which  he  criti- 
cally examines  the  Mosaic  records.  Eich- 
hom  afterwards  turned  his  attention  to 
history.  He  fonned  the  plan  of  a  histoiy 
of  the  arts  and  sciences,  from  their  revi- 
val to  the  end  of  the  18th  centuiy,  of 
which  particular  parts  have  appeared  un- 
der difierent  titles  (e.  g..  The  History  of 
Poetry  and  Eloquence,  by  Bouterwek; 
The  Histoiy  of  Military  Science,  by  Hoyer), 
and  form  sejiarate  works.  Eichhom  wrote, 
with  tliis  view,  two  volumes  of  a  Gene- 
ral History  of  European  Civilization  and 
Literature  in  modem  Times.  He  did  not 
finish  it,  and  afterwards  gave  up  the  direc- 
tion of  this  undertaking.  He  began,  in 
1799,  a  survey  of  the  whole  histoiy  of  lit- 
erature, but  did  not  finish  the  2d  volume 
till  ldi4  (containing  the  history  of  lite- 
rature for  the  three  last  centuries).  He 
has  composed  several  valuable  historical 
works,  or  wliich, among  others,  his  Ancient 
Hi^iy  of  tlie  Greeks  and  Romans,  con- 
sisting entirely  of  extracts  finom  the  origi- 
nal historians,  are  in  high  repute  (m- 
^qua  SSstoria  ex  tjwti  veUrum  Script.  Ro- 


man. MaraHotujAus  eofdexta,  Gottinj^^Dy 
1811, 2  vols. ;  AniimM  Historia  ear  ipaU 
vet  Scrwt.  Graec.  Carrot,  contexU^  Leip- 
sic, 1812, 4  vols.).  In  1804,  he  published 
the  first  edition  of  his  Histoiy  of  the 
three  last  Centuries,  considered  in  a  gen- 
eral view,  and  in  relation  to  the  changea 
that  have  occurred  in  the  particular  coun- 
tries of  Europe,  Asia,  Afirica  and  Ameri- 
ca. In  1818  appeared  a  3d  edition  in  six 
volumes,  which  brin^  down  the  histoiy  to 
the  latest  period.  His  last  historical  work 
is  tlie  Early  History  of  tlie  Illustrious 
House  of  tlie  Guelplis  (Hanover,  1817),  in 
which  he  traces  back  the  history  of  that 
ftimily  to  the  earliest  times  which  afilbrd 
any  notices  of  it  Several  separate  treatis- 
es of  his  are  to  be  found  in  the  commenta- 
ries of  the  Gottingen  society  of  science, 
and  in  the  Fundgruhen  de»  OrietUa. 
Since  1813,  he  has  conducted  the  Gottin- 
gen Literary  Gazette. 

EicHHORN,  Frederic  Charies,  a  disdn- 

Siished  student  of  German  history  and 
w,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  bom  at  Je- 
na, 1781.  He  studied  at  Gottingen,  was 
an  instructer  there  a  considerable  time, 
and,  in  1805,  was  appointed  professor  of 
law  in  Frankfort  on  the  Oder ;  after  that, 
at  Berlin,  1811,  where  he  remained  till 
1817,  when  he  removed  to  the  same  ofiice 
in  Gotdngen.  He  distinguished  himself 
in  the  campaign  of  1813  against  the 
French,  and  received  the  iron  cross.  His 
History  of  the  German  Politics  and  Ju- 
risprudence first  appeared  1808 — 18 ;  3d 
edition,  Gottingen,  1821—23,  4  vols.  In 
company  with  Savigny  and  Goschen,  he 
has  published,  since  1816,  A  Historical 
Journal  of  Jurisprudence,  in  which  is  to 
be  found  his  treatise  on  the  origin  of  tlie 
German  cities,  which  serves  as  a  further 
exposition  of  his  views  given  in  the  work 
mentioned  aliove. 

EicHSTAEDT,  Hcniy  Charles  Abraham, 
a  distinguished  philologist  of  modem 
times,  was  bom  Aug.  8, 1770,  at  Oschatz, 
where  he  was  paruy  educated  by  his  fii- 
ther,  a  clergyman.  He  is  now  professor  in 
the  university  of  Jena,  and  editor  of  the  Js- 
naische  AUecmeinelMeraiur-ZeiivngiJejM 
Universal  Literary  Gazette).  His  works 
are  some  editions  of  the  classics  (Diodcrus 
Sicvlus,  Halle,  1800—2, 2  vols.,  and  Lucre- 
HuSf  Leipsic,  1801),  critical  treatises,  illus- 
trating the  genuine  principles  of  interpre- 
tation IDe  dranuxte  Gr<tcorum  cimicO'$a' 
tvrico,  Leipsic,  1793,  and  on  TKbyllus^Pha* 
anUf  &C.),  also  translations  of  histories,  re- 
lating priucipallv  to  Greek  or  Roman  antiq- 
uity, e.  g.  Mitjord's  History  of  Greece, 
from  the  English,  Leipsic,  1802—8,  G  vols. 


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EICHSTAEDT— EISENACH. 


431 


Eiehstaedt  is  dUtinguished  for  the  ele- 
gance, force  aiid  ease  of  his  Latin  style. 

Eider  Duck  (anas  moUusiUnOj.  Lin., 
Wilson  ;fuiigula,  Bon.)  This  valuable  bird 
is  found  from  45^  north  to  the  highest 
latitudes  yet  visited,  both  in  Europe  and 
America.  Its  favorite  haunts  are  solitary 
rocky  shores  and  islands.  In  Greenland 
and  Iceland,  they  occur  in  great  quanti- 
ties. In  particular  spots,  their  nests  are  so 
abundant,  that  a  person  can  scarcely  walk 
without  treading  on  them.  The  eider 
duck  is  about  twice  the  size  of  the  com- 
mon duck.  Their  nests  are  usually  formed 
of  drift  grass,  dry  sea-weed,  lined  with  a 
large  quantity  of  down,  which  the  female 
plucks  from  her  own  breast  In  this  soft 
bed  she  lays  five  effgs,  which  she  covers 
over  with  a  layer  of  down ;  then  the  natives, 
who  watch  her  operations,  take  away  both 
the  eggs  and  the  down :  the  duck  lays  a 
second  time,  and  agam  has  recourse  to  the 
feathers  of  her  b^y  to  protect  her  off- 
spring :  even  this,  with  the  e^gs?  is  general- 
ly taken  away ;  and  it  is  sai^  that,  in  this 
extremity,  her  own  stock  being  exhausted, 
the  drake  furnishes  the  third  quantity  of 
down :  if  the  robbery  should  be  repeated, 
however,  they  abandon  the  place.  One 
female  generally  furnishes  about  half  a 
pound  of  down,  which  is  worth  about  two 
dollars.  This  down,  from  its  superior 
ivarmth,  lighmess  and  elasticity,  is  pre- 
ieired  by  the  luxurious,  to  every  other  ar- 
ticle for  beds  and  coverlets;  and, from  the 
great  demand  for  it,  those  districts  in  Nor- 
way and  Iceland,wliere  these  birds  abound^ 
are  regarded  as  the  most  valuable  proper- 
ty, and  are  guarded  with  tlie  greatest  vigi- 
lance. Eacn  proprietor  endeavors,  by  ev- 
er^'  means  in  his  power,  to  draw  those 
birds  from  his  neighbor's  ground  to  his 
own,  and  when  they  settle  in  an  isl^d  off 
the  shore,  the  cattle  and  herdsmen  are  re- 
moved to  allow  them  to  breed  undisturb- 
ed. Very  little  of  the  eider  down  remains 
in  the  countries  where  it  is  collected.  As 
found  in  commerce,  this  down  is  in  balls 
of  the  size  of  a  man's  fist,  and  weighing 
from  three  to  four  pounds.  It  is  so  fine 
and  elastic,  that  when  a  ball  is  opened, 
and  the  down  cautiously  held  over  hot 
coals  to  expand,  it  will* completely  fill  a 

Suilt  five  feet  square.  The  down  from 
ead  birds  is  little  esteemed,  having  lost 
its  elasticity.  The  length  of  this  duck 
is  two  feet  three  inches,  extent  of  the  winp 
three  feet,  weight  from  six  to  seven  pounds: 
the  head  is  large,  and  the  bill  of  singular 
structure,  bdng  three  inches  in  len|^, 
fortced  in  a  remarkable  manner,  runninff 
high  up  in  the  forehead,  between  which 


the  plumage  descends  nearly  to  the  nos- 
trils :  the  whole  of  the  i»\\  is  of  a  dull 
yellowish  horn  color,  somewhat  dusky 
in  the  middle.  The  male  is  black,  bead 
and  back  white,  with  a  black  crown.  The 
female  is  wholly  reddish  drab,  spotted  with 
black,  with  two  white  bands  across  the 
wings.  The  young  of  both  sexes  are  the 
same,  being  covered  with  a  kind  of  hairy 
down,  throat  and  breast  whitish,  and  a 
cinereous  line  from  the  bill  tlj rough  the 
eyes  to  the  hind  head.  These  birds  asso- 
ciate in  flocks,  generally  in  deep  water, 
diving  to  great  depths  for  shell  fish,  which 
constitute  their  principal  food.  They  fre- 
quently retire  to  the  rocky  shores  to  rest, 
imrticularly  on  the  appearance  of  tm  ap- 
proaching storm.  Their  flesh  is  eaten  by 
the  Greenlandcrs,  but  tastes  strongly  of 
fish.  The  eggs,  however,  are  esteemed. 
These  and  the  down  are  both  frequently 
obtained  at  the  hazard  of  life  by  people 
let  down  by  ropes  from  craggy  steeps. 
With  five  pounds  of  the  best  eider  down, 
a  whole  bed  may  be  well  filled.  The 
Greenlandcrs  likewise  use  the  skin,  taken 
o^  feathers  and  all,  for  their  under  dress- 
es. The  down  is  divided  into  two  sorts ; 
sea-weed  down,  and  grass  down.  The 
former  kind  is  the  heaviest ;  but  the  labor 
of  cleaning  is  greater.  Much  of  the  down 
18  lost  in  cleaning.  Iceland  furnishes  an- 
nually fix>m  200  to  300  pounds  cleaned, 
and  from  1500  to  2000  pounds  impure. 

EiPEZ. ;  a  district  rich  in  monuments  of 
t}ie  Romans,  and  of  the  middle  a^s,  ly- 
ing between  the  Moselle,  the  Rlune  and 
tlie  Roer.  Schannat's  EiJUa  ^ustrala  was 
published  by  Barsch  in  Latin,  with  anno- 
tations (Cologne,  1824, 2  vols.). 

Eisenach  (anciently /venaeum);  a  town 
in  Germany,  and  capital  of  a  principality  of 
the  same  name,  belonging  to  the  grand- 
duchy  of  Saxe- Weimar,  on  the  Nesse; 
96  miles  west  Erflirt,  40  west  Weimar ; 
Ion.  10°  20^  E.;  lat.  SOP  59^  N;  popula- 
tion,  7845.  It  is  a  well  built  town,  and 
contains  five  churches,  a  gymnasium  with 
a  library,  and  has  some  manufactures, 
chiefly  of  coarse  woollen.  It  is  most  agree- 
ably situated,  near  the  mountains  of  Thu- 
ringia.  Half  a  league  from  this  town  lies 
the  Wartburg,  an  ancient  mountain  cas- 
tle, to  which  the  elector,  Frederic  the  Wise, 
of  Saxony,  ordered  Luther  to  be  carried, 
afler  the  fatter  had  been  placed  under  the 
bann  of  the  empire,  by  the  diet  at  Worms. 
Luther  Kved  here  as  the  chevalier  George, 
from  May  4, 1521,  to  March  6, 1522,  and 
labored  zealously  in  the  translation  of  the 
Bible.  The  view  from  this  castie  over  an 
ocean  of  leaves  is  charming.    In  1817, 


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EISENACH— EJECTMENT. 


many  German  students  assembled  here, 
and  celebrated  the  anniversary  of  the  bat- 
tle of  Leipsic  (Oct.  18,  1813).  The  zeal 
which  they  evinced  for  the  union  of  their 
divided  and  lacerated  country,  together 
with  the  burning  of  various  boolu,  ^e 
political  character  of  which  was  ofienatve 
to  them,  displeased  the  Grerman  govern- 
ments, and  gave  rise  to  the  prosecution  of 
many  students  supposed  to  be  disaffected. 
The  War  on  the  Wartburg  is  an  ancient 
German  poem,  of  great  interest  in  the  his- 
tory of  German  literature.  Mr.  Zeune 
published  it  in  1818. 

E/ECTMENT,  in  law,  is  an  action  by 
which  a  person  ousted  fh>m  tlie  posses- 
sion of  an  estate  for  years,  in  lands  or  ten- 
ements, may  recover  that  possession.  But 
though  the  action  is  intended  only  for  the 
recovery  of  a  term  for  years,  it  is,  in  fact, 
used,  m  England  and  the  state  of  New 
York,  to  try  the  title  to  an  estate  of  inher- 
itance or  for  life.  In  the  early  periods  of 
the  English  law,  the  tenant,  or  person  dis- 
possessed of  his  estate  for  years,  could  not 
recover  the  possession  of  it,  in  this,  action, 
in  the  courts  of  law ;  he  could  only  recov^ 
er  damages  for  the  injury  sustained  by  be- 
ing driven  from  the  possession ;  but  the 
dispossessor  kept  possession  of  the  term, 
just  as  is  the  case  at  present  in  the  action 
of  trover  and  conversion,  in  respect  to  a 
chattel,  in  which  the  owner  does  not  rec 
cover  Uie  chattel  itself,  but  damages  for 
being  deprived  of  it  But  the  court  of 
equity,  in  this  case,  as  in  many  others,  led 
the  way  in  ameliorating  the  law,  and  en- 
larged the  remedy,  so  that  the  plaintiff 
might  recover  the  term  itself;  and  the 
courts  of  law,  following  those  of  equity,  as 
eariy  as  Edward  IV,  adopted  the  same 
remedy,  and  awarded  execution  for  nut- 
ting the  plaintiff  into  repossession  or  his 
estate,  though  no  such  thing  was  warrant- 
ed by  the  writ,  or  prayed  for  by  the  dec- 
laration. After  taking  this  step,  the  next 
one  was  to  adopt  the  same  form  of  action 
for  tiying  the  title  to  the  lands.  This  ap- 
plication of  the  action  of  ejectment  was 
made  as  eariy  as  the  time  of  Henry  VIL 
To  do  this,  the  person  who  claimed  an  es- 
tate of  inheritance,  of  which  another  was 
in  possession,  entered  upon  it,  and  then 
nriade  a  lease,  and  the  lessee  to<^  po8se»- 
sion,  and  remained  upon  the  land  in  virtue 
of  the  lease,  until  the  person  claiming  un- 
der an  adverse  title  put  him  out ;  or,  if  no 
such  person  appeared  to  expel  him  from 
the  land,  he  pretended  to  be  driven  of^by 
the  first  person  who  hi^pened  to  pass  that 
wa^r,  and  who  was  thence  called  tlie  cofu- 
a<  ^ecior,  who  mm,  m  &ct,  no  ejector  at 


alL  Being  tlius  tjected  in  fact,  or  by  fic- 
tion, he  brought  his  action  of  ejectment,  or 
the  party  clmming  the  title  brought  it  in 
his  name,  and  in  this  suit  the  title  was  ne- 
cessarily brought  into  question ;  for,  in  or- 
der to  get  possession,  he  must  prove  that 
he  had  a  sood  and  valid  lease,  which  he 
woidd  endeavor  to  do  by  showing  that  the 
lessor  had  tlie  right  to  make  such  a  lease, 
that  is,  that  he  had  the  title  and  right  of 
possession.  Besides  proving  the  title  of 
bis  lessor,  he  must  also  prove  the  lease,  his 
entry  under  it,  and  his  ouster,  or  being 
driven  out  of  possession.  When  the  oIk 
ject  was  to  try  the  title,  the  lease,  entry  and 
ouster  were  a  mere  ceremony,  and  might 
as  well  be  supposed  or  imagined  as  actu- 
ally to  take  place.  The  courts,  according^ 
ly,  allowed  a  fiction  of  the  lease,  entry  a»i 
ouster ;  tlie  plaintiff  stated  them  to  have 
taken  place,  though  there  had,  in  fact, 
been  no  such  tiling,  nor  wvm  there  any 
such  person  as  the  one  named  as  being 
the  lessee,  who,  in  England,  is  always 
John  Doe,  and  in  New  York,  Jackson. 
Thus  the  action  of  Doe  or  Jackson  er  dem. 
[denmso]  J ohn9on\  against  Sampson,  means 
the  action  of  Doe  or  Jackson,  the  leasee  of 
Johnson,  against  Sampson.  If  the  nomi- 
nal plainti^  Doe  or  Jackson,  were  liable 
to  be  called  upon  to  show  himsdf  to  the 
court,  there  wouki  be  an  end  of  the  suit, 
as  there  would  be  no  such  person  to  be 
found.  Nor  would  the  demandant  snoceed 
any  better,  were  he  called  upon  to  prove 
that  there  had  been  any  such  lease,  entry 
or  ouster ;  as  all  this  is  a  fiction.  Former- 
ly, the  defendant  also,  the  casual  ejector, 
as  well  as  tlie  plaintiff,  was  a  man  of  straw, 
or  litde  better ;  for  he  was  firequently  a  per- 
son who  accidentally  came  in  sight  at  the 
time  of  making  the  lease,  if  tliere  was  any 
in  fiust  made,  and  who  would  not  be  dis- 
poseil  to  trouble  himself  to  prevent  the 
demandant  fivm  getdnff  possession  of  land, 
in  which  he  himself  had  no  interest  or 
concern ;  or  be  might  be  a  fiiend  of  the 
demandant,  who  had  oome  upon  the  land 
at  his  request,  to  act  as  ejector,  and  would 
be  very  'vrilling  that  the  demandant  should 
recover  it  'Ae  tenant,  therefore,  who  is 
in  actiul  poasession  of  the  estate,  unless 
his  right  is  defended  by  some  other  person 
than  the  indifi^rent  defendant  whose  name 
appears  on  die  docket  of  the  court,  is  like- 

Sto  lose  his  inheritance.  To  prevent  this, 
e  court  allows  him  to  appear  himself, 
and  defend  against  the  claim  and  tlie  court : 
always  requires  that  notice  shall  be  served 
upon  him,  to  sive  him  an  opportunity  lo 
appear.  But  before  the  court  wiU  peraiit 
him  to  appear  for  this  purpose,  they  ro- 


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EJECTBIENT— ELASTXCITY. 


433 


ijnire  of  him  to  admit  all  these  fictioDt  of 
a  lease  to  John  Doe,  his  eutiy  and  ouster, 
which  he  is  willing  to  do  rather  than  lose 
his  land.  These  wing  admitted  by  him, 
he  may  then  proceed  to  defend  theaction, 
and  trv  the  question,  whether  he  has  a  bet- 
ter right  to  continue  in  possession,  than  this 
supposed  John  Doe  has  to  recover  the 
possession,  upon  his  supposed  lease.  The 
titles  of  the  demandant  and  tenant  are 
thus  brought  into  comparison,  and  decided 
upon.  But  when  the  object  is,  in  fact,  to 
recover  a  term  for  years,  of  which  the  de- 
mandant has  been  dispossessed,  ^e  lease, 
entfy  and  ouster  are  of  importance,  and 
must  be  proved. 

Ei.,  or  Al  ;  the  only  article  of  the  Aiur 
bian  language.  It  is  contained  in  ma- 
ny geographical  names ;  for  instance,  t^ 
Atzcdr  (Algiers),  the  islands;  EirAnsch, 
ine  cradle.  This  fl^Uable  has  remained  in 
many  names  of  pliaces  in  Spain  and  Por- 
tugal, as  ALcamiara,  the  bridge ;  JUcazary 
thepolace ;  Algatyey  the  west. 

Elain  ;  •  the  oily  principle  of  &t,  ob- 
tained by  submitting  fat  to  the  action  of 
boilinff  alcohol,  allowing  the  stearin  to 
crystaJiize,  and  then  evaporatmg  the  alco- 
holic solution ;  or,  by  the  simple  process 
of  pressing  any  oily  or  &tty  suostance  be- 
tween folds  of  bibulous  paper,  the  oily 
matter  or  elain  is  absoibed,  while  the 
stearin  remains.  The  paper  being  then 
soaked  in  water,  and  prrased,  yields  up  the 
elain.  It  possesses  much  the  appearance 
and  properties  of  vegetable  oil,  is  liquid  at 
the  temperature  of  60°  Fahr.,  and  has  an 
odor  derived  from  the  solid  fios  from  which 
it  has  been  extracted.  It  is  readily  soluble 
in  alcohol,  and  forms  soaps  with  alkalies ; 
in  doini^  which,  however,  it  undergoes  de- 
composition, and  is  converted,  according 
to  Chevreul,  into  a  peculiar  acid,  called  by 
him  oleic  acH  which  combines  with  the 
alkali  employed.  This  acid  is  obtained  by 
submitting  the  soap  formed  by  the  action 
of  potash  on  hog's  lard  to  the  action  of 
boihng  water ;  the  solution,  on  cooling,  de- 
positee a  sediment,  consisting  of  the  mar- 
garate  of  potash,  while  the  oleate  of  pot** 
ash  remains  in  solution.  The  oleate  of 
potash  is  decomposed  by  tartaric  acid, 
again  combined  with  potash,  and  again 
decomposed  by  tartaric  acid,  when  the 
oleic  acid  rises  to  the  top  in  the  condition 
of  an  oilv-hke  fluid.  It  is  insoluble  in  wa- 
ter, soluble  in  alcohol,  reddens  litmus,  and 
combines  with  the  different  salifiable  bases, 
foiming  compounds  somewhat  analogous 
to  soaps.  At  a  temperature  of  35°  Fahr., 
U  congeals  into  ciystalline  needles. 

Elastic  Qum.    (See  Ccuynkh^v^,) 

VOL.  IV.  37 


Elalu;  a  town  of  Africa,  in  Tunis, 
near  tlie  eastern  coast,  in  a  large  extent  of 
nnns,  on  the  borders  of  a  fertile  plain ;  90 
S.  S.  E.  Tunis;  Ion.  IP  ^  E. ;  lat  35^  ef 
N.  Besides  such  ruins  as  it  has  in  com- 
mon with  other  places,  there  are  several 
cistepns  with  larji^  paved  areas  built  over 
them,  in  order  to  receive  tlie  rain  water, 
tliat,  in  the  rainy  season,  is  to  fill  and  re- 
plenish ^em.  Several  conveniences  of 
the  like  nature  are  dispersed  all  over  this 
dry  country.  Elalia  seems  to  be  the 
AcMi  or  AdUa  of  tlie  ancients. 

Elasticity  ;  the  peculiar  property  of 
bodies,  by  virtue  of  which,  the  uarticfesof 
which  they  are  composed,  when  moved 
out  of  their  positions  oy  an  external  force, 
or  pressed  into  a  narrower  space,  tend  to 
return  to  their  former  position,  as  soon  as 
the  external  foit^  ceases  to  act.  A  bow, 
bent  by  the  tension  of  the  string,  recovers 
its  previous  form  when  the  tension  is  re- 
laxed. Let  an  ivory  ball  fall  upon  a  plate 
of  marble,  it  is  partially  flattened  by  the 
impulse,  but  becomes  immediately  round 
again  as  soon  as  the  force  of  the  blow  is 
destroyed.  Here  we  see  the  cause  of  its 
rebounding  from  the  hard  surface.  Feath- 
ers are  in  a  high  degree  elastic.  This  prop- 
erty of  elasticity  is  particularly  observa- 
ble in  atmospheric  an*.  If  it  is  enclosed 
in  a  vessel,  and  pressed  with  a  piston,  as 
soon  as  the  force  is  removed  from  the  pis- 
ton, the  air  throws  it  up  violently.  This 
is  the  principle  of  the  air-gim.  There  is 
an  important  difference  between  the  elas- 
ticity of  solids  and  fluids ;  the  (brmertend 
to  recover  their  previous  form ;  the  latter 
to  expand  into  a  greater  space,  whence  the 
term  expansibility  is  applied  to  them.  For 
the  sake  of  distinction,  the  elasticity  of 
solid  bodies  may  be  termed  attractive,  and 
tliat  of  fluids,  expansive.  The  degree  of 
it  is  very  different  in  different  bodies,  and 
in  many  it  is  increased  by  art.  Those 
bodies  in  which  it  cannot  be  perccive<l  at 
aU  are  called  wulastie.  The  elasticity  of 
a  solid  body  is  greater  the  inoi^  its  par- 
ticles are  expanded.  If  all  the  parti- 
cles of  a  body  are  so  fur  expanded  that 
their  elasticity  is  just  equal  to  the  expan- 
sive power,  the  expansion  can  be  carrio4 
no  further  without  separating  the  particles. 
The  weights,  necessary  to  produce  a  giv- 
en degree  of  extension,  must  be  propor- 
tionate  to  the  extension  already  existing. 
If  three  cords,  of  the  same  size  and  sub- 
stance, stretched  in  proportion  to  the  num-* 
hers  1, 2,  3,  are  to  receive  each  a  given 
amount  of  additional  extension,  the  weights 
necessary  to  produce  this  extension  are  as 
h^S.   The  tevra  of  elasticity  in  fluids  are 


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434 


ELASTICITY— ELBA. 


different  iirotn  those  in  solids.  In  heavy 
elastic  fluids,  tlie  inferior  layers  support  the 
weiffht  of  tlie  superior;  in  a  cylindrical  ves- 
se],merefore,the  bottom  suffers  thepressure 
of  the  whole  mass  of  elastic  fluid,  and  the 
lower  strata  are  sensibly  denser  than  the 
upper.  A  diflerence  is  made,  too,  be- 
tween absolute  and  specific  elasticity.  By 
the  former  is  understood  the  peculiar 
property  of  bodies  to  repel  a  pressing 
force,  in  itaetf^  and  without  regard  to  tem- 
perature and  density.  This  must  be  al- 
ways equal  to  the  pressing  force.  But  as 
di^rent  kinds  of  matter  may  press  with 
equal  force  under  unequal  densities  and 
temperatures,  that  is  called  specifically 
most  elastic,  which  with  a  less  density 
presses  with  a  force  equally  strong,  and 
with  an  equal  density  stronger.  In  all 
elastic  fluids,  the  specific  elasticity  uicreas- 
es  with  the  temperature;  it  is  likewise 
augmented  by  greater  density:  if  air  is 
confined,  and  made  more  dense,  its  specif- 
ic elasticity  is  greater  in  proportion  to  its 
increase  of  density. 

Elater;  the  name  c^an  insect  re- 
markable for  a  singular  apparatus  between 
the  thorax  and  abdomen,  by  which  it  is 
enabled  to  throw  itself  to  a  considerable 
height  in  the  air,  when  placed  on  its  back. 
It  thus  reeains  its  proper  position  when 
accidentally  overturned.  The  arrange- 
ment by  which  this  is  effected  is  so  curious, 
that  we  cannot  suppose  it  intended  solely 
for  this  purpose,  and  deem  it  most  proba- 
ble that  other  and  more  valuable  services 
are  rendered  to  the  insect  by  it.  A  spine 
is  produced  from  the  centre  of  the  breast 
or  sternum,  and  enters  a  socket  in  the  an- 
te-pectus  or  breast  The  force  and  elas- 
ticity with  which  the  spine  enters  its  ap- 
propriate receptacle,  aided  by  the  form  of 
the  thorax,  produces  a  jar  or  concussion 
sufiicient  to  throw  the  insect  several  inch- 
es into  the  air.  When  alarmed,  the  elater 
draws  its  limbs  close  to  the  body,  and, 
falling  to  the  earth  quite  motionless,  coun- 
terfeits death.  Flowers,  grass,  and  decaying 
wood,  are  the  proper  habitations  of  tnese 
animals,  which  are  almost  always  found 
singly,  and  not  in  numbers  collected  to- 

g>ther,  as  in  the  case  of  many  other  beetle, 
ne  species  is  accused  of  depredations  on 
the  roots  of  wheat— the  E.  gtriatus  of  Fab- 
ricius,  an  inhabitant  of  Europe.  The  e2a- 
ter  noMuctu  possesses  luminous  proper- 
ties, which  are  unlike  those  of  the  glow- 
worm, iSz^c.,  being  seated  near  the  head. 
In  South  America,  where  they  abound, 
the  natives  term  them  cuci^m,  and  the 
Spanish  residents,  euet^o.  Color,  daik 
brown,  with  an  ash-colored  down ;  tho- 


rax on  each  «de,  with  a  convex  round 
spot,  firom  which  the  light  is  emitted; 
elytra  with  lines  of  impressed  puncturesL 
The  light  emitted  by  several  of  these 
insects,  enclosed  in  a  glass  vase,  is  suffi- 
cient to  read  by  without  much  difficulty. 
As  ornaments  for  tiie  hair  and  evening 
dresses  of  the  Spanish  ladies,  they  are 
said  to  be  in  great  request ;  but  it  is  proba- 
ble that  the  feeble  light  which  they  pro- 
duce would  be  entirely  eclipsed  by  the 
glare  of  artificial  light  It  has  been  as- 
serted, that  the  luminous  quality  of  the  c»- 
ct^  is  not  confined  to  the  spots  upon  the 
thorax,  but  that  the  whole  mterior  of  the 
animal  possesses  the  property  of  aflbrd- 
ing  light  This  is  considered  doubtfliL 
Some  years  since,  numbers  of  this  insect 
were  taken  m  Philadelphia,  having  been 
imported  in  vessels  fit)m  South  America. 
In  confinement,  they  were  beautifiilly  lu- 
minous, and  the  character  of  the  light 
viFas  observed  to  be  similar  to  that  of  the 
glow-worm.  They  survived  but  a  short 
time  in  captivity,  for  want  of  proper  nour- 
ishment The  luminous  phenomena  ex- 
hibited by  certain  insects  are  exceedingly 
curious  and  beautiful.  Every  one  is  ac* 
quainted  vrith  the  lightnins-bug,  so  com- 
mon in  this  countiy,  and  the  female  lam- 
pyiB,  or  glow-worm.  (q.  v.]  The  light  is  a 
pale,  greenish-yellow,  phosphorescent  em- 
anation, subject  to  the  will  of  the  animal, 
who  kindles  or  extinguishes  it  at  pleasure. 
In  day-light,  the  luminous  organs  are  sim- 
ply yellow. 

Elba  (anciently  Sioa) ;  a  small  island  in 
the  Mediterranean,  near  the  coast  of  Tus- 
cany, to  which,  at  present,  it  belongs,  and 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  channel  of 
Piombina  The  island  is  about  eight  miles 
in  length,  and  two  in  breadth ;  was  known 
to  the  Greeks  by  the  name  of  Mkalai, 
and  to  the  Romans  by  that  of  Rwt^  or  El- 
tMi,  and  has  been  renowned  for  its  mines 
from  a  period  beyond  the  reach  of  history. 
Pliny  gives  it  a  cuwuit  of  100  miles ;  Isie 
fleographera  allow  only  60  to  its  circuit 
The  difference  might  he  accounted  for  by 
the  encroachments  of  the  sea,  and  by  tfaie 
tumbling  in  of  rocks,  which  are  in  many 
places  of  a  mouldering  contexture.  Be- 
mg  extremely  mountainous,  Elba  aflbrds 
but  scanty  room  for  cultivation,  and  pro- 
duces litde  more  than  six  months'provis- 
ion  of  com  for  its  inhabitants.  The  cli- 
mate is  much  milder  than  that  of  the  ad- 
jacent continent  Elba  contains  two  rraiid 
ports— Porto  Ferraio,  with  9000  inhalK- 
tfloits,  and  Porto  Longone,  with  1500  in- 
halHtBntB,  both  defended  by  fortificatioiiB 
ondgaiiMOiiB.     Lon.  10°  SO' £. :  lat  4»» 


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ELBA^GUNBR. 


435 


S3f  N. ;  population,  13,750 ;  square  imka, 
153.  It  produoee  annually  near  36000  cwL 
of  iron  ore,  which  yield,  at  least,  50  per 
cent  of  metal.  It  is  rich  in  silver,  marUe 
trA  loft'stone ;  600,000  bacs  of  salt  are 
szi  upJly  produced.  In  1814,  Elba  was 
granted  to  Napoleon,  with  all  the  rights  of 
eovereignty.  He  took  possession  of  it 
Mav  4,  Lud  left  it  February  26,  1815,  to 
undertake  his  iremorable  march  to  Paris. 

Elbe  (anciendy  Mis) ;  one  of  the  larg- 
est rivers  of  Germany,  which  rises  in  the 
Riesenffebirge  mountains,  about  4260  feet 
above  Uie  level  of  the  sea ;  takes  a  south- 
erly course  through  a  part  of  Bohemia  to 
Faitlubitz,  where  it  turos  towards  the  W. 
and  N.  W.  At  Mehieck,  having  received 
the  Moldau,  it  becomes  navigtJ)le ;  after 
which  it  enters  Saxony,  passes  by  K6nig- 
stein,  Pimau,  Dresden,  Meissen,  Belgern, 
enters  Prussia,  and  passes  Torgau,  Wit- 
tenbenr,  Coswick,  Dessau,  Barby,  Magde- 
burg, Tangermunde,  runs  between  Meck- 
lenmirg  and  Hanover,  passes  Lauenburg, 
Hamburg,  Glfickstadt,  &c.,  and  runs  into 
the  German  ocean,  about  Ion.  8^  £.,  lat  54^ 
3^  N.,  near  Cuxbaven,  after  a  course  of 
more  than  500  miles.  In  a  military  point 
of  view,  the  Elbe  is  of  the  highest  impor- 
tance, and  has  always  been  a  line  of  ope- 
ration. In  regard  to  commerce,  it  gives 
to  Hamburg  its  command  of  the  naviga- 
tion far  into  the  interior,  which  is  sur- 
passed only  by  the  situation  of  New  York. 
The  circumstance,  however,  that  this  no- 
ble river  passes  through  so  many  king- 
doms, dukedoms,  and  petty  states,  has 
rendered  the  navi^ition  of  it  a  point  of 
much  contest,  which,  in  spite  of  the  prom- 
ise of  the  congress  of  Vienna  to  make 
the  navigation  of  all  the  German  rivers 
f[Wf  has  not  yet  been  settled. 

Elb^e,  Giffot  d',  genemlissimo  of  the 
Vendean  rovalists,  a  man  of  distinguished 
courase  and  character,  was  bom  at  Dres- 
den, 1752.  He  served  in  the  electoral 
army  of  Saxony,  and  entered  the  French 
army  as  lieutenant  of  cavalry.  Attfaebe- 
ginninjB[  of  the  revolution,  he  retired  to  his 
estate  m  Anjou,  where  the  insursent  peas- 
ants of  La  Vendue,  in  1793,  chose  him 
their  leader.  He  alternately  conquered 
and  was  conquered;  and  veas  at  last 
wounded  and  taken  prisoner,  in  the  island 
of  Noirmoutier,  brought  before  a  court- 
martial,  and  shot,  January  2, 1794. 

Elberfeld;  a  commercial  cit^,  and 
capital  of  the  district  of  Dusseldor^  in  the 
Prussian  province  of  Cleves-Berff,  con- 
taining 1941  houses,  and  24,500  inhabitants. 
Two  centuries  ago,  the  population  was 
scarcely  800.    The  pure  mountain  stream 


of  the  Wfipper,  particulaily  adapted  to 
bleaching,  first  led  to  the  establishment  of 
linen  bleacheries  there.  The  undressed 
yam  comes  from  Hesse,  Brunswick,  Hil- 
desheim  and  Hanover.  The  manufac- 
tures of  linen  and  woollen  ribands,  and  of 
lace,  were  the  first  established.  France, 
Italy,  Spain,  Russia,  America,  &c.,  con- 
sume vast  quantities  of  these  goods.  Frin- 
ges, bed-tickings,  thread,  thread-lace,  d&c. 
employ  a  large  number  of  workmen. — 
When  the  EngUsh  process  of  spiuninir 
yam  became  known,  the  manufacture  of 
cotton  articles  was  highly  improved.  Dye- 
ing with  Turkish  red  has  been  another 
very  important  branch  of  business  in  El- 
berfeld since  1780.  The  silk  manu&c- 
ture,  since  1760,  has  been  of  great  impor- 
tance. The  annual  amount  of  the  silk 
stufts  mode  in  the  province  of  Bei^  is 
upwards  of  $2,000,000,.  and  the  amount  of 
all  tlie  manufactures  in  Elberfeld  and  Bar- 
men is  about  $9,000,000.  Large  quanti- 
ties of  manuftictures  from  this  place  are 
sent,  by  way  of  Hamburg  and  Antwerp,  to 
Mexico,  Buenos  Avres,  Chile,  Peru  and 
the  East  Indies.  Here  is  the  seat  of  the 
Rhenish  East  India  company.  In  1824, 
a  mining  company  was  established  in  El- 
berfeld, widi  a  capital  of  $375,000,  to 
work  mines  in  Mexico. 

Elbeuf,  or  Elboeuf  ;  a  town  in 
France,  important  for  its  cloth  manufacto- 
ries, in  the  department  of  the  Lower 
Seine,  four  leagues  S.  S.  W.  of  Rouen. — 
It  has  9090  iiihabitants ;  7000  of  whom 
manufacture  annually  from  28  to  30,000 
pieces  of  cloth,  most  of  which  is  consum- 
ed in  France;  the  rest  is  sent  to  Spain, 
Italy,  and  the  Levant 

Elbino  ;  a  town  in  West  Prussia,  on 
the  river  Elbing,  near  its  entrance  into  the 
Frische-Haff;  30  miles  S.  E.  of  Dantzic; 
Ion.  19»  22^  E.;  lat  54''  8'  N ;  population, 
19,434;  houses,  2040.  It  is  divided  into  the 
old  and  new  towns,  exclusive  of  the  sub- 
urbs, and  contains  five  Lutheran  church- 
es, one  Reformed,  one  Catholic,  and  one 
Mennonist,  &ve  hospitals,  and  a  gymna- 
sium. In  former  times,  it  was  an  impor- 
tant commercial  place  for  the  exportation 
of  grain,  but  it  has  since  sunk  very  much. 

Elder  ;  a  name  given  to  the  different 
species  of  the  genus  sambucus.  These  are 
small  trees  or  shrubs,  with  opposite  and 
pinnated  leaves,  bearing  small  white  flow- 
ers, in  large  and  conspicuous  corymbs.^- 
The  berries  are  small,  and  of  a  black  or 
red  color.  The  leaves  are  bitter  and  nau- 
seous to  the  taste,  and  possess  purgative 
and  emetic  properties.  The  bark,  flowers 
and  berries  are  sometimes  used  in  medi- 


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436 


£LDER— ELDON. 


cine,  particularly  in  cases  of  dropsy.  The 
wood  of  the  vounff  shoots  contains  a  very 
large  proportion  of  pith.  Two  species  in- 
habit North  America — &  C€madtn8i8,  a 
comn^on  plant,  from  the  49th  to  the  36th 
parallel  of  latitude,  and  found  even  amone 
the  Rocky  mountains,  the  berries  of  which 
ve  black,  and  have  a  sweet  taste ;  and  & 
fube9cens,  which  bears  red  berries,  and 
inhabits  Canada,  the  northern  parts  of 
New  Enelaiid,  and  the  Alleghany  moun- 
tains The  species  called  samJbucus  mgrOj 
common  in  England,  is  a  wild  shrub,  dis- 
tinguishable by  its  vnnged  leaves,  with 
serrated  and  somewhat  oval  leaflets;  its 
dusters  of  small  white  flowers,  divided 
into  five  principal  branches,  and  the  small 
black  berries,  by  which  these  are  succeed- 
ed. The  uses  of  the  elder  are  more  nu- 
merous than  those  of  most  other  shrubs. 
There  is  scarcely  any  part  of  it  which 
has  not  been  advantageously  employed  in 
some  way  or  other.  The  wood  is  yellow, 
and,  in  old  trees,  becomes  so  hard,  that  it 
will  receive  a  polish  almost  as  well  as  box, 
and  indeed  is  often  used  as  a  substitute 
for  box-wood.  Its  toughness  also  is  such 
that  it  is  marie  into  skewers  for  butchers, 
tops  fbr  fishing  rods,  and  needles  for  the 
weaving  of  nets.  It  is  likewise  employed 
by  tumeiB.  Sir  J.  E.  Smith  has  remark- 
ed that  this  tree  is,  as  it  were,  a  whole 
raacazine  of  physic  to  rustic  practitioners, 
and  that  it  is  not  quite  neglected  even  by 
professional  men.  Ointments  have  been 
made  of  the  green  inner  bark,  and  of  the 
leaves.  The  dried  flowers,  infused  in  wa- 
ter, are  used  in  fomentations  or  as  tea, 
and,  mixed  with  buttermilk,  have  some- 
times been  used  as  a  wash  for  the  face. 
An  infusion  of  the  leaves  is  sometimes 
sprinkled  by  gardeners  over  the  buds  of 
such  flowers  as  they  wish  to  preserve 
from  caterpillars.    Elder  flowers  nave  an 

X cable  navor,  which  they  impart  in  dis- 
ion  to  water ;  they  are  likewise  used 
to  give  a  flavor  to  vinegar.  The  berries 
are  poisonous  to  fpultiy,  but  their  juice, 
properly  fermented,  makes  a  pleasant  and 
wholesome  wine ;  and,  in  Germany,  a  very 
pure  and  strong  spirit  is  distilled  from 
them.  The  juice  of  elder  berries  is  some- 
times employed  to  give  a  red  color  to  rai- 
sin or  other  sweet  wine.  The  young 
shoots  of  this  shrub  are  filled  with  an  ex- 
ceedingly light  pith,  which  is  cut  into 
balls,  for  electrical  experiments;  and  is 
also  made  mto  toys  for  the  amusement  of 
children.  The  elder  will  thrive  in  almost 
any'«oi]  and  situation;  and  every  part  of 
it  has  an  unpleasant  narcotic  smell,  which 
ought  to  render  people  caudous  not  to 


sleep  under  its  shade,  sinee,  in  such  eo.^ 
it  might  prove  of  serious  injury  to  them. 

Elders.  We  find  amon^  almost  all  ;3f - 
tions,  in  the  infancy  of  civilization,  that 
the  oldest  men  of  the  tribe,  being  con^^ 
ered  as  the  most  experienced,  and  the  !e*^ 
liable  to  be  influenced  by  passion,  adrrin- 
ister  justice,  discuss  the  welfare  of  th^ 
people,  &c.  Many  names  for  the  highest 
officers,  in  various  countries,  coTivey  the 
idea  of  old  age,  as  seiudor^  which  is  co;i- 
nected  with  kimx.  With  the  ancient 
Jews,  the  ddars  were  persons  the  most 
considemble  for  'age,  wisdom  and  experi- 
ence. Of  this  sort  were  the  70  men  whom 
Moses  associated  with  himself  in  the  gor- 
emment  In  the  modem  Presbyterian 
churches,  dden  are  officers,  who,  with  the 
pastors  or  ministers,  and  deacons,  compose 
the  consistories  or  kirit-sessions,  with  at!- 
thority  to  inspect  and  regulate  matten 
of  religion  and  discipline.  In  the  first 
churches  of  New  England,  the  pastors  or 
ministers  were  caUed  eUerv,  or  Uachxng 
dders, 

ELnoir,  John  Scott,  eari  of,  bom  1750, 
at  Newcastle  upon  Tyne,  in  Northum- 
beriand,  is  the  third  son  of  a  respectable 
proprietor  of  coal  mines  near  that  town, 
whose  second  son  was  William  Scott,  the 
present  lord  Stowell,  better  known  as  air 
William  Scott.  In  1767,  John  Scott  was 
entered  at  Oxford.  His  marriage,  in  1772; 
widi  a  lady  with  whom  he  ek>ped  to 
Scotland,  prevented  his  promotion  in  the 
university.  Both  families  were  offended  at 
this  rash  step;  and,  after  consultation  with 
his  brother  WilUani,  it  was  determined 
that  the  lo^  ymMg  man,  as  his  brother 
called  him,  sliould  enter  as  a  student  of 
the  Middle  Temple,  where  he  lived  in 
very  straitened  circumstances.  After  trav- 
elling three  yeais  in  the  northern  circuit 
without  a  single  brief^  he  made  his  dAut 
at  York,  with  great  success.  He  then  re- 
turned, however,  to  London,  and  devoted 
himself  to  the  business  of  the  equity 
courts.  Lord  Thurlow,  who  had  just  as- 
sumed the  prewdency  of  the  chanceiy 
court,  became  favorable  to  him,  ami  his 
success  now  seemed  certain.  In  179^  he 
became  attorney-general  and  sir  John 
Scott  At  this  critical  time,  he  had  to 
bring  numerous  charges  of  high  treason 
against  the  London  corresponmng  socie- 
ty, and  the  acquittal  of  the  accused  brought 
great  odium  upon  the  accuser.  Just  be- 
fore this  period,  he  had  been  elected  mem- 
ber of  parliament  for  Weobly.  Witliin 
three  years,  he  succeeded  sir  James  Eyre, 
as  lord  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas. 
He  was  now  made  a  peer,  vntfa  the  tide  of 


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ELDON— ELECTION. 


437 


baron  Eldon;  and  in  two  yean  more  ( 1801 ), 
he  succeeded  the  earl  of  Rosslyn  as  lord 
chancellor.  Five  years  after,  Pitt  died, 
and  Fox  obliged  him  to  surrender  the  great 
seal  to  lord  Erskine ;  and,  when  the  lat- 
ter retired,  in  1807,  in  conseauence  of  the 
change  of  the  ministiy,  he  became  once 
more  lord  hiffh  chancellor,  and  retained 
this  poet  until  the  administration  of  Can- 
ning (q.  v.),  when  he  joined  the  opposition, 
and  was  one  of  the  wannest  opponents  of 
the  Catholic  emancipation  bill.  (See  Cedh- 
olic  EmanciptxtUm,)  He  was  succeeded 
by  lord  Lyndhurst.  (See  Coplev,)  Opinions 
are  divided  respecting  him.  He  is  accused 
of  unnecessary  delay  in  giving  lus  de- 
cisions, of  obstinate  adherence  to  old 
forms,  and  of  having  thereby  retarded 
the  improvement  of  tiie  law.  His  read- 
ing is,  undoubtedly,  very  extensive;  but 
he  has  not  distinguished  himself  by  that 
philosophical  spirit,  which  discovers  gen- 
eral pnnciples  in  individual  cases,  and 
rests  on  the  broad  and  immutable  grounds 
of  genera]  truth.  His  decisions,  however, 
are  greatly  respected,  and  he  is  one  of  the 
ablest  lawyers  that  ever  sat  on  the  wool- 
sack. In  politics,  he  is  a  thorough  tory, 
and  one  of  the  most  distinguished  leaders 
of  his  party.  His  Ions  continuance  in 
office  is  not  to  be  ascribed  solely  to  his 
talents,  but  is  owing,  in  part,  to  the  ac- 
comraodatinff  spirit  which  has  led  him  to 
adapt  himself  to  the  measures  of  succes- 
fBve  administrations. 

ELnoRADo;  a  fabulous  country,  in 
which  gdU  and  piecious  stones  are  as 
common  as  rocks  or  sand  in  other  coun- 
tries. Francis  Orellana,  a  companion  of 
Pizarro,  first  spread  the  account  of  this 
fabulous  region  in  Europe ;  and  an  Eng- 
lishman even  published,  at  the  end  of  the 
16th  century,  a  description  of  this  favor- 
ed country,  with  a  map.  *The  German 
SchLoarafferdandy  where  roasted  pigeons  fly 
into  one's  mouth,  or  where,  as  Gothe  has 
it,  the  vines  are  tied  by  sausages  to  the 
stocks,  is  something  similar,  as  is  likewise 
the  French  pa^  at  coeagnt,    (See  Co- 


Cleatic.  a  Grecian  philosophical  sect, 
Bo  called  because  three  of  its  most  cele- 
brated teachers,  Parmenides,  Zeno  and 
Leucippus,  were  natives  of  EXm  (in  Latin, 
Velia)  a  town  in  Magna  Grtecia,  built  by  a 
colony  of  Phoceeans,  in  the  time  of  Cyrus. 
The  founder  was  Xenophanes.  (q.  v.)  The 
sect  included  two  parties,  one  approving 
the  other  rejecting  appeals  to  observation 
and  experiment.  The  latter  class  main- 
tained the  eternity  and  immutability  of 
the  world,  that  all  which  existed  was  only 
37* 


one  being,  without  generation  or  corrup- 
tion, and  this  was  God.  The  apparent 
changes  in  the  universe  they  considered 
as  mere  illusionaof  sense.  Some  learned 
men  have  suppdSed  that  they  understood, 
by  the  one  being,  not  the  material  world, 
but  the  originating  principle  of  all  things, 
or  the  true  God,  whom  they  expressly  af- 
firm to  be  incorporeal  The  other  branch 
of  the  Eleatic  sect  were  the  Atomic  phi- 
losophers, who  formed  their  system  from 
attention  to  the  phenomena  of  nature. 
Accordingly,  Xenophanes  maintained  that 
the  earth  consisted  of  air  and  fire;  tiiat  all 
things  were  produced  out  of  the  earth,  and 
the  sun  and  stars  out  of  the  clouds ;  and 
that  there  were  four  elements.  (For  fur- 
tlier  information,  see  Cudworth's  MdUc- 
tuai  %4iem,  and  Brucker's  JSiHonf  of  Phi- 
loaoply,  translated  by  Enfield.) 

Elecampane  (inula  hdemum) ;  a  plant, 
inhabiting  the  Eastern  continent,  and  now 
naturalized  and  frequent  in  some  parts  of 
the  U.  States,  where  it  grows  along  road 
sides,  in  waste  pkices,  6lc.  It  belongs  to 
the  natural  order  con^}osiUz.  The  stem  is 
three  or  four  feet  high,  thick,  pubescent, 
and  branching  above ;  the  radical  leaves 
are  often  two  feet  and  more  in  length ;  the 
flowers  are  large  and  yellow ;  the  root  is 
perennial,  possesses  a  bitter  aromatic  and 
somewhat  acrimonious  taste,  and  has  been 
celebrated  in  disorders  of  the  breast  and 
lungs ;  it  is  useful  to  promote  expectora- 
tion, and  is  also  sudorific 

Election,  in  politics.  To  give  an  ac- 
curate description  of  the  dections  of  pub* 
Uc  officers,  as  they  have  existed  in  the 
various  periods  of  history,  would  almost 
be  to  give  the  history  of  politics,  for  which 
many  valuable  materials  exist,  but  which, 
it  is  much  to  be  regretted,  has  never  yet 
been  fully  treated.  The  subject  is  worthy 
of  the  deepest  study  of  a  fihilosophical 
mind ;  and  an  enlightened  citizen  of  the 
U.  States  would  have  many  advantages 
were  he  to  undertake  the  execution  of  it. 
It  would  fiir  exceed  our  limits^  if  we  should 
venture  to  give  only  a  sketch  of  the  vari- 
ous forms  of  election  which  have  existed ; 
and  we  are  obliged  to  limit  ourselves  to 
an  account  of  those  of  the  most  important 
modem  governments.  (For  the  manner 
of  election  of  the  officers,  in  the  ancient 
states,  we  refer  to  the  separate  articles: 
for  instance,  the  article  Connd  describes 
how  that  magistrate  was  elected  in  Rome.) 

Elections  are  one  of  the  vital  elements 
of  dl  fipee  nations;  they  have,  therefore, 
always  occupied  much  of  tlie  attention  of 
lawgivers,  and  may,  to  a  certain  degree, 
be  considered  as  a  standard  to  measure 


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ELECTION. 


the  degree  of  nadoiuil  liberty.  Tlie  forms 
of  election  may  be  divided  ioto  two 
kinds:  1.  those  which  have  grown  up,  in 
the  course  of  time,  under  the  various  in- 
fluences which  have  contributed  to  mod- 
ify the  political  constitution  of  the  coun- 
try, such  as  civil  war,  or  internal  troubles, 
conquest,  particular  laws,  &c.,  as  in  the 
case  of  England ;  and,  2.  those  established 
by  a  written  constitution,  of  a  certain  date, 
as  in  the  U.  States  and  in  France.  Elec- 
tions, also,  may  be  divided,  like  constitu- 
tions (q.  V.},  into  aristocratic  and  denio- 
cmtjc ;  in  tne  former,  the  person  elected 
representing  a  much  larger  number  and 
more  classes  of  citizens  than  are  com- 
prised in  the  body  of  his  immediate  elec- 
tors ;  in  the  latter,  representing  his  constit- 
uents only.  Elections,  also,  may  be  direct 
or  indirect ;  in  the  latter  case,  the  people 
at  large  choose  electors,  who  elect  the  rep- 
nssentative  or  ma^pstrate,  as  is  the  fonn  of 
•lections  in  Bavana.  The  election  of  the 
president  of  the  U.  States  i^  in  form,  indi- 
rect, but  is  not  practically  so,  because  the 
candidates  for  the  presidency  are  before  the 
nation,  and  electors  known  to  be  in  favor 
of  a  particular  candidate  are  chosen  by  his 
partisans,  and  give  their  vote  accordingly. 
The  principal  advantage  gained,  therefore, 
in  this  case,  by  intermediate  electors,  is  that 
of  order  and  convenience  in  balloting.  In 
England,  the  election  df  the  members  of 
the  house  of  commons  is  a  subject  of  the 
peatest  interest  to  the  people.  The  qual- 
ifications of  electors  are  very  different  in 
different  parts  of  the  kingdom.  Even  the 
county  elections,  which  have  been  estab- 
lished in  England  by  a  unifbmi  law,  are 
attended  with  great  inequalities  of  repre- 
sentation ;  thus  the  two  members  of  the 
county  of  York  represent  more  than  a 
million  of  people,  whilst  the  two  members 
for  Rutland  represent  hardly  20,000.  Be- 
sides, the  number  of  freeholders  is  so 
small  in  some  counties  (the  land  being 
owned  by  a  fbw  families,  and  cultivated 
by  their  tenantB),  and  the  influence  of  the 
great  litndholders  so  predominant,  that  the 
election  depends  almost  entirely  upon 
the  richest  families  in  the  county.  In 
order  to  avoid  the  expenses  of  a  contested 
election,  the  families  and  the  other  voters 
sometimes  m^e  a  compromise; — one 
member  being  chosen  by  the  most  influ- 
ential family,  the  other  by  the  other  free- 
hoMers;  or,  where  two  very  influential 
families  exist,  they  divide  the  election  Iw- 
tween  them.  Thus,  in  Buckinghamshire, 
one  member  is  returned  by  the  duke  of 
Portland,  the  otlier  by  the  marquis  of 
Buckingham;    in    Cambridgeshire,    the 


duke  of  RutlanA  and  the  earl  of  Hazd- 
wicke  return  the  two  members.  12  coun- 
ties are  considered  quite  independent ;  the 
other  28  are  more  or  less  influenced  by 
the  rich  families.  In  what  manner  this 
influence  is  sometimes  exerted,  was  re- 
cently shown,  by  the  duke  of  Newcas- 
tle's turning  out  all  his  tenants  in  New- 
ark, for  no  other  reason,  than  that  ther 
would  not  elect  a  Mr.  Sadler,  the  duke^ 
candidate.  Tiie  public  was  indignant  at 
this  degree  of  horougk-mongering,  as  it 
was  calle<i,  though  an  almost  overwhelm- 
ing influence  is  exercised,  wherever  the 
most  powerful  families  exist  The  case 
alluded  to  can  be  found  in  all  the  princi- 
pal newspapers  of  England,  pitblisned  in 
October,  18^ ;  among  others,  in  the  Alias, 
October  11, 1829.  In  some  cases,  a  great 
influence  is  exerted  by  families  who  do 
not  belong  to  the  class  of  princely  land- 
hoklers,  but  who,  having  been  long  settled 
in  the  county,  and  comprising  numerous 
branches,  collectively  possess  much  wealth 
and  ofllicial  conse^iuence,  and  combine  to 
effect  a  common  end.  Very  oflen,  in- 
deed, the  whole  election  contest  is  to  de- 
termine which  family  shall  carry  its  can- 
didate. The  qualifications  of  electors,  in 
cities,  differ  according  to  their  charters; 
and  it  is  well  known  that,  whilst  hundreds 
of  boroughs,  where  there  are  only  a  few 
families,  or  none  at  all  (see  BoUen  Bor- 
€yghs)f  send  members  to  parliament,  pop- 
ulous places,  like  Manchester,  Binning- 
ham,  &C.,  liave  no  representative.  Eaai 
county  sends  two  members,  the  univer^- 
ties  of  Oxfonl  and  Cambridge  each  two, 
London,  including  Westminster  and 
Southwaric,  eight,  and  other  pkices  return 
one  6r  two.  The  members  are  distributed 
in  the  whole  United  Kingdom  as  fbUows: 

For  England,    ....  489  members. 

Ireland, 100        ** 

Scotland,    ....    45        *< 
Wales, 24        « 

Total  .  .  ."658, 

of  whom  186  are  retunied  from  117  coun- 
ties, 60  from  32  cities,  396  (called  6iir- 
gesses)  from  222  boroughs  and  3  univer- 
sities, 16  from  8  cinque  ports,  Sec  (called 
ftorofw),-— total  656. 

If  the  corruption  of  the  elections  in 
Great  Britain  is  so  great,  how  is  it  that 
the  English  nation  is  yet  the  freest  in 
Europe?  The  cause  is  one  of  superior 
efficacy  to  any  formal  constitution — the 
public  spirit  difibsed  through  the  nation ; 
a  spirit  which,  in  the  instance  of  other 
countries,  has  often  set  limits  to  the  power 


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election: 


499 


of  monarohs  nominiilly  absolute.  Bribery 
in  elections  is  extremely  common  and 
open  in  England,  notwitlietauding  the 
laws  agamst  it,  which  have  sometimes 
been  enforced.  The  laws  intended  to 
prevent  government  from  iniluencing  the 
elections  are  well  meant,  but  ridiculous, 
when  we  see  hundreds  of  boroughs 
bought  by  government  Any  person  who 
j^ives  or  proinisea  any  thing  to  any  voter, 
in  order  to  influence  his  vote,  as  well  as 
every  voter  who' accepts  a  bribe,  is  subject 
to  a  fine  of  £500,  and  is  for  ever  disabled 
from  voting,  and  holding  any  office  in  any 
corporatipn,  unless,  before  conviction,  be 
discover  some  other  offender,  when  he 
escapes  the  punishment  of  hia  own  of- 
fence. No  officer  of  the  excise,  customs, 
stamps,  or  certain  branches  of  revenue,  is 
allowed  to  interfere  in  elections,  by  per- 
suading any  voter,  or  dissuading  him, 
under  penalty  of  £100,  and  ineapacity  for 
office. 

All  persons  are  eligibte  to  the  house  of 
commons,  who  are  not,  1.  aliens  nor  mi- 
nors; 2.  among  the  12  judges;  3.  clergy- 
men; 4.  sheriSs,  mayors^  and  bailiff  of 
boroughs  (these  are  not  eligible  in  their 
respective  jurisdictions ;  S\  members 
ought,  in  strictness,  to  be  inhabitantB  of 
the  places  for  which  they  are  chosen ;  but 
this  rule  has  always  been  disregarded, 
and  was  entirely  abolished  under  George 
III).  5.  No  person  is  eligible,  who  is  con- 
cerned in  the  management  of  any  duties 
or  taxes  levied  since  1692,  except  the 
commissioners  of  the  treasury,  nor  any 
excise  officers,  army  and  navy  agents^ 
governors  of  plantations,  &c.,  nor  any 
person  who  holds  any  office  under  the 
crovm,  created  since  1705.  6.  No  person 
having  a  pension  under  the  crown,  during 
pleasure,  or  for  any  term  of  years,  is  ca- 
pable of  being  elected.  If  any  member 
accepts  an  office  under  the  crown,  except 
an  officer  in  the  armv  or  navy  accepting 
a  new  commission,  nis  seat  is  vacated ; 
but  such  member  is  capable  of  beinff  re- 
elected. Every  member  returned  by  a 
county,  or  knightofa  skire^  as  he  is  staled, 
must  nave  a  clear  freehold  estate  of  the 
value  of  £600  per  annum,  and  every  mem- 
ber returned  by  a  city  or  borough  must 
have  one  of  the  value  of  £900,  except  the 
eldest  sons  of  peers,  and  of  persons  quali- 
fied to  be  kntf^tB  of  the  shire,  and  except 
the  members  of  the  two  universities.  The 
mode  of  election  is  as  follows: — ^The 
crown  in  chancery  issues  writs  to  the 
sheriff  of  every  county,  for  the  election 
of  all  the  members  of  the  county,  and  of 
the  cities  and  boroughs  therein.    Withm 


three  days,  the  sheriifb  most  summon  the 
different  fdaces  to  elect  the  members. 
The  election  must  begin  within  eight 
days.  The  election  of  members  for  the 
county  is  conducted  under  the  presidency 
of  the  sheriff  himself.  Soldiers  must  b!^ 
removed,  at  least  one  day  before  the  elec- 
tion, to  the  distance  of  at  least  two  miles 
irom  the  place  of  election.  The  lord -war- 
den of  the  cinque-ports,  lord-lieutenants 
of  counties,  and  the  lords  of  pariiament, 
are  prohibited  by  statute  from  interfering 
with  the  elecdon&  We  have  already 
diown  how  all  the  most  essential  of  these 
laws  are  openly  disregarded.  Any  nadve 
Enfflish  subject,  who  possesses  a  freehold 
of  40  shillings  a  year,  has  a  right  to  vote 
for  the  members  to  be  chosen  by  his 
county.  We  have  before  stated  that  the 
elective  franchise  differs  in  different  cities 
and  boroughs,  accordinff  to  their  charten: 
In  France,  before  the  revolution,  the 
members  of  the  general  representative  bo- 
dy of  the  realm  were  chosen  by  the  tliree 
estates-'-the  clergy,  nobility  (including  att 
possessors  of  noble  fiefs),  and  the  third 
estate  (including  all  posseBsors  of  taxable 
estates).  The  number  was  determined 
by  the  government,  but  was  not  import- 
ant, because  the  representatives  of  the 
different  estates  voted  separately,  and  each 
body  had  only  an  aggregate  vote.  When 
the  states  general  were  convoked,  in  1788, 
the  old  rule  was  followed,  with  few  ex- 
ceptions. The  three  estates  of  each  haU- 
lage  prineipal,  or  thUekoMs^  mnchaUy 
formed  the  general  assembly  of^  the  baili- 
wic,  whose  ^uty  it  was  to  elect  the  dep- 
uties of  the  states  general  of  the  king- 
dom, and  to  draw  up  the  colder  de  doM- 
antes,  or  Ubelhu  gnawmnum  et  deMerith 
rum  (the  list  of  grievances  and  wants). 
But,  even  in  the  letters  by  which  the  last 
assembly  of  the  states  was  convened,  it 
was  intimated,  that  the  form  of  election 
should  be  betterndapted  to  the  wants  of 
the  nation.  In  1791, 1792,  and  1795^  the 
principle  became  more  and  more  settled, 
that  me  whole  peO|>le  have  the  elective 
right,  excepting  those  who  were  immedi- 
ately dependent  on  some  other  persons. 
When  Bonaparte  became  first  consul,  the 
nation  at  large  only  chose  names  for  lists, 
from*  which  government  selected  officers^ 
and  even  the  deputies  and  senators  com- 
posing the  legislative  body.  The  diarie 
emiaSuH(mneUe  (q.  v.)  conferred  the  right 
of  election  on  the  electoral  collets  (article* 
35),  but  with  very  considerable  hmitations. 
The  charU  (art.  40)  allows  only  those 
Frenchmen  (30yeani  old),  who  pay  annu- 
ally at  least  800  francs  direct  taxes,  to  be 


Digitized  by 


Lioogle 


440 


ELECTION. 


electors.  In  1690,  it  was  estimated,  that 
there  were  not  more  than  90,000  peisons 
having  the  qualificationa  of  electon ;  and 
since  that  time,  the  number  has  been  di- 
minished by  the  reduction  of  direct  taxes. 
There  are  not  at  present  more  than  80,000 
electors;  and,  according  to  the  roost  re- 
cent computation  (January  1, 18291  France 
is  believed  to  contain  ^000,000  inhab- 
itants. A  citizen,  to  be  eligible,  must  be 
as  much  as  40  years  of  age,  and  pay  1000 
francs  direct  taxes  a  year,  either  in  his 
own  person,  or  by  delegation  for  bis 
mother,  grandmother,  or  mother-in-law. 
If,  however,  there  are  not  50  persons  of 
this  description  in  a  department,  the  50 
who  pay  tlie  highest  taxes  under  1000 
francs  are  eligible.  Each  elector  receives 
a  carU  dedaraU  from  the  prelect ;  but  it 
is  the  inscription  on  the  list  of  voters 
which  gives  the  right  of  voting,  and  de- 
cides in  case  of  any  dispute.  The  pres- 
idents of  the  electoral  colleges  are,  ex  qffi- 
cio,  members  of  the  college,  but  cannot 
vote,  unless  they  have  tlie  legal  <|ualifica- 
tions  of  voteis.  They  are  appomted  by 
government  No  anned  force  is  allowed 
to  be  near  the  place  of  session,  unless  the 
president  requires  it  No  one  except  an 
elector,  whatever  may  be  his  station,  can 
demand  admission  into  a  meeting  of  an 
electoral  college.  The  electoral  college 
IB  provisionally  organized  by  the  presi- 
dent, who  names  the  members  of  the  6u- 
reoai  prmsotre,  that  is,  the  four  inspec« 
ton  {acrutatctirs)  and  the  secretary.  This 
is  merely  preparatoi^  to  the  final  organ- 
ization (bw^au  defimUif)  of  the  cdlege  by 
the  voters,  who  elect  four  inspectors  and 
a  secretaiy.  Absolute  secrecy  in  voting 
is  re(|uired  by  the  law  of  June  29, 1820. 
Previously  to  voting,  each  elector  sepa- 
rately takes  the  following  oath':  ^  I  swear 
alle^ance  to  the  king,  obedience  to  the 
constitutional  charter,  and  to  the  laws  of 
the  kingdom"  (ordinance  of  October  11, 
1620).  The  bureau  d^finMf  being  organ- 
ized, the  college  proceeds  to  the  election 
of  the  deputy.  On  the  first  and  second 
ballots,  the  candidate  who  has  a  majority 
of  all  the  votes  given  in  (provided  it  be 
one  more  than  one  third  of  the  whole 
number  of  electors  of  the  college)  is  de- 
clared chosen.  If  no  choice  is  made  on 
the  second  ballot,  a  list  is  made  by  the 
bureau  fof  double  the  number  of  deputies 
to  be  cnoeen),  from  the  candidates  who 
had  the  greatest  nQmber  of  votes  on  the 
second  ballot,  and  the  electors  cannot  vote 
for  any  candidate  whose  name  is  not  on 
the  list  After  the  second  ballot,  only  a 
plurality  of  votes  is  necessaiy  to  a  choice. 


If  any  candidates  have  an  equal  number 
of  votes,  the  oldest  is  considered  as  elect- 
ed. After  the  election  is  terminated,  the 
journal  of  proceedings  {vroc^-verbal)  is 
read  in  the  presence  of  tne  electors,  that 
any  error  may  be  cwrected.  These 
proch^erbaux  are  remitted  to  the  cham- 
W  of  deputies,  which  decides  on  the 
right  of  its  members  to  a  seat  The  elect- 
ors must  then  separate  on  the  command 
of  the  president,  who  is  previously  obliged 
to  destroy  all  the  ballots  in  their  presence. 
Since  1815,  the  laws  of  election  have 
been  changed  three  times— 4n  1817,  under 
Decazes  (q.  v.),  when  it  was  thought  ne- 
cessary to  counterbalance  the  influence 
of  the  emigrants;  in  1820,  when  the 
murder  of  the  duke  of  Berri  was  seized 
upon  by  the  ultras,  as  a  pretext  to  over- 
throw the  party  of  Decazes,  and  the  law  of 
June  29, 1820,  increased  the  number  of 
deputies  fiom  258  to  430:  the  okl  num- 
l)er  were  to  be  chosen  as  before,  by  all 
the  voters  of  the  deoartment ;  the  other 
172  by  the  richest  electors  (one  quarter 
of  all  the  voters,  conasting  of  those  who 
pay  the  highest  taxes),  who,  after  having 
voted  with  the  whole  body  of  electors  of 
the  department,  elect  separately  the  num- 
ber of  deputies  assigned  to  their  depart- 
ment, out  of  the  additional  172.  (See 
Constanty  Ber^amin.)  By  the  law  of  June 
9,  1824,  the  deputies,  instead  of  being 
elected  for  5  years,  one  fifth  of  the  chann 
ber  being  renewed  eveiy  year  (as  was  pro- 
vided by  the  charte^  art  34),  are  elected  for 
7  years,  the  whole  chamber  at  once.  The 
)>refect  of  the  department  directs  the  elec- 
tion, the  government  appoints  the  presi- 
dent of  the  electoral  colleges,  and,  in  this 
way,  as  well  as  by  the  eligibility  of  its 
officers,  it  exercises  a  very  great  influence 
on  the  character  of  the  representative 
bodies.  This  influence  has  been  exerted 
several  times :  for  instance,  under  Vill^le, 
in  a  revolting  way ;  he  turned  out  eveiy 
officer  who  did  not  vote  finr  his  candi- 
dates, and  allowed  people  to  vote  who 
had  no  right  to.  The  law  also  directs 
that  die  votes  should  be  given  in  such  a 
way  that  the  name  of  the  voter  should  not 
be  known ;  but,  under  Vill^le's  adminis- 
tration, it  was  contrived  that  people  shoukl 
vote  openly,  which  induced  many,  in  a 
depenuent  situation,  or  of  timid  ciiarac- 
ter,  to  vote  for  the  government  In  &ct, 
the  elections  are  so  much  in  the  hands  of 
the  government,  that  it  costs  the  nation 
the  greatest  eflbrt  to  elect  deputies  of  thdr 
own  choice,  whenever  they  are  opposed 
to  the  ministers.  The  ordinance  of  the 
king  of  France^  of  May   17,  1830,  by 


Digitized  by  LjOOQ IC 


ELECTION. 


441 


'which  die  cbatnber  was  dissolred,  and  the 
election  bf  a  new  one  ordered,  ia  a  highly 
interesting  document,  became  it  contains 
the  dates  of  all  the  most  important  laws  of 
election  in  France.  We  nave  seen  how 
much  French  politics  are  influenced  by 
the  circumstance  of  the  richest  tax-payers 
being  liberal  or  ultra ;  and  the  celeorated 
statistical  writer,  M.  C.  Dupin,  has  lately 
made  the  following  calculation,  with  Uie 
purpose  of  showing  the  state  and  distri- 
bution of  the  electoral  franchise.  From 
his  statements,  the  liberal  party  in  France 
seem  to  have  a  very  great  majority  in  num- 
bers, as  well  as  superiority  in  w^th.  M. 
Diipin  divides  the  departments  into  three 
classes.  The  first  class  includes  the  de» 
partments  which  return  liberal  members ; 
they  contain  together  45,000  electors,  and 
pay  taxes  to  the  amount  of  151,500,000 
francs.  The  second  class  includes  the 
departments  which  return  absolutists,  or 
ministerialists ;  these  contain  31,900  elec- 
tors, and  pay  in  taxea  46,000,000  francs. 
The  third  class,  designated  neutral,  com- 
prises those  departments  which  return 
deputies,  part  of  whom  are  of  the  iiberal 
me,  and  part  of  the  ministerial  The 
amount  of^  taxes  paid  by  these  depart- 
ments is  10^,000  firancs.  By  this  ex- 
podticm  it  would  seem,  that  the  liberals 
possess  two  thirds  of  the  heritable  prop- 
erty, and  in  numbers  exceed  the  ministe- 
riar  party  about  as  4  to  3. 

In  the  U.  States,  the  democratic  princi- 
ple of  election  by  the  majority  of  polls  is 
carried  to  a  ^reat  extent,  though  generally 
slightly  modified  by  qualifications  required 
of  the  electors.  The  municipal  and  state 
elections,  as  they  recur  more  fi^quently, 
and  have  a  more  immediate  bearing  upon 
the  interests  of  the  citizens,  are,  perhaps,  of 
more  practical  Importance  than  the  fede- 
nd  elections,  particularly  in  those  portions 
of  the  union  where  each  town  is  a  little 
democracy.  In  the  federal  elections,  the 
choice  is  indirect,  as  in  that  of  the  presi- 
dent; or  made  by  the  state  legislatures,  as 
in  that  of  the  senate ;  or  made  by  a  large 
district,  as  in  that  of  the  federal  repre- 
sentatives. In  the  other  elections,  the 
voters  decide  upon  individuals  with  whose 
character  they  are,  in  general,  personally 
acquainted.  (See  CoTistitu^ions.)  Of  the 
two  houses  of  the  federal  congress,  the 
senate  is  chosen  by  the  state  legislatures, 
and  the  house  of  representatives  by  the 
people.  Each  state,  without  regard  to 
difference  of  extent,  population  or  wealth, 
chooses  two  senators,  who  hold  their  pla- 
ces for  six  years.  The  senate  is  divided 
into  throe  classes,  one  of  which  is  re- 


newed everr  second  year.  Whether  the 
choice  shall  be  made  by  a  joint  or  con- 
current vote  of  the  branches  of  the  state 
legislatures,  is  not  decided  by  the  consti- 
tution, and  the  usage  differs  in  different 
states.  The  representatives  are  chosen 
biennially,  by  the  people  of  the  several 
states,  who  are  qualified  electors  of  the 
most  numerous  branch  of  the  legislature 
of  the  state  to  which  they  belong.  The 
nualifications,  therefore,  of  electors  of  the 
federal  representatives,  differ  in  difierent 
states ;  but,  in  general,  they  are,  that  they 
be  of  the  age  of  21  years,  free  resident 
citizens  of  me  state  in  which  they  vote, 
and  that  they  have  paid  taxes ;  in  some 
states,  they  are  required  to  possess  prop- 
erty, and  to  be  free  white  citizens.  This 
description  is  so  comprehensive,  that  the 
house  of  representifttives  may  be  consid- 
ered to  represent  the  whole  body  of  the 
people.  Some  of  the  state  constitutions 
prescribe  certaini  qualifications  as  to  prop- 
erty in  the  elected,  and  some  require  a 
religious  test  But  the  federal  constitu- 
tion only  provides,  tiiat  no  person  shall 
be  a  representative  who  has  not  attain- 
ed to  the  age  of  25  years,  and  been  7 
years  a  citizen  of  the  U.  States,  and  who 
IS  not,  at  the  time  of  the  election,  an 
inhabitant  of  the  state  in  which  he  is 
chosen.  The  representatives  are  appor- 
tioned among  the  states  according  to  num- 
bers, which  are  determined  by  adding  to 
the  number  of  free  peisons  three  fifths  of 
the  staves.  The  constitution  provides,  that 
there  shall  ^  not  be  more  than  one  repre- 
sentative for  every  90,000  persons,  but  that 
every  state  shall  have  at  least  one.  By  the 
act  of  March  7,  18S2,  the  apportionment 
was  one  for  every  40,000  persons  (based 
on  the  4th  census),  and  the  whole  num* 
her  was  213,  which,  with  the  3  delegates, 
compose  the  present  house  of  representa- 
tives. After  the  ratio  of  apportionment  is 
determined,  each  state  is  divided  into  dis- 
tricts, equal  in  number  to  th3  representa- 
tives ta which  it  vs  entitled,  and  each  district 
chooses  one  representative ;  or  the  npxe- 
sentatives  are  chosen  by  a  general  tiektt 
The  only  qualifications  required  by  the 
constitution  for  a  president  of  the  U. 
States,  are,  that  be  should  be  a  natural 
bom  citizen,  have  attained  the  age  of  35 
years,  and  have  been  14  years  a  resident 
within  the  U.  States.  The  election  of  a 
supieme  executive  magistrate  has  hitherto, 
in  other  countries,  b^  a  scene  of  in- 
trigue, corruption  and  violence.  To  avoid 
the  excitement  of  popular  passions,  the 
election  of  president  has  been  confided, 
by  the  constitution,  to  a  college  of  electxMns 


Digitized  by 


Coogle 


m 


ELECTION— ELECTOR. 


appointed  in  each  state,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  legislature.  Congress  has  the 
power  to  determine  the  time  of  choosing 
the  electors,, and  the ^ day  on  which  they 
shall  vote;  this  day,  however,  must  he 
the  same  throughout  the  U.  States.  The 
number  of  Actors  in  each  state  must  be 
equal  to  the  whole  number  of  senators 
and  representatives  of  the  state  in  con- 
gress ;  there  are  now,  therefore,  261  elec- 
tors, in  24  colleges.  As  the  manner  of 
choosing  tlie  elMtors  is  left  to  the  discre- 
tion of  the  state  legislatures,  it  differs  in 
the  different  states,  and  at  different  times 
in  the  same  state.  The  choice  is  some- 
times made  by  the  legislatures,  sometimes 
the  whole  colleee  is  chosen  through  the 
state  at  laive,  bv  a  general  ticket,  and 
sometimes  me  election  is  made  in  such 
a  way,  that  each  representative  district 
chooses  one  elector,  and  the  other  elec- 
tors are  chosen  by  a  general  vote.  To 
prevent  the  person  in  office  at  the  time 
of  the  election  from  exercising  any  influ- 
ence by  executive  patronage,  the  consti- 
tution provides  that  no  member  of  con^ 
gress,  nor  any  person  holding  any  office 
under  the  U.  States,  shall  be  an  elector. 
The  coUeses  assemble  in  the  respective 
states,  on  Sie  first  Wednesday  in  Decem- 
ber, in  eveiy  fourth  year  succeeding  the 
last  election,  and  vote  by  ballot  for  the 
president  and  vice-president,  one  of  whom 
shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same 
state  with  the  electors.  A  list  of  persons 
voted  for,  with  the  number  of  votes  for 
each,  is  made  out  by  each  college,  and 
sent  to  the  seat  of  government,' directed  to 
the  president  of  the  senate,  to  whom,  by 
the  law  of  March  1, 1792,  it  must  be  de- 
livered before  the  first  Wednesday  in  the 
next  January.  On  the  second  Wednes- 
day in  February,  that  officer  opens  the 
votes  in  the  presence  of  the  two  houses 
of  congress.  The  constitution  does  not 
declare  by  whom  the  votes  sliall  be  count- 
ed, but  it  is  done  by  the  president  of  the 
senate.  A  majority  of  the  whole  yumber 
of  votes  is  necessary  to  constitute  a  choice. 
If  no  person  have  such  majority,  then  the 
house  of  representadves  proceeds  to  choose 
by  ballot  one  of  the  three  persons  having 
the  highest  number  of  votes.  In  this 
case,  the  vote  is  taken  by  states,  the  rep- 
resentation from  each  state  having  one 
vote.  A  quorum  for  this  purpose  roust 
consist  of  a  member  or  roemoers  from 
two  thirds  of  the  states,  and  a  majority  of 
all  the  states  is  necessary  to  a  choice.  If 
no  choice  is  made  before  the  fourth  day 
of  March,  the  vice-president  acts  as  pres- 
ident.   According  to  the  original  plan  of 


the  constitution,  the  votes  of  the  eledois 
were  given  in  for  two  persons ;  the  per- 
son having  the  majority  of  all  the  votes 
was  president,  and  the  nersevi  having  die 
next  greatest  number  after  him  was  vice- 
presidenL  The  present  plan  was  substi- 
tuted, in  consequence  of  the  contested 
elecdon  of  1800,  when,  die  number  of 
votea  given  in  for  Jefferaon  and  Burr 
being  equal,  the  choice  devolved  on  the 
house.  Afler  six  davs  of  baUoting,  Mr. 
Jefferson  was  elected  on  the  96th  oaUot 
The  number  of  states  was  then  16;  neces- 
sary to  a  choice,  9.  The  first  ballot  gave 
Mr.  Jefferson  8,  Mr.  Burr  6,  2  divided. 
The  36th  ballot  gave  Mr.  Jefferson  8,  and 
the  2  divided  states  went  for  him  by  blank 
votes.  The  following  is  a  table  of  the 
votes  since  the  retirement  of  Washington. 
On  the  old  system,  in 

1796  Adams       71      Jefferson  68 
1800  Jefferson    73      Burr  73 

On  the  present  sydtem : 

1804  Jefferson  162       Pinckney  14 
1806  Madison  122       Pinckney  47 
1812  Madison  128       Clinton     89 
1816  Monroe    183       King         34 
1820  Monroe  231        1  vote  in  op- 
position, 
f  Jackson    99 
1824  Aanins      84    \  Cravifonl  41 
iciay         37 
The  election,  therefore,  devolved  on  the 
house  of  representatives,  and  Adams  had 
13  states,  Jackson  7,  and  Crawford  4. 
.    1828  Jackson    178        Adams    83 
(For  more    information    respecting    the 
election  of  the  former  German  emperor, 
see  Elector;  of  the  pope,  see  Cardiiud, 
and  Conclave ;  of  the  former  king  of  Po- 
land, see  PoUmd.) 
Elective  Affinitt.    (See  ^ffimty,) 
Elector  (Latin) ;  he  who  chooses,  or 
has  the  right  to  choose ;  a  dtle  given  to 
certain  members  of   the   German    em- 
pire, called,  in  German,  KurfurgUnj  from 
F&rstj  prince,  and  KuTy  an  old  word  for 
eUdion.    When  we  hear  the  ancient  Ger- 
man empire  called  an  decHve  govemmentj 
we  must  not  connect  with  this  phrase 
the  idea  of  elecdon,  such  as  it  exists 
in  modem  governments.    The  election  to 
the  sovereignty  of  the  German  empire  was, 
as  indeed  might  easily  be  supposed,  iU- 
defined,  during  the  middle    ages,  uatii 
the  right  of  election  was  arrogated  bv  a 
few  Merabers  of  the  empire.    This  elec- 
tive constitution  was  a  thousand  times  more 
injurious  to  the  empire  than  a  hereditaiy 
succession  would  have  been,  because  tbe 
main  object  of  the  electors  seemed  to  be. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


ELECTOR. 


443 


to  extort  concesBioDB  from  the  empeiw,  and 
dimiiush  bis  authority  as  much  as  possible, 
by  the  unfoitunate,  to  use  the  mildest  term, 
elective  capitulation  (WakkajntuUiUon ; 
see  Cc^ihdmon).  In  fact,  it  is  chiefly 
owing  to  the  defective  constitution  of  the 
empire,  that,  whilst  France  and  England 
rose  in  power  by  the  union  of  their  sev- 
eral parts  under  one  goveniment,  the  Ger- 
man empire  sunk  in  authority,  being  split 
into  a  host  of  sovereignties  of  every  de- 
gree of  consequence,  some  veiy  impor- 
tant^ others  very  insignificant 

In  the  most  ancient  times  of  the  Crer- 
man  empire,  under  the  Carlovingian  race, 
the  empire  was  hereditary;  but  with  Con- 
rad I  (chosen  in  911)  it  became  elective. 
The  elections,  however,  became  almost 
confined  to  one  powerfiil  family ;  and  the 
glory  which  the  German  empire  acquired 
was  owing,  in  no  small  measure,  to  this 
drcumstance,  that  the  imperial  authority 
remained  for  generations  within  the  same 
fiunily.  Unity,  strength,  and  internal 
peace,  are  essential  to  the  beneficial  opera- 
tion of  any  political  constitution ;  and  if 
thev  cannot  be  attained  by  ^ood  laws, 
and  the  spirit  of  the  nation,  as  s  the  ease, 
for  instance,  in  the  U.  States,  it  is  much 
better  that  tiiey  should  be  secured  by  a 
hereditary  monarchv,  than  that  the  main 
objects  of  a  political  organization  should 
be  lost  in  the  confusion  of  anarchy,  and 
the  struffgles  of  petty  ambition.  With  the 
fall  of  uie  Hohenstaufen  family,  the  an- 
cient great  duchies  of  Bavaria,  Saxony, 
Suabia,  Franconia  and  Lorraine  were  (h- 
vided  into  parts^et  their  claims  were  not 
extinguished,  llius  originated,  firom  1345 
to  ISSs,  the  7  electors,  who  are  found  takinff 
part  in  the  election  of  the  emperor  Bichara 
of  Com  waD,  hi  1258.  The  7  electors  were 
those  o(  1.  Mentz;  2.  Treves;  3.  Co- 
logne (who  were  arcbbishope,  and  chan- 
cellora  of  the  eminre,  and  therefore  caUed 
tpinttiol  tUdon) ; '  4.  the  Palatinate ;  5. 
Brandenburg ;  6.  Saxony ;  and  7.  Bohe- 
mia, which  received  its  electoral  authori- 
ty, in  1290,  finom  Bavaria,  which  had  not 
appeared  in  the  diet  for  several  elections, 
having  been  represented  by  Bohemia. 
The  other  members  of  the  empire,  indeed, 
protested  against  this  autbori^  arrogated 
by  the  electors,  which  was,  however,  at  last, 
acknowledffed,  in  1338,  by  the  emperor 
Louis  the  BavariaA,  and  confirmed  by 
Charles  IV  (who  died  in  1378),  bv  tiielaw 
called  the  golden  huU,  Frederic  V ,  elector 
of  the  Palatinate  (who  died  in  1632),  was 
declared  an  outlaw  by  the  empire,  and  his 
electoral  privilege  conferred  on  Bavaria; 
and  when  it  was  attempted,  in  the  peace  of 


Westphalia,  to  setde  the  contests  m  the 
empire,  an  eighth  electorate  was  created, 
and  given  to  the  Palatinate.  Leopold  I,  in 
1692;  madeBrunswick-L&ieburg  the  ninth 
electorate,  which,  after  much  opposition  on 
the  part  of  the  states  of  the  empire,  and 
the  body  of  electors,  was  acknowledged 
as  such  in  1710.  When,  in  1777,  the 
house  of  Bavaria  became  extinct,  and  the 
dukedom  fell  to  the  Palatiiiate,  the  Bava- 
rian electorship  expired  likewise,  and  the 
number  of  electors  was  again  8 ;  of  whom 
Mentz,  Treves  and  Cologne  were  ecclesi- 
astical, and  elective  by  the  chapter  of  their 
archbishopric ;  the  others  secular  and  he- 
reditary. There  were  5  Catholic  and  3 
Protestant  electors ;  Saxony  was  a  Prot- 
estant eleotorate,  though  the  ruling  house 
was  CathoUc  The  chief  privileges, 
common  to  all  the  electors,  were,  1.  the 
right  to  elect  the  empejror;  2.  to  draw 
uu  the  elective  capitulation  (see  CmfU- 
tMoKon);  3.  to  possess  the  great  ofifces 
of  the  empire  ;  4.  to  form  a  separate 
coUege  in  the  diets;  5.  to  hold  electoral 
diets  (Jturtore),  for  the  election  of  the 
emperor,  and  for  consulting  on  the  affiurs 
of  the  empire,  &c. ;  6.  the  exemption  of 
their  courts  fiom  the  appellate  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  imperial  courts  {pnvUegivm  dt 
non  appellando);  7.  to  possess  tiie  regal 
dignity,  yet  not  the  title  of  majesty ;  8. 
to  possess  several  electorates  at  once ;  9. 
to  ac<juire  imperial  fie&f  and  allodial  es- 
tates m  tjie  empire,  without  tiie  special 
permission  of  the  emperor.  With  each 
electorate  there  were  also  special  privi- 
leges connected,  too  many  to  be  enume- 
rated here  at  length.  The  elector  of 
Mentz,  for  instance,  was  president  of  the 
electoral  college,  director  of  the  diet,  and 
in  the  corpus  Caihqliconein  (q.  v.),  with 
the  riffht  to  crown  the  emperor,  which 
right,  however,  was  exercised  by  him  al- 
ternately with  the  elector  of  Treves,  after 
1656,  who  was  arch-chancellor  in  Gaul 
and  Aries  (a  nominal  dignity).  The  elec- 
tor of  Cologne  was  arch-chancellor  in 
Italy,  and  Ugahu  natu8,  that  is,  ex  <^ficiOf 
representative  of  the  pope.  The  elector 
of  Bohemia  was  arch-cupbearer,  and  the 
first  of  tiie  secular  electors.  The  elector 
of  the  Palatinate  was  arch-sewer,  vicar 
of  the  empire  on  the  Rliine,  and  had  more 
than  one  voice  in  the  diet.  The  elector 
of  Saxony  was  arch-marshal,  irf^perial 
vicar  of  the  empire,  in  the  countri£«  uisder 
the  Saxon  law,  and  director  of  the  cortits 
evangeUcorunu  The  elector  of  Branaen- 
burg  was  arch-chamberlain,  and  had  i^ev- 
eral  votes  in  the  imperial  colleges.  The 
elector  of  Brunswick-Liineburg  was  arch- 


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ELECTOBr-ELBCTRICITY. 


tieafluier,  akernately  with  the  bishop  of 
Osnabrikck.  By  the  peace  of  Luneville, 
In  1801,  the  left  liank  of  the  Rhine  was 
ceded  to  France,  and  the  ecclesiastical 
electons  lost  their  territory.    Several  chan- 

Ss  took  place.  In  1802,  the  elector  of 
entz  w^  declared  elector-arch-chancel- 
lor, the  two  other  ecclesiastical  electora 
set  a^ide,  and  Baden,  WCirtembeif;,  Hesse- 
CosBel  and  Salzburg  declared  electorates; 
so  that  there  then  existed  10  electors. 
August  €^  1806,  the  emperor  abdicated 
the  imperml  dignity,  and  the  electors  grad- 
ually adopted  other  tides.  The  elector  of 
Hesse-€|aBsel  Add  from  Ins  domains,  against 
the  advice  of  Louis  Bonaparte  (see  his 
i^pofwe,  1829),  and  was  declared  by  Na- 
Doleon  to  have  abdicated  his  sutbori^. 
When  the  elector,  after  the  peace  of  Paris, 
in  1814,  again  took  possession  of  his  coun- 
try, he  retained  the  tide  of  elector,  which, 
however,  in  the  new  constitution  of  the 
Gennan  confederacv,  has  no  meaning. 

Elbctra;  daughter  of  Agamemnon 
andCtytemnestnu  Her  8tep-&3ier,  iEgis- 
thus,  wished  her  not  to  marry  anv  of  the 
princes  who  were  her  suitoiB,  lest  her 
children  should  avenge  the  death  of  Aga- 
memnon.; he  married  her,  however,  to  a 
man  of  bumble  rank  in  Arms,  who  left 
her  a  virgin.  At  the  time  of  her  Other's 
death,  she  saved  her  brother  Orestes ;  and 
when,  afterwards,  he  was  tortured  by  the 
furies,  on  account  of  the  murder  of  his 
mother,  to  which  his  sister  had  instigated 
him,  and  she  was  informed  by  the  oraele 
of  Delphi  that  he  was  slain  in  Tauria,  by 
a  priestess  of  Diana,  she  was  upon  the 
pomt  of  killing  vnth  a  fire-brand  her  sister 
Iphigenia,  who  had  just  entered  the  tem- 
ple as  a  priestess  of  Diana,  when  Orestes 
came  and  prevented  the  deed.  Electm 
afterwards  manned  Pylades,  the  intimate 
fiiend  of  her  brother  Orestes. 
Electric  Calamiive.  (See  Zinc.) 
Electrical  Eel.  A  fish  possessing 
the  extraoidinaiy  property  of  comnmni- 
cating  a  sensation  similar  to  an  electrical 
shock,  when  touched  with  the  hand,  or 
an  electric  conductor.  Body  neariy  of 
equal  thickness  throughout;  head  and 
tail  obtuse ;  length  ^ve  or  six  feet  The 
seat  of  the  organs  which  produce  this 
curious  effect  is  along  the  under  side  of 
the  tail.  Thev  are  composed  of  four 
bundks  of  panulel  membnuiaceous  lami- 
nae, plfr^  very  near  each  other,  and 
neariy  horizontaUy,  extending  fimn  the 
^in  to  the  central  medial  {Sane  of  the 
body,  connected  together  by  numerous 
vertical  kminie,  arranged  transversely. 
The  little  cells^  or  nther  the  small  pris- 


matic and  transverse  canals,  intmceptaa 
by  these  two  kinds  of  laminee,  are,  ac- 
cording to  Cuvier,  filled  with  a  gelatmous 
substance;  and  the  whole  apparatus  is 
abundandy  supplied  with  nerves.  Eko- 
trical  eeb  are  oi  several  species,  the  most 
ftunous  of  which  is  the  gymnotnu  eUetneutj 
found  in  the  rivers  of  South  America.  It 
is  said  to  possess  power,  when  in  full  vig- 
or, sufficient  to  knock  down  a  man,  and 
b^umb  the  limb  afi^ted,  in  the  most 
painful  manner,  for  several  hours  after 
communicating  the  shock.  By  ftequent 
use  of  this  fiiculty  it  becomes  impcored, 
and  a  considerable  interval  of  rest  is  re- 
quired to  recruit  its  electrical  properties. 
Through  the  medium  of  water,  it  is  able 
to  desnx>y  small  fishes  at  a  consideraMe 
distance,  directiog  the  power  at  pleasure. 
Some  authors  aver,  that  the  gymnoUu  is 
found  so  laiigO  and  powerful  as  to  benumb 
a  horse,  and  to  drown  men  while  bathtnf^, 
by  the  violence  of  the  shock.  A  speci- 
men of  the  gymnohUy  which  was  con- 
veved  alive  to  England  some  yeare  since, 
afiSorded  the  curious  anopportunity  of  ver- 
i^ing  the  reports  of  travellera  as  to  its 
electric  property.  Since  that  period,  nu- 
merous specimens  have  been  examined, 
and  the  precediDg  observadons  confinned. 
The  property  of  communicating  electrical 
shocks  js  common  to  some  other  fishes, 
of  the  same  subdivision.  Specimens  of 
the  gwmoius  ekcbicus  are,  reported  to  at- 
tain Uie  length  of  six  or  seven  feet,  but 
ordinarily  they  are  about  three  and  a  half 
or  four  feet  fong.  The  ftesh  is  eatable, 
and,  in  appearance  and  flavor,  said  to  re- 
semble that  of  an  eeL 

Elbctricitt  ;  a  branch  of  natural  phi- 
losophy, which  investigates  the  attractioos 
and  repulsions,  the  production  of  light, 
and  the  elevation  of  temperature,  as  well 
as  the  explosions  and  other  ph^oraesa 
attending  the  friction  of  vitreous,  resinous 
and  metallic  surfaces,  and  the  heating, 
coolings  evaporation  and  mutual  contact 
of  a  great  number  of  bodies.  Its  name  is 
derived  finom  the  Greek  word  #x«rrfo», 
(omier),  in  which  substance  its  phenome- 
na were  first  observed.  The  knowledge 
which  the  ancients  were  possessed  of  cou- 
oeming  this  interesting  and  now  veiy  ex- 
tensive branch  of  science^  consisted  in  lit- 
tle more  than  the  fiict,  that  amber  acquir- 
ed the  power  of  attracting  to  itself  light 
bodies,  on  being  rubbed,  ascribed,  hy 
Thales  of  Miletus,  to  an  inherent  soul  or 
essence,  which,  awakened  by  firiction, 
went'  forth,  and  brought  back  the  light 
partictes  floating  around.  In  the  year 
1600^  Dr.  Gilbert,  an  English  physician, 


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ELECTRICITY. 


445 


^^lablididd  a  treadae  upon  the  magnet,  in 
which  he  remarked,  that  fleyeraJ  other 
bodies  besides  amber  can,  by  friction,  be 
made  to  attract  light  bodies.  The  obser- 
Tations  of  Boyte,  Otto  von  Guericke, 
Newton,  and  a  few  other  philosophers  of 
the  same  period,  contributed  somewhat 
\o  the  extension  of  our  knowledge  of 
electricity;  but  it  was  not  before  the 
commencement  of  the  18th  century,  that 
the  most  important  discoveries  and  gene- 
ralizations of  the  phenomena  before  known 
upon  this  subject  were  made.  (Bee  Priest- 
iey'te  Histonf  of  Eiedricihf.) 

The  order  we  shall  adopt  in  the  present 
articte  will  be  the  following :  1.  A  ^etu- 
roL  itatemeni  of  eUctrictd^ieMmenOy  t^ 
pendent  of  ail  theory.  2.  Tht  theorus  which 
nave  been  proposed  for  erpiaxnmg  these  phe* 
nomena,  3.  i^edrieal  mushiaes,  4.  Effeds 
of  dectrical  aUracUon  and  randsion.  5. 
DistrSmtion  ^  dedrici^.  6.  Transfer- 
rence  of  eUdncitf,  7.  £aws  of  Indumon. 
a  MotUyn  qf  ekctricity.  9.  Chemical  ef- 
fects of  dedridJbf.  10.  Effects  ofdectrid- 
iff  vpon  lioing  hidies.  ll.  Electricity  de- 
veloped  by  Ganges  of  temperature  and  of 
form,  from  conJ^xt,  compression  and  other 
changes  in  bodies,    12.  Electricity  of  the 


f .  A  dry  glass  rod,  a  piece  of  ambek*  or 
sealing-wax,  when  rubbed  briskly  vnth  a 
diy  wooQen  cloth,  and  immediately  pre- 
sented to  light  bodies,  such  as  fragments 
of  paper,  thread,  cork,  straw,  cotton  or 
cola  leai^  will  first  attract  and  then  repel' 
uem.  The  bodies  which  have  thus  ac- 
quired this  attractive  and  repulsive  power 
are  said  to  be  excited.  All  substances, 
however,  are  not  capable  of  becoming  ex- 
eited;  hence  the  distinction  of  bodies  into 
classcas — electrics,  or  such  as  become  ex- 
cited bv  friction,  and  non-electrics,  or 
those  which,  when  rubbed,  do  not  display 
electric  phenomena.  The  principal  elec- 
tric substances  in  nature  are  the  following : 
▼iz.  amber,  gum-lac,  resin,  sulphur,  glan, 
the  precious  stones,  sUk,  the  fur  of  most 
quadrupeds^  and  almost  all  vegetable  sub- 
stances  which  have  been  thoroughly  de- 
prived of  moisture,  as  baked  wood,  and 
dry  paper.  If  the  light  bodies  which  have 
been  repelled  from  an  excited  electric  be 
again  presented  to  it,  they  will,  provided 
they  have  touched  no  other  body,  contin- 
ue to  be  driven  off.  Some  subsbinccs  re- 
main in  contact  with  the  electric  longer 
than  others ;  fibres  of  cotton  adhere  some 
lime,  while  metallic  bodies  are  repelled 
the  mstant  after  contact  Two  bodies, 
which  have  both  been  in  contact  with  the 
same  electric^  mRHually  repel  each  other. 

VOL.  IV.  38 


If  a  glass  tube  of  considerable  diameter, 
and  two  or  three  feet  in  length,  be  em- 
ployed for  the  experiment,  we  notice  in  a 
dark  room,  during;  the  friction,  flashes  of 
light,  of  a  bluish  tinge,  extending  over 
every  part  of  the  tube ;  and  spaiks,  at- 
tended with  a  sharp  snappin^^  sound,  will 
be  seen  to  dart  out  m  every  direction.  If 
we  present  to  it,  after  vigorous  rubbing,  a 
round  metallic  ball,  sparks  will  be  obtain- 
ed as  tlie  ball  approaches  the  tube ;  and 
if  the  knuckle  bejpresented  instead  of  the 
ball,  the  same  effect  takes  place,  accom- 
panied with  a  pricking  sensation.  If  a 
metallic  ball  be  suspended  in  the  air  by 
silk,  thread,  or  fibres  of  worsted  or  haur, 
or  a  rod  of  glass,  and  rubbed  while  in  tliis 
situation  by  an  electric,  it  will  exhibit  the 
same  properties  of  attraction  and  repul- 
sion, as  if  it  had  been  itself  an  electric — 
That  tlie  ball  should  thus  be  cut  off  from 
contact  with  any  substance,  except  the  air 
and  the  electric  which  sustains  it,  is  essen- 
tial to  the  success  of  the  experiment  If 
an  excited  electric  be  placed  near  a  rush- 
pith  ball  suspended  by  silk,  the  ball  will  ia 
the  first  place  approach  the  electric,  but 
afler  contact  vnll  recede  from  it  If  now, 
uncovering  the  electric,  we  present  to  the 
ball  which  has  thus  touch^  it  a  sebond 
ball,  similarly  suspended,  but  which  has 
had  no  previous  communication  with  any 
electric,  we  shall  find  that  these  two  balls 
will  attract  one  another,  and  come  into  im- 
mediate contact  The  same  results  are 
repeated  between  tliis  second  ball  and  a 
thud,  which  may  be  presented  to  it,  and 
so  on  in  succession,  with  a  continued 
diminution,  however,  in  the  rapidity  of  the 
movements,  indicative  of  a  diminished 
power,  in  consequence,  as  it  would  seem, 
of  its  being  distributed  among  a  number 
of  bodies,  rrom  these  facts  we  infer  that 
the  electric  imparts  to  the  balls,  suspended 
as  above,  properties  exactly  similar  to  those 
which  had  been  excited  in.  itself  by  fric- 
tion. By  repeated  contact  with  a  number 
of  bodies,  an  excited  electric  is  found  to 
lose  its  electrical  powers,  in  the  same  de- 
gree as  these  powers  have  been  acquu^d 
by  the  bodies  tliemselves ;  and  fresh  exci- 
tation alone  can  renew  them.  It  is  evident 
therefore,  that  electricity  is  cquible  of^ 
being  transferred,  in  the  same  sense  as  ca- 
loric, of  which  we  speak,  as  being  commu- 
nicable, and,  like  caloric,  it  is  wedcened  by 
difRision  among  a  number  of  bodies.  If 
an  electrified  tmll  be  touched  with  the  fin- 
ger or  by  a  rod  of  metal,  ft  vrill  be  de- 
jMived  of  the  whole  of  its  electrteity, 
which  will  pass  to  the  finser  or  rod  toUch- 
hig  it ;  the  ball  being  left  m  its  original  or 


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446 


ELECTRICITY. 


natural  stfue,  and  again  becoming  8ii8ce|>- 
tible  of  being  attracted,  either  by  an  ex- 
cited electric,  or  by  another  body,  to  which 
electriciur  has  previously  been  communi- 
cated.   If  a  rod  of  glass  be  applied  instead 
of  the  finffer  or  metallic  rod  as  above,  the 
body  touched  remains  imafiected,  notwitli- 
standing  tJie  contact    We  are  thus  led  to 
concluoe  Uiat  some  substances,  such  as 
glass,  are  incapable  of  conducting  elec- 
trici^ ;  while  others,  such  as  metals  and 
the  human  body,  readily  conduct  it   And 
it  is  found  that  all  eUctncs  are  non-eondue- 
tor$^  while,  on  the  contrary,  condudon  are 
fwnrelectries.    The  permanence  of  electri- 
city in  metallic  bodies,  suspended  in  the  air 
by  silken  thread,  proves  that  the  air,  as  well 
as  sUk,  is  a  non-conductor ;  from  which 
circumstance  bodies  surrounded  by  it,  ex- 
cept on  one  nde,  and  tlus  nde  beinff  in 
contact  with  a  non-conductor,  are  said  to 
be  insuUUed,    If  tliis  condition  be  not  ob- 
served, that  is,  if  a  body  be  in  contact 
with  conducting  substances  whicli  com- 
municate witii  the  earth,  its  electricity 
will  escape  through  them  to  the  earth, 
which  may  be  regarded  as  the  great  reser- 
voir, both  for  the  alisorption  and  supply 
of  this  fluid.    The  insulating  power  or  the 
atmosphere  depends  upon  its  density  and 
its  diyness.     In  proportion  as  the  air  is 
rarefied  by  the  remo\'al  of  the  superin- 
cumbent pressure,  its  ]K)wer  of  confining 
electriciw  diminishes,  till,  at  length,  when 
the  rarefaction  is .  very  great,  it  opposes 
scarcely  any  resistance  to  the  passage  of 
electricitv.    The  presence  of  moisture  in 
the  air  also  diminishes  its  insulating  pow- 
er.   Water  is  a  good  conductor  of  elec- 
tricity ;  accx>rdingly,  any  portion  of  it  sus- 
pended in  the  air  tends  to  carry  off  elec- 
tricity finom  bodies  charged  with  it,  and 
which  are  imm^srsed  in  such  an  atmo- 
sphere.   Moisture  also  easily  attaches  it- 
self to  glass  and  other  electrics,  depriving 
them  of  the  power  of  insulation.    lience 
we  discover  tlie  reason  why  experiments 
which  succeed  in  a  clear,  dry  day,  will  of- 
ten fail  in  damp  weather,  and  the  utility 
of  drying  all  the  instruments  employed  in 
electncalexperimentSyin  order  to  exclude, 
as  much  as  possible,  die  interference  aris- 
ing from  the  presence  of  condensed  mois- 
ture.    The  conducting  powers  of  most 
bodies  are  influenced  by  changes  of  tem- 
perature, and  also  of  form.    Thus  wvter, 
m  its  liquid  state,  is  a  good  conductor ;  but 
when  in  the  state  of  ice,  at  a  temperature 
of  13^  Fahr^  it  is  a  non-conductor,  and  ca- 
pable of  being  excited  by  friction  like  any 
other  electric.     Reducing  substances  to 
powder  has  an  effect  upon  their  powen 


of  conducting  electricity.  Snow  conducts 
less  readily  than  ice  at  the  same  tempenir 
ture ;  but  glass,  as  well  as  sulphur,  on  the 
contrary,  acquire  some  conducting  power 
by  being  pulverized.  Vegetable  and  ani- 
mal substances  lose  their  conducting  pow- 
ers when  made  thoroughly  diy.  No  sub- 
stance with  which  we  are  acquainted  can 
be  said  to  be  wholly  impervious  to  elec- 
tricity ;  nor,  on  the  other  hand,  is  tliere  any 
body  which  opposes  no  resistance  to  the 
transmission  of  electricity.  The  follow- 
ing table  presents  a  view  of  the  principcd 
classes  of  bodies,  arranged  in  a  series,  be- 
ginning with  those  posKssed  of  the  great- 
est conducting  power,  and  terminating 
with  those  that  have  the  least  The  order 
in  which  they  possess  the  power  of  insu- 
latiug,  is,  of  course,  the  reverse  of  this : — 


The  perfect,  or  least 
oxidable  metals. 

The  more  oxidable 
metals. 

Charcoal  prepared 
from  the  harder 
woods,  and  re- 
cently ignited. 

Plumbago. 

The  concentrated 
mineral  acids. 

Dilute  acids. 

Solutions  of  metal- 
lic salts. 

Diy  metallic  oxides. 
Oils. 

Ve^table  ashes. 
Animal  ashes. 
Ice  below  13^  Fafar. 
Phosphorua 
Lime. 
Diy  chalk. 
Caoutchouc 
Camphor. 
Silicious  and  argil- 
laceous stones,  in 


Metallic  ores. 
Animal  fluids. 
Water. 
Snow. 

Living  vegetables. 
Living  animals. 
Smoke. 
Steam. 
Rarefied  air. 
Earths  and  stones  ia 
their  natural  states 
Pulverized  glass. 
FloweiB  of  sulphur. 


and  other  gases. 
White  sugar. 
Diy  parchment 
Cotton. 
Feathers. 
Hair,  especially  that 

of  a  living  cat 
Silk. 

Transparent  gems. 
Diamond. 
Glass. 
Fat 
Wax. 

Sulphur.  • 

Reams. 
Amber. 
Ckun-lac. 

Although  the  exact  pomt  in  the  above 
scale,  which  forms  the  separation  between 
conductinff  and  insulating  bodies,  cannot 
be  precisdy  maiked,  yet  we  have  indicated 
it  by  a  division.  The  laws  which  regulate 
the  gradual  dissipation  of  electricity  firom 
imperfectly  insulated  bodies,  have  been 
carefully  investigated  by  M.  Coulomby — 
The  causes  which  operate  in  theae  cir-. 


Porcelain. 

Baked  wood. 

Dry  atmospheric  air, 


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eumstances,  are,  1.  the  impeiiectioa  of 
the  insuladni^  property  in  the  solids  by 
which  they  are  supported ;  2,  the  contact 
of  successive  portions  of  air,  every  parti- 
cle of  which  carries  off  a  certain  quanti- 
ty of  electricity;  3.  the  deposition  of 
moisture  upon  the  surface  of  the  insulat- 
ing bodies,  which  establishes  communi- 
cations between  their  opf)oate  ends,  and 
may  be  considered  as  virtually  increasing 
theur  conducting  power.  Still  anotlier 
circumstance,  which  materially  affects  the 
dissipation  of  electricity,  is  the  shape  of 
the  body  in  which  it  is  accumulated.  The 
form  most  fevorable  for  its  retention  is 
that  of  a  sphere ;  next,  a  cylinder  termi- 
nated at  both  extremities  by  a  hemisphere. 
On  the  other  hand,  electricity  escapes 
most  readily  from  bodies  of  a  pointed 
figure,  especially  if  the  point  projects  to  a 
distance  from  the  surface.  In  such  bodies, 
it  is  scarcely  possible  to  retain  any  accu- 
mulation of  the  electric  fluid;  whereas, 
pointed  bodies  receive  electricity  more 
readily  than  those  of  any  other  form.^ 
Electric  excitation  in  different  bodies  ex- 
hibits different  phenomena.  We  have  seen 
that  light  substances  excited  by  glass  repel 
one  another,  and  are  likewise  repelled  by 
the  excited  glass.  The  same  thing  also 
happens  witn  respect  to  bodies  which 
have  received  their  electricity  from  excited 
sulphur,  or  sealing-wax.  But  on  examin- 
ing the  action  of  any  of  the  bodies  of  the 
former  class  upon  any  of  those  belonging 
to  the  latter,  we  find  that,  instead  of  repel- 
linff,  they  attract  each  other ;  and  what  is 
still  more  remarkable,  the  instant  these 
bodies  come  in  contact,  provided  they 
have  both  been  electrified  in  an  equal  de- 
gree, they  cease  at  once  to  exhibit  any 
si^ns  of  electrical  excitement ;  the  elec^ 
tricity  in  the  one  appearing  to  neutralize 
that  m  the  other.  Tnus  we  seem  to  have 
evidence  of  two  kinds  of  electricity ;  and 
as  these  were  first  noticed,  the  one  in 
glass  and  the  other  in  resinous  bodies, 
they  were  named  vitreous  and  resinous 
electricity.  Theu-  mode  of  action  on 
matter  has  been  expressed  by  the  follow- 
ing general  law,  viz. :  Bodies  charged  vnpi 
eitker  species  of  eUctrieityj  TCpa  bodies 
charged  ioiik  wr  same  species,lnU  attract 
bodies  charged  with  the  other  species  ;^  and 
at  equal  distances^  the  attractive  pou>er  in  the 
one  ease  is  exac&y  equal  to  the  npulsive  pow- 
er in  the  other.  Accordingly,  we  learn  the 
kind  of  electricity  with  which  a  given 
body  is  charged,  by  approaching  it  to  an 
insulated  pith  ball,  which  has  previously 
been  touched  eitlier  with  excited  glaas  or 
with  excited  sealing-wax.     It  is  juiown, 


moreover,  that^  wlien  two  electrics  are 
rubbed  agauist  one  another,  the  one  ac- 
quires, always,  one  kind  of  electricity,  tho 
other  the  opposite ;  and  both  are  produced 
in  equal  degrees.  Thus,  when  glass  is 
nibbed  by  talk  or  flannel,  just  as  much  res- 
inous electricity  is  ptroduced  iu  the  silk  or 
flannel,  as  there  is  vitreous  electricity  pro- 
duced in  the  glass ;  and,  consequently,  as 
they  are  endowed  with  opposite  electrici- 
ties, there  should  be  an  attraction  existing 
between  the  excited  sur&ces  c^the  bodies 
rubbed.  This  fact  is  eanly  proved  by  the 
simple  and  familiar  experiment  of  tlie  rib- 
bons. If  a  white  and  a  black  ribbon,  of 
two  or  three  feet  lone,  and  perfectly  diy, 
be  applied  to  each  otBer  by  their  smooth 
surfaces,  and  are  then  drawn  repeatedly 
between  tiie  finger  and  thumb,  so  as  to 
rub  against  each  other,  they  will  be  found 
to  adhere  together,  and,  if  pulled  asunder 
at  one  end,  will  rush  together  with  great 
quickness ;  while  united,  thev  exhibit  no 
sign  of  electricity,  because  tne  opeiation 
of  the  one  is  just  the  reverse  of  that  of 
the  other,  and  their  power  is  neutralized 
and  inoperative.  Ir  completely  separat- 
ed, however,  each  will  manifest  a  strong 
electrical  power,  the  one  attracting  those 
bodies  which  the  other  repels.  The  caus- 
es that  determine  the  species  of  electricirr 
excited  in  the  respective  bodies,  of  which 
the  surfaces  are  made  to  rub  against  each 
other,  have  not  been  satisfactorily  ascer- 
tained. The  mechanical  configuration  of 
the  surfaces  appears  to  have  more  influence 
in  tlie  result,  than  the  nature  of  tiiv  snfo^ 
stances  thenoselves.  Thus  smooth  glass 
acquires  vitreous  electricity  by  fKctron 
with  almost  eveiy  substance,  except  the 
back  of  a  cat,  which  induces  the  resinous 
electricity ;  but  roughened  glass,  if  rubbed 
with  the  same  subsmnces,  tecomes  clMirg- 
ed  with  resinous  electricity,  while  the  rub- 
bing bodies  acquire  the  vitreous.  Silk, 
rubbed  by  resin,  takes  the  vitreous^  but 
with  polished  glass,  tlie  resinous  electricity. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  several  substan- 
ces, which  acquire  vitreous  electricity, 
when  rubbed  with  any  of  those  which 
follow  it,  in  the  order  in  which  they  are 
set  down ;  and  resinbus  electricity,  if  nib- 
bed with  any  of  those  which  precede: — 

The  back  of  a  cat  Paper. 

Polished  glass.  Silk. 

Woollen  cloth.  Gum-lac. 

Feathers.  Roughened  glass. 
Wood. 

In  the  experiment  above  mentioned  of 
the  silk  ribbons,  the  black  ribbon  exhibit- 
ed the  vitreous,  and  the  white  one  the  res- 


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iDous  electricity.  But  when  the  ribbons 
are  differently  excited,  as  the  one  beinf^ 
dniwn  len^hwise  and  at  rii^t  ansles  over 
a  uart  of  the  other,  the  one  which  ha8> 
•unbred  friction  in  its  whole  length  ac- 
quires vitreous,  and  the  other  resinouji 
electricity.  Indeed,  the  slightest  dif[erenoe 
in  the  conditions  of  these  and  similar  ex- 
periments, or  the  species  of  electricjQr 
arising  from  fiictioD,  will  be  often  suffi- 
cient to  produce  opposite  results.  Another 
important  observation,  with  regard  to  elec- 
trical phenomena,  requires  to  be  stated 
previous  to  our  conclusion  of  the  present 
head.  Whenever  a  body  is  charged  with 
electricity,  although  it  be  perfectly  insula- 
ted, it  tends  to  produce  an  opposite  elec- 
trical state  in  all  the  bodies  in  its  vicinity, 
and  this  with  greater  energy  in  proportion 
as  the  distance  is  smaller.  This  effect  is 
lernied  the  inducHon  of  electricity.  In 
consequence  of  this  law,  if  an  electrified 
body,  charged  with  either  species  of  elec- 
tricity, be  presented  to  an  ujielectrified  or 
neutral  body,  the  electrical  condition  of 
the  different  parts  of  the  neutral  body  is 
disturbed.  The  electrified  body  induces  a 
state  of  electricity  contrary  to  its  own,  m 
that  part  of  the  neutral  body  which  is 
nearest  to  it,  and  consequendy  a  state  of 
electricity  similar  to  its  own  in  the  remote 
put.  Hence  the  neutraU^  of  the  second 
body  is  destroyed  by  the  action  of  the  first ; 
and  the  adjacent  parts  of  the  two  bodiei^ 
having  now  opposite  electricities,  will  at- 
tract each  other.  It  thus  appears,  that  the 
attraction  which,  is  observed  to  take  place 
between  electrified  bodies  and  those  that 
are  unelectrified,  is  merely  a  consequence 
of  the  altered  state  of  those  bodies,  result- 
inff  directly  finom  the  law  of  induction. 

IL  The  hypothesis  which  naturally  sug- 
gests itself  for  the  explanation  of  the  phe- 
nomena above  stateo,  is  that  of  a  very 
subdle,  imponderable  and  highly  elastic 
fluid,  pervading  all  material  bodies,  and 
capable  of  moving  with  various  degrees 
of  facility  through  the  pores  or  actual 
substance  of  different  kinos  of  matter.  In 
some,  as  in  those  we  call  eondudon  or 
wm-deetrict,  it  moves  without,  any  appa- 
rent obstruction ;  while  in  otlienw  as  in 
those  we  call  non-conthcUars  or  aedna^ 
it  moves  with  diiiiculcy.  Moreover,  ai^ 
the  phenomena  appear  to  indicate  the 
agency  of  two  kinds  of  fluid,  we  shall,  for 
the  present,  assume  the  existence  of  two 
species,  and  shall  speak  of  tliese  under 
tiie  names  of  the  vitreous  and  the  rtnnoui 
deetneUiea,  They  must  each  have,  when 
separate,  die  same  general  properties  as 
have  aliMdy  been  enumerated  above; 


while,  in  rektkni  to  each  other,  then  wm^ 
be  a  complete  eontraiiely  in  their  nature, 
80  that,  wnen  combined  together,  their  ae^ 
tion  on  the  bodies  in  their  immediate  vi- 
cini^  ahall  cease.    And  it  is  when  exist- 
ing m  this  state  of  union  or  neutrality, 
that  bodies  are  said  to  be  in  their  natural 
state  as  respects  electricity.  We  shall  now 
proceed  to  compare  the  supposidoos  we 
nave  made  with  die  fiicts,  as  presented  to 
us  by  nature,  and  developed  by  experi- 
ment— €L  Facts  connected  with  exdiation^ 
From  various  causes  (of  which  the  fric- 
tion of  suriiices  is  one),  the  state  of  union 
in  which  the  two  electricities  naturally  . 
exist  in  bodies  is  disturbed :  the  vitreous 
electric!^  is  impelled  in  one  diieciioii, 
while  the  resinous  is  traiisferrBd  to  the 
opposite ;  and  each  manifests  its  peculiar 
powers.    When  accumulated  in  any  body, 
each  fluid  acts  in  proportion  to  its  relative 
quantity,  i.  e.,  to  the  Quantity  which  is  Ib 
excess  above  that  which  is  still  retained, 
in  a  state  of  inactivity,  by  its  union  with 
electricity  of  the  opposite  kind.     ThoBSy 
when  glass  is   rubbed  with  a  metallic 
amalgam,  a  portion  only  of  the  electrici- 
ties at  the  two  surfaces  is  decomposed  s 
the  vitreous  electricity  resulting  from  this 
decomposition  attaches  itself  to  the  glass ; 
the  resmous  to  the  amalgam.    What  re- 
mains in   each    sur&oe  imdecomposed, 
continues  to  be  quite  inerL — 6.  Facts  con- 
nected with  dM^riMiofi.    Both  of  these 
fluids,  being  highly  elastic,  their  particles 
repel  one  another  with  a  force  which  in- 
creases in  proportion  as  their  distance  is 
less ;  and  this  force  acts  at  all  distances^ 
and  is  not  impeded  by  the  interpositioii 
of  bodies  of  any  kind,  provided  they  are 
not  themselves  in  an  active  electrical  state. 
It  has  been  deduced,  from  die  most  care- 
ful analysis,  that  this  force  follows  the 
same  law  with  that  of  gravitation :  viz. 
that  its  intensity  is  inversely  as  the  square 
of  the  distance.    The  mode  in  which  the 
electricity  imparted  to  a  conducting  body, 
or  to  a  system  of  conductors,  is  distribu^ 
ted  among  their  different  parts,  is  in  exact 
conformity  with  the  results  of  this  law, 
as  deduced  by  mathematical  investigation. 
While  the  particles  of  each  fluid  repel 
those  of  the  same  kind,  they  exert  an  eoual- 
ly  strong  attraction  for  the  particles  or  the 
other  species  of  electric  fluid.  This  attrac- 
tion, in  like  manner,  increases  with  a  dimi- 
nutioaof  distance,  and  follovirs  the  same 
law  as  to  its  intensity :  viz.  that  of  the  in^ 
veiw  ratio  f^f  the  square  of  the  distance. 
This  force,  alsp,  is  not  afK)cted  by  the  pree- 
ence  of  any  intervening  body* — c  Facts 
connected  with  irmf^farrmu.    Since  the 


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449 


two  dectricities  have  this  powerful  attrac- 
tion for  each  other,  they  wodd  always  do w 
towards  one  another,  and  coalesce,  were  it 
not  for  the  obstacles  thrown  in  their  way 
by  non-conductors.  When,  instead  of 
these,  conducting  substances  are  interpos- 
ed, they  enter  into  union  with  great  Te- 
locity, producing,  in  their  transit  and  con- 
fluence, several  remarkable  effects.  When 
once  united,  their  powers  remain  dormant, 
until  again  called  into  action  by  the  re- 
newed separation  of  the  fluid8.-H2.  Facts 
relating  to  aUradion  and  repulsum.  The 
repulsion  which  is  observed  to  take  place 
between  bodies  that  are  insulated,  and 
charged  with  any  one  species  of  electrici- 

3r,  and  other  bodies  similarly  chai^ged,  is 
erived  from  the  repulsive  power  which 
the  particles  of  this  fluid  exert  towards 
those  of  their  own  species ;  and  the  at- 
tractions between  bodies  differently  elec- 
trified, is  derived  from  the  attractive  pow- 
er of  the  vitreous  particles  for  those  of  tlie 
opposite  kind.  In  all  cases,  the  move- 
ments of  electrified  bodies  represent  the 
forces  themselves  which  actuate  the  parti- 
cles of  the  developed  electricities  they 
contain. — e.  Facts  relating  to  induction. 
Wherever  one  of  the  electricities  exists  in 
an  active  state,  it  must  repel  all  the  parti- 
cles of  the  same  electricity  in  all  surround- 
ing bodies,  and  attract  those  of  the  oppo- 
site species.  Thus  the  law  of  induction 
is  seen  to  be  a  direct  consequence  of  the 
hypothesis  we  are  considering. — ^Thus  fiu* 
we  have  proceeded  upon  the  hypothesis 
of  two  mstinct  electric  fluids.  It  was, 
however,  discovered  by  Franklin,  that  it 
is  equally  easv  to  account  for  all  the  phe- 
nomena, on  the  supposition  of  their  result- 
ing fixHn  the  agency  of  a  single  electric 
fluid.  This  theory  supposes,  that  the  sin- 
gle agent  in  quesuon,  and  which  we  sliall 
call  the  ekdrin  Jluid,  is  highly  elastic  or 
repulsive  of  its  own  particles, — the  repul- 
non  taking  place  with  a  force  varying  in- 
versely as  the  square  of  the  distance ;  that 
its  particles  attract  and  are  attracted  by 
the  particles  of  all  other  matter,  follow- 
ing the  same  law  of  the  inverse  scjuare  of 
the  distance  ;  that  this  fluid  is  dispersed 
through  the  pores  of  bodies,  and  moves 
through  them  with  various  degrees  of  fa- 
cility, according  as  they  ara  conducton 
or  non-conductors.  Bodies  are  said  to  be 
in  their  natural  state,  with  regard  to  this 
fluid,  when  the  repulsion  of  the  fluid  they 
contain  of  a  narticle  of  fluid  at  a  dis- 
tance, is  exactly  balanced  by  the  attrac- 
tion of  the  matter  in  the  body  for  the  same 
particle ;  and,  under  these  circumstances, 
they  exhibit  no  electrical  phenomena. — 
38 


But  if  subjected  to  certain  operations,  as 
friction,  the  equilibrium  is  destroyed,  and 
they  acquire  more  or  less  than  when  in 
their  natural  state.    Whenever  they  ac- 
quire a  quantity  of  fluid  greater  than  in 
their  natural  state,  they  are  said  to  be  poS' 
iUvebf  electrified,  or  to  be  electrified  phu^ 
and  present  the  phenomena  ascribed  to 
what    was  callea   vitreous  electricity.— 
When,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  quan- 
tity lees  than  what  is  required  in  order 
to  be  in  their  natural  state,  they  are  said 
to  be  tu^ativebi  electrified,  or  to  be  elec- 
trified tntniM ;  m  which  case  they  corre- 
spond with  the  state  of  resinous  electrici- 
ty.   The  state  of  positive  electricity,  then, 
consists  in  a  redundance  of  the  electrio 
fluid,  or  in  matter  over-saturated  with  this 
fluid;   that  of  negative  electricity,  in  a 
deficiency  of  fluid,  or  in  matter  under- 
saturated,  or,  what  may  be  considered  the 
same  thing,  in  redundant  matter.   In  con- 
sidering the  mutual  electrical  actions  of 
bodies,  the  portions  in  which  the  matter 
and  the  fluid  mutually  saturate  each  other, 
need  not  be  taken  into  account,  since  their 
actions,  as  we  have  seen,  are  perfectly 
neutralized  ;  and  we  need  only  attend  to 
those  of  the  redundant  fluid  and  the  re- 
dundant matter.    When  a  body  contains 
more  than  its  natural  proportion  of  elee- 
tric  fluid,  the  surplus  will,  by  the  repul- 
sive tendency  of  its  particles,  overflow  and 
escape,  unless   prevented  by  insulation, 
until  the  body  is  reduced  to  its  neutral 
state.    When  under-saturated,  the  redun- 
dant matter  will  attract  fluid  from  all 
quarters,  firom  which  it  can  receive,  until 
it  is  again  brought  to  its  natural  state. 
The  mutual  recession  of  two  positively 
electrified  bodies  is  a  direct  consequence 
of  the  redundance  of  the  electric  fiuid 
contained  in  each,  this  fluid  lieing  attract- 
ed to  the  matter  l^  its  attraction  for  it  in 
both  bodies ;  and  the  fluid  in  one  being 
repulsive  of  tlie  fluid  in  the  other,  tlie 
bcHlies  are  necessarily  impelled  in  tlie  di- 
rection of  the  repulsion.     In  the  same 
manner,  the   mutual  attraction  between 
two  bodies,  one  of  which  is  electrified 
plus,  and  the  other  minus,  is  the  immedi- 
ate eflfect  of  the  attraction  of  the  redun- 
dant fluid  in  one  for  the  redundant  matter 
in  the  other,  and  vice  versa;  for  this  at- 
traction is  mutual.    The  mutual  recession 
of  two  bodies,  negatively  electrified,  does 
not  appear  to  be  accounted  for  upon  the 
FranKiinian  theory.    In  order  to  do  this^ 
therefore,  it  has  been  found  necessary  to 
append  to  it  the  following  provision :  that 
]Murticles  of  simple  mattei",  or  bodies  unsat- 
urated with  the  electric  fluul,  are  mutually 


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ELEcTRicrry* 


repubive.  Without  this  proviHon,  mdeed, 
we  are  unable  to  explain  the  want  of  ac* 
tkm  between  two  neutral  bodies ;  for,  the 
repulsion  of  the  fluids  in  both  bodies  be- 
ing balanced  by  the  attraction  of  the  fluid 
in  the  one  for  the  matter  in  the  other,  tlie 
remaining  attraction  of  tlie  fluid  in  the 
second  body  for  the  matter  in  the  firat, 
would  be  uncompensated  by  any  repul- 
sion ;  and  the  forces  would  not  be  held  in 
equilibrium,  as  we  find  they  really  are^ 
The  law  of  electrical  induction  b  an  im- 
mediate consequence  of  the  Franklinian 
theory.  When  a  body  charged  with  elec- 
tricity is  presented  to  a  neutral  body,  the 
redundant  fluid  of  the  former  exerts  a 
repulsive  action  on  the  fluid  in  the  latter 
body ;  and  if  this  happens  to  be  a  con- 
ductor, it  impels  a  certain  portion  of  that 
fluid  to  the  remote  end  of  this  body,  which 
becomes  at  that  part  posttiyely  electrified ; 
while  its  nearer  end,  which  the  same  fluid 
has  quitted,  is  consequently  in  the  state  of 
negative  electricity.  If  the  first  body  had 
been  negatively  electrified,  its  unsaturated 
matter  would  nave  exerted  an  attractive 
force  on  the  fluid  in  the  second  body,  and 
would  have  drawn  it  nearer  to  itself  pro- 
ducing an  accumulation  or  redundance 
of  fluid  at  the  adjacent  end,  and  a  corre- 
sponding deficiency  at  the  remote  end ;/ 
that  is,  the  former  would  have  been  render- 
ed positive,  and  the  latter  negative.  All 
this  is  exactly  conformable  to  observation. 
The  fiicts  with  respect  to  transferrence 
are  easily  explicable  upon  this  hyimthesis, 
and  they  arise  from  the  destruction  of  the 
equilibrium  of  forces,  which  confined  the 
fluid  to  a  particular  situation  or  mode  of  dis- 
tribution. Indeed,  tliere  is  no  fact  which  is 
ex))lained  on  the  hypothesis  of  two  fluids, 
which  is  not  equally  explicable  on  the 
Franklinian  theoir ;  and  the  explanations 
by  the  first  are  easily  converted  into  those  of 
the  second  by  substiuiting  the  expressions 
ofpositm  and  negative  for  these  or  mtreeua 
tna  rt9inouseUctnciHe$,  The  principal  ad- 
vantage of  Franklin's  system  is,  its  superior 
simplicity.  On  the  other  hand,  the  phe- 
nomena of  galvanism  prove  that  the  two 
electricities,  whatever  may  be  their  nature, 
exert  very  difierent  chemical  agencies,  and 
hence,  whichever  theory  we  may  choose 
to  adopt,  it  is  necessary,  in  tlieir  chemical 
history,  alwajrs  to  preserve  the  distinction 
between  them.  When  viewed,  however, 
as  a  mere  hypothesis,  calculated  to  fiicili- 
tate  our  comprehension  of  the  phenomena 
md  of  their  connexions,  it  is  a  matter  of 
indifference  which  we  employ,  since  they 
will  either  of  them  answer  the  purpose. 
FNorthe  futurs,  however,  we  shall  more 


generally  employ  the  language  of' the 
Franklinian  theory,  on  account  of  its 
greater  convenience. 

III.  Ekctrical  Machines.  The  essential 
pans  of  an  instrument  for  procuring  large 
supplies  of  electricity  for  tne  purposes  of 
experiment,  are  the  electric,  the  rubber, 
the  prime  conductor,  the  insulator,  and  the 
machinery  for  setting  the  electric  in  mo- 
tion. The  electric,  by  the  excitation  of 
which  the  electrici^  is  to  be  developed, 
may  be  made  of  various  substances. 
Polished  glass  has,  however,  received  the 
preference.  Its  form  is  that  of  a  hoHow 
cylinder,  or  of  a  flat  circular  ^ftte,  revolv- 
ing upon  a  horizontal  axis.  The  cushion 
is  usually  made  of  soft  leather,  generally 
basil  skin,  stufied  vrith  hair  or  wool,  so  as 
to  be  as  hard  as  the  bottom  of  a  chair, 
but  yet  sufiSciently  yielding  to  accommo- 
date itself^  without  much  pressure,  to  the 
surface  of  the  glass  to  which  it  islipplied. 
The  prime  conductor  is  a  cylindrical  tube, 
each  end  terminating  in  a  hemisphere. 
There  is  no  advantage  in  its  being  made 
solid,  for  the  electricity  is  only  contained 
at  the  surfaces.  It  may  be  made  of  thin 
sheet  brass  or  copper,  or  tin,  or  of  paste- 
board covered  with  gold  leaf  or  tin  foil 
Care  must  be  taken  that  its  surface  be  free 
from  all  points  and  asperities;  and  the 
perforations  which  are  made  in  it,  and 
which  should  be  about  the  size  of  a  quill, 
for  the  purpose  of  attaching  wires  and 
other  kinds  of  fixtures,  should  have  their 
edges  well  rounded  and  smoothed  of£ 
In  order  to  render  the  arrangement  of 
these  parts  more  intelligible,  we  will  de»- 
cribe  one  of  the  simpl^  and  beat  of  the 
cylindric  machines.  The  glass  cylinder 
is  from  8  to  16  inches  in  diameter,  and 
from  I  to  3  feet  long,  supported,  for 
the  purpose  of  insulation,  on  two  upright 
]>illara  of  glass,  which  are  fixed  to  a  firm 
wooden  stand.  Two  hollow  metallic  con- 
ductors, equal  in  length  to  the  cylinder, 
and  about  one  fourth  of  its  diameter,  are 
placed  parallel  to  it,  one  on  each  nde,  up- 
on two  insukiting  pillan  of  glass,  which 
are  cemented  into  two  separate  pieces  of 
wood,  that  slide  across  the  base  so  as  to 
allow  of  their  being  brought  within  dif- 
ferent distances  fit>m  the  cylinder.  To 
one  of  these  conductora  the  cushion  is  at- 
tached, which  is  of  the  same  length  with 
the  conductor.  Its  pressure  against  the 
cylinder  is  regulated  by  an  adjusting 
screw  adapted  to  the  wooden  base,  on 
which  the  ^aas  pillar  that  supports  the 
conductor  is  fixed.  From  the  upper  edge 
of  the  cushion  there  proceeds  a  flap  of 
thin  oiled  alk,  which  is  sewed  on  the 


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ouBkion  about  a  duarter  of  an  inch  from 
its  upper  edge.  It  extends  over  the  upper 
surface  of  the  glass  cylinder  to  within  an 
inch  of  a  row  <»  metallic  points,  proceed-^ 
ing,  like  the  teeth  of  a  rake,  from  a  hori- 
zontal rod,  which  is  fixed  to  the  adjacent 
side  of  the  opposite  conductor.  The  mo- 
tion of  the.cylmder,  which  is  ^yen  by  a 
single  handle  or  by  a  multiplying  wheel, 
must  always  beeiven  in  the  direction  of 
tlie  silk  flap.  That  part  of  die  cualiion 
which  comes  in  contact  with  the  glass 
cylinder,  should  be  coated  with  an  amal- 
gam of  tin,  zinc  and  mercury,  applied 
by  means  of  hog's  lard.  The  amalgam 
shouM  be  placed  umfoimly  over  the  cush- 
ion, until  level  with  the  hue  formed  by  the. 
seam  which  joins  the  siUc  fls^  to  the  &ce 
of  the  cushion.  No  amalgam  should  be 
placed  over  this  line,  nor  on  the  silk  flm ; 
and  it  is  even  requisite  to  wipe  the  silk 
flap  clean  whenever  the  continued  motion 
of  the  machine  should  have  soiled  it  l^ 
depoaitmg  dust  or  amalgam  on  its  surface. 
The  best  amalgam  is  formed  by  melting 
together  one  ounce  of  tin  and  two  ounces 
of  zinc,  wfaidi  are  to  be  mixed,  while  fluid, 
with  six  ounces  of  mercury,  and  antated 
in  an  iron  or  thick  wooden  box  unul  cold. 
It  is  then  to  be  reduced  to  very  flne  pow- 
der in  a  mortar,  and  mixed  with  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  hog^s  lard  to  form  it  into 
a  paste.  The  mode  in  which  the  electri- 
cal machine  just  described  acts,  will  read- 
ily be  understood.  The  friction  of  the 
cushion  against  the  glass  cylinder  produ- 
ces a  tranifbr  of  electric  fluid  from  the 
former  to  the  latter;  that  is,  the  cushion 
becomes  natively  and  the  class  poative- 
]y  electrified  The  fluid,  which  thus  ad- 
heres to  the  glass,  is  carried  round  by  the 
revolution  of  the  cvlinder,  and  its  escape 
is  at  first  prevented  by  tlie  silk  flap  which 
covers  the  cylinder,  undl  it  comes  to  the, 
immediate  iricinity  of  the  metallic  points^ 
which,  beinff  placed  at  a  small  distance 
from  the  cy finder,  absorb  neariy  the  whole 
of  the  electricity  as  it  passes  near  them, 
and  transfers  it  to  the  prime  conductor. 
Positive  electricity  is  thus  accumulated  in 
the  prime  conductor,  while  the  conductor 
connoted  with  the  cushion,  being  depriv- 
ed of  this  electricity,  is  ne^tively  electri- 
fM.  If  both  these  conductors  are  in- 
sulated, diis  action  will  soon  have  reached: 
its  limit;  for  when  the  cushion  and  its 
conductor  have  been  exhausted  of  their 
fluid  to  a  certain  degree,  they  cannot,  by 
the  same  f<Nnco  of  excitation,  supply  any 
further  quantity  to  the  glass.  In  order  to 
eoMe  it  to  do  so,  we  must  replenish  it,  or 
restore  to  it  a  quantity  equal  to  what  it 


has  lost  This  is  done  by  destroying  the 
insulation  of  the  cushion  through  the 
means  of  a  metallic  chain  or  wire,  extend- 
ing from  it  to  the  earth,  which  is  the  great 
reservoir  of  the  electric  fluid.  The  prime 
conductor  will  now  be  supplied  with  a 
constant  stream  of  positive  electricity.  If 
it  be  our  object,  on  tlie  other  hand,  to  ac- 
cumulate negative  electricity  by  the  same 
instrument,  we  have  only  to  insulate  the 
conductor  to  which  the  cusliion  is  attach- 
ed, and  to  connect  the  prime  conductor 
with  the  ground,  in  oroer  to  allow  the 
fluid  to  escape  from  it  as  soon  as  it  is 
collected  from  the  cylinder.  The  fluid 
will  thus  continue  to  be  drawn,  without 
interruption,  firom  the  negative  conductor, 
as  it  now  meets  with  no  impediment  to 
its  discharge  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
machine.  That  the  quantity  of  positive 
electricity  produced  in  one  conductor  is 
exactly  equal  to  that  of  the  negative  elec- 
tricity in  the  other,  »  proved  by  the  fiict, 
that,  if  the  two  conductors  are  connected 
hy  a  wire,  no  signs  of  electricity  are  ob- 
tained in  any  of  the  conductors  on  turn- 
ing tlie  machine.  A  person  standing  on  a 
stool  with  ^lass  legs  is  thereby  insulated ; 
and  if,  in  this  situation,  he  touch  the  prime 
conductor,  either  with  his  hand  or  through 
the  medium  of  a  metallic  rod  or  chain,  he 
may  be  considered  as  forming  part  of  the 
same  system,  of  conductors.  When  the 
machine  is  worked,  therefore,  he  will  par- 
take, with  the  conductor,  of  its  charge  of 
electricity,  and  sparks  may  be  drawn  from 
any  part  of  bis  body  by  the  knuckle  of 
any  other  peraon  who  is  in  conunimioa- 
tion  with  the  ground. 

IV.  The  e&cts  of  electrical  attraction 
and  repulsion  may  now  be  exhibited  much 
more  distincdy  with  the  aid  of  those 
considerable  accumulationa  of  electricity 
which  we  are  enabled  to  form  by  the 
electrical  machine.  A  pith  ball,  or  a  frag- 
ment of  gold  leaf,  is  very  strongly  and  im- 
mediately attracted  by  the  electrified  con- 
ductor; and  the  instant  after  it  has  come 
into  contact  with  it,  it  is  repelled ;  but  it 
is  now  attracted  by  tiie  other  bodies  m  its 
neighborhood,  to  which  it  communicates 
its  own  electricity,  and  then  is  again  in  a 
state  to  be  influenced  by  the  c»nduotor, 
and  to  be  again  attracted;  and  this  alter- 
nation of  enectB  will  continue  as  long  as 
the  conductor  remains  chaiged.  This  al- 
ternation of  attractions  and  repulsions  ac- 
companying the  transferring  electricity  by 
movable  conductors,  is  also  illustrated  by 
the  motions  of  a  ball  suspended  by  a  silk 
thread,  and  pbced  between  two  bells,  of 
which  the  one  is  electrified,  and  the  other 


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ELECTRICITY. 


communicates  wkh  tbe  mund.  The  al- 
ternate motion  of  the  ball  between  the 
two  bells  will  keep  up  a  continual  tinging. 
This  amusing  expenment  has  been  ap- 
iHied  to  give  notice  of  changes  taking 
place  in  the  electrical  state  of  the  atmos- 
phere. The  mutual  repulsion  of  bodies 
tliat  are  similarly  electrined  gives  rise  to 
many  interesting  experiments.  A  small 
figare  in  the  shape  of  a  human  head  cov- 
ered with  hair,  when  placed  upon  the 
conductor  and  electrified,  will  exliibit  the 
appearance  of  terror  firom  the  bristling  up 
and  divergence  of  the  hair.  Advantage  is 
taken  of  the  repulsive  property  of  electri- 
fied bodies  for  the  construction  of  an  in- 
strument adapted  to  measure  the  inteiisi^ 
of  the  electricity  tliey  may  contain.  This 
instrument  is  c^ed  an  ekctnmder.  That 
invented  by  Henley  consists  of  a  slender 
rod  of  very  light  wood,  serving  as  an  in- 
dex, terminated  by  a  small  pitli  ball,  and 
suspended  from  the  upper  part  of  a  stem 
of  wood,  which  is  fitted  to  a  hole  in  the 
upper  surface  of  the  conductor.  An  ivory 
semicircle  or  quadrant  is  affixed  to  the 
stem,  having  its  centre  coinciding  with  the 
axis  of  mooon  of  the  rod,  for  the  purpose 
(^  measuring  the  ande  of  deviation  from 
the  perpendicukur,  which  the  repulsion  of 
the  uaU  from  the  stem  produces  in  the 
movable  rod.  The  number  of  demes 
^vhich  is  dcGcribM  by  the  index  affords 
some  evidence  of  the  quantity  of  elec- 
tricity with  which  the  apparatus  is  charg- 
ed, though  the  instrument  cannot  be  view- 
ed as  anording  an  exact  measure  of  its 
intensity.  The  gold  leaf  eUdromder  of 
Bennet,  or  rather  electrogoope,  which  is  one 
of  the  most  delicate  instruments  ever  in- 
vented for  detecting  the  presence  of  elec- 
tricity, consistB  of^two  narrow  slips  of 
pold  "leaf  suspended  parallel  to  each  other, 
m  a  glass  cylinder  (which  secures  them 
from  disturbance  by  the  air),  and  attached 
to  the  end  of  a  small  metallic  tube,  ter- 
minating above  eitlier  in  a  flat  surface  of 
metal  or  a  metalhc  balL  Two  slips  of  tin- 
foil are  pasted  to  the  inside  of  the  cyUnder, 
on.  opposite  sides,  in  a  vertical  poration, 
and  so  placed  as  that  the  gold  leaves 
may  come  in  contact  with  these,  when 
their  mutual  repulsion  is  sufficiently  pow- 
erful to  make  them  diverge  to  that  extent. 
These  slips  of  tin-foil  terminate  in  the  foot 
of  the  instrument,  and  thus  are  in  com- 
munication with  the  earth.  A  very  mi- 
imte  charge  of  electricity,  conmiumcated 
to  the  upper  end  of  the  tube,  is  immedi- 
ately transmitted  to  the  gokl  leaves,  which 
are  thus  made  to  repel  each  other ;  but  if 
the  repulsion  is  such  as  to  make  them 


strike  against  tbe  tin-foil,  their  insulstioD 
ceases,  and  their  electricity  is  carried  ofi^ 
and  becoming  neutral,  they  resume  thehr 
original  position.  The  most  perfect  elec- 
trometer, however,  is  tliat  mvented  by 
Coulomb,  and  called  by  him  the  (ortioti 
haUmce.  It  consists  of  a  cyUndrical  glass 
jar,  covered  at  tbe  top  by  a  circukir  glass 
plate,  with  a  hole  in  its  centre,  tlirough 
which  descends  nearly  to  the  bottom  of 
the  jar,  a  single  fibre  of  the  web  of  the  silk- 
worm, with  a  needle  of  gum-lac  or  a 
piece  of  straw  coated  by  sealing-wax, 
affixed  to  its  lower  extremity.  The  nee- 
dle is  terminated  at  one  end  by  a  small 
pith  ban,  and  at  the  other  by  a  disc  of 
varnished  paper,  to  serve  as  a  counter- 
poise to  the  ball  The  upper  end  of  the 
silk  fibre  is  attached  to  a  kind  of  button, 
havinff  a  small  index,  and  capable  of  being 
turned  round  upon  a  circular  plate  divided 
into  degree&  One  side  of  the  jar  is  per- 
forated towards  its  bottom  to  allow  of  tlie 
insertion  of  a  short  horizontal  bar,  having 
a  small  metallic  sphere  at  each  of  its  ends, 
the  one  being  within,  and  the  other  upon 
the  outside  of  the  jar;  and  the  former  be- 
ing so  situated  as  just  to  allow  the  ball  of 
the  suspended  needle  to  come  in  contact 
witii  it  in  the  course  of  its  revolution.  By 
turning  the  button  or  the  index,  the  nee- 
dle may  be  brought  into  this  or  any  other 
re<}uired  position  with  regard  to  the  ball 
It  IS  found  by  experiment,  tliat  the  angle 
of  torsion  of  the  auk  fibre  is,  within  a  cer- 
tain  range  of  distance,  very  neariy  in  the 
direct  ratio  of  the  force  which  acts  in 
producing  the  tonion ;  and,  therefore,  if 
the  two  MiUs  be  placed  in  contact  by  ttun- 
ing  the  button,  and  then  rirailarly  electri- 
fi^,  the  distance  to  which  they  are  re- 
pelled by  the  angular  motion  of  the  sus- 
pended ball  affi>rds  a  measure  of  the  re- 
pulsive force  exerted.  In  like  manner,  the 
distance  which  the  suspended  ball  is  niade 
to  move,  when  it  is  attracted  by  the  fixed 
ball,  when  tlie  two  have  cyppoeite  electri- 
cities, gives  accurate  measures  of  the  at- 
tractive forcea 

y.  It  had  long  been  observed,  that  the 
quantity  of  electricity  which  bodies  are 
capable  of  receiving,  does  not  follow  the 
proportion  of  then:  bulk,  but  depends 
chiefly  upon  the  extent  of  their  sunaee. 
It  was  found,  for  example,  that  a  metallic 
conductor,  in  the  form  of  a  globe  or  cyl- 
inder, contains  just  as  much  electricity 
when  hollow,  as  it  does  when  solid ;  from 
which  It  was  inferred,  that  electricity  does 
not  extend  throughout  the  mass  of  a  body, 
but  resides  altogether  at  its  surftce.  By 
the  application  of-mathematica]  cafeula- 


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lions  to  the  theoiy,  the  most  exact  iofbr- 
iiintion  with  reg^ord  to  the  distribution  of 
the  electric  fluid  in  bodies  of  diflerent 
shapes  has  been  obtained ;  and  whenever 
a  comparison  has  been  instituted,  even  in 
the  cases  of  the  most  complicated  kind, 
between  the  resuks  of  experiment  and  of 
tlieoty,  the  most  perfect  agreement  has 
been  observed  between  them.  For  the 
purpose  of  measuring  the  proportional 
quantities  of  electricity,  with  which  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  same  or  of  different 
bodies  are  charged,  no  instrument  is  so 
well  fitted  as  the  balance  of  Coulomb. 
Such  is  its  extreme  sensibility,  that  a 
force  only  equal  to  the  270th  of  a  gnun 
is  sufficient  to  make  the  needle  penbrm 
an  entire  revolution;  die  SdM.  part  of 
this  force^  therefore,  or  less  than  the 
100,000th  of  a  grain,  is  capable  of  being 
estimated  by  each  degree  of  its  angular 
motion.  It  would  be  inconsistent  with 
the  limits  of  the  present  article  to  go  into 
a  detail  of  the  delicate  methods  of  re- 
search adopted  in  the  investigation  of  this 
subject  The  following  are  among  some 
of  the  most  interestingresults  deduced  from, 
tiiem.  In  a  solid  lK>dy,  having  the  form 
of  a  perfect  sphere,  and  chfurged  with 
positive  electricity,  the  whole  of  the  fluid 
is,  in  consequence  of  the  repulsion  of  its 
own  particles,  which  is  every  where  di^ 
rected  firom  the  centre  outwards,  accu- 
mulated in  a  thin  stratum,  at  the  very 
surface  of  the  sphere.  If  the  body  b^  , 
cbarged  with  negative  electricity,  the  de- 
ficiency of  fluid  will  take  place  onl^r  in  the 
superficial  stratum  of  matter.  If,  instead 
of  beinff  spherical,  the  bpdy  have  any  other 
form,  the  electricity  will  be  chiefly  con- 
fined to  the  surikce ;  and  if  it  have  an 
elongated  form,  there  will  be  a  greater 
charge  in  the  remoter  parts  than  in  those 
nearer  to  tiie  middle.  This  result  of  the- 
ory, respecting  tiie  limitation  of  electricity 
to  the  mere  surface,  is  confirmed,  in  the 
most  decisive  manner,  by  the  experiments 
of  Coulomb.  A  conducting  body,  of  a 
spheroidal  shape,  with  small  pits  in  va- 
rious parts  of  its  surface,  half  an  inch  in 
diameter,  and  one  tenth  of  an  hich  in 
depth,  was  electrified,  and  examined  bv 
the  torsion  balance.  The  bottoms  of 
tiiese  pits  afiTorded  no  indications  of  having 
received  any  electricity,  while  the  even 
surface  exiubited  strong  electrical  excite* 
ment.  We  may  conclude,  both  from 
theory  and  experiment,  therefore,  that 
although,  strictly  speaking,  the  electricity 
must  reside  within  the  suDstance  of  con- 
ducting bodies,  it  extends,  in  fact,  to  a 
deptli  so  small  as  to  be  inappreciable  by 


any  known  methods  of  obserratiod.  The 
effeci  of  an  expansion  of  surface,  in  les- 
sening the  intensity  of  electricity,  while 
its  absolute  quantity  remains  the  same,  is 
illustrated  by  the  following  experiment: 
around  an  insulated  cylinder,  movable 
on  a  horizontal  axis,  and  turned  by  an 
insulating  handle,  is  wound  a  thin  lamina 
of  any  metal,  the  end  ai  which  is  semi- 
circular, and  has  attached  to  it  a  silk 
thread.  The  whole  apparatus  communi- 
cates with  an  electrometer,  formed  of  two 
linen  threads,  each  terminating  in  a  pith 
ball.  On  communicating  a  chaive  of 
electricity  to  the  cylinder,  the  threa&  and 
balls  of  the  electrometer  attached  to  it, 
diverge.  Upon  takinr  hold  of  the  silk 
thread,  and  unrolling  me  metallic  lamina 
firom  the  cylinder,  the  balls  gradually  col- 
lapse, thus  indicating  a  diminution  m  the 
intensity  of  electrical  repulsion.  But,  on 
winding  up  the  lamina,  by  turning  the 
insulating  nandle,  the  electricity  is  re- 
stored, and  the  balls  diverge  to  the  same 
extent  as  before,  allowance  being  made 
for  the  small  dissipation  of  electricity, 
fh>m  the  contact  of  the  air  during  the  ex- 
periment In  the  case  of  a  long  and  slen- 
der lamina  of  condu<^ting  matter,  charged 
with  electricity,  CoulomD  found  that  its 
intensity  continued  nearly  uniform,  from 
the  middle  of  the  laminate  within  a  short 
distance  from  the  ends;  at  that  part  it 
rapidly  increased;  and  at  the  very  ex- 
tremity, it  became  twice  as  much  as  at 
the  middle  part  He  also  found,  that  in 
a  cylinder  90  inches  long  and  2  in  diame- 
ter, the  intensity  of  the  electricity  at  the 
ends  was  to  its  intensity  in  the  middle,  or 
at  any  part  more  than  2  inches  from  the 
extremity,  as  3.»3  to  1.  From  which  in- 
stances we  infer,  that  if  a  conducting  sub- 
stance be  drawn  out  into  a  point,  die  in- 
tensity of  the  electricity  at  that  point  will 
be  exceedingly  great ;  and  that  the  point 
will,  accordingly,  absorb  and  draw  into  it- 
self nearly  the  whole  of  the  elecp^city 
that  is  contained  in  the  body.  This  great 
concentration  of  electricity  is  found  actu- 
ally to  take  place  in  all  points  tliat  project 
beyond  the  general  surface.  The  pres- 
sure excited  by  the  electric  fluid  against 
a  non-conductmg  medium,  such  as  the 
air,  which  opposes  an  obstacle  to  its  es- 
cape, is  in  a  ratio  compounded  of  the 
repulsive  foite  of  its  own  particles  at  the 
sumce  of  the  stratum  of^  fluid,  and  of 
the  thickness  of  that  stratum ;  but  as  one 
of  these  elements  is  always  proportional 
to  the  other,  the  total  pressure  must,  in 
eveiy  point,  be  proportional  to  the  square 
of  the  thieknesB.    If  this  pressure  be  less 


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than  the  resistance,  or  9oercwt  fcrce^  as  it 
has  been  called,  of  the  tir^  tiie  electricity 
is  retaiaed ;  but  the  moment  it  exceeds 
that  force^in  any  one  point,  the  electricity 
auddetily  escapes,  just  as  a  fluid  confined 
itt  a  ressd  would  rush  out,  if  it  were  to 
burst  open  a  hole  in  the  side  of  the  iresseL 
The  irruption  of  the  electric  fluid  is 
marked  by  several  veiy  strikiiig  phenom- 
ena. A  sharp  soap  is  heard,  accompa- 
nied by  a  vivid  spark,  and  there  are  evi- 
dences of  an  intense  heat  bein^  evolved 
in  the  line  which  the  electricity  takes. 
Its  passage  throuffh  a  perfect  conductor 
is  unattended  with  light  Light  appears 
(mly  where  there  are  obstacles  in  its  path, 
by  the  interposition  of  imperfect  eonouct- 
ors ;  and  such  is  the  velocity  with  which 
it  is  transmitted,  that  the  sparks  appear  to 
take  place  at  the  very  same  instant,  along 
the  whole  h'ne  of  its  course.  Thus,  if  a 
row  of  small  fragments  of  tin-foil  be  past- 
ed so  as  to  be  neariy  in  contact,  on  a 
piece  of  glass,  and  electricity  be  sent 
through  tliem,  by  connecting  one  of  its 
ends  with  tlie  conductor  of  an  electrical 
machine,  while  the  other  end  communis 
cates  with  the  ground,  it  will  not  be  pos- 
sible to  detect  any  dinerence  of  time  in 
the  occurrence  of  the  light  in  the  differ- 
ent parts.  If  the  tin-fou  be  arranged  so 
as  to  represent  a  chain,  it  will  appear  lu- 
minous at  each  link,  while  conveying  a 
charge  of  electricity.  Tlie  lonsest  and 
most  vivid  sparks  are  obtained  between 
two  conductors  having^  a  rounded  form, 
as  may  be  exemplified  in  a  common  elec- 
trical machine,  by  presenting  a  metallic 
ball  to  that  side  of  tlie  prime  conductor 
which  is  fbrthest  from  the  cylinder  of  the 
machine;  a  spark  is  immediately  seen, 
of  considerable  length,  reeembling  a  long 
streak  of  fire,  extending  from  the  con- 
ductor to  the  ball  Often,  when  the  spark 
is  very  long,  it  is  seen  to  have  an  angular 
or  zigzag  course,  exactly  like  that  of  a 
flash  of  ilghming.  This  irre^Iarity  is 
probably  occasioned  by  the  fluid  darting 
obliquefy  in  its  course  to  minute  conduct- 
ing particles,  as  those  of  moisture,  that 
are  floating  in  the  air,  a  little  removed 
from  the  direct  line  of  passage.  Elec* 
trical  light  diflers  in  no  respect  from  the 
light  obtained  from  other  sources.  Its 
bnlliancy  depends  upon  the  conductinj^ 
power  of  the  bodies  between  which  it 
passes.  When  dry  wood  is  employed,  it 
appears  in  tlie  form  of  faint  red  streams ; 
but  metals  afford  a  light  of  griBater  brill- 
iancy. Its  color  is  subject  to  variations, 
from  a  great  number  of  different  circum- 
Konces.    Sparks  passed  through  balls  of 


wood  or  ivoiy  ere  of  a  cnmson  color; 
but  this  deuends  upon  their  position  with 
regard  to  tne  surtace.  Electric  sparka^ 
passing  from  one  polished  metallic  sur&ee 
to  anodier,  are  white ;  but  if  the  finger  be 
presented  to  an  electrified  conductor,  the 
sparks  obtained  are  violet.  They  are  green, 
when  taken  from  the  surface  of  silvered 
leather ;  vellow,  when  taken  fix>m  finely 
powderea  charcoal ;  and  of  a  purple  color, 
when  taken  from  the  greater  number  of 
imperfect  conductors.  In  exceedingly 
rarefied  air,  the  color  of  the  spark  is 
^reen ;  in  denser  air,  h  acquucs  a  blue 
Dnt,  and  passes  to  a  violet  and  purple  as 
the  condensation  of  the  air  is  increased. 
In  making  these  experiments,  it  is  found 
that  in  proportion  as  the  medium  is  more 
rare,  its  conducting  power  increases,  and 
a  smaller  intensity  of^electricity  is  required 
for  the  production  of  light  Li  the  ordi- 
nary vacuum  of  the  air-pump,  the  pas- 
sage of  electricity  is  rendered  sensible  by 
streams  or  columns  of  difiuaed  light  oc- 
eaaonally  varying  in  their  breadth  and  in- 
tensit}',  and  exhibiting  movements  which 
give  them  a  marked  resemblance  to  the 
coruscations  of  the  aurora  borealis.  It 
Was  at  first  imagined,  that  the  light  which 
appears  during  the  parage  of  electricity 
was  actually  Sie  electric  fluid  itself^  be- 
come luminous  from  itB  high  degree  of 
accumulation.  But,  since  we  know  that 
common  atmospheric  air  becomes  lumi- 
nous by  violent  compression,  and  we 
must  also  presume  that  electricity  exerts 
a  very  sudden  and  powerful  pressiwe 
upon  the  air,  by  its  passage  through  that 
resisting  medium,  we  are  certainly  justi- 
fied in  drawing  the  inference,  ^t  the 
same  phenomena  proceed,  in  both  cases^ 
from  the  same  cause.  The  sound,  which 
accompanies  tlie  various  modes  of  tians- 
ferrence,  is  subject  to  modifications  de- 
pendent upon  the  degree  and  suddenness 
of  the  impulses  given  to  the  air.  The 
full,  sliort  and  un<&vided  spark  is  attended 
with  a  loud  explosion ;  the  more  length- 
ened spark,  with  a  sharper  snap,  wUcJi 
becomes  more  broken  and  rattling  in  pro- 
portion to  the  distance  it  has  to  tran^rse. 
The  ^at  increase  of  intensity  which  tlie 
electric  fluid  acquires  at  tlie  extremities 
of  all  elongated  conducting  bodies,  and 
especially  the  indefinite  augmentation  of 
this  intensity  at  the  apex  of  all  projecting 
points,  has  been  alluaed  to  abo^'p.  This 
mtensity  will  necessarily  be  accompanied 
with  a  powerful  disposition  in  the  fluid 
to  e8cape->-a  circumstance  wldch  furnish- 
es a  natural  and  exact  explanation  of  the 
rapid   dissipation   of  electricity,   which 


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takes  place  fix>m  all  bodies  of  a  dletider 
and  pointed  form.  Tiie  illustration  of 
these  positions  is  seen  in  bringing  nietaUic 
xods  of  dififereut  forms  near  the  prime 
conductor  of  a  macliine  charged  with 
either  species  of  electricity,  the  conductor 
being  furnished  with  a  paii;  of  pith  balls, 
suspended  by  a  fine  wue,  whose  diver- 
gence indicates  the  presence  and  degree 
of  the  electricity  in  tbe  conductor :  if  the 
metedlic  rod  have  a  beU  at  the  end  which 
is  brought  near  tiie  charged  conductor, 
the  pith  balls  will  be  but  slightly  affected ; 
whereas,  if  it  terminate  in  a  sharp  point, 
and  the  point  be  presented  to  tlie  con- 
ductor at  the  same  distance  as  the  ball  was 
in  the  former  case,  the  divergence  of  the 
balls  will  immediately  cease,  showing  that 
the  electrical  charge  has  wholly  disap- 
ifieared.  Currents  of  air  always  accom- 
pany the  discharge  of  electricity  from 
pointed  bodies ;  for  each  particle  of  air, 
as  soon  as  it  has  received  its  electricity 
from  the  point,  is  immediately  repeHed 
by  the  bciiy.  Many  amusing  experi- 
ments are  founded  on  this  principle.  Let 
two  cross  wires,  bent  at  right  angles  near 
the  ends,  which  terminate  in  points,  and 
pointing  in  a  similar  direction  Mrith  re- 
spect to  tlie  axis,  be  supported  at  their 
centre  upon  a  fine  poin^  and  electrified 
by  being  placed  upon  the  prime  con- 
ductor of  a  machine ;  each  or  the  points 
will  give  off  a  stream  of  electricity,  and 
the  wires  will  revolve  backward  with 
considerable  rapidity.  An  apparatuscon- 
sisting  of  wires  terminating  in  points,  and 
having  balls  annexed  to  them,  to  repre- 
sent the  planets,  may  be  constructea  so 
88  to  revolve  when  electrified,  and  thus 
to  imitate  the  planetary  motions.  Such 
an  apparatus  has  been  called  an  eUctrieal 
amry.  When  the  transfer  of  electricity 
takes  place  between  smooth  surfaces  of  a 
certain  extent,  no  difference  can  be  per- 
ceived in  the  nature  and  appearance  of 
the  spark,  whicliever  be  the  position  of 
the  negative  surface.  But  in  the  passage 
of  electricity  through  points,  the  eiSect  is 
considerably  modified  by  the  species  of 
electricity  with  which  the  bodies  are 
charged ;  or,  in  other  words,  by  the  di- 
rection in  which  the  fluid  moves.  When 
the  electric  fluid  is  escaping  out  of  a 
pointed  conductor,  the  luminous  appear- 
ance IB  that  of  diverging  streams,  forming 
what  is  termed  a  jSneu  of  %At,  and  re- 
sembling the  filaments  of  a  brush.  When, 
on  the  contrary,  the  electric  fluid  is  en- 
tering into  the  pointed  body,  the  light  is 
much  more  concentrated  at  the  point  it- 
self having  a  vesemhlaDce  to  a  star,  in 


which,  if  any  streams  appear,  they  are 
disposed  like  radii,  and  equally  so  in  all 
directions.  This  difference  iii  these  two 
appearances  may  be  employed,  on  many 
occasions,  as  a  useful  criterion  of  tlie  spe- 
cies of  electricity,  at  least,  which  is  pass- 
ing from  one  conductor  to  another,  if  not 
of  the  absolute  direction  of  its  motion.  For 
if  a  needle  be  presented  to  an  electrified 
l)ody,  the  appearance  of  a  star  on  the 
needle  will  snow  that  die  electricity  of 
that  body  is  positive ;  while,  on  the  con- 
trary, a  luminous  brush  on  the  needle 'will 
indicate  that  the  body  is  negative.  These 
observations  seem  to  indicate  the  emana- 
tion of  some  material  fluid  from  the  pos- 
itive, and  its  reception  by  the  negative 
point  It  has,  accordingly,  been  urged, 
as  an  argument  in  favor  of  tbe  Frank- 
linian  theory.  The  diverging  lines  on 
one  side,  and  their  infleetions  on  the  oth- 
er, represent  exacdy  the  paths  of  particle^ 
flowing  out  as  from  a  pipe,  and  urged 
forwara  by  a  force  which  gives  them 
such  a  projectile  velocity  as  to  prevent 
their  spreading  out  beyond  a  certain  dis- 
tance from  tlie  direct  line  of  projection. 
But  this  very  velocity  will  oarty  the  par- 
ticles, that  happen  to  have  deviated  most, 
somewhat  beyond  the  point  to  which  they 
are  attracted ;  while  the  attraction  to  this 
latter  point  will  tend  to  deflect  tliem  from 
the  line  of  their  path,  and  gradually  turn 
them  back,  so  tliat  they  wiU  anive  nt  tbe 
point  of  attraction  by  very  different  paths, 
and  some  even  by  a  retrograde  motion. 
Hence,  while,  in  the  first  case,  tliey  form 
a  diverging  cone  of  rays,  in  the  latter 
they  must  be  distributed  on  all  sides  of 
the  point,  like  the  rays  of  a  star. 

VI.  Active  electricity,  existing  in  any 
substance,  tends  always  to  induce  t^e  op^ 
poeite  electrical  state  in  tbe  bodies  that 
are  near  it  Now,  it  is  impossible  to  in- 
duce one  electrical  state  in  any  body, 
without,  at  tbe  same  time,  producing  the 
opposite  state  in  the  same  body,  or  in  the 
one  which  is  immediately  contiguoua  It 
follows,  therefore,  that  if  the  bodies  sub- 
jected to  the  inductive  influence  are  non- 
conductors, although  the  tendency  to  pro- 
duce the  opposite  electricity  exists,  yet,  in 
consequence  of  the  immobility  of  the 
fluid,  it  can  produce  no  visible  obange. 
In  proportion  as  the  body  opposes  less 
resistance  to  the  pasKige  of  electricity, 
the  operation  of  the  distmbin^  force  be- 
comes sensiUe.  For  example,  m  the  case 
of  a  positively  charged  electric,  acting  by 
induction  on  an  insulated  conducting 
body,  the  redundant  fluid  in  the  former 
must  tend  to  repel  all  the  fluid  contained 


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ELECTRICITY. 


in  the  liitter ;  a  portion  of  this  fluid  must, 
therefore,  be  driven  from  the  side  adja- 
cent to  the  firat  body,  towards  the  remoter 
side.  The  adjacent  side  will  dius  be  ren- 
dered negative ;  the  remoter  side,  positive. 
But  this  will  take  place  to  a  cenain  ex- 
tent only;  for  there  is  a  limit  at  which 
the  repulsion  of  the  fluid  accumulated  at 
tlie  remote  end  will  just  balance  the  re- 
pulsion of  the  fluid  in  the  electric,  added 
to  the  attraction  of  the  undeiHMturated 
matter,  in  the  near  end;  and  when  the 
limit  hifis  been  attained,  the  flow  of  elec- 
tric fluid  fix>m  the  near  to  the  remote  end 
of  the  body  will  cease,  and  anequiUbrium 
will  be  establislied,.  Experiment  fully 
confirms  tliis  theory,  as  may  be  seen  by 
bringing  a  cylinder  of  metal  of  some 
length,  with  rounded  ends,  near  an  elec- 
tri&d  globe  of  glass,  taking  care  that  it 
be  not  sufficienU^  near  to  receive  any 

Quantity  of  electricitv  by  transferrence. 
iy  means  of  the  electrometer  of  .Cou- 
lomb, we  perceive  that  the  part  of  the 
conductor  nearest  to  the  electric  is  aeg^ 
tive,  and  the  part  most  remote  is  positive ; 
while,  about  the  middle  of  the  cylinder, 
the  body  is  in  a  neutral  state.  The  elec- 
tricity is  found  to  diminish  as  we  proceed 
from  either  extremity  towards  this  point 
of  neutralitv.  These  remarkable  effects 
wee  wAdy  the  result  of  the  action  of  elec- 
tricity at  a  distance ;  for  they  take  place 
in  an  •equal  degree,  whatever  non-con- 
ducting substance  may  be  interposed  be^ 
tween  the  bodies  exerting  this  influence 
en  one  another.  But  in  an  experiment, 
where  the  acting  body,  instead  of  being 
an  electric,  is  a  conducting  body,  the  elec- 
trical state  which  the  globe  induces  on  the 
cylinder  must  react  upon  its  own  elec- 
tricity. The  negative  electricity,  that  is, 
the  under-saturated  matter  at  the  nearer 
end  of  the  cylinder,  must  exeit  a  ten- 
dency to  induce  positive  electricity  in  the 
globe,  and  more  especially  upon  the  side 
next  the  cylinder ;  that  is,  it  will  tend,  by 
its  attraction  for  the  fluid,  to  draw  it  to 
that  side,  and  thus  render  it  still  more 
highly  positive  than  it  was  before.  This 
can  only  be  done  at  the  expense  of  the 
other  side,  from  which  the  fluid  must  be 
taken,  and  which  is  therefore  rendered 
less  charged  with  fluid,  that  is,  less  post- 
tive  than  before.  But  this  new  distribu- 
tion of  the  elecuie  fluid  in  the  globe,  by 
increasing  the  positive  state  of  the  aide 
next  the  cylinder,  tends  to  aiicment  its 
inductive  influence  <m  the  fluid  in  the 
cyhnder ;  that  is,  to  drive  an  additicmal 
quantity  of  fluid  ftom  the  negative  to  the 
poMtive  end*    This  must  be  foUowed  ia 


mm  by  a  corresponding  x«action  on  ifae 
globe,  and  so  on,  constimting  a  series  of 
smaller  adjustments,  until  a  perfect  equi- 
librium is  established  in  every  part.    This 
reasoning  is  fully  established  by  experi- 
ment   AH  that  is  reauired  for  its  illustra- 
tion  is   simplv  to  fomish  the  metallic 
globe,  insulated  and  charged  with  positive 
electricity,  witii  electroscopes  upon    its 
opposite   surfiices.     No  sooner   do    we 
brinflp  near  to  it  a  conducting  body,  than 
the  nails  of  the  electroscope,  at  the  side 
most  distant  from  that  body,  begin  to  col- 
lapse, while  those  at  the  nearer  side  di- 
verge to  a  greater  degree  than  before; 
thus  showing  the  nature  of  the  reflex  op- 
eration of  the  induced  electricity  of  the 
conductor  upon  the  body  fix)m  which  the 
induction  onginated.    In  all  the  changes 
thus  alluded  to,  there  has  been  no  trans- 
fer of  electricir^  firom  either  of  the  bodies 
to  the    other,   as  is  most   satisfactorily 
proved  from  the  circumstance,  that  the 
mere  removal  of  the  bodies  to  a  distance 
from  one  another  is  suflicientto  restore 
each  of  them  to  their  original  slate.    The 
globe  remains  as  perfectiy  electrifled  as 
before ;  the  cylinder  returns  to  its  condi- 
tion of  perfect  neutrality ;  and  the  exper- 
iment may  be  repeated  as  often  as  we 
please,  without  any  variation  in  the  phe- 
nomena.    This  would  not  be  the  case, 
however,  if  the  cylinder  were  divided  in 
the  middle,  and  one  or  both  of  the  pstits 
were  removed  separately,  while  they  still 
remained  under  the  influence  of  the  globe. 
The  return  of  the  electric  fluid  £mm  the 
positive  to  the  negative  end  being  thus 
prevented,  each  pait  virill  retain,  aner  its 
separation,  the  electricity  which  had  been 
induced  upon  it ;  the  nearer  portion  will 
remain  negativoi  the  remoter  one  pontive. 
If  the  division  had  been  in  three  pans, 
the  middle  part  only  would  have  been 
neutral    It  is  found  by  experiment,  that 
the  effects  of  induction  on  a  conductor 
are  augmented  by  increasing  its  length; 
and  they  become  as  great  as  possible,  by 
placing  the  conductor  in  conrniunication 
with  me  earth,  which  carries  off  all  the 
fluid  the  electrified  body  is  capable  of 
expelling  from  the  nearest  end.    A  con- 
ductor under  the  influence  of  induction, 
between  which  and  the  earth  a  commu- 
nication has  been  made,  by  touching  the 
remote  end  with  a  metallic  rod  held  in 
the  hand,  possesses  but  one  kind  of  elec- 
tricity, namely,  the  one  opposite  to  that 
of  the  electrified  body  which  is  acting 
upon  it     The  part  touched  ia  brought 
into  a  state  in  which  it  appean  to  be 
neutral,  as  kH^  as  it  remains  in  the  vicin- 


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hy  of  tbe  electrified  body ;  but  it  reaHy 
contains  less  fluid  than  its  natural  share ; 
and  this  will  immediately  become  appa- 
rent, if  the  conductor  that  has  been 
touched  be  again  insulated,  and  then  re- 
moved from  the  influence  of  the  body 
producing  tlie  induction.  This  peculiar 
condition  of  a  body,  in  which  its  parts  are 
really  undercharged  or  overcharged  widi 
fluid,  although,  from  the  action  of  electric 
forces  derived  from  bodies  in  its  vicinity, 
a  state  of  equilibrium  is  established,  and 
no  visible  effect  results,  has  been  denom- 
inated by  Biot,  disguised  eUdndty,  We 
have  hitherto  supposed  the  acting  body 
to  be  positively  electrified ;  but  precisely 
tlie  same  effects  would  happen  with  re- 
gard to  the  degree,  although  opposite  as 
to  the  species .  of  electricity,  if  it  had 
been  negatively  electrified.  Our  knowl- 
edge of  the  induction  of  electricity  ena- 
bles us  to  understand  why  bodies,  be- 
tween which  it  takes  place,  should  attract 
one  another.  For  the  action  of  the  adja- 
cent sides,  which  are  brought  into  oppo- 
site electrical  states,  is  ereater  tlian  tlie 
action  of  those  sides  which  are  in  the 
same  electrical  states,  and  which  are  more 
distant ;  hence  the  attractive  force  always 
exceeds  the  repulsive.  The  most  con- 
venient mode  of  obtaining  an  accumula- 
tion of  electricity  arising  from  induction, 
is  by  the  employment  of  coated  glass, 
that  is,  of  a  plate  of  glass,  on  each  side 
of  which  is  pasted  a  sneet  or  coadng  of 
tin-foiL  Care  must  be  taken  to  leave  a 
sufficient  margin  of  glass  uncovered  by 
the  metal,  for  preventing  tlie  transfer  of 
electricity  from  one  coaung  to  the  other, 
round  the  edge  of  the  glass;  and  all 
sharp  angles,  or  ragged  edges  in  the  coat- 
ings, should  be  avoided,  as  they  have  a 
ffreat  tendency  to  dissipate  tlie  charge. 
The  form  of  coated  glass  liest  adapted  to 
experiments  is  that  of  a  cylindnc  jar; 
this  is  coated,  within  and  without,  nearly 
to  the  top.  The  cover  consists  of  baked 
wood,  and  is  inserted  with  sealuig-wax, 
to  exclude  moisture  and  dust  A  metallic 
ro;1,  rising  two  or  three  inches  above  the 
jar,  and  terminated  at  the  top  in  a  brass 
knob,  is  made  to  descend  through  the 
cover  till  it  touches  the  interior  coating. 
The  name  of  the  Leyden  phialj  or  JoTj  is 
applied  to  this  instrument  It  is  used  in  the 
following  manner:  the  outer  coating  being 
naadeto  communicate  with  the  ground,  by 
holding  it  in  the  hand,  the  knob  of  the  jar 
is  presented  to  the  prime  conductor  when 
the  machine  is  in  motion ;  a  succession 
of  sparics  will  pass  between  them,  while, 
«t  the  same  time,  naariy  an  equal  quantitf 
VOL.  IV.  39 


of  electricity  will  be  passing  out  from  the 
exterior  coadnff,  through  the  body  of  the 
person  who  holds  it,  to  the  ground.  The 
jar,  on  being  removed,  is  said  to  be 
charged ;  and  if  a  communication  is 
made  between  the  two  coatings,  by  a  me* 
tallic  wire,  extending  fmm  the  external 
one  to  the  knob,  the  electric  fluid  which 
was  accumulated  in  the  positive  coating 
rushes,  with  a  sudden  and  violent  impe- 
tus, along  the  conductor,  and  passes  into 
the  negative  coating ;  thus  at  once  re- 
storing an  almost  complete  equilibrium. 
This  sudden  transfer  of  a  laige  quantity 
of  accumulated  electricity  is  a  real  ex- 
plosion ;  and  it  gives  rise  to  a  vivid  flash 
of  li^t,  corresponding  in  intensity  to  the 
magnitude  of  the  charge.  The  eflfect  of 
its  transmission  is  much  greater  than  that 
of  the  simple  charpe  or  the  prime  con- 
ductor of  the  machine ;  and  it  imparts  a 
sensation,  when  passing  throuffh  any  part 
of  the  body,  of  a  pecuuar  kind,  which  is 
called  the  eUdrie  thodu  In  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Leyden  jar,  die  thickness  of 
the  glass  is  an  important  consideration. 
The  tiiinner  the  glass,  the  greater  will  be 
tlie  power  of  taking  a  charge ;  but  the 
power  of  retainitig  it  will  be  less,  on  ac- 
count of  the  dimiiiished  resistance  which 
the  glass  will  oppose  to  the  electricity 
through  it  If  the  charge  be  higher  than 
what  die  jar  will  bear,  the  glass  will  be 
broken  by  the  violence  with  whidi  the 
electric  fluid  forces  a  passage  through  its 
substance.  Another  limit  to  the  charge 
which  a  iar  is  capable  of  retaining,  arises 
fit>m  the  liability  of  the  electricity  to  jmss 
from  one  coating  to  the  other,  round  the 
edges  of  the  glass.  The  deposition  of 
moisture,  also,  on  the  glass,  will  occasion 
a  spontaneous  discharge,  since  it  fonns  a 
chain  of  conducting  particles,  in  the  very 
line  which  the  electncity  has  a  tendency 
to  take.  Hence,  in  order  to  preserve  the 
uncoated  ]MiTt  of  the  glass  in  as  dry  a 
state  as  possible,  it  is  usually  covered  witii 
a  layer  of  sealiug-wax,  or  some  other  res* 
inous  varuish.  By  unititig  together  a 
sufficient  number  of  jars,  we  are  able  to 
accumulate  an  enormous  quantity  of  elec- 
tricity :  for  this  purpose,  all  the  interior 
coatings  of  the  jai«  must  be  made  to 
communicate  by  metallic  rods,  and  a  sim- 
ilar unioM  must  be  established  among  tlie 
exterior  coatings.  When  thus  arranged, 
the  whole  series  may  be  chai^ged,  as  ir 
they  formed  but  one  jar ;  and  the  whole 
of  the  accumulated  electricity  may  be 
transferred  from  one  system  of  coatings 
to  the  other,  by  a  general  and  simului- 
BeouB  disdifffge.     Such  a  combinatioii 


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of  jars  18  called  an  dectrical  battery.  For 
the  purpose  of  making  the  direct  com- 
muDication  between  the  inner  and  outer 
coating  of  a  jar  or  batteiy,  l)y  which  a 
discharge  is  effected,  an  instrument  called 
the  disauwgvng  rod  is  employed.  It  con- 
*    I  of  two  bent  metallic  rods,  terminated 


at  one  end  by  brass  balls,  and  connected 
at  the  otlier  by  a  joint,  wliich  is  fixed  to 
the  end  of  a  ^loss  handle,  and  which, 
acting  like  a  pair  of  compasses,  allows  of 
the  balls  being  separated  at  different  dis- 
tances. When  opened  to  the  proper  de- 
gree, one  of  the  balls  is  made  to  touch 
Uie  exterior  coating,  and  the  other  ball  is 
then  quickly  brought  into  contact  witli 
the  knob  of  the  jar,  and  thus  a  discharge 
js  effected,  while  tlie  glass  handle  secures 
the  person  holding  it  from  the  effects  of 
the  shock.  If  we  wish  to  send  the  whole 
chai^  of  electricity  through  any  partic- 
ular substance,  which  may  be  the  subject 
of  ex])eriment,  we  must  so  arrange  the 
connecting  conductors,  as  that  die  sub- 
stance shall  fonn  a  necessaiy  part  of  die 
circuit  of  (he  eUctricitiff  as  it  is  termed. 
Willi  tills  view,  we  must  place  it  be- 
tween two  good  conductors,  one  of  which 
is  in  communication  wldi  the  outer  coat- 
ing; and  the  ciitsuit  may  then  be  com- 
pleted by  connecting  the  other  conductor 
with  the  inner  coating,  by  means  of  a  dis- 
charging rod,  to  onelinmch  of  which,  if 
necessaiT,  a  flexible  chain  may  be  added. 
VII.  In  forming  arrangements  for  di- 
recting the  passage  of  accumulated  eloc- 
tricity,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind,  diat 
the  electric  fluid  will,  on  these  occasions, 
always  pass  tlirough  tlie  best  conductors, 
although  tliey  may  be  more  circuitous,  in 
preference  to  those  which  are  more  direct, 
but  have  inferior  conducting  power ;  and 
it  must  also  be  recollected,  that  when  dif- 
ferent paths  are  open  for  its  transmission 
along  conductors  of  equal  iK>wer,  the 
electricity  will  always  take  that  which  is 
the  shortest  Thus,  if  a  j^erBon,  holding 
a  wire  between  his  hands,  discharges  a 
jar  by  means  of  it,  the  whole  of  the  fluid 
will  pass  through  the  wire,  without  affect- 
ing him ;  but  if  a  piece  of  dry  wood  be 
substituted  for  the  wire,  he  will  feel  a 
shock ;  for,  the  wood  beinf  a  worse  con- 
ductor than  his  own  body,  the  charge 
will  pass  through  tb^  latter,  as  being  the 
easiest,  altliough  the  k>ngest  circuit  Dur- 
ing its  transit  through  the  human  body,  in 
like  manner,  the  shock  is  felt  only  in  the 
parts  situated  in  the  direct  line  of  cora- 
munication ;  and  if  the  charge  be  made 
to  pass  through  a  number  of  persons,  who 
take  one  another  by  the  hand,  and  form 


part  of  the  circuit  between  the  inner  and 
outer  coadngs  of  the  jar,  each  will  feel 
the  electric  shock  in  the  same  manner, 
and  at  the  same  instant;  the  sensation 
reaching  from  hand  to  hand,  directly 
across  the  breast  By  varying  the  points 
of  contact,  however,  the  shock  may  be 
made  to  pass  in  other  directions,  and 
may  either  be  confined  to  a  small  part 
of  a  limb,  or  be  made  to  traverse  the 
whole  length  of  the  body,  from  head  to 
foot  By  accurate  experiments  it  ap- 
pears, that  the  force  of  the  electric  shock 
IS  weakened,  i.  e.  its  effects  are  dimin- 
ished, bv  employing  a  conductor  of  great 
length  for  making  the  discharge.  But  it 
is  difiicult  to  assign  a  limit  to  the  number 
of  persons  through  whom  even  a  smol! 
charffe  of  electricity  may  be  sent,  so  that 
all  snail  experience  the  shock ;  or  to 
the  distance  along  which  it  may  be  con- 
veyed by  good  conductors.  The  abli^ 
NoUet  pas^  an  electrical  shock  through 
180  of  Uie  French  guards,  in  the  presence 
of  the  king ;  and  the  sensation  was  felt 
at  the  same  moment  by  all  the  persons 
compofflng  the  circuit  An  experiment 
was  made  near  London,  at  a  time  when 
the  ground  was  remarkably  diy,  to  as- 
certain if  any  loss  of  time  accompanied 
the  passage  of  the  fluid,  when  transmitted 
through  considerable  distances.  It  was 
made  to  perform  a  circuit  of  four  miles ; 
being  conducted  for  two  rpiles  along  wires 
supported  on  baked  sticks,  and  for  the  re- 
maining distance  through  the  dry  ground. 
As  far  as  could  be  ascertained  oy  the 
most  careful  observadon,  the  time  in 
which  the  discharge  was  transmitted 
along  that  immense  circuit  was  perfecdy 
instantaneous.  A  retardation  in  the  pas- 
sage of  electric!^,  however,  deep  take 
place,  if  the  conductor  be  not  of  a  suffi- 
cient size ;  and  when  this  is  the  case,  as 
well  as  in  those  instances  where  the  con- 
ductor is  not  a  good  one,  the  discharge 
will  not  be  effected  so  instantaneously  or 
so  completely.  Under  these  circumstan- 
ces, also,  there  is  a  tendency  in  the  flukl 
to  diverge  from  the  direct  line  of  its 
course,  and  to  fly  off  to  different  objects 
in  the  vicinity,  as  is  often  exemplified  in 
the  case  of  lighming,  which,  on  striking 
a  building,  is  apt  to  take  a  very  irregular 
and  seeoungly  capricious  route,  darting 
towards  conducting  bodies  which  may 
happen  to  attract  it,  althougn  at  some  dis- 
tance fh>m  the  immediate  direction  it 
was  pursuing.  The  motion  of  elcctridt- 
^  through  perfect  conductors  is  attend- 
ed with  no  perceptible  alteration  in  the 
mechanical  propenieB  of  the  conducting 


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bodies^  provided  they  be  of  sufficient  size 
for  the  charge  of  the  electric  fluid  trans* 
mitted.  On  die  contrary,  very  considera- 
ble effects  are  produced  when  a  powerful 
charge  is  sent  through  a  wire,  which  is 
too  small  to  allow  the  whole  quantity  to 
pass  with  perfect  fVeedotn ;  or  through  an 
imperfect  conductor,  though  of  a  large 
size,  as  is  proved  when  a  tree  is  struck  by 
lightning.  A  piece  of  dry  writing  paper, 
as  well  as  pieces  of  dry,  porous  wood,  are 
easily  torn  in  pieces  by  an  electric  charge. 
VIII.  Electricity  exerts  a  most  extensive 
and  important  influence  in  effecting  clian- 
ges  in  the  temperature  and  chemical  com- 
position of  bodies.  The  ignidon  and 
fusion  of  metals  by  the  electric  discharge, 
are  phenomena  which  have  been  long  ob- 
served. Thus,  by  passing  a  strong  charge 
through  slender  iron  wires,  or  the  finest 
flatted  stee^  called  vendvlvm  mre,  they 
are  ignited,  and  partly  melted  into  glob- 
ules, and  at  the  same  time  partially  oxi- 
dated. If  a  slip  of  gold  or  silver  leaf  be 
placed  on  white  paper,  and  a  strong  shock 
passed  through  it,  the  metal  will  disap- 
pear with  a  bright  flash,  and  the  impulse 
with  which  its  particles  are  driven  against 
the  paper  will  produce  a  permanent  stain 
of  a  purple  or  gray  color.  The  colors 
produced  in  this  way  have  been  applied 
to  impress  letters  or  ornamental  devices 
on  silk  and  on  paper.  For  this  purpose, 
the  outUne  of  the  required  figure  should 
be  first  traced  on  thick  dmwing  paper, 
and  flilerwards  cut  out  in  the  manner  of 
stencil  plates.  The  drawing-paper  is  then 
placed  on  the  silk  or  paper  mtended  to  be 
marked ;  a  leaf  of  cold  is  laid  upon  it,  and 
a  card  over  that ;  the  whole  is  tlien  placed 
in  a  press  or  under  a  weight,  and  a  charge 
fh>m  a  battery  sent  through  the  gold  leaf. 
The  stain  is  confined,  by  the  interposition 
of  the  drawing-paper,  to  the  limit  of  the 
design,  and  in  tliis  wav  a  profile,  a  flower, 
or  any  other  outline  ngure,  may  be  very 
neatly  impressed.  The  heat  evolved  by 
electricity,  like  most  other  of  its  eflects,  is 
in  proportion  to  tlie  resistances  opposed  to 
ite  passage.  A  rod  of  wood,  of  consider- 
able thickness,  being  made  part  of  tlie 
cirouit,  has  its  temueramre  sensibly  raised 
by  a  very  few  discnarges.  Most  combi»- 
tible  bodies  are  capable  of  being  inflamed 
by  electricity.  Thus  alcohol,  ether,  cam- 
phor, powdered  resin,  phosphorus  or  gun- 
powder may  be  set  on  fire.  And  the 
sparks  taken  fipom  a  piece  of  ice  are  as 
capable  of  inflaming  bodies  as  tliose  from 
apiece  of  red-hot  iron.  The  oxidation 
or  metals,  through  which .  accumulated 
electricity  has  been  passed,  is  rather  to  be 


ascribed  to  the  tendency  which  they  ar» 
known  to  possess  of  combining  with  the 
oxygen  or  the  atmosphere  wl^n  heated, 
than  to  any  peculiar  agency  of  electricity. 
A  reverse  process,  however,  is  found  to 
attend  electrical  discharges  through  me- 
tallic oxides,  extricating  £eir  oxvgen,  and 
restoring  them  to  the  metaUic  state. 
When  a  succession  of  electric  discharges 
fit)m  a  powerfid  electric  machine  are  sent 
through  water,  a  decomposition  of  that 
fluid  takes  place,  and  it  is  resolved  into 
its  two  elements  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen, 
which  immediately  assume  the  gaseous 
form.  When  diis  experiment  is  conduct- 
ed in  a  suitable  apparatus,  and  a  shock  is 
transmitted  through  the  mixed  gases  thus 
obtained,  tliey  are  instantly  kindled ;  a  re*- 
union  of  the  elements  takes  pkce;  and 
precisely  the  same  quandty  of  water  is  re- 
produced as  was  decomposed  to  fiirnishtho 
pases.  It  may  appear  somewhat  paradox- 
ical diat  the  same  agent  should,  in  the 
course  of  the  same  experiment,  produce 
at  one  time  decomposition,  and  at  another 
combuiation,  of  die  same  elements.  The 
simplest  way  of  reconciling  this  apparent 
discordance,  is  to  suppose  dial  the  combi- 
nation of  die  gases  is  the  eflect  of  the  heat 
evolved  during  its  foreible  transit  through 
an  aeriform  fluid  that  opposesconsidereble 
resistance  to  its  passage;  while  the  de- 
composidon  of  the  liquid  is  the  direct 
consequence  of  the  agency  of  electricity 
when  not  interfered  with  by  heat  When 
a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper  is  subject- 
ed to  the  action  of  electricity  by  means  of 
slender  conducting  wires  terminating  in 
the  vessel  containing  die  solution,  the  cop- 
per is  revived,  or  precipitated  in  a  metallic 
state,  around  the  negative  wire;  bnt,  upon 
reversing  the  direction  of  the  current  of 
electricity,  so  that  the  same  wire  now  be- 
comes positively  electrified,  the  copiier 
which  has  collected  around  it  is  reals- 
solved,  and  a  similar  deposit  takes  place  on 
the  opposite  wire,  which  now  becomes  the 
negative  one.  Similar  ex|)eriment8,  made 
with  other  metallic  solutions,  are  attended 
with  similar  results;  and  solutions  of 
neutral  salts  witii  alkaline  and  earthy 
bases  obey  the  same  law,  being  separated 
into  their  constituent  parts,  the  ingredi- 
ent containing  oxygen  always  appearing 
at  the  positive  wire,  and  the  base  at  the 
negative  wire ;  but  as  these  are  a  class  of 
efiScts  which  have  been  more  particuliu-|y 
investigated  by  that  mode  of  agency  de- 
nominated galvanism^  we  shall  reserve  a 
more  full  account  of  them  for  that  article. 
IX.  Havingseen  the  effects  of  electricity 
on  inanimate  matter,  we  now  proceed  to 


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describe  the  agency  it  exertB  oyer  living 
bodiea  Its  passage  through  living  plants 
immediately  destroys  the  vitality  of  the 
parts  through  which  it  passes.  A  very 
aroall  shock,  sent  through  the  stem  of  a 
balsani)  causes  its  leaves  to  droop  in  a  few 
minutes,  and  finally  extinguishes  its  vital- 
ity. The  approach  of  an  electrified  con- 
ductor  to  the  sensitive  plant  (mtmoM  pu- 
dica)  produces  no  effect  upon  it ;  but  when 
sparks  are  taken  firom  it,  the  leaves  col- 
lapse, just  as  they  are  accustomed  to  do 
firom  concussions  of  a  mechanical  nature. 
When  the  energetic  efiects  of  tlie  shock 
fi^om  the  Leyden  vial  upon  tiie  animal 
i^stem  were  fii-st  made  known,  high  ex- 
pectations were  raised  that  electricity 
would  prove  a  remedial  agent  of  extraor- 
dinary power.  It  was  sup{)osed  tlmt,  as 
a  stimulant,  it  wouki  have  many  advan- 
tages over  other  remedies ;  for  it  can  be 
administered  in  various  degrees  of  intensi- 
ty, which  may  be  regulated  with  great  ex- 
acmess ;  and  its  application  can  l^  direct- 
ed especially  to  the  organ  we  wish  to  affect. 
Accordingly,  we  find,  at  one  period^  it  was 
employed  in  a  great  number  of  cases ;  but 
at  present  it  is  confined  to  a  very  few  ; 
such  aa  palsy,  contractions  of  the  hmbs, 
rheumatism,  St.  Vitus's  dance,  some  kinds 
of  deafiiess,  and  impaired  vision.  Al- 
though tlie  efifeets  of  ordinaiy  shocks  upon 
living  animals  are  familiar  to  most  per- 
sons, still  a  shoit  account  of  these  sliocks, 
as  they  have  been  administered  out  of  the 
common  course  may  not  be  unlnteresthig. 
If  a  person  who  is  standing  receive  a 
charge  through  the  spine,  he  loses  his 
power  over  the  muscles  to  such  a  degree, 
that  he  either  drops  on  his  knees,  or  fiiUs 
prostrate  on  the  ground.  A  strong  charge 
passed  throueli  the  head  gives  the  sensar 
tion  of  a  violent  but  universal  blow,  and 
is  followed  by  a  transient  loss  of  memory 
and  indistinctness  of  vision.  If  tiie  dia- 
phragm be  included  in  the  circuit  of  a 
coated  surface  of  two  feet  in  extent,  fully 
charged,  the  sudden  contraction  of  the 
muscles  of  respiration  will  act  so  violentiy 
upon  the  air  in  tlie  lungs,  as  to  occasion  a 
loud  and  involuntary  shout;  but  if  tlie 
charge  be  small,  a  fit  of  convulsive  laugh- 
ter is  iuduced,producingamo6t  ludicrous 
scene  to  the  by-stander.  Small  anima]s,such 
as  mice  and  sparrows,  are  instantly  killed 
by  a  shock  from  90  square  inches  of  glass. 
X.  There  are  several  mineral  bmlies, 
which,  from  being  in  a  neutral  state  at  or- 
dinary temperatures,  acquire  electricity 
simply  by  b^ing  heated  or  cooled.  Tbis 
property  is  confined  to  crystallized  mine- 
rals; and  of  these  the  most  remarkable  are 


the  tourmaline  and  boracite.  (q.  v.)  In 
the  former  of  these,  it  is  best  observed  in 
the  regularly  terminated  crystals.  When 
one  of  these  is  heated  fh>m  100°  to  212° 
Fahr.,  the  extremity  terminated  by  the 
greatest  number  of  planes  becomes 
chaiged  with  positive  electricity,  while 
the  other  extremity  is  negative.  Wbea 
the  crystal  is  of  considerable  size,  flashes 
of  light  may  be  seen  along  its  surfiM».  A 
lam  number  of  substances  become  elec* 
trined  on  passing  firom  the  liquid  to  the 
solid  form.  This  happens  to  sulphur, 
^m-lac,  bees- wax,  and,  m  general,  sll  res- 
inous bodies.  The  converaion  of  bodies 
into  the  state  of  vapor,  as  well  as  the  con- 
densation of  vapor,  is  eenerally  attended 
by  some  alteration  cf  their  electrical  con- 
dition. Thus,  if  an  ignited  platina  cmo- 
ble  be  placed  upon  the  gokl  leaf  electmm* 
eter,  and  water  be  dropped  into  it,  at  the 
moment  the  vapor  rises,  the  leaves  of  the 
electrometer  diverge  with  negative  elec- 
tricity. Electricity  is  evolved  by  the  con- 
tact of  different  metals.  Thus,  if  two 
discs,  the  one  of  copper,  the  other  of  zinCy 
rather  more  than  two  inches  in  diameter, 
and  furnished  with  insulating  handles,  be 
brought  into  contact,  and  t£sn  separated 
and  examined  by  an  electroscope,  the 
copper  disc  is  found  to  be  charged  witk 
negative,  and  the  zinc  disc  widi  positive 
electricity.  While  the  contact  of  die 
metals  is  preserved,  neither  of  them  gives 
any  indication  of  its  electrical  state,  the 
electricity  being  disguised  until  the  sepa- 
ration takes  place.  This  observation  has 
an  important  relation  to  the  theory  of  tfast 
mode  of  electrical  excitement  called  gat- 
voRum,  under  which  head  it  will  be  re- 
sumed. There  a»  some  bodies  which 
are  rendered  electrical  by  pressure.  Thus^ 
if  a  ciystal  of  calcareous  s|)ar  or  arragonite 
be  pressed  for  a  few  moments  betweesi 
the  fingers,  it  exhibits  a  decided  attrac- 
tion. The  same  thing  happens  with  ve^ 
gard  to  cork,  paper  and  wood.  Many 
mineral  substances,  when  reduced  to  pow- 
der, exliibit  electricity,  if  made  to  fall  upon 
an  insulated  metallic  plate,  a  OKMle  of 
excitation  which  is  to  be  considemi  as  a 
species  of  friction.  The  most  important 
circumstance  in  this  inquiry  is  tlie  con- 
nexion between  electricity  and  the  chem- 
ical properties  of  matter,  first  pointed  out 
by  sir  H.  Davy.  Most  of  the  substances 
that  act  distinctly  u|K>n  each  other  electri- 
cally, are  likewise  such  as  act  chemically, 
when  their  particles  have  freedom  of  mo- 
tion. This  IS  the  case  with  Uie  different 
metals,  with  sulphur  and  the  metals,  with 
acids  and  the  alkaline  substances.    Oftwe 


Digitized  by 


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ELECTRICITY, 


401 


metab  in  contact,  the  one  which  has  the 
p«atefit  chemical  attraction  for  oxygen 
acquires  positive  electricity,  and  the  other 
the  negative.  In  the  contact  of  acids 
with  bases,  as  of  ciystals  of  oxalic  acid 
with  dry  quicklime,  the  former  is  neg- 
ative, the  latter  is  positive.  Ail  acid  crys- 
tals, when  covered  by  a  plate  of  metal, 
render  it  positive,  the  crystals  themselves 
becoming  negative. 

XL  The  resemblance  between  the  elec- 
tric spark,  and  more  especially  tlie  explo- 
sive discfaar^  of  the  Leyden  jar,  and  at- 
mospheric lightning  and  tliunder,  struck 
the  mind  of  doctor  Franklin  with  so  much 
force,  that  he  was  determined,  if  possible, 
to  veriiy  their  identity  by  eX|)eriuient 
Having  constructed  a  kite,  by  stretching  a 
large  sdk  handkerchief  over  two  sticks  in 
the  form  of  a  cross,  on  the  appearance  of 
an  approacliing  storm,  he  went  into  a 
field  in  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia,  and 
raised  it,  taking  care  to  insulate  it  by  a 
silken  cord  attached  to  a  key,  with  which 
the  hempen  string  terminated.  No  sooner 
had  a  dense  cloud,  apparently  charged 
with  lightning)  passed  over  the  spot  on 
which  he  stood,  than  bis  attention  was  ar^ 
rested  by  the  bristling  up  of  some  loose 
fibres  on  the  hempen  string:  he  imme- 
diately presented  his  knuckle  to  the  key, 
and  received  an  electric  spark.  The  rain 
DOW  feU  in  torrents,  and,  wetting  tlie  string, 
rendered  it  conducting  in  its  whole  length ; 
so  that  electric  sparks  were  now  collected 
fmm  it  in  great  abundonce.  This  grand 
experiment  was  made  in  June,  1752;  and 
altnough  the  same  idea  which  led  Fitmk- 
Itn  to  institute  it  had  occurred  to  other 
philoflopbers,  yet  to  him  belongs  exdu* 
sively  the  glory  of  the  discovery.  The 
discovery  of  Franklin  immediately  en- 
gaged the  attention  of  European  pliiloso- 
phen;  one  of  whom,  professor  Richmann 
of  St.  Petersburg,  foil  a  victim  to  his  at- 
tempt to  draw  down  the  electric  fluid 
firom  the  clouds.  He  had  constructed  an 
apparatus  for  observations  on  atmospher- 
ical electricity,  and  was  attending  a  meet- 
ing of  the  academy  of  sciences,  when  the 
sound  of  distant  thunder  caught  his  ear. 
He  immediately  hastened  home,  taking 
with  him  his  engraver,  Sokolow,  in  order 
that  he  might  delineate  the  appearances 
that  should  present  themselves.  While 
intent  upon  examining  the  electrometer, 
a  laige  globe  of  fire  flt^hed  from  the  con- 
ducting rod,  which  was  insulated,  to  the 
head  of  Richmann,  and,  passing  through 
his  body,  instantly  denrived  him  of  life. 
A  red  spot  was  found  on  his  forehead, 
where  the  electridty  had  entered;  his 
39* 


shoe  was  burst  open,  and  part  of  his 
clotlies  singed.  His  companion  was 
struck  down,  and  remained  senseless  for 
some  time ;  the  door-case  of  the  room  was 
split,  and  the  door  itself  torn  off  its  hinges. 
— The  atmosphere  is  veiy  goierally  in 
an  electrical  state.  This  is  ascertained  by 
employing  a  metallic  rod,  uisulated  at  its 
lower  end,  elevated  at  some  height  above 
the  ground,  and  communicating  vrith  an 
electrosco])e.  In  order  to  collect  tlie  elec- 
tricity of  the  higher  regions  of  tlie  air,  a 
kite  may  lie  vaimd,  in  tlie  string  of  which 
a  slender  metallic  wire  should  be  inter- 
woven. Tlie  atmosphere  is  almost  inva- 
riably found  to  be  positively  electrified  ; 
and  Its  electricity  is  stronger  in  tiie  winter 
than  in  the  summer^  and  during  the  day 
tlian  in  the  night  From  the  time  of  sun- 
rise, it  increases  for  two  or  three  hours, 
and  then  decreases  towards  the  middle  of 
tite  day,  being  generally  the  weakest  iie- 
tween  noon  and  four  o'clock.  As  the  sun 
declines,  its  intensity  is  again  augmented, 
till  about  the  time  of  sunset,  after  which 
it  diminishes,  and  continues  feeble  during 
the  night  In  cloudy  weather,  the  elec- 
trical state  is  much  more  uncertain ;  and 
when  there  are  several  strata  of  clouds, 
moving  in  different  directions,  it  is  subject 
to  great  and  rapid  variations,  changing 
backwards  and  forwards  in  the  course  of 
a  veiy  few  minutes.  On  the  first  appear- 
ance of  fog,  rain,  snow,  hail  or  sleet,  the 
electricity  of  the  air  is  ffeiierally  negative, 
and  often  highly  so ;  nut  it  afterwards 
undergoes  fi«quent  transitions  to  opposite 
states.  On  the  approach  of  a  thunder- 
storm, these  altematioiis  of  the  electric  con- 
dition of  the  air  succeed  one  anotlier  with 
remarkable  rapidity.  Strong  sparks  am 
sent  out  in  ffreat  abundance  from  the  con- 
ductor ;  and  it  becomes  dangerous  to  pros- 
ecu  te  experiments  with  it  in  its  insulated 
state.  Thunder  is  merely  tlie  noise  pro- 
duced by  the  motion  of  the  lightning.*-^ 
The  protection  of  buildings  from  the 
destructive  effects  of  Hffhtningis  the  most 
important  practical  ap|Nication  of  tlie  the- 
ory of  electricity.  The  conductors,  for  this 
purpose,  should  be  formed  of  metallic 
rods,  pointed  at  tlie  upper  extremity,  and 
placed  so  as  to  project  a  few  feet  above 
the  highest  {lart  of  the  buikiing  they  are 
intended  to  secure ;  diey  should  be  con- 
tinued witliout  uitemmtion  till  they  de- 
scend into  the  ground  below  the  founda- 
tion of  the  house.  Copper  is  preferable 
to  iron  as  the  material  for  their  construc- 
tion, being  less  liable  to  destruction  by 
•  The  air  of  close  rooms,  vilialed  by  respire^ 
tioii,  b  found  to  be  negaUvely  electrified. 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


m 


ELECTRICITY--ELECTRO.MAGNETISM. 


rust,  or  by  fusion,  and  poflBeisiDg  abo  a 
greater  ooiiductkig  power.  The  size  of 
3ie  rods  should  Im  from  half  an  inch  to 
an  inch  in  diameter,  and  the  point  sliould 
be  gilt,  or  made  of  platina,  that  it  may  be 
more  effectually  preserveti  from  corro- 
sion. An  important  condition  in  the  pit>- 
tecting  conductor  is,  that  no  interruption 
should  exist  in  its  continuitv  from  top  to 
Ixittom ;  and  advantage  will  result  from 
connecting  together  by  stripe  of  metal  all 
the  leaden  water-pipes,  or  other  consider- 
able masses  of  metal  in  or  about  tiie 
building,  so  as  to  fonn  one  continuous 
system  of  conductora,  for  carrying  the 
electricity  by  different  channels  to  the 
ground.  The  lower  end  of  the  conductori 
shoulfl  be  carried  down  into  the  earth,  till 
it.reaches  either  water,  or  at  least  a  moist 
stratum.  For  the  proteedon  of  ships, 
chains,  made  of  a  series  of  iron  rods  linked 
together,  are  most  convenient,  on  account 
of  their  flexibility.  They  sliould  extend 
from  tlif  highest  tK)int  of  the  mast  some  way 
into  tlie  sea,  and  the  lower  part  should  be 
removed  to  sonie^istance  from  the  side  of 
the  ship,  by  a  wooden  spar  or  outrigger. 

ELECTRo-Drif  AMics ;  the  science  which 
treats  of  electricity  in  motion  tliroueli  a 
system  of  conductors ;  a  name  used  in 
contradistinction  to  electnh-sUUks,  or  the 
science  of  electricity  in  etpniSbrw.  ( For  the 
facts  belonging  to  this  science,  see  EUdro^ 
Jtfb^idtsm,  iSednctfy,  and  Gahfomsm.) 

Ei«kctro-Magnktism  ;  the  name  ap- 
plied to  a  very  interesting  class  of  facta, 
principally  developed  by  professor  Oer- 
sted, of  Copenhagen,  in  the  year  1819. 
The  power  of  lightning  in  destroying  and 
reversing  the  polarity  of  a  magnet,  and  of 
communicating  magnetic  influence  to  iron 
previously  not  magnetic,  had  long  been 
observed,  and  had  led  to  the  suppositioii 
that  similar  effects  might  be  produced  by 
the  common  electrical  or  galvanic  appara- 
tus. The  first  observation  of  professor 
Oersted  was,  that  an  electrical  current, 
such  as  is  supposed  to  pass  from  the  posi- 
tive to  tlie  negative  pole  of  a  voltaic  bat- 
tery, along  a  wire  which  connects  them, 
causes  a  magnetic  needle,  placed  near  it, 
to  deviate  from  its  natural  position,  and  to 
assume  a  new  one,  the  direction  of  which 
depends  upon  the  mode  of  conducting  tlie 
experimenu  The  metallic  wire  to  be 
made  use  oi^  in  this  ex]>eriment,  sliould 
be  twro  or  three  feet  in  Icngtti,  in  order 
to  allow  of  its  beini^  bent  or  turned  by  tlie 
hands  in  various  directions,  and  is  called 
the  cow/iwdi'sf  wire.  When  the  wire  is 
extended  horizontally  in  the  line  of  the 
magnetic  meridian, with  a  fieely  mispendsd 


compass  needle,  whose  4sentre  is  directly' 
under  the  wire,  the  needle  instantly  de- 
viates from  the  magnetic  meridian,  and 
declines  tovrards  the  west,  under  that  part 
of  the  conjunctive  wire  which  is  nearest 
die  negative  electric  pole,  or  the  coppor 
end  of  tlie  voltaic  apparatus,  the  amount 
of  declination  dependmg  upon  the  strength 
of  the  electricity,  and  the  sensibility  of  the 
needle.  If  we  change  the  direction  of  the 
conjunctive  wire  out  of  the  magnetic  me- 
ridian towards  the  east  or  the  west,  no 
ehange  in  the  above  resuh  takes  piaoe, 
except  that  of  its  amount.  But  if  the  wire 
be  disposed  horizontally  beneath  the  nee- 
dle, the  effects  take  place  in  an  inverse 
manner ;  i.e.  the  pole  of  the  needle,  tmder 
which  is  placed  the  portion  of  the  con- 
junctive vrire,  which  receives  the  negative 
electricity  of  the  battery,  declines  towards 
the  east.  When  the  conjunctive  wire  is 
stretched  alongside  of  the  needle  in  the 
same  horizontu  plane,  it  occasions  no 
dediuationy  either  to  the  east  or  west ; 
but  it  causes  it  merely  to  incline  in  a  ver- 
tical line,  so  that  the  pole  adjoining  the 
negative  influence  of  the  battery  on  the 
wire,  dips  when  the  wire  is  on  its  west 
side,  and  rises  when  it  is  on  the  easL  If 
we  stretch  the  conjunctive  wire,  either 
above  or  beneath  the  needle,  in  a  plane 
per|iendicular  to  the  magnetic  meridian. 
It  remains  at  rest,  unless  the  wire  be  very 
near  the  pole  of  die  needle;  in  whidh 
case  it  rises  when  die  entrance  takes  place 
by  the  west  pert  of  the  wire,  and  ainks 
when  it  takes  place  by  the  east  part. 
When  we  dispose  the  conjunctive  wire  in 
a  vertical  line  opposite  the  pole  of  the 
needle,  and  make  the  upper  extremity 
of  the  wire  receive  the  electricity  oif 
the  negative  end  of  the  battery,  the 
pole  of  the  needle  moves  toviraids  the 
east ;  but  if  we  place  the  wire  opposite  a 
point  betwixt  the  pole  and  the  middle  of 
the  needle,  it  movea  to  the  west  The 
phenomena  are  presented  in  an  invwae 
order,  when  the  upper  extremity  of  the 
conjunctive  wire  receives  the  electridtj 
of  the  positive  side  of  the  apperstua. — 
The  foregoing  observations  induced  pro- 
fessor Oersted  to  believe  that  the  ekn^tric 
action  is  not  enclosed  within  the  conduct- 
ing wire,  but  that  it  has  a  pretnr  extpnnve 
sphere  of  activity  around  it.  He  also  con- 
cluded that  this  influence  acts  by  revolu- 
tion ;  for,  without  such  a  supposiuon^it  is 
impossible  to  conceive  how  the  same  por- 
tion of  wire,  which,  placed  beneath  the 
magnetic  pole,  carries  the  needle  towards 
the  east,  should,  when  plaoed  ebove  this 
pole,  eany  it  towarda  the  wast 


Digitized  by 


Lioogle 


ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. 


was  the  nataie  of  the  first  discovery  in 
electro-maffnetism.  it  was  no  sooner  an- 
nounced, than  the  experiments  were  re- 
peated and  varied  hy  philosophers  in  aU 
parts  of  the  world ;  and  a  multitude  of 
new  facts  were  soon  brought  to  light 
tlirough  the  labors  of  MM.  Ampere,  Ara- 
go  and  Biot,  in  France,  and  sir  H.  Davy 
and  Mr.  Faraday,  iii  fkigland.  Two  veiy 
important  facts  were  ascertained  hy  Am- 
pere and  Davy, — that  the  conjunctive 
wire  becomes  itself  a  magnet,  and  that 
magnetic  properdes  might  be  communi- 
cated to  a  steel  needle  not  previously  poB- 
sesBing  them,  by  placing  it  in  the  electric 
current  The  former  of  these  facts  is 
proved  by  throwing  some  iron  filings  on 
paper,  and  bringing  them  under  the  wire, 
when  they  will  Immediately  adhere  to  it, 
fbnning  a  tuft  around  it  ten  or  twelve 
times  the  diameter  of  the  wire :  on  break- 
ing the  connexion  with  the  battery,  how- 
ever, they  immediately  fiill  ofi^  proving 
that  the  magnetic  efSect  depends  endrelv 
on  the  paasaffe  of  the  electricity  through 
the  wire.^  The  degree  of  foroe  of  this 
magnetic  property  thus  communicated  to 
the  unidng  wire  was  imagined,  by  sir  H. 
Davy,  to  1^  proportional  to  the  quantity  of 
electricity  transmitted  through  it  Hence 
the  finer  the  wire,  tlie  more  powerfuUv 
magnetic  was  it  rendered;  and  hence,  al- 
so, a  battery  of  very  large  plates,  such  as 
is  used  for  producing  intense  heat  and 
light,  was  found  to  give  the  strongest  mag- 
netism to  the  wure  connecting  its  poles. 
Accordingly  we  find  that  the  calorimotor 
of  doctor  Hare  (see  Crolvanism),  a  galvan- 
ic arrangement,  in  which  the  plates  are 
nearly  two  feet  square,  exhibits  the  strong- 
est magnetic  effects,  and  this  notwith- 
standing the  powerful  heating  effects  that 
accompany  its  action ;  the  heat  excited 
not  diminishing  or  interfering  with  the 
magnetism,  but  apparently  increasing  it ; 
for  a  fine  platina  wire,  so  intensely  i^ted 
as  to  be  near  the  point  of  fusion,  is  ob- 
served to  attract  larger  quantities  of  iron 
filings  than  when  at  a  lower  temperature 
To  communicate  magnetic  properties  to 
steel  needles,  which  before  did  not  exhibit 
them,  it  is  necessary  merely  to  place  them 
in  contact  with,  or  near  to  the  conjunctive 
wire.  The  position  in  which  they  are  to 
be  placed,  with  regard  to  the  wire,  is  im- 
portant, as  the  permanence  of  their  mag- 
netic quality  deprads  upon  it  If  they  are 
placed  parulel  with  it,  they  lose  their 
magnetism  When  the  connexion  with  the 
battery  is  broken,  which  shows  that  their 
magnetism  arose  only  from  their  forming 
part  of  the  electric  drcuis,  like  the  con- 


necting  wire  itselfl  fiut  if  they  are  placed 
across  the  wire,  they  become  f>ermanent- 
ly  magnetized,  and  retain  their  power 
equally  with  needles  prepared  in  the  ordi- 
nary way.  The  polarity  is  difierent,  how- 
ever, according  as  Uie  needle  is  placed 
above  or  belpw  the  wire.  Wlien  a  needle 
is  placed  under  the  uniting  wire,  the  |)08i- 
tive  end  of  Uie  battery  being  on  the  right 
band  of  die  o|ierator,  we  end  of  the  needlo 
next  to  him  becomes  the  norUi  pole,  and 
the  other  end  die  south  pole.  On  the 
contrary,  when  a  needle  is  held  above  the 
wire,  the  reverse  of  this  takes  place ;  the 
end  next  to  the  observer  becomes  die 
soudi,  and  the  other  the  nortli  |N>ie. 
Even  the  same  opposition  is  observed 
when  needles  are  placed  in  a  perpendicu- 
lar position,  on  different  sides  of  the  wire : 
in  those  on  one  side,  all  die  lower  ends  are 
foimd  to  be  nordi  poles,  wliile,  in  tiioee 
on  the  opponte  side  of  the  wire,  the  upper 
ends  are  all  north  poles,  and  die  lower  ex- 
tremities all  soudi  poles.  Direct  contact 
of  the  steel  needles  with  the  conjunctive 
wire  is  not  necessary,  for  they  become  in- 
stantly magnetic  when  brought  near  it, 
even  though  thick  plates  of  gloss  are  inter- 
posed. As  was  remarked  witii  regard  to 
the  connecting  wire,  'galvanic  batteries, 
consisting  of  large  plates,  are  most  powerful 
in  communicating  the  magnetic  influence. 
When  the  conjunctive  wares  of  two  dis- 
tinct galvanic  arrangements  are  made  to 
approach  each  other,  we  observe  magnetic 
attractions  and  repulsions.  Two  wires 
of  copper,  silver,  or  any  other  metal,  con- 
necting the  extremities  of  two  galvanic 
trougtu^  being  placed  parallel  to  each  oth- 
er, and  susfiended  so  as  to  move  freely, 
immediately  attract  and  repel  each  otiier, 
according  as  tlie  directions  of  die  cur- 
rents of  electricity  flowing  through  tiiem, 
are  the  same  or  cUfierent  When  both  the 
negative  or  both  the  positive  extremities 
of  the  troughs  are  turned  to  the  same 
quarter,  so  diat  the  electric  current  passes 
along  each  wire  in  the  same  direction,  the 
two  wires  attract  each  other;  but  when 
the  position  of  one  of  die  troughs  is  re- 
versed, so  that  the  electric  currents  in  die 
two  wires  flow  in  opfMsite  directions,  the 
wires  repel  each  other.  Upon  this  ex])er- 
iment  is  founded  the  most  pkusible  theo- 
ry of  maipietism,  viz.,  diat  it  arises  fh>a 
the  attractions  and  repulsions  of  currents 
of  electricity,  constantly  ciroulating  roimd 
every  magnet  This  is  conceived  to  ex- 
plain the  reason  why  die  magnetic  needle 
phices  itself  at  right  angles  to  a  wire  con- 
ducting electricity,  namely^  that  die  eleptric 
current  passing  akmg  the  wire  may  coin- 


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ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. 


cide  with  that  circulating  round  the  mag- 
net The  magnetic  effects  produced  by 
galvanic  amuigementa  are  obtained  also 
by  electricity  evolved  from  tlie  common 
machine,  and  still  more  from  this  power 
concentrated  in  the  Leyden  jar ;  the 
magnetism  communicated  agreeing  in 
eveiy  respect  as  to  the  permanence  of  the 
polarity,  tlie  variations  when  tlie  needle  is 
placed  above  or  below  tlie  wire,  &c^  with 
that  produced  by  the  voltaic  pile.  Mag- 
netism is  communicated  to  needles  in  a 
different  manner  from  that  of  placing 
them  across  the  conjunctive  wire.  The 
wire  is  formed  into  a  hollow  screw,  or 
helix,  by  rolling  it  round  a  solid  rod,  and 
tlie  needle  to  lie  magnetized,  wrapped  in  a 
paper,  or  put  into  a  glass  t\ibe,  is  placed 
in  the  centre  of  it,  and  the  communica- 
tion with  the  galvanic  battery  estahlislied. 
This  arrangement  (according  to  the  theory 
of  M.  Ampere)  conveys  the  electric  current 
by  the  spiral  convolutions,  round  and 
round  the  needle,  and  communicates  to  it, 
or  developes  in  it,  the  electric  circulation 
constituting  magnetism.  By  this  contri- 
vance, it  is  found  tliat  a  maximum  efiect 
is  obtained  in  a  shorter  time  than  by  any 
other  method.  The  position  of  the  north 
and  south  pole  varies  according  as  either 
end  of  the  helix  is  connected  with  the 
positive  or  the  negative  pole,  which  shows 
that  the  electric  current  flows  along  the 
uniting  wire  from  the  |)oaitive  or  zinc  ex- 
tremity* to  tlie  negative  or  copper  end  of 
the  pile.  The  electricity  ot  a  common 
machine  produces  the  same  effect  Hav- 
ing alluded  to  tlie  principal  facts  relating 
to  electro-magnetic  phenomena,  the  in- 
genious theory  of  M.  Ami)^re,  by  which 
Siev  are  explained  more  extensively  and 
with  more  precision  than  by  any  other 
hitherto  advanced,  deserves  to  be  stated. 
It  is  the  more  d^rving  of  attention,  as 
having  led  its  author  to  the  discoveiy  of 
some  of  the  most  remarkable  fiicts  detail- 
ed above ;  and,  if  future  researches  shall 
continue  to  increase  its  probability,  it  will 
no  doubt  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  finest 
instances  of  correct  induction,  supported 
by  minute  experiment,  which  the  history 
of  any  science  can  exhibit  The  first 
principle  of  this  theory  has  been  already 
stated  ; — that  two  currents  of  electricity 
attract  when  they  move  parallel  to  each 
other  and  in  the  same  direction,  and  re- 
pel when  they  move  parallel  to  each  other 
m  contrary  du^ections.  This  fact  is  di- 
rectly tlie  reverse  of  the  usually  observed 
phenomena  of  electricity;  for  it  is  well 
known  tliat  bodies  in  the  same  state  of 
electricity  repel  each  other,  and  in  oppo- 


site states  attract  Hence  M.  Ampere  in- 
fers, that  tliese  resultB  are  not  produced  by 
electricity  in  its  known  and  common  state 
of  tension,  but  are  dependent  on  proper- 
ties belonging  to  electricity,  previously 
unsuspected,  and  peculiar  to  it  when  in 
motion,  or  flowing  in  currents.  Elec- 
tricity, when  accumulated,  has  the  power 
of  causing  certain  effects,  particularly  at- 
tractions and  repulsions,  which  are  fimiiliar 
to  us,  and  are  called  dectrical;  but  when 
moving  in  currents,  it  exerts  new  powers, 
and  these  constitute  magnetism.  Review- 
ing the  various  experiments  which  have 
been  enumerated,  we  find,  that  the  con- 
necting wires  of  two  batteries  attract  and 
repel  each  other,  according  to  the  direc- 
tions of  the  electric  currents  flowing 
through  diem ;  that  the  magnetic  needle  is, 
exactly  in  the  same  manner,  attracted  and 
repelled  by  a  connecting  vnre,  according 
to  the  direction  of  the  current  of  electrici- 
ty moving  through  the  wire ;  that  the  po- 
sition of  the  ne^le  may  be  varied,  in  al- 
most any  degree,  by  changing  the  position 
of  tiie  connecting  wire ;  tiiat  whenever  the 
electric  circuit  is  broken,  this  influence  on 
the  needle  ceases,  and  is  renewed  when- 
ever the  communication  between  the 
poles  of  the  Iwttery  is  restored ;  that  the 
connecting  wire,  of  whatever  metal  it 
may  consist,  becomes  a  perfect  magnet,  as 
long  as  the  current  flows  aking  it,  so  as  to 
attract  iron  filings  and  small  steel  needles, 
without  attracting  copper  filings,  or  any 
other  metal  but  iron ;  that  steel  needk» 
may  be  converted  into  permanent  mag- 
nets, by  simply  placing  them  across  the 
connecting  wire ;  that  me  electric  cuirenis 
having  this  magnetizing  power  are  not, 
like  accumulated  electricity,  confined  by 
glass,  or  other  non-conductors,  but  pass 
through  all  bodies  with  facility,  as  tnagnei- 
ism  was  before  known  to  do;  that  the 
magnetizing  power  is  exerted  by  elec- 
tricity, whether  procured  by  a  galvan- 
ic apparatus,  or  a  common  machine  ; 
that  ]N>werful  maj^ets  may  be  formed,  by 
conducting  electnc  currents  round  steel 
wires,  as  in  the  helix,  and  that  the  position 
of  tlie  north  and  south  poles  of  these  nia|r- 
nets  depends  upon  the  direction  in  wbidi 
the  currents  are  made  to  move  round  them. 
These,  and  a  great  number  of  other  Acts, 
it  is  conceiv^,  clearly  demonstrate  the 
perfect  resemblance,  or  rather  identity,  of 
electricity  and  mafpetism.  Magnetic  phe- 
nomena are  thus,  m  fact,  a  series  of  elec- 
trical phenomena ;  and  magnetism  may, 
with  propriety,  form  a  branch  of  elec- 
tricity, under  the  head  of  Ekdriad  Civ^ 
rtfUt.    Though  this  intimate  relation  or 


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469 


identity  be  admitted,  it  is  not  so  obvioiiB 
bow,  by  it,  tbe  properties  of  the  common 
magnet  are  explained.  Currents  of  elec- 
tricity, according  to  the  theory,  are  essential 
to  the  production  of  magnetic  phenome- 
na ;  but  tliese  are  not  obvious  ra  a  com- 
mon magnet  M.  Ampere  has  suggested 
their  eidstenee,  however,  and  has  so  ar- 
ranged tliem  theoretically,  as  to  account 
for  a  great  proportion  of  magnetic  appear- 
ances. A  magnet  he  conceives  to  be  an 
assemblage  of  as  many  electric  currents, 
moving  round  it  in  planes  perpendicular 
to  its  axis,  as  there  may  be  imagined  lines, 
which,  without  cutting  one  another,  form 
closed  curves  round  it  Magnetization,  he 
says,  is  an  operation  by  which  there  is 
given  to  the  particles  of  ateel  (which,  of 
die  more  common  metals,  appears  to  be 
tlie  only  one  capable  of  being  permanently 
impressed  with  this  power)  an  electro- 
motive energy,  which  causes  a  circuUition 
of  these  currents  to  be  continued  round 
them.  The  excitadon  and  oontiniunce 
of  this  electro-modve  action  is  rendered 
less  improbable,  when  vra  consider  the 
electric  power  developed  in  the  tourma- 
line and  boracite  by  heat  alone,  and 
when  we  find,  as  in  the  electrical  colunms 
of  De  Luc  and  Zamboni,  that  electricity 
may  be  ^nerated  fhr  years  without  ceas- 
ing or  diminisliing,  by  a  small  and  sunple 
apparatus.  Such,  then,  is  the  consdtu- 
tjon  of  a  magnet  It  is  a  mass  of  iron  of 
steel,  round  the  axis  of  which  electric  cuiv 
rents  are  constantlv  circulating,  and  these 
currents  attract  all  other  electric  currents 
flowing  in  the  same  direction,  and  repel 
all  othere  which  are  moving  in  an  opposite 
direction.  From  these  attractions  and 
repulsions  another  efiect  follows,  that  the 
currents  of  one  magnet  have  always  a 
tendency  to  move  any  other  magnet  near 
it,  till  the  currents  in  the  second  shall  co- 
incide in  direction  with  those  of  the  first 
It  is  fix>m  this  cause,  as  will  presently  be 
explained,  that  the  magnetic  needle  always 
turns  to  the  meridian,  and  that  tlie  needle 
in  Oerated's  ex|)eriment8  became  at  right 
angles  to  the  connecting  wire.  One  im- 
portant circumstance  is  always  to  be  kept 
m  view,  that  the  electric  currents  flow 
round  every  magnet  in  the  same  direction 
in  reference  to  its  poles.  If,  for  instance, 
we  place  a  magnet  with  its  north  ]K>le 
pomting  to  the  north,  in  the  usual  position 
of  tlie  magnetic  needle,  die  current  of 
electricity  flows  round  it  from  west  to 
east ;  or,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  magnet, 
it  is  moving  downwards,  and  on  the  west- 
em  side  upwards ;  on  the  upper  side,  from 
west  to  east,  and  on  the  lower  side,  from 


east  to  west  TVs,  it  is  found,  is  a  uniform 
law.  On  these  principles  the  phenomena 
of  magnetism  are  easily  accounted  for. 
Thus,  to  take  one  of  the  most  obvious  and 
well  known  facts,  that  of  two  magnets 
attracting  when  their  opposite  poles  are 
approached  to  one  another,  as  the  north 
of  one  to  the  south  pole  of  die  other. 
Let  us  suppose  a  magnet  in  the  position 
which  has  just  been  stated,  widi  its  north 
pole  directed  to  the  north ;  and  let  a  sec- 
ond magnet  be  placed  beyond  it,  and  in  a 
line  with  it,  with  its  nortii  |X)le  idso  point- 
ed to  the  north.  Then,  it  is  obvious  that 
the  south  pole  of  the  second  magnet  will 
be  next  to  the  north  pole  of  the  first;  and 
fi^m  their  position  it  follows,  that  the 
electric  currents  must  be  flowing  in  die 
same  direction,  or,  in  both  of  them,  from 
west  to  east :  hence,  as  currents  moving 
in  the  same  direction  attract,  these  oppo- 
site poles,  if  within  a  certain  distance, 
ought  to  attract  each  other,  which,  ac- 
cordingly, will  be  found  to  lie  the  ease. 
Now,  let  the  second  magnet  be  reversed ; 
let  its  south  pole  be  directed  to  the  north, 
and  its  north  pole  approached  to  the  north 
pole  of  the  first  magnet;  the  electric  cur- 
rents will  fk>w  round  the  magnet  in  the 
same  manner  as  before ;  but  in  reference 
to  the  first  magnet  and  to  tbe  meridian, 
their  directitm  will  be  reversed :  their  di- 
rection will  now  be  from  east  to  west,  up- 
wards on  the  eastern  side,  and  down  wards 
on  the  western;  consequently,  the  cur- 
rents in  the  two  magnets,  being  now  op|x>- 
site,  will  repel,  or  the  two  north  poles  will 
repel  each  other. — ^In  the  experiments  of 
professor  Oersted,  it  was  found,  as  has 
been  stated,  that  when  the  extraneous  in- 
fluence of  tlie  magnetism  of  the  earth  was 
counterbalanced,  die  tendency  of  a  mag- 
netic needle  always  was  to  place  itself  at 
right  angles  to  the  wire  connecting  die 
{K>les  of  die  galvanic  battery.  The  reason 
of  this  is  easily  explained  upon  die  pres- 
ent hypothesisL  In  the  needle,  the  currents 
flow  round  its  axis  from  end  to  end ;  but 
in  the  connecting  wire  there  is  no  circu- 
lation round  the  axis,  but  a  constant  stream 
from  one  end,  namely,  the  negative,  to  the 
odier,  the  positive  extremity :  hence,  for 
the  current  along  the  wire  to  coincide 
with  the  current  across  and  round  the 
magnet,  it  is  necessaiy  that  die  latter 
shall  stand  across  the  rormer;  and  as  it 
apt)ears,that,  from  the  attractions  and  re- 
pulsions which  these  electric  currents  exert, 
they  are  able  to  move  one  or  l>odi  of  die 
magnetic  bodies  (according  as  thev  are  light 
and  mobile),  till  diey  coincide,  die  ne^le 
moves  if  the  wire  is  fixed  till  it  stands  at 


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ELECTRO-MAGNETISIL 


right  anglefi  to  the  wire ;  and  If  the  magnet 
is  fixed,  and  the  wire  movable,  the  re- 
veree  happens.  The  other  phenomena, 
of  the  needle  turning  to  the  west  when 
placed  below  the  wire,  to  the  east  when 
placed  above  it,  &&,  may  with  facility  be 
explained  in  the  same  manner  by  the  prin- 
ciples, that  currents  flowing  in  the  same 
direction  attract ;  and  that  in  every  mag- 
net they  move  in  a  constant  current,  which 
is,  when  the  north  pole  is  turned  to  the 
north,  from  west  to  east,  or  upwards  on 
the  west  side,  and  downwards  on  the  east 
side.  The  developement  of  permanent 
magnetism  in  steel  needles  when  pla- 
ced across  the  wire,  while  it  is  only 
temporary  when  they  are  fastened  parallel 
.with  it,  depends  on  the  same  cause  :  in 
the  latter  case,  it  arises  merely  from  the 
transmiasion  of  electricity  from  end  to  end, 
while,  in  the  former,  the  electro-motive 
energy  of  the  particles  is  developed  and 
called  into  action,  which,  when  set  in  mo- 
tion, seems  to  have  the  power  of  continu- 
ing itself  These  electric  currents  have 
the  power,  which  accumulated  electricity 
has  not,  of  penetratiug  oil  substances,  as 
was  before  known  respecting  magnetism. 
This  is  probably  owing  to  their  low  state 
of  tension  ;  and,  in  conformitv  with  this, 
large  plates,  which  evolve  electricity  in 
but  a  slight  intensity,  produce  magnetic 
efibcts  most  distinctly.  The  agency  of 
galvanism,  and  that  of  common  electricity, 
are  equally  capable  of  giving  rise  to  mag- 
netism when  flowing  in  currents,  which 
adds  another  to  the  proof  that  tliese  ore 
the  same  power.  To  complete  the  view 
of  Ampere's  doctrine,  it  remains  only  to 
explain  the  influence  of  the  earth  on  the 
magnet,  by  which  the  needle  is  kept  al- 
ways in  one  position,  neariy  coinciding 
with  the  meridian.  He  asserts,  tliat  cur- 
rents of  electricity,  analogous  to  those 
which  circulate  round  every  magnet,  are 
constantly  flowing  round  the  ffk>to,  as  the 
current  of  electricity  in  a  galvanic  appa- 
ratus moves  in  an  unbroken  circuit  irom 
the  negative  to  the  positive  pole,  and  flom 
it,  by  the  connectinewire,  round  arain  to 
the  negative  pole.  The  direction  of  (liese 
currents  he  infers  to  be  the  same  as  has 
been  stated  with  artificial  magnets;  and 
it  is  simply  by  the  attractions  and  repul- 
sions  of  these  terrestrial  currents,  bringing 
the  currents  round  the  needle  to  coincide 
with  tliem,  that  the  latter  always  points  to 
the  north.  To  detect  tliese  currents,  and 
to  exhibit  their  influence  without  the  aid 
of  any  common  magnet,  M.  Ampere  con- 
trived a  small  electric  apparatus,  which 
was  distinctly  afiected  by  the  magnetic 


influence  of  the  globe.    It  consiBted  mei«- 

ly  of  a  copper  wire  bent  into  a  circle, 
with  the  two  extremities  brought  near  to 
each  other.  It  was  supported  so  as  to 
move  vrith  the  greatest  ftcility  ;  and  the 
points  were  immersed  in  banns  of  mercu- 
ry, with  which  the  wires  of  a  galvanic 
liattery  were  cormected.  When  me  com- 
munication was  established  so  as  to  cause 
a  current  of  electricity  to  pass  through  the 
circle,  it  immediately  began  to  move,  and, 
after  some  oscillations,  placed  itself  neariy 
at  right  angles  to  the  meridian,  or  east  and 
westf  or  so  that  tlie  electric  current  passed 
downwards  on  tlie  eastern  side,  and  up- 
wards on  the  western  side.  This,  it  has 
been  stated,  is  exactly  the  direction  in 
which  the  currents  in  every  magnet  move 
(supposing  it  placed  widi  its  north  pole  to 
the  north).  The  circle  may,  therefore,  be 
regarded  as  a  section  across  the  axis  of  a 
magnet,  or  as  represendng  one  of  the 
currents  flowing  round  it;  and  if  a  num- 
ber of  these  circles  were  placed  one  be- 
yond another,  the  farthest  would  point, 
like  the  end  of  the  needle,  to  tlie  iMMth 

fi>le,  and  the  nearest  to  the  south  pole, 
owever  the  experiinept  was  varied,  the 
circle  always  placed  itself  east  and  west : 
if  the  galvanic  current  was,  by  reversing 
the  connecting  vrires,  made  to  flow  in  an 
opposite  direction,  the  circle  turned  round 
a  semicircle,  and  sdll  stood  east  and  west, 
and  so  that  the  electric  current  should 
alwajTS  flow  downwards  on  the  eastern 
side,  and  upwards  on  the  western  side. 
Here,  then,  are  disdnct  marks  of  magnet- 
ism, particulariy  that  most  characteristic 
one  of  die  axes  pointing  always  to  the 
north,  which  can  be  attributed  only  to  the 
combined  influence  of  electric  currents 
moving  roimd  the  earth.  This  result  is 
very  much  in  favor  of  the  new  theory ; 
and  there  apfiears  to  be  only  one  link  now 
wanting,  to  connect  magnetism  and  elec- 
tricity, and  to  esuiblish  their  identity. 
This  is,  by  some  combination  of  wires 
and  magnets,  to  produce  an  undoubted 
elecuic  efiect,  such  as  the  decomposi- 
tion of  water.  This  has  been  atten^Med 
in  a  number  of  ways ;  and  in  some  ot  the 
arrangements,  the  deared  effects  appeared 
to  be  produced ;  but  no  result  has  yet  been 
obtained  wholly  free  from  doubt.  All 
the  phenomena  of  magnetism,  it  ha»  been 
found,  may  be  produced  by  electricity. 
If^  tlien,  any  of  tlie  phenomena  occasioned 
by  electricity  alone  can  be  produced  by 
magnetism,  we  shall  have  no  hesitation  in 
pronouncing  tliem  to  be  the  same  power, 
according  to  tlie  doctrine  of  Ampere. 
Should  this  theory  be  finally  established, 


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ELECTRO-MAGNETISM— ELEEMOSTTNARY  CORPORATION.     467 


an  important  addition  will  be  made  to  the 
objects  of  chemical  science.  The  depart- 
ment of  magnetic  phenomena,  whichi 
while  included  under  natural  philosophy, 
has  been  regarded  as  obscure,  almost  be- 
yond the  hope  of  elucidation,  will  be 
transferred  to  form  a  branch  of  the  former 
science,  and,  divested  in  a  great  measure 
of  its  mystery  and  difficult,  will  come  in 
for  consideration  among  the  other  agencies 
of  the  electric  fluid.  Additional  proba- 
bility will  also  be  given  to  the  opinion, 
that  not  only  electricity  and  magnetism, 
but  caloric  and  li^ht  along  with  them,  are 
merely  modifications  of  one  another,  or 
of  one  common  agent. — In  conclusion, 
with  regard  to  the  cause  of  the  electric 
currents  inferred  to  be  constantly  circu- 
lating round  the  globe,  it  is  as  yet  in  obscu- 
rity. They  are  supposed  to  move  at  right 
angles  to  the  magnetic  meridian,  or  nearly 
pmllel  with  the  equator,  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  earth  moving  from  us,  and  on 
the  western  side  flowing  towards  us. 
These  currents  may  be  compared  to  that 
which  flows  flrom-  the  negauve  pole  of  a 
voltaic  battery  in  action,  to  the  positive 
pole,  and,  by  the  medium  of  the  uniting 
wire,  round  again  to  the  negative  pole.  It 
is  conjectured,  that  the  arrangement  of  the 
materials  of  tlie  globe  may  Ue  such  as  to 
constitute  a  battery,  existing  like  a  girdle 
round  the  earth,  which,  though  composed 
of  comparatively  weak  elements,  may  be 
sufficiently  extensive  to  produce  the  ef- 
fects of  terrestrial  magnetism.  Its  irregu- 
larity, and  the  changes  which  it  may 
accidentally  or  periodically  sufler,  may 
explain  the  phenomenon  of  the  variation 
of  the  compass;  or  the  general  action 

rlucing  the  currents  of  electricity  may 
aflfected  by  difl^rent  causes,  as  the 
earth's  motions,  currents  of  the  atmoa- 
phere,  evaporation,  or  the  solar  heat  It 
IB  supposed'  that  much  of  the  variation 
depends  on  the  progress  of  oxidation  in 
the  continental  regions  of  the  globe. 
What  is  called  the  diurnal  variation  may 
be  conceived  to  bo  produced  by  the  diur- 
nal change  of  temperature  in  the  super- 
ficial layers  of  the  earth,  which  posisesB 
electro-motive  energy.* 

*  To  those  who  are  desiroos  of  extending  their 
knowledge  respecting  electrO'inagnetism,  tnc  fol- 
io win^sources  of  infonnalion  may  be  recommend- 
ed :— -The  original  memoirs  of  Oersted  {Ann.  of 
Phil,  riii,  and  N.  8.  iiu  Ara^  {Ann,  de 
Chimie,  and  R^cueil  d*  Observations  Electro- 
dynamiques)  3  Ampere  {Ann.  de  Chim.  et  Phys. 
XV.  5^)'y  Sir  H.  Davy  (PAf/.  Trans.  1821); 
Faradav  {Q^aH.  J<mm.  xii,  47,  416 >:  Barlow, 
and  otiiers  ;  also  Manual  of  Electro-Dynamics, 
by  J.  F.  £>emoiiierraod,  with  notes  by  professor 


Electrometer.    (See  "Ekcbridbi,) 

Electrofhorus.  (See  EUdricdy.) 
.  Electro-Statics  ;  tlie  science  which 
treats  of  electricity  in  equUibriOf  as  di»- 
tinguisbed  from  eKctro-dynamics,  which 
relates  to  the  effects  of  electricity  in  mo- 
tion til  rough  a  continued  system  of  con- 
ductors. (For  the  principal  &cts  belonging 
to  electro-statics,  see  EUctriciiyA 

Electrum  (Lat;  ^Adn-fwir,  Greek),  ac- 
cording to  Ovid,  was  that,  resinous  sub- 
stance now  called  <mJb€r  (q.  v.) ;  also,  ac- 
cordioff  to  Pliny  (lib.  30,  cap.  4),  a  mixture 
of  gold  and  silver,  of  which  tlie  fifth  part 
was  silver:  he  observes  that  it  is  more 
brilliant  than  pure  gold.  According  to 
other  ancient  writers,  three  varieties  of 
substances  called  eUdrum  were  used  in. 
the  arts ;  namely,  glass,  a  compound  met- 
al, and  succinum.  In  the  Homeric  poems, 
electnun  is  often  mentioned,  which  seems 
to  have  been  succinum*  the  yellow  or 
white  amber.  According  to  Eustathius, 
tlie  ancients  used  sometimes  to  call  eold 
by  this  name,  probably  fit>m  its  brilfian- 
cy,  the  word  4^/«Twp  signifying  the  sun. 
Pliny  thinks  that  the  compound  metal  or 
alloy  mentioned  above  is  die  same  that 
Homer  mentions  in  the  fourth  book  of  the 
Odyssey,  in  describing  the  palace  of  Men- 
claus,  which  he  says  was  ornamented 
with  gold,  dutrum  (^Ac^rpoir),  silver  and 
ivory.  But  there  is  reason  to  believe^says 
MilUn,  that  if  the  electnun  of  Homer  was 
a  metallic  alloy  or  compound  metal.  Ho- 
mer would  not  have  omitted  it  in  his  de- 
scription of  the  shield  of  Achilles.  It  is 
more  probable  that  electrum  was  yellow 
amber,  which  has  a  resplendent,  sunny 
brilliancy,  according  with  its  Greek  name ; 
and  Herodotus  mentions  that  succinum 
or  amber  was  known  to  tlie  ancients. — 
Pliny's  account  of  the  compoimd  metal 
of  gold  witli  a  fiflh  paipc  of  silver,  which 
he  calls  dednaOf  is  corroborated  by  Isido- 
rus,  except  in  respect  to  the  quantities; 
the  latter  giving  two  parts  of  ^Id  to  one 
of  silver  to  his  electrum.  There  are 
many  ancient  coins  of  this  rich  alloy,  the 
principal  of  which  are  some  of  the  kings 
of  Bosphorus,  some  small  ones  of  Syra- 
cuse, and  many  Celtic  and  of  ancient 
Gaul.  Goki  alloyed  with  silver  was  call- 
ed dedrum;  with  copper,  aurichakum  or 
chalcol'Sbanos, 

Eleemostnart  Corporation.  An 
eleemo^naiy  corpomdon  is  a  chari^  con- 
stituted for  the  peqietual  distribution  of  the 
alms  and  bountv  of  the  founder.  In  this 
ckiss  are  ranked  hospitals  for  the  rehef  of 
Cmnming,  Cambridge,  Engtand,  1887}  and  an 
article  in  tbe  Eneyc&padia  Meirispoliiana, 


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ELEEMOSYNARY  CORPORATION— ELEPHANT. 


poor, 
leges 


r,  sick,  and  impotent  persona,  and  col- 
leges and  academies  established  for  the 
promotion  of  learning  and  piety,  and  en- 
dowed with  property  oy  public  or  private 
donations.  They  are  either  public  or  pri- 
vate. Thus  an  hospitul  created  and  en- 
dowed by  the  government,  for  its  own 
puipoees,  and  exclusively  owned  by  the 
government,  is  a  public  coiponition  ;  but 
an  hospital  founded  by  a  pnvate  bene&c- 
tor,  is,  in  point  of  law,  a  private  corpora- 
tion, though  dedicated  by  its  charter  to 
general  charity.  A  college  founded  and 
endowed  in  the  same  manner  is  a  private 
charity ;  though,  from  its  general  objects, 
it  may  acquire  tlie  character  of  a  public 
institution.  A  mere  act  of  inc<Mrporation 
will  not  change  a  charity  from  a  private 
to  a  public  one.  To  make  a  public  char- 
ir^,  it  is  essential  that  the  express  object 
of  its  creation  be  of  a  public  character. 
A  charity  may  beptibUe,  though  adminis- 
tered ^  a  prwaU  corporation.  Thus  a 
devise  for  tiie  benefit  of  the  poor  of  a  par- 
ish, is  a  public  charity.  The  charity  of 
almost  every  hospital  and  college  is  public, 
while  the  corporations  are  private. 

J^leot;  commonly  a  mournful  atid 
plaintive  poem,  as  is  implied  by  the  sig- 
nification of  the  Greek  name.  It  signi- 
fies to  ciy  (das!  alas  I  (e  !  E !  Uytn),  But 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  had  elegies,  which 
were  so  called  only  from  the  measure  of 
the  verse,  and  were  on  various  subjects. 
The  elegiac  measure  of  the  ancients  was 
the  distich  (q.  v.),  consistinff  of  the  manly 
hexameter  alternating  with  the  delicate 
pentameter,  in  this  verse,  not  only  sor- 
row breathes  soft  lamentations,  but  joy 
and  love  pour  themselves  forth  in  its  flow- 
ing numbers.  Even  the  war-songs  of 
Tyrtflnis  and  Oallinus  were  in  elegiac 
ver^  as  were  also  the  didactic  and  heroic 
poems  and  moral  maxims  of  the  anciems. 
A  historical  examination  will  best  show 
how  plaintive  melancholy  came  to  be  the 
characteristic  of  this  sort  of  verae.  We 
must  first  go  back  to  the  origin  of  the 
pentameter.  In  the  first  volume  of  Wie- 
land's  Attic  Museeum,  it  is  proved  by  Bdt- 
tiger,  that  the  pentameter  verse  arose  from 
the  use  of  the  military  Lydian  flute.  The 
oldest  poets,  who  composed  in  tliis  meas- 
ure, confined  it  to  warlike  songs.  The 
second  jieriotl  of  the  pentameter  begins 
with  Mimiiermus  of  Cok>phon,  who,  in 
the  MHrit  of  his  efleminate  age,  breathed 
soft  feelings  into  his  flute  and  his  pentam- 
eterif  and  sung  k>ve-e1effies  to  Nanno. 
He  was  therefore  regarded  by  antiquity  as 
the  founder  of  the  tender  and  complain- 
ing elegy.     With  Simonides  begins  the 


third  period ;  as  the  distieh  was  his  fiivor- 
ite  measure  for  epitaphs  and  inscriptions 
on  tombs,  a  little  Ppem  of  this  sort  was 
called  an  d^.  The  distich,  hoviFever, 
was  never  used  exclusively  for  mournful 
poems,  and  hence  it  is  well  to  distinguish 
poems  in  elegiac  verse  from  elegy  itself. 
Among  the  modem  ECiropean  languages, 
it  is  well  known,  none  but  the  German 
have  a  rigid,  established  prosody  ;  hence 
this  language  alone  can  produce  elegies, 
in  the  ancient  sense  of  the  word.  Gothe 
and  VosB,  like  tlie  anciente,  have  happily 
applied  ^is  measure  to  joyfid  subjects. 
In  the  other  modem  lanffuages^  elegy  al- 
ways signifies  a  inouranil  poem.  The 
characteristic  of  tkue  elegy  is  k  calm  and 
meditative  contemplation  of  grie(  not  the 
wild  agony  of  suflering.  Jacobi  says  of  it 
— **  If  I  were  to  give  a  senable  image  of 
Slcgy*  I  should  not  paint  Iter  4is  masv 
have  done,  in  long  robes  of  sorrow,  with 
dishevelled  hair  and  a  veiled  brow,  weep- 
ing over  a  cofifin.  I  would  rather  repre- 
sent her  as  a  nymph  seated  placidly,  with 
her  head  upcm  her  himd,  fuU  of  feeling  and 
contemplatioii.  On  her  neglected  locks 
^ould  hang  a  tom  gaitend,  and  in  her 
lap  should  ne  a  wreath  of  ftded  flowere. 
A  tomb  should  appear  in  the  distance, 
half  concealed  by  a  dark  grove  of  cypress. 
Behind  should  rise  a  hill,  full  of  budding 
roses,  and  illumined  with  the  rays  of  the 
rising  sun." 

Ei^emeivt;  a  term  applied  in  chemis- 
try to  a  bocy  which  has  not  yet  been  de- 
composed. The  elements  of  the  ancients 
were  bodies  which  they  supposed  to  be 
absolutely  ample,  and  capable  of  fbnning 
all  other  bodies  by  their  mutual  eombinsr 
tion ;  whereas  the  elements  of  the  mod- 
ems are  regarded  as  sunple,  merely  in 
Inspect  to  the  present  state  of  the  art  of 
analyzing  bodies.  The  progress  of  chem- 
ieal  science,  for  several  centuries  past, 
has  mainly  consisted  in  carrying  still  fiu*- 
ther  the  analysis  of  bodies,  and  in  proving 
those  to  be  compound,  which  had  before 
been  thought  elementary.  (SeeChamdry,) 

Elephakt.  This  well  known  and  sa- 
gacious animal  belongs  to  the  older  of 
or  thick-tinned   animals. 


narest  recognises  two  recent  species, 
the  Asiatic  (E,  hidicus),  and  the  Afiicaii, 
{E.  ^JHcanus) ;  of  which  the  fonner  is  the 
largest,  most  readily  domesticated,  and 
best  known.  There  are  also  several  ex- 
tinct species,  whose  remains  are  met  widi 
in  almost  eveiy  part  of  the  worid.  Few 
Quadrupeds  have  attracted  more  attention 
from  mankind  than  the  ele|Aant  Form- 
ed as  it  were  for  the  service  of  man  in 


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ELEPHANT. 


wann  climates,  it  poflsesBee  every  attribute 
that  can  render  it  useful.  It  is  strong, 
active  and  persevering,  and  so  docile  and 
sagacious  as  to  be  trained  to  almost  any 
service.  It  is  not  easy  to  convey  in  words 
a  distinct  idea  of  the  form  of  any  animal 
Words,  it  is  true,  may  assist  the  imagina- 
tion in  recalling  forms  with  which  it  is 
abreadv  familiar ;  but  no  description,  how- 
ever clear  and  precise,  can  give  the  mind 
that  strong  and  distinct  impression  of  a 
new  image,  which  is  made  by  tlie  f^salil^) 
or  even  by  a  representation.  This  dim- 
cully  is  peculiaiy  felt  in  attempting  to  de- 
scribe the  elephanL  His  eyes  are  ex- 
tremely small,  his  ears  very  large  and 
penduloua  The  whole  form  is  awkward, 
the  head  bemg  larse,  the  body  thick,  and 
the  back  nuich  arched ;  the  legs  are  ^very 
clumsy  and  sliapeless,  the  feet  sfightly 
divided  into,  or,  more  properly,  edged 
with,  five  rounded  hoo& ;  the  tail  is  some- 
what like  that  of  a  liog,  and  fringed  at 
the  extremity  by  a  lew  very  thick,  long, 
black  hairs.  The  skin  is  generally  of  a  deep 
ash-brown,  approaching  to  Mack,  though 
it  is  sometimes  white  or  cream-colored ; 
skins  of  this  last  sort  are  highly  prized,  be- 
ing one  of  the  attributes  of  royalty  in  Siam, 
one  of  the  titles  of  whose  king  is,  lord  of 
Ihe  iMe  elephant.  The  tusks  are  not 
visible  in  young  animals,  but  in  a  more 
advanced  stage  of  growth,  they  are  emi- 
nently conspicuous,  and  in  the  full  grown 
anirxml  they  project,  in  some  instances, 
seven  or  eight  feet.  Elephants  sometimes 
attain  the  height  of  fifteen  feet,  but  their 
general  height  is  about  nine  or  ten.  Their 
weight  is  sometimes  enormous,  being 
from  four  to  nine  thousand  [K>unds.  The 
ienoale  seldom  produces  more  than  one  at 
a  birth  ;  this,  when  first  bom,  is  about 
three  feet  high,  and  continues  to  grow  till 
it  is  sixteen  or  eighteen  years  of  age.  It 
is  said  th^  live  to  the  age  of  one  hundred 
years  and  upwards.  They  feed  on  vege* 
taUes,  the  young  shoots  of  trees,  grain 
and  fniiL  The  most  angular  part  of  the 
structure  of  the  elephant  is  his  trunk, 
which  is  peculiar  to  this  animal,  though 
the  long  and  flexible  snout  of  the  tapir 
bears  some  resemblance  to  it  It  appears 
to  be  an  extension  of  the  canals  of  the 
nose ;  it  is  cartilaginous,  and  composed  of 
numerous  rings,  divided  through  its  whole 
loigth  by  a  septum,  and  terminates  in  a 
kind  of  movable  finger.  It  is  of  such 
strength  as  to  be  capable  of  breaking  off 
kurge  branches  fifom  trees,  whilst,  at  the 
same  time,  it  is  endowed  with  such  ex- 
quisite sendbility,  that  it  can  grasp  the 
smallest  object  The  du^Msition  of  the 
voii.  IV.  40 


elephant  is  gentle,  and  his  manners  social ; 
hence  thev  are  seldom  seen  except  in 
troops.  The  wild  elephants  of  Ceylon, 
which  are  much  esteemed,  Uve  in  small 
troops  or  fiunilies.  In  wandering  from 
place  to  place,  the  males,  who  are  fur- 
nished with  the  largest  tusks,  put  them- 
selves at  the  head,  and  are  the  first  to  face 
every  danger.  In  swimming  over  any 
large  river,  they  lead  tlie  van,  and  seek  a 
proper  landing  place :  next  follmv  the 
young  elephants,  clinging  to  each  other  by 
means  of  their  trunk^  whilst  the  remain- 
der of  the  full  grown  bring  up  -  the  rear. 
These  animals  have,  in  all  ages,  been  ea- 
gerly hunted.  Some  of  the  arts  which 
nave  been  employed  to  kill  them  or  take 
them  merit  attention.  The  Hottentots  in 
South  Africa  shoot  them  with  tin  balls: 
this  chaSe  is  attended  with  considerable 
danger;  for,  with  every  precaution  that 
can  oe  used,  the  sagacity  of  the  elephant 
often  detects  the  approach  of  the  hunter, 
who,  in  this  case,  will,  in  all  probability, 
fall  a  victim  to  the  rage  of  the  animal,  un- 
less he  can  instantiy  disable  him.  Spar- 
man. — ^In  the  island  of  Sumatra,  the  hibab- 
itauts  split  sugar  canes,  of  which  food  the 
elephant  is  very  ibnd,  and  impregnate 
them  with  poison.  Maraden, — ^In  Abys- 
smia,  they  are  pursued  by  hunters  on 
horseback,  in  the  following  manner:  Two 
men,  perfectiy  naked,  mount  the  same 
horse,  the  hindermost  is  armed  with  a 
broadsword,  the  lower  part  of  which  is 
covered  with  cord,  and  the  remainder  is 
exceedingly  shar]).  In  this  manner  tiiey 
puroue  the  elephants,  and,  having  singled 
out  one,  they  irritate  him  to  attack  them^ 
when  they  ride  up  close  to  him,  and  tlie 
armed  man  slips  from  tiie  horse  on  the 
off  side,  and,  whilst  the  elephant's  atten- 
tion is  engaged  with  the  horae,  he  divides 
the  tendons  of  his  foot  with  a  single  blow, 
and  thus  disables  him,  when  he  is  de- 
spatched by  lances.  Bruce, — ^Thev  are 
also  taken  alive  in  pitfalls,  or  are  driveil 
into  enclosures  ;  in  either  case  they  are 
fed  seantily,  though  regularly,  for  a  few 
days,  when  tame  elephants  are  employed 
to  engage  their  attention  till  they  can  be 
tied  mst  to  a  tree ;  after  they  have  become 
somewhat  dispirited,  they  are  led  away 
between  two  tame  ones,  and  put  under 
the  care  of  keepers,  who  gradually  bring 
Uiem  into  subjection,  more,  however,  by 
caresses  and  soothing  than  by  coercion. 
When  tamed,  they  become  the  most  gen- 
tle and  obedient  of  all  domestic  animal& 
and,  in  most  cases,  are  exceedingly  fond 
of  their  keepers,  and  soon  learn  to  distin^ 
guiah  the  variofii  tones  of  the  human 


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EI-EPHANT— ELEPHANTIASIS. 


voice,  80  expressive  of  anger,  approbation 
or  command.  The  domestic-  elephant 
performs  more  work  than  six  horses,  hut 
at  the  same  tune,  requires  much  care,  and 
a  plentiful  supply  of  food.  He  is  ^n- 
erally  fed  with  rice,  either  raw  or  boiled, 
and  mixed  with  water.  To  keep  him  in 
fiiJl  vigor,  a  hundred  pounds  of  this  food 
is  said  to  be  required  daily,  besides  fresh 
herbage  to  cool  him,  and  he  must  be  led  to 
the  water  twice  or  thrice  a  day  to  batlie. 
His  daily  consumption  of  water  as  drink 
is  about  forty  gallons.  To  enumerate  all 
the  services  ofthese  useful  animals  would 
be  incompatible  with  the  design  of  this 
work.  They  are  employed  in  carrying 
burdens  on  tlieur  bodies,  necks,  and  even 
in  their  mouths,  by  means  of  a  rope,  the 
end  of  which  thev  hold  fast  witii  their 
teeth ;  they  load  a  boat  with  amazing  dex- 
terity, carefully  keeping  all  the  articles 
dry,  and  disposing  them  where  they  ought 
to  be  placed.  In  propelling  wheel  car> 
riages  heavily  laden  up  a  declivity,  tliev 
push  them  forward  with  their  forehead, 
and  support  them  with  tiieir  knees.  In 
dragging  beams  of  wood  along  tlie  ground, 
they  remove  obstacles  or  elevate  the  ends 
of  tke  beams  so  as  to  clear  them.  Before 
the  invention  of  fireanns,  they  were  used 
■in  war  by  many  nations  of  antiquity; 
they  are  still  employed  in  the  East  in 
dragging  artillery  over  mountains  Dur- 
ing the  rutting  season,  this  animal  is  often 
seized  with  a  madness  which  deprives 
him  of  all  tractability,  and  renders  him  so 
dangerous,  that  it  is  often  necessaiy  to  kill 
him.  In  many  parts  of  India,  elephants 
are  made  the  executioners  of  justice ;  for 
they  will  with  their  trunks  either  break 
the  limbs  of  a  criminal,  trample  him  to 
death,  or  pierce  him  with  their  tusks,  as 
they  may  be  directed.  In  die  island  of 
Ceylon,  the  general  value  of  an  elephant 
is  about  $250;  but  if  there  is  any  blemish, 
as  a  want  of  tail,  &C.,  very  considerable 
deductions  are  made.  They  are  taken  at 
certain  stated  periods,  and  generally  a 
great  number  are  sold  together  by  auction. 
Elephants  appear  to  be  very  susceptible 
to  tne  power  of  music,  variations  in  the 
character  of  the  sounds  producing  cor- 
responding changes  in  the  .emotions  of 
the  auiniaJs.  The  tusks  of  the  elephant 
have  k>ng  been  applied,  under  the  denom- 
ination of  tvory,  to  a  variety  of  important 
uses  in  the  arts.  From  the  fossil  remains 
which  have  been  discovered,  it  is  apparent 
that  they  roust  have  been  abundantly  dis- 
tributed over  the  eaith  ;  and.  some  of 
them  fl|)pear  to  have  been  adapted  to  a 
much  more  noithem  climate  than  is  now 


inhabited  by  4fae  elephant  Thespecknen 
which  was,  some  years  since,  found  im- 
bedded in  ice  in  Siberia,  was  covered  with 
a  long  and  coarse  hair,  and  with  a  finer 
and  woolly  covering,  which  was  short,  and 
closely  applied  to  the  euriace,  thus  pro- 
tecting it  against  the  severe  cold  of  those 
latitufks.  The  accounts  of  the  manners 
and  intelligence  of  the  elephant  as  ^ven 
by  writers,  although  in  many  cases  evi- 
dentiy  exaggerated,  still  afford  proof  of 
a  surprising  diegree  of  sagacity,  and  fully 
entitle  him  to  the  rank  of 

**  Wiseat  of  bnites,  with  g<eiil)emu4it  endowed; 

Though  powerful,  not  destructive. 

ELEPHAirr A,  or  Elephant  Islb  ;  called 
by  thenativesGAor^MNW- ;  an  island  between 
liombayand  die  west  coast  ofUindostan, 
5  miles  in  circuit ;  with  about  100  inhab- 
itants ;  5  miles  £.  Bombay.  It  was  nam- 
ed Elifiiicada  by  the  Portuguese,  from  a 
colossal  statue  of  an  elephant  formed  out 
of  black  rock,  which  stands  in  the  open 
■plain  opposite  to  the  landing  place.  The 
island  owes  its  celebrity  to  its  wonderful 
cave  and  mythological  inscriptions.  This 
cave  is  nearly  60  Set  square,  and  18  high, 
supported  by  pillata  cut  out  of  the  ro»; 
and  in  the  sides  tiiere  are  numerous  com- 
partments, containing  various  representa- 
tions of  Hindoo  deities. 

ELEPHAifTiAsis  (from  A/^c,  an  ele- 
phant) ;  a  disease  so  called  finom  the  Ic^ 
of  people  afiected  with  it  growing  scaly, 
rough,  and  wonderfully  large,  at  an  ad- 
vanced period,  hke  the  legs  of  an  elephanL 
The  disease  attacks  the  whole  body,  but 
mosdy  affects  the  feet,  which  appear 
somewhat  like  those  of  the  elephant.  It 
is  known  by  the  skin  bein^  thick,  rou^ 
wrinkly,  unctuous,  and  void  of  hair,  and 
mostly  without  die  sense  of  feeling.  It  is 
said  to  be  contagious.  Cidlen  makes  it  a 
genus  of  disease  in  the  class  cackaia^  and 
order  unpe%met.  Elephantiasis  has  gen- 
erally been  supposed  to  arise  in  conse- 
quence of  some  slif^ht  attack  of  fever,  on 
the  cessation  of  which  the  morbid  matter 
&Ils  on  tlie  leg,  and  occasions  a  distension 
and  tume&ction  of  the  Kmb,  which  is  af* 
terwards  overspread  with  uneven  lumpi^ 
and  deep  fissures.  By  some  authors  it  has 
been  considered  as  a  species  of  leprosy; 
but  it  often  subsists  for  manv  years  with- 
out being  accompanied  with  any  of  die 
symptoms  which  characterize  that  dis- 
ease. It  sometimes  comes  on  gradually, 
without  much  previous  indispoeitioii ;  but 
more  generally,  the  person  is  seized  widi 
a  coklness  and  shivering,  pains  in  the 
head,  back  and  kiins,  and  some  degree  of 
nouaea.    A  alight  fever  then  euMio^  and 


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n  pevere  pfiin  is  felt  in  one  of  the  inguinal 
fflands,  which,  after  a  abort  time,  becomes 
hard,  swelled  and  inflamed.  No  suppu* 
ration,  however,  ensues  ;  but  a  red  streak 
may  be  observed  running  down  the  thigh 
from  the  swelled  gland  to  the  Jeg.  As 
the  inflammation  increases  id  all  tlie  porta, 
the  fever  gradually  abates,  and,  perhaps, 
irfler  two  or  three  days'  continuance,  goes 
oif.  It,  however,  returns  again  at  wicer- 
tain  periods,  leaving  the  leg  greatly  swelled 
with  varicose,  turgid  veins,  the  skin  rough 
and  rugged,  and  a  thickened  membrana 
edkdosa.  Scales  appear  also  on  the  sur- 
face, which  do  not  fall  off,  but  are  en- 
larged by  the  increasing  thickness  of  the 
membranes;  uneven  lumps,  with  deep 
fissures,  are  formed,  and  tlie  leg  and  foot 
become  at  last  of  an  enormous  size.  A 
person  may  labor  under  this  disease  many 
Tears  without  finding  much  alteration  in 
bis  general  health,  except  during  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  attacks ;  and  perhaps  the 
chief  inconvenience  he  will  exi)erience  is 
the  enormous  bulky  leg  which  he  drags 
about  with  him.  The  incumbrance  has, 
indeed,,  induced  many  who  have  labored 
under  this  disease  to  submit  to  an  ampu- 
tation ;  but  the  operation  seldom  proves  a 
radical  cure,  as  the  other  leg  frequently 
becomes  affected.  Hilary  observes,  that 
be  never  saw  both  legs  swelled  at  the 
same  time.  Instances  where  they  have 
alike  acquu«d  a  fnghtful  and  prodigious 
nze,  have,  however,  frequently  fallen  un- 
der the  observation  of  otlier  physicians. 

Elephant's  River,  in  Africa,  rises  in 
the  countrv  of  the  Hottentots,  and  runs 
into  the  Atlantic,  laL  dl''  S. 

ELEPHAifTiiiA,  or  El  Sao  ;  a  small  bl- 
and on  the  Nile,  opposite  to  Syene ;  re- 
markable for  the  ruins  with  which  it  b 
covered.  The  northern  part  is  low,  the 
southern  elevated  and  rocky.  The  Nile, 
ibr  nearly  a  mile  above,  is  mterrupted  by 
numerous  Sfnall  ix)cks  of  that  fine  red  gra- 
nite, which  characterizes  tliis  island,  and 
which  produced  so  manv  |x>rtals,  colunms 
and  obelisks,  to  adorn  the  chief  cities  of 
antiquity.  The  island  is  covered  with 
ruins,  piled  upon  each  other — Eg3rptian, 
Roman,  Saracen  and  Arabic  Of  these 
the  Egyptian,  though  the  most  ancient, 
are  in  the  best  state  of  preservation.  It  is 
supposed  tliat  tliere  was  once  a  great  tem- 
ple here,  dedicated  to  the  god  Cnuphis, 
all  traces  of  which  are  now  obliterated ; 
but  there  remains  a  pyramidal  portal  of 
red  granite,  supposed  to  have  foitrjed  the 
entrance.  There  are  two  small  temples, 
one  of  which  is  beUeved  by  Denon  to  be- 
long to  the  earliest  ages  of  Egypt    It  is 


covered  within  and  without  with  hiero- 
glyphics, executed  in  a  style  of  peculiar 
excellence.  On  the  eastern  side  of  the 
island  are  remains  of  a  high  wall,  of 
which  the  masonry  is  admirable. 

Elecsis  (now  htpsmoy  a  village),  next 
to  Athens,  was  the  principal  city  of  At- 
tica. The  mysteries  of  Ceres  and  Proser- 
pine were  celebrated  there,  and  were 
thence  called  EUumnieu  Neither  the 
founder  of  these  mysteries  nor  the  dma 
of  their  origin  is  known ;  they  were  the 
oldest  and  the  most  venerable  in  Greece : 
originally  they  were  only  a  public  festi- 
val, a  harvest-home,  to  express  the  grati- 
tude of  men  to  Ceres  for  her  bounties ;  t# 
recall  their  former  condition,  and  enjoy 
their  present  blessuigs ;  to  banisli  unkmd 
feelings,  and  perhaps,  also,  to  form  new 
laws  and  project  new  enterprises.  We 
have  no  information  of  the  manner  in 
which  the  proper  mysteries  arose  from 
these  mde  games  and  fesdvidcs.  They 
were  celebrated  at  the  temple  of  Ceres  at 
Eleusia,  in  a  court  sunroimded  by  walls. 
Behind  tlie  temple  was  an  elevation  in  the 
rock  upon  which  it  stood,  8  or  9  feet  high, 
370  feet  long,  and  in  some  places  44  feet 
biXNul :  on  tlje  nortliem  end  of  this  rock  the 
ruins  of  a  chapel  are  still  visible.  The 
persons  who  presided  at  the  Eieusiniait 
mysteries  were : — 1.  The  Hierophant  (q. 
v.).  He  was  the  type  of  the  Creator  of 
the  world,  and  appeared  with  emblema 
of  Omnipotence.  2.  The  torch-bearer. 
He  was  the  type  of  the  sun.  His  business 
was  to  purify  those  who  were  to  be  ini- 
tiated, and,  on  the  fifUi  night,  when  the 
wanderings  of  Ceres  on  iEma  were  rep- 
resented, to  lead  the  other  torch-bearerSL 

3.  The  sacred  herald,  who  enjoined  n- 
lence  upon  those  who  were  to  be  initiated, 
and  commanded  the  profane  to  withdraw. 

4.  He  who  served  at  the  altar,  and  bore 
the  emblem  of  the  nKX>n.  Besides  tliese 
persons,  tlie  archon  or  baaileus  attended 
to  the  preservation  of  order,  offered 
prayers  and  sacrifices,  and  obliged  the  un- 
initiated and  the  criminal  to  retire.  He 
judged  and  punished  any  who  disturbed 
the  solemnities.  Ancient  authors  also 
mention  priestesses,  but  we  have  not  been 
informed  of  their  office.  The  mysteries 
were  oommonly  distinguished  into  the 
ffreater  and  less.  Most  authors  give  the 
following  account  of  them.  Hercules, 
being  at  Athens,  desired  to  be  initiated 
into  the  mysteries ;  but,  by  the  laws,  no 
stranger  could  be  admitted:  tljat  they 
might  not  ofiend  the  hero  whom  they 
respected  and  feared,  nor  yet  violate  the 
ancient  laws^  tlie  Athenians  instituted  the 


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ELEUSIS— ELGIN. 


leaser  mysteries,  to  the  celebration  of 
which  he  was  admitted.  These  were  af- 
terwards preparatory  to  the  mater;  for 
which  the  candidate  was  obliged  to  fit 
himself  by  religious  ceremonies,  symboli- 
cal rites,  and  various  acts  of  devotion,  the 
design  of  which  was  to  withdraw  his  at- 
tention, at  least  for  a  time,  from  business 
and  pleasure,  to  keep  him  pure,  chaste 
and  unpolluted,  and  to  excite  his  curiosity 
hi  relation  to  the  expected  revelations. 
The  period  of  purification  continued  a 
year;  and  no  one  could  be  admitted  to  the 
mysteries  without  purification,  on  j>ain  of 
death.  The  ceremony  of  admission  was 
performed  by  night  :  tlie  candidates, 
crowned  with  myrde,  were  obliged  to 
wash  their  hands  at  the  sacred  threshold 
with  holv  water:  public  proclamation  was 
also  made,  tliat  the  mysteries  should  be 
approached  only  with  pure  hands  and 
pure  hearts.  Pure  Greek  only  was  to  be 
spoken.  The  celebration  of  the  mysteries 
commenced  on  the  15th  dav  of  the  month 
Boedromion,  and  continued  nine  days.  It 
consisted  principally  of  representations  of 
the  history  of  Ceres  and  Proserpine,  the 
tortures  of  Tartarus,  and  the  joys  of  Elys- 
ium, which  were  exhibited  in  the  most 
striking  manner.  The  chief  design  was, 
by  sensible  means,  to  si)read  among  the 
people  a  conviction  of  the  inunortality  of 
the  soul,  and  of  a  future  state  of  rewards 
and  punishments.  The  initiated  were 
under  tlie  peculiar  protection  of  the  gods, 
and  they  alone  were  certain  of  tlie  jojrs 
of  immortality.  Very  different  from  these 
lesser  were  the  greater  mysteries,  which 
contained  the  secret  doctrines  that  were 
the  chief  object  of  the  institution,  and  were 
communicated  only  to  a  few  (the  Epoptae), 
in  the  recesses  of  the  sanctuary.  Secrecy 
was  enjoined  under  the  most  dreadful 
penalties.  Divine  vengeance  and  death 
were  tlie  punishment  of  those  who  dis- 
closed them.  These  doctrines  probably 
aimed  at  the  explanation  of  the  popular 
superstition  and  mytliology,  and  the  inter- 
pretation of  their  true  meaning.  The  mys- 
teries inculcated  the  doctrine  of  one  God, 
and  the  dignity  and  destiny  of  the  soul  of 
man:  they  instructed  the  people  in  the 
knowledge  of  nature  and  of  the  universe, 
and  pointed  out  the  traces  of  the  Deity  in 
the  beauty  and  majesty,  the  splendor  and 
regularity  of  the  visible  world.  (See  Pot- 
ters AntiquiHu,  ii,  20.) 

Electhera,  or  Aulbaster  Island; 
one  of  the  Bahama  islands.  The  climate 
is  healthy,  and  the  soil  is  fertile.  It  has  a 
fort  and  small  garrison.  The  ]ai|;est  set- 
tlement is  at  Harbor  island,  at  the  northern 


extremity,  containing,  in  1803, 890  inhab- 
itants; and  the  settlement  of  Wreck 
sound,  on  the  west  side,  contained  about 
400.    Lon.7e«3rW.;laL25«14'N. 

Elevation  of  a  Place.  (See  JUHtudtJ) 

Elevation,  in  the  ceremony  of  the 
mass,  is  the  raising,  first  of  the  host  and 
then  of  the  cup,  to  receive  the  homage  of  the 
people,  as  the  body  and  the  blood  of  Jesus 
Christ :  the  priest  Iriniself  previously  per- 
forms the  act  of  adoration  by  a  deep  gen- 
uflection. This  ceremony  was  introduced 
into  the  Latin  church  in  the  beginning  of 
the  12th  centurj',  in  consequence  of^the 
heresy  of  Berengarius,  in  order  to  render 
the  profession  of  the  belief  in  the  real 
presence  and  the  transubstantiation  as 
clecided  and  striking  as  iioasible.  In  the 
Greek  CathoUic  church,  die  elevation  of 
the  liost  does  not  take  place  immediately 
afler  the  consecration,  as  in  the  Roman 
church,  but  before  the  communion,  when 
tlie  priest  says  scmda  tancHs  (the  holy  for 
the  ho]y|. 

Elf,  m  the  ancient  northern  mytholo- 
gy ;  certain  beings,  sometimes  visible,  at 
other  times  invisible ;  either  bright,  beau- 
tiful and  good  {lAasalfar\  dwelling  in 
heaven  L^lfheim),  or  black,  ugly  and  ma- 
licious \Sckw€aialfar)y  living  under  tlie 
ground.  ''The  former,"  says  the  Edda 
(q.  v.),  *<  are  brighter  than  the  sun ;  the 
latter,  blacker  than  pitch."  To  tlie  latter 
belonffs  the  nightmare  (m  German,  ^p\ 
The  miries,  nixies,  brownies,  robin-good- 
feIlows,&c.,  all  belong  to  this  family.  The 
elf-knots  are  known  to  every  body.  How 
delightfully  Shakspeare  has  availed  him 
self  of  these  shadowy  creations  of  a  play- 
ful imagination,  we  all  remember. 

Elgin,  lord,  bom  1769,  an  English 
nobleman  of  an  ancient  family,  has  de- 
voted himself  particularly  to  the  study  of 
antiquities  and  the  arts.  In  1792,  he  was 
sent  as  English  ambassador  to  th0[  Aus- 
trian court  in  the  Netherlands;  a^d,  in 
1799,  in  the  same  capacity,  to  Constanti- 
nople, where  he  received  fix>m  the  sultan 
the  order  of  the  crescent  Being  recalled 
in  1800,  he  travelled  through  Greece. 
The  English  government  not  complying 
with  his  request  to  cause  drawings  of  the 
ancient  monuments  to  be  made,  he  en- 
gaged several  distinguished  artists  at  his 
own  expense,  viz.,  Tita  Lusiori,  Balestra, 
Ittar,  and  the  famous  Calmuck,  Feodor 
Ivanovitsch.  In  1811,  the  result  of  his 
travels  and  investigations  appeared,  in  a 
work  called  Pursuits  in  Greece ;  and,  in 
1814,  he  removed  many  splendid  remaina 
of  antiquity  to  England,  at  a  great  es- 
pense.     The  English  nation  anerwiida 


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473 


bought  them  for  £35,000,  and  they  are 
now  to  be  seen  in  tlie  British  Museum, 
London.  The  El^a  mari)le8  are  some 
of  the  finest  remains  of  ancient  art,  and 
offer  the  richest  field  for  study.  Li  the 
Vatican  are  casts  ui  plaster  of  these  su- 
perb relics.  Casts  have  been  made,  i^ko, 
for  W(irtemberg,  Russia  and  other  states. 
The  largest  part  of  them  (92  pieees)  are 
firom  tlie  Parthenon  of  Athens,  and  were, 
perhaps,  executed  from  designs  by  Phid- 
las.  Such  an  important  collection  of  an- 
tiques has,  of  course,  drawn  forth  nu- 
merous publications.  The  learned  Vis- 
conti  wrote  a  work  on  the  Elgin  marbles 
(London,  1816),  and  an  official  report  was 
drawn  up  from  the  notes  of  this  accpm- 
pliahed  scholar,  which  contains  tlie  opin- 
ions of  most  of  the  first  sculptors  and 
painters  of  our  age,  respecting  tnese  stat- 
ues, expressed  in  the  strongest  terms  of 
admiration.  Lord  Elgin,  on  his  return 
from  Turkey,  passed  through  France,  and 
was  one  of  the  persons  detained  by  Bona- 
parte, on  the  rupture  of  the  peace  of 
AmienSy  as  hostages  for  the  security  of  tlie 
French  who  had  been  seized  by  the  Brit- 
ish cruisers.  He  was  not  hberated  till 
1806.  The  purchase  of  the  famoufi  nuu*- 
bles  brought  to  England  by  lord  Elgin,  is 
said  to  have  been  made  at  the  suggestion 
of  Mr.  Hamilton,  then  his  secretary,  and 
since  under-secretar^  of  state. 

£l-Harib  ;  a  temton^  in  the  north-west 
of  Africa,  to  tlie  soutli  of  Morocco,  to  which 
it  is  tributaiy,  important  as  the  stopping- 
place  of  caravans  passing  fit>m  Tirabuc- 
too  (q.  v.),  through  the  desert,  to  the 
north-west  of  Africa.  This  passage  was 
performed  in  two  months  by  the  caravan 
of  CfuU^.  (q.  V.J    £1-Harib  is  two  days' 

i'oumey  west  nrom  the  territory  of  El- 
>rah,  and  one  to  the  east  of  the  tribe  of 
the  Trajacants,  and  is  situati^  between 
two  chains  of  mountains,  which  extend 
finom  east  to  west,  and  separate  it,  towards 
the  north,  from  the  empire  of  Morocco, 
The  principal  wealth  of  the  inhabitants 
consists  in  the  great  quantity  of  camels 
which  they  breed,  and  which,  in  the  wet 
season,  produce  abundance  of  milk  for 
theur  sustenance.  The  Moors  of  £1-Ha- 
rib  cany  goods  fbr  the  merchants  of  Tafi- 
let,  El-Drah,  &c.,  on  their  camels,  to 
Tunbuctoo  and  other  places.  They  re- 
turn vrith  gold  and  slaves^  which  thev 
seU  in  Morocco.  The  inhabitants  of  El- 
Harib  consist  of  11  tribes  of  Mohamme- 
dans, filthy  to  excess,  and  are  much  op« 
Dressed  and  despised  by  the  wandering 
Becbeis  and  their  other  neighbors.  (See 
R&q6  Caille's  Traods  thrwgh  Central  AJH- 
40* 


ea  io  Tmibudoo^  dec,  Paris  and  London, 
1830,  2  vols.)    . 

Elianus.    (See  ^ianus,) 

Elias.    (See  Elijah.) 

Elijah  ;  a  prophet,  who  lived  in  the 
reign  of  Ahab,  kins  of  Israel,  and  Jeho- 
shaphat,  king  of  Judah.  The  prophet 
rebuked  both  these  kings  for  their  idola- 
try, and  at  last  succeeded,  by  his.  miracles, 
in  abolishing  it  Instead  of  dying  in  the 
common  way,  he  ascended  to  heaven  in 
a  fiery  chariot.  His  successor  was  Eli- 
sba.  His  history  is  related  in  the  First 
and  Second  Books  of  Kings.  According 
to  some  pass^es  of  the  Scriptures,  tlie 
Jews  expected  Elijah  to  appear  before 
the  Messiah,  and  Christians  have  mam- 
toined  that  he  vfdll  appear  on  earth 
before  the  end  of  the  world.  Many  le- 
gends are  related  of  this  prophet  by 
Christians  and  Mohammedans.  The  cu- 
rious will  find  specimens  of  these  in  Bay  le. ' 
(For  information  of  the  views  of  the  Cath- 
olics respecting  tliis  prophet,  we  refer  the 
reader  to  the  Didiofmaire  de  JlUalogief 
Toulouse,  1817.) 

Elio,  Francisco  Xavier,  having  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  Spanish  war 
against  Napoleon,  was  appointed  by  the 
regency  to  be  captain-general  of  the  prov- 
inces of  Rio  de  fa  Plata,  during  the  early 
part  of  the  revolution  in  South  America. 
He  had  to  contend  with  Liniers  and  Arti- 
gas  (q.  V.)  particularly ;  and  was  attacked 
and  besieged  b^  the  latter  in  Monte  Video. 
The  siege  bemg  prosecuted  by  Rondo 
with  every  proqiect  of  success,  Elio  im- 
plored the  asostance  of  the  BraziUan  gov- 
emment  An  auxiliaiy  force  of  iOOO 
Portuguese  was  prepanng  to  relieve  him, 
when  the  fear  of  their  approach  induced 
the  patriots  to  close  with  the  propositions 
for  peace  made  by  Elio.  This  was  in 
1811;  but  Elio  was  again  besieged  the 
next  year.  Meanwhile  he  was  succeeded 
bv  don  Caspar  Vigodet,  and  returned  to 
Europe.  Upon  the  return  of  Ferdinand 
VII,  Elio  was  one  of  the  first  to  declare 
in  &vor  of  absolute  monarchy,  and  con- 
tributed efficaciously  to  the  revolution 
which  overthrew  the  regency  and  the 
cortes  of  Cadiz.  He  was  rewarded  with 
the  appointment  of  captain-general  of  the 
kingoom  of  Valencia,  which  he  governed 
wim  all  the  extremiQr  of  fanatical  rigor. 
A  disturbance  in  the  city  of  ^Valencia  gave 
him  occasion  to  inffict  upon  the  fiiends 
of  liberal  institutions,  indiscriminately,  a 
series  of  cruelties  shocking  to  humanity. 
His  career  of  atrocity  lasted  upwards  of  a 
year,  when  it  was  cut  short  by  the  revival 
of  the  constitation  of  Cadiz,  in  March, 


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EUO-i^LIOTT. 


1820.  Elk)  proclaimed  the  new  order  of 
thindB,  and  prepared  to  submit  to  it,  yet 
would  have  been  killed  by  the  populace, 
but  for  the  intercession  of  the  count  of 
Almodavar.  He  was  imprisoned  in  tlie  cit- 
adel, where  he  remained  until  May,  182^ 
widiout  a  conclusion  of  his  trial.  At  that 
time,  he  was  implicated  in  a  movement 
of  part  of  the  garrison  in  favor  of  ab- 
solutism. He  was  immediately  brought 
to  trial  before  a  military  commission,  for 
this  new  crime,  and  unanimously  sen- 
tenced to  the  punishment  of  death,  which 
was  indicted  Sept.  3,  1822.  Wlien  the 
invasion  of  the  French  restored  Ferdi- 
nand to  absolute  power,  the  greatest  hon- 
ors were  paid  to  the  memory  of  general 
£lia  His  eldest  son  received  the  title  of 
marquii  ofFideltty^  and  his  full  pay  as  gen- 
eral was  continued  to  his  widow  and  chil- 
dren. The  judges,  also,  who  condemned 
him  to  death,  were  among  the  exceptions 
from  the  decree  of  amnesty  of  1824. 

Eliot,  John,  styled  the  apasUe  to  the 
Jidianf,  was  bom  in  England,  in  1604, 
and  educated  at  the  university  of  Cam- 
bridge. After  pursuinff  the  occupation  , 
of  a  teacher  in  England,  he  emigrated,  in 
1631,  to  Massachusetts.  He  became  min- 
ister of  the  church  in  Roxbury,  and  soon 
conceived  a  strong  passion  for  Chris- 
tianizing and  improving  the  condition  of 
the  Indians,  of  whom  there  were  neariy 
twenty  tribes  within  the  limits  of  tbe 
English  plantations.  He  acquired  their 
language,  and  published  a  grammar  and 
a  translation  of  the  Bible  in  it  The 
merit  is  claimed  for  him  of  having 
been  the  first  Protestant  clergyman  who 
preached  the  gospel  to  the  North  Amer- 
ican savages.  His  evangelical  labors, 
and  personal  sufferings,  tiis  influence 
among  them,  his  zeal,  courage  and  expo- 
sure in  protecting  them  from  wrong  and 
violence,  are  celebrated  in  a  number  of  the 

Eations  on  New  England  histoiy  and 
phy.  This  indefiittgable  missionary 
A&j  20, 1690,  aged  about  86  years. 
He  left  four  sons,  whom  he  had  educated 
at  Harvard  college,  and  who  were  classed 
witli  *<the  best  preachers  of  their  genera- 
tion.'* His  extreme  antipathy  to  wigs 
and  the  use  of  tobacco  is  specially  no- 
ticed by  all  his  biographers.  He  was 
eccentric,  besides,  in  his  ascetic  habits, 
and  in  several  of  his  main  theological 
opuiions.  His  printed  works  are  volu- 
minous. In  1660,  be  issued  a  tract,  in 
which  he  attempted  to  prove  that  the 
Indians  are  descendants  of  the  Jews.  His 
political  theories  were  fully  democratic. 
Uutchinmn  relates,  in  his  lurtoiy  of  Mas- 


sachusetts, tliat,  in  1660,  the  governor  and 
council  of  Massachusetts  pronounced  the 
Christian  Commonwealth,  of  which  Eliot 
was  the  autlior,  to  be  **  full  of  seditious 
principles  and  notions,  in  relation  to  all 
established  governments  in  the  Christian 
world,  especially  against  the  government 
established  in  tlieir  native  country."  Upon 
consultation  witli  the  elders,  their  formal 
censure  was  deferred,  in  order  to  afford 
the  heretical  republican  an  opportunity  of 
making  a  public  recantation.  He  did  this 
in  a  paper,  which  he  delivered  to  the 
genera]  court,  at  its  next  session,  and  which 
was  posted  up,  by  its  order,  in  the  princi- 
pal towns  ot  the  colony.  He  acknowl- 
edges that "  such  expressions  as  do  mani- 
festly scandalize  tlie  government  of  Eng- 
land, by  king,  lords  and  commons,  are 
antichristian,  and  that  all  form  of  civil 
government,  deduced  from  Scripture,  is 
of  God,  and  to  be  subjected  to,  for  con- 
science' sake ;  and  whatsoever  is  in  the 
whole  episde  or  book  inconsistent  herewith 
he  does,  at  once,  most  cordiallv  disown." 
Eliott,  George  Au^istus  (lord  Heath- 
field)  ;  the  defender  of  Gibraltar;  bcnn  at 
Stubbs,  ui  Scotland,  1718,  of  an  ancient 
family.  He  was  educated  at  home,  by  a 
private  tutor,  and  afterward  sent  to  the 
university  of  Leyden.  He  studied  milita- 
ry science  at  the  French  mihtary  school  at 
La  Fere,  travelled  through  several  parts 
of  the  continent,  and  ser>'ed  in  the  Prus- 
sian army  as  a  volunteer.  In  1733,  he 
joined  the  engineer  corps  at  Woolwich, 
where  he  continued  till  he  was  made 
adjutant  of  the  second  corps  of  hone 
grenadiers.  He  accompanied  George  II 
to  Germany  in  May,  1743,  when  that 
monarch  assisted  Maria  Theresa  asainst 
France,  and  was  wounded  in  the  battle 
of  Dettinsen,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant-colonel. In  tlie  seven  years'  war, 
he  fouffht  under  the  command  of  the 
duke  of  Cumbeiiand,  prince  Ferdinand, 
and  the  crown-prince  of  Brunswick,  from 
1757,  as  commander  in  chief  of  a  regi- 
ment of  light  cavalry,  which  he  had  him- 
self raised.  He  was  called  from  the  con- 
tinent to  be  made  second  in  command  at 
Havanna.  In  1775,  he  was  made  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  forces  in  Ireland, 
and,  in  the  same  year,  received  the  gov- 
emorahip  of  Gibraltar.  Spain,  in  con- 
nexion with  France,  took  part,  in  1779,  in 
the  war  between  England  and  America, 
and,  even  before  the  declaration  of  war, 
laid  siege  to  Gibraltar,  by  sea  and  by  land. 
In  the  course  of  three  years,  all  the  prepa- 
rations had  been  made  for  a  siege,  which 
m  one  of  the  most  extnordinaiy  in  bisioiy 


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In  June,  1782,  the  duke  of  Crillon,  com- 
mander-in-cliief  of  the  Spanish  army, 
who  had  recently  taken  the  island  of  Mi- 
norca from  the  English,  arrived  al  Gibral^ 
tar,  with  a  reinforoemenL  All  the  French 
princes  royal  were  in  the  camp.  An 
army  of  30,000  Frenchmen  and  Spaniuds 
were  at  the  foot  of  the  hill.  Floating 
batteries  were  constructed  to  attack  the 
fortifications,  with  two  roofs,  so  carefully 
and  strongly  built,  that  neither  balls  nor 
bombs  could  iniure  them :  there  were  ten 
of  them,  which,  together,  had  2Sf7  can- 
nons, each  cannon  being  served  by  36 
men.  Sept  13, 1782,  they  drew  near  to 
the  fortress,  and  the  crews  (consisting  of 
criminals,  to  whom,  if  they  aid  their  du^, 
a  pension  of  200  livres  per  annum  had 
been  proanised)  commenced  the  attack. 
Eliott  wished  to  assail  the  batteries  with 
red-hot  shot,  but  knew  no  means  of  pre- 
paring them  in  sufficient  quantity.  A 
German  smith,  however,  named  Schw&n 
RendJek,  constructed  an  oven  for  the  pur- 
pose, and  more  than  4000  hot  shot  were 
now  showered  on  the  batteries.  The 
same  afternoon,  smoke  was.  seen  to  rise 
from  the  principal  batteiy  and  two  others. 
The  enemy 'in  vain  attempted  to  subdue 
the  flames  and  close  the  holes;  at  one 
o'clock  at  night,  three  of  the  batteries 
were  completely  in  flames,  and  some  of 
the  others  were  beginning  to  bum.  The 
crews  in  vain  made  signals  to  the  Spcmish 
fleet  of  their  condition ;  they  could  do  noth- 
ing for  the  batteries,  and  only  attempted  to 
rescue  the  crews ;  but  12  gunboats,  which 
left  the  fortress,  commanded  by  captain 
Curtis,  prevented  the  boats  of  the  besiegers 
fit»m  approaching,  and,  at  the  same  dme, 
continued  to  fire  on  the  floating  fortresses. 
At  break  of  day,  the  crews  were  seen  on 
the  burning  batteries,  crying  for  help.  The 
besieged  now  hastened  to  assist  them, 
dangerous  as  it  was,  on  account  of  the 
balls  firom  the  heated  cannons  and  the 
pieces  of  wood  from  the  bursting  struc- 
tures, which  flew  against  them.  Curtis, 
at  the  risk  of  his  own  life  and  those  of  his 
people,  saved  13  ofiicers  and  344  soldiers. 
An  attack  by  land  was  also  firustrated  by 
Eliott,  and,  at  the  same  time,  a  tempest 
greatly  injuring  the  Spanish  fleet,  the 
siege,  from  the  middfe  of  November, 
17^  was  changed  into  a  close  blockade, 
to  which  the  peace,  concluded  at  Ver- 
sailles, Jan.  20, 1783,  put  an  end.  The 
king  of  England  sent  Eliott  the  order  of 
the  Bath,  which  was  presented  to  him 
on  the  spot  on  which  ne  had  most  ex- 
posed himself  to  the  ^x^  of  the  enemy. 
Eliott  himself^  with  the  consent  of  the 


kin|f,  ordered  medals  to  be  struck,  one  of 
which  was  presented  to  every  soldier  en- 
gaged in  the  defence.  A  iter  the  coucl  usion 
of  peace,  he  went  to  England,  and  was 
created  lord  Heathfield.  In  1790,  he  was 
obliged  to  visit  the  batlis  of  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle  for  his  health.  In  Kalkofen,  a  place 
near  that  city,  and  his  fiivorite  residence, 
he  died  of  an  apoplexy,  July  6,  the  same 
year.  His  corpse  was  carried  to  England, 
and  the  king  himself  prepared  the  plan 
of  a  monument  erected  in  honor  of  him 
at  Gibraltar.  One  of  tlie  most  famous 
pictures  of  Copley  (q.  v.),  representing  the 
siege  and  relief  or  Gibraltar,  and  full  of 
portraits,  is  placed  in  the  council-chamber 
of  Guildhall,  London,  having  beei^  painted 
for  the  city.  General  Eliott  was  one  of  the 
most  abstemious  men  of  his  age.  His  diet 
consisted  of  vegetables  and  water.  He 
slept  only  four  hours  at  a  time,  and  inured 
himself  to  habits  of  order  and  watchfulness. 

Elis;  a  country  in  the  west  of  the 
Peloponnesus  (q.  v.),  where  Olympia  was 
situated.  (See  Olympic  Games.)  It  was 
bounded  on  the  east  by  Arcadia,  on  the 
soutl^  by  Messenia,  and  ran  along,  the 
coast,  watered  by  the  river  Alpheua.  Elis 
was  the  capital  of  the  country.  Eleus, 
one  of  its  king^  in  early  times,  is  said  to 
have  given  origin  to  the  name  of  the 
country. 

Elixir  (firom  the  Arabio  al  ecMr,  a 
chemical  medicine,  or  firom  dXi^w,  I  help,  or 
{Axw,  I  draw  out,  or  firom  digerct  to  choose, 
or  rather  from  elurore,  to  boil).  It  is  the 
name  of  several  mecficines,  coneosting  of 
wine  or  spirits  of  wine  and  various  resin- 
ous, bitter,  vegetable  substances.  The 
word,  hdwever,  is  almost  gone  out  of  use, 
and  itd  place  suppUed  by  tincture.  Elix- 
irs, indeed,  difler  from  tinctures,  by  having 
a  thicker  and  more  opaque  consistence, 
and  by  containing  leas  spirit  The  stom- 
ach elixirs  of  Frederic  Hoflmann  and 
Stoughton  are  well  known.  The  former 
idix.  viscerde^  JV.  Hoffmanm)  is  prepared 
by  dissolving  in  Malaga  or  Hungry  wine 
the  extract  of  card,  ben.,  cent,  min.,  cort 
aurant,  cort  ChinsB.,  myrrh,  aq.,  and  add- 
ing to  the  solution  a  litde  tinct  caryophylL 
aromat  and  tinct  croci.  Stoughton*s 
elixir  consists  of  absynth.,  gentian,  rubr., 
rhabarb,  cascarilla  and  cort  aunmt,  steep- 
ed in  spuits  of  wine. 

Eliza.  Bonaparte  (See  Bocoocc^t). 

Elizabeth,  St.,  of  Thuringpa,  distin- 
guished for  her  piety  and  virtue,  the 
daughter  of  Andrew  II,  king  of  Hungary, 
was  bom  at  Presburg,  1207,  and,  in  12 J 1, 
was  married  to  Louis,  landgrave  of  Thu- 
ringia,  who  was  then  11  years  old,  and 


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SAINT  ELIZABETU--ELIZABETH  OF  ENGLAND. 


WB8  edueated  at  Wartburg,  in  all  the  ele- 
gance of  the  court  of  Hermann,  the  abode 
of  music  and  tlie  arts.  Louis  began  to 
govern  in  1215,  and  the  marriage  was 
completed  in  1221.  While  the  husband 
devoted  himself  to  knightly  exploits,  the 
wife  was  distinguished  by  the  mild  virtues 
of  her  sex.  When  Germany,  and  espe- 
cially Thuringia,  was  oppressed  with  fam- 
ine and  pestilence,  she  caused  many  hos- 
pitals to  be  erected,  fed  a  multitude  of  the 
poor  from  her  own  table,  and  supplied 
their  wants  with  money  and  clothing. 
She  wandered  about,  in  an  humble  dress, 
relieving  the  sorrows  of  the  wretched. 
Louis  med  on  a  crusade,  and  her  own 
life  terminated  Nov.  19, 1231,  in  an  hos- 
pital which  she  had  henelf  established. 
She  ¥Fas  regarded  as  a  samt  by  her  ad^ 
miring  conteroporaiies,  and,  four  yeara 
after  ner  death,  this  canonization  was 
approved  by  pope  Gregory  IX.  A  beau- 
tiful church  and  a  costly  monument  were 
erected  over  her  tomb.  The  latter  is  now 
one  of  the  most  splendid  renoains  of  Goth- 
ic architecture  in  Germany. 

Elizabeth,  queen  of  England,  and  one 
of  its  most  celebrated  sovereigns,  was  the 
daughter  of  Henry  VIII,  by  his  quee% 
Anne  Boleyn.  She  was  bom  in  1533,  and 
educated  in  the  principles  of  the  reformsr 
tion,  and  also  in  those  classical  studies  in- 
to which  it  had  then  become  customary 
to  initiate  females  of  distinction  in  Eng- 
land. In  her  father's  testament,  she  was 
placed  the  thud  in  the  order  of  succes- 
sion; but  the  duke  of  Northumberland 
induced  her  brother,  Edward  VI,  to  set 
her  aside,  as  well  as  her  sister  Maiy,  to 
make  room  for  Jane  Grey.  In  the  ,reign 
of  Mary,  she  was  placed  nnder  circum- 
stances of  great  difficulty,  from  her  known 
attachment  to  Protestantism ;  and  notwith- 
standing her  great  prudence,  but  for  the 
politic  interference  of  her  brother-in-law, 
PhiDp  of  Spain,  she  might  have  been  in. 
great  jpersonal  danger.  On  the  death  of 
Mary,  in  1558,  she  was  immediately  pro- 
claimed queen,  and  received  in  the  me- 
tropolis with  the  loudest  acclatnationa 
She  consigned  to  oblivion  all  the  af&onts 
she  lUul  received  during  the  late  reign, 
and  prudently  assumed  the  gracious  de- 
meanor of  the  common  sovereign  of  aH 
her  subjects.  Philip  of  Spain  soon  made 
her  proposals  of  marriage,  but  she  knew 
the  aversion  home  him  by  the  nation  too 
well'  to  think  of  accepting  them.  She 
proceeded  with  considerable  prudence  and 
moderation  to  the  arduous  task  of  setding 
religion,  which  vres,  in  a  great  degree, 
efiected  by  the  first  parliament  she  sum- 


moned. It  was  not  long  before  Elizabeth 
began  that  interference  in  the  affairs  of 
Scotland,  which  produced  some  of  the 
most  singular  events  of  her  reign.  Manr, 
the  young  queen  of  Scots,  was  not  oolv 
the  next  heir  in  blood  to  die  English 
crown,  but  was  regarded  by  the  Roman- 
ists, vdio  deemed  Elizabeth  illegitimate,  as 
the  true  sovereign  of  England.  By  the 
marriage  of  that  princess  With,  tlie  dau- 
phin, and  her  relationship  to  the  Guises, 
Scotiand  was  also  drawn  into  a  closer 
union  with  France  than  ever.  Thus 
^reat  political  causes  of  enmity  abounded, 
m  addition  to  the  female  rivaliy,  which 
was  the  most  conspicuous  foible  of  Eliza- 
beth. The  first  step  she  took  in  Scottish 
afiairs  was  to  send  a  fleet  and  an  army  to 
aid  the  party  which  supported  the  refor- 
mation; and  this  interference,  in  1560, 
efieeted  a  treaty,  by  which  the  French 
were  obliged  to  quit  Scotiand.  On  the 
return  of  Mary  from  France,  after  the 
death  of  her  husband,  attempts  were 
made  tg  procure  Elizabeth^s  recognition 
of  her  tide  as  presumptive  successor  to  the 
crown  of  England;  out,  although  unat- 
tended to,  and  very  disagreeable  to  the  lat- 
ter, the  two  queens  hved  for  some  time  ui 
apparent  amity.  In  the  mean  time,  Eliz^ 
aoeth  acquired  great  reputation  by  her 
vigorous  conduct  and  political  sagacity, 
ami  had  many  suitors  among  the  princes 
of  Europe,  whom,  consistent  with  her 
early  resolution  to  live  single,  she  con- 
stantly refiised.  Being  re^rded  as  the 
head  of  the  Protestant  party  in  Europe, 
she  made  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  the 
French  Huguenots  in  that  capacity,  and 
gave  them  aids  in  men  and  money.  Her 
government  at  home  also  gradually  grew 
more  rigorous  against  die  Catholics — one 
of  the  mischievous  consequences  of  the 
incessant  intrigue  of  the  popish  party, 
both  at  home  and  abroad,  to  overUux>w 
her  government  She  did  all  in  her  pow- 
er to  thwart  the  attempts  to  unite  Maiy  in 
a  second  marriage,  and,  be^es  a  weak 
jealousy  of  the  personal  channs  of  the 
queen  of  Scotland,  she  discovered  another 
weakness  in  a  propensity  to  adopt  couit 
fevorites,  with  a  view  to  exterior  accom- 
plishments rather  than  to  merit,  as  in  the 
well  known  instance  of  Dudley,  eari  of 
Leicester.  The  political  dissensions  in 
Scotland,  which  gave  Mary  so  mudi  dis- 
quiet, were  fomented  by  Elizabeth  and 
her  ministerB,  but  it  was  her  own  nuscon- 
duct  that  tiirew  her  into  the  hands  of  her 
rival  The  manner  in  which  Elizabeth 
detained  the  unhappy  queen  in  captivity, 
the  secret  negotiatk>n8  of  the  laxmr  with 


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ELIZABETH  OF  ENGLAND. 


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the  duke  of  Norfolk,  the  rebellions  in  the 
nortli,  and  the  treasonable  engagements 
made  by  the  earls  of  Noithuniberland  and 
Westmoreland  with  the  duke  of  Orleans, 
in  the  Low  Countries,  are  afiaiis  rather  of 
history  than  biography.  In  the  midst  of 
these  events,  the  Puritanical  party  gave 
much  uneasiness  to  the  queen,  who' was 
warmly  attached  to  the  ceremonials  of 
religion,  and  to  the  hierarchy  of  which 
she  had  become  the  head.  Inheridng, 
too,  all  the  maxims  of  royal  autliority 
maintained  by  her  father,  the  spirit  of 
civil  liberty,  by  which  the  Puritans  be- 
came early  distinguished,  was  very  offen- 
sive to  her.  Elizabeth,  however,  under- 
stood the  art  of  making  practical  conces- 
sions, while  she  maintained  her  dignity  in 
language ;  and  such  was  the  general  pru- 
dence and  frugality  of  her  administration, 
that  she  retained  the  affections  even  of 
those  whom  she  fovemed  with  a  ri^rous 
hand.  Almost  the  only  cause  of  com- 
plaint, in  regard  to  pecuniary  matters,  in 
this  reign,  arose  from  the  injurious  grant 
of  monopolies,  which  formed  a  fiiequent 
subject  of  parliamentary  complaint,  and 
were  oflen,  m  conseouence,  revoked.  The 
assistance  given  by  Elizabeth  to  the  Prot- 
estants of  the  Low  Countries  induced 
Spain,  in  1572,  to  promote  a  conspiracy, 
wnicli  was  chiefly  conducted  by  a  Flor- 
entine merchant  and  the  bishop  of  Ross, 
the  Scottish  resident  in  Ir^ngland.  The 
duke  of  Norfolk,  allowing  himself  to  be 
drown  into  a  participation  of  this  plot,  on 
its  discovery,  was  tried  and  executed.  The 
massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  in  the  same 
year,  alarmed  all  Protestant  rulers,  and 
especially  Elizabeth,  who  put  herself  and 
court  into  moumine  on  the  occasion,  and 
received  in  silence  the  French  ambassador 
sent  over  to  apologize  for  that  execrable 
deed.  She,  however,  maintained  external 
amity  with  the  French  court,  and  even 
suffered  negotiations  to  be  commenced 
for  her  marriage  with  the  duke  of  Alen- 
con,  the  king's  brother,  which  brought 
tuat  priifiBe  to  England.  An  expectation 
that  tile  union  would  take  place  now  be- 
came general.  In  1575,  she  received  the 
oflfer  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  revolted 
Dutch  provinces;  but,  from  prudential 
reasons,  she  declined  to  accept  it;  and 
it  was  not  until  1578  that  she  signed 
with  tiiem  a  treaty  of  alliance.  In  1585, 
Elizabeth  ventured  openly  to  defy  the 
hostility  of  Spain,  by  entering  into  a  treaty 
with  the  revolted  provinces,  by  which  she 
bound  herself  to  assist  them  with  a  con- 
Eidrrablo  force,  the  command  of  which 
she  intiustfcd  to  Leicester,  who  did  little 


honor  to  her  choice.  She  also  sent  an 
armament,  mider  Drake,  against  the  S|Nin- 
ish  settlements  in  the  West  Indies,  and 
made  a  league  of  mutual  defence  with 
James,  kinff  of  Scotland,  whose  friendship 
she  courted,  while  she  detained  his  moth- 
er in  prison.  In  1586,  that  conspiracy 
took  place,  the  object  of  which  was  her 
assassination  by  Anthony  Babington.  As 
Elizabeth's  principal  counsellors,  as  well 
as  the  nation  at  large,  were  or  opinion 
that  tlie  safety  of  the  state  demanded  the 
life  of  Mary,  whatever  may  be  thought 
of  tlie  uijustice  of  her  treatment,  it  was 
clearly  the  result  of  stronff  political  cir- 
cumstances. Elizabeth,  however,  con- 
scious of  the  invidious  light  in  which  the 
execution  of  a  queen  and  reladon  would 
appear  to  Europe,  practised  all  the  arts  of 
dissimulation  to  remove  as  much  of  the 
odium  fix)m  herself  as  possible.  She 
even  wished  Mary  to  be  taken  off  pri- 
vately;  and  it  was  onl^  on  tlie  refusal  of 
nr  Amias  Paulet  and  sir  Drue  Drury,  her 
keepers,  to  be  concerned  in  so  odious  an 
affair,  that  the  curious  transaction  of  fur- 
theriuff  the  warrant  by  secretary  Davison 
took  place,  the  consequence  of  which  was 
the  execution  of  Mary  on  Feb.  8,  1587. 
The  dissembled  grief  of  Elizabeth,  when 
informed  of  this  catastrophe,  deceived  no 
one,  although  the  imputed  mistake  of 
Davison,  and  the  sacrifice  of  him  to  her 
assumed  resentment,  afforded  the  king  of 
Scotland  a  pretext  for  resuming  an  ami- 
cable correspondence  with  the  English 
court  The  year  1588  was  rendered 
memorable  by  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish 
armada,  on  which  meditated  invasion 
Elizabeth  displayed  all  the  confidence 
and  energy  of^  her  character.  Soon  afler 
this  event,  Elizabeth  became  the  ally  of 
Henry  IV  of  France,  in  order  to  vindi- 
cate his  title  to  that  throne;  and,  for 
some  years,  English  auxiliaries  served  in 
France,  and  naval  expeditions  were  un- 
dertaken, in  which  none  more  distin- 
guished .  themselves  than  the  celebrated 
eari  of  Essex,  who,  on  the  death  of  Leic^ 
ter,  succeeded  to  his  place  in  the  aueen's 
favor.  In  1601,  she  held  a  conference 
with  the  marquis  de  Rosni  (afterwards 
the  celebrated  Sully),  who  came  over,  on 
the  part  of  Henry  iV ,  to  concert,  in  con- 
currence with  England,  a  new  balance 
of  European  power,  to  control  the  pre- 
ponderance of  the  house  of  Austria.  Eliz- 
abeth readily  gave  in  to  the  project,  and 
the  minister  quitted  England  in  admira- 
tion of  the  solidity  and  enlargement  of  her 
political  views.  Having  suppressed  an 
msurrectk>n  in  Ireland,  and  obliged  all  the 


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479       ELIZABETH  OF  ENGLAND--EUZABETH  CHARLOTTE. 


Spanish  troops^  sent  to  aid  in  it,  to  ijnit  the 
island,  she  turned  hor  thoughts  towards 
relieving  the  burdens  of  her  subjects,  and 
|[ained  much  additional  popularity  by  sup- 
IMiessing  a  great  number  of  unpopular 
monopolies.  The  execution  of  the  earl 
of  Essex  (see  Devereux,  Boberty  however, 
^ve  a  fatal  blow  to  her  happmess ;  and, 
on  learning  irom  the  dyinff  countess  of 
Nottingham,  tliat  he  had  really  transmitted 
4lie  riiiK,  which  implied  his  request  of  par- 
don, she  became  furious  with  rofpe,  and, 
when  her  anger  subsided,  fell  mto  an 
incurable  melancholy.  At  length  nature 
began  to  sink,  and,  as  her  end  manifestly 
•approached,  she  was  urged  by  her  coun- 
cil to  declare  her  successor.  She  an- 
swered, **  Who  but  her  kinsman,  the  king 
of  Scots?"  and  soon  after,  sinkinj^  into 
a  lethargy,  she  expired,  without  further 
struggle  or  convulsion,  on  March  24, 1602, 
in  the  70th  year  of  her  Ige,  and  45th  of 
her  reign. — ^Estimating  the  character  and 
conduct  of  Ehzabeth  from  the  events  of 
her  reign,  she  will  justly  rank  high  among 
sovereigns.  Under  her  auspices,  the  Prot- 
estant religion,  as  opposed  to  popery,  was 
firmly  estabUshed.  Factions  were  re- 
strained, government  strengthened,  the 
vast  power  of  Spain  nobly  opposed,  op- 
pressed neighbors  supported,  a  navy  cre- 
ated, commerce  rendered  flourishing,  and 
the  national  character  aggrandized.  She 
did  not  merely  lend  a  name  to  a  con- 
spicuous period  of  histoiy ;  her  own  pru- 
dence, iuagment,  fortitude,  firmness,  vigor 
and  industry  materially  contributed  to  the 
prosperity  of  her  administration.  She 
was  frugal  to  the  borders  of  avarice ;  but, 
being  as  economical  of  tlie  people's 
money  as  of  her  own,  her  prudent  atten- 
tion to  national  expenditure  contributed 
materially  to  the  public  good.  The  se- 
verity of  Elizabeth  to  Catholic  emissaries, 
Jesuits,  and  others,  whether  native  or  for- 
eign, has  latterly  been  deemed  scarcely 
defensible,  nor,  on  a  religious  ground,  is 
it  so ;  but  it  is  never  to  be  forgotten,  that 
niost  of  those  who  suffered  really  sought 
the  overthrow  of  the  state,  and,  in  addi- 
tion, acted  under  the  direction  of  a  foreign 
influence  of  the  most  baleful  description. 
The  treatment  of  the  queen  of  Scots  can 
never  be  defended,  but  will  always  re- 
main one  of  those  cases  which  neither 
polic^Tf  nor  even  personal  danger,  can 
sufficiently  justify.  It  may  be  questioned, 
however,  if  the  cfissimulation  of  Elizabeth 
has  not  injured  her  memoiy  in  respect  to 
this  transaction,  more  than  the  need  it- 
self^ which  was  certainly  deemed  neces- 
sary both  by  her  ministers  and  a  vast 


majority  of  the  people.  Her  principal 
de&cts  were  violence  and  haughtiness  of 
temper,  impatience  of  contradiction,  and 
insatiable  fondness  for  admiration  and 
flattery.  It  is  to  be  remarked,  however, 
that,  capricious  as  she  was  in  her  aflec- 
tions,  and  petty  in  her  feminine  jealous- 
ies, she  alwiiys  made  even  her  iavorites 
feel  that  slie  was  their  sovereign,  when 
they  were  disposed  to  forget  it  Although 
fond  of  literature,  and  simstantially  learn- 
ed, she  was  no  very  munificent  patroness, 
and  made  very  poor  returns  for  tlie  excess 
of  incense  so  lavishly  bestowed  upon  her. 
She  was  skilled  in  the  Greek,  and  spoke 
the  Latin  language  with  considerable  flu- 
ency. She  translated  from  the  former 
into  Latin  a  dialogue  of  Xenophon,  two 
orations  of  Isocrates,  and  a  play  of  Eurip- 
ides, and  also  wrote  a  commentary  on 
Plato.  From  the  Latin  she  translated 
Boethins's  Consolations  of  Pliikwophy, 
Sallust's  Jugurtliine  War,  and  a  part  of 
Horace's  Art  of  Poetry.  In  the  Royal 
and  Noble  Authors  of  lord  Orford,  may 
also  be  found  a  catalogue  of  translations 
from  the  French,  prayers,  meditations, 
speeches  in  parliament,  letters,  &c. 

Elizabeth  Charlotte,  duchess  of  Or- 
leans, only  daughter  of  the  elector  Charles 
Louis,  of  the  Palatinate,  was  ^  bom  at 
Heidelberg,  1652.  She  was  a  princess  of 
distinguished  talents  and  character,  and 
lived  half  a  century  in  the  couit  of  Louis 
XIV  vrithout  changing  her  German  habits 
for  French  manners.  She  was  educated 
with  the  greatest  care,  at  the  court  of  her 
aunt,  afterwards  the  electoress  Sophia  of 
Hanover,  and,  at  the  age  of  19^  she  mar- 
ried duke  Philip  of  Orleans,  from  reasons 
of  state  policy.  She  was  without  pereon- 
al  charms,  but  her  understimdiiig  was 
strong,  and  her  character  imafTected,  and 
she  was  characterized  by  hveliness  and 
wit  It  is  to  he  regretted,  that  she  exer- 
cised no  more  influence  on  the  education 
of  her  children.  Her  second  son  was  af^ 
terwards  known  as  regent  Madame  de 
Mainteuon  was  her  implacable  enemy, 
but  Louis  XIV  was  attracted  by  her  in- 
tejnity  and  frankness,  her  vivacity  and 
wit  She  oflen  attended  him  to  the 
chase.  She  preserved  the  highest  respect 
for  the  literary  men  of  Germany,  particu- 
larly for  Leibnitz,  whose  correspondence 
with  the  French  literati  she  promotfid. 
Slio  died  at  St  Cloud,  in  1?22.  She  has 
described  herself  and  her  situation  with 
a  natural  humor,  perfectly  original,  in  her 
German  Icners,  which  fonn  an  inter:st- 
inff  addition  to  the  accounts  of  the  court 
of^Louis  XiV.    The  mc«t  valuable  of  her 


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ELIZABETH  CHARLOTTE— ELIZABETH  PETROWNA- 


479 


letteiB  are  contained  in  the  Life  and  Char- 
acter of  the  Duchess  Elizabeth  Charlotte 
of  Orleans,  by  professor  Schutz,  Leipsic, 
1820. 

Elizabibth  Petrowna,  empress  of 
Russia,  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great  and 
Catharine  I,  \vas  bom  1709,  at  the  time  of 
her  father's  greatest  prosperity  and  glory. 
After  her  accession  to  the  throne,  in  1741, 
it  was  asserted,  that  Catharine  I  had,  by 
her  will,  appointed  her  eldest  daughter, 
Anne  (wife  of  the  duke  of  Holsteio),  suc- 
cessor of  Peter  II,  and,  after  Anne,  her 
younger  sister,  Elizabeth;- but  this  is  not 

£roy^,  and  it  is  not  probable  that  prince 
[enzikoff  would  have  permitted  such  a 
wilL  The  nobles  and  the  senate,  after  the 
death  of  Peter  II,  chose  Anne,  duchess 
dowa^r  of  Courland,  daughter  of  Ivan, 
and  niece  of  Peter  I.  She  settled  the 
succession  to  the  throne  in  favor  of  the 
young  prince  Ivan,  son  of  her  niece,  Anne, 
who  was  married  to  Antony  Uhricb,  duke 
of  Brunswick,  and  who,  after  the  death 
of  the  empress,  caused  heraelf  to.  be  pro- 
claimed regent,  during  the  minority  of 
her  son.  Elizabeth,  naturally  inactive, 
and  more  prone  to  pleasure  than  ambi- 
tion, appeared  alike  mdlfferent  to  all  po- 
litical projects.  She  endeavored,  how- 
ever, to  conciliate  the  guards,  and  chose 
her  favorites  among  their  officers.  Nei- 
ther the  regent  nor  her  husbmid,  who 
had  the  command  of  the  troops,  took 
measures  against  a  revolution.  A  party 
was,  thereK^rq,  formed  for  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  Peter  the  Great,  to  whose 
name  so  many  glorious  recollections  were 
attached.  The  princess  did  not  oppose 
the  attempt  made  to  place  her  on  the 
throne,  and  submitted  to  the  advice  of  Les- 
tocq,  a  sui^on,  who  vns  eager  to  distin- 

Suish  himself.  The  marquis  of  Ch^tar- 
ie,  the  French  ambassador,  whose  person 
and  manners  had  prepossessed  Elizabeth 
in  his  favor,  saw  in  the  proposed  revolu- 
tion only  an  opportunity  of  securing  to 
France  an  ally.  Sweden,  dissatisfied  with 
the  cabinet  of  Petersburg,  was  persuaded 
to  declare  war  against  Russia.  The  con- 
spiracy, however,  might  easily  have  been 
discovered.  Lestocq  was  incautious.  The 
regent  was  warned  of  the  plot ;  but  the 
natural  goodness  of  her  disposition  gave 
admission  to  no  suspicion.  Elizabeth 
easily  succeeded  in  quieting  her  with  prot- 
estations and  tears.  The  conspirators, 
however,  were  not  without  anxiety,  and 
Lestocq  ur^ed  the  immediate  execution 
of  the  project  Observing  a  card  on 
Elizabeth's  table,  he  drew  upon  it  a  wheel 
and  a  crown,  8a3ang  to  the  princess,^  This 


or  that,  madame ;  one  ibr  yoa,  or  the 
other  tor  me !"  This  decided  Elizab(;tli ; 
the  conspirators  were  immediately  inforhi- 
ted  of  it,  and  in  a  few  hours  the  conspiracy 
was  ready  to  break  out.  The  husband 
of  the  regent,  being  informed  of  the  dan- 
ger, urged  her  to  take  measures  for  their 
safety;  but  Anne  would  not  credit  the 
reports.  They  were  Ijoth  seized  while 
asleep,  December  6,  1741,  arid,  with  their 
son,  were  carried  to  the  palace  of  Eliza- 
beth ;  at  the  same  time  Munich,  &ther  and 
son,  Ostermann,  Golofkin  and  others 
were  dirown  into  prison.  Anne  and  the 
prince  Antony  Ulrich  were  afterwards 
transferred  to  an  island  in  the  Dwina,  near 
the  White  sea,  and  Ivan  to  the  castle  of 
Schlusselburg.  Elizabeth  caused  herself 
to  be  proclaimed  empress.  Munich,  Os- 
termann  and  others  were  condemned  to 
death ;  but  Elizalteth  mafle  a  display  of 
her  clemency,  by  commuting  their  pun- 
isliment  for  exile  to  Siberia.  Lestocq  was 
made  first  physician  of  tb^  court,  and 
president  of  the  medical  college,  with  the 
title  of  privy  counsellor;  but  he  afterwards 
fell  under  her  displeasure.  Bestuscheft*, 
who  had  been  minister  under  Anne,  and 
whom  Lestocq  had  caused  to  be  appoint- 
ed chancellor,  enjoyed  great  influence. 
Peace  was  concluded  with  Sweden,  at 
Abo,  in  1743,  by  the  interposition  of 
France.  In  1748,  Elizabetli  sent  aid  to 
Maria  Theresa,  in  Germany,  by  which  sl|e 
hastened  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle.  In  the  mean  time,  a 
conspiracy  was  formed  against  her,  in 
which,  amon^  others,  Lapoukin  and  his 
wife  (distinguished  for  her  wit  and  beauty) 
were  engaged ;  but  the  |^ot  was  discover- 
ed, and  the  wife  of  Lapoukin,  in  whom 
the  empress  saw  a  dangerous  rival,  with 
her  husband  and  son,  .and  the  wife  of 
Bestuscheff  received  the  punishment  of 
the  knout;  the  ends  of  their  tongues  were 
cut  of^  and  they  themselves  were  exiled 
to  Siberia.  Elizabeth  took  pert  in  the 
seven  years'  war,  on  account  of  some  rail- 
lery of  Frederic  the  Great  respecting 
her  person.  The  grand  prince  Peter, 
duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp,  nephew  of  the 
empress,  and  her  acknowledged  succes- 
sor, was,  on  the  other  hand,  much  attached 
to  Frederia  The  war  was  not,  ther^ 
fore,  prosecuted  with  much  vigor  by  die 
Russian  generals,  who  desi^l  to  secure 
the  favor  of  the  heir  to  the  throne.  But 
this  was  soon  perceived;  the  general, 
Apraxio,  was  removed,  and  his  place  sup- 
plied by  Fermor,.and  the  chancellor  B^ 
tuschenwas  exiled  to  Siberia.  The  Rus* 
■siaos  now  advanced  intoGemuuDy.    Sol* 


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480 


ELIZABETH  PETROWNA— ELIZABETH  OF  FRANCE. 


tikoflf  afterwards  succeeded  Fennor,  and 
delated  Frederic  at  Kunnersdorf.  Ber- 
lin and  Colberg  were  taken ;  but,  notwith- 
standing this,  no  decisive  result  followed. 
After  languishing  for  several  years,  Eliza- 
beth died,  December  29, 1761,  at  the  age 
of  52,  ailer  a  reign  of  20  years.  She 
founded  the  university  at  Moscow,  and 
the  academy  of  fine  arts  at  Petersburg. 
She  also  paid  much  attention  to  the  com- 
pletion of  a  code  of  laws,  which  was  be- 
^n  under  Peter  L  It  was  not,  however, 
fmished.  She  had  promised  to  abolish 
capital  punishments  under  her  reign ;  but 
punishments  more  cruel  than  deam  were, 
nevertlieless,  allowed  to  be  inflicted.  She 
shed  tears  at  the  miseries  of  war,  yet,  during 
herreigD,  the  fields  of  batde  were  drench- 
ed with  the  blood  of  her  subjecta  Mild, 
^ntle,  sometimes  generous,  she  was  too 
mdolent  to  prevent  the  arbitrary  conduct 
of  ner  ministers.  Her  ruling  passion  was 
love ;  and  she  used  to  say  to  her  confi- 
dants, ^  I  am  only  happy  when  I  am  in 
love."  She  wished  to  be  considered  the 
greatest  beauty  in  the  empire,  and  this 
vanity,  like  that  of  Elizabeth  of  England, 
often  produced  terrible  consequences. 
Her  licentious  indulgences  were  some- 
times disturbed  by  superstitious  fears, 
which  she  endeavored  to  quiet  by  devo- 
tional practices.  By  the  field-marshal 
Raziimofsky,  she  became  the  mother  of 
two  sons  and  a  daughter  (the  princess 
Tarakanoff ). — (See  L^ierc's  Hidaire  de  la 
Itussie  modeme.) 

EuzABETfit,  Christina,  wife  of  Fred- 
eric II  of  Pnissia,  princess  of  Brupswick- 
Wolfenbiittel.  She  was  bom  1715,  at 
Brunswick,  mamed  1733,  and  died  1797. 
Beine:  compell^  to  the  marriage,  Fred- 
eric lived  separate  from  her  till  his  fa- 
ther's death,  in  1740.  After  ascending  the 
throne,  however,  he  gave  her  proofe  of  his 
esteem,  and,  on  his  death,  ordered  her 
annual  revenue  of  40,000  crowns  to  be 
increased  to  50,000 ;  "  for,"  said  he, "  dur- 
ing my  whole  reign,  she  has  never  given 
me  the  sliirhtest  cause  of  dissatisfaction, 
and  her  inflexible  virtue  deserves  respect 
and  love."  Half  of  her  annual  income 
she  appropriated  to  benevolent  purposes. 
She  partook  of  Frederic's  taste  for  liter- 
ature, and  was  herself  an  author.  She 
translated  several  German  woiks  into 
French,  and  Wrote  in  French  La  sage 
RholuHon;  MidUation  d  P  Occasion  au 
RenouveUemmt  de  V  Annie  sur  Us  Sows  que 
la  Providence  a  pour  Us  HunudnSy  &c ;  Rd- 
JUxions  pour  iota  les  Jours  de  la  Semaine ; 
R^exions  sw  Pitat  des  Affaires  publupies 
en  JTTS,  addresses  aux  Permmnes  craiaUwea. 


Elizabeth  (Philippine  Marie  H^l^ie, 
of  France,  Madame),  sister  of  Louis  XVI, 
.was   bom  at  Versailles,  May  23»  1764, 
and  perished  by  the  guillotine,  May  10, 
17d4.    Her  life  is  an  image  of  tlie  tender- 
est  affection,  the  loveliest  virtues,  gentle- 
ness and  feminine  dignity.    She  was  tlie 
.  youngest  child  of  the  dauphin  Louis  waA 
his  second  wife,  Josephine    of  Saxony, 
who  died  while  Elizabeth  was  but  three 
years  old.    She  was  attached  to  her  broth- 
er with  the  warmest  afi^tion.    She  re- 
ceived  an  excellent  education  from  the 
countess  of  Mackau,  under-govemess  of 
the  children  of  France,  and  her  acquire- 
ments were  considerable,  particulany  in 
history  and  mathematics.    Her  proposed 
union  with  the  duke  of  Aosta,  infiuit  of 
Spain,  second  son  of  the  king  of  the  Two 
Sicihesj  was  not  concluded.   When  Louis 
XVI  caused  himself  to  be  inoculated  for 
the  small  pox,  Elizabeth  did  the  same; 
she  also  caused  60  poor  girls  to  be  inoc- 
ulated at  the  same  tune,  and  to  receive 
the  same  care  as  herself.    When  her  pri- 
vate establishment  was  fixed,  25,000  francs 
annually  were  assigned  her  for  tlie  pur- 
chase of  diamonds  ;   but  she  requested 
that  thfB  sum  should  be  paid,  during  six 
years,  to  a  young  favorite^  whose  poverty 
prevented  her  marriage.     On  an  estate, 
which  the  king  had  purchased  for  her, 
Elizabeth  spent  tlie  happiest  houra  of  her 
hfe,    engaged   in    rural    occupations,  in 
benevolent  ofiSces,  and  the  enjoyment  of 
the  beauties  of  nature.    The  levolutjon 
destroyed  her  happiness.    The  assembly 
of  the  states  general  filled  her  with  ter- 
ror; from  that  moment  she  was  devoted 
to   her    unhappy  l»other.    She  inspired 
him  with  firmnens  on  tlie  6th  of  Octolier. 
She  attended  him  the  next  morning  lo 
Paris,  and  to  the  assembly.    When  I^uis 
fled  from  Paris,  she  accompanied  him ; 
and  she  was  brought  back  with  him  from 
Varennes.    It  was  she  who  was  taken  ibr 
the  queen,  June  20,  1793 ;  and  when  the 
ciy  was  raised,  **The  Austrian!    down 
\%ith  her!**  and  an  ofiicer  of  the  guard 
hastened  to  correct  the  mistake,  she  ex- 
claimed, "Why  undeceive  them?    You 
might  have  s|jared  tliem  a  greater  crime.^* 
August  10,  nothing,  not  even  tlie  kiiig^ 
earnest  request,  coiiM  induce  her  to  leave 
him.    She  followed  him  into  the  assem- 
bly.   There  slie  heard  her  brother's  abdi- 
cation of  the  throne,  and  for  two  days 
listened  to   tlie   debates  reladve  to   tiie 
safest  place  of  confinement  for  the  royal 
fiimily,  with  which  she  was  carried  into 
the  Temple.     Here    she  totally    forgot 
herself^  and  seemed  to  live  only  fbr  oth- 


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ELIZABETH  OF  FRANCE— ELLENBOROUOa 


481 


toi.  All  modesty  and  goodness  at  court, 
she  was  here  all  patience  and  submission; 
May  9, 1794,  at  7  o'clock  in  the  evening, 
Elizabeth  was  led  fiom  the  Temple  to  the 
CoTKiergerUj  because  it  ba4  been  discov- 
ered that  she  had'  corresponded  with 
die  princes,  her  brothers.  She  was  tried 
with  closed  doors.  The  next  morning, 
she  was  carried  before  the  revolutionary 
tribunal,  and,  when  asked  her  name  and 
rank,  she  replied  with  dignity,  '^I  am 
Elizabeth  of  rranoe,  and  the  aunt  of  your 
king.*?  This  bold  answer  filled  the  judges 
with  astonishment,  and  interrupted  the 
trial.  Twenty-four  other  victims  were 
sentenced  with  her ;  but  she  was  reduced 
to  the  horrible  necessity  of  witnessing  the 
execution  of  all  her  companions.  She 
met  death  with  calmness  and  submission ; 
not  a  complaint  escaped  her  against  her 
iudges  and  executioneis.  Without  being 
handsome,  Elizabeth  was  pleasing  and 
lively.  Her  hair  was  of  a  chestnut  color; 
her  blue  eye  had  a  trace  of  melancholy  in 
it;  her  mouth  was  delicate,  her  teeth  beau- 
tiful, and  her  complexion  of  a  dazzling 
whiteness;  she  was  modest,  and  almost 
timid,  in  the  midst  of  splendor  and  great- 
ness, courageous  in  acfversity,  pious  and 
virtuous,  and  her  character  was  spotless. 

Elizabeth  Isi.A.m)s;  small  islands  near 
the  coast  of  Massachusetts,  between  Mar- 
tha's Vineyard  and  the  continent,  includ- 
ed within  the  township  of  Chilmark;' 
km.  70°  38^  to  70^56'  W. ;  lat  41°  24^  to 
41°  35y  N.  They  are  about  16  in  number ; 
the  principal  of  which  are  Nastiawn, 
Pasqui,  Nashawenua,  Pinequese,  and 
Chatahunk. 

ELiZA.B£THTOWir ;  a  borough  and  post- 
town  of  New  Jereey,  in  Essex  county,  5 
mUes  S.  Newaric  14  S.  S.  W.  New  York, 
76N.E.  Philadelphia;  Ion.  74° 7' W.;  lat. 
40°  39^  N. ;  population  in  1820,  3515.  It 
is  situated  on  a  small  creek,  which  flows 
into  Arthur  Kull  sound,  and  is  a  hand- 
some, pleasant  and  flourishing  town,  con^ 
taining  a  bank,  an  academy,  a  prindng- 
ofSce,  and  4  houses  of  public  worship. 
The  Presbyterian  and  Episcopal  churches 
are  large  and  handsome  brick  buildings. 
The  town  is  situated  in  a  very  fertile  tract 
of  country,  and  has  considerable  trade, 
and  some  manufactures.  Vessels  of  20 
or  30  tons  come  up  to  the  town,  and  those 
of  200  or  300  come  as  far  as  Elizabeth- 
town  pmnt,  2  miles  distant ;  and  a  steam- 
boat plies  between  New  York  and  the 
point  This  is  the  oldest  town  in  N^w 
Jlersey :  the  ground  was  purchased  of  the 
Indians  in  1664,  and  settled,  soon  after, 
fay  emigrants  fiom  Long  Island. 

voXi.  IV.  41 


Elk.    (See  Deer.) 

Ell  ;  a  measure  which  obtains,  under 
different  denominations,  in  most  countries^ 
whereby  cloths,  stufis,  linens,  silks,  &c^ 
are  usually  measured.  The  ell  Eneliah 
is  5  quarters,  or  45  inches ;  the  ell  Flem- 
ish, 3  quarters,  or  27  inches.  In  Scotland^ 
an  ell  contains  37  2-10  inches  English. 

Ellenbo ROUGH  (Edward  Law),  lord, 
bom  in  1748,  at  Great  Salkeld,  in 
Cumberiand,  lord  chief  justice  of  the 
king's  bench,  was  a  distinguished  lawyer. 
His  ftither,  doctor  Edmund  Law,  bishop  of 
Carlisle,  placed  liim  at  the  charter  house, 
London.  He  afterwards  entered  the  uni- 
vernty  at  Cambridge,  where,  in  1771,  he 
obtained  a  prize  medal,  given  by  the 
chancellor,  and,  in  1773,  a  prize.  He 
studied  law  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  soon  be- 
came distinguished  in  his  profession,  in 
which  he  began  his  career  at  the  same 
time  with  Eldon  (q.  v.)  and  Erskine  (q.  v.) 
By  ^the  patronage  of  sb-  Francis  Buller, 
one  of  tlie  judges  of  the  king's  bench, 
he  eariy  obtained  a  mXk  gown.  On  the 
trial  of  Warren  HastingBjin  1785,  Erskine 
having  refused  to  undertake  the  defence, 
Law  served  as  leading  counsel.  It  requir- 
ed no  Uttle  courage  to  encounter  such  op- 
ponents as  Burke,  Fox,  Sheridan,  and  other 
eminent  men  of  the  time,  who  conducted 
the  impeachment  Law  was  assisted  by 
Plomer  and  Dallas,  and,  as  is  well  known, 
obtained  the  victory.  (See  Hastings.) 
The  defence  did  not  cc^me  on  until  the 
fiflh  year  of  tlie  trial.  To  the  brilliant 
eloquence  of  his  adversaries.  Law  oppos- 
ed simple,  logical,  and  clear  statementa 
After  eiffht  vears,  in  which  the  trial  had 
occupied  148  days,  at  an  expense  of 
£71,680,  Hastings  was  acquitted.  Law's 
success  was  now  certain.  In  1801,  he 
was  made  attorney-general,  and,  in  1802, 
on  the  death  of  lord  Kenyon,  he  became 
lord  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench,  and 
was  created  baron.  He  adopted  the  title 
Ellenborough  from  a  small  fishing  village 
of  that  name,  where  his  ancestors  had 
lived  for  a  long  time.  Under  lord  Gren- 
ville's  administration,  he  l)ecanie  a  mem- 
ber of  tlie  privy  council  (1806),  which,  bv 
many,  is  considered  as  unconstitutiona). 
In  parliament,  he  was  op|iosed  to  the 
emancipation  of  the  Catholics.  (See  CcUh- 
olic  Enumeration.)  He  held  the  office  of 
chief  justice  for  nfleen  years,  when  his 
health  sunk  under  the  duties  of  the  office. 
The  bookseller  Hone,  having  published 
three  well  known  ]Kirodies  on  the^  Chris- 
tian religion,  was  tried  on  the  indictment 
for  the  first  before  Abbot,  for  the  two 
others  before  Ellenborough.    Both  judges. 


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£LLENBOROUGH— ELLIPSIS. 


in  their  charges  to  the  jury,  declared  the 
publications  to  bo  libels ;  yet  the  juiy  re* 
turned  a  verdict  of  not  guilty,  and  the 
apectators  manifested  their  satisfaction  by 
applause.  This  event  had  an  unfavorabte 
effect  on  lord  £Ilenborough*B  already 
feeble  health,  and,  after  a  long  sickness, 
he  resiffned  his  office  in  1818.  He  died 
December  13  of  the  same  year^  at  the 
age  of  seventy  years.  Lord  Ellenborough 
enjoys  a  high  reputation  for  legal  ability. 

jGllert,  William,  one  of  the  signers  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  bom 
at  Nev^port,  Rhode  Island,  December  22, 
1727.  He  entered  Harvard  college  at  the 
age  of  16,  and  lefl  it  in  his  20th  year,  with 
the  reputation  of  a  sound  scholar.  After 
studying  the  law  for  the  regular  term,  he 
began  the  practice,  and  continued  it  suc- 
cessfuUv  Quring  20  years.  The  part 
which  he  took  with  his  native  state,  in 
promoting  resistance  to  the  mother  coun- 
try, occasioned  his  election  to  the  con- 
gress of  1776.  Of  this  body  he  was  a 
zealous,  spirited  and  most  serviceable 
member.  His  dwelling-house  at  Newport, 
and  other  portions  of  his  property,  were 
destroyed  by  the  British  army,  under  gene* 
nil  Pigot  Mr.  EUery  continued  a  member 
of  congress  until  the  year  1785.  Soon  after 
this  period,  he  accepted  the  office  of  chief 
justice  of  the  superior  court  of  Rhode 
Island.  When  the  present  federal  gov- 
ernment was  organized,  he  accepted  from 
ffencral  Washington  the  collectonhip  of 
Uie  customs  ibr  tlie  town  of  Newport-— a 
post  which  he  filled  during  the  remainder 
of  his  estimable  life.  This  venerable  man 
died  at  the  age  of  92,  February  15, 1820. 
He  expired  witliout  sickness  or  pain, 
reading  Cicero  De  QficUst  in  his  arm- 
chair. 

Elliott,  Stephen,  an  eminent  Ameri- 
can botanist  and  man  of  letters,  was  bom 
at  Beaufort,  in  South  Carolina,  November 
11,  1771.  He  was  first  placed  at  the 
grammar  school  in  Beaufort,  whence  he 
was  transferred  to  Yale  college,  in  1787. 
Here  he  was  distinguished  for  scholarship 
and  good  character.  On  his  return  home, 
he  applied  himself  to  the  improvement  of 
his  paternal  estate,  which,  thouffh  impair- 
ed by  the  casualties  c^the  revotution,  was 
sdll  ample.  His  leisure  hours,  at  this 
period,  were  given  to  history  and  poetry. 
His  devotion  to  natural  history  began  sotne 
time  alter.  At  the  af;e  of  22,  Bir.  Elliott 
was  returned  by  his  district  as  a  member 
of  the  state  legislature  of  South  Carolina. 
In  this  sphere  he  soon  obtained  consider- 
able influence  by  his  zeal,  uibaniory 
knowledge,  and  powen  of  aigument.    Aa 


a  member  of  the  senate,  he  introduced 
and  carried  various  important  bills,  im- 
proving the  public  economy,  and  partico- 
iariy  the  plan  of  the  state  bank,  which  was 
adopted  by  the  legislature  in  the  year 
1812.  Of  this  bank  Mr.  Elliott  was 
chosen  president,  and  discharaed  his  of- 
fice with  great  ability  until  ttie  time  of 
his  death.  Although  the  care  of  the  bank 
rested  mainly  on  him,  he  found  time  to 
complete  his  two  volumes  of  the  botany 
of  South  Carolina,  which  are  held  in 
hifh  estimation,  and  to  make  consider- 
able contributions  to  the  literary  and  ifci- 
entific  societies  of  which  he  became  a 
member.  He  was  president  of  the  liter- 
ary society  of  Charleston,  and  of  the  li^ 
eraiy  and  philoao'hical  socielr,  and  pro- 
fessor of  natural  history  and  botany  in 
tlie  medical  college.  His  learned  and 
elegant  papers  and  lectures  obtained  uni- 
yere^  appuiuse.  Mr.  Elliott  was  weU  ac- 
quaintea  with  French  and  Italian  litera- 
ture, and  the  scientific  works  of  the 
French  school,  particularly  in  geolofnr, 
mineralogy,  conchology,  and  botany.  He 
has  left  a.  collection  in  the  several  branches 
of  natural  hisloiy,  scientifically  arranged, 
which  is  said  to  be  scarcely  excelled  fay 
any  private  otie  in  the  United  States.  He 
was  the  chief  editor  of  the  Southern  Re- 
view, and  author  of  ten  of  the  longest 
and  most  admired  articles  of  that  periodi- 
cal work.  The  degree  of  LL.  D.  was 
conferred  on  him  by  Tale  college,  and 
again  by  Harvard  university.  Few  of  his 
American  contemporaries  equalled  him 
in  variety  of  talents,  attainments  and  la- 
bors. None  possessed  a  more  amiable 
temper,  or  honorable  spirit  Mr.  Elliott 
was  above  six  feet  in  height,  with  a  robust 
frame  and  noble  countenance.  He  died 
in  the  early  part  of  1830.  Most  of  his 
productions  remain  iii  manuscript  Such 
of  (hem  as  have  been  publishea  will  pei^ 
petuate  his  name  creditably  for  his  coun- 
try. 

Ellipsis  ;  1.  in  grammar  and  liietoric ; 
the  omission  of  one  or  more  words,  which 
may  be  easily  supplied  by  the  imagination. 
It  IS  used  to  express  passion,  or  for  the 
sake  of  conciseness.  The  latter  is  par- 
ticulariy  the  case  in  familiar  phrasea 
2.  In  mathematics ;  one  of  the  conic  sec- 
tiona  (See  ConeJ)  Kepler  discovered 
that  the  planets  describe  ^cb  a  curve  in 
revolving  about  the  sun.  It  presents  to 
the  eye,  at  once,  variety  and  rej^laiity, 
and  is,  therefore,  preferred  by  pamters  to 
the  circle  for  the  outline  of  their  pictures. 
Two  points  in  the  longest  diameter  have 
this  peculiarity :  the  sum  of  two  stnight 


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ELLIPSIS— ELLSWORTH. 


483 


fines  drawn  from  them  to  any  point  in 
the  circumference  is  always  the  some,  to 
whatever  point  they  are  drawn.  An  el- 
lipsis may,  therefore,  be  formed  by  taking 
two  points  upon  a  plane,  attaching  to  them 
a  ring  of  thread,  and  following  it  round 
with  a  pencil,  keepins  it  extended  in  the 
form  of  a  triangle.  The  points  where  the 
thread  is fibced  are  called  the/bci. 

Elliptu^itt  of  the  Terrestrial 
Spheroid.   (See  Degree,  Measurement  of,) 

Ellis,  George,  an  ingenious  writer,  a 
native  of  London,  was  educated  at  West- 
minster school  and  Trinity  college,  Cam- 
bridge. He  obtamed  an  office  under  gov- 
ernment during  tlie  administration  of  Air. 
J^itt,  and  was  secretary  to  lord  Malme»- 
bury,  in  his  embassy  to  Lisle,  in  1797. 
He  was  one  of  the  junto  of  wits  concern- 
ed in  the  well  known  political  satire.  The 
Rolliad,  and  wrote  a  preface,  notes  and 
appendix  to  Way's  translation  from  the 
French  of  Le  Grand's  FubUaux;  besides 
which,  he  published  Specimens  of  the 
early  Englisb  Poets,  with  an  Historical 
Sketch  of  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  Eng- 
lish Poetry  and  Language,  3  volumes  8vo. ; 
and  Specimens  of  early  English  Metrical 
Romances,  3  vols.  8vo.  The  two  latter 
works  have  passed  through  several  edi- 
tions ;  and  they  display  much  ingenuity, 
and  a  general,  though  not  a  profound  ac- 

2uaintance  with  English  literature.  Mr. 
lllis,  who  was  a  fellow  of  the  royal  so- 
ciety, and  the  society  of  antiquaries,  died 
in  1815,  aged  70. 
Ellora.  (See  Elortu) 
Ellsworth,  Oliver,  an  American  judge 
and  statesman,  was  bom  at  Windsor, 
in  Connecticut,  April  129th,  1745.  His  father 
was  a  farmer,  and  his  own  youth  was  pass- 
ed alternately  in  agricultural  labors  and  lib- 
eral studies.  At  the  age  of  17,  he  entered 
Yale  colleee,  which  he  subsequently  left 
for  the  college  of  Nassau  hall,  at  Prince- 
ton. After  completing  his  academic 
course  at  Princeton,  in  1766,  he  studied 
law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  in  1771, 
in  the  county  of  Hartford,  Connecticut, 
where  he  commenced  the  practice,  and 
acquired  in  a  few  years  a  high  profes- 
sional reputation,  that  occasioned  his  ap- 
pointment as  state's  attorney.  From  the 
commencement  of  the  revolutionary  strug- 
gle, Mr.  Ellsworth  sided  with  the  colonies ; 
he  went  into  acmal  service  against  the 
enemy,  with  the  militia  of  Connecticut, 
and,  as  a  member  of  the  general  assembly 
of  that  state,  took  a  large  share  in  all  the 
political  discussions  and  measures.  In 
1777,  he  was  chosen  a  delegate  to  the 
congress  of  the  United  States,  m  which 


bodv  he  continued  for  three  years.  In 
1780,  he  became  a  member  of  the  council 
of  Connecticut,  and,  in  1784,  was  appoint- 
ed a  judge  of  the  superior  court  of  the 
state — an  office  which  he  fiUed  for  several 
years  with  great  reputation*  In  1787,  he 
was  chosen,  by  the  legislature,  one  of  the 
delegates  of  Connecticut  to  the  convention 
for  framing  a  federal  constitution,  to  be 
held  in  Philadelphia.  In  this  illustrious 
assembly,  he  obtained  much  influence  and 
distinction.  It  is  believed,  that  the  present 
organization  and  mode  of  appointment  of 
the  senate  were  suggested  by  him.  As 
he  was  called  away  by  other  duties,  his 
name  is  not  among  those  of  the  signers  of 
the  constitution  which  was  adopted,  but 
he  approved  the  work^  and  wannlv  sup- 

rid  it  in  tiie  state  convention.  Two  of 
very  able  speeches  in  its  defence 
are  preserved  in  the  third  volume  of  Ca- 
rey's American  Museum.  When  the 
constitution  was  ratified,  judge  Ellsworth 
was  elected  a  senator  in  the  first  congress, 
which  met  at  New  York,  in  1789;  and  he 
retained  his  seat  till  1796,  during  almost 
the  whole  of  president  Washington's  ad- 
ministration. The  bill  for  organizing  the 
judiciary  depcartment  was  drawn  up  by 
him,  and  tiie  part  which  he  took  in  most 
of  tlie  great  questions  of  politics  or  public 
economy,  raised  him  to  a  lofty  eminence 
in  the  eyes  of  the  country.  In  1796, 
when  Mr.  Jay  resigned  the  office  of  chief 
justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United 
States,  president  Washington  appointed 
Mr.  Ellsworth  his  successor.  To  this  trust 
he  proved  fully  equal,  though  he  had 
been  long  estranged  from  the  practice  of 
his  profession.  All  his  habits  and  facul- 
ties were  specially  adiq)ted  to  the  discharge 
of  judicial  functions.  At  the  close  of 
the  Year  1799,  he  was  selected  to  be  one 
of  the  three  envoys  to  France,  governor 
Davie,  of  North  Carolina,  and  the  honora- 
ble William  Vans  Murray,  being  his  col- 
lea^es,  in  order  to  adjust  those  djfferences 
which  had  assumed  the  character  of  war. 
For  this  errand  he  was  not  so  well  quali- 
fied as  for  tiie  career  which  he  had  pre- 
viously run;  but  the  convention,  which 
was  concluded  by  the  envoys  with  the 
French  government,  obtained  the  assent 
of  the  president  and  tiie  senate.  His 
health  was  so  much  impaired  by  a  long 
and  tempestuous  sea  voyage,  that  he  was 
obliged  to  pass  over  to  ,  England  from 
France,  in  order,  chiefly,  to  try  the  effica- 
cy of  the  British  mineral  watere.  The 
same  cause  induced  him  to  transmit  from 
England,  to  president  Washington,  his  re- 
signation of  the  office  of  chief  justice.   As 


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484 


ELLSWORTH— ELIL 


soon  as  he  acquired  some  fiesh  strength, 
he  returned  to  his  native  country,  ana  re- 
tired to  his  family  residence  at  Windsor, 
in  Connecticut  In  1802,  he  entered  asain 
into  the  council  of  the  state,  and,  in  1B07, 
was  elected  the  chief  justice  of  the  state, 
but  declined  this  station.  The  nephritic 
complaints,  to  which  he  had  been  long 
subject,  attained  a  fatal  violence  this  year, 
and  caused  his  death,  in  the  63d  year  of 
his  age.  Oliver  Ellsworth  was  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  of  the  rev^lutionaiy 
patriots  of  America,  of  her  statesmen  and 
ner  lawyers.  He  filled  a  lar^  space  in 
the  eyes  of  his  countrymen.  His  person- 
^  character  and  domestic  life  were  ex- 
emplary. His  friend,  doctor  Dwight,  has 
commemorated  his  merits  in  his  Travels 
in  New  England. 

Ellwood,  Thomas,  an  early  writer 
among  the  Quakers^  was  bom  in  1639,  at 
Crowell,  near  Thame,  in  Oxfordsliire, 
where  he  received  such  an  education  as 
the  humble  circumstances  of  his  parents 
would  afford.  In  hi6  21st  year,  he  was 
induced  to  join  the  society  of  Friends,  by 
die  preaching  of  one  Edward  Burroughs^ 
and  he  soon  after  published  his  first  piece, 
entitled  An  Alarm  to  the  Priests,  or  a 
Message  from  Heaven  to  warn  them. 
He  subsequently  became  reader  to  Milton, 
with  whom  he  improved  himself  in  the 
learned  languages,  but  was  soon  obiiffed 
to  quit  London  on  account  of  his  health. 
In  the  year  166S,  he  procured  a  lodging 
for  Milton  at  Chalfbnt,  Bucks,  and  was  the 
occasion  of  his  writing  Paradise  Regain- 
ed, by  the  following  observation  made  on 
the  return  of  the  Paradise  Lost,  which  the 
poet  had  lent  him  to  read  in  manuscript: 
*^  Thou  hast  said  much  of  paradise  lost, 
but  what  hast  thou  to  say  of  paradise 
found?"  In  1705,  he  published  the  first 
part  of  Sacred  History,  or  the  Historical 
Parts  of  the  Old  Testament,  and,  in  1709, 
Sacred  History,  &c.  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment ;  which  production  vras  well  received, 
and  is  still  held  in  some  estimation.  His 
other  works  are  numerous ;  among  them, 
Davideis,  the  Life  of  David,  King  of  Is- 
rael, a  poem,  which  is  more  distinguished 
for  piety  than  poetry.  He  died  in  1713, 
aired  74.  His  lite,  vivitten  by  himself, 
anbrds  many  interesting  particuJars  of  the 
history  of  his  sect 

Elm.  The  species  of  elm  (tilmttf)  are 
trees  or  shrubs,  with  ahemate  rough  and 
simple  leaves,  and  ^Mcidcs  of  small,  incon- 
spicuous flowers,  which  appear  before  the 
ibliage.  About  twenty  species  are  known, 
all  inhaftnting  the  temperate  parts  of  the 
nord^em  hemiq>here,  and  three  of  them 


natives  of  the  United  StateB>— 1.  U^Amen- 
cana  (American  or  white  elm|  is  found 
from  the  forty-ninth  to  the  thirtieth  paral- 
lel of  latitude,  is  abundant  in  the  Western 
States,  and  extends  beyond  the  Miaslasippi, 
but  attains  its  loftiest  stauire  between  lat 
42^  and  46° ;  here  it  reaches  tlie  height  of 
100  feet,  with  a  trunk  four  or  ^ve  feet  in 
diameter,  rising  sometimes  60  or  70  feet, 
when  it  separates  into  a  few  primary 
liiflbe,  which  are  at  first  approximate,  or 
cross  each  other,  but  gradually  diverae, 
diffusing  on  all  sides  long,  arched,  pendu- 
lous branches,  which  float  in  the  air.  It 
has  been  pronounced  bf  MIohaux  ''the 
most  magnificent  vegetable  of  the  tem- 
perate zone."  Its  wood  is  not  much  es- 
teemed^ but  has  been  used  for  the  naves 
of  wheels  in  the  state  of  New  York,  for 
chair-bottoms,  and  sometimes,  in  Maine, 
for  the  keels  of  vessels.  2.  U.  fidva  (red 
or  slippery  elm)  is  common  in  the  West, 
but  comparatively  rare  in  the  Atiantie 
states ;  it  is  also  found  over  a  great  extent 
of  country  in  Canada,  Missouri,  and  as 
far  south  as  latitude  3P;  it  attains  the 
height  of  fif!y  or  sixty  feet,  with  a  trunk 
15  or  20  inches  in  diameter;  the  wood  is 
stronger  and  of  a  better  quality  than  that 
of  the  white  elm,  is  employed  in  the  West 
in  constructing  houses,  and  is  tlie  best  in 
the  United  States  for  blocks^  but  its  scarci- 
ty in  the  Atlantic  states  prevents  its  bong 
much  used  for  tliat  purpose.  The  leaves 
and  bark  yield  an  abundant  mucilage,  to 
which  it  owes  its  name,  and  which  is  a 
valuable  remedy  in  coughs,  and  especially 
in  dysentery  and  other  howel  complaints. 
This,  as  well  as  every  other  kind  of  do- 
mestic medicine,  is  prepared  and  put  up, 
with  most  singular  nicety  and  care,  at 
the  Shaker  establii^ment,  at  Canterbury, 
N.  H.  3.  U.  aUtia  (wahoo)  inhabits  ircm 
lat  87^  to  Florida,  Loui«ana,  and  Arkan- 
sas, and  is  a  small  tree,  sometimes  30  feet 
higb,  remarkable  from  the  branches  being 
furnished,  on  two  opposite  sides,  with 
wings  of  cork,  two  or  three  fines  wide; 
the  wood  is  fine-grained,  compact  and 
heavy,  and  has  been  used  in  tlie  Soutli  for 
tlie  naves  of  coach  wheels.  The  wood 
of  the  U.  campe9tria  of  the  eastern  conti- 
nent is  superior  to  that  of  either  of  the 
American  species,  and,  indeed,  is  one  of 
the  most  useflil  in  the  noechanic  arts,  be- 
in^  employed  for  gun-carriages,  blocks  of 
ships,  gunwales,  £c.,  and  is  every  where 
preferred  by  wheelwrights  for  the  naves 
and  feWoes  of  wheels.  The  lower  classes 
in  England  use  it  almost  exclusively  for 
coffins,  probably  on  account  oi  its  dura- 
bihfy  in  m<NSt  situatimis.    This  tree  might 


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ELM— ELORA. 


485 


be  advaotageoiuly  introduced  into  the 
United  States. 

£i.Mi:tA,  or  La  Mina,  or  Oddena,  or 
St.  Geo  roe  dei.  Miha  ;  a  town  in  Africa, 
on  the  Gold  coast,  situated  in  a  low,  flat 
peninsula,  near  the  two  forts,  St.  Georae 
d'Eimina  and  Conradsburg  ;  Ion.  1^  Sx 
W.;  laL  5^  l(y  N.;  population  about 
15,000.  It  is  the  capital  of  the  Dutch 
settlements  in  Western  Africa,  and  the 
most  respectable  fortress  on  the  Gold 
coast  The  town  is  laqj^e,  and  remaricabiy 
dirty;  some  of  the  houses  are  built  of 
stone,  but  they  are  huddled  together  in  a 
confused  manner.  The  counury  around 
is  for  the  most  part  open  and  flat,  the  soil 
generally  light  The  inhabitants  of  the 
town  are  traders,  flshennen,  and  persons 
employed  as  servants  to  traders.  The 
citadel  of  Elmina,  standing  in  the  centre 
of  the  Gold  coast,  is  very  commodiously 
situated  for  the  purposes  of  trade,  and  the 
protection  and  security  of  the  trader.  Its 
situation  is  upon  a  rock,  bounded  on  one 
nde  by  the  ocean,  and  also  defended  by 
strong  bastions. 

£lmo*s  Fire,  St.";  an  appearance  caused 
by  fiery  meteors  in  the  atmosphere.  It 
is  oflen  seen  playing  about  the  masts  and 
rigging  of  ships.  If  two  flames  are  visi- 
ble (Castor  and  PoUuz),  the  sailors  con- 
sider it  a  good  omen ;  if  only  Qne,  which 
thev  call  aeUntf  they  regard  itasa  bad  one. 

Elhslet,  Peter,  D.  D.,  an  eminent  schol- 
ar and  philologist,  was  bom  in  1773,  and 
educated  at  Oxford.  Having  inherited  a 
fortune  fix>m  his  uncle,  he  devoted  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  to  literature.  In  1803; 
being  then  resident  in  Edinburgh,  he  be- 
came one  of  the  original  oontributon 
to  the  Edinburgh  Review,  in  which 
the  articles  on  Heyne*s  Homer,  Schweig- 
hauser's  Athemeus,  Bloomfield's  Prome- 
theus, and  Person's  Hecuba,  are  from  his 
pen.  He  also  vmte  occasionaUy,  at  a 
subsequent  period,  in  the  Quarterly  Re- 
view. In  the  pursuit  of  his  philolo^cal 
studies,  Mn  Elmsley  afterwards  visited 
most  of  the  principal  libraries  on  the  con- 
tinent, and  spent  the  whole  of  the  vnnter 
of  1818  in  the  Laurentian  Library  at  Flor- 
ence. The  year  following,!^  accepted  a 
commission  from  the  gov^nment  to  su- 
perintend, in  conjunction  with  sir  Hum- 
phrey Davy,  the  uim>Uing  of  the  Her- 
culanean  papyri ;  in  which  the  selec- 
tion of  the  manuscripts  vras  left  to  his 
judgment  On  his  return  to  En^nd,  he 
settled  at  Oxford,  and,  having  taken  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  divinity,  obtained  soon 
after  the  headship  of  Alban  hall,  and  the 
Camden  professorship  in  1823.  He  died 
41* 


in  1835.  He  published  an  edition  of  the 
following  tragedies  of  Sophocles  and 
Euripides:  Acamanes,  hi  1809;  CEdi- 
pus  Tyrannus,  1811;  Heraclidse,  1815; 
Medea,  1818;  Bacchie,  1831;  and  (£di- 
pus  Coloneus,  1833, 

ELOiroATioif,  in  astronomy,  the  angle 
under  which  we  see  a  planet  from  the  sun, 
when  reduced  to  the  ecliptic ;  or  it  is  the 
angle  formed  by  two  lines  drawn  from  the 
earth  to  the  sun  and  planet,  when  reduced 
as  above. 

Elofemeii T  is  when  a  married  woman, 
of  her  own  accord,  departs  from  her  hus- 
band, and  dwells  with  an  adulterer;  for 
which,  without  voluntary  reconciliation  to 
the  husband,  she  shall  lose  her  dower. 
By  eloping  and  living  apart  from  the  bus- 
band,  he  is  discharge  of  the  future  debts, 
and  no  longer  liable  to  support  her. 

Eloka;  a  town  in  Hmdostan,  in  the 
province  of  Dowlatabad ;  Ion.  75^  33'E.; 
kt  19»  58^  N. ;  about  18  miles  N.  E.  of 
Aurungabad,  360  miles  from  Bombi^, 
650  from  Madras,  and  more  than  1000 
from  Calcutta ;  inhabited  by  Bramins  on- 
ly. About  a  mile  west  of  the  place  is  a 
chain  of  mountains,  of  reddish  granite, 
out  of  which  the  famous  temples  of 
Elora  are  excavated.  These  temples  must 
be  counted  among  the  most  stupendous 
vrorks  ever  executed  by  man.  The  cir- 
cuit of  the  excavations  is  about  two 
leagues.  The  temples  are  100  feet  high, 
145  feet  long,  and  63  feet  wide.  They 
contain  thousands  of  figures,  appearing, 
fit>m  the  style  of  their  sculpture,  to  be  of 
ancient  Hindoo  origin.  Every  thing  about 
thena,  in  fiict,  indicates  the  most  persever- 
ing industry  in  executing  one  of  the 
Ix^est  plans.  Their  origin  is  prior  to  the 
period  of  history.  A  tradition  says  that 
Visvacarma  was  the  architect  of  the  chief 
temple,  and  that  Vishnoo  and  the  San- 
thones  were  his  assistants.  The  chief 
temple  still  bean  the  name  of  Visvacarma. 
The  vault  is  supported  by  several  rows  of 
columns^  which  form  three  galleries,  one 
above  the  other.  34  colossu  monolithes, 
represendng  Indian  gods,  are  placed  in 
septunte  divisions,  the  sculpture  of  which, 
thou|^,  on  the  whole,  it  may  be  called 
rude,  shows,  in  some  parts,  an  advanced 
period  of  art,  and  a  certain  developement 
of  taste.  On  each  side  of  the  colonnades 
of  the  peat  ternple  are  hewn  out  sphinxes, 
quite  m  the  Egyptian  style.  These  re- 
markable worics,  which  will  probably  per- 
ish from  exposure  to  air  and  moisture,  if 
nothing  is  done  for  then-  preservation, 
were  fiivt  described  by  the  English  cap- 
tain T.B.  Seely,in  his  Wonders  of  Elora 


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486 


ELORA— EMANATION. 


(London,  1824).  Seely  relates  the  foDow- 
ing  remiukable  circumstance :  that  Indian 
Boldiers,  in  the  English  arm^  in  Egypt,  in 
17D9,  exclaimed,  while  gazing  at  several 
of  the  Egyptian  images  wiui  astonish- 
ment, tliat  Hindoos  must  have  inhabited 
Egypt !  Future  ages  will  perhaps  trace  the 
Egyptian  civilization  to  India,  as  Cham- 
pollion  is  at  present  tracing  Grecian  civili- 
zation to  Egypt,  (q.  v.) 

Elsinore,  bLsiifEUR,  or  Helsingoer  ; 
a  seaport  of  Denmark,  on  the  E.  coast  of 
the  island  of  Zealand,  20  miles  N.  Copen- 
hagen; Ion.  lyaS'E.;  lat  SBPUffi.-, 
population,  7000.  It  is  well  built,  and 
stands  on  the  west  side  of  the  Sound, 
nearly  opposite  to  Helsinbei^,  in  Sweden, 
at  the  narrowest  place  of  the  Sound, 
which  is  here  less  than  four  miles  vnde.  It 
has  no  harbor,  but  an  excellent  roadstead, 
generally  crowded  with  vessels  ^oing  iip 
or  down  the  Baltic,  and  anchonng  here, 
eitlier  to  jiay  toll  or  take  in  stores,  the  sup- 
ply of  which  forms  the  chief  business  of 
the  place.  The  aggregate  number  of  ves- 
sels of  all  nations  passing  the  Sound  is 
nearly  10,000.  The  toll  paid  for  English, 
French,  Dutch  and  Swedish  vessels  is 
1  per  cent  en  the  value  of  their  cargoes, 
and  1}  per  cent  for  vessels  of  other  na- 
tions. The  annual  amount  of  toll  varies 
from  £120,000  to  £150,000  sterling.  At 
Elsinore,  the  fortress  of  Cronberg,  situ- 
ated on  the  edge  of  a  promontory,  is  pro- 
vided with  powerful  batteries. 

Elysium,  Eltsiakt  FiEtns;  1.  the 
name  of  certain  regions,  which  the  an- 
dents  supposed  to  l^  the  residence  of  the 
blessed  alter  death.  They  are  described 
sometimes  as  delightful  meadows,  'some^ 
times  as  islands  situated  on  the  western 
confines  of  the  earth.  But  they  gradually 
receded  as  this  portion  of  the  earth  was 
explored.  The  happiness  of  the  blessed 
consisted  in  a  life  ot  tranquil  enjoyment. 
The  images  by  which  the  happiness  of  a 
residence  there  is  described,  were  taken 
partl)r  fifom  Olympus,  and  partly  from 
descriptions  of  the  golden  age.  The 
roost  beautifui  meadows  alternated  with 
pleasant  groves ;  a  serene  and  cloudless 
sky  was  spread  over  them,  and  a  soil, 
celestial  light  shed  a  magical  brilliancy 
over  every  object;  the  heroes  there  re- 
newed their  favorite  sports ;  they  exer- 
cised themselves  in  wrestling  and  other 
contests,  daneed  to  the  sound  of  the  lyre, 
ftom  which  Orpheus  drew  the  most  en- 
chanting tones,  or  wandered  throu|^ 
odoriferous  laurel-groves,  on  the  smiling 
banks  of  the  Eridanus,  in  delightful  vales, 
Or  in  meadows  watered  by  lunpid  foun- 


tains, amid  the  waibling  of  birds,  some- 
times alone  and  sometimes  in  company; 
a  perpetual  spring  reigned  there  ;  the 
earth  teemed  three  times  a  year ;  and  ali 
cares,  pains  and  infirmities  were  banished 
from  those  happy  seats.  (For  the  origin  of 
the  fable,  see  CtmeiaryJ)  The  voluptuous 
description  of  the  gardens  of  Anrnda,  in 
Tasso's  Jerusalem  Delivered,  is  an  imita- 
tion of  the  ancient  ideas  of  the  Elysian 
frelds.^2.  The  Parisians  have  called  one 
of  their  frivorite  gardens  and  prindpal 
places  of  amusement  Otan^^EMtes. 

Elzbvi  a,  or  Elz vier.  This  family  of 
printers,  reading  at  Amsterdam  and  Ley- 
den,  Ml  celebrated  for  beautiful  editi<Hi8, 
mincipally  published  from  1595  to  1680. 
The  best  known  are  Louis,  Matthew, 
Isaac  (associated  with  Buonaventun^ 
John  and  Daniel,  at  Amsterdam  and  Ley- 
den.  Besides  these  waa  Peter  Elzevv,  at 
Utrecht,  who  has  done  less  for  the  ait 
Louis  was  the  first  printer  who  made  a 
distinction  between  the  consonant  s  and 
the  vowel  u.  Abraham  and  Buonaven- 
tura  prepared  the  small  editions  of  the 
classics,  in  12mo.  and  lOmo.,  which  are 
still  valued  for  their  beauty  and  conrect- 
nesB.  Daniel  was  one  of  the  most  active 
of  this  family.  Although  the  Elzevirs 
were  surpassed  in  learning,  and  in  Greek 
and  Hebrew  editions,  by  the  Stephen* 
ses  (Etiennes,  printers  and  booksellera 
at  Paris),  they  were  unequalled  in  their 
dioioe  of  works  and  in  the  eleganoe 
of  their  typography.  Tlieir  editions  of 
Vuvil,  Terence,  the  New  Testament,  the 
Psalter,  &c.,  executed  with  red  letters,  are 
maslerpieoes  of  typography,  both  for  cor- 
rectness and  beauty.  Several  catalogues 
of  their  editions  have  been  pubUahed:  the 
last  is  by  Daniel  ( 1674,12mo.),  in  seven  j^aits, 
much  increased  by  the  admission  ot  for- 
eign works.  (See  Brunet-s  NbUee  dt  la 
Cottect.  d'AuUws,  dc  p.Us  Ete9,  in  the 
4th  voU  of  the  Manud  du  lAhnwrt.) 

Emanation,  Epflitx  (from  the  Latin 
emanart^  to  issue,  to  flow  out,  to  emanate). 
Philosopbical  systems  which,  like  most  of 
the  ancient,  do  not  adopt  a  spontaneous 
creation  of  the  univerae  by  a  Supreme 
Being,  fhsqaently  explain  the  imivesa 
by  an  etenial  emanation  fipom  the  Su- 
preme Bemg;  This  doctrine  came  firom 
the  East  Traces  of  it  are  found  in  the 
Indian  mythology,  and  m  the  old  Penian 
or  Bactro-Median  doctrine  of  Zoroaaler. 
(q.  V.)  It  had  a  powerful  influence  on 
the  ancient  Greek  philosophy,  as  may  be 
seen  in  Pythagoras. — ^In  theology,  the  doc- 
trine of  emanation  is  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity,  which  regards  the  Son  and  Hofy 


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EMANATION— EBIBEZZLEMENT. 


487 


Ohost,  Scc^aBeBtaxsB  torn  the  Deity  hiiiH 

EsiAifciPATioN*  (See  CaAolie  Emou^ 
c^paHon,) 

Emaivuel  tsx  Great,  kinff  of  Portii" 
sal,  nsoended  the  throne  in  14^  Dorinff 
bis  reign  were  performed  the  voyages  of 
discovery  of  Vasco  da  Gama  ( 149/ ),  of  Ca- 
bnil  (1500),  of  Americus  Vespucius  (1«501 
and  1503L  and  the  heroic  exploits  of  Alba- 
querouo,  bv  whoee  exertions  a  passage  was 
»>und  to  the  East  Indies  (for  which  ^e 
way  was  prepared  by  the  discovery  of  the 
cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  I486,  by  Bartholo- 
mew  Diaz),  the  Portuguese  dominion  in 
Goa  was  established,  the  &azils,  the  Mo- 
luccas, &c,  were  diiicevered.  The  com- 
merce of  Portugal,  under  Emanuel,  Was 
more  prosperous  than  at  any  fonner  pe- 
riod. The  treasures  of  America  flowed 
into  Lisbon,  and  the  reign  of  Emanuel  was 
iusdy  called  ''the  golden  age  of  Portugal^ 
He  died  Dec.  13,  1521,  aged  52,  deeply 
lamented  by  his  subjects,  but  bated  by  the 
Moon,  whom  he  had  expelled,  and  by 
the  Jews,  whom  he  had  compelled  to  sub- 
mit to  baptism.  As  a  monument  of  his  dis* 
coveries,  Emanuel  built  the  monastery  at 
Belem  (cj.  v.t  where  he  was  buried.  He 
was  a  fnena  to  the  sciences  and  to  learn- 
ed men.    He  left  Memoirs  on  the  Indies^ 

Ehbalicing;  to  embalm,  to  fill  and 
surround  with  aromatic  and  deaiccatrve 
substances  any  bodies,  particulaify  corpses, 
in  order  to  preserve'lfaem  fiom  oorrupbon. 
The  ancient  £g3rpdan8  were  the  inventars 
of  this  art  Other  people,  for  example, 
the  Assjrrians,  Scyuuans  and  PefHiansL 
followed  them,  but  by  no  meana  equalled 
them  in  it.  The  art  has  degenerated 
very  much  fixxn  the  high  degree  of  per- 
lection  at  which  it  stomi  amonff  the  an- 
cients; perbaps  because  the  <£ange  in 
religious  opimona  and  customs  has  made 
the  embalining  of  the  dead  less  frequent 
In  modem  times,  only  distinffuished  indi- 
viduals are  occasionally  emoalmed;  but 
this  process  does  not  prevent  corruption. 
— ^The  intestines  are  taken  out  of  the  body^ 
and  the  brains  out  of  the  head,  and  the 
cavities  filled  up  with  a  mixture  of  bal- 
samic herbs,  myirh  and  others  of  the  same 
kind;  the  large  blood-vessels  and  other 
Tessels  are  ii^ected  with  balsams  diasolved 
in  spirit^  of  wine;  the  body  is  rubbed 
hard  with  spbits  of  the  same  kind,  &>c» 
(See  JMunHmef.)  The  ancient  Egyptians 
removed  the  viscera  from  the  large  cavi- 
ties, and  replaced  th^  with  aromatic, 
saline  and  bituminous  substances^  and 
also  enveloped  the  outside  of  the  body  in 
cbtbs  impregnated  with  similar  materials. 


These  were  usefiil  in  preventing  decom- 
position and  excluding  insects,  undl  per- 
fect dryness  took  place.  In  later  times, 
bodies  have  been  preserved  a  long  time 
by  embalming,  especially  when  they  have 
remained  at  a  low  and  uniform  tempera- 
ture, and  have  been  protected  from  the  air. 
The  body  of  Edwiml  I  was  buried  in 
Westminster  abbey,  in  1307,  and  in  1770 
was  found  entire.  Canute  died  in  1096 ; 
his  body  was  found  very  fi^esh  in  1776^  in 
Winchester  cathedral.  The  bodies  of 
William  the  Conqueror  and  of  Matilda 
his  wife  were  found  entire  at  Caen,  in  the 
16th  century.  Similar  cases  are  not  un* 
finequent  In  many  instances,  bodies  not 
embalmed  have  been  preserved  from  de- 
cay merely  by  the  exclusion  of  the  air  and 
the  lowness  of  the  temperature.  Impreg- 
nation of  the  animal  body  with  corrosive 
sublimate  appeara  to  be  tlie  most  efibctual 
means  of  preserving  it,  excepting  immer- 
aon  in  spirits.  The  impregnation  is  per- 
formed by  the  injection  of  a  strong  solu- 
tion, consisting  of  about  four  ounces  of 
bichloride  of  mercury  to  a  pint  of  alco- 
hol, into  the  blood-vessels,  and,  after  the 
viscera  are  removed,  the  body  is  immersed, 
for  three  roontha^  in  the  same  solution, 
after  which  it  dries  easily,  and  is  almost 
imperishable.  Wd  prqtcaxdionB,  or  those 
immersed  in  alcohol  or  oil  of  turpentiiie, 
last  for  an  indefinite  time. 

Embargo,  in  conunerce ;  an  arrest  on 
ships  or  merchaiidisBy  by  public  authority ; 
or  a  prohibition  of  st^te,  commonly  on 
foreign  ships^  in  time  of  war,  to  prevent 
their  going  out  of  port;  sometimes  to 
prevent  their  coming  in ;  and  sometimes 
both  for  a  limited  time. 

Embabsaboiu  (See  Jhnbauadorj  and 
JiAn^ttn^  FhrtigfL,) 

EacBATBD ;  tne  situation  of  a  ship  when 
she  is  enclosed  between  two  capes  or  pro- 
montories. It  is  particularly  f^hed  wnen 
the  wind,  bv  blowing  strong  mto  any  bay 
or  fful^  makes  it  extremely  difficult,  and 
peuiaps  impracticablB,  for  the  vessel  thus 
enclosed  to  draw  off  from  the  shore,  so 
as  to  weather  the  capes  and  gain  the  offing. 

Embsb  Weeks  or  Days,  in  the  Chris- 
tian church,  are  certain  seasons  of  the 
vear  set  apart  for  the  imploring  God's 
blessing,  by  prater  and  fosting;  upon  the 
ordinations  jMBrformed  in  the  church  at 
such  times.  The  ember  weeks  were  for- 
meriy  observed  in  different  churches  with 
some  variety,  but  were  at  last  sefided  as 
they  are  now  observed,  by  the  council  at 
PlacMitia,  in  1095. 

EicBKZZLCiiEirT  is  the  appropriatioiv 
by  a  person,  to  himself  of  money  or  prop- 


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£MBEZZL£M£NT-~£MBRYO. 


erty  put  into  his  hands  in  trust  An  em- 
hezzlement  is  both  a  theft  and  breach 
of  trust;  yet,  by  the  general  law,  it  is 
only  a  ground  for  an  action  for  the  value 
of  the  property.  But  there  are  many 
special  provisions  in  relation  to  perticukur 
embezzlements  and  breaches  of  trusL  By 
the  law  of  England,  a  clerk  guilty  of  en> 
bezzlement  is  liable  to  transportation  not 
exceeding  14  years ;  and  a  piblic  servant 
or  agent  committing  the  hke  offence  is 
declared  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and 
punishable  at  the  discretion  of  the  court. 
Still  more  severe  provisions  are  made  in 
tlie  case  of  embezzlement  by  the  officers 
and  clerks  of  banks.  The  laws  of  the 
U.  States  contain  numerous  provisions  on 
this  subject.  The  embezzlement  of  wines 
or  other  spirits  deposited  in  tlie  public 
stores,  rendlers  the  party  liable  to  the  same 
penalty  as  for  fraudulently  landing  the 
same  goods  with  intention  to  evade  the 
revenue ;  and  special  provisions  are  made 
respecting  embezzlements  in  the  post- 
office,  the  army  and  navy,  and  in  relation 
to  the  U.  States  bank  in  particular.  It  is 
provided  by  the  act  of  March  3,  1825, 
*^that  if  any  person  employed  as  presi- 
dent, cashier,  cleik  or  servant  in  the  bank, 
shall  feloniously  take,  steal  and  cany 
away  any  money,  goods,  bond,  bill,  bank- 
note, or  other  note,  check,  draft,  treasury- 
note,  or  other  valuable  security  or  effects 
belonging  to,  or  deposited  in,  the  bank ;  or 
shall  ftaudulently  embezzle,  secrete  or 
make  away  with  any  money,  goods,  bond, 
bill,  bank-note,  or  other  valuable  security 
or  effects,  which  he  shall  have  received, 
or  which  shall  come  to  his  possession  or 
custody  by  virtue  of  such  employment ; 
he  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  felony,  and, 
on  conviction,  shall  be  punished  by^ne 
not  exceeding  $5000,  and  imprisonment 
and  confinement  to  hard  labor  not  exceed- 
ing ten  years.''  The  English  law  con- 
tains provisions  in  relation  to  embezzle- 
ment by  servants  and  others.  But  the 
provisions  on  this  subject  are  not  so  nu- 
merous, either  by  the  English  or  Ameri- 
can laws,  as  they  ought  to  be,  considering 
that  embezzlement  involves  the  suilt  of  a 
larceny  with  the  finud  of  a  breach  of  trust 
This  IS  mostly  a  subject  of  state  lecjsla- 
tiou  in  the  IT.  States,  and  the  laws  of  the 
states  contain  some  provisions  in  relation 
to  it  By  the  genenu  marine  law,  a  mari- 
ner forfeits  his  wages  by  the  embezzle- 
ment of  any  part  of  the  cargo  of  the  ship; 
and  so  he  also  forfeits  his  share  of  the  prize 
money  by  embezzling  any  part  of  the  cap- 
tured property. 
Emblem  (Gr.  tft^Xmu,  from  tfifiaXXm,  to 


cast  in,  to  insert) ;  properly,  inky;  in- 
kyed  or  mosaic  work;  something  in- 
serted in  the  body  of  another;  a  pictore 
representing  one  thing  to  the  eye,  and 
another  to  tlie  understanding;  a  painted 
eniffma,  or  a  figure  representing  some 
well-known  historical  event,  instructing 
us  in  some  moral  truth ;  a  typical  desig- 
nation :  thus  a  balance  is  an  emblem  of 
justice;  a  crown,  an  emblem  of  royalty. 

Embonpoint;  a  moderate  and  agree- 
able fubiess  of  figure,    (See  Corpvleney,) 

Embossing,  or  Imbossing,  in  architec- 
ture and  sculpture ;  the  fbnning  or  fash- 
ioning works  m  relievo,  whether  cut  with 
a  chisel  or  otherwise. 

Embbacert  ;  an  attempt  to  oomipt  or 
influence  a  jury,  or  any  way  incline  them 
to  be  more  favorable  to  tlie  one  «de  than 
the  other,'  by  money,  promises,  letters, 
threats  or  persuasions,  whether  the  jury 
give  a  verdict  or  not,  or  whether  the  verdict 

given  be  true  or  false ;  which  is  punished 
y  fine  and  imprisonment 
EMBROinERT ;  figured  work  in  gold,  or 
silver,  or  silk  thread,  wrought  by  the 
needle,  upon  clothe^  stufts  or  muslins.  In 
embroidering  stufis,  a  kind  of  Uxhu  is 
used,  because  the  m<»e  the  piece  is 
stretched,  the  easier  is  it  worked.  Muaiin 
is  spread  upon  a  pattern^  ready  designed, 
and  sometimes,  before  it  is  stretched  upon 
the  pattern,  it  is  starched  to  make  it  more 
easy  to  handle*  The  art  of  embroidery 
was  invented  in  the  f^ast,  probably  by  the 
Phrygians.  In  Moses'  time,  Ahoiiab,  of 
the  tribe  of  Dan,  was  noted  for  ricill  in 
embroidery,  and  the  women  of  Sidon, 
before  the  Trojan  war,  excelled  in  the 
same  art  Though  the  Greeks  attributed 
the  invention  of  ue  art  to  Minerva,  yet  it 
is  certiun  that  it  came  throuch  the  Per- 
sians to  Greece.  The  kinir  of  Peraamus 
(Attains),  in  the  year  of  Rome  6k1,  in- 
vented the  mode  of  embroidering  with 
gold  thread.  In  modem  times,  the  art 
has  been  much  extended.  In  1782,  three 
German  ladies,  in  Hanover,  named  Wyi- 
lieb,  invented  a  mode  of  embroidering 
with  human  hair.  Beads,  Sic^  also  have 
been  used. 

Emb  bto  ;  the  first  rudiments  of  the  ani- 
mal in  the  womb,  before  the  several  mem- 
bers are  disdnctly  formed,  after  which  it 
is  called  thefiehu,  (q.  v.)  The  time  ne- 
cessary to  produce  this  is  difierent  in 
different  species.  The  human  embryo  is 
viBible  in  three  weeks:  at  the  eiui  of 
four,  a  pulsation  is  perceptible,  which 
is  known  to  be  the  beating  of  the  heart. 
It  is  now  about  the  size  of  an  ant  or 
fly,  and  retains  its  transparency,  which, 


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EMBRYO-4&M£RY. 


48D 


however,  gfaduaUy  dimmiabes,  and,  at  the 
end  of  two  months,  disappears:  the  eyes, 
noee,  mouth,  ears,  and  all  the  membera, 
are  distinguishable :  it  is  as  large  as  a  bee. 
In  three  months,  eveiy  thing  becomes 
more  distinct;  the  sex  becomes  evident, 
and  the  fotus  grows  until  it  is  ushered 
into  the  world  as  a  child. 

Emden;  a  city  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Ems,  in  the  principality  of  East 
Friesland,  the  first  commercial  ci^  of 
Hanover,  with  11,000  inhabiumts,  a  Latin 
school,  a  learned  society,  &c.  It  is  a  free 
port  It  has  much  trade  in  herring|&  It 
is  expected  that  its  commerce  will  be 
much  benefited  by  the  junction  of  the 
Ems  and  the  Rhine. 

EmeiulI)  is  a  well-known  gem  of  pure 
ereen  color,  somewhat  harder  than  quartz. 
Its  natural  form  is  either  rounded  or  that 
of  a  short  six-sided  prism.  By  the-  an- 
cients the  emerald  was  in  great  request, 
particulariy  for  engraving  upon.  They 
are  said  to  have  procured  it  fifom  £thio« 
pia  and  Egypt  The  most  intensely  col- 
ored and  valuable  emeralds  that  we  are 
acquainted  with  are  brought  from  Peru. 
They  are  found  in  clefts  and  veins  of 
gramte,  and  other  primitive  rocks,  and 
oftentimes  grouped  with  the  crystals  of 
quartz,  felspar  and  mica.  The  emerald  is 
one  of  the  softest  of  the  p^ious  stones, 
and  is  almost  exclusively  indebted  for  its 
value  to  its  charming  color.  In  value  it 
is  rated  next  to  the  ruby,  and,  when  of 
good  color,  is  set  witbout  foil,  and  upon 
a  black  ground,  like  brilliant  diamonds. 
Emeralds  of  inferior  lustre  are  generally 
set  upon  a  green  gold  foil.  These  gems 
are  considered  to  appear  to  greatest  ad- 
vantage when  table-cut  and  surrounded 
by  bnlliantB,  the  lustre  of  which  forms  an 
agreeable  contrast  with  the  c^uiet  hue  of 
the  emerald.  They  are  sometimes  formed 
into  pear-shaped  ear-drops ;  but  the  mott 
valuable  stones  are  generally  set  in  rines. 
A  favorite  mode  of  settmg  emeralds, 
amonff  the  opulent  inhabitants  of  South 
Amenca,  is  to  make  them  up  into  clusters 
of  artificial  flowers  on  gold  stems.  The 
largest  emerald  that  bos  been  mentioned, 
is  one  said  to  have  been  possessed  by  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Valley  of  Manta,  in 
Peru,  at  the  time  when  the  Spaniards 
first  arrived  there.  It  is  recorded  to  have 
been  as  big  as  an  ostrich's  egg,  and  to 
have  been  worshipped  by  the  Peruvians, 
under  the  name  of^  the  goddess  or  moihar 
of  emeralds.  They  brouffbt  smaller  ones 
as  offerings  to  it,  which  the  priests  distin- 
guished 1^  the  appellation  of  daughters. 
Many  fine  emenuds  ave  staled  to  have 


formeriy  been  bequeathed  to  dififerent 
monasteiies  on  the  eontinent ;  but  the 
greatest  part  of  them^are  said  to  have  been 
sold  by  the  monks,  and  to  have  had  their 
place  supplied  ySiih  colored  glass  imita- 
tions. These  stones  are  seldom  seen  of 
large  size,  and  at  the  same  time  entirely  free 
fit>m  flaws.  The  emerald,  if  heated  to  a 
certain  degree,  assumes  a  blue  color,  but  it 
recovers  its  own  proper  tint  when  cold. 
When  the  heat  is  carried  much  beyond 
this,  it  melts  into  an  opaque,  colored 
mass.  The  Oriental  emerald  is  a  variety 
of  the  ruby,  of  a  green  color,  and  is  an 
extremely  rare  gem.    (See  Baryl.) 

Emersoh,  William,  an  eminent  Etig- 
Ijsh  mathematician,  was  bom  at  Hur- 
worth,  near  Darlington,  in  the  year  1701. 
Having  derived  from  his  parents  a  mod- 
erate competence,  he  devoted  himself  to  a 
lifo  of  studious  retirement  From  the 
strength  of  his  mind  and  the  closeness  of 
his  application,  he  acquired  a  deep  knowl- 
edge of  mathematics  and  physics,  upon 
all  parts  of  which  he  wrote  sound  trea^ 
tises,  although  with  few  pretensions  to 
oriffinality  or  invention,  and  in  a  touj^ 
ana  unpolished  style.  He  died  in  17S1, 
in  his  8l8t  year. 

Ehsrt,  John,  an  actor  of  eminence, 
was  bora  at  Sunderland,  in  thepalati- 
nate  of  Durham,  December  2S,  1777,  and 
educated  at  Ecclesfield  in  Yorkshire,' 
where  he  acquired  that  knowledge  of  the 
provincial  dialect  which  afterwards  con- 
tributed so  much  to  his  celebrity.  In  the 
unsophisticated  rustic  or  the  stupid  dolt, 
he  was  excellent;  while  in  some  pcuts, 
written  purposely  for  him,  such  as  Tyke 
in  the  School  of  Reform,  and  Giles  in 
the  Miller's  Maid,  his  acting  was  truly 
terrific  and  appalling.  The  portraying  of 
rough  nature,  fine  simplici^,  ana  strong 
passion,  was  his  forte ;  and  in  the  latter, 
especially,  he  ever  excited  the  approbation 
of^the  best  critics.  In  private  life,  he  was 
much  esteemed ;  he  died  in  Januanr.  18S2SL 

Emert,  a  very  hard  mineral,  of*^  black- 
ish or  bluish-gray  color,  is  chiefly  found 
in  shapeless  masses,  and  mixed  with  oth- 
er minerals.  It  contains  about  80  parts 
in  100  of  alumine,  and  a  small  portion  of 
iron,  is  usually  opaque,  and  about  four 
times  as  heavy  as  water.  The  best  emery 
is  brought  from  the  Levant,  and  chiefly 
from  Naxos,  and  other  islands  of  the 
Grecian  archipela^.  It  is  also  found  in 
some  parts  of  Spain,  and  is  obtained  from 
a  few  of  the  iron  mines  in  Great  Britain. 
In  hardness,  it  is  neariy  equal  to  adaman- 
tine spar,  and  this  property  has  rendered  it 
an  object  of  great  request  in  various  arts. 


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490 


EMERY--EMIG&ATION; 


It  ifl  employed  hj  lapidaries  in  the  cutting 
and  polishing  of  precious  stones ;  by  op- 
ticians, in  smoothing  the  surface  oif  the 
finer  kinds  of  glass,  preparatory  to  their 
being  polished ;  by  callers  and  other  man* 
ufacturers  of  iron  and  steel  instruments ; 
by  masonsi  in  the  polishing  of  marble; 
and,  in  their  respective  businesses,  by 
locksmiths,  glaziers,  and  numerous  other 
arlisansi  For  all  these  purposes,  it  is  pul- 
verized in  large  iron  mortals,  or  in  steel 
mills;  and  tlie  powder,  which  is  rough 
and  sharp,  is  carefully  washed,  and  sorted 
into  five  or  six  different  degrees  of  fine- 
ness, according  to  the  description  of  work 
in  which  it  is  to  be  employed  (See  Co- 
ntndum.) 

Emetic  {tfndieus;  fifom  c^c«,  to  vomit); 
that  which  is  capable  of  exciting  vomiting, 
independently  of  any  effect  ansing  from 
the  mere  quantity  of  matter,  introduced 
into  the  stoniacli,  or  of  any  nauseous  taste 
or  flavor.  The  susceptibility  of  vomiting 
is  very  different  in  aifferent  individuals, 
and  is  often  considerably  varied  by  dis- 
ease. Emetics  are  employed  in  many 
diseases.  When  any  morbid  affection 
depends  upon,  or  is  connected  with  over- 
distention  of  die  stomach,  or  the  presence 
of  acrid,  indigestible  mattens,  vomiting 
py&i  speedy  relief.  Hence  its  utility  in 
mipaired  appetite,  acidity  in  the  stomach, 
in  intoxicauon,  and  where  poisons  have 
been  swallowed.  In  the  dinerent  varie- 
ties of  febrile  affections,  much  advantage 
is  derived  from  exciting  vomiting,  espe- 
cially in  the  very  commencement  of  the 
disease.  In  hifh  inflammatory  fever,  it  is 
considered  as  dangerous,  and  in  the  ad- 
vanced sta^  of  typhus,  it  is  prejudicial. 
Emetics,  given  in  such  doses  as  only  to 
excite  nausea,  have  been  found  useful  in 
restrahiing  biemorrhage.  Different  species 
of  dropsy  have  been  cured  by  vomiting, 
from  its  having  excited  absorption.  To 
the  same  eflect,  perhaps,  is  owine  the  dis- 
persion of  various  swellings,  which  has 
occasionally  resulted  from  this  operation. 
The  operati<m  of  vomiting  is  dangerous  or 
hurtful  in  the  follovring  cases :  viiiere 
there  is  determination  of  the  blood  to  the 
head,  especially  in  plethoric  habits;  in 
visceral  mflammation;  in  the  advanced 
stage  of  pregnancy ;  in  hernia  and  prolap- 
sus uteri ;  and  wherever  tliere  exists  ex- 
treme general  debility.  The  freouent  use 
i^f  emetics  weakens  the  Ume  of  the  stom- 
ak*h.  An  emetic  should  always  be  ad- 
ministered in  the  fluid  form.  Its  opera- 
tion may  be  promoted  by  drinkmg  any 
tepid  diluent  or  bitter  infusion. 

£m£tiiy£  is  a  peculiar  vegetable  princi- 


ple, obtained  fifom  the  ipecacuan  root,  of 
whose  emetic  properties  it  is  conceived  to 
be  the  sole  cause.  It  is  obtained  by  di- 
gestinff  tlie  root  first  in  ether  and  then  in 
alcohol.  The  alcoholic  infusion  is  evapo- 
rated to  dryness ;  and  to  the  residuum,  re- 
dissolved  id  water,  acetate  of  lead  is  added, 
which  produces  a  precipitate.  The  pre- 
cipitate is  washed,  diffused  in  water,  and 
decomposed  by  a  current  of  sulphureted 
hydrogen  gas.  Sulphuret  of  lead  falls  to 
the  bottom,  and  the  emetine  remains  in 
solution.  By  evaporating  the  superna- 
tant fluid,  this  substance  is  obtained  pure. 
It  fbnns  transparent,  brownish-red  scales: 
it  is  destitute  of  smell,  but  has  a  bitter, 
acrid  taste.  At  a  heat  somewhat  above 
that  of  boiling  water,  it  is  resolved  into 
carbonic  acid,  oil  and  vinegar.  In  a  dose 
of  half  a  grain,  it  acts  as  a  powerful 
emetic,  followed  b^  sleep :  six  grains  pro- 
duce violent  vomiting,  stupor  and  death. 

Emeu,  or  New  I^llamd  Cassowa&t. 
(See  Ca$9owary,) 

Emioiution.  Removal  from  one  coun- 
try to  another,  for  the  purpose  of  perma- 
nent residence.  Eveiy  man  bom  free,  or 
who  had  obtained  his  freedom,  formerly 
had  the  right  of  emigrating.  But  as  cap- 
ital and  power  were  lost  to  a  state  by  the 
removal  of  its  inhabitants,  it  was  consider- 
ed, that  emigration'  ought  to  be  forlndden, 
and  the  people  only  allowed  to  remove 
from  one  place  to  another  within  the  limits 
of  the  state.  Experience,  however,  prov- 
ed that  such  prohibitions  were  finutlesi^ 
and  the  only  way  to  guard  against  emi- 
grations was  by  the  fullest  protection  of 
property;  by  granting  fireedom  of  con- 
science, and  the  undisturbed  exercise  of 
religion ;  and  by  not  banishing  subjects 
from  their  countiy  on  account  of  their  reli- 
gious opinions,  as  was  once  done  (e.  s^  in 
France  and  Saltzburg);  bv  allowing  tnem, 
under  the  protection  of*^  judicious  lavns^ 
with  the  assurance  of  freedom  in  trade  and 
commerce,  the  undisturbed  enjoyment  of 
the  fruits  of  their  industry ;  by  not  expos- 
ing them  to  the  oppression  of  magistrates ; 
and  by  delivering  them  from  the  fear  of 
unreasonable  or  arbitrary  taxes.  When 
we  consider  how  much  resolution  is  re- 
quired to  abandon  forever  the  home  to 
which  man  is  bound  by  the  strongest  ties 
of  recollection,  language  and  £ibit,  to 
seek  an  uncertain  mrtune  in  a  land  of 
strangers,  there  is  no  reason  to  believe, 
that  large  masses  will  ever  emigrate  with- 
out the  most  urgent  motives.  Wherever 
emigration  is  common,  it  is  not  an  evil  it- 
self, but  only  the  consequence  and  qnnp- 
tom  of  an  eril  arising  from  the  dissatis&c- 


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EUnCRATION. 


491 


tion  of  the  people  with  their  condition. 
If  tbin^  have  come  to  mich  a  state,  that 
men  think  they  cannot  obey  the  laws  of 
their  country  without  violence  to  their 
consciences,  they  ought  to  be  at  liberty  to 
seek  in  other  countries  religious  and  polit- 
ical freedom.  Besides,  in  the  abstract,  em- 
igration is  a  right  inherent  in  roan.  Every 
person  does  as  much  as  can  be  required 
of  liim,  if  he  obeys  the  laws  of  that  coun- 
try in  which  he  chooses  to  reside,  and 
only  very  peculiar  circumstances  can  jus- 
tify the  checking  of  emigration.  The 
most  cruel  tyrannv  was  exercised  by  Louis 
XIV,  when  he  deprived  the  Protestants 
of  their  religious  privileges,  and  endeav- 
ored to  prevent  their  emigration.  The 
end  of  government  is  the  welfare  of  the 
citizens,  and  they  are  at  liberty  to  retire 
from  the  state  when  their  welfare  is  no 
longer  provided .  for  by  the  state.  In 
America,  the  right  of  emigration  i(b  as  in- 
dispntable  as  the  right  of  eating  and  drink- 
ing. It  is  one  of  the  fundamental  privi- 
leges of  the  English  nation,  also,  to  leave 
the  country  without  special  permission, 
which  is  hmited  only  m  regard  to  those 
who  stand  in  some  particular  relations  to 
the  state,  such  as  magistrates  or  soldiers ; 
and,  in  certain  cases,  it  may  be  taken  away 
by  the  writ  ne  exeat  regno,  under  tlie  great 
or  privy  seal.  Acts  of  parliament  nave 
ofl^  been  passed,  by  the  English  govern- 
ment, to  prevent  its  citizens  firom  engaging 
in  fi>reign  military  service ;  for  instance,  in 
that  of  the  South  American  insurgent^  in 
1819 ;  but  these  were  not  directed  against 
emigration.  The  emigration  of  manufac- 
turera  of  wool,  silk,  iron,  &C.,  has  been 
forbidden  by  separate  laws  (by  those  of 
1719,  5  Geo.  I,  cap.  27 ;  1740,  23  Geo. 
II,  cap.  13,  and  1782,  22  Geo.  Ill,  cap. 
60).  The  only  punishment,  however,  for 
emigrants  of  this  class,  declining  to  return 
on  receiving  a  summons  to  that  effect,  is 
the  loss  of  citizenship.    Those  who  insti- 

Cthem  to  ^uit  the  country  are  liable  to 
and  imprisonment  The  French  eode 
also,  at  least  since  1789,  has  permitted  im- 
limited  emigration;  and  the  laws  since 
made  against  emigrants  were  only  owing 
to  the  hostile  spirit  of  most  of  those  who 
emigrated;  for  the  emij^rantB  were  un- 
willing to  give  up  their  right  of  citizen- 
ship in  France,  and  attacKed  tlie  new 
government  in  the  ranks  of  its  foreign 
invaders.  By  the  act  of  the  Grerman  con- 
federation, article  13,  the  right  of  emigra- 
tion is  allowed  to  all  the  membera  of  the 
coEdfederacy.  Well  founded  information 
in  regard  to  the  dangera  that  threaten  em- 
igrsiits  in  foreign  countries,  measures  for 


increasing  the  means  of  labor,  the  removal 
of  the  anificial  restraints,  by  which  the 
great  mass  of  wealth  is  kept  in  a  few 
hands,  freedoni  of  trade,— these  are  the 
means  by  which  a  spirit  of  emigration 
may  be  checked,  and  the  love  of  home 
revived.  Prohibitions  of  emigration  are 
unjust,  as  well  as  impolitic,  and  always 
prove,  that  a  government  which  allows 
them  has  an  incorrect  idea  of  its  rights. 
If  a  dense  population  is  the  cause  of 
emigration,  let  the  government  establish 
coloniea  The  British  government  have 
taken  means  for  aiding  the  settlement 
of  emigrants  in  Canada,  the  cape  of 
Good  Hope^  and  New  Holland.  Still 
more  was  done  in  Russia,  for  the  support 
of  those  who  had  emigrated  thither,  after 
disease  and  wont  had  carried  off  a  multi- 
tude of  those  unhappy  men  in  the  un- 
healthy steppes  of  Odessa.  Emigrants  to 
the  United  States  have  often  lieen  deceived 
in  their  expectations,  have  fallen,  on  their 
arrival,  into  the  hands  of  sharpers,  or  have 
wasted  the  little  resources  which  they 
brought  with  them,  for  want  of  infonna- 
tion  respecting  the  best  way  to  proceed. 
To  remedy  them  inconveniences,  by  giving 
information  and  advice  to  newly  arrived 
emigrants,  a  society  in  New  York  establish- 
ed Uie  free  emigrant's  office,  a  very  use- 
ful institution,  and  wortliy  to  be  imitated 
in  all  the  large  seaports  of  the  United 
States.  It  might  \ye  well  for  this  society 
to  distribute  handbills,  in  the  language 
of  the  emigrants,  among  them  before 
they  land,  containing  a  few  rules  and 
directions.  It  might  even  be  useful  to 
transmit  information  of  the  real  state  of 
things  in  this  country,  and  of  the  best 
course  for  emigrants  to  pursue,  to  those 
countries  from  which  enugration  is  most 
common :  this  object  might  be  eanly  ef- 
fected by  means  of  newspapers.  The 
principal  countries  from  which  emigration 
at  present  takes  place  to  the  United  States, 
are  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  Switzerland, 
Alsace,  Wiirtemberg.  From  England 
and  Ireland,  a  large  emigration  takes 
place,  also,  to  Canada,  I^ew  South 
Wales,  Van  Diemen's  Land,  &c. ;  from 
Wiirtemberg  and  Prussia  to  Russia  and 
Poland,  which,  however,  has  been  less 
extensive  of  late ;  from  the  Eastern  and 
Northern  States  of  the  U.  S.  to  the  Wes- 
tern States;  of  colored  persons  fixmi  the 
United  States  to  Liberia  m  Africa,  and  to 
Hayti  (very  fow,  however,  in  number,  par- 
ticulariy  to  the  latter  country.)  A  society 
has  lately  been  formed  at  Wa^inffton  for 
ia^tructing  people  of  color  in  the  eTements 
of  science  and  the  mechanical  axta,  to 


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498 


EMIGBATieN-^EMIGRES. 


make  tbem  lueful  membeiB  of  the  cokmj 
in  Africa. 

From  offi.cial  returns,  ordered  to  be 
printed  by  tk»  bouse  of  comnions,  we 
learn,  that  the  whole  number  of  passen- 
gersy  which  embarked  from  the  year  1812 
to  1821,  both  years  iucluave,  for  the  Uni- 
ted States,  from  Ireland,  was  30,653 ;  from 
England,  33,608;  from  Scotland,  4727; 
whole  number,  68,988:  for  the  British 
dominions  in  North  America,  from  Ire- 
land, 47,223;  from  England,  23,783,  and 
from  Scotland,  19,971;  total,  90,^72. 
Thus  the  whole  number  of  emigrants 
from  the  United  Kingdom  for  North  Amei^ 
ica,  from  tlie  year  1812  to  the  year  1821, 
both  years  included,  was  159,960.  Ikit 
the  number  of  emigrants  from  Ireland  has 
since  very  much  increased.  In  the  begin- 
ning of  July,  1830,  it  was  calculated^  that 
about  12,300  Irish  emigrsnts  had  arrived 
at  Quebec  during  the  season ;  and  it  was 
estimated,  that,  during  the  year  1830,  there 
Would  be  not  less  than  50,000  emigrants 
from  Ireland  to  Canada  and  the  United 
States.  The  ^neral  government  of  the 
United  States  has  not  as  yet  adopted  an^ 
measures  to  check  this  accession  to  4heir 
population,  though  by  no  means  always 
of  tile  most  desirable  kind ;  but  should 
it  oflen  happen  (as  has  already  taken 
place),  that  paupers,  iniirm  and  poor  peo- 
ple are  sent  out,  merely  for  the  purpose  of 
yetting  rid  of  them  in  Ireland  or  England, 
It  wouki  become  necessary  to  take  meas- 
ures of  prevention  against  such  a  breach 
of  hospitality.  In  some  of  the  states, 
laws  have  otea  made  imposing  some  re* 
straints  upon  the  landing  of  emigrants. 
A  late  Quebec  newspaper  states,  tlut  the 
accession  of  population  which  the  British 
North  American  provinces  and  the  Uni- 
ted States  have  received  from  Europe 
aince  1816,  eannot  be  less,  on  an  average, 
tlian  35,000  a  year,  or  490,000.  It  may, 
imleedjfmrly  be  estimated  at  500,000.  Al- 
lowing each  family  of  5  persans,  to  have 
brought  out  money,  clodies  and  other 
propenr,  valued  at  20  sovereim,  they 
woukI  have  added  a  capital  of  £9,000,000 
sterling.  Supposing  their  labor  worth 
$90,  or  20  sovereigns  a  year,  tlieir  produc- 
tive industiy  will  now  be  worth,  at  a  very 
k>w  estimate,  £2flO0fiO0  annually.  The 
emigrants  from  Germany,  Alsace  and  Swit- 
zerland are  very  numerous,  and  are  among 
the  most  valuable  additions  to  the  Ameri- 
can population,  as  the  great  body  of  them 
are  sober,  industrious,  and  orderiy  people, 
aud  good  ftrmers.  A  eingular  cireum- 
■tance,  to  which  the  liistory  of  no  other 
nation  aflbrds  a  parallel,  is  the  emigratioa 


of  the  Americans  from  the  east  constantly 
westward.  It  would  almost  seem  that 
they  had  no  pleasure  in  the-fruits  of  their 
labor,  but  that  the  labor  itself  was  their 
enjoyment  After  partially  clearing  up 
the  wilderness,  and  surrounding  liim- 
self  with  the  comforts  of  civilized  life, 
the  entesprizing  pioneer  of  civilization 
often  moves  stul  farther  into  the  depdis 
of  the  forest,  and  his  place  is  suppli- 
ed by  the  less  resdess  emigrant  from 
Europe.  Among  these,  the  Gennan  is 
not  unfiequent,  who  is  delighted  with 
the  prospect  of  becommg  an  ownor  of 
land  ugi  f^  simple,  and  of  being  able  to 
save  scHnething  wluch  he  can  truly  call 
hb  own.  He  converts  bis  land  into  a 
fine  productive  form.  But  hisignonmee 
of  the  lan^age  of  the  people  alKMit  him 
prevents  bun  from  partaking  fully  in  their 
advantages,  and  confines  him  to  a  ccmi- 
paratively  limited  sphere  of  action ;  he, 
therefore,  remains  rar  behind  his  Ameri- 
can brethren  in  all  that  reganls  moral  and 
intellectual  education,  as  for  instance,  in 
schools,  instruction,  &c  This,  at  least,  is 
the  case  where  the  Gennan  settlers  are  so 
numerous  as  not  to  be  obliged  to  mingle 
much  with  Americans,  as  in  some  counties 
in  PennsylvanuL  (For  the  French  ^a»- 
gris^  see  the  following  article.) 

iSBUGR^s  (emigrants).  We  meet  in  his- 
tory with  many  instances  of  large  bodies 
of  men  being  obliged  to  leave  their  coun- 
try, on  account  of  religious  persecutions, 
as  did  the  Huguenots,  for  instance,  in  the 
17th  century,  or  for  some  other  causea. 
(See  EmigratUm  and  Rejvffxs.)  The  ap- 
pellation of  hniigr^  (the  French  for  eKd- 
grants),  however,  is  now  applied  to  those 
persons  particularly,  who  left  Fcance  at 
the  commencement  of  the  French  revolu- 
tion. These  persons,  some  from  enmity  to 
the  new  order  of  things,  othere  to  escape 
poKticai  persecution,  removed  into  the 
neighboring  countries,  some  with  a  little 
prc^erty,  which  the^  had  foimd  means  m 
carry  off,  others  entuvly  destitute,  fiiey 
were  fipom  all  ranks,  and  of  all  ages  and 
coiKiitions ;  men  and  women,  children  and 
old  men,  nrieste  and  nobles.  Most  of 
them  hopea  to  see  the  restoration  of  the 
old  order,  by  which  they  might  be  ena- 
bled to  return  to  their  countrv,  and  tljere- 
fore  remained  at  first  on  the  frontiers^ 
Among  Uiem  were  seen  examples  of  the 
basest  profligacy  and  the  most  heroic  aelf- 
denial.  Persons  who  had  been  accustom- 
ed to  all  the  luxuries  of  life,  and  the  re- 
;finements  of  rank,  earned  a  scanty  sub- 
sistence in  petty  employments,  and  bore 
their  privations  with  dignity  and  rengna- 


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EMIGRE&-EMLYN. 


403 


tion.  Seveml  counts  are  said  to  have  been 
employed  as  boot-black&  It  would  be 
uujust  to  call  all  those  who  left  their  coun- 
try to  its  fate  in  the  time  of  its  greatest  peril, 
weak  and  timid ;  for  where  anarchy  rules, 
the  innocent  is  not  secure.  The  emigra- 
tion, however,  of  the  royal  princes,  partic- 
ularly the  count  of  Provence,  afterwards 
Louis  X  VIII)Can  hardly  be  justified.  Their 
presence  was  of  great  importance  to  the 
state,  and  their  example  contributed  not  a 
little  to  the  extensive  emigration  which 
followed,  and  the  injurious  consequences 
which  attended  it  Many  of  tlie  htAgr^^ 
however,  were  persons  of  k)oee,  idle  and 
profligate  habits,  whose  conduct  brougfit 
a  reproach  upon  the  whole  bodv.  This, 
but  more  particularly  the  fear  or  provok- 
ing the  vengeance  of  the  French  ^vem- 
ment,  was  the  cause  of  their  bemg  re- 
fused a  refuge  in  some  countries,  and  of 
their  being  received  under  certain  restric- 
tions in  others.  At  tlje  head  of  the  emi- 
grants stood  the  royal  princes  of  Cond^, 
Provence  and  Artois,  the  first  of  whotn 
collected  a  part  of  the  fugitives  to  coop- 
erate with  the  allied  armies  In  Grermany 
for  the  restoration  of  the  monarchy.  At 
Coblentz,  a  particular  court  of  justice  was 
established  to  settle  causes  relating  to  the 
French  emigr^.  As  a  body,  they  are 
described  by  contemporary  authors  as 
haughty  in  their  deportment  towards 
foreigners,  and  acting  as  if  they  consti- 
tuted the  French  nation,  and  as  if  the  rest 
of  Europe  did  nothing  more  than  its  duty 
in  assisting  them  to  recover  their  estates 
and  feudal  rights.  But  the  invasion  of 
tlie  Netherlands  by  Dumouriez  drove 
them  from  these  provinces  in  mid-winter, 
in  a  deplorable  condition,  while-  their 
number  was  daily  increased  by  the  system 
of  violence  and  terror  carried  on  in 
France ;  e.  g.  by  the  bloody  tragedies  of 
Lyons  and  Toulon.  The  corps  of  Cond^ 
was  finally  taken  into  the  Russian  service, 
and  was  dislianded  in  the  Russian-Aus- 
trian campaign  of  1799.  When  Napoleon 
became  emperor,  it  was  one  of  his  first 
acts  of  grace  to  grant  permiasioo  to  all  but 
a  few  of  the  emigrants  to  return  to  their 
country.  Manv,  however,  who  by  this 
time  had  settled  in  foreign  places,  did  not 
choose  to  avail  themselves  of  the  indul- 
gence. The  charU  of  Louis  XVIII  coii- 
tains  an  express  declaration,  that  the  emi- 
granlB  have  no  claim  upon  their  former 
possessions;  but  this  did  not  prevent  them 
nvNn  bringing  forward  their  demands  for 
indemnification,  which  have  often  occa- 
Moned  a  good  deal  of  excitement  in  the 
public    The  chambers  granted  in  1835, 

¥01-  IT.  43 


on  the  proposition  of  ViU^le,  the  income 
of  a  capital  of  1000  millions  of  fiimcs,  as 
an  indenmification  for  the  estates  of  the 
emigrants,  which  had  been  sold.  (See 
Ihmce,) 

Emilius.    (See  JEmiliui,) 

Eminence  (trora  the  Latin  emmeniia) ;  an 
honorary  title,  like  excdltnof^  and  given  to 
cardinab.  They  were  formerly  called 
illustrisaind  and  reverendissimi;  but  pope 
Urban  VIII  fof  the  Barberini  family),  in 
1690,  establisned  the  above  as  their  title  of 
honor.  Popes  John  VIII  and  Gregoiy 
VII  gave  this  title  to  the  kings  of  France. 
The  emperors  have  likewise  borne  it  It 
has  gradually  sunk,  as  titles  always  do. 

Emir  (i.  e.  noble,  princdy);  a  title  of 
honor,  given  in  Turicev  to  those  who 
claim  descent  from  Mohammed  and  his 
daughter  Fatima.  These  emirs  are  found 
1.  In  Arabia,  where  they  are  the  chieflains 
of  the  wandering  tribes,  or  Bedouins, 
(q.  V.)  Their  origin,  however,  is  doubtful. 
3.  In  Turicey  itself,  they  form  a  kind  of 
hereditary  nobility,  and  wear  as  a  badge 
a  green  turban,  as  Mohammed  is  said  to 
have  done.  They  have  certain  privileges, 
but  otherwise  no  higher  claims  to  civil 
offices  than  other  Mussulmen,  and  live 
for  the  most  part  in  great  indigence,  as 
the^  are  idle  and  extravagant.  The  word 
emv  is  also  applied  to  certaiq  offices  and 
employments,  e.  g.,  emir  hadschi,  conduc- 
tor of  the  pilgrims  in  caravans. 

Emltn,  Thomas,  an  English  dissenting 
divine,  was  bom  at  Stamford,  in  Lincoln- 
shire, 1663 ;  and,  after  studyinff  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Cambridge,  he  finished  his 
education  at  an  academy  in  London.  In 
1683,  he  became  chaplain  to  the  countess 
of  DonegaL  He  left  this  situation  in 
1688,  and  went  to  London,  and,  the  fol- 
lowing year,  became  pastor  of  a  congrega- 
tion at  Lowestoff,  in  Suffolk.  In  1(3],  he 
accepted  an  invitation  to  become  assistant 
to  the  reverend  Joseph  Boyse,  at  DulHin. 
Mr.  Emiyn  had  adopted  sentiments  ap- 
proaching to  Arianism,  and,  the  circum- 
stance being  suspected,  an  inquisitorial 
examination  was  set  on  foot  by  his  breth- 
Ben,  the  ditoentmff  ministers  of  Dublin,  who, 
as  he  would  not  disavow  what  he  conceiv- 
ed to  be  the  truth,  restricted  him  from  con- 
tinuing his  pastoral  duties.  Finding  himself 
the  object  of  public  odium,  he  published 
his  Humble  Inquiry  into  the  Scripture 
Account  of  Jesus  Christ,  or  a  short  Argu- 
ment concerning  his  Deity  and  Glory, 
according  to  the  Gospel  Immediately 
afler  this  work  appeareo,  he  was  arrested 
on  the  diarge  or  blasphemy,  tried  befbro 
the  chief  justice  of  the  queen^i  bench,  and 


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494 


E1HLTN-.EHMET. 


oentenced  to  a  year's  imprisonment,  a  fine 
of  £1000,  and  detention  in  prison  till  it 
should  be  paid.  The  fine  was  reduced  to 
£70,  through  the  interposition  of  the  duke 
of  Ormoud,  and  other  humane  penons ; 
and,  after  somewhat  more  than  a  year's 
confinement,  Mr.  Emlyn  was  set  at  liberty. 
He  removed  to  Loudon,  where  he  preach- 
ed for  some  time  to  a  small  eongroga- 
tion,  and  occupied  himself  in  writing 
controvcmal  tracts.  He  enjoFod  the 
friendship  of  doctor  Samuel  Claike,  Wil- 
liam Whiston,  and  otlier  individuate  dis- 
tinguished for  their  learning  and  liberali- 
ty,  and  was  generally  respected  for  the 
excellence  of  his  character  and  amiable 
disposition.  He  died  July  90th,  174a  A 
collection  of  his  worics  was  published  in 
174€s  2  volumes  8vo.,  with  an  account  of 
his  Itfe. 

£mhet,  Thomas  Addis,  an  eminent 
Irish  lawyer  and  patriot,  was  bom  in  the 
city  of  (5ork,  in  Ireland,  in  1765.  His 
parents  were  highly  respectable  inhabit- 
ants of  that  citv,  in  ea«^  circumstances. 
The  son  was  placed,  in  his  boyhood,  at 
the  university  of  Dublin,  and  designed  by 
his  fatlier  for  the  profession  of  medicine. 
He  was  edocated  accordingly,  and  pursu- 
ed his  medical  studies  at  Edmburgh.  The 
death  of  his  elder  brother,  a  member  of 
the  Irish  bar,  occasioned  him  to  pan  firom 
the  practice  of  medicine  to  the  study  of 
the  law,  at  the  desire  of  his  parents.  He 
went  to  London,  read  two  years  in  the 
Temple,  and  attended  the  courts  at  West- 
minster. On  bis  return  to  Dublin,  be 
commenced  practice,  and  soon  obtained 
distinction  and  business.  The  celebrat- 
ed Curran  was  one  of  his  circuit  and  term 
companions.  Being  of  an  ardent  charac- 
ter, and  enthusiastically  Irish,  he  imbibed 
deeply  the  resentment  and  antipathy  of 
the  majority  of  his  countrjrmen  ajrainst 
the  British  rule  and  connexion.  When 
the  societies  of  united  Irishmen  were  re- 
vived in  the  year  1795,  Emmet  joined  the 
association,  and  soon  became  a  leader. 
Their  object  was  revolution,  and  an  inde- 
pendent government  for  Ireland.  Emmet 
acted  as  one  of  the  grand  executive  com- 
mittee of  the  societies,  who  consisted  of 
at  least  500,000  men.  March  13, 1796,  he 
was  airested,  and  committed  to  prison  at 
Dublin,  as  a  conspirator,  ky  Uie  vice- 
regal government,  along  with  Oliver  Bond, 
doctor  Macneven,  and  other  chiefiof  the 
disafiected  party.  In  July,  after  a  severe 
confinement,  an  interview  took  plaee  be- 
tween Emmet  and  lord  CaKlereaffh,  at  Dub- 
lin castle,  and  it  was  agreed,  tbathe  and  the 
odier  state  nmm&a  should  be 


to  go  to  the  United  States,  as  soon  as  they 
had  made  certain  disclosures  of  their  plans 
of  revolution,  and  the  projected  alliance 
between  the  united  Irishmen  and  France. 
These  disclosures  were  made  in  a  memoir, 
delivered  August  4,  but  without  tbe  con- 
fession of  any  names,  which  were  inflex- 
ibly refused  by  the  writers.    They  were, 
soon  after,  examined  in  person  before  the 
secret  committees  of  both  houses  of  the 
Irish   pariiament.     Instead,  however,  of 
being  sent  to  the  United  States,  Emmet 
and  nineteen  more  were,  early  in  1799, 
landed  in  Scotland,  and  consigned  to  fort 
George,  a  fortress  in  the  county  of  Nairn. 
Here  they  were  liberally  treated,  but  their 
detention  lasted  three  years.    At  the  ex- 
piration of  that  period,  the  list  of  pardons 
arrived,  including   the   name   of  every 
prisoner  except  Enrniet.    The  ^veraor 
of  the  fortress  released  him  notvnthstand- 
ing,  taking  all  the  responsibility.     Em- 
met, and  his  exemplary  wife,  who  had 
abared   unremittingly  his  imprisonment, 
both  in  Ireland  and  Scotland,  were  landed 
at  Cuxhaven  firom  a  British  frigate,  spent 
the  winter  of  iJie  year  1602  in  Brussels, 
and  that  of  1808  in  Paris,    In  October, 
1804,  they  sailed  from  Bordeaux  for  the 
United  States,  and  arrived  in  New  Yoric 
on  the  11th  of  the  next  month.    Ennnet, 
then  about  40  yeara  of  age,  at  first  hesi- 
tated between  the  professions  of  the  law 
and  medicine ;  but  his  friends  determined 
him  to  undertake  the  former.     George 
Clinton,  tlien  governor  of  the  state  of  New 
York,  induced  him  to  abandon  his  original 
plan  of  settling  in  Ohio,  and  to  renuun  in 
tbe  citv  of  New  York.    He  was  admitted 
to  the  oar  at  once,  by  special  dispensation, 
and  reached  the  first  ranks  of  the  profes- 
sion in  a  short  time,  by  indefatigable  in- 
dustry  and  fervid  eloquence.      In    the 
course  of  a  few  years,  he  rivalled  in  busi- 
ness and  fame  the  most  eminent  of  the 
American    lawyers.      Occasionally    the 
ardor    of    his    temperament    and    the 
vivacity  of  his  recollections  betrayed  him 
into  party  politics ;  but  his  general  career 
and  character  were  those  of  a  laborioos, 
able  and  most  siiccessfiil  pleader,  an  en- 
ergetic and  florid  orator,  a  sound  repub- 
lican citizen,  and  a  courteous  gentleman. 
In  1812,  he  was  appointed  to  the  office  of 
attoniey-ffeneral   of  the   state   of  New 
York.    His  death  took  place  in  the  63d 
year  of  his  age,  in  a  remarkable  way. 
November  14,  18S7,  while  attending  the 
trial  of  an  important  cause  at  New  York, 
in  the  circuit  court  of  the  United  States, 
he  was  seised  with  an  apoplectic  fit,  which 
IHit  an  end  to  hii  estistenoe  the  following 


Digitized  by 


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EfimET— GKPEROS. 


49e^ 


night  It  iras  only  on  tlie  13th,  that  he 
had  delivered  a  inoet  animated  and  pow- 
erful address  to  a  jury  in  a  cause  of  the 
greatest  importance  and  difficulty.  An  am* 
pie  and  deserved  tribute  of  public  respect 
was  paid  tt>  his  memory.  Mr.  EmmeC 
wos  a  thorough  classical  scholar,  and  con* 
veraant  with  the  physical  sciences.  Dur- 
ing his  detention  at  the  fortrem  ni  Scot- 
land, he  wrote  part  of  an  Essay  towards 
the  HistoiT  of'Ireland,  which  was  printed 
in  New  Yoik,  in  1807.  His  private  life 
was  iireproachable,  his  countenance  strong 
and  i^egular,  and  his  fiame  manly  and 
healthy. 
Empecinado,  ths.  (See  Diez,) 
Empedocles,'  a  Greek  philosopher, 
whose  doctrines,  in  many  respects,  resem- 
bled those  of  Pytha^ras,  was  bom  460 
B.  C.  at  Agrigentum,  m  Sicily.  Ilia  fellow 
citizens  esteemed  him  so  highly,  that  they 
wished  to  make  bun  king;  but,  being  an 
enemy  to  all  oppression,  and  elevation  of « 
few  above  the  rest,  he  refiised  the  offer,  and 
prevailed  on  them  to  abolish  aristocracy, 
and  introduce  a  democratical  fonn  of  gov- 
ernment. The  Agrigaotines  regarded 
him  with  the  highest  veneration,  as  the 
restorer  and  jpreserver  (^  their  liberty,  the 
public  benettietor,  the  great  poet,  onitor 
and  physician,  the  favorite  of  the  god^ 
the  predictor  of  future  events,  and  the 
mighty  magician  who  eould  stop  the 
eourse  of  nature,  and  overrule^  the  power 
of  death  itself.  He  is  said  to  have  thrown 
himself  into  the  crater  of  mount  Ema,  in 
order  to  make  it  believed,  by  Itis  sudden 
disappearance,  that  he  was  of  divine 
origin.  According  to  oChersy  he  was  a 
victim  to  his  rash  curiosity,  when,jn  order 
to  examine  more  accurately  the  nature  of 
the  mountun,  and  of  its  fiery  eruptions, 
he  went  too  near  the  edge  of  the  chasm, 
and  fell  in.  But  it  is  probable  that,  this  is 
a  fiction,  as  well  as  the  story  of  Luctan 
about  him,  that  his  sandals  were  thrown 
out  from  the  volcano,  and  thus  the  man- 
ner of  his  death  ascertained,  and  the  peo- 
ple undeceived  as  to  his  pretended  divin- 
ity. Others  assert,  that  he  was  drowned 
in  his  old  a^.  Empedocles  presented  his 
philosophy  in  a  poetical  dreea.  His  verses 
are  marked  by  bold  and  glowing  imagery, 
as  well  as  by  harmony  and  softness.  Lu- 
cretius was  his  imitator.  The  iambic 
poem  on  the  spheres,  formerly  ascribed 
to  him,  is  now  considered  spunoua.  The 
poems  of  his  yet  extant  have  been  pub- 
lished together,  with  a  treatise  on  his  life 
and  philosophy,  by  F.  W.  Sturz  (Leipsic, 
1806).  Empedocles  holds  the  K>ur  ele- 
ments— earth,  water,   fire»    air— aa   the 


fundamental  and  indestructible  principles, 
from  whose  union  and  separation  every 
thing  that  exists  is  fonned.  To  these 
material  principles  are  added  the  ideal 
principles  of  friendship  and  hatred.  Do- 
menico  Scina  has  written  Memoirs  on  the 
Life  and  Phik)sophy  of  Empedocles  (Pa- 
lermo, 1835). 

Emperor  (from  the  Latin  xmperator ;  in 
German,  Kaiatr^  from  Casca*) ;  the  title 
of  the  highest  rank  of  sovereigns.  The 
word  tmpercrfor,  from  xmiperwrt^  to  com- 
mand, had  very  different  meanings  among 
the  Romans  at  different  periods.  In  tho 
most  general  sense,  it  signified  the  com- 
mander of  an  armv,  as  vnp^rium  did  the 
command  itself.  In  early  times,  consuls 
were  called  imiperaiorta  before  they  enter- 
ed on  tlieir  office.  The  soldiers  after- 
wards conferred  the  title  on  their  general, 
afler  a  victory,  by  hailing  him  imperaior; 
the  senate  also  called  a  victorious  general 
imperaior  until  he  had  celebrated  his  tri- 
umph. At  a  still  later  period,  no  one  was 
honored  with  this  title,  who  had  not  de- 
feated a  hostile  army  of  at  least  10,000 
men.  After  die  overthrow  of  the  re- 
public, imperator  became  the  title  of  the 
rulers,  or  emperors,  and  indicated  the  su- 
preme power;  the  word  rex  being  too 
odious  to  be  assumed.  Victorious  gene- 
rals were  still,  however,  sometimes  suuted 
with  the  title  inyperaiw^  in  its  original 
sense.  In  the  time  of  the  republic,  the 
title  was  put  afler  the  name,  as  Cicero  tn^ 
ftrator ;  when  it  came  to  signify  emperor^ 
It  was  put  before  the  name,  as  vnperaior 
CiawHuB.  With  the  destruction  of  the 
Roman  empire,  the  title  was  ioet ;  but  it 
was  renewed  in  800  A.  D.,  when  Charle- 
magne was  crowned  emperor  of  the  West. 
For  a  long  time,  the  tide  was  considered 
as  belonging  to  tlie  sovereignty  of  Rome ; 
hence,  on  the  division  of  the  empire 
among  the  sons  of  Louis-le-D6bonnaire, 
Lothaire,  king  of  Italy,  received  the  title. 
Charles  the  Bald,  and  several  princes  of 
Imly,  bore  it,  until  Odio  I,  in  962  A.  D., 
finally  united  the  imperial  crown  with  tliat 
of  the  German  kings.  Yet  it  was  for 
many  centuries  considered  necessary  to 
be  crowned  at  Rome  in  order  to  be  for- 
mally invested  with  the  title  of  emperor. 

•  Derived  from  the  title  of  dignity  Ccesar, 
which  in  the  last  a|[es  of  the  Roman  dominion, 
denoted  only  the  assistants  and  successors  of  the 
actual  emperor.  The  name  CcuoTf  it  is  well 
known,  was  adopted  by  the  successors  of  JnUus 
Ciesar,  as  a  title  of  honor,  as  the  brothers  of  Na- 
poleon were  called  Napoleon^  aAer  having  as- 
cended thrones,  as  Joseph  Napoleon,  Jerome 
Napoleon.  The  Russian  Czar  (q.  v.)  is  not  de- 
rived from  Caesar,  but  14  of  Slavonic  origin. 


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406 


EMPEROa-^EMPUUC. 


For  reasons  too  manr  to  be  enumerated 
here,  the  idea  tliat  the  bishop  of  Rome 
was  the  highest  spiritual  ruler,  and  the 
emperor  of  the  holy  Roman  empire  (or 
of  Ger^nany),  the  highest  temporal  sove- 
reign, was  gradually  developed.  One 
reason  undoubtedly  was,  that  tne  German 
or  Teutonic  tribes  were  actually,  in  the 
beginning  of  the  middle  ases,  the  ruling 
people  in  most  countries  of  Europe ;  but 
many  other  reasons,  particularly  a  strange 
confusion  of  the  universal  empire  of 
Rome  with  the  universal  empire  of 
Christendom,  and  the  idea  of  a  universal 
church,  as  an  organized  society,  to  be  sup- 
ported, of  course,  by  a  temporal  power, 
contributed  much  to  give  this  idea  cur- 
rency. The  impartial  historian  cannot 
doum  that,  in  the  barbarous  period  of  the 
middle  a^es,  the  authority  of  the  pope  was 
beneficial  to  Europe,  and  almost  the  sole 
support  of  civilization ;  but  it  would  be 
hard  to  sa^l  what  advantage  Germanv  de- 
rived from  taking  part,  ex  officio,  in  all  the 
quarrels  of  Europe,  and  from  that  unfor- 
tunate desire  of  possessing  temporal  autho- 
rity over  Italy,  which  has  been  one  of  the 
chief  causes  of  her  inferiority  to  some  other 
states  of  Europe,  in  respect  to  the  devel- 
opement  of  her  political  institutions.  As 
the  emperor  was  conndered  the  hiehest 
temporal  officer  in  Christendom,  all  the 
other  states  were  regarded  as  dependent 
upon  him ;  some  of  these,  therefore,  to 
show  tlieir  independence,  made  claim  to 
the  imperial  digmty,  although  they  did  not 
assume  the  title ;  as,  for  instance,  the  sov- 
ereigns of  Castile,  France  and  Enffland. 
The  eastern  empire  having  been  nnally 
overthrown  by  the  conquest  of  Constanti- 
nople, in  1453,  the  imperial  dignity  in  the 
Eaist  became  extinct  The  sultans,  who 
succeeded  the  emjierors,  have  never  re- 
ceived, in  official  language,  the  title  of 
emperor.  This  title  was  adopted  in  Rus- 
sia by  Peter  I,  in  1721,  but  the  right  of  the 
Russian  sovereign  to  its  possession  was 
not  acknowledged  by  the  Gennan  empire 
until  1747— by  France  in  1745,  and  by 
Spain  in  1759.  Napoleon  adopted  the  old 
idea  of  an  empire,  as  a  general  union  of 
states  under  the  protection,  or  at  least  po- 
litical preponderance,  of  one  powenul 
state ;  the  political  system  of  a  balance  of 
power,  had  proved  insufficient  to  maintain 
a  general  peace,  and  Henry  I  V's  plan  of  a 
great  European  confederacy  held  out.no 
prospect  of  permanent  tranquillity.  Na- 
poleon crowned  himself  as  emperor  in 
1804.  In  1806,  the  German  empire,  1000 
years  old,  became  extinct,  and  the  Grerman 
emperor,  Francis  II,  adopted  the  title  of 


Francis  I,  emperor  of  Austria.  The 
French  empire  was  destroyed  in  1814,  by 
the  peace  of  Paris.  Great  Britain  is  con- 
sidered as  an  empire,  the  crown  is  impe- 
rial, 4ind  the  pariiament  is  styled  the  An- 
penal  ParUament  of  Great  Britain  and 
irekmd;  but  the  king  himself  has  never 
adopted  the  imperial  title,  though  this 
measure  was  proposed  in  parliament  in 
1804.  The  empire  of  Mexico,  or  Ana- 
huac,  established  by  Iturbide,  was  only 
momentary  in  its  duration ;  but  the  em- 
pire of  the  Brazils,  founded  in  1822,  seems 
to  be  firmly  established.  The  sovereigns 
of  Siani,  China,  Japan,  and  of  Fez  and 
Morocco,  are  oflen,  though  with  httle  pro- 
priety, called  en^fterors.  At  the  coronation 
of  die  German  emperors,  princes  and 
kings  appeared  as  servants ;  the  emperor 
promised  to  do  justice,  to  be  an  upright 
sovereign,  to  consult  the  good  of  his  sub- 
jects, to  protect  the  chureh,  to  defend 
the  empire,  to  be  the  guardian  of  ^dows 
and  orphans ;  and  not  until  the  assembled 
people  had  replied  to  the  question,  **  Will 
you  submit  to  this  sovereign  and  prince, 
and  obey  him  ?"  with  shouts  of  Yes,  Yes 
{Fiat,Jiat,  fiat),  were  the  unction  and  coro- 
nation (of  which  G6the  gives  a  description 
in  his  account  of  bis  life)  performed. 
Formerly,  it  was  only  the  coronation  of 
the  sovereign  as  German  king,  that  took 
place  at  Frankfort,  in  Germany.  This  was 
rollovred  by  tihe  imposition  of  the  crown 
of  Lomhardy,  an  iron  circle,  made  of  a 
nail  reputed  to  be  fixjm  the  cross  of 
Christ,  set  m  gold;  and  finally  by  the 
coronation  as  Roman  emperor,  performed 
by  the  pope  in  Rome.  But  from  the  time 
of  Maximilian  I,  the  German  emperors 
were  crowned  in  Germany  only.  After 
the  fall  of  the  French  empire,  a  large 
numl)er  of  persons  in  GJermany,  without 
organization  or  settled  plan,  desired  the 
restoration  of  the  German  empire.  The 
Germans,  fipom  a  want  of  practical  knowl- 
edge, then  lost  an  opportunity  of  taking 
one  step  towards  securing  personal  liberty, 
by  wasting  the  time  in  vaeue  declama- 
tion. That  party,  particulariy,  who  wisli- 
ed  for  the  restoration  of  the  empire,  talked 
of  a  glory,  power  and  happiness  which 
had  never  existed;  they  were  actuated 
bv  indistinct  historical  recollections,  and 
phantoms  of  their  own  creation,  and,  not 
a  few,  by  their  aristocratical  predilections. 
A  worse  model  of  government,  and  a 
more  perplexed  political  system,  than  the 
late  German  empire,  cannot  be  con- 
trived. 

Empiric,  In  medical  histoiy  (from  the 
Greek  word  ^unfMa,  experience;  an  appel* 


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EMPIMC— ENCAUSTIC  PAINTING. 


4sn 


lation  assumed  hj  a  sect  of  phjrsiciaiis, 
who  contended,  that  all  hypotheucal  rea- 
soning respecting  the  operations  of  the 
animal  economy  was  useless,  and  that  ob- 
servation and  experience  alone  were  the 
foundation  of  tlie  art  of  medicine.  JBm- 
jmic,  in  modem  medicine,  is  applied  to  a 
person  who  sells  or  administers  a  par- 
ticular drug,  or  compound,  as  a  remedv 
for  a  given  disorder,  without  any  consici- 
eration  of  its  different  stages,  or  degrees 
of  violence,  in  different  oonstimtions,  cli- 
mates or  seasons.  (For  empiric  philoso- 
phy, see  ExperimeniKd  PkUoMpkyJ) 

Ems;  a  celebrated  watenn^-place  in 
the  dudiy  of  Nassau,  on  the  nver  Lahn. 
The  environs  are  beautiful  As  earlv  as 
1583,  it  was  used  as  a  watering-placte. 
The  mineral  waters  at  Ems  are  warm — 
from  70^  to  118°  Fahr. ;  they  are  of  the 
saline  class,  containing  large  quantities  of 
carbonic  acid  gas,  and  are  used  with 
much  effect  in  chronic  catarrhs,  puhuo- 
nary  complaints,  diseases  of  the  stomach, 
ariswg  from  phlegm  and  acidity,  gout, 
and  some  diseases  of  the  urinary  vessels. 
(See  Dit  HtUqudUn  zu  £m«,  Coblentz, 
1821,  by  Vogler.)  Near  Ems  is  a  srotto, 
similar  to  the  grotto  dd  canAi  near  Naples, 
the  vapors  from  which  cause  asphyxia. 
About  50,000  botdes  of  the  water  of  Ems 
are  sent  away  annually. 

EicuLSioirs ;  a  tenn  applied  to  the  im- 
perfect solutions  of  the  fixed  vegetable 
oils  in  water.  They  are  obtained  bv 
nibbing  the  seeds  affording  these  oils  with 
water,  to  which  a  Uttle  sugar  has  been 
added. 

EirufXLiifo  (from  ettomel,  formed  by 
a  junction  of  the  inseparable  particle 
sv»---borrowed  by  us  fifom  the  French, 
who  had  taken  it  from  the  Latin  tn — 
and  the  old  English  word  amel,  taken 
from  the  hnaA  of  the  French,  both  sig- 
nifying the  material  used  in  overlaying 
the  varieeated  worics  which  we  call  e»- 
omelecQ ;  me  art  of  variegating  with  cobra 
laid  upon  or  into  another  body;  also, 
a  mode  of  painting,  with  vitrified  oolois, 
on  gold,  silver,  copper,  &c.,  and  of  melting 
these  at  the  fire,  or  of  making  curious 
works  in  them  at  a  lamp.  This  art  is  of  so 
peat  antiquity,  as  to  render  it  difficult  or 
impossible  to  trace  it  to  its  origin.  It  was 
evidently  practised  by  the  Egyptians,  from 
the  remains  that  have  been  observed  on 
the  ornamented  envelopes  of  mummies. 
From  Egypt  it  passed  into  Greece,  and 
afterwarob  mto  Rome  and  its  provinces, 
whence  it  was  probably  introduced  into 
Great  Britain,  as  various  Roman  antiqui- 
ties have  been  dug  ud  in  diflbrent  paits 


of  the  island,  particularly  in  the  Barrows, 
in  which  enamels  have  formed  portions 
of  the  ornaments.  The  gold  cup  given 
by  king  John  to  the  corporation  of  Lynn, 
in  Noriblk,  proves  that  tne  art  was  known 
among  the  Normans,  as  the  sides  of  the 
cup  are  embelhshed  with  various  figures^ 
whose  garments  are  pardv  compo^  of 
colored  enamels.  Enamels  are  vitrifiable 
substances,  and  are  usuallv  arranged  into 
three  classes;  namely,  the  transparent, 
the  semitransparent  and  opaque.  The 
basis  of  all  kinds  of  enamel  is  a  perfecti^ 
transparent  and  fusible  glass,  which  is 
rendered  either  semitransparent  or  opaque, 
by  the  admixture  of  metallic  oxides.  The 
art  of  coloring  ^lass  seems  to  be  of  near- 
ly the  same  antiquity  as  the  invention  of 
making  it;  which  is  proved,  not  only 
from  written  documents,  but  likewise  bv 
the  variously  colored  glass  corals,  with 
which  several  of  the  Egyptian  mummies 
are  decorated.  White  enamels  are  com- 
posed by  melting  the  oxide  of  tin  with 
glass,  and  adding  a  small  qucmtiJ^  of 
manganese,  to  uicrease  the  brilliancy  of 
the  color.  The  addition  of  the  oxide  of 
lead,  or  antimony,  produces  a  yellow  en- 
amel ;  but  a  more  beautiful  yellow  may 
be  obtained  from  the  oxide  of  silver. 
Reds  are  formed  by  an  intermixture  of 
the  oxides  of  gold  and  iron,  that  composed 
of  the  former  Iwing  the  most  beautiful 
and  permanenL  Greens,  violets  and  blues 
are  formed  from  the  oxides  of  copper,  co- 
balt and  iron ;  and  these,  when  intermix- 
ed in  different  proportions,  afford  a  great 
variety  of  uitermediate  colors.  Some- 
times the  oxides  are  mixed  before  they 
are  united  to  the  vitreous  base&  All  the 
colors  may  be  produced  by  the  metalUc 
oxides.  The  principal  quality  of  good 
enamel,  and  that  which  rendera  it  fit  for 
being  applied  on  baked  earthen  ware,  or 
on  metals,  is  the  facility  with  which  it 
acquires  lustre  by  a  moderate  heat,  or 
cherry-red  heat,  more  or  less,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  enamel,  without  en- 
tering into  complete  fusion.  Enamels 
applM  to  earthen  ware  and  metals  pos- 
sess this  qualitv.  Enamels  are  executed 
upon  the  sur&ce  of  copper  and  other 
metals^  by  a  method  similar  to  painting. 
Enameling  on  plates  of  metal,  and  paint- 
ing with  vitrified  colors  on  gloss,  are  prao- 
(iMd  with  great  success  in  England. 

EffCAUSTic  FAif«TiiiG(eficattf<icu«,Lat.; 
ivKavffrijri^,  Gr.).  Painting  in  encaustic  is 
executed  with  the  operation  of  ^n. 
Ancient  authore  often  mention  this  spe- 
cies of  painting,  which,  if  it  had  been 
described  simp^  by  the  word  enccoMc^ 


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ENCAUSTIC  PAINTING— ENCLAVE. 


which  signifies  executed  hy  fire^  might  be 
supposed  to  have  been  a  species  of  en- 
amel painting.    But  the  expressions  e»« 
caatio  pin^ere^  pidura   encaugtica,  certs 
pingere,  jncturam  tnurete^  by  Pliny  and 
other  ancient  writers,  show  that  another 
species  of  painting  is  meant    We  have 
no  ancient  pictures  of  this  description, 
and,  therefore,  the  precise  manner  adopt- 
ed by  the  ancients  is  not  completely  de- 
veloped,  though   many   modems   have 
closely  investigated  the  subject,  and  de- 
scribed their  processes.    This  species  of 
|)ainting  appears  to  have  been  practised 
in  the  4th  and  5th  centuries.*     Count 
Cay  1  us  and  M.  Bachelier,  a  painter,  were 
tlie  first  of  modem  fimes  who  made  ex- 
periments in  this  branch  of  art,  about  the 
year  1749.    Pliny,  in  a  paasa^  relating 
to  encaustic  painting,  distinguishes  three 
species :  1.  that  in  which  the  artists  used 
a  style,  and  fNiinted  on  ivorv  or  polished 
wood  (cestro  m  e6ore),  for  which  purpose 
they  drew  tlie  outlines  on  a  piece  or  the 
aforesaid  wood  or  ivory,  previously  soak- 
ed or  imbued  with  Sonne  color ;  the  point  of 
the  style  or  stigma  served  for  this  operation, 
and  the  broad  end  to  scrape  ofi^the  small 
filaments  that  arose  from  the  outlines ;  and 
they  continued  forming  outlines  with  the 
l)oint  till  they  were  finished.    2.  The  next 
manner  appeals  to  have  been  one  in  which 
the   wax,  previously    impregnated  with 
color,  was  spread  over  the  surface  of  the 
picture  with  the  style,  and  the  colors  thus 
prepared  were  fomied  into  small  cylinders 
for  use.    By  the  side  of  the  painter  was 
a  brosier  for  keeping  the  styles  continually 
hot,  with  the  points  of  which  they  laid  on 
the  colors  when  the  outlines  were  finish- 
ed, and  spread  them  smooth  with  the 
broad  end ;  and  thus  they  proceeded  till 
the  picture  was  finished.     3.  The  third 
manner  of  painting  was  with  a  pencil,  in 
wax  liquefied  by  fire.     B^  this  method 
the  colors  acquired  a  considerable  hard- 
ness, and  could  not  be  damaged,  either 
by  the  heat  of  the  sun  or  the  effects  of 
sea- water.     In  this  manner  ships  were 
painted,  with   emblems   and  other  pic- 
tures, and  therefore  it  obtained  the  name 
of  ship  vainiing.     Few,  of  late  years, 
have  made  more  experiments  in  this  mode 
of  painting  than  an  English  lady,  Mrs. 
Hooker,  who,  for  her  veiy  successful  ex- 
ertions in  this  branch  or  the  polite  arts, 
was  presented  with  a  gold  palette  by 

•  Vicenzp  Requeoo  has  treated  the  sul>ject  in 
a  very  maateriy  and  scientific  manner,  ui  a  work 
called  Saggjtul  RittahUimttao  delt  antica  Arte 
I Wp'*"' ***'*"^*^'  PitUni,  published  at  Paima, 


the  Society  for  the  Encouragement  of 
Arts,  &c.  of  London.     Her  account  is 
printed  in  the  10th  volume  of  the  society's 
Transactions,  for   1792,  when  she  was 
miss  Emma  Jane  Greenland.    This  sub- 
ject has  also  been  deeply  investigated  by 
the  chevalier  Lorgna,  in  a  small  but  val- 
uable tract,  called  Un  Disccrso  suUa  Cera 
PwUca,     As  the  thing  chiefly  regarded 
in  encausdc  painting  was  the  securing  of 
permanence  and  durability,  by  the  appli- 
cation of  fire,  the  word  encaustic  has  been 
applied,  in  a  very  general  sense,  to  other 
processes,  in  which  both  the  material  and 
the  mode  of  applying  the  heat  are  entirely 
difierent  from  the  ancient  materials  and 
modes.  The  word  has  been  used,  not  only 
of  wax-painting  on  wood,  stone  and  ivoiy, 
but  also  of  painting  on  earthen  vessels,  of 
works  in  metal,  where  gold  and  silver 
were  inlaid,  melted,  or  laid  on,  and  of 
every  thing  which  Y(fia  gilt  or  silvered  by 
fire ;  which  was  called  gM  or  silver  en- 
caustic.   The  modems  have  also  used  the 
term  for  painting  on  porcelain,  and  work 
in  enamel ;  and  in  tlie  same  way  it  was 
given  to  the  painting  on  glass  of  the  mid- 
dle ages,  sucn  as  is  now  seen  in  the  win- 
dows of  some  Gothic  churches.     It  is 
evident,  that  all  these  have  nothing  to  do 
with  the  wax-painting  of  the  ancients. 
ENCHASizfG.    (See  Chasing,) 
Enchorial,  or  Enchoric   (fiom  the 
Greek  ^,  in,  and  viifw,  cotmt^.)     The 
Egyptians  employed  difierent  alphabets 
in  writing — hieroflyphic,  hieratic  (used 
by  the  priests)  ana  enchorial  (used  for  the 
common  purposes  of  life,  and  hence  called 
also  epistologrcakk  and  demoHc,   (q.  v.) 
Thus,  on  the  Koeetta  stone  (q.  v.),  tliere 
are  three  inscriptions,  one  in  the  hiero- 
glyphical    character,  one    in    what    the 
Greeks   called   /yx*^*  YP^t^i^^'f  snd  one 
in    Greek  characters.     Doctor  Thomas 
Young,  in  his  Egyptian  Antiquities  (Lon- 
don, 1823,  pa^  9),  uses  the  word  endto- 
rial,  or  enchortc,  to  designate  these  popu- 
lar characters,  while  M.  Champollion  calls 
them  demotic,    (See  Demotic^  and  IBarth- 
ghmkics.) 

Enclave  ;  a  term  used  m  Gennan  and 
French,  to  denote  a  place  or  country 
which  is  entirely  surrounded  by  the  ter- 
ritories of  another  power.  Thus  several 
petty  duchies  and  principalities  are  eii- 
daves  of  Prussia,  it  is  easy  to  conceive 
how  much  confusion  and  difficult  in  the 
administration  and  in  the  imposition  oi 
duties  roust  be  caused  by  such  a  local  situ- 
atioiL  It  has  always  been  a  source  of 
disputes,  which  have  been  finally  settled 
by  treaties. 


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ENCLOSURE— ENCYCLOTiEDIA. 


499 


EircLOStntE;  a  fence,  wall  or  hedge, 
or  other  means  of  protection  and  security, 
surrounding  land.  Countries  in  general 
lie  open,  with  nothing  but  banks  and 
ditches  to  divide  the  lands  of  the  hus- 
bandmen; but  in  England  and  the  U. 
States,  each  farm  is  divided  from  others 
by  hedges  and  fences,  and  the  farms 
themselves  are  broken  into  small  enclo- 
sures. In  France,  Grermany,  Italy,  Spain, 
6cc^  the  lands  still  remain  unenclosed,  in 
large^  open  fields.  Enclosures  pleasantly 
subdivide  the  labors  of  the  farmer ;  and, 
by  restraining  the  exercise  of  cattle,  they 
occasion  them  to  get  &t  much  sooner. 

Encratites;  abstinent,  or  self-deny- 
ing.   (See  GnosHcs.) 

EncrcLOPAoiA,  or  Ctclopadia.  This 
word,  formed  from  the  Greek,  but'  not  a 
native  compound  of  that  laijguage  (which 

uses  instead,  iy'^imXtos  natisia,  natStia  h  xbicXtf, 
also  i/jrtfcAca  naOi^naTa),  originally  denoted 
the  whole  circle  of  the  various  branches 
of  knowledge  which  were  comprehended 
by  the  ancients  in  a  liberal  education  (the 
arUs  UberaUa  of  the  Romans;  see  Mm). 
At  a  later  period,  the  word  was  applied 
to  every  systematic  view,  either  or  the 
whole  extent  of  human  knowledge  (uni- 
rersal  encyclopaedia),  or  of  particular  de- 
partments of  It  (particular  or  partial  en- 
cyclopsedia).  The  want  .of  such  general 
surveys  was  earlv  felt ;  and,  as  knowledge 
increased,  they  became  still  more  desira- 
ble, partly  for  the  purpose  of  having  a 
systematic  arrangement  of  the  sciences, 
in  their  mutual  relations,  partly  for  the 
readier  finding  of  particular  subjects; 
and,  for  these  two  reasons,  such  works 
WQie  sometimes  philosophically,  some- 
times alphabetically  arranged.  The  spirit 
of  compiling,  which  pre^iiled  in  the  Al- 
exandrian school,  soon  led  to  attempts 
remotely  allied  to  this,  and  Varro  and 
Pliny  the  elder,  amonff  the  Romans,  com- 
posed works  of  a  similar  kind  (the  former 
in  the  lost  works,  entitled  Rarum  kuma- 
narum  d  dmnarum  Jintiquitatea,  and 
Disi^vnarum  LUni  IX,  the  latter  in  his 
Historia  natwralis).  To  these  may  be 
added  the  later  collections  of  Stobnus, 
and  Suidas,  and  especially  of  Marcianus 
Capella.  These,  however,  were  only  pre- 
paratoiy  labors.  The  honor  of  under- 
taking encyclopeedias  on  a  regular  plan, 
belonj^  to  the  middle  ages,  which,  with 
iron  mdustry,  produced  not  only  a  lai^ 
number  of  cyclopcedias  of  jwrticular  sci- 
ences, called  SumnM,  or  iS^eeuto  (e.  ^,  the 
SwKma  TheologuB  of  Thomas  Aqumasl 
but  also  a  Universal  Encyclopedia,  sucn 
as  had  never  been  seen  before.    The  in- 


de&tigable  Dmninicany  Vincent  of  Beau- 
vais  (fiellovacensis),  about  the  middle  of 
the  13th  century,  exhibited  the  whole 
sum  of  the  knowledge  of  the  middle  ages, 
in  a  work  of  considerable  size  {SjfKcmtan 
MstoriaUj  naturaley  doctrmaUj  to  whic^  an 
anonymous  author  added,  some  years 
later,  a  Speculum  nwraUf,  in  a  similar 
fonii),  in  extracts  fipom  the  works  of  the 
writers  of  the  time ; — a  real  treasure  to 
the  inquirer  into  the  literuy  history  of  the 
middle  ages,  and  not  without  value  in 
itself  in  many  respects  (e»  g*  for  the  light 
which  it  throws  on  profane  criticism). 
The  latest  edition  was  published  at  Dou- 
ay,  in  4  vols.  fol.  In  the  17th  century, 
the  works,  by  no  means  without  value, 
of  Matthius  Martinius,  professor  and  rec- 
tor in  the  gymnanum  at  Bremen  (Idea 
mdhodiat  et  brevis  EneuchptBduB  sive 
adumbratio  Univemtatisj  Herbom,  160G), 
and  of  John  Henry  Alstead  (Encvdopa- 
dia  vn  Tomis  dutmda^  Herbom,  1620,  2 
vols  fol.)  were  followed  by  those  of  the 
illustrious  Bacon.  In  these  works,  not, 
indeed,  very  voluminous,  but  rich  in  deep 
and  acute  thinking  (his  Mvum  Orgatwm 
Scientiarum,  ^rst  published,  London,  1620, 
fol. ;  and  De  ,^ugmentis  ScienUarum^  Eng- 
lish, London,  1605,  4to.,  Latin,  London, 
1638,  fol.),  he  laid  the  foundation  of  a 
cyclopeedia  full  of  the  most  profound 
inquiries,  and  the  boldest  anticipations, 
which  bis  own  a^  was  not  capable  of 
imderstanding.  Smce  his  time,  a  multi- 
tude of  encyclopedias  have  appeared, 
but  none  of  them  have  the  purely  scien- 
tific design  of  Bacon,  and  all  relate  either 
to  the  instruction  of  the  young  and  unin- 
formed (Chevigny,  La  Science  des  Per^ 
sannes  de  la  Cmtr,  de  Pi^ffiCj  etde  la  Robe^ 
5th  ed.  by  U.  P.  de  Limiers,  Amsterdam, 
1717, 4  vols. ;  J.  E.  Wasenseil,  Pens  Li- 
brorum  jtRreTuttum,  Alton,  1695,  5  vols.), 
or  ara  intended  as  books  of  reference  for 
the  learned.  Among  the  greatest  works 
of  earlier  date  would  have  been  reckoned 
the  GaUria  de  Minerva  of  Comelli,  had 
it  been  completed  according  to  the  ori- 
ginal plan,  it  was  to  have  appeared  in 
45  folio  volumes,  of  which  only  7  were 
published  (Venice,  1696).  See  Keyssler's 
Travda,  vol  i.  1136.  More  successful,  at 
least  in  being  brought  to  a  completion, 
was  the  Grosse  voUstandige  UmvergaUexicon 
aUer  fFitsenachcfien  UM  KunsU  (Grand 
Universal  Lexicon  of  all  the  Arts  and 
Sciences),  commonly  called  Zedlei^a,  fiom 
the  person  who  conducted  it  (Halle  and 
Leipsic,  173S^— ^,  64  vols. ;  Supplement, 
1751— 1754,4  vols,  fol.) ;  but  it  has,  on  the 
whole,  little  merit,  and  is  successful  only  in 


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500 


ENCYCLOPJEa>IA. 


some  tmrticular  branches,  as,  for  instance, 
in  genealogy.  Of  the  English  works 
of  Uiis  kind,  which  deserre  notice,  are 
1.  Chambers'  (q.  v.)  CvcIopaBdia,  or  a  Uni- 
versal Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Sciences— 
a  work  which  has  passed  through  several 
editions.  2.  Encydop4Edia  Srikmnica. 
Of  this  there  have  been  6  editions,  the 
last  of  which,  complete  in  1823,  con- 
tains many  improvements;  another  is 
now  (1830)  in  the  course  of  publication. 
The  first  edition  came  out  in  1788,  in  10 
vols.  4to. ;  the  4th  in  1810,  and  the  5th  in 
1815,  as  well  as  the  6th,  are  in  20  vols. 
To  the  4th  and  5th  editions  is  added  a 
Supplement  in  6  vole.,  edited  by  Napier. 
a  Rees'  Cyclopcsdia,'  39  vds.  4to.  in  79 
parts,  with  6  supplementary  parts,  and 
numerous  engravuigs,  London,  1802—20, 
Philadelphia,  41  vols.  4to.,  6  vols,  of 
plates.  In  the  technical  department,  par- 
ticularly, this  is  tlie  most  complete  work 
of  the  kind  which  we  have.  4.  Edin- 
burgh Encyclopeedia,  1810  et  seq.,  not  yet 
complete;  Philadelphia,  vol.  17,  part  1, 
appeared  in  1829,  and  comes  down  to 
STE.  This  work,  devoted  particuktrly 
to  natural  science  and  tochnoloey,  is  con- 
ducted by  Dr.  Brewster,  in  Edinburgh. 
5.  EneydoptBdia  LondtnensiSy  published 
by  John  Wilkes,  begim  1796.  6.  En- 
cydopauJUa  Edinensis,  besun  in  1816,  ed- 
ited by  J.  Millar,  6  vols.  4to.  7.  Encydo- 
fitdia  Metropotianoy  Bondon,  4to.,  benm 
m  1815,  to  consist  of  25  vol&  4to.  8.  Me- 
thodical Cyclopeedia,  by  Mitchell,  Lon- 
don, 1823,  12mo.,  Vet  unfinished.  9. 
Nicholson's  British  Encycloptedia,  in  12 
vols.  1809  et  seq.  10.  Gregory^  Diction- 
ary of  Arts  and  Sciences,  3  vols.  4to.,  first 
American,  from  second  English  edition, 
Philadelphia  and  Charleston,  1815.  Be- 
sides these  larger  works,  a  multitude  of 
smaller  cyelopeediaa  have  been  published 
by  Watson,  Willich,  Enfiekl,  Kendal  and 
others.^The  Italians  have  G.  P.  Pivati's 
IHzumario  BcienHfico  e  eunoM,  mcnhpro- 
fano,  Venice,  1746-51, 10  vols.  fol.  Of 
tlie  French  cyclopfedias,  the  most  fa- 
mous is  the  great  DUiiofmaire  Ewydcpi- 
diqutj  hj  IHderot  and  D'Alembert,  (see 
next  article),  freouentlv  called,  par  excd- 
lenet,  The  EneychpiEdut.  This  was  fbl- 
lowvd  fay  the  more  extensive  one  of  Fe- 
lice. Still  more  comprehensive  is  the 
Encydopidie  nUthodiqiUy  ou  par  Ordrt  de 
Makhresy  which  has  been  publishing  at 
Paris  since  1782,  and  is  now  extended 
to  148  4to.  vols,  text,  and  32  vols,  copper- 
plates. Several  works  of  this  kind  have  • 
also  been  published  in  Germany.  Km- 
nitz's  EncydopSBdia  is  the  most  oelelnv- 


led,  of  which  146  vols,  had  been  pob- 
lished  in  1827,  as  far  as  the  article  Sdnf" 
fahrt.  There  is  an  abridgment,  also,  of 
this  work,  in  many  vols.  The  Deutsche 
EntydopadU  oder  allgem,  WMerimck  alUr 
KitngU  vftd  ff^aensche^Unj  begun  br 
K6ster,  in  1778,  and  continued  by  J.  F. 
Roos,  to  the  23d  vofcime,  1804,  remains 
unfinished  (A  to  KY,  with  a  volume  c€ 
engravings,  folio).  At  present,  there  is  a 
new  great  Gennan  encyclopffidia  pub- 
lishing by  Richter,  a  bookseller  in  Leip- 
sic,  whieb  has  been  edited  by  Eiisch  (q.  v., 
lately  deceased)  and  Gniber,  professors  at 
Halle,  of  whioh  15  vols.  4to.  have  abcady 
appeiured.  Among  the  latest  encyck^Me- 
dian  journals  are  Julli^i's  Mame  Ency- 
dopidi^f  and  F^russac's  ButtHin  uniterMd 
des  Sctenees  et  de  Vbukutrity  tlie  latter  of 
which  is  published  monthly,  tirraBgcd  in 
8  section&  (For  an  account  of  the  Ger- 
man Conversations-Lexicon,  see  our  Pie- 
face.) 

The  rapid  advancement  of  the  scienees 
and  arts,  and  the  proportionally  npid 
communication  between  all  civilized  na 
tions,  have  made  a  general  acquaintaoooe 
vrith  many  different  branches  of  knowl- 
edge more  desirable,  and  often  more  ne- 
cessary, than  ever  before.  This  is  one  of 
the  chief  causes  which  have  produced  in 
our  time  so  many  encyclopedias  of  va- 
rious kinds,  some  very  learned,  and  others 
more  adapted  for  the  general  reader ;  some 
embracing  all  the  sciences  and  arta,  othera 
only  sinffle  branches;  of  the  kttfsr  sort 
are  Loudon's  Encyclopaedias  of  Gardeii- 
lug,  of  Agriculture,  &c.  To  the  same 
CWBS  belong  the  numerous  dictiociaries 
intended  to  impart  information  in  certain 
branches  of  knowledge,  useful  or  enter- 
taining, from  the  learned  PkyutUudiBdia 
fVMeHnich  of  Gehler,  to  the  lively  IKciaoii- 
naire  des  CHrowtteSt  or  Dietionnaire  de$ 
Bsfis-mofo.  Among  the  encycloptedian 
woi^s  particularly  intended  for  genera  rea- 
ders, are  the  Library  of  Usefiil  Knowledge, 
published  bv  the  Society  for  the  Diffiwioii 
of  Useful  Knowledge — a  society  well  de- 
serving its  name,  and  whose  activity  has 
been  called  forth  chiefly  by  the  exertions 
of  Mr.  Brougham ;  the  Library  of  Enter- 
taining Knowledge,  published  also  by  the 
same  societv  (of  which,  according  to  the 
report  of  the  society,  in  1830,  not  leas 
than  19,000  copies  had  been  sold) ;  an 
Almanac  (of  which,  in  1830, 41,000  copies 
were  sold),  and  the  useful  Companion  to 
the  British  Almanac  (of  which,  in  1830, 
17,000  copies  were  sokl);  doctor  Laid- 
nei's  Camnet  Cydopndta,  the  Faim^ 
library,  &c.    A  simiiar  wdric  to  the  L»* 


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ENCYCLOPAEDIA— THE  FRENCH  ENCYCLOPEDIE, 


501 


brary  of  Useful  Knowle^^  was  advertised, 
in  the  beipnnin^  of  1830,  as  about  to  be 
published  in  Pans,  under  the  name  of  En^ 
cifdopidk  Uidon,  to  consist  of  300  volumes, 
at  2  francs  per  volume,  and  to  embrace  all 
the  arts  and  sciences.  Most  of  the  disdn- 
guished  scnants  of  the  liberal  party  were 
to  write  for  it  We  have,  however,  heard 
nothing  of  its  progress.  In  the  ArUohgia 
of  December,  18^,  it  is  stated  that  doctor 
Gkrard,  who  has  traversed  the  Himalaya 
mountains  and  Thibet,  for  the  purpose  of 
introducing  vaccination  into  that  countiy, 
Ibund,  at  Kinnaour,  in  Thibet,  a  man 
named  Cosmas,  a  Transvlvanian,  an  ar- 
dent philologist,  who  had  discovered  an 
encyclopeedia  in  44  volumes,  in  the  lan- 
guage of  tlmt  country.  As  every  thinff 
can  be  abused,  so  encyclopaedias,  which 
may  contribute  to  propagate  widely  use- 
ful knowledge,  may  also  tend  to  produce 
a  disposition  to  be  satisfied  with  superfi- 
cial mformation,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
lady  who  spoke  very  learnedly,  a  whole 
evening,  on  a  variety  of  subjects,  the 
names  of  which  all  began  with  ca.  It 
afterwards  appeared,  that  she  had  just 
received  the  second  volume  of  a  new 
encvclopedia. 

£nctclop£die.  The  French.  The 
term  encydop^tdists  is  used,  particularly  in 
French  literature,  to  signify  those  who 
were  engaged  in  the  great  alphabetical 
encydopeMia,  embracing  all  arts  and  sci- 
ences, which  was  projected  by  Diderot ; 
and  is  applied,  also,  to  those  who  joined 
themselves  to  their  party  in  philosophy 
and  criticism,  as  Helvetius,  for  instance. 
Bouterwek  says  of  this  undertaking :  "  As 
Diderot  took  a  lively  interest  in  every 
thing  worth  knowing,  he  could  not  eon- 
fine  his  literary  labors  to  a  single  depart- 
ment Mathematics,  phyncs,  philosophy 
and  belles-lettres  in  turn  attracted  him. 
None  but  a  mind  of  his  excursive,  en- 
cyclopedian  turn,  would^ave  conceived 
the  plan  of  preparing  a  summary  of  all 
human  knowledge,  up  to  the  middle  of 
the  18th  century,  in  the  form  of  a  univer- 
sal dictionary."  And  none  but  a  man  of 
Diderot's  enthusiasm  could  have  perse- 
vered in  the  execution  of  this  work,  in 
spite  of  all  difficulties,  and  overiooking, 
in  the  zealous  prosecution  of  his  plan,  the 
injury  that  such  a  work  might  do,  by  en- 
couraging superficial  and  partial  views. 
The  work  was  undertaken  at  a  time 
when  every  existing  opinion  and  institu- 
tion ynm  eagerly  brought  before  the  tri- 
bunal of  inauiiy  and  criticism.  This 
inauiring  ana  critioinng  spirit  naturally 
lollowed  an  age  in  which  authority  was 


supreme ;  and  thus  the  Eruydopidie  was 
the  consequence,  as  well  as  the  cause,  of 
a  new  epoch.  That  many  fidse  and  su* 
perficial  views  rtiould  be  mingled  with  it, 
IS  not  strange ;  the  golden  mean  of  truth 
is  seldom  discovert  at  once.  In  the 
philosophical  and  critical  articles,  the 
peculiar  sentiments  of  the  writers  of  tlie 
EncydoptdU  were  received  by  tlie  French 
public  as  the  oracles  of  truth ;  ■  and  it  be- 
came easy  for  the  encyclopeedists  to  give 
currency  to  what  they  called  phUo9ophy. 
They  had,  also,  a  great  influence  on  the 
literary  taste,  not  only  of  the  French,  but 
of  other  nations.  Polished  correctness, 
elegance  of  style,  with  an  imitatioB  of 
nature,  and  a  moral  design,  were  the  high- 
est excellences  which  they  saw  in  art,  and 
the  great  objects  of  attainment  As  they 
made  the  understanding  the  sole  judge  of 
poetry,  which  was,  therefore,  to  be  the  cool 
product  of  reflection,  their  views,  by  means 
of  the  authority  which  they  had  acquired, 
tended  extremely  to  cramp  the  genius  of 
the  French  in  respect  to  wori»  of  im- 
agination, and  to  destroy  all  boldness  and 
freedom.  They  gained  a  still  greater  au- 
thority by  their  philosophy,  just  suited  as 
it  was  to  the  prevailing  spirit  of  the 
French  people.  Indeed,  there  is  hardly  an 
instance  to  be  found,  in  which  the  literati 
of  a  nation  have  obtained  so  extensive  and 
powerful  an  influence  on  political  sentiment 
as  the  French  literati,  and  particularly  the 
French  encyclop»dists»  Their  philoso- 
phy, toOj  was  a  roshionable  philosophv, — 
a  philosophy  for  common  lire,  favorable  to 
wit  and  sayety.  Instead  of  proceeding 
with  steady  steps  to  the  goal  of  truth,  they 
huiried  to  and  fro,  with  daring  leaps,  and 
imagined  that  they  had  reached  the  mark, 
if  they  could  maintain  an  opinion  which 
contained  something  new  and  paradoxical 
This  mixture  of  philosophy  with  elegant 
literature  became  still  more  interesting,  on 
account  of  the  opinions  which  men  like 
Mably,  Condillac,  Mercier,  Raynal,  Buf- 
fon,  Helvetius,  Diderot  and  D'Alembert 
advanced  on  the  subjects  of  religion  and 
civil  government,  for  which  a  prohibition 
was  uiid  on  the  fiirthcr  proaress  of  the 
work.  But  the  printera  only,  and  not 
the  authors,  were  punished,  and  the  gov- 
ernment vras  soon  after  obliged  to  permit 
the  work  to  proceed,  as  it  waatoo  weak  to 
prevent  it  To  the  encyclopfedisln^  who 
were  connected  with  tlie  highest  ciroies 
of  that  time,  is  justly  attributed  a  very 
important  influence  on  the  French  revo- 
lution. Encydop^  au  DicHrni.  raxaomnk 
du  Sciences,  de$  Arts  el  des  Metiers,  par 
tme  SocUU  (2e  Gens  de  LeUrtSt  mU  en  Or^ 


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THE  FRENCH  ENCYCLOPEDIE— ENDIVE. 


dre  par  Diderot^  d  quant  h  Id  Pariie  ma- 
thimat.  pear  (TMembeH  (Paris,  1751—72, 
28  vols,  fol.)  Supplem,  (Amsterdam,  Paris, 
1776—77,  5  vofe.  foL),  TabU  tks  Maiihes 
(Paris,  1780,  2  vols.  foL),  in  all  35  vol- 
umes ;  also,  at  Geneva,  <S9  vols.  4to.,  Ta- 
bles to  it ;  Lyons,  1780, 6  vols.  4to. ;  Lau- 
sanne and  Berne,  1778—81,  36  vols.,  3 
4to.  vols,  engravings. 

Endeavor  Straits  ;  a  channel  which 
separates  the  island  of  New  Guinea  from 
New  Holland ;  about  30  miles  in  extent 
from  N.  E.  to  S.  W.,  and  alx>ut  15  broad, 
except  at  the  entrance,  where  it  i*  less 
tlian  a  league,  being  narrowed  by  the 
islunda  A  bank  runs  across  it  from 
north  to  soutli,  about  lialf  a  mile,  where 
the  depth  of  water,  at  three-quarters  ebb, 
was  found  to  be  3  fathoms. 

Eif0EMic  (from  h  and  ^/m$,  prevuling 
among  the  people).  This  name  is  often 
appli^  to  diseases  which  attack  the  in- 
habitants of  a  particular  district  or  coun- 
tiy,  and  have  their  origin  in  some  local 
cause,  as  the  physical  character  of  the 
place  where  they  prevail,  or  in  the  employ- 
ments, habits  and  mode  of  living  of  the 
people,  Eveiy  part  of  the  world,  every 
climate  and  eveiy  country,  has  its  neculiar 
endemics.  Thus  the  tropical  and  warm 
climates  are  subject  to  peculiar  cutane- 
ous disorders,  eruptions  of  various  kinds, 
because  the  constant  heat  keeps  up  a 
strong  action  of  the  skin,  and  draws  the 
humors  to  the  surface  of  the  body.  In 
northern  climates,  eruptions  of  the  skin 
occur,  but  they  are  of  a  different  kind. 
Thus  in  all  the  north  polar  countries,  es- 
pecially in  Norway,  a  kind  of  leprosy,  the 
f^f^g^i  is  prevalent,  arising  from  the 
coldness  and  humidi^  of  S\e  climate, 
which  dispose  the  skin  to  such  disorders. 
Hot  and  moist  countries  generate  tlie  most 
violent  typhus andputrid fevers ;  the  West 
Indies  and  some  of^the  American  seaports, 
for  instance,  produce  the  yellow  fever. 
Pieces  in  a  more  dry  and  elevated  situa- 
tion, northern  countries  particularly,  are 
peculiariy  subject  to  inflammatory  disor- 
ders. In  countries  and  districts  very  much 
ex|K)eed  to  currents  of  wind,  especially  in 
mountainous  places,  we  find,  at  all  seasons 
of  tlie  year,  rheumatisms,  catarrhs,  and  the 
whole  train  of  complaints  which  have 
their  origin  in  a  sudden  stoppage  of  the 
functions  of  the  skin.  In  large  and  pop- 
ulous towns,  we  meet  with  the  most  nu- 
merous instahees  of  pulmonary  consump- 
tion. In  places  that  are  damp,  and  at  the 
same  time  not  warm,  e.  g.,  on  marshes 
and  large  rivers,  intermittent  fevers  are 
prevalent    In  cold  and  damp  countries^ 


like  England,  Sweden  and  Holland,  the 
most  frequent  cases  of  croup  occur.  Dis- 
eases which  are  endemic  in  one  country, 
may  also  appear  in  others,  and  become 
epidemical,  if  the  weather  and  other  phy- 
sical influences  resemble  those  which  are 
the  causes  of  the  endemic  in  the  former 
place ;  the  climate  being  for  a  time  txans- 
ferred,  as  it  were,  from  one  to  the  other. 
Thus,  for  instance,  we  find  the  croup 
sometimes,  during  wet  and  cold  weather, 
appearing  in  high  situations  ;  inteimjttent 
fevers  sometimes  in  places  where  they 
ccour  rarely  for  years,  and  then  again  at- 
tack great  numbere ;  putrid  and  malignant 
typhus  fcvera  rage  in  all  countries  occa- 
sionally ;  and  so  of  the  rest^  Endemic 
disonlers,  in  some  circumstances,  become 
contagious,  and  thereby  spread  to  other 
pereons,  and  may  be  transplanted  to  other 
places,  the  situaiSon  and  circumstances  of 
which  predispose  them  to  receive  these 
disorders.  Ttiis  is  known  by  the  sad  ex- 
perience of  die  mierations  of  diseases^ 
the  spreading  of  the  leprosy  from  die  Ori- 
ental countries  to  Europe,  &c.  It  is  use- 
ful to  inquire  into  the  endemical  circam- 
stonces  of  countries,  districts,  and  even 
cities  and  towns ;  some  precautionB  may 
be  thereby  suggested  to  escape  the  sick- 
ness, or  to  obviate  the  unwholesomenesB 
of  the  situation  of  the  place  in  question. 
As,  for  instance,  the  physician  of  pope  de- 
ment XI,  Lancini,  procured  the  draining 
and  drying  of  the  marshes  about  Pesaro ; 
and  the  mseases  which  had  arisen  from 


the  exhalations  of  these  marehea  inunedi- 
ately  ceased.  It  is  also  very  fitvorable  to 
the  cure  of  obstinate  disorders,  ibr  the  in- 
valid to  remove  to  a  clinoate  opncksed  to 
his  particular  complaint.  Thus  the  Eng- 
lish, to  cure  themselves  of  the  palmouarr 
complaints  and  hypochondria,  to  which 
they  are  subject  in  their  cold  and  foggy  i^ 
and,  are  accustomed  to  travel  to  the  south 
of  France,  and  especially  to  the  nei^bor- 
hood  of  Nice,  the  climate  of  which  is  in- 
comparable. So  it  is  of  advantage  to  the 
consumptive  to  exchange  tlie  unwhole- 
some city  air,  full  of  dust  and  fine  paiti> 
cles  of  sand,  for  the  pure  atmoephere  of 
the  country.  And  so  of  other  disoideraL 
Endive.  The  wild  succory  (ctcAornnt 
iniybus)  is  now  naturalized  in  some  pait^ 
of  the  U.  States,  and  is  very  common 
along  the  road  sliles  in  the  vicinity  of  Bos- 
ton. It  is  perennial,  branching,  atnd  about 
two  feet  high,  the  leaves  oblong  lanceolafia 
and  nmcinate,a  little  hairy  on  the  nervures; 
the  flowere  axillary,  geminate  and  nearly 
sessile,  of  a  blue  color,  and  resembling  in 
size  and  form  those  of  the  dandelion:  tt 


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ENBIVE-ENGEL. 


503 


likewise  belongs  to  the  same  natural  fiun- 
Uy^  compomt(B,  The  Tvild  succory  con- 
tains a  milky  juice,  and  has  been  fr&* 
quently  employed  by  physicians  as  a  tonic 
and  aperient :  when  blanched,  its  bitter- 
ness is  very  much  diminished,  and  in  this 
state  it  is  eaten  in  soups  or  as  a  salad,  par- 
ticularly in  France,  as  it  was  formerly  by 
the  ancient  Romans :  it  is  also  extensively 
cultivated  in  Italy  for  fodder,  and  the  root, 
when  roasted,  has  been  used  as  a  substi- 
tute for  coflfee.  The  endive  (C.  endwia\ 
is  perha}is  only  a  cultivated  variety  of  the 
former  plant,  from  which  it  differs  in  be- 
ing annual,  more  elevated,  and  having 
smooth,  entire  or  dentated  leaves,  rarely 
lobed,  and  in  its  flowers  being  some  of 
them  sessile,  and  others  upon  long  pedun- 
cles :  it  is  considered  in  France  one  of  the 
best  esculents,  and  is  eaten  in  salads,  ra- 
gouts, as  a  pickle,  &c. 

Endtmion  ;  according  to  some,  a  hunts- 
man, according  to  others,  a  shepherd,  and 
according  to  a  third  account,  a  kins  of 
£li&  He  is  said  to  have  asked  of  Jupi- 
ter, whom  many  have  called  his  &ther, 
eternal  youth  and  immortality.  Ilis  beau- 
ty excited  passion  even  in  the  cold  Diana, 
and  hence  ne  has  served  in  all  ages  as  an 
ideal  of  loveliness,  and  Diana's  love  to  him 
as  that  of  the  tenderest  affection.  He  is 
most  generally  conceived  as  sleeping  in 
the  W4K>d,  where  the  mild  rays  of  the  moon 
kiss  his  slumbering  eyes.    (See  Diana.) 

Eneas.    (See  Mneaa.) 

Eneid.    (See  FirgiL) 

Enesibemcs.    (See  ^nuidemus.) 

Enfield,  William,  LL.  D.,  a  dissent- 
ing divine,  of  great  learning  and  amiable . 
clmracter,  was  bom  at  Sudbury,  in  1741. 
He  was  educated  for  the  dissenting  min- 
istry, at  Daventry,  and,  in  1763,  was  chor- 
sen  pastor  to  a  congregation  at  Liverpool, 
where  he  published  two  volumes  of  Ser- 
mons, in  13mo.,  and  a  collection  of 
Hymns  and  Family  Prayers,  which  were 
well  received.  In  1770,  he  became  resi- 
dent tutor  and  lecturer  on  belles-lettres, 
at  the  academy  at  Warrington,  where  he 
remained  for  several  years,  and  published 
several  works,  including  his  well-known 
Speaker.  Here  he  also  drew  up  Institutes 
ot  Natural  Philosophy,  theoretical  and 
experimental  After  the  dissolution  of 
the  academy,  he  accepted  an  invitation  to 
prende  over  a  congreention  at  Norwich. 
In  1791,  he  published  his  Abridgment  of 
Brucker's  History  of  Philosophy,  2  vols. 
4to.,  a  clear  and  able  ^rformance ;  and 
subsequently  joined  with  doctor  Aikm 
and  others  in  the  General  Biography,  10 
Tols^lto.   He  died  in  1797,  in  his  57th  year. 


Enfilade  (from  the  French  a^Ser),  in 
the  military  art,  is  used  in  speaking  of 
trenches  or  position,  which  may  be  scoured 
by  the  enemy's  shot  along  their  whole 
length.  In  conducting  the  approaches 
at  a  siege  care  must  be  taken  that  tlie 
trenches  be  not  enfiladed  from  any  work 
of  the  place.  In  the  famous  battle  of 
Zomdorf,  a  shot  from  a  Prussian  battery, 
enfilading  8l  Russian  square,  killed  or  dis- 
abled 30  men. 

Engadina,  or  Engadine;  a  beautiful 
valley  in  Switzerland,  in  the  Grisons,  on 
the  banks  of  the  Inn,  bordering  on  the 
Tyrol,  about  35  miles  long,  but  in  some 
parts  very  narrow,  divided  into  Upper  and 
Lower.  Upper  Engadina  contains  3000 
inhabitants ;  Lower  Engadina,  4647.  They 
speak  the  Romish  language. 

Engagement,  Naval.  (SeciSft^,  and 
JSTavy.) 

Enoano  Jsu:  ;  an  island  about  90  miles 
in  circumference,  \yjns  off  the  south-west 
coast  of  Sumatra,  m  lat  5°  SO'  S. ;  Ion. 
102°  20^  E.  Tlie  male  inhabitants  go 
naked,  and  are  fairer  and  taller  than  the 
Malays.  Their  arms  are  a  long  spear 
and  a  knife.  The  women  and  men  wear 
several  savage  ornaments  ;  among  other 
things,  they  wear  a  large  ring  of  cocoa- 
nut  or  leaves  in  large  holes  made  in  tlteir 
ears.  Their  religion  is  unknown.  In 
1771,  the  Enghsh  made  an  expedition  to 
Engano,  which  was  not  more  successful 
than  that  of  the  Dutch  in  164a 

Engel,  John  James,  one  of  the  most 
eminent  prose  writers  of  Germany,  whose 
works  should  be  among  the  first  read  by 
eyeiy  learner  of  the  German  languaf^e, 
W!B8  bum  at  Parchim,  in  1741,  and  receiv- 
ed the  rudiments  of  his  education  from 
his  father,  the  eleiigyman  of.  that  j^ace. 
After  studying  at  several  German  univer- 
sities, he  accepted  the  office  of  professor 
in  a  gymnashim  at  Beriin,  where  he  was 
soon  made  a  member  of  the  royal  acade- 
my of  sciences,  and  wrote  the  greatest 
part  of  bis  works.  He  afierwar&  went 
to  Schwerin.  On  the  accession  of  the 
present  king  of  Prussia,  whose  tutor  he 
bad  been,  he  was  invited  by  his  former 
pupil  to  Beriin,  where  he  niade  himself 
exceedingly  useful  in  the  academy  of  sci- 
ences by  his  excellent  and  instructive 
writings,  and  enjoyed  the  esteem  and  the 
society  of  the  most  eminent  men.  His 
unremitted  labors,  in  spite  of  sickness  and 
.  hypochondria,  liastened  his  end.  He  died 
.  at  the  place  of  his  bitth  in  1802.  Amnnff 
his  philosophical  works  may  be  raendoncd 
his  PhUomh,  fur  die  WtU,  distinguished 
for  acute  ooservatioDB  on  men  and  maa- 


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504 


ENGEL-ENGHIEN. 


ntinustrotions.  Of 
a  similar  character  is  Lis  Mirror  for  Princes 
iFuratevispiegel),  Uialdeenzuemar  Mimiky 
niH  of  taste,  acuteness  and  knowledge  of 
human  nature,  may  be  reearded  as  a 
kind  of  manual  for  players.  He  also  wrote 
some  playa — Der  aankbtxre  tSoAn,  Eddkmv- 
heuy  &c  His  Lorenz  SUaic,  a  novel,  is 
a  masterly  picture  of  life  and  manners. 
A  complete  edition  of  his  works  ap- 
peared at  Berlin,  1801—1606,  in  12  vols. 

Enorien,  or  Enohuieu  ;  a  town  in  the 
Netherlands,  in  Hainaut ;  8  miles  E.  N.  £. 
of  Ath,  30  N.  N.  E.  Valenciennes ;  poi>u- 
lation,  9045.  Here  is  a  superb  castle  with 
a  park  and  gardens.  This  place  gave  the 
title  of  duke  to  a  .prince  of  the  house  of 
Bourbon  Cond6,  in  memoiy  of  a  victory 
of  the  great  Cond^,  obtained  here.  The 
last  that  bore  the  title  was  executed  March, 
1804    (See  Enghien,  duke  of.) 

Enohien,  Louis  Antoina  Henri'  de 
Bourbon,  duke  of,  was  bom  at  Chantilly, 
Aueust  2, 1772,  son  of  Louis  Henry  Jo- 
seph Cond^,  duke  of  Bourbon  (see  the 
three  articles  Condi),  a  descendant  of  the 
great  Cond^.  He  became  the  pupil  of  tiie 
celebrated  Millot.  In  1789,  he  emigrated, 
travelled  through  various  parts  of  Ekuope, 
and  went,  in  17^  to  Flanders,  to  join  the 
troops  of  his  grandfather,  the  pnnce  of 
Cond^,  in  the  campaign  against  France. 
From  1796  to  1799,  he  commanded,  with 
distinffuished  merit,  the  vanguanl  of 
Condi's  army,  which  was  disbanded  at 
the  peace  of  Luneville.  He  was  then,  in 
1804,  led,  by  his  love  of  the  princess  Char- 
lotte de  Rohan  Rocfaefbrt,  to  Ettenheim, 
in  Baden,  where  he  resided  as  a  private 
citizen,  and  where  he  married  this  lady. 
At  this  period,  the  newlv  established  peace 
of  France,  and  of  all  Europe,  was  threat- 
ened, in  the  person  of  Bonaparte,  the  first 
consul  of  France.  Some  of  those  ene- 
mies, who  had  not  been  able  to  subdue 
him  in  the  field  of  battle,  attempted  his 
assassination.  Many  alarming  symptoms 
were  observed.  In  the  middle  of  January, 
1804,  bets  were  made  at  London  tliat  the 
first  consul  would  not  live  to  see  the  next 
April  A  new  edition  of  the  old  pamphlet 
of  Col.  Titus  asainst  Cronrwell,  entitied 
Killing  no  Mutter,  was  dedicated  to  Bo- 
naparte. One  of  the  principal  commer- 
cial houses  in  Vienna  wrote  to  a  banker 
at  Paris,  *<  Here,  as  well  as  in  Paris,  the 
winter  is  mild ;  but  tlie  end  of  February 
is  dreaded.  Well-informed  persons  as- 
sert that  you  will  have  an  earthquake. 
If  you  intend  to  make  any  speculations,  re- 
gard this  information  as  certain.  I  am 
Hot  at  liberty  to  say  more."  (See  Bucbholzy 


GeschiekU  Nitpdtun  BonaoaiiU%  Berlin, 
1829,  vol.  iii.  p.  273 — awonc  by  no  means 
partial  towards  Napoleon.)  These  indica- 
tions were  soon  actually  fbUowed  by  a 
conspiracy  in  Paris  against  the  life  of  the 
first  consul,  supported  by  English  money. 
50  persons  at  raria,  some  of  distinction, 
were  engaged  in  the  conspiracy,  before  it 
was  discovered  by  the  police :  among  them 
were  Armand  and  Julius  Polignac  (the 
late  prime  minister  of  France),  sons 
of  the  duke  of  Polignac,  who  had  played  so 
conspicuous  a  part  at  Louis  XVIth's  court 
Under  the  articles  Pidugru  and  Gtorfrts 
Cadoudaly  we  shall  speak  more  respecting 
this  conspiracy.  Suffice  it  here  to  say,  that 
the  detection  of  these  conspiracies  had 
shown  that  English  money  had  been  used, 
and  that  it  was  known  that  the  English 
miiiisters  at  Munich  and  Stuttgart)  were 
aiding  the  emigrants  in  their  attempts 
against  France,  and  perhaps  also  plotting 
against  the  French  govemmenL  England 
was,  as  it  were,  taken  in  flagrcmU  i&icfo. 
The  first  consul  found  himself  in  the 
greatest  danger.  At  the  frontier  on  the 
Rhine,  corps  of  emigrants  were  again  col- 
lected. Georges  (q.  v.)  had  been  arrested 
some  time  previously ;  and  those  who  had 
been  employed  by  him  stated,  that,  at  in- 
tervals of  10  or  12  days,  a  person  came  to 
visit  him,  to  whom  he  and  Riviere  and 
Polienac  showed  great  respect.  The  po- 
lice believed  this  person  to  be  one  of  the 
Bourbon  family,  and,  after  several  conjec- 
tures, the  duke  of  Enghien,  who  for  some 
time  nad  been  lost  sight  of  at  Ettenheim, 
was  fixed  upon  as  the  probable  person. 
The  distance  between  Ettenheim  and 
Paris  was  such,  tiiat  the  duke  might  have 
reached  this  city  in  a  few  days.  An 
officer  of  the  gtndarmaity  being  sent  to 
observe  him,  was  informed  at  Strasburg:, 
that  the  prince  sometimes  visited  the  the- 
atre of  that  city,  which  was  not  true,  but 
it  was  commonly  believed  that  the  prince 
was  oflen  absent  from  Ettenheim,  huntins 
for  some  days,  and  that  Duinouriez  lived 
with  him.  In  short,  the  French  govern- 
ment became  impressed  with  the  idea  that 
the  duke  was  at  the  head  of  the  coospira- 
tors,  considering  it,  probably,  imlikely  that 
the  prince  would  reside  so  near  tho  iron^ 
tier  if  he  had  no  political  designs^  and, 
probably,  no  one  at  present  doubts  that  the 
duke  would  have  acted  the  part  of  a  Bour- 
bon prince,  if  any  revolution  had  taken 
place  in  the  heart  of  France.  Even  sir 
Walter  Scott  acknowledges  this.  The 
first  consul,  according  to  the  account  given 
by  Las  Cases,  vol.  vii.  of  his  Jlf<^morui^  was 
taken  by  surprise  in  this  atibir.    One  day 


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after  dinner,  die  ^scoveiy  of  some  new 
plots  was  announced  to  bhn,  and  such  ur- 
gent representations  were  made  to  him, 
that  a  special  council  of  state  was  con* 
vened  for  investigating  this  subject,  where 
the  chief  justice,  R^uier,  acting  minister 
of  police,  read  a  report  on  the  state  of 
things  wiUun  the  countiy,  and  Talleyrand, 
minister  of  foreign  affiiirs,  another  report^ 
on  0ie  state  of  tiungs  without  the  country, 
connected  with  the  conspiracy.  Fouch^ 
attended  by  particular  invitation,  not  being 
a  member,  but  having  displayed  superior 
talent  as  well  as  zeal  in  tracing  the  con- 
spiracy: Talleyrand's  report  closed  with 
a  proposition  to  seize  the  duke  of  £ng- 
hien  at  Ettenheim,  and  brin^  him  bv  force 
into  France,  for  examination.  The  ob- 
iect  was  to  confront  him  with  the  two  fol- 
lowers of  Georges,  and  ascertain  whether 
he  was  the  mysterious  personage  in  the 
habit  of  calling  on  him,  as  before  men- 
tioned. At  this  time,  Pichegru's  presence 
lo  France  was  unknown ;  he  was  supposed 
to  be  in  London,  where  he  had  been. 
The  proposition  to  violate  the  neutral  ter- 
ritoiy  of  Baden,  and  forcibly  carry  off  the 
object  of  suspicion,  was  warmly  contest- 
ed by  Camfafic^res,  then  second  consul 
(whose  forthcoming  posthumous  memoirs 
will  probably  shed  light  on  this  transaction), 
but,  being  put  to  vote,  was  adopted  by 
the  council  of  state.  The  first  consul, 
who  did  not  know  the  duke  of  Enghien, 
either  by  name  or  character,  and  was  far 
from  being  inclined  to  groundless  suspi- 
cions, left  the  whole  management  of  this 
aftair  to  those  to  whose  department  it  be- 
longed. Such  was  his  practice  on  all  oc- 
casions. For  instance,  Bourienne''  says 
he  would  declare  in  council,  where  the 
discussions  were  perfectly  free,  *' Gentle- 
men, I  am  hers  under  your  tuition :  take 
care  to  set  me  right,  as  I  shall  act  on  your 
information  and  impulse.  Wo  be  to  him 
that  misleads  me.''  The  order  for  the  ar- 
rest of  the  prince  was  issued  to  general 
Ordener;  he  was  also  ordered  to  airest 
Dumouriez,  who  was  supposed  to  be  with 
the  prince,  a  mistake  arising  ftom  the 
German  pronunciation  of  the  name  of 
Tkumery,  a  companion  of  the  prince. 
General  Oidener,  who  vras  sent  to  Stras- 
bitt-gy  transferred  the  duty  of  seizing  the 
duke  and  all  his  suite  to  a  major  of  the 
gendarmerie.  This  officer  havinr,  by 
means  of  his  soldiers,  ascertained  the  sit- 
uation of  the  house  which  the  prince  in- 
habited, surrounded  it  on  the  night  of 
March  17, 1804,  with  ftx)m  3  to  400  sol- 
diers and  gendiurmes.  The  duke  at  first 
wished  to  defend  himself;  but  the  force 
▼OL.  IV.  43 


was  too  ffreat  to  be  opposed,  and  thus  the 
duke  and  Thumery,  who  had  been  taken 
for  Dumouriez,  a  colonel  Grundstein,  lieu- 
tenant Schmidt,  an  abb^  named  Wein- 
brunn,  and  five  domestics,  were  seized 
and  carried  prisoners  to  Strasburg.  This 
^as  done  with  such  celerity,  tlwt  the  pris- 
oners were  not  even  allowed  lime  to  dress 
themselves.  Early  upon  the  18th,  the  es- 
cort set  off  with  tne  duke  for  Paris,  and 
as  they  arrived,  towards  evening,  upon 
the  2Dth,  at  the  sates  of  the  capital,  tney 
received  an  or(kr  to  conduct  their  pris- 
oner to  Vincennes,  where  he  arrived  ex- 
hausted by  huneerand  fadgue  and  just  as 
he  had  dropped  asleep,  he  was  awaked, 
at  11  o'clock  at  night,  to  undergo  his  trial. 
The  troops,  which  were  marched  to  Vin- 
cennes on  this  occasion,  w«re  command- 
ed hj  SavaiY.  He  found  a  court-martial, 
consisting  or  general  Hullin,  the  president 
together  with  five  colonels,  and  a  captain, 
who  was  secretaiy.  He .  was  accused 
of  having  bOrne  arms  against  France; 
of  having  offered  his  services  to  Enffland, 
received  agents  of  tliat  country,  and  sup- 
phed  them  v^ith  means  of  maintaining 
connexions  in  the  interior  of  France ;  of 
having  put  himself  at  the  head  of  a  band 
of  insurgents  and  other  persons,  collected' 
from  Bc^en  and  Freiburg,  and  paid  by 
England ;  of  having  had  communications 
with  the  fortress  of  Strasburg,  to  excite  in- 
surrection in  the  nei^boring  departments ; 
and  of  having  aided  m  the  plots  of  England 
against  the  life  of  the  first  consul.  Ta 
these  charges  the  duke  answered  that  he 
had  alwa3's  commanded  the  vanguard  of 
his  grandfiither,  the  prince  of  Cond6,  that 
he  had  a  pension  of  125  guineas  a  month 
from  England,  his  only  means  of  living : 
that  he  never  knew  Pichegru,  and  was 
glad  that  he  did  not,  if  what  was  said  of  him 
was  true.  The  charge  of  having  had  any 
part  in  the  conspiracies  against  the  life  of 
the  first  consul  he  repelled  with  indica- 
tion. At  the  end  of  the  minutes  of  his 
answer,  he  placed  a  note  in  his  own  hand- 
writing, at  the  suggestion  of  the  captain- 
reporter  (the  official  accuser),  requesting 
an  interview  with  the  first  consul :  "My 
name,"  he  vnote,  «  my  rank,  my  way  of 
thinking,  and  the  horrors  of  my  situation, 
induce  me  to  hope  that  he  will  not  refuse 
my  request"  Though  nothing  was  oroy- 
ed  against  the  prince,  no  witnesses  being 
brought  agamst  him,  he  was  executed  the 
next  moniing  at  6  o'clock,  in  the  fosse  of 
the  castle.  The  prince  met  death  with 
the  greatest  composure.  Several  circum- 
stances have  been  related  respecting  his 
execution,  as  that  a  lantern  was  tied  to  hie 


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ENGHIEN. 


breast  to  direct  the  aim  of  the  soldiers ; 
that  he  eave  a  lock  of  his  hair  to  one  of 
the  Boldiem  to  carry  to  the  princess  de 
Rohan,  and  that  an  officer  snatched  it 
away  witli  the  wonls,  **  No  one  shall  re- 
ceive the  commissions  of  a  traitor,**  and 
many  other  particulars,  some  of  which 
have  been  proved  false,  and  some  are  not 
authenticated.  Very  different  accounts 
have  been  given  of  the  conduct  of  the  first 
consul  in  this  affair.  Thus  it  has  been  said 
that  Josephine  and  Horteuse  entreated  him 
to  spare  the  life  of  the  prince ;  that  Cam- 
bac^res  and  Bertliier  represented  to  him, 
in  the  most  pressing  manner,  the  useless- 
ness  of  this  oloody  measure,  and  that  he 
seemed  disposed  to  yield  to  them  when 
the  news  of  the  prince's  death  arrived : 
according  to  others,  he  would  not  listen  to 
the  entreaties  and  representations  of  his 
wife  and  of  his  friends.  (None  of  these 
otatements  are  of  authority.  See  the  note 
contained  on  the  followmg  page.)  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  known  to  eveiy  im- 
partial investigator,  that  Napoleon  was  fsr 
from  being  of  a  cmel  disposition,  that  he 
was  never  deaf  to  inavers  for  mercy,  if 
tbe  great  interests  of  France  allowed  him 
to  listen  to  them.  He  |»ardoned  most  of 
the  persons  implicated  in  the  conspiracy 
of  Georges ;  he  pardoned  the  prince  of 
Hatzfeld ;  he  offered  pardon  even  to  iStapa, 
the  young  assassin  at  Schonbrunn;  in 
short,  proofs  enough  exist  to  show  that  his 
disposition  was  the  opposite  of  cruel.  The 
iiarratives  of  several  persons  concerned 
in  the  duke's  death,  tend  also  to  exculpate 
the  chief  consul.  Savarv,  duke  of  Rovi- 
go,  informs  us  in  his  MimoireSf  that  the 
consul  heard,  through  him,  of  the  execu- 
tion of  the  prince  with  amazement,  and 
greatly  regretted  it  The  count  Real, 
counsellor  of  state,  then  prefect  of  Paris, 
and  therefore  charged  with  the  police  of 
that  city,  declares  the  same.  He  has  as- 
serted in  the  U.  States,  where  he  has  lived 
a  long  dine,*  that  Napoleon  did  not  know 
of  the  execution  of  the  duke  until  after  it 
had  taken  place,  and  that  he  learned  it 
with  amazement  from  Savary's  mouth, 
and  that  the  consul  had  intended  to  set  the 
prince  at  liberty.  This  agrees  with  the 
following  statement,  which  we  have  fix)m 
tbe  most  authentic  source.  Joseph,  the 
brother  of  the  consul,  found  him,  after  this 
catastrophe,  much  affected,  and  highly  in- 
dignant at  those  persons  whom  he  accus- 
ed of  having  occasioned  this  catastrophe. 
He  regretted  much  that  he  had  lostso  fine 

Ma  praence  of  JoMph  Bonaparte,  count  de  Sor- 
viuiert,  Mr.  Dupooceau,  gnerai  LaUemaad,  cap- 
tain Saiy  and  oUmii. 


an  opportuniQr  of  doing  an  act  of  mercy. 
Even  long  alter,  in  conversation  with  his 
brother,  he  frequently  alluded  to  this  sad 
event,  and,  with  his  usual  vivacity,  observ- 
ed, **  it  would  have  been  noble  to  pardon  a 
prince,  who,  in  plotting  against  me,  avait 
faU  son  mHitr/*  **He  was  young,"  contin- 
ued Napoleon,  **  my  favors  would  have  at- 
tached iiim  to  me ;  he  would  have  become 
better  acquainted  with  the  state  oi  France, 
and  would  have  ended  by  entering  my 
service ;  it  would  have  been  gratifying  to 
have  had  the  descendant  of  the  great 
Cond^  for  my  aid-de-camp."  This  view 
is  corroborated  by  Napoleon's  own  aaaer- 
tions,  in  Las  Cases'  Memorial,  voh  viL  p.  437. 
The  declarations  of  Napoleon  himself,  in 
his  will,  however,  are  at  variance  with  this 
view  of  the  subject  He  there  says,  "  I 
ordered  the  duke  of  Elnghien  to  be  ar- 
rested and  executed,  because  it  was  ne- 
cessary for  the  safety,  the  welfare  and  the 
honor  of  the  French  nation.  Under  the 
same  circumstances  I  should  act  in  the 
same  way ;  the  death  of  the  duke  of  E^g- 
hien  is  to  be  imputed  to  those  who  plott^ 
in  London  against  the  hfe  of  the  fiist  con- 
sul, and  who  intended  to  bring  Uie  duke 
of  Bern  by  Beville,and  the  duke  of  £ng- 
hien  by  Strasburg,  into  France."  Savaiy, 
who  was  himself  a  witness  of  the  recrets 
of  the  consul  on  account  of  the  death  of 
the  duke,  gives  the  following  explanatioD 
of  this  inconsistency; — that  Nf^wleon,  even 
on  his  death  bed,  preferred  to  take  the 
chai^  of  the  duke's  death  upon  himself 
rather  than  to  allow  his  power  to  be  doubt- 
ed ;  and  that  he  acted  thus  from  regard  to 
the  dignity  of  a  sovereign,  who,  if  he  en- 
joys the  credit  of  the  good  which  is  done 
m  his  name,  would  act  unworthily  in 
throwing  the  blame  of  the  evil  done  in  his 
name  upon  others.  He  says,  when  the 
emperor  uses  the  words  Le  due  fTEnghim 
est  mart  parceque  je  Cai  votduy  his  meaning 
amounts  only  to  this :  ^  When  I  reignec^ 
no  one  dared  conceive  the  thought  of  di»> 
nosing  of  the  life  or  Hberty  of  any  one, 
it  might  have  been  possible  to  impose  up- 
on me,  but  never  for  a  moment  to  en- 
croach upon  my  power."  Las  Cases,  vdL 
viL  p.  41o,  gives  a  long  passage,  as  con- 
tainmg  the  words  of  Napoleon  himself  on 
this  subject  In  this  he  says  that  France 
was  infest  with  conspirators  sent  fiom 
London,  that  his  life  was  in  constant  dan- 
ger (a  well  known  fact),  and  that  he  acted 
as  in  war,  to  put  a  mop  to  these  outrages. 
He  there  ^^oes  only  on  the  ground  of  jus- 
tice, thinking  it  due  to  his  honor  to  de- 
fend hiniBeirperBonally.  It  is  certain,  that 
in  the  criticat  atuatioD  in  which  he  feund 


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507 


himself,  walking  upon  Yolcanoea,  still  ac- 
tive, and  ever  liady  for  eruption,  he  could 
not  have  suffered  it  to  be  believed  that  such 
an  act  could  be  committed  without  his 
consent  A  belief  in  his  power  was  of 
the  utmost  importance  to  the  peace  and 
order  of  France.  The  welfare  of  France 
required  that  he  should  take  upon  him- 
self the  responsibility  of  every  act  done 
in  his  name.  Another  account  of  this 
catastrophe  is  ^ven  in  Bignon's  Hutoire 
de  France  depws  le  18  Brtantdre  (Novem- 
ber, 1799)  jusqu'h  la  Paixde  TdsU  (JmUef, 
1807),  Pans,  1829,  with  the  motto,  Je  VeTi- 
ragt  h  icrire  VhiHoire  de  la  diplomaiie 
JWrnpaiat  de  1793  h  1S15.  Tutament  de 
NdpoUon,  (SeeBigrum.)  He8ay8,aroonff 
other  things,  such  was  the  character  of 
tlie  first  consul,  tliat  none  of  his  acts  can 
be  taken  from  him — Le  malj  comme  le 
him  qxCU  a  jfaitf  ltd  apparHad  d  rCappar- 
iient  qu^h  lui — an  assertion  much  too  (gene- 
ral, because  the  greatest  man  can  Duild 
only  with  the  materials  which  the  time 
affords  him.  Napoleon  himself  often  re- 
peated— *^  I  am  no  God ;  I  do  not  do  what  I 
wish,  but  what  I  can."  Bignon  says  that, 
in  a  note  written  by  Napoleon  himself,  but 
not  yet  pubUshed,  there  is  the  following 
passage  respecting  the  duke  d'Enghien: 
**If  guilty,  the  commission  was  right  to 
sentence  him  to  death ;  if  innocent,  they 
ouffht  to  have  acquitted  hini,  because  no 
order  whatever  can  justifv  a  judge  in  vio- 
lating his  conscience."  He  says,  also,  that 
at  this  time  (before  the  execution),  people 
who  were  near  the  first  consul  saw  him 
intemallj^  struggling  {livr^  aux  angoissesles 
fdus  /Mfnt5^)  TOtween  what  he  thought  a 
fatal  necessity,  and  what  his  own  disjiosi- 
tion  dictated ;  but  that  no  friend  advised 
mercy.  He  then  continues :  "  None  of  the 
statements  given  of  the-arrest  and  sentence 
of  the  duke  of  Enghien  explain  why  there 
was  no  communication'between  the  cxiurt- 
martial  and  the  superior  authority,  be- 
tween Vincennes  and  Malmaison."  And  the 
question  forces  itself  on  our  minds,  Was 
every  thing  so  preconcerted,  was  the  sen- 
tence of  death  so  certain,  that  it  was  not 
even  sent  to  the  first  consul  for  considera- 
tion ?  Here  we  may  add,  at  the  same 
time.  Why  was  the  duke's  request  for  an 
interview  vn^  the  chief  consul  not  re- 
ported to  tlie  latter,  neither  the  petition 
which  he  presented  to  the  court-martial, 
nor  the  letter  which  he  wrote,  some  say 
from  Strasburg,  others  from  Vincennes  ? 
The  answer  is  this :  count  lUal  declared 
before  the  same  persons,  whom  we  have 
mentioned  in  a  previous  note,  that,  on  the 
fatal  night,  a  gendarme  delivered  a  letter, 


not  knowing  the  import  of  it  KM  was 
asleep,  and  the  letter  was  put  on  his  man- 
tel-piece. In  the  morning,  when  he  open- 
ed the  letter,  he  hastened  to  the  first  con- 
sul, but  it  was  too  late.*  The  fatal  sen- 
tence had  been  executed.  But  who  sends 
desiNitches  of  such  a  nature  without  or- 
ders to  deliver  them  immediately  and  per- 
sonaUy?  In  the  whole  of  the  procees, 
there  was  an  odious  haste.  Napoleon 
says,  that  when  he  was  first  spoken  to  of 
Eiighien,  all  the  orders  for  his  arrest,  &c. 
'were  alreadv  drawn  up;  and  here  is  an 
unpardonable  delay.     Who  is  guilty  of 

*  So  we  are  infonned^  by  food  aathority,  count 
R^l  declared  bimselr  in  the  U.  States.  An- 
other account  is  given  in  an  article,  Napoleofiand 
Bourierme,  in  the  American  Quarterly  Review, 
September,  1830 :  ''We  have  it,  sa^s  the  Re- 
view, in  our  power,  from  high  authority  (that  of 
a  person  not  now  in  this  country),  to  state,  what 
the  duke  of  Rovigo  was  not  aware  of,  the  rtason 
why  the  duke  d^ngfaien  suffered  death  without 
the  sanction  or  knowledge  of  the  first  consul. 
The  prisoner,  in  extremity,  asked  to  see  the  first 
consul,  which  was  not  permitted ;  but  the  judge- 
advocate,  Dantancourl,  humanely  suggested  to 
him  to  write  a  letter  j  which  was  done,  and  the 
letter  sent  to  R^l.  During  that  eventful  night, 
the  first  consul  had  been  called  up  five  times,  oa 
the  arrival  of  as  malty  messeneers,  with  insignifi- 
cant despatches.  So  oAen  custuiWl,  he  gave 
orders  not  to  be  called  again,  unless  for  a  very  se- 
rious occasion.  M.  Real  sent  the  duke  d'Eng- 
hien's  letter  to  Malmaison  b^r  a  private  horseman 
of  the  gendarmerUf  who,  uninformed  of  its  con- 
tents, gave  no  intimation  that  it  required  immedi- 
ate attention.  It  was  laid  on  a  table,  where  it 
remained  unnoticed  till  after  the  first  consul  had 
deliberately  risen,  u)d  made  his  toilet  as  usual, 
without  the  least  notion  of  its  contents.  In  the 
meanwhile,  indeed,  before  he  got  out  of  bed,  the 
ill-starre<l  writer  of  that  neglected  letter  was  shot. 
The  uiterview  between  the  first  consul  and  R^l, 
which  immediately  followed  that  between  the  first 
consul  and  Savary,  disclosed  the  deplorable  cause, 
as  Savary's  prior  tidings  had  revealed  the  catas- 
trophe. Krai's  reception  was  that  of  a  man  who 
had  been  guilty  of  unpardonable  negligence.  Ha 
will,  no  doubt,  at  some  proper  time,  submit  his 
account  to  the  worid.  But  he  knows  that  the 
duke  d'Elngfaien  was  not  sacrificed  to  a  tyrant's 
{>assions,  policy  or  fears ;  th^t  the  gpueral  agita- 
tion and  very  natural  misunderstanding  which  his 
family  and  uiends  had  occasioned  throughout  the 
capital  and  the  council,  the  over-zedous,  perhaps 
treacherous  advice  of  some,  the  over-active,  pre- 
cipitate despatch  of  others,  and  one  of  those  mis- 
aaventures,  which  are  so  common  in  the  affairs 
of  this  worid,  are  the  causes  to  which  tliis  disaster 
was  owing.  Once  done,  however,  nulla  vestigia 
retrorstOHf  never  to  recant,  cm*  apologize  or  recede, 
was  one  of  Bouapajrie's  imperious  maxims.  He 
fell  the  full  force  of  the  French  provert>,  that 
whoever  excuses,  accuses  himself;  and  nothing 
would  induce  him  to  disown  a  deed  done  under 
his  orders,  though  they  were  violated  to  his  infinite 
ii^ury  and  mortification  in  almost  every  stage  of 
the  proceeding."  Perhaps  both  accounts  are 
correct ;  at  ail  events,  both  exculpate  Napoleoa 
from  the  haste  of  the  process. 


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ENGHIEN. 


both  ?  To  whom  is  to  be  ascribed  tlie  irreg- 
ularities in  the  whole  process,  which  M. 
Dupin,  in  bis  publication  on  this  catastro* 

She,  proves  to  have  existed,  and  which  the 
uke  of  Rovigo  acknowledges,  and  even 
imputes  to  certain  individuals?  We  are 
fiir  from  pretending  to  be  able  to  clear  up 
this  mystery.  Individuals  have  accused 
each  other ;  but  (according  to  the  words 
of  Louis  Bonaparte,  count  de  St  Leu,  in 
his  Riponse)  cdtU  affaire  est  Unn  d^ttre 
idaircie.  Count  HuUin  accuses  Savary  of 
the  haste,  and  himself  of  the  irregularity 
of  the  process,  pleaduig  ignorance  re- 
specting the  forms  of  courts-maitial.  Sa- 
vory accuses  Talleyrand,  most  positively, 
of  the  whole  crime,  and,  it  cannot  be  de- 
nied, makes  it  plausible.  His  motive  is 
said  to  have  been  to  precipitate  the  tirst 
consul  into  an  act  which  should  stitin  him 
with  Bourbon  blood  (with  which  Talley- 
rand and  many  others  were  themselves 
stained),  so  as  to  prevent  him  from  becom- 
ing a  second  Monlc,  and  restoring  the  Bour- 
bons, which,  of  course,  would  have  ruined 
Talleyrand.  Talleyrand,on  the  other  hand, 
defended  himself  in  a  letter  to  LouisXVIII, 
on  tliis  subject,  with  which  the  king  was 
flillv  satisfied.  History,  we  trust,  will  even- 
tuallv  fix  the  guilt  on  the  name  to  which 
it  belongSk  Aa  for  Napoleon,  we  cannot 
but  believe  that  he  actually  considered  the 
duke  of  Enghien  gtiilty  of  having  plotted 
against  France  (he  could  not  imagine  him 
so  insane  as  to  live  on  the  frontier  of 
France  without  an  object) ;  probably,  also, 
of  having  been  concerned  in,  or  at  least  ac- 
ouainted  with,  the  conspiracies  of  Georges, 
ice  at  Paris :  that  he  therefore  believed 
the  duke  miglit  be  sentenced  to  death  by 
the  court-martial^  but,  at  all  events,  in- 

*  We  quote  from  the  article  of  the  American 
Quarteriy  Review,  above-mentioned,  tlie  follow- 
ing passage  :  "  The  question,  then,  for  the  first 
consul's  decision,  was  not,  as  Bourienne  states  il, 
with  many  odioos  sunnises,  whether  the  prisoner 
should  be  executed,  but  whether  he  should  be 
tried  by  a  military  tribunal.  Bourienne  was  no 
longer  near  the  person  of  the  first  consul.  All 
his  revelations  are  hearsays.    The  duke  of  Rovi- 

K's  account  is  the  most  particular  and  authentic 
it  has  appeared.  The  explanations  of  the  duke 
d'Alberg  and  baron  Massias  are  but  remote  and 
argiunenUtive.  The  memoirs  of  Cambac^res, 
•s  we  have  said,  ^ill  liave  very  important  bear^ 
im  on  this  afifair.  We  have  not  seen  the  dake 
of  CVranto's  memotn,  and  de  not  know  what  he 
says ;  nor  have  we  read  M.  Dupin's  pamphlet, 
b  which  tlie  case  is  professionally  consiaered. 
Prince  Talleyrand's  memoirs  «*ill,  no  doubt,  con- 
tain whatever  mav  be  his  apolog^.  The  letter 
be  addressed  to  Uie  king  concerning  it  remains 
unknown  to  the  public}  and  all  the  documents 
connected  with  tlus  proceeding  have  disappeared 
from  the  public  archives,  which  Savary  says  were 


tended  to  pardon  him  (for  such  a  pardon 
would  not  only  have  accorded  with  Na- 
poleon's disposition,  but  have  been  ser- 
viceable to  his  politics:  be  wanted  peace); 
that,  however,  others,  either  from  a  crim- 
inal desire  to  please  the  first  consul,  and 
acting  under  the  supposition  that  he  wiidi- 
ed  the  duke's  death,  or  from  some  other 
motive,  hastened  the  execution ;  that  Bo- 
naparte, justly,  was  then  unwilling  to 
have  it  supposed  that  such  an  act  could 
be  committed  against  his  wiH,  as  he  was 
just  fonning  a  government,  and  establish- 
mg  orrler  in  its  different  departments,  and 
the  belief  in  his  power  was  indispensable ; 
and  that  he  finally  thought  it  beneath  his 
dignity  to  accuse  his  servants,  on  his 
death  bed,  preferring  to  take  the  odium 
upon    himself,   pletuluig  in  excuse   the 

in  the  custody  and  power  of  Talle}Tand,  as  sec- 
retary of  that  department.    We  can  give  assar* 
ance,  on  authority  which  cannot  mistake  or  be 
mistaken  (if  wrong,  it  must  be  intentioaallv  so, 
and  we  have  been  deceived  ourselves,  which  we 
caimot  believe),  that  the  idea  of  the  death  of  the 
duke  d'Engfaien  never  crossed  the  first  consul's 
mind,  till  he  was  astonished  and  confounded  b^ 
the  tidings  communicated  to  him  b^  Savary  of  his 
execution.    Whatever  the  precipHation  of  soae 
of  his  ministers,  or  the  intrigues  of  others,  may 
have  designed ;  however  his  own  ideas  may  have 
been  surprised,  his  measures  hurried,  and  the  re- 
sult enchained,  it  is  certain,  unless  we  are  grossly 
misinformed  {and  if  we  are,  it  is  designedly),  that 
the  sudden^  violent  and  impolitic  deaUi  of  the  vic^ 
tim  of  various  untoward  circumstances,  was  as 
unexpected  and  as  unwelcome  to  him,  at  wfaoaa 
door  it  is  laid  as  an  unpardonable  crime,  as  to  any 
one  living.    The  question  was,  not  whether  lie 
should  be  put  to  death,  but  whether  he  should  be 
put  on  his  trial.    Joseph,  Josephine,  Cambac^res. 
Berthier,  earnestly  expwMtulaled  with  the  cbier 
magistrate  ajrainst  it.    I'alleyrand  was  for  strong 
measures.    He  said  he  knew  the  Bourbons  well ; 
that  they  were  insensible  to  every  thing  but  fear. 
Joseph,  u^o  was  living  at  Morlbntaine,  and  timii- 
siently  in  town,  the  SDth  of  March,  the  day  the 
duke  d'Enghien  was  taken  a  prisoner  to  Paris, 
spoke  to  his  brother  in  his  behalf,  warml^r  urging 
tno  defence  of  the  grandson  of  the  prince  of 
Cpnde,  who,  he  reminded  his  brother,  had  seven 
times  crowned  him  for  as  many  distinctions  gam- 
ed at  the  royal  school  of  Autun :  to  which  expos- 
tulation the  first  consul's  reply  aflbrds  a  cunoua 
proof  of  the  state  of  bit  mind  at  the  moment 
His  answer  was  given  by  deciaiming  the  follow- 
ing passage  from  a  speech  of  Cssar,  ui  Comeille's 
tragedy  of  Pompcy" : — 
"  Votre  E^to  est  foux.  ri  seul  n  redontoft 
Ce  oiie  le  monde  entier  k  pieini  vobux  souhaitQli  j 
£t  B'il  vous  a  doniii  ces  crainles  tiop  aublilw, 
Qui  m*Alent  lout  le  ftiiit  da  nos  guerros  civiks, 
06  Phonneur  setii  roN^nipi^,  et  que  pour  lennmer 
Je  ne  veux  que  celui  de  vnincre  el  de  parduoner, 
Ou  ines  plus  dannereax  et  plus  fnnmls  adveraabcs. 
Bi  tU  qirlls  tont  vainciis,  ne  sniit  |)lua  que  uiea  fteiea ; 
£t  inon  ambiikm  ne  va  qu*Ji  les  forcer, 
Ayant  domple  leii'r  haine,  i  vlvre  et  lu^ernhnsKr. 
oh !  oombien  d*aH6fiene  uiie  si  irisie  \pmm 
Aiimk-eUe  Mssto  deasus  louCe  la  lene, 
Si  Pon  vqyoit  marcher  denus  un  mi^nie  char, 
VainquflUfBdel0wdiBGonUeihnip«e«l  Cter.** 


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ENGHIEN— ENGIA. 


509 


emergencj  of  the  times,  rather  than  to 
throw  it  upon  others,  who  could  not  plead 
this  excuse,  and  who,  probably,  would  find 
means  to  exculpate  themselves  after  his 
death ;  particularly,  as  the  chief  accusa- 
tion would  probably  have  been  against 
Talleyrand,  who  had  just  betrayed  him, 
so  that  a  charge  then  preferred  might  have 
looked  like  an  act  of  revenge.  Ab  to  the 
illegality  of  arresting  a  person  on  the  ter- 
ritory of  another  and  fiiendly  power^  the 
first  consul  must  have  thought  himself 
sufficiently  excused  by  the  plots  con- 
stantly detected  against  his  life,  and  the 
immense  danger  in  which  he  himself  and 
the  peace  of  France  were  placed.  **  This 
was  a  matter,"  says  Napoleon  at  St  Hele- 
na, "between  the  French  government  and 
that  of  Baden.*^ 

We  will  only  observe,  in  conclusion, 
that  the  poson  who  was  supposed  to 
be  the  duke  of  Enghien,  and  to  visit 
Georges  at  Paris,  was  Pichegru.  The 
consequences  of  the  death  of  the  young 
prince  were  not  fiivorable  for  Napoleon, 
except,  perhaps,  that  it  struck  the  conspir- 
atora  with  fear,  and  may  thus  have  pre- 
vented some  new  conspiracies.  But  in 
France,  where  the  prince  was  respected 
for  bravery,  all  classes  Were  amictedy 
and  the  friends  of  the  first  consul  not  the 
least;  for  he  had  arrived  at,  and  thus  fiur 
maintained,  his  high  station  ^^thout  shed- 
ding blood,  so  that  people  had  begun 
to  feef.  secure,  and  now,  all  the  former 
apprehensions  were  awakened.  Foreign 
courts  genendly  showed  great  reserve  on 
this  occasion,  except  those  of  Russia  and 
England;  but  the  higher  classes,  who 
were  essentially  opposed  to  a  revolution^ 
the  chief  trait  of  which  vras  opposition  to 
the  feudal  system, exclaimed  loudly  against 
it.  The  court  of  St.  Petersburg  went  in- 
to mourning,  and  made  the  duke's  death 
a  point  of  diplomatic  discussion.  The 
execution  of  tne  duke  of  Enghien  was  a 
fhutful  source  of  libels  and  falsehoods 
against  Napoleon,  repeated  so  oflen,  that 
the  opinion  of  many  is  still  influenced  by 
them ;  and  we  have  given  so  much  roace 
to  the  consideration  of  the  subject,  from 
its  important  bearing  on  the  history  of 

*  A  singular  example  of  an  arrest,  attended 
with  circumstances  of  the  same  illegality  which 
marked  that  of  the  duke,  sometime  since  took  place 
in  Germany.  During  the  prosecutions  against  the 
liberals  in  that  country,  the  Prussian  govenmient 
wished  to  secure  the  perK>n  of  M.  Cousin  (q.  v.), 
the  distinffuished  French  metaphysician  tnen  in 
Saxony  (18^),  and  Prussian  ofiicers  were  sent 
into  Saxony  to  airest  him.  This  was  in  a  time 
of  profouna  peace,  when  the  goyemment  and  its 
chief  were  in  no  danger. 

43* 


Napoleon.  Afier  tiie  restoration  of  tlie 
Bourbons,  a  monument  was  erected  to  the 
memory  of  the  unfortunate  prince  in  the 
chapel  of  Vinceimes,  by  the  king  of  Franco 
and  the  chambers. 

The  works  which  afford  the  most  in- 
formation respecting  this  event,  are  the 
Memoirs  of  the  Duke  of  Rovi^  ;  Exam- 
ination of  the  Proceedings  ot  the  Court- 
martial  instituted  to  try  the  Duke  of  Eng- 
hien ;  A  justificatory  Memorial  publish^ 
by  the  duke  de  Vicenza  (Caulaincourt), 
who  was  charged  to  cooperate  in  the  ar- 
rest of  the  duke,  and  to  deliver  an  expla- 
nation respecting  the  violation  of  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  elector  of  Baden  after  the 
arrest ;  some  Letters  published  by  the 
duke  of  Dalber^  minister  from  the  court 
of  Baden  to  the  French  government,  in  the 
Year  XII  (1804);  Minutes  made  on  die  Ex- 
hiunation  of  the  Duke  of  Enghien  in  1816 ; 
A  Deposition  of  Sieur  Anfort,  brigadier 
of  gendarmerie  at  Vincenues;  A  Note 
from  Baron  de  Massias,  then  French  min- 
ister at  the  court  of  Baden  ;  the  Memoira 
of  Las  Cases  and  O'Meara.  Cambac^res*8 
memoin  will  probably  contain  important 
information  on  this  point,  as  Rovigo  says 
he  charged  him  to  give  an  account  of  it 
8ir  Walter  Scott's  account  of  this  subject 
in  his  Life  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  is  a 
web  of  facts  and  unfounded  nunors,  and 
bean  rather  the  stamp  of  the  newspaper 
accounts  published  at  the  time  when  the 
events  took  place,  than  that  of  history. 
In  the  begirming  of  1890,  the  baron  de 
Matthias,  who  was  French  minister  at 
Carlsruhe  when  the  death  of  the  duke  of 
Enghien  took  place,  addressed  a  letter  to 
M.  de  Bourieime  (author  of  the  Mhnoirts 
of  Napoleon,  which,  in  several  instances, 
have  been  proved  to  deviate  much  from 
truth).  In  this  letter,  M.  de  Matthias,  who 
was  acquainted  with  many  details  of  the 
duke's  arrest,  &c.,  asserts  positively,  that 
Napoleon  was  deceived  respecting  the 
duke's  alleged  crime,  Dumouriez's  stay  at 
Ettenheim,  &c.  We  refer  the  reader  to 
the  article  MipoUon  aand  Bowrwimt^  al- 
ready mentioned  in  the  American  Quar- 
terly Review,  September,  1890,  to  enable 
him  to  judge  of  Bourieane's  authority. 

Enoia  ;  an  island  near  the  coast  of  the 
Morea,  in  a  gulf  to  which  it  gives  name ; 
ancientiy  caUed  Mgina  (q.  v.),  Mnant  and 
Myrwidoma;  about  90  miles  in  circiun- 
ference,  but  rendered  by  rocks  nearly  in- 
accessible, except  on  the  N.  W.  It  has 
no  harbors,  and  out  one  town,  which  con- 
tains about  800  mhabitants.  In  it  are  seen 
the  remains  of  a  temple  dedicated  to  Ve- 
nus^ and  another  dedicated  to  Jupiter. 


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ENGIA— ENGLAND. 


35  miles  S.  S.  W.  Athena ;  km.  23°  35^  ]!L ; 
kt.3r4SyN. 

Enoia,  Gulp  of  (anciendy  Saronic 
Gulf) ;  a  gulf  on  8.  £.  coast  of  European 
Turicey,  so  called  from  the  island  situated 
in  it ;  about  60  miles  in  length  from  N.  W. 
to  S.  E.,  and  25  in  breadtli,  at  the  mouth. 

Enigma.    (See  jEnigma,) 

EifOLAND  ;  the  southern  and  most  con- 
siderable division  of  Great  Britain ;  bound- 
ed N.  by  Scotland,  S.  hjr  the  English  chan- 
nel, which  divides  it  from  France,  R  by 
the  German  ocean,  and  W.  by  Wales,  the 
Atlantic  ocean,  and  the  Irish  channel  It 
IS  of  a  triangular  iigure,  and  extends  from 
50P  to  55*»  iO'  N.laL,  and  from  P  5(KE.to 
6°W.  Ion.  FromN.toS.it  is  400  miles  in 
length,  and  is  in  some  places  300  miles 
broad.  The  superficial  extent  of  the 
country  has  been  variously  estimated,  from 
28,000,000  to  46,000,000  of  sUitute  acres. 
The  population  of  England  and  Wales 
appears  to  have  been,  from  the  most  accu- 
rate computations,  aboiKt  5,500,000  in  the 
year  1700;  in  1750,  al>out  6,500,000  ;  in 
1770,  about  7,500,000 ;'  in  1790,  8,675,000 ; 
in  1801,9,168,000 ;  in  18^1,10,488,000;  and 
in  1825,  it  amounted  to.  12,422,700.  The 
country  is  divided  into  40  counties,  name- 
ly, Bedford,  Berics,  Bucks,  Cambridge, 
Chester,  Cornwall,  Cuml)erland,  I>ert)y, 
Devon,  Dorset,  Durham,  Essex,  Glouces- 
ter, Hereford,  Hertford,  Huntingdon, 
Kent,  Lancaster,  Leicester,  Lincoln,  Mid- 
dlesex, Monmouth,  Norfolk,  Northampton, 
Northumberland,  Nottingham,  Oxford, 
Rutland,  Salop,  Somerset,  Southampton, 
Stafford,  Suffolk,  Suirey,  Sussex,  War- 
wick, Westmoreland,  Wilts,  Worcester, 
York,  East,  North  and  WesL  The  coun- 
ties are  subdivided  into  hundreds,  wards, 
lathes,  wapentakes,  rapes,  tithings,  &c.; 
the  whole  containing  25  cities,  172  bor- 
oughs, and  about  10,000  parishes.  The 
aspect  of  the  country  is  various  and  de- 
lightful In  some  parts,  verdant  plains 
extend  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach,  water- 
ed, by  copious  streams,  and  covered  by 
innumerable  cattle.  In  others,  the  pleas- 
ing vicismtudes  of  gently-rising  hilte  and 
bending  vales,  fertile  in  com,  waving  with 
wood,  and  intersperaed  with  metulowB, 
offer  the  most  delightful  landscapes  of  ru- 
ral opulence  and  beauty.  Some  tracts 
abound  with  prospects  of  the  more  h>- 
mantic  kind---lofty  mountains,  craggy 
rocks,  deep,  narrow  dells,  and  tumbling 
toiTents ;  nor  are  there  wanting,  as  a  con- 
trast to  so  many  acreeable  scenes,  the 
gloomy  features  of  l>lack,  barren  moors 
and  uncultivated  heaths.  The  native 
animals  of  Englaiid  ad«  the  fidlow  deer» 


the  dog,  the  fox,  the  wild  cat,  the  roaiten, 
the  foumart,  badger,  nx>le,  lieidgehog,  &c. 
The  domestic  animals  are  cattle,  hones, 
goats,  sheep  and  hogs.  The  wikl  boar 
vras  formerly  a  native  of  the  countiy,  mm 
also  the  wolf  and  the  bear,  but  as  the 
country  advanced  in  improvement,  they 
gradually  became  extinct  Of  the  biida, 
me  most  remarkable  are  the  eagle,  falcons 
of  various  species,  owls,  ravens,  carrion 
crows,  rooks,  swans,  the  cuckoo,  the  cor- 
morant, the  nightingale,  the  peacock,  the 
swallow,  the  stork,  the  curlew,  the  snipe, 
the  plover,  the  pheasant,  the  Mack  cock, 
the  ptarmigan  (sometimai,  but  rarely,  met 
with  on  the  k>fly  mountains  of  Wales  and 
Cumberland),  the  grouse,  the  partridge, 
the  pigeon,  the  ku-k,  the  stariinc,  uie 
thrush,  &c.  The  most  considerabfe  riv- 
en are  the  Thames,  Severn,  Medway, 
Trent,  Ou8e,Tyne,  Tees,  Wear,  Mersey, 
Dee,  Avon,  Eden  and  Derwent.  In  aid 
of  these,  an  extensive  system  of  canal 
navigation  has  been  established  (see  Cimat), 
by  which  an  easy  access  is  opened  into 
the  interior,  and  the  produce  or  the  coun- 
try  transpoited  by  an  easy  and  expeditious 
process,  from  the  most  remote  parts  to 
the  sea.  Several  beautiful  hikes  occur  in 
different  parts  of  the  countiv.  The  nxist 
remarkable  of  these  are  in  the  north-west 
counties,  and  particularly  in  Westnnore- 
landand  Cumberland.  The  soil  of  Eng- 
land is  various,  consisting  generally  of 
clay,  loam,  sand,  chalk,  gravel  and 
peat.  The  principal  productions  of  the 
country  are  wheat,  barley,  oats,  lye, 
French  wheal,  beans  and  peas,  "fhe 
climate  of  England,  from  its  northern  po- 
sition, is  rather  rigorous  and  ungenial; 
and,  from  its  being  an  island,  it  is  iMfale  to 
sudden  and  frequent  changes,  and  to  great 
variations  of  dryness  and  moisture.  It  is 
at  all  times  uncertain ;  and  its  atmosphere^ 
being  inclined  to  cold  and  damp,  is  cm 
this  account  not  so  &vorahle  to  the  ripen- 
ing as  to  the  growth  of  vegetable  produc- 
tions ;  and  in  the  northern  counties,  more 
especially,  the  harvest  is  liable  to  be  seri- 
ously injured  by  rain«  Owing  to  Its  insu- 
lar situation,  however,  it  is  liable  te  no 
mat  extremes  either  of  heat  or  cold. 
The  general  ran^  of  the  thermometer  is 
from  86  degrees  m  summer  to  16  and  10 
in  winter.  The  indigenous  fruits  are  few, 
and  of  little  value;  but  othera  have  beea 
introduced,  or  brought  to  perfection,  by 
the  skill  and  carefol  cultivation  of  the 
English  gardeners.  These  are  chiefly  ap- 
ples, pears,  plums,  cherries,  peaches,  nec- 
tarines, apncota,  fie^  grepeB,  and  other 
firuitSi    Hops  are  cuitivMed  to  a  i      " 


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ENGLAND. 


511 


iMe  extent  in  the  southern  countiesL  Tim- 
ber grows  abundantly  in  most  parts  of  the 
oountiy:  the  trees  are  principally  oak, 
elm,  ash,  beach,  alder  and  willow.  The 
mines  and  quarries  of  England  afibrd  a 
constant  supply  of  most  valuable  produce. 
Coal  is  found  m  great  abundance  in  the 
nortiiem,  and  in  some  of  the  midland  and 
western  counties.  Iron  abounds  in  Shrop* 
Hhire,  Gloucestershife,  Derbyshire,  the 
north  of  Lancasliire,  -and  it  is  produced, 
though  not  in  ec|ual  abundance,  in  other 
counties.  Tin  is  confined  to  Cornwall 
and  the  adjoining  parts  of  Devonshire, 
and  black  lead  to  a  small  district  in  Cum- 
beriand.  Mines  of  copper  are  wrought  in 
Cornwall,  Devonshire,  Derbyshire  and 
Anglesey,  and  partially  in  Yoncahire  and 
'  Staffordshire.  In  many  parts  of  the  king- 
dom, marbles  and  freestone,  or  calcareous 
sandstone,  of  various  colors  and  textures, 
are  abundant.  There  are  also  mines  of 
rock-salt,  pits  of  fuller's  earth,  potter's 
day,  &c  The  manu&ctures  of  England 
ore  of  prodigious  extent  That  of  wool  is 
one  or  the  most  ancient  in  the  countiy, 
and  is  supposed  to  have  been  introduced 
by  the  Komans.  The  annual  value  of 
the  woollen  manu&ctures  is  estimated  at 
about  20  millions.  The  cottoa  manufac- 
ture is  of  more  recent  establishment  than 
the  woollen,  and  has  been  carried  to 
great  perfection  by  :he  aid  of  every  sort 
of  powerful,  complicated  and  ingenious 
machinery.  The  cotton  wool  imported 
amounts  to  about  125  ixiiUions  of  pounds ; 
and  the  value  of  cotton  manufactures  ex- 
ported, to  £20,000,000.  The  hardware 
manu&cturea,  of  iron  avd  steel,  copper, 
and  braaa,  have  been  also  brought  to  un- 
rivalled perfection  in  England,  and  in- 
clude the  most  ponderous  productions  of 
the  pasting  furnace  and  rolling  mill,  as 
well  as  the  most  minute  and  trifling  arti- 
eles,  such  as  mns,  and  all  sorts  of  chil- 
dren's toys.  The  annual  value  of  the 
iron  and  steel  articles  manufactured  may 
be  estimated  at  £10,000,00a  The  silk 
and  linen  manufactures  are  earned  on  in 
England^  but  not  to  any  great  extent  In 
Nottinghamshire  is  carrieid  on  the  manu- 
facture of  stockings.  English  earthen- 
ware is  finished  with  beauty  and  taste, 
and  in  great  variety,  principally  at  the 
potteries  of  Stafforashire  ;  and  glass  is 
made  in  various  psits,  chiefly  in  Newcas- 
tle, Sunderiand,  Bristol,  and,  on  a  smaller 
scale,  at  some  other  places.  China-ware 
of  a  veiy  superior  quali^  is  made  in  Der- 

Sand  Worcester.    In  London,  every  sort 
fine  and  elegant  manufkcture  is  carried 
oo»  such  aa  cutleiy,  jewehy,  articles  of 


^Id  and  silver,  japan  ware,  cut  glass,  cab- 
met  and  upholsteiy  work,  and  gentlemen's 
carriages,  clocks,  watches,  &c.  From  the 
countries,  in  the  north  of  Europe,  namely, 
Denmark,  Russia,  Sweden,  Poland  and 
Prussia,  England  impoits  iron,  kelp,  tim- 
ber, flax,  hemp,  coarse  Hnens,  pitch,  tar, 
tallow,  com,  pearl  and  potaalies,  &c. ; 
fit)m  Germany,  com,  flax,  hemp,  linens, 
rags,  skins,  timber  and  wines  ;  from  Hol- 
land, geneva,  cheese,  butter,  rags,  flax, 
hemp,  madder,  clover  and  other  seeds, 
com,  bacon,  &«. ;  from  France,  wines, 
bnmdv,  lace,  cambric,  lawns,  silks,  trin- 
kets, £c ;  and  from  Spain  and  Portugal, 
and  Italy,  barilla,  brimstone,  oil,  cochi- 
neal, fruits,  wool,  cork,  dye-woods,  wines^ 
brandy,  silk,  dmgs,  gunis,  &c.  The  im- 
ports from  Turkey  consist  principally  of 
carpets,  dmgs,  dye-stuffi,  fruits,  silk,  &c. 
From  Noitli  America  are  imported  flour, 
provisions,  masta,  timber,  cotton,  wool, 
tobacco,  rice,  tar,  pitch,  pot  and  pearl- 
aahes,  indigo,  furs,  &c.  From  South  Amer- 
ica, since  the  emigration  of  the  Portu- 
guese court  to  the  Brazils,  are  imported 
cotton,  wool,  skms,  cochmeal,  logwood, 
indigo,  Brazil  wood,  sugar,  drags,  &c. 
The  articles  principally  imported  from  the 
West  Indies  are  sugars,  mm,  coffee,  pep- 
per, ginger,  indigo,  drags  and  cotton. 
From  the  East  Indies,  China  and  Persia, 
are  imported  teas,  spices,  raw  silk,  mu»- 
lins,  nankeens,  sugar,  indigo^  ck>ves  and 
other  spices,  opium,  quicksilver,  drags, 

gms,  rice,  saltpetre^  &c.  The  exports  from 
itain  consist  of  all  the  various  manu- 
fectures:  they  anH>Ufit,in  oflScial  value,  to 
about  £37,000,000  annually ;  the  imports 
to  about  £25,000/)00.  In  addition  to  her 
commerce  and  manu&ctures,  England 
has  extensive  fisheries  both  at  home  and 
abroad.  Salmon  are  caught  in  most  of 
her  rivers,  and  the  seas  around  her  coasts 
yield  herrings,  maekerel,  pilchards,  white 
fish,  oysters,  and  other  shell-fislj.  The. 
Newfoundland  fisheiy  at  one  time  employ- 
ed a  considerable  number  of  vessels ;  but 
it  has  since  fallen  off.  The  whale  fishery, 
both  in  the  North  and  South  seas,  is  pros- 
ecutedtoaconaulerableextent  The  estab- 
lished religion  of  England  is  Episcopacy. 
The  Episcopal  establishment  or  England 
consists  of  the  2  archbishops  of  Canteroury 
and  York,  and  of  21  bishops,  who  have  the 
mivilege  of  a  seat  in  the  house  of  peers. 
There  is  also  the  iMshop  of  Sodor  and 
Man,  who  is  not  possessed  of  this  privi- 
lege. The  constitution  of  England  is  a 
limited  monarchy.  The  executive  powera 
are  vested  in  the  king,  who  acts  throuch 
the  medmm  of  responsible  adviseia.    The 


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513 


ENOLAND^-^HURCH  OF  ENGLAND. 


legislative  power  rttndes  ad  the  king,  lords 
and  commons.  (For  the  history,  consti- 
tution, &c  of  England,  see  Great  Brilam.) 
EfTGLAiiD,  Church  or.  The  establish- 
ed religion  in  England  is  Episcopacy. 
The  king  is  the  supreme  head;  by  this 
authority  he  convenes  and  prorogues  the 
convocatioDS  of  the  clergy.  The  church 
is  governed  by  2  archbishops  and  25 
bishops.  The  archbishop  of  Canterbury 
is  styled  the  primate  of  aU  Emlandy  and 
to  him  belongs  the  privilese  of  crowning 
the  kings  and  queens  of  England.    The 

Crovince  of  Canterbury  comprehends  21 
ishoprics.  In  the  province  of  the  arch- 
bishop of  York,  who  is  called  the  primate 
of  England^  there  are  4  bishoprics.  Arch- 
mshops  and  bishops  are  appointed  by  the 
king,  by  what  is  *  called  a  eotig^  cTeftre,  or 
leave  to  elect,  which  is  sent  to  the  dean 
and  chapter  naming  the  person  to  be  cho- 
ten.  The  bishop  of  London,  as  preeidinff 
over  the  capital,  has  the  precedence  of  all 
the  others.  The  bishop  of  Durham  has 
certain  prerogatives,  as  presiding  over  a  see 
that  constitutes  a  county  palatine  ;  the 
bishop  of  Winchester  is  thiid  in  dignity ; 
the  others  take  rank  according  to  seniori- 
ty of  consecration.  The  arehbishops  and 
bishops  (except  the  bishop  of  Sodor  and 
Man)  have  seats  in  the  house  of  lords,  and 
are  styled  the  tpiritaal  lords.  The  arch- 
bishops have  the  title  of  grace,  and  mori 
reverend  father  in  God,  ^  dioint  proyi- 
denee;  bishops  are  addressed  by  the  titk) 
of  ford^  and  right  reverend  father  in  God,  by 
divine  vermiaswn.  The  former  are  said  to 
be  entnronidj  the  latter  inMaUed.  To  eve- 
ry cathedral  belong  several  prebendaries 
and  a  dean,  who  form  the  dean  and  chap- 
ter, or  council  of  the  bishop.  The  next 
order  of  the  cleigy  is  that  or  arehdeaoons ; 
their  number  is  60 ;  their  office  is  to  re- 
form abuses,  and  to  induct  into  beneficeB. 
The  most  numerous  and  laborious  order 
of  the  clergy  are  the  deacons^  curates, 
vicars  and  rectors.  The  office  of  the  dea- 
con is  confined  to  baptism,  reading  in  the 
chureh,  and  assisting  the  priest  at  the 
commimion.  A  pareon  is  one  who  has 
full  possession  of  all  the  rights  of  a  parish 
church ;  if  the  great  tithes  are  impropri' 
aUd,  the  priest  is  called  a  vicar ;  if^not,  a 
rector:  a  curate  is  one  who  is  not  insti- 
tuted to  the  cure  of  souls,  but  exercises 
the  spiritual  office  in  a  parish  under  a  rec- 
tor or  vicar.  (For  the  annual  expenses  of 
the  church  of  Ensland^  see  Eccfeneufieol 
Eitabli^imenta.)  The  convocation  of  the 
^^^■^1  which  is  the  highest  ecclesiastical 
court,  has  not  been  permitted  by  govern- 
ment to  do  any  btwiiofflw  since  1717,  and 


is  merely  convened  as  a  matter  of  form.  - 
The  doctrines  of  the  church  of  England 
are  contained  in  the  thirty-nine  ardcJes: 
the  form  of  worship  is  directed  by  a  litur- 
gy. The  first  steps  to  the  establishment 
of  the  Enfflish  church  were  slow.  It  re- 
tained at  first  many  of  the  features  of  the 
Roman  church,  both  in  regard  to  doctrine 
and  rites.  Afler  the  parlumient  had  de- 
clared Heniy  VIII  the  only  supreme  head 
of  the  church,  and  the  convocation  of  the 
clergy  had  voted  that  the  bishop  of  Rome 
had  no  more  jurisdiction  in  England  than 
any  other  foreign  bishop,  the  articles  of 
fiuth  of  the  new  church  were  declared  to 
consist  in  the  Scriptures  and  the  three 
creeds,  the  Apostolic,  the  Nicene  and  the 
Athanasian  (see  Creeds);  the  real  pres- 
ence, the  use  of  iroaees»  the  invocation  of 
saints,  &C.,  were  still  mainttUBed.  Under 
Edward,  the  new  liturgy  was  composed  in 
English^  and  took  the  place  of  the  old  mass ; 
the  doctrines  were  also  stated  in  forty-two 
articles.  With  the  reign  of  Mary,  the  old 
religion  was  reestablished ;  and  it  was  not 
till  that  of  Elizabeth  that  the  church  <^ 
England  was  finally  instituted.  As  no 
change  was  made  in  the  episcopal  form 
of  government,  and  some  rites  and  cere- 
monies were  retained,  which  muiy  of  the 
reformed  considered  as  superstitious,  this 
circumstance  gave  rise-  to  many  future 
dissensions.  The  c<Hitroveray  concerning 
the  ceremonial  part  of  divine  wot^p 
commenced  with  those  exiles,  who,  in 
1554,  fled  from  the  persecudons  of  queen 
Mary,  and  took  refuge  m  Germany.  On 
the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  they  returned, 
and  renewed  the  contest  at  home,  which 
had  begun  abroad.  These  were  called  jPm- 
riUms,  and,  at  one  time,  comprised  many 
distinguished  members  of  the  English 
clergy.  (See  Puritans,)  On  the  accession 
of  Jam^  the  Puritans  hoped  for  some  re- 
lief; but  an  Episcopal  hierarchy  was  idqkb 
favorable  to  his  views  than  the  Presbyte- 
rian form  of  government,  and  he  pubUchr 
adopted  the  maxim  **  No  bishop,  no  king. 
When  the  English  divines  returned  finm 
thesjmod  of  Doit,  the  king  and  the  ma- 
jority of  the  Episcopal  clergy  discovered 
an  inclinadon  to  the  sentiments  of  Arnun- 
ius,  which  have  since  prevailed  over  Cal- 
vinism among  the  English  clergy.  Under 
Charles  I,  the  attempts  made,  tfirough  the 
instnimentality  of  Laud,  to  reduce  all  the 
churches  of  Qieat  Britain  under  the  juris- 
diction of  bishops,  and  the  suppreselion  of 
the  opinions  and  institutions  that  were  pe- 
culiar to  Calvinism,  cost  the  archbishop 
of  Canterbury  his  head,  and  had  no  little 
efiect  in  imlHttering  the  civil  contest  be- 


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OHUR€H  OF  ENGLAM). 


tween  die  throne  and  the  pariiameDt. 
After  the  death  of  Laud,  the  parliament 
abolished  the  Episcopal  goverament,  and 
condemned  every  thing  in  the  ecclesias- 
tical establishment  that  was  oontraiy  to 
the  doctrine,  worship  and  discipline  of  the 
church  of  Geneva.  As  soon  as  Charles  II 
ivas  restored  to  the  throne,  the  ancient 
forms  of  ecclesiastical  government  and 
public  worship  were  restored;  and,  in 
1662,  a  public  law,  entitled  (he  ad  of  uni- 
formity^ was  enacted,  by  which  all  who  re^ 
fused  to  observe  tfa^d  rites  and  8ubecril)e 
tlie  doctrines  of  the  church  of  Enf^land, 
were  entirely  excluded  from  its  domuiion. 
In  the  reign  of  William  III,  and  particu- 
larly in  1689,  the  divisions  among  the 
fhends  of  Episcopacy  cave  rise^o  tlie  two 
parties  callea  the  A^XH^urchmen,  or  noi^V 
ror«,  and  (ot0*cAiurc£nen.  The  former  main- 
tained the  docttine  of  passive  obedience, 
or  non-iesistance  to  the  sovereign  nnder 
any  circumstance  whatever;  that  the  he- 
reditary succession  to  the  throne  is  of 
divine  institution,  and  cannot  be  interrupt- 
ed ;  that  the  church  is  subject  to  the  juri9- 
diction  of  God  alone ;  and,  consequently, 
that  certain  bishops  deposed  by  king 
William,  remained,  notwithstanding,  true 
bishops ;  and  that  those  who  had  been  ap- 
pointed in  thsk  places  were  rebels  and 
schismatics,  and  all  who  held  communion* 
with  them  were  guilty  of  rebellion  and 
schism.  The  gradual  progress  of  civil 
and  religious  liberty,  during  the  last  150 
years,  has  setded  pmctically  many  such 
controversies.  The  great  increase  of  the 
dissenters  in  recent  times  (they  am  es- 
timated to  be  more  numerous  than  the 
members  of  the  establisbed  church)  has 
led  to  new  concessions  in  their  favor ;  the 
repeal  of  the  corporation  and  test  acts 

!q.  v.),  and  die  Catholic  emancipation 
q.  v.),  as  it  is  called,  are  among  the  im- 
portant events  of  the  late  reign.  We  have 
said,  that  the  doctrines  of  die  church  of 
England  are  contained  in  the  thirty-nine 
articles;  we  are  not  ignorant  that  the 
most  eminent  English  divines  have  doubt- 
ed whether  they  are  Calvinistic  or  Lu- 
theran, that  some  have  denominated  them 
artides  of  oeoce,  and  that  not  a  few  have 
written  in  direct  opposition  to  them.  But 
they  are  the  established  confession  of  the 
English  church,  and,  as  such,  deserve  a 
short  analysis.  The  5  first  articles  con- 
tain a  profession  of  faith  in  the  Trinity ; 
the  incarnation  of  Jesus  Christ,  his  de- 
scent to  hell,  and  his  resurrection;  the 
divinity  of  the  Holy  Ghost  The  3  fol- 
lowing relate  to  the  canon  of  the  Scrip- 
ture.   The  8th  article  declares  a  belief  in 


the  Apostles',  Nicene  and  Athanasian 
creeds.  The  9th  -and  fblloinng  articles 
contain  the  doctrine  of  origimu  sin,  of 
justification  by  fiuth  alone,  of  predestina- 
tion, &c  The  19th,  20di  and  Slat  de- 
clare the  church  to  be  the  assembly  of  the 
faithful ;  that  it  can  decide  nothing  except 
by  the  Scripture&  The  23d  rejects  the 
doctrine  of  purgatory,  indulgences,  the 
adoration  of  images,  and  the  invocation  of 
saints.  The  23d  decides  that  only  those 
lawfidly  called  shall  preach  or  administer 
the  sacraments.  The  24th  requires  the 
hturgy  to  be  in  English.  The  25di  and  26th 
declare  the  sacraments  effectual  signs  £/£ 
moe  (though  administered  by  evil  moto), 
by  which  GmI  ezokes  loid  confirms  our 
fiiith.  They  are  two;  baptism  and  the 
Lord's  supper.  Bapdsm,  according  to 
the  27th  article,  is  a  sign  of  reg(eneration, 
the  seal  of  our  adoption,  by  n^ich  &ith 
is  confirmed  and  grace  increased*  In 
the  Lord's  supper,  according  to  article 
28th,  the  bread  is  the  communion  of  the 
bodv  of  Christ,  the  wine  the  communion 
of  his  blood,  but  only  through  fiiith  (ait. 
29th);  and  the  communion  must  be  ad- 
ministered in  both  kinds  (art  30).  The 
28th  article  condemns  the  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation,  and  the  elevati<m  and 
adomtion  of  the  host;  the  31st  rejects 
the  sacrifice  of  the  mass  as  blasphemous ; 
the  32d  pwmits  die  marriage  of  the* 
<^)«i^gy;  the  33d  maintains  the  efiieacy 
of  excommunication.  The  remaining 
articles  relate  to  the  supremacy  of  the 
king,  <he  condenmation  of  AnahiqitislB 
(q.  v.),  &c. 

In  the  U.  States,  the  members  of  the 
church  of  England,  or  Episcopalians,  form 
a  large  and  respectabk  denommation. 
When  the  revolutionary  war  began,  there 
were  only  about  eighty  parochial  clergy- 
men of  this  church  to  the  northward  and 
eastward  of  Maryland ;  and  they  derived 
the  greater  part  of  their  subsistence  from 
the  English  socie^  for  the  propagation  of 
the  gospel  in  foreign  parts.  In  Maryland 
find  Virginia,  the  Episcopal  church  was 
much  more  numerous,  and  had  le^l  e8> 
tablishments  for  its  support  The  incon- 
venience of  depending  on  the  mother 
church  for  ordination,  and  the  want  of  an 
internal  Episcopacy,  was  long  severely  fek 
by  the  American  Episcopalians.  But  their 
petitions  for  an  Episcopate  of  their  own 
were  long  resisted  by  their  superiors  in 
England ;  and  their  opponents  m  the  U. 
States  objected  to  the  measure  fh>m  an 
apprehension  that  bishops  from  England 
would  bring  with  them  an  authority  which 
would  intertere  with  tha  civil  mstitutions 


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514 


CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND— ENGUSH  LANGUAGE. 


of  this  country,  and  be  prejudicial  to  the 
memberB  of  other  commimions.  Afler 
the  U.  States  had  become  independent  of 
Great  Britain,  a  new  difficulty  arose  on 
the  part  of  the  English  bishops:  they 
could  not  consistently  depart  from  their 
own  stated  forms  of  ordination,  and  these 
contained  political  tests  improper  for 
American  citizens  to  subscribe.  Doctor 
Lowth,  then  bishop  of  London,  obtained 
an  act  of  parliament  allowing  bim  to  dis- 
pense with  these  political  requisitions. 
Before  this  act  was  passed,  doctor  Seabu- 
ry  was  ^  consecrated  at  Aberdeen  by  the 
nonrjuring  bishops  of  Scotland ;  and,  not 
long  after,  doctor  White  of  Philadelphia, 
doctor  Provost  of  New  York,  and  doctor 
Madison  of  Virginia,  were  consecrated  by 
the  English  archbishops.  In  1824,  there 
were  in  the  U.  States  10  bishops,  about 
350  clergymen,  and  upwards  of  600  con- 
gregadons.  (See  bishop  White's  Memoirs 
of  £e  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the 
United  States,  Philadelphia,  1820 ;  also  the 
article  phur^  of  EngUmd  in  Rees'  Cydo- 

English  Channel  (called  by  the  French 
la  Manche)  is  that  part  of  the  Atlantic 
ocean  which  lies  between  the  north-west 
coast  of  France  and  the  southern  coast  of 
Enn^d.  Its  eastern  extremity  is  con- 
nected with  the  German  ocean  by  the 
■traits  of  Calais,  and  on  the  west  it  is  im- 
perceptibly confounded  with  the  Atlantic 
ocean.  It  lies  between  lat  48^  38^  and 
5P  N.,  and  Ion.  P  20^  E.  and  5°  43^  W. 
At  its  termination — on  a  line  drawn  from 
Land's  End  to  the  extreme  easteriy  point 
of  the  department  of  Finisterre,  in  France 
— ^it  is  about  40  leagues  wide.  On  the 
French  coast,  it  forms  three  considerable 
bays ;  the  most  easterly  receives  the 
Somme  ;  the  second  receives  the  Seine 
and  several  smaller  rivers ;  the  third  and 
largest  lies  on  the  south-west  of  the  penin- 
sula of  Cotentin.  On  the  English  coast, 
isMoimt  bay,  between  Lizard  point  and 
Land's  End ;  between  Lizard  point  and 
Stan  point  is  a  large  gulf,  on  which  are 
situated  Falmouth  and  Plymouth  ;  the 
gulf  of  Exeter  lies  to  the  east  of  Start 
point  The  principal  islands  in  the  Eng- 
lish channel  are  the  Isle  of  Wight  on  the 
English  coast,  and  the  Norman  islands 
lying  on  the  French  coasts,  but  belonging 
to  England,  the  principal  of  which  are 
Guernsey  and  Jeney,  The  prevailing 
winds  are  from  the  west  The  channel,  be- 
ing shallow  and  confined,  is  subject,  from 
its  communication  with  the  Atlantic,  to 
high  and  impetuous  tides.  Its  waters 
contain  many  fish,  of  which  the  most  im- 


portant are  the  mackerel  and  the  herring. 
The  oysters  of  Cancal  are  also  iamoiis. 

Enolish  Lanouaor  ;  the  language  spo- 
ken by  the  people  of  England,  and,  with 
some  dialectical  variations,  in  Scotland,  in 
a  part  of  Ireland,  and  in  other  parts  of  the 
globe  which  now  are,  or  origmally  were, 
vrithin  the  British  dominions.    Of  all  who 
^)eak  the  English  /language,  the  peo|rie 
of  the  U.  States  of  America,  next  to  the 
inliaHtants  of  England  itself,  are  the  most 
important  in  respect  to  their  influence  in 
spreading  and  cultivating  it    Their  veiy 
e^Oensive  commerce,  which  is  now  second 
to  none  but  that  of  England,  afibids  the 
means  of  contributing  to  the  disseminar 
tion  of  their  language  over  all  parts  of  the 
globe.    To  this  also  we  may  add  thor 
efiTorts  in  religious  missions,  which  have 
been  attended  with  a  similar  eflect  From 
these  and  other  causes,  we  have  tlie  highest 
reason  to  believe  that  English  will,  before 
the  lapse  of  manv  years,  be  spoken  as  the 
native  tongue  of  a  larger  proportion  of 
the  inhabitants  of  the  two  contments  than 
any  other  known  language,  unless,  per- 
haps, tlie  Chinese  and  its  dialects  should 
still  maintain  that  rank.    The  Saxon,  or 
•^f^o-iSSoxon  (q.  v.)  language,  as  it  is  nM>rB 
finequendy  called,  was  the  basis  of  the 
English ;  and  Ixith  have  descended  finom 
what  is  commonly  denominated  the  Gaik- 
ic  or  Teutonic  stock,  particularly  the  dia- 
lect called  Low  Gtrman,  (q.  v.)    It  has, 
however,  retained  many  wonls  of  the  an- 
cient langua^  spoken  by  the  Britons  be- 
fore the  amval  of  the   Saxons   among 
them.    Upon  the  introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity into  Great  Britain,  in.  the  Gth  oen- 
tuiy,  which  was  done  through  the  church 
of  Rome,  the  Laiin  language  contributed, 
by  degrees,  to  the  common  dialect  of  the 
nation.    About  the  year  1150,  according 
to  doctor  Johnson,  the  Scaon  dialect  of 
our  ancestors  took  a  form  in  which  the 
beginning  of  our    present  English  can 
plainly  b«  discovered.    From  that  period 
to  this,  it  has  been  constantly  receivins 
additions    from  various    languages,  and 
may  now,  according    to  doctor     Web- 
ster, be    considered    as    composed    o( 
1st,   Saxon  and  Danish  words  of  Teu- 
tonic and  Gothic  origin;  2d,  British  or 
Welsli,  Cornish  and  .^moric,  which  may 
be  considered  as  of  Celtic  origin  ;   3a, 
Norman  ;  4th,  Latin ;   5th,  French ;  6tb, 
Greek)  7th,  a  few  words  din^cdy  finom  the 
Italian,  Spanish,  German,  and  other  lan- 
ffuages  of  the  continent  of  Europe;  8tli,  a 
tew  foreign  words,  introduced  by  commerce 
or  by  political  and  literary  intercounse. 
(InML  Eng,  DicL)    This  origin  of  our 


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laa^piage  justifies  the  opinion  of  doctor 
Bkur,  who,  in  his  Lectures  on  Rhetoric, 
characterizes  it  as  a  rude  compound.— 
The  leading  characteristics  of  the  EngMsh 
languaffe  are  said,  by  our  own  writers^  to 
be,  1.  That  it  is  strong  and  expressive ; 
yniuch  qualities  are  enhanced  bf  a  facility 
in  comfiounding  words;  but  in  this  last 
particular,  it  is  certainly  far  inferior  to  the 
German.  2.  That  it  is  veiy  copious,  few 
languages  being  more  so.  Under  this 
heiul  we  may  remark,  that  it  possesses 
one  decisive  advantage  over  most  other 
modem  languages;  Siat,  in  addition  to 
the  language  commonly  used  in  prose,  it 
has  a  very  copious  stock  of  words  exclu- 
sively used  in  poetical  composition.  3. 
That  it  possesses  great  flexibility,  or  ca- 
pacity of  being  acUpted  to  all  styles  of 
composition,  the  grave  and  gay,  forcible 
and  tender,  sublime  and  ludicroua  But 
in  this  respect,  we  do  not  know  that  it  is 
strikingly  distinguished  from  many  other 
modem  languages.  4  That  it  nastlie  ad- 
vantage of  being  more  simple  in  its  form 
and  construction  than  any  or  the  European 
languages.  This  simplicity  consists,  prin- 
cipally, in  the  following  particulars: — its 
nouns  have  only  two  cases,  the  nom- 
inative and  genitive  (this  deficiency  of 
cases,  however,  prevents  our  using  inver- 
sions of  phrases  like  those  which  the 
Latin  language  allows;  the  French  lan- 
guage is  even  inferior  to  the  English  in  this 
respect),  and  have  no  difference  of  declen- 
sion ;  its  adjectives  have  no  variation  of 
gender  or  number,  and  are  only  varied  to 
express  the  degrees  of  comparison ;  and 
the  conjugations  of  its  verbs  are  fiir  less 
complex  than  those  of  the  other  languages. 
5.  Ainong  other  qualities^  we  also  hear  the 
harmony  of  our  language  mentioned. 
But,  as  a  general  remark,  we  think,  with  a 
late  writer,  that  **•  strengdi  and  expressive- 
ness, rather  than  grace  and  melody,  are  the 
distinguishing  qiudities  of  the  English  lan- 
guage."— *<  Different  nations,"  sajrs  lord 
Kaimes  (Elements  of  Criticism),  <^  judge 
differently  of  the  harshness  or  smoothness 
of  articulate  sounds:  a  sound,  for  exam- 
ple, harsh  and  disagreeable  to  an  Italian, 
may  be  abundantly  smooth  to  a  northern 
ear:  here  every  nation  must  judge  for 
itself;  nor  can  there  be  any  spnd  ground 
for  a  preference,  when  there  is  no  com- 
mon standard  to  which  we  can  appeal." 
In  order  to  judge  correctly  on  this  point, 
we  must  observe  how  it  strikes  the  ears 
of  foreigners,  who  have  some  acquaintance 
with  it ;  yet  we  must,  at  the  same  time, 
rsodve  vnth  much  caution  the  observa- 


tions of  men  who  hctveas  strong  a  partial- 
ity as  ourselves  for  their  native  lan- 
guage. As  a  general  remark,  we  think, 
tnat  those  modem  languages  which  are 
derived  from  the  Latin  are  more  harmo- 
nious than  those  of  Teutonic  origin.  (See 
ConaananL)  But,  in  order  to  satisfy  our- 
selves how  far  we  are  liable  to  be  deceivetl 
in  respect  to  the  supposed  excellences  of 
our  native  tongue,  we  extract  the  follow- 
ing remarks  from  that  popular  and  spright- 
ly, though  not  very  profound  writer,  La 
Harpe : — *^  The  English  language,  which 
would  be  almost  half-French,  if  its  in- 
comprehensible pronunciation  did  not 
separate  it  from  all  the  languages  of  the 
world,  and  make  applicable  to  it  what 
Virgil  said  of  the  geographical  position  of 
the  country— 

'  EtpenUus  Mo  divisos  orbe  Britaimos' — 
'  A  race  of  men  from  all  the  world  disjobed'-* 

the  English  is  still  more  overloaded  than 
our  own  (French)  with  auxiliaries^  parti- 
cles, articles  ancl  pronouns ;  it  has  less 
conjugating  also,  and  its  modes  are  ex- 
cessively Bmited.  It  has  no  conditional 
tense ;  it  cannot  say,  as  in  French,  je 
ferais,  firais,  &c ;  but  it  is  necessary  to 
prefix  to  the  principal  verb  one  of  these— - 
i  wndd,  I  migty  I  couH  I  shmUd  have  to. 
It  cannot  be  denied  that  these  signs,  in- 
cessantly repeated,  and  even  equivocal  in 
their  signification,  argue  a  deplorable  pov- 
erty, and  liave  a  resemblance  to  barbarism. 
But  what,  to  every  one  except  an  English- 
man, most  bears  that  character,  is  their 
striking  viciousness  of  pronunciation, 
which  seems  to  be  in  conflict  with  the 
principles  ot  human  articulation.  Now, 
this  ought  always  to  have  a  tendency  to 
fix  the  nature  of  the  sounds,  and  it  is  par- 
ticulariy  the  object  and  intention  of^the 
vowda,  which  caimot  meet  the  ear  with 
too  great  distinctness.  But  what  shall 
we  say  of  a  languaffe,  in  which  the 
vowels  themselves,  the  very  elements 
of  all  pronunciation,  are  so  often  indeter- 
n^nate,  and  in  which  so  many  syllables 
are  either  half  crushed  between  the  teeth, 
or  vanish  with  a  sibilant  sound  on  the 
edge  of  die  lips?  <The  Englishman,'' 
says  Voltaire, '  ^ains  upon  us  two  hours  a 
day,  by  swallowing  half  of  all  his  words.' 
I  do  not,  however,  attach  much  im- 
portance to  such  reproaches,  because  a 
language  is  always  sufKcientiy  good  for 
those  who  use  it  from  their  infancy ;  but 
it  is  tme,  that  we  find  a  thousand  English- 
men, who  speak  French  tolerably  well, 
for  one  Frenchman,  who  is  able  to  speak 


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ENGUSH  LANGUAGE. 


good  EnglMi ;  and  this  disproportion  be- 
tween two  nations,  closely  united  as  they 
are  by  a  regular  and  established  inter- 
ooune,  roust  be  principally  caused  by  the 
strangely  whimsical  pronunciation  of  the 
lanffuage  of  the  En^ish.**  (yol.  i,  p.  143.) 
^  Yet,  notwithstanding  the  uidistinctness 
of  thor  vowels,  and  their  masses  of  conao* 
nants,  they  lay  claim  to  harmony  of  lan- 
piage ;  and  we  will  allow  it  to  them,  iij 
u  retunif  they  will  adroit  that  this  harmo- 
ny can  be  felt  by  themselves  alone.  They 
have,  too,  some  advantages  whiob,  1 
think,  we  cannot  deny  them.  Inversion 
of  language  is  allowed  in  their  poetry  al- 
most to  as  great  an  extent  as  in  Italian, 
that  is,  rouch  less  than  in  Latin  and 
Greek.  Their  constructions  and  poetical 
forms  are  bolder,  and  yet  more  manaffe- 
able  than  ours.  They  can  also  employ 
rhyme,  or  not,  as  they  please,  and  can  in- 
dulge more  than  we  can  in  the  formation 
of  new  words."  Observations  of  this 
kind  must,  however,  be  taken  with  much 
allowance.  Another  F]|eneh  writer,  cited 
by  Mn  Mitfbrd  in  his  Harmony  of  the 
English  Language,  say»— ^  The  English 
mieiak  so  much  between  their  teeth,  that 
the  French  cannot  understand  them ;"  and 
adds — ^PAngUns  eH  la  geuU  langue  powr 
UtqudU  Q  nefaut  mu  une  lan^uer  ^Itis 
impossible  (says  Mr.  Mitibnl)  not  to  ac- 
knowledge that  there  is  much  iustiee  in 
this  imputation."  In  our  artide  Amerir 
eamtm  (q.  v.l  we  dhected'  the  reader's 
attention  to  tne  important  fact,  that  Eng- 
land and  the  U.  States  of  America  omt 
the  first  instance  in  history  of  two  |;ieat, 
independent  and  active  nations,  havmg  a 
wmman  languagt^  but  situated  at  a  great 
distance  from  each  other,  and  daily  devel- 
oping new  and  oharacteristic  features. 
These  relations  must,  sooner  or  later,  ex- 
ert a  powerful  influence  upon  the  com- 
mon language ;  for  no  language  is  so  sta- 
ble as  not  to  undeivo  continual  changes, 
if  spoken  by  a  people  in  the  full  vigor  of 
social  and  pohtical  life.  This  state  of 
things  has  already  produced  some  effect 
on  the  English  luiguaffe,  as  we  have  ob- 
served in  that  article.  But,  from  the  deep 
and  natural  interest  felt  by  Americans  in 
the  literamre  of  England,  which  must  be 
a  part  of  theur  own  as  long  as  Shakspeare 
and  Milton  shall  live  in  Uieir  works,  the 
eflfect  has  hitherto  been  iuconmderable, 
and  not  greater  than  we  should  expect 
fh>m  the  mere  circumstance  of  so  dif^ 
fereot  and  remote  k»cal  skuations.  The 
nMMC  materiai  difference,  probably,  has 
"^        'n  the  proDundatiou  of  the  lan- 


guage, which,  however  important  in  our 
daily  conversation,  is  of  secondary  im- 
portance in  relation  to  the  literature  and 
Written  language  of  the  two  countries.  It 
has  often  been  observed  by  English  trav- 
ellers and  others,  that  the  pronunciation 
of  the  U.  States  is  fer  more  uuifbrm  than 
that  of  England ;  and  so  nearly  alike  eve- 
ry where,  mat  the  people  of  any  one  town 
or  district  are  perfecdy  understood  in  eve- 
ry other  part  of  the  country ;  which  is  not 
the  case  in  England.  When  considered 
moie  minutely,  however,  there  has  for  a 
long  time  existed  a  marked  distinction  be- 
tween the  pronundatkm  of  the  New  Eng- 
land and  ^uthem  States  In  New  Eng- 
land, it  is  supposed  by  some,  that  the  pro- 
nunciation has  been,  till  lately,  very  n^i^y 
what  it  was  in  the  mother  country  a  cen- 
tury ago  or  more.  However  this  mi^  be, 
it  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  New  Eng- 
land pronunciation  has  been  roaieri&lJy 
changed  since  the  publication  and  ^enend 
use  of  Walker's  Pronouncing  DictxHiary, 
or  virithin  the  last  thirty  yeara  That 
which  prevailed  before  that  period,  was 
probably  much  influenced  by  the  vety  gen- 
eral use  of  a  small  dictionary  puUished  by 
Penr.  (See  fforcester^s  edit,  of  Johnson, 
Pre/i,  p.  ix.)  The  pronunciation  of  some 
of  the  Southern  and  Middle  States  was 
more.aflected  by  the  instruction  of  Scot- 
tish and  Irish  teachers,  who,  besides  pe- 
culiarities of  pronunciation,  have  taught 
the  people  of  these  states  to  confound  the 
established  idiomatic  distinction  b^weeo 
9kaU  and  imB,  and  should  and  wovUL — ^The 
orihognqihu  of  our  language  has  imdergone 
no  materiai  chan^  in  the  U.  States,  it  lieing 
the  general  inohnation  to  follow  that  or 
the  best  English  writers  of  the  age.  But 
English  orthography  is  so  irregular,  par- 
ticularfy  in  the  use  of  the  vowels,  as  to 
make  our  hmguage  more  diflficult  than 
any  other  to  the  l&iropean  nations.  The 
signs  of  the  sounds  are  so  inconstant,  that 
they  do  not,  when  first  heard  by  a  foreign- 
er, impress  themselves  on  the  memory  so 
distinctiy  as  those  of  the  other  Etux^pean 
lan^ages  do,  and,  of  course,  cannot  be  so 
easily  remembered  for  future  use.  To 
this  embarrassment  is  to  be  added  our 
custom  of  throwing  back  the  accent  to  the 
first  ^llables  of  words,  which  neceasarilj 
produces  that  hurried  and  indistinct  utter- 
ance, of  which  foreigners  so  justly  com- 
plain. We  may  here  add  a  general  re- 
mark or  two  of  an  intelligent  German, 
Who  has  bad  much  experience  in  writing 
English,  and  whose  observations  are  god- 
firmod  by  our  own  expeiienoe,  so  lar  as 


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we  have  had  occaaioQ  to  conffider  this 
8iit)ject.  The  English  lan^age  is  pe- 
culiarly adapted  to  exact  discussions  of 
all  practical  matters  in  society,  and  to  po- 
litical inoah^es.  It  has  also  more  force 
than  the  European  languages  generally,  in 
descripdve  writing,  whether  prose  or  po- 
etry ;  and  in  poetry,  it  has  mors  power  in 
epic  than  in  lyric  composition ;  the  latter 
reauiring  that  more  metaphysical  chamcter 
of  language  which  is  found  in  the  highest 
degree,  probably,  in  the  German.  The 
scholars  of  Germany,  who  have  studied 
our  language  more  thoroughly  than  any 
other  nation  has  done,  remark,  that  Eng- 
lish k  much  less  abstract  than  their  own  ; 
and  that  we  admit  new  formations  of 
words  much  more  reluctantly  and  ca- 
priciously than  the  Grermans  do.  It  is 
also  to  be  observed,  that  we  adopt  new 
terms  fipom  the  French,  vritfa  more  &citity 
tfaim  from  the  German,  notwithstanding 
the  dose  affinitj^  of  the  latter  to  our  own 
language.  This  tendency  to  introduce 
Gaflicisms  led  doctor  Johnson  to  appre- 
hend, that,  unless  some  check  were  inter- 
posed, the  English  nation  would  one  day 
**  be  reduced  to  babble  a  dialect  of  France.'' 
(For  further  information  respectinff  the 
Englidi  language,  see  the  article  MgUh 
Saxom,  For  further  information  respect- 
ing English  history,  see  Great  Britain,'^ 

England,  Littlb,  beyond  Wales,  is  a 
pmtion  of  country  lyine  along  the  south- 
western coast  of  South  Wales,  remarkable 
far  being  inhabited  by  the  descendants 
of  a  colony  of  Flemings,  who  came  over 
from  Flanders  under  king  Henry  I. 

England,  New  ;  the  name  of  the  North- 
eastern Sates  of  the  North  American 
Union  ;  bounded  N.  by  Canada,  £.  by 
New  Brunswick  and  the  Atlantic,  S.  by 
the  Atlantic  and  Lon^  Island  sound,  and 
W.byNewYoric  This  division  comprises 
die  states  of  Maine,  Vermont,  New  Hamp- 
shire, Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island  and 
Connecticut  Lon.  66°  49^  to  73°  IS' W. ; 
lat  41°  to  48°  12^  N.  Population  in  1810, 
1,271,974;  in  1830, 1,659,793.  Foritspop- 
ulation,  according  to  the  census  of  1830. 
now  in  progress,  see  the  article  UniUa 
StdttB,  This  census  will  probably  give  a 
population  of  about  two  millions  in  New 
England,  of  whom  three  fourths  are 
fiumers.  The  remainder  are  engaged  in 
conunerce,  manufactures,  &c.  Some  of 
the  farmers  are,  of  course,  partlv  engaged 
in  commerce  also.  The  ftce  of  the  country 
is  generally  uneven,  and  agreeably  diversi- 
fi^.  A  part  of  it  is  mountainous.  The 
soil  is  various,  from  barren  sand  to  the 
richest  clays  and  loams.     It  is  genendly 

▼oil.  IV.  44 


better  fitted  for  grazing  than  tillage.  The 
tnost  important  production  is  grsss.  Bee^ 
mutton,  pork,  butter  and  cheese  are  abun- 
dant Indian  com,  rye,  wheat, barleyand 
oats  are  extensively  cultivated.  New  JEktf- 
knd  is  the  most  populous  part  of  the  U. 
States.  The  inhabitants  are  mostly  of 
English  descent  There  is  no  country  in 
the  worid  where  education  is  so  generally 
difiused  among  all  classes  of  people.  It 
is  the  most  manufacturing  part  of  North 
America.  (See,  among  other  articles. 
Ckitton  Manufacture,)  The  statement  of 
the  secretaiT  of  tne  treasury,  of  the 
commerce  of  the  U.  States  for  the  year 
ending  Sept  30, 1829,  gives  the  foUowing 
results: 

New  England  States,  |14,dl»^  l^M^TW 
Middle  Slates,  Ohio,  > 

DUtrictofColuinbia&^  550,667,191  29,958,789 
Michigan  Territory,     ) 

Southern  States  and     >  ^o  aaa  ioi  «i  cam.  nnm 

Florida, ^S9|443,181  31,645/K» 

574,492,527    72,358,671 

The  inhabitants  of  New  England  have 
several  peculiarities,  distinguishing  them 
from  the  inhabitants  of  the  other  U.  States, 
owing  to  their  descent  irom  the  Puritans^ 
and  other  causes.  In  the  other  states,  they 
are  familiarly  called  Ycsnkees  (q.  v.),  which 
name,  in  Europe,  is  given  to  the  citizens  of 
all  the  U.  States.  The  Notions  of  a  Trav- 
elling Bachelor,  by  Mr.  Cooper,  contains 
some  good  remarks  on  New  England. 
The  name  of  New  England  was  once 
official  Thus  a  charter  was  granted  to 
the  first  settlers  at  Salem,  by  the  name  of 
**  governor  and  company  of'^Massachusetts 
bay,  in  New  England."  The  country  was 
at  first  called  JVoii^  Virgima;  but  afler 
captain  Smith  had  surveyed  it,  aiul 
presented  the  map  to  Charles  I,  then 
prince  of  Wales,  he  gave  it  the  name  of 
JVeur  England^  Sebastian  Cabot  (q.  v.)  dis- 
covered the  coast  of  this  region,  and  Plym- 
outh, then  called  Mw  PlymtnMi,  in  Mas- 
sachusetts, wta  the  first  settiement  here. 
The  first  settlers  landed  Dec.  11 '(old  style), 
1620.  Before  landing,  they  signed  a 
solenm  covenant,  forming  themselves  into 
a  body  politic  for  the  purpose  of  making 
equal  laws  for  the  ffenerol  good.  They 
were  republicans  before  they  landed,  and 
have  virtually  remained  so  ever  since— a 
circumstance  always  to  be  considered  in 
comparing  the  American  revolution  with 
that  of  other  countries.  This  republican 
spirit  riiowed  itself  eariy  at  several  periods 
dbarios  II,  after  his  restoration,  sent  com-. 
miasionerB  to  New  England  ( in  1664)  to 
inquire  into  and  examine  the  state  of  the 


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NEW  ENGLAND— ENGRAVING. 


colonies  and  to  reform  the  administration 
pf  oSairs  there.  A  report  was  made  bv 
the  commissioners  about  1665,  which  will 
be  found  in  Hutchinson's  Collection  of 
State-Papers,  &c.,  p.  412,  &c.,  in  wliich 
they  give  an  account  of  the  state  of 
the  colonies,  and  are  particularly  severe 
in  their  animadversions  upon  the  colony 
of  Massachusetts.  Before  that  period,  tlie 
judicial  and  other  processes  issued  in  some 
of  the  colonies  of  New  England,  at  least  in 
Massachusetts,  had  been  m  tlie  name  or 
under  the  authority  of  the  colony,  and  not 
in  the  name  of  the  king.  The  commis- 
sioners remark  (p.  417),  that  **  the  colony 
of  die  Massachusetts  was  the  last  and  the 
hardlitst  to  use  his  majesty's  name  m  the 
forms  of  justice."*  They  also  added  (p. 
417),  that  they  **  visited  all  other  cok>nle8 
before  this,  hoping  that  the  submission 
and  condescension  of  the  other  colonies  to 
his  majesty's  desires  would  have  abated 
the  revactoriness  of  this  colony,  which 
they  much  feared."  **  They  (the  Massa- 
chusetts colony)  proclaimed  by  sound  of 
trumpet,  that  die  general  court  (of  tiie  col- 
ony) was  the  supremest  judicatory  in  the 
province;  that  the  commissioners  pre- 
tending to  hear  appeals  was  a  breach  of 
their  privileges  granted  to  them  by  the 
king's  royal  mther,  and  confirmed  to  tliem 
bv  his  majesty's  own  letter,  and  fhai  they 
skovld  nU  permit  tt."  (p.  418.)  "They  say 
that  king  Charles  the  First  gave  them 
power  to  make  laws,  and  to  execute  them, 
and  granted  them  a  charter  as  a  warrant 
against  himself  and  his  successois,  and 
that  so  long  as  they  pay  the  fifth  part  of 
all  gold  and  silver  ore,  which  they  shall 
get,  they  shall  be  free  to  use  the  privileges 
granted  them ;  and  (hty  are  twt  oUigeato 
the  king,  but  i^  cwUityy  (p.  420.)  They 
further  adde<f-That  ^  they  (the  Massa- 
chusetts colony)  did  solicit  Cromwell,  by 
one  Mr.  Winslow,  to  be  declared  9.  free 
state,  and  many  times  in  their  lawsstylmg 
themselves  <  this  state}  *  this  common- 
U)ealth,*  and  now  hdieve  themselioes  to  he  m." 
(p. 4200  They  close  by  remaricing,  "Their 
^^TAy  of  government  is  commomoealMike ; 
theur  way  of  worship  is  rude,  and  called 
Omgregational ;  they  are  zealous  in  it,  for 
they  pereecMte  all  other  forms."  (p.  422.J 
The  declaration  of  the  general  court  (or 
t{ie  colony)  of  their  rights  under  the  char- 
ts in  1661,  strongly  supports  the  views 
which  the  commissionerB  nve  of  the 
daims  of  Massachusetts.  (1  Hutch.  HuL 
^fass.  supplement,  voL  13,  p.  529.)  These 
dqcumenta  abui^iantly  prove  how  early 
•  8je  1  Hntdui.  HiH.  o/ Jftw.,  MS,  2»,  ao^. 


the  colony  aspired  to  substantial  indepen- 
dence, and  how  slowly  it  aDowed  tlie  in- 
terposition of  the  king  in  any  of  its  in- 
tenial  concerns,  and  how  jealous  it  was 
of  every  exercise  of  prerogative.  A  peo- 
ple so  alive  to  their  own  rights,  ana  so 
persevering  in  maintaining  them,  could  not 
tail  of  being  involved  in  disputes  with  tlie 
government  of  Great  Britam  from  a  veiy 
early  period  in  their  history.  Down  to  the 
annulling  of  .their  first  charter,  and  the 
erant  of  their  new  charter  by  William  and 
Mary  in  1692,  there  was  scarcely  any  har- 
mony between  the  ffovemment  in  Eng- 
land and  that  in  the  Massachusetts  colony. 
In  1643,  four  of  the  New  England  colo- 
nies, Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Plym- 
outh and  New  Haven,  on  accouiit  of  the 
dancers  6rom  the  Indians,  from  the  Dutch 
at  New  York,  and  from  the  French  in 
Canada  and  Acadia,  entered  into  a  league 
offensive  and  defensive.  By  the  artidee 
of  this  confederacy,  each  colony  was  to 
appoint  two  commissioners,  who  were 
to  assemble  alternately  iu  tlie  respective 
colonies,  and  were  empQwered  to  enact 
ordinances  of  general  concern;  and,  in 
case  of  invasion,  each  colony  was  bound 
to  furnish  a  ccitain  quota  of  men  and 
money.  (See  Hubbard's  lEsL  of  JVaa 
England;  Hist,  ofJSTew  En^and,  by  Han 
nah  Adams ;  Hutchinson's  IKsL  qf  Mas- 
sachuseits ;  Fiince's  .Veto  En^and  Chro- 
^i^^oiogy;  Tudor's  Letters  on  the  Eastern 
States ;  See  also  article  New  England.) 

£»GiiAviNo  is  the  ait  of  representing^ 
by  means  of  lines  and  poirts  produced  on 
a  metallic  sur&ce  by  cutting  or  corrosion* 
the  figures,  lights  and  shades  of  objects^  in 
order  to  muluply  them  by  means  of  print- 
ing. The  engraver  is  to  the  painter  what 
the  translator  is  to  the  author.  As  it  is 
impossible  to  ^ve  a  spirited  translation  of 
a  work  of  genius  without  a  poition  of  the 
author's  fire,  so  it  is  essential  to  a  good 
engraver  that  he  should  feel  and  under- 
stand the  character  of  his  orisinal,  and  be 
initiated  into  the  secrets  of  drawinr,  that 
his  copy  may  be  at  once  conrect  and  spir- 
ited. The  art  of  engraving  on  copper  was 
invented  in  Europe  in  the  first  half  of  the 
15th  century.  The  Chinese  seem  to  have 
been  acquamted  with  it  long  before.  The 
Dutch,  the  Italians  and  the  Germans 
compete  for  the  honor  of  its  invention  in 
Europe.  It  is  known  that  the  ait  was  ex- 
ercised by  the  Italian  Finiguerra  as  earhr 
as  1460.  The  inventors  of  it  were  the  gold- 
smiths, who  were  in  the  habit  of  muring 
devices  on  their  wares ;  and  these,  being 
often  executed  with  much  elegance,  ex- 
died  the  desire  to  multiply  copies  1^ 


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tFsnsfbnring  them  to  paper.  Engraving 
differs  from  printing  in  having  its  subjects 
eut  into  a  hard  suHaoe,  instil  of  being 
raised  above  it,  as  is  the  case  vnth  types 
and  wood  outs.  Many  metals  and  alloys 
have  been  employed  for  the  purpose  of 
engraving.  Tlie  most  common  is  copper, 
which  is  soft  enough  to  be  cut  when  cold, 
and  hard  enough  to  resist  the  action  of  the 
press. — ^We  shall  now  proceed  to  explain 
the  methods  of  executing  different  de- 
scriptions of  engmving.  The  graver,  an 
instrument  of  steel,  is  principafiy  used  in 
engraviuff  on  copper;  it  is  square  for 
cutting  of  broad  lines,  and  lozenge  for  the 
finest,  uid  must  be  tempered  to  3iat  exact 
state,  wliich  will  prevent  the  point  fix)m 
breaking  or  wearing  by  its  action  on  the 
metal  The  gnxctr  is  inserted  in  a  handle 
of  hard  wood,  resembling  a  pear  with  a 
longitudinal  slice  cut  off,  which  is  to  ena- 
ble the  artist  to  use  it  as  flat  on  the  plate  as 
his  fingers  and  thunA  will  permit  This 
instrument  is  used  for  removing  the  imper- 
fections discoverable  in  etchings,  and  ex- 
clusively in  engraving  writing.  In  working, 
this  instrument  is  held  in  the  palm  of  the 
hand,  and  pu^ed  forward  so  as  to  cut  out 
a  portion  of  the  copper.    The  fcraptr  is  a 

P,  triangular  fnece  of  steel,  tapering 
uafly£>m  the  handle  to  tiie  point; 
tlie  tliree  edges  produced  by  this  form, 
being  sharpened  on  the  oil-stone,  are  used 
for  scmping  off  the  roughness  occasioned 
by  the  graver,  and  erasing  erroneous 
lines.  The  hurmtiker  is  a  third  instru- 
ment of  steel,  hard,  round,  and  highly 
pohshed,  for  rubbing  out  punctures  or 
scmtches  in  the  copper.  The  oil-stone 
has  been  already  mentioned.  To  these 
may  be  added  ttie  needle,  or  dry  point, 
for  etching,  and  making  those  extremely 
fine  Mnes,  which  cannot  be  made  with  the 
graver.  It  is  held  in  the  fingers  in  the 
same  way  as  a  pen  or  pencQ.  Various 
kinds  of  varnish,  resin,  wax,  charcoal  and 
mineral  acids  are  also  employed  in  differ- 
ent ports  of  the  operation,  according  to 
the  subject,  and  the  style  of  en^ving 
which  is  adopted.  The  first  which  we 
shall  describe  is 

Xftne  Bngraniang,  To  trace  the  design 
intended  for  engraving  accurately  on  the 
plate,  it  is  usual  to  heat  the  latter  suf- 
ficiently to  melt  white  wax,  with  which  it 
must  be  covered  equally  and  thin,  and 
sufiered  to  cool ;  the  drawing  is  then 
copied  in  outlines,  with  a  black-lead  pencil, 
on  paper,  which  is  laid  with  the  pencilled 
side  upon  the  wax,  and  the  back  rubbed 
gently  with  the  burnisher,  which  will 
transfer  the  lead  to  the  wax.    The  design 


must  next  be  traced,  with  an  etching  nee- 
dle, through  the  wax  on  the  copper,  when, 
on  wiping  it  clean,  it  will  exhibit  all  the 
outlines  ready  for  the  graver.  The  table 
intended  for  engraving  on  should  be  per- 
fectly steady.  Great  care  is  necessaiy  to 
carry  the  hand  with  such  steadiness  and 
skill,  as  to  prevent  the  end  of  the  line 
fitMn  being  stronger  and  deeper  than  the 
commencement ;  and  sufficient  space 
must  be  left  between  the  lines  to  enable 
the  artist  to  make  those  strong^,  gradual- 
ly, which  require  it  The  roughness  or 
burr  occasioned  by  the  graver  must  be 
pemoved  by  the  scraper,  the  lines  filled  by 
the  oil-rubber,  and  the  siirfiice  of  the  cop- 
per cleansed,  in  order  that  the  progress 
of  the  worit  may  be  ascertained.  If  any 
accident  should  occur,  by  the  slipping  of 
the  graver  beyond  the  boundaiy  required, 
or  lines  are  found  to  be  placed  erroneous- 
ly, they  ore  to  be  effiiccd  by  the  burnisher, 
which  leaving  deep  indeutings,  these  must 
be  levelled  by  the  scraper,  rubbed  with  char- 
coal and  vrater,  and  finally  polished  lightly 
with  the  burnisher.  As  die  unintemifited 
Ught  of  the  day  causes  a  glare  upon  the  sur- 
fiioe  of  the  copper,  hurtiiil  and  dazzling  to 
the  eyes,  it  is  customary  to  engrave  beneath 
tlie  shade  of  silk  paper,  stretched  on  a 
square  frame^  which  is  placed  reclining 
towards  the  room,  near  the  sill  of  a  win« 
dow.  Such  are  the  directions  and  means 
to  be  employed  in  engraving  historical 
subjects:  indeed,  the  graver  is  equally 
necessary  for  the  remedying  of  imperfect 
tions  in  etching ;  to  which  must  be  added 
the  use  of  the  dry  point  in  both,  for  mak- 
ing the  fiuntest  shades  in  the  sky,  archi- 
tecture, drapery,  vrater,  &C.,  &c. 

St^pfilmf^*  The  second  mode  of  en- 
graving is  that  called  <lipp2f»w,  or  engrave 
ing  -in  dots.  This  resemblea  the  last  men^ 
tioned  method  in  its  processes,  except 
that,  mstead  of  lines,  it  is  finished  by  minute 
points  or  excavations  in  the  copper. 
These  punctures,  when  made  with  the 
diy  point,  are  circular:  when  made  with 
the  graver,  they  are  rhomboidal  or  trian- 
gular. The  variations  and  progressive 
magnitude  of  these  dots  give  the  whole 
emcx  to  stinpled  engraving.  This  style 
of  work  is  always  more  slow,  laborious^ 
and,  of  course,  more  expensive,  than  en- 
graving in  lines.  It  has,  however,  some 
advantages  in  the  softness  and  dehcacy  of 
its  lights  and  shades,  and  approaches 
nearer  to  the  effect  of  painting  than  the 
preceding  method.  A  more  expeditious 
way  of  multiplying  the  dots  has  been  con- 
trived in  the  nistniment  called  a  roulette, 
a  toothed  wheel,  fixed  to  a  handle,  which, 


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by  being  roDed  forcibly  along  the  copper, 
produces  a  row  of  indentations.  This 
metliod,  however,  is  less  manageable  than 
the  other,  and  generally  produces  a  stiff 
effect 

Engraoing  ofMez2otinto8  difien  entirely 
from  the  manner  above  described.  This 
method  of  producing  prints  which  resem- 
ble drawings  in  India-ink,  is  said  by  Eve- 
lyn, in  his  history  of  chalcography,  to 
have  been  discovered  by  prince  Rupert. 
Some  accounts  say  that  he  learned  tlie 
art  from  an  officer  named  Siegen  or  Si- 
chem,  in  die  service  of  Hesse-Cassel.  It 
wos,  some  years  past,  a  very  fiivorite  way 
of  engraving  portraits  and  historical  sub- 
iects ;  of  the  former,  the  large  heads  of 
Fiy  are  of  superior  excellence.  The  tools 
required  for  this  easy  and  rapid  mode  of 
proceeding  are,  the  grounding-tool,  tlie 
scraper  and  the  burnisher.  The  copper- 
plate should  be  prepared  as  if  intended  for 
the  graver,  and  laid  flat  upon  a  table,  with 
a  yirce  of  flannel  spread  under  it,  to  pre- 
vent the  plate  from  slipjnng ;  the  ground- 
ing-tool is  then  held  perpendicularly  on 
it,  and  rocked  with  moaerate  pressure 
backwards  and  forwards,  till  the  teeth  of 
the  tool  have  equally  and  re^^ularly  mark- 
ed the  copper  from  side  to  side ;  the  ope- 
ration is  afterwards  repeated  flrom  end  to 
end,  and  from  each  comer  to  the  oppo- 
site ;  but  it  is  necessary  to  observe,  that  the 
tool  must  never  be  permitted  to  cut  tvrice 
in  the  same  place;  by  this  means  the  sur- 
frce  is  converted  into  a  rough  chaos  of  in- 
tanections,  which,  if  covered  with  ink 
ond  printed,  would  present  a  perfectly 
black  impression  upon  the  paper.  This 
is  the  most  tedious  part  of  the  process. 
The  rest,  to  a  skilful  artist,  is  much  easier 
than  line  engraving  or  stippling.  It  con- 
■isti  in  pressing  down  or  rubbing  out  the 
roughness  of  the  plate,  bv  means  of  the 
burnisher  and  scraper,  to  the  extent  of  die 
intended  figure,  obliterating  the  ground  for 
lights,  and  leaving  it  for  ehades.  Where 
a  strong  light  is  required,  the  whole  ground 
is  erased.  For  a  medium  light,  it  is  mod- 
erately burnished,  or  partially  erased.  For 
the  deepest  shades,  the  ground  is  left  en- 
tire. Cnre  is  taken  to  preserve  tlie  insen- 
sible gradations  of  hght  and  shade,  upon 
which  the  eflfect  and  harmony  of  the  piece 
essentially  depend.  Engravmgin  mezzo- 
tinto  approaches  more  nearly  to  the  effect 
of  oil-paintings  than  any  other  species. 
It  is  well  calculated  for  the  representation 
of  obscure  pieces,  such  as  night  scenes, 
&c  The  principal  objection  to  the 
method  is,  that  the  plates  wear  out  speedi- 
ly under  the  pressy  and,  of  course,  yield 


a  comparatively  small  number  of  iib- 
pressions. 

Etching.  Of  engravings  which  re- 
quire the  aid  of  aquafortis,  the  principal  is 
etching.  He  that  would  excel  in  this 
branch  of  the  arts  must  be  thoroughly 
acquainted  vrith  drawing.  The  ground 
used  in  etching  is  a  combination  of  as- 
pbaltum,  gum  mastic  and  virgin  wax. 
The  proportions  of  the  ingredients  sliould 
be  obtained  by  experimem.  Tlie  copper- 
plate is  hammered  to  a  considerable  de- 
gree of  hardness,  polished  as  if  intended 
for  the  graver,  and  heated  over  a  charcoal 
^re;  the  ground  is  dien  rubbed  over  it, 
till  eveiy  part  is  thinly  and  equally  var- 
nished. The  varnish  is  then  blackened 
by  the  smoke  of  a  lamp,  that  the  operator 
may  see  the  ptomas  and  state  of  his 
work.  The  next  ^ject  is  to  transfer  the 
design  to  the  ground,  which  may  be  done 
by  drawing  it  on  thin  white  paper  with  a 
black-lead  pencil,  and  having  it  pasnod 
through  the  copper-plate  printer's  rolling 
press;  the  lead  will  be  conveyed  firmly 
to  the  ground,  which  vrill  appear  in  per- 
fect oudines  on  removing  the  paper. 
Another  method  is,  to  draw  the  deagn  re- 
versed from  the  original ;  rub  the  back  widi 
powdered  white  chalk,  and,  laying  it  on  the 
ground,  trace  the  lines  through  with  a  bhint 
point :  this  operation  requires  much  pre- 
caution,  or  tlie  point  will  cut  the  ground. 
Afier  the  plate  is  prepared,  the  operator, 
supporting  his  hand  on  a  ruler,  begins  his 
drawing,  taking  care  always  to  reach  the 
copper.  Every  line  must  be  kept  distinct, 
throughout  the  plate,  and  the  most  distant 
should  be  closer  and  more  regular  than 
those  in  t^e  fore  ground,  and  3ie  neater 
the  depth  of  shade,  the  broader  and  deep- 
er must  the  lines  be  made.  When  the 
etching  of  the  plate  is  completely  finished, 
the  edges  of  it  must  be  surrounded  fay  a 
high  Iwrder  of  wax,  so  well  secured  that 
water  will  not  penetrate  between  the  phite 
and  it  The  best  spirits  of  aquafoitis 
must  then  be  diluted  with  water,  and 
poured  upon  die  plate,  which  undeigoes 
a  chemical  action  wherever  it  has  been 
laid  bare  by  the  needle,  while  the  remain- 
der of  the  surface  is  d^ended  by  the  var- 
nish. The  bubbles  of  fixed  air,  and  the 
saturated  portions  of  metal,  are  carefuDy 
brushed  away  with  a  feather.  After  thie 
operator  thinks  the  acid  has  acted  long 
enough,  he  poure  it  off,  and  examines  the 
plate.  If  the  li^ht  ^ades  are  found  to  be 
sufiiciently  bit  in,  they  are  covered  with 
varnisli,  or  stopped  oul.  The  Inting  is  then 
continued  for  the  second  shades,  which 
are  next  stopped  eut:  and  so  on.    After 


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ENGRAVING. 


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the  prooesB  is  completed,  the  yaniiab  is 
inelted  aiid  wiped  off,  the  plate  cleaned 
with  oj]  of  tuipeatine,  and  any  deficien- 
cies in  the  lines  remedied  with  the  graver. 
As  the  acid  cannot  be  made  to  act  with 
pecfect  regularity,  etchings  will  always  be 
rough  in  comparison  with  line  engravings. 
This  veij  circmnstance,  however,  nts 
etching  lor  the  representiUion  of  coarse 
objects  in  nature,  such  as  trunks  of  trees, 
broken  ground,  &C.,  eeqpecially  on  a  laige 
scale.  In  landscape  engraving,  we  gene- 
rally find  a  mixture  of  methods,  the 
coarsor  parts  being  etched,  the  more  deh- 
cate  cut  with  the  graver.  Letters  and 
written  characters  are  nsKWtly  cut,  and  sel'^ 
dom  etched. 

(For  the  mode  of  engraving  in  aqualin- 
ta,  see  Aguaiinta). 

SUd  Engraovng  was  introduced  by  our 
celebrated  countiyman,  Mr.  Perkins.  The 
steel  plate  is  softened  by  being  deprived 
of  a  part  of  its  carbon ;  the  engravmg  is 
then  made,  and  the  plate  hardened  witt 
by  the  restoration  or  the  carbon.  The 
great  advantage  of  steel  plates  consists  in 
their  hardness,  by  which  tliey  are  made 
to  yield  an  indennite  number  of  impres- 
sions; whereas  a  copperplate  wears  out 
after  3  or  3000  impressions^  and  even 
much  sooner  if  the  engraving  be  fine. 
An  engraving  on  a  steel  plate  may  be 
transfeired,  in  relief^  to  a  softened  steel 
cytinder  bv  pressure ;  this  cylinder,  after 
being  hardened,  may  again  transfer  the 
design,  by  being  rolled  upon  a  fiiesh  steel 
plate :  thus  the  design  may  be  multipUed 
at  pleasure.  Steel  plates  may  also  be 
etched. 

Eangrtmng  onprecious  Sl&nes  is  aecom- 
]:^iahea  with  the  diamond  or  emery.  The 
diamond  possesses  the  peculiar  property 
of  resisting  eveiy  body  in  nature,  and, 
though  the  hardest  of  afi  ston«,  it  may  be 
cut  by  a  part  of  itself  and  polished  by  its 
own.  peiticles.  In  order  to  render  thid 
splenoid  substance  fit  to  perform  the  ope- 
rations of  the  tool,  two  rough  diamonds 
are  cemented  fast  to  the  ends  of  the  same 
number  of  sticks,  and  rubbed  together  till 
the  form  is  obtained  for  which  they  are 
intended ;  the  powder  thus  produced  is 
preserved,  and  used  for  polishing  them  in 
a  kind  of  mill  furnished  with  a  wheel  of 
iron ;  the  diamond  is  then  secured  in  a 
brazen  dish,  and  the  dust,  mixed  with  dive- 
oil,  applied ;  the  wheel  is  set  in  motion, 
and  the  firiction  occaaons  the  polished  sur- 
fiiee  so  necessary  to  give  their  lustre  due 
efSdcL  Other  stones,  as  rubies,  topazes 
and  sapphires,  are  cut  into  varioos  angles 
on  a  wheel  of  copper ;  and  the  material 


for  polishing  those  is  tripdi  diluted  with 
water.  A  leaden  wheel,  covered  with 
emery  mixed  with  water,  is  preferred  for 
the  cutting  of  emeralds,  amethysts,  hya^ 
cinths,  affotes,  granites,  &c.  &c.;  and  they 
are  polished  on  a  pewter  wheel  with  trip- 
oli :  opal,  lapis  lazuli,  &C.,  are  polisiied 
on  a  wheel  made  of  wood.  Contrary  to 
the. method  used  by  persons  who  turn 
metals,  in  which  the  substance  to  be 
wrouffht  is  fixed  in  the  lathe,  turned  by  it, 
mid  the  tool  held  to  tlie  substance,  the 
engitiver  of  the  crystal,  lapis  lazuli,  &c., 
fixes  his  tools  in  the  latlie,  and  holds  the 
precious  stone  to  them,  thus  forming  vases, 
or  any  other  shape,  by  interposing  dia- 
mond dust  mixed  with  oil,  or  emery  and 
water,  between  the  tool  and  tlie  sub- 
stance, as  often  as  it  is  dispersed  by  the 
rotai^  motion  of  the  former.  The  en- 
gravmg of  armorial  bearings,  single  fig- 
ures, devices,.  &c^  on  anv  of  the  above 
stones,  after  tliey  are  polished,  is  perform- 
ed through  the  means  of  a  small  iron 
wheel,  the  ends  of  the  axis  of  which  are 
received  within  two  pieces  of  iron,  in  a 
perpendicular  position,  that  may  be  clos- 
ed, or  otherwise,  as  the  operation  re- 
quires ;  tlie  tools  are  fixed  to  one  end  of 
the  axis,  and  screwed  firm  ;  the  stone  to 
be  engraved  is  then  held  to  the  tool,  the 
wheel  set  in  motion  by  the  foot,  and  the 
fiffure  gradually  formed.  The  material 
of  which  the  tools  are  made  is  generally 
iron,  and  sometimes  brass :  some  are  fiat, 
like  chisels,  gouges,  forules,  and  others 
have  circular  head&  After  the  work  is 
finished,  the  polishing  is  done  with  hair 
brushes  fixed  on  wheels  and  tripoli. 

Engramng  in  Wood  has  been  practised 
for  several  centuries,  and  originally  with 
tolerable  success ;  it  languished  for  a  great 
part  of  the  18th  century,  but  revived 
towards  the  close,  and  is  still  practised  in 
a  manner  which  reflects  credit  on  the 
iii^nuity  of  the  age.  The  lines,  instead 
oibeing  cut  into  the  substance,  are  raised, 
like  the  letters  of  printing  types,  and 
printed  in  the  same  mannen  The  wood 
used  for  this  purpose  is  box,  which  is 
preforred  for  the  hardness  end  closeness 
of  its  texture.  It  is  cut  across  the 
grain,  into  pieces  of  the  hei^t  of  com- 
mon types,  that  tlie  engravmg  may  bo 
made  upon  the  end  of  the  gnun,  for  the 
sake  of  strength  and  duhibility.  The  sur- 
iface  must  be  planed  smooth,  and  the 
design  drawn  on  it  with  a  black-lead 
pencil ;  the  mver  is  then  used,  the  finer 
excavations  from  v^ich  are  intended  for 
white  interstices  between  the  Uack  Hues 
{Koduoed  by  leaving  the  box  ttntouched. 


Digitized  by 


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5S3 


ENGRAVING. 


and  the  greatest  lights  are  made  by  cut- 
ting away  the  wc^  entirely,  of  the  in- 
tended form,  length  and  breadth ;  but  the 
deepest  shades  require  no  engraving. 
Much  of  the  beauty  of  tliis  kind  of 
engraving  depends  upon  the  printing.  A 
recent  improvement  has  been  made  in 
wood  en^ving,  which  is  this:  The 
blocks  are  prepared  as  before,  and 
then  covered  with  flake  white.  The 
drawing  is  then  made  on  this,  and  the 
wood  engraver  has  only  to  cut  out  the 
lights.  The  beautiful  wood  cuts,  executed 
by  Branston  and  Wright,  for  the  Tower 
menagerie  and  zoological  gardens  (after 
designs  by  Harvey),  recently  published  in 
London,  are  executed  in  this  manner. 
Wood  engravings  have  this  advantage, 
tliat  they  may  be  inserted  in  a  page  of 
common  types,  and  printed  without  sepa- 
rate expense.  They  are  very  durable, 
and  may  be  multiph^  by  tlie  process  of 
stereotyping. 

CoUnid  ringnmnga.  Colored  engrav- 
ings are  variously  executed.  The  most 
common  are  printed  in  black  outline,  and 
afterwards  painted  separately  in  water- 
colors.  Sometimes  a  surface  is  produced 
by  aquatinta,  or  stippling,  and  different 
colors  applied  in  printing  to  difierent  parts, 
care  being  taken  to  wipe  off  the  colors  in 
opposite  directions,  that  they  may  not  in- 
tenere  with  each  other.  But  the  most 
perfect  as  well  as  most  elaborate  produc- 
tions, are  those  which  are  first  printed  in 
colors,  and  afterwards  painted  by  hand.  ' 

Engravers^  modenu  Among  modem 
nations,  the  Italians,  French,  Germans,  arid 
English  have  rivalled  each  other  in  pro- 
ducing great  works  in  the  department  of 
engraving ;  but,  on  the  whole,  the  superior- 
ttv  seems  to  belong  to  the  Italians  and 
French,  both  for  the  number  and  the  value 
of  their  productions ;  and  more  particu- 
larly for  the  excellence  of  their  impres- 
sions. Many  great  works,  executed  in 
Germany,  are  sent  to  Paris  to  be  strack 
off.  In  Gemutny,  Frederic  von  Mtiller, 
whose  Madonna  di  S.  Sisto  is  still  a  jewel 
in  collections,  died  too  early  for  the  art 
C.  Rahl  distinguished  himself  by  his  en- 
graving of  Fra  Bartolomeo's  Presentation 
of  Christ  in  the  Temple,  and  of  Raphael's 
St  Margaret  K.  Hess,  Reindd,  Umer 
(lately  deceased),  Leybold,  Lutz  and  A 
Kessler  have  produced  fine  cabinet-pieces. 
John  in  Vienna,  Kobell  in  Munich,  Barth, 
Amsler  and  Rushweyh  in  Rome,  are  dis- 
tinguished in  diflferent  kntmches.  Chodo- 
wiecki,  Bause,  Bolt,  Clemens,  Gmelin,  and 
many  others,  have  contributed  much  to 
advance  the  art  of  engraving.    In  gene- 


ral, it  may  be  mentioned  as  a  favorable 
sign  of  the  times,  that  all  the  first  artist* 
in  Germany  apply  their  talents  to  great 
works,  whilst  the  taste  for  souvenir  en- 
gravings seems  rapidly  dying  away.  Those 
engravers  who  have  produced  the  best 
plates  for  scientific  Works,  so  very  impor- 
tant a  branch  of  the  art,  and  those  in  tbe 
department  of  geography,  would  deserve 
to  be  mentioned,  if  we  had  room.  France 
has  mauitained  her  early  fame,  in  the  arc 
of  engraving,  down  to  the  most  recent 
times.  The  enjiravings  of  A.  Boucher- 
Desno3^rs  (for  instance,  tbe  Madonna  di 
Foligno,  La  Vieree,  dite  La  Belle  Jardiniere, 
Francis  I,  and  Margaret  of  Navam,  Phie- 
dre  and  Hippolyte,  the  portrait  of  the 
Prince  de  Benevento)  are  acknowledged 
masterpieces.  Lignon's  St  Cmcilia  firom 
Domenichino,  his  Atala,  his  portrait  of 
Mademoiiselle  Mars ;  Massard's  St  Cecil- 
ia of  Raphael,  and  Apollo  with  the  Muses 
of  Giulio  Romano ;  Richomme's,  Dien^ 
Gumiet's,  Gudin's,  Audouin'S  plates,  no 
less  magnificently  than  carefully  executed ; 
Jazet'S  large  pieces  in  aquatinta  (for  in- 
stance, from  tne  paintings  of  Vemet)— ^ 
manifest  how  rich  France  is  in  great  en- 
gravers. Neither  ought  we  to  fi>rget  the 
magnificent  Hterary  works,  almost  con- 
stantly published  in  France,  which  owe 
their  ornaments  to  the  drill  of  French  en- 
gravers. In  the  most  recent  productions 
of  tbe  French  engravers,  an  imitation  of 
the  school  of  Mordien  is  observable ;  whilst 
some  young  Italian  and  German  artists 
have  aimed  at  something  higher  than  ev^i 
Moi^hen's  productions.  Since  the  art  of 
painting  has  ceased  to  produce  many 
works  worthy  of  multiphcation  by  the 
burin  of  the  first  engravers,  these  have 
occupied  themselves  chiefly  vrith  ancient 
masterpieces,  and  engraving  has  taken  a 
higher  station  among  the  fine  arts.  Morg- 
hen,  the  pupil  of  Vc^pato,  and  those  wbo 
have  followed  him,  have  produced  works 
before  unequalled.  The  Milanese  school 
of  engravers,  in  particular,  has  reached  a 
degree  of  perfection,  through  Anderloni 
and  Longhi,  which  no  other  country  can 
probably  equal.  Longhi*s  Sposalizio  is  as 
yet  (he  greatest  production  in  the  art  of 
enpsving;     Toschi,  of  Parma,  has  ae- 

Suired  immortality  by  his  Entrance  of 
lenry  IV  into  Paris  (fix)m  Gerard),  in  1896;. 
Schiavone,  by  his  Ascension  of  the  Holt 
Virgin  (fix>m  the  pointing  of  Titian),  which 
may  be  called  perfect,  in  re|;ard  to  its 
fHcture-like  effect  Bettelini,  Bonato^ 
Gandolfll,  Garavaglia,  Fontana  Rosaspi- 
na,  Benoglio,  Giberti,  Primerini,  Pc^mrali, 
PavoQ  (by  biith  a  Spaniard,  howeverjb 


Digitized  by 


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ENGRAVING— ENHARMONIC. 


523 


Raintldi  and  Rampoldl  have  produced 
beautifully  finished  engFavings ;  and  Luigi 
Rossini  and  Pinelli  have  etched  scenes 
fuH  of  Ufe.  Splendid  works,  in  which 
typography  and  chalcography  unite  their 
attractions,  have  appeared  at  Florence, 
Venice,  Rome  and  Milan.  But  England 
18  richer  in  such  worics,  as  the  &eeneriea 
there  form  a  peculiar  and  very  important 
branch  of  the  productions  of  the  ait 
Some  of  these  worics,  however,  exhibit  an 
exaggerated  delicacy,  bordering  on  afiec* 
tation  ;  while  others  neglect  details,  and 
betray  too  much  efibrt  for  effect  But  the 
productions  of  Earlom,  Pether,  Dixon, 
Green,  &c.,  must  not  be  confounded  with 
the  works  just  referred  to.  The  plates  of 
Raphael's  cartoons,  in  Hampton  court, 
on  which  Thomas  Holloway  and  Webber 
have  been  engaged,  are  praised  as  the 
highest  specimens  of  the  art  .  In  these 
engravings,  the  masterlv  etching,  which 
often  permits  them  to  allow  the  etchin^p 
themselves  to  remain,  is  worthy  of  admi- 
ration. Smith,  Middiman,  Byrne,  James 
Mason,  James  and  Charks  Heath,  William 
WooUet,  William  Sharp,  John  Burnet, 
and  John  Browne  are  known  to  all  collec- 
toiB.  Their  works  are,  comparatively, 
seldom  seen  on  the  European  continent, 
because  of  their  hieh  prices.  What  La- 
sinio  is  for  Italy,  Moses  aims  to  be  fi>r 
England,  by  bis  delicate  sketches:  among 
his  other  productions  are  his  imitations  of 
Retsch's  illustrations  of  Gothe's  Faust 
But  his  copies  of  foreign  maatersare  oHen 
deficient  in  correctness.  C.  RoUes  and 
£.  Finden  also  deserve  mention  among 
distinguished  English  engravers.  The 
neatness,  so  much  esteem^  in  England, 
has  been  promoted  by  the  new  art  of  M- 
erofrraphyf  which  has  not  yet  been  appUed 
to  Uie  execution  of  great  works ;  whilst,  in 
France  and  Germany,  lithography,  an  in- 
v^iuon  of  the  latter  country,  has  been 
preferred.  With  the  Dutch,  the  burin  is, 
at  present,  not  veiy  successful,  if  we  com- 
pare th^  present  artists  to  the  former 
school  of  Pontius  and  Edelinck.  But  for 
picturesque  etchings  and  productions  by 
the  needle,  tlie  skill  formerly  displayed 
has  been  preserved  by  Troostwyk,  Van  Os, 
Overbeck,  Jansen,  Chalon,  and  others. 
For  more  highly  finished  productions,  in 
which  the  bunn  and  needle  must  unite,  in 
^er  to  produce  a  tone,  as  in  the  engra- 
Tings  ai  Rembrendt's  pictures,  Claessens 
and  De  Frey  are  acknowledged  mastero. 
What  Russia,  Denmark  and  the  Nether- 
lands have  produced  in  this  branch,  is  not 
unworthy  of  notice.  The  engravings  of 
Switzerland,  mostly  in  Aberlrs  manner, 


form  a  class  by  themselves.  In  the  U. 
States,  engraving  has  been  cultivated  with 
more  success  tlum  any  other  department 
of  the  fine  arts,  though  it  cannot  be  ex- 
pected that  a  country  so  young,  and  so  dis- 
tant fifom  the  numerous  pnxluctions  of 
former  ages,  should  rival  the  great  works 
of  the  art  in  Europe.  But  small  engra- 
vings, particularly  on  steel,  for  souvenirs, 
have  been  produced,  which  may  bear 
comparison  with  European  productions 
of  the  kind.  Among  American  engrav- 
ers, Longacre,  Kelly,  Durandt,  Danforth 
(now  in  London),  Cheney.  Galkuidet, 
Ellis,  Hatch,  and  others,  well  deserve  to 
be  en{;aged  on  subjects  of  more  perma- 
nent mterest  than  souvenir  engravings. 
Of  the  European  artists  who  have  been 
most  distinguished  in  wood  engraving,  we 
would  mention  the  namea  of  the  Sueurs, 
Jackson,  Moretti,  Candssa,  Ro^r,  Caron, 
Papillon,  Beugnet,  Dugoure.  Anoong  the 
most  famous  of  the  living  artists,  in  this 
line,  in  England,  are  Thompson,  Brans- 
ton,  Wright,  Bonner,  Slader,  Sears,  Nes- 
bit,  Hughes.  In  the  U.  States,  Anderson, 
Adams,  Mason,  Fairchild,  Hartwell,  and 
others,  are  distinguished.  Afier  the  art 
of  engraving  in  mezzotinto  was  intro- 
duced into  England,  by  prince  Rupert,  it 
was  carried  to  much  perfection  there. 
John  Smith,  who  lived  towards  the  end 
of  the  17th  century,  has  lefl  more  than 
500  pieces  in  this  s^le.  He  and  George 
White  formed  a  new  epoch  in  the  art, 
which  the  latter  particularly  improved,  by 
first  etching  the  plates,  whereby  they  ac- 
quu^  more  spirit  Of  late  years,  many 
artists  in  England  have  devoted  themselves 
to  this  branch :  among  these  are  McAr- 
dell,  Houston,  Earlom,  Pether,  Green, 
Watson,  Diclunson,  Dixon,  Hudson,  J. 
Smith,  &C.  (For  a  list  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished engravers,  from  the  earliest 
times,  see  Elmes,  Dictionary  qf  the  Fbie 
Art8^  article  Engraniing,) 

ENORossizfo,  in  law,  denotes  the  wri- 
ting a  deed  over  fiiir,  and  m  proper,  legible 
cbaracten;  also,  the  getting  into  one's 
possession,  or  buying  up  laige  Quantities 
of  com,  or  other  provisions,  witn  the  in- 
tention of  selling  them  again. 

EirHAHMoiric ;  the  epithet  given,  by  the 
ancient  Greek8,to  that  of  their  mree  genera, 
which  consisted  of  quarter  tones  and  mar 
ior  thirds.  They,  however,  had  original- 
ly another  kind  of  enharmonic,  more  sim- 
ple, and  easier  of  execution  than  this,  and 
upon  which  the  quarter  tones  or  dieses 
were  considered,  by  the  theorists  of  the 
old  school,  as  innovations  too  refined  and 
artificial 


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634 


ENNEPER-ENTAIL. 


EirztBPER  or  Ehfxr  Road  (in  German, 
Enneptr  Straase)  extends  about  9  miJes  from 
Hagen  to  Gevenbei^,  in  the  Prussian  pro- 
vince of  Westphalia  Jformeriy  the  county 
of  Mark),  along  the  river  Enneper or  Em- 
per,tlie  lianks  of  which  are  oompletely  oc- 
cupied with  water-works.  All  sorts  of  iron- 
work are  manufactured  here.  It  is  one 
•f  the  most  industrious  poats  of  Germany, 
and  may  be  comparea  to  Sheffield  or 
Birmingham,  in  England.  Iron  and  steel 
manufiictures  are  the  chief.  Sythesand 
blades  for  cutting  straw  are  here  made 
annlkdly  to  the  number  of  30,000  doz- 
ens. 

Enitius,  Quintus;  a  celebrated  Latin 
poet  of  the  eaiiier  times  of  the  republic, 
bom  at  Rudise,  in  Calabria,  239  R  C. 
Gato  the  Censor  became  acquainted  with 
him  in  Sardinia,  was  his  pupil,  and 
brought  him  to  Rome,  where  he  soon 
gain^  the  friendship  of  the  most  distin- 
guished men  (Scipio  Africanus  the  Elder 
and  others),  and  instructed  the  young  men 
of  rank  in  Greek.  With  an  extensive 
knowledge  of  the  Greek  language  and 
literature,  he  united  a  thoiBugli  acquaint- 
ance with  the  Osoan  and  LiSin  tongues, 
and  was  thereby  enabled  to  exert  a  great 
influence  on  tlie  last  The  rough  and 
unpolished  s^le,  which  is  to  be  attributed 
to  the  time  m  which  he  lived,  was  more 
than  compensated  by  the  enervy  of  his 
expression  and  the  nie  of  his  lanffuage. 
Quintilian  extols  him  highly,  and  virffil 
shows  how  much  he  esteemed  hitn  by 
introducing  whole  verses  fiom  his  poems 
into  hi»  own  works.  He  attempted  every 
species  of  poetry,  sometimes  more,  some- 
times less,  after  the  Greek  manner.  He 
wrote  an  epic,  ^  Scipio,?  in  hexameters ; 
Roman  annals,  from  the  most  ancient 
timee  to  \m  own;  tragedies  and  come- 
dies, of  which  we  have  some  fngments ; 
satires  and  epigrams ;  and  translations. 
He  was  presented  with  the  dtizenship  for 
his  services  to  the  Latin  langmige  and 
poetry,  of  which  the  Romans  regaided 
nim  as  the  &ther.  The  firagments  of  his 
works  have  been  collected  1^  Heaselius 
(Amsterdam,  1707,  4to.). 

Enoch;  one  of  the  patriarchs,  who 
lived  before  the  deluge,  lie  became  the 
father  of  Methuselali  at  the  ase  of  65 
years;  and,  at  the  age  of  365  yeam, 
«♦  God  took  him."  The  wonis  quoted  are 
generally  undeisiood  te  mean  that  Enoch 
did  not  die  a  natumi  death,  but  was  re- 
moved as  Elijah  wask  Paul  {HA*  xi.)  is 
of  the  same  opinion. 

Ufwc*,  tte  ProphK^  Sf*  ^  "^  tpocry* 
phal  book,  ascribed  to  Enoch,  by  a  mis- 


understanding  of  a  passage  in  the  Epistle 
of  Jude,  V.  14.  Several  fathers  of  tbe 
church  have  testified  their  respect  for  it, 
but  the  Catholic  church  never  has  adopted 
it  as  canonical  The  Abyssinians  are  said 
to  receive  it  into  tbe  canon.  It  was  for  a 
long  time  lost,  but  Joseiih  Scalifler  dis- 
covered a  part  of  it  scaliger,  VoesiuB 
and  4>ther9  attribute  it  to  a  Jew  who  lived 
between  the  Babylonian  captivity  and 
Christ^s  birth.  St  Augustine,  Tertulfian 
and  Origen  quote  it 

Enos,  the  son  €^  Seth  and  father  of 
Caiaan ;  one  of  the  patriarcbi,  who  lived  to 
the  ase  of  905  years.  This  family  pre- 
served the  worship  of  God,  whilst  that  of 
Cain  was  plunged  in  all  kinds  of  impiety. 

Ensemble  (FVenchj  the  whole)  is  used 
in  the  fine  arts  to  denote  the  seneral  effect 
of  a  whole  woric,  without  reterence  to  tbe 
parts*  Thus  we  speak  of  the  enwoMe 
of  a  picture,  when  we  consider  the  eflfect 
of  the  whole  representation  on  the  mind 
of  the  spectator.  A  thing  may  be  excd- 
lent  in  its  parts,  as,  for  instance,  a  corned j, 
if  the  different  characters  are  well  drawn ; 
yet  it  may^  be  deficient  in  its  cnsemUc, 
that  is,  as  a  whole.  Rousseau  uses  this 
word,  in  the  same  meaning,  in  music ;  bat, 
at  present,  ensemble  is  used  for  a  composi- 
tion of  several  voices,  in  which  the  chief 
voices  are  indepmdent  of  each  other,  as 
the  quintette  ana  finales  in  operas  and  ora- 
torios. 

Ensign  (from  the  Latin  wgigruj  stand- 
ard). Ensign  heater^  commonly  called 
enngn,  is  the  lowest  commissioned  officer 
in  the  English  army,  and  that  of  the  U. 
States.  In  the  French  army,  under  Na^ 
poleon^  the  oldest  aiMi  most  distinguished 
seigeants  bore  th»  colors.  Napoleon  op* 
dered  that  those  serseants  who  could  not 
write,  and  who  had  distinguished  them- 
selves^ should  be  prefoired,  ^  because  tliey 
could  not  be  prouerly  promoted  forther, 
and  yet  deserved  some  distinction  on 
account  of  their  braveiy."  (See  Lot 
Gsses'  Memorial,) — In  naval  language, 
eneign  is  a  large  standard  or  banner, 
hoisted  on  a  long  pole,  erected  over  the 
poop,  and  called  tne  ensign^taff.  It  is 
more  commonly  called  Jlag.  (q.  v.) 

Entablatuek.  The  horizontal,  contin- 
uous work,  which  rests  upon  a  row  of  col- 
umns. (See  .^rcMiecfure,  vol.  i.,  pc  338^ 
right  column.) 

Entail,  or  Taii.  (from  etdmUer,  French, 
to  mortise  or  cut  into  a  piece  of  wood,  so 
as  to  fit  another  piece  into  it,  and  make  a 
joint),  is,  is  law,  an  estate  cut  or  carred 
out  of  the  fees^,  so  that  tbe  ramaining . 
osiatss,tfaat  is^the  remainder  dr  revenioii| 


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ENTAIL— ENTOMOLOGY. 


585 


together  with  the  estate  tail,  or  all  the 
estates  tail,  will  constitute  the  entail  fee. 
It  is,  accordingly,  always  a  lesser  estate 
than  a  fee  simple.    (See  EtkUe,^ 

Ei«T£RiTi8  (from  hn^v,  an  mtestine]; 
inflammation  of  the  intestines.  It  is 
known  by  the  presence  of  fever,  fixed 
pain  in  the  abaomen,  costiveness,  and 
vomiting.  The  causes  are  acrid  sub- 
stances, indurated  fieces,  long-continued 
and  obstinate  costiveness,  spasmodic  colic, 
and  a  strangulation  of  any  part  of  the  in- 
testinal canal;  but  another  very  general 
cause  is  the  application  of  cold  to  the 
lower  extremities,  or  to  the  belly  itself.  It 
is  a  disease  which  is  most  apt  to  occur  at 
an  advanced  period  of  life,  and  is  very 
liable  to  a  relapse.  It  comes  on  with  an 
acute  pain,  extending,  in  general,  over  the 
whole  of  the  abdomen,  but  more  especial- 
ly round  the  navel,  acoompeniea  with 
eructations,  sickness  at  the  stomach,  a 
vomiting  of  bilious  matter,  obstinate  cos- 
tiveness, thirst,  heat,  great  anxiety,  and  a 
quick  and  hard,  small  pulse.  After  a 
short  time,  tiie  pain  becomes  more  severe, 
the  bowels  seem  drawn  together  by  a  kind 
of  spasm,  the  whole  region  of  the  abdo- 
men is  highly  painful  to  the  touch,  and 
seems  drawn  together  in  lumpy  contrac- 
tions ;  invincible  costiveness  prevails,  and 
the  urine  is  voided  with  great  difficulty 
and  pain.  The  inflammation,  continuing 
to  proceed  veith  violence,  terminates  at 
last  in  gangrene;  or,  abating  gradually, 
it  goes  off  by  resolution.  Enteritis  is 
olways  attended  with  considerable  danger, 
as  it  often  terminates  in  gangrene,  in  the 
space  of  a  few  hours  fix)m  its  commence- 
ment The  treatment  must  be  begun  by 
taking  blood  finely  fix>m  the  ann,  as  far  as 
the  strength  of  the  patient  will  allow ;  but, 
the  disease  occurring  more  ft:equent]y  in 
persons  ratiier  advanced  in  years,  and  of  a 
constitution  somewhat  impaired,  it  be- 
comes more  important  to  limit  this  evacu- 
ation, and  rely,  in  a  great  measure,  on  the 
efiects  of  a  number  of  leeches,  applied  to 
the  abdomen.  Another  very  userul  step 
is  to  put  the  patient  into  a  hot  bath,  which 
may  presentiv  induce  faintness ;  or,  where 
this  cannot  be  procured,  fomenting  the 
abdomen  assiduously.  When  the  symp- 
toms are  thus  materially  relieved,  an  am- 
ple blister  should  be  applied.  It  becomes, 
also,  of  the  first  importance  to  clear  out 
the  bowels.  After  the  disease  is  removed, 
care  should  be  taken  to  guard  against  ac- 
cumulation of  fteces,  exposure  to  cold,  or 
any  thing  else  likely  to  occasion  a  relapse. 

EzfToai OLOOT  (from  tvnfM^  insects,  and 
>^,  doctrine)  is  that  bnmoh  of  zoology 


which  treats  of  the  stnicture,  habits  and 
consequent  arrangement  of  the  third  class 
of  articulated  animals  called  inseda  or  in- 
sects, which  may  be  briefly  cluiracterized 
as  articulated  animals,  furnished  with  ar- 
ticulated feet  and  a  dorsal  vessel  or  rudi- 
mental  vestige  of  a  heart,  respiring  by 
means  of  two  principal  parallel  tracheee, 
and  provided  with  two  movable  antennie 
and  a  distinct  head.  The  observation  of 
this  numerous,  diversified  and  interesting 
class  of  beings,  and,  consequentiy,  the  or- 
igin'of  entomological  science,  must  neces- 
sarily have  been  coeval  with  the  creation 
of  man.  Without,  however,  insistinff  up- 
on this,  or  referring  to  the  sacred  volume 
in  proof  thereof,  we  shall  content  our- 
selves with  dating  it  in  the  80th  Olympi- 
ad, or  five  hundred  years  before  Chnst, 
as,  according  to  Pliny,  it  was  about  that 
period  when  Hippocrates  wrote  upon  in- 
sects. Aristotle  [ngpt  mv  ixm  xoptuv  nau  iv 
rofiwv)  describes  them  as  consisting  of 
three  paits— head,,  trunk  and  abdomen; 
he  then  speaks  of  what  he  calls  tribes  of 
insects,  dividing  them,  fit>m  their  mode  of 
progresmon,  into  those  that  walk  and  those 
that  fly,  noticing  and  commenting  on  their 
wings,  proboscis,  antenns  and  feet,  care- 
fiiUy  observing  the  latter,  and  exhibiting 
in  this,  as  in  every  other  department  of 
zoology,  that  accuracy  which  so  eminent- 
ly distineuished  the  philosophical  precep- 
tor of  Alexander  the  Great  Pliny  is  the 
next  author  of  any  note  whose  attention 
seems  to  have  been  directed  to  the  study 
in  question,  fer,  in  his  11th  book,  he  speaks 
of  various  be^  wasps,  &e.  From  this 
period,  down  to  1519,  when  the  work  of 
Albertus  Magnus  upon  insects  was  pub- 
lished, the  science  made  a  silent  but  cer- 
tain proeress.  Its  advance  in  the  suc- 
ceeding 90  years  is  visible  in  the  efficient 
attempt  at  a  better  system  of  classification 
than  had  hitherto  prevailed,  in  the  fh 
Animcmiibus  Subterr€meis  of  the  last  men- 
tioned author,  in  1549.  He  there  divides 
insects  into  three  classes — those  that  walk, 
those  that  fly,  and  those  that  swim,  de- 
scribinff  several  species  of  each  class.  In 
1552,  Wotton  published  his  De  Differm- 
His  AnimaUumy  and  wa&  followed  by  nu- 
merous writers  on  the  subject  of  insects, 
whose  books  possessed  more  or  less  merit : 
some  of  them  were  illustrated  with  figures^ 
and  all  tended  to  render  the  study  more 
worthy  of  the  name  of  a  science.  To  par- 
ticularize them  within  the  limited  bounds 
of  an  article  of  this  nature,  is  impossible. 
We  must,  therefore,  be  permitted  to  pass 
them  over  with  this  general  notice,  the 
folio  of  the  learned  and  liberal  Aldrovan* 


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ENTOMOLOGY. 


dus,  1602,  and  Mouffet's  hstdorum  Tketh 
irum,  excepted,  which  richly  merit  distinc- 
tioD.  The£rpertmeYito,&c.of  Redi,1671, 
deserves  especial  atleiition  for  its  triumph- 
ant refutauon  of  the  then  popular  error 
of  equivocal  generation — an  error  whose 
origin  is  buried  in  the  remotest  antiquity, 
upheld  bj^r  the  ancient  philosophers,  and 
not  even  yet  eradicated  from  the  minds  of 
the  common  people.  Redi  demonstrated 
the  fact,  that  eveiy  living  animal  is  derived 
from  an  egg,  deposited  by  a  parent  every 
way  similar  to  itself.  Previous  to  this^  in 
1G69,  the  neat  work  of  Svmmmerdam — 
Histiria  Suedorum  GtneralU — was  given 
to  the  public,  but  was  utterly  neglected 
until  the  death  of  the  author,  in  1680, 
when  it  was  instantly  discovered  to  be  of 
such  value  as  to  demand  a  translation. 
No  bookseller  could  be  found  who  would 
risk  the  expense  of  printing  the  Biblia 
MBtur€tf  a  second  work  from  the  same 
pen,  until  it  accidentally  fell  into  the  pos- 
session of  the  learned  Boerhaave,  who 
published  it,  to^tlier  with  the  life  of 
Swammerdam,  w  1738.  In  that  book, 
which  is  still  considered  as  one  of  the 
most  valuable  we  possess  on  the  anatomy 
of  insects,  he  diviaes  them  into  the  four 
following  classes: — 1.  those  whose  char- 
acters are  constant,  undergoing  no  change 
whatever,  and  which  preserve  for  life  the 
form  in  which  they  leave  the  ovum ;  spi- 
ders^ &c :  2.  those  which,  on  their  liber- 
ation from  the  ovum,  have  the  appearance 
of  an  insect  without  wines,  but  otherwise 
completely  formed,  and  that  pass  into  the 
state  of  a  nymph  or  chrysalis,  from  which 
they  issue  provided  wi£  wings,  and  fitted 
for  continuing  the  species;  dragon-flies, 
&c:  3.  those  which,  having  existed  in 
the  ovum  in  a  disguised  form,  leave  it  un- 
der the  appearance  of  an  insect  (caterpil- 
lar^ which  feeds  and  increases  in  size, 
while  the  various  parts  of  the  new  ani- 
mal, into  which  it  is  to  be  converted,  are 
forming  under  its  skin,  and  finally  be- 
comes a  nymph;  moths,  butterflies,  &c.: 
4.  tlioee  which,  having  arrived  at  maturi- 
ty, do  not  divest  themselves  of  their  skin, 
but  pass  into  the  chrysalis  state  under  it, 
remaining  there  till  the  metamorphosis  is 
completely  effected,  when,  quitunf  both 
skins  at  once,  they  come  forth  in  their  fi- 
nal and  perfect  form ;  ichneumons,  &lc, — 
Malpighi  and  Vallisnieri  also  enriched  the 
science  with  the  results  of  their  observa- 
tions, in  common  with  others  of  less  note. 
The  Mimoires.  &<x,  of  Perrault  (Paris, 
1671),  Lister's  book  on  spiders,  the  Hirifh- 
fia  MmaUum  Anglut,  &e.  (1678),  and 
those  of  Femnd,  MoUerus  and  Berelio^ 


all  tended  to  the  same  result  Li  166S,  a 
Latin  edition  of  the  works  of  Goedait  was 
published  by  doctor  Lister,  just  named,  a 
teamed  entomologist  of  that  period,,  aod 
physician  to  queen  Anne,  who  gave  a  new 
arrangement  to  the  matorials  collected  by 
his  industrious  though  not  very  acute  au- 
thor, who  -was  more  of  a  collector  and 
painter  of  insects  than  a  scientific  observ- 
er. In  that  work,  Lister  establishes  10 
classes  of  insects : — 1.  moths  with  erect 
wings,  or  diurnal  butterflies;  2.  motha 
with  horizontal  wings,  the  perfect  insect 
of  the  caterpillar,  called  the  geomebra  by 
Goedart :  3.  moths  with  deflected  win^; 
4.  libellule ;  5.  bees ;  6.  beetles ;  7.  grsaa- 
hoppers;  8.  dipterous  flies;  9.  millepedes; 
and,  10.  spiders.  There  is  nothing,  how- 
ever, in  tliis  mode  of  division,  whid^  mer- 
its any  peculiar  f^raise,  or  that  should  pre- 
vent us  from  passing  iminediatelv  to  the 
microscopical  discoveries  of  the  celebrated 
Leuwenhoeck,  from  whose  inventive  ge- 
nius and  patient  observations  the  scienoe 
received  such  essential  benefit,  not  mora 
by  what  he  himself  discovered,  than  by 
the  foundation  he  kid  for  that  ^stem  df 
close  and  minute  observation  which  alone 
ieads  to  truth.  Our  limits  will  onjy  per- 
mit us  to  defflgnate  Blankaart  and  Ueyer- 
us,  as  occupying  a  similar  rank  with  Goe- 
dart. Kay,  however,  deserves  more  par- 
ticular notice.  His  descriptions  are  veiy 
exact  and  detailed,  and  his  various  worit% 
Swumsis  Mdhodka  »4iuiiiaZiiMn,  &>c.  (Lond, 
1683],  &fnopsis  MOhodica  Ainvm  et  Piaci- 
vm  (Lend.,  1713),  and  the  HisUiria  £wec- 
iorum  (Lond.,  1710),  sufficiently  demoo- 
strate  his  claim  to  the  title  of  tlie  first  true 
systematist  His  was  the  glory  of  serving 
as  a  zooloncal  guide  to  tlie  illustrious 
Swedish  rerermer,  of  whom  we  shall  soon 
have  to  speaks  Ray  divides  insects  into 
two  great  classes — those  which  undergo 
a  metamoipho^s  after  having  been  pro- 
duced, and  those  which  do  not.  He 
again  subdivides  each  of  these  classes  in- 
to orders,  characterized  by  the  feet,  or  by 
tlieir  absence;  by  their  habitaUons;  faj 
the  size  or  conformation  of  the  various 

nof  the  body;  by  their  larvie,  &c 
lis  arrangement  were  included  cer- 
tain tribes  of  vermes,  subsequendy  sepa- 
rated by  Lannieus.  The  voluminous  pro* 
ductions,  upon  this  subject,  of  the  inde- 
fiuigable  Reaumur,  who  directed  his  re- ' 
searches  into  every  department  of  science^ 
ap|)ea]:ed  in  Paris  in  6  vols.,  4to.,  1734— 
1742.  His  Mhnoirta  pour  servir  h  TJOu- 
lotre  dea  haecUs — for  such  is  its  modest 
title — ^Lb  an  admirable  work,  bodi  with  re- 
spect to  the  number  and  value  of  the  ob» 


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ENTOMOLOGY. 


Bervations  it  contains.  It  is  to  be  lament- 
ed tbat  the  7th  volume,  which  is  completed, 
remains  unpublished.  The  intended  re- 
maining ones  were  not  commenced  when 
R^umur  died,  in  1757. — ^But  a  greater 
name  th^  any  we  hanre  yet  mentioned  is 
that  of  the  illustrious  reformer  of  the  nom- 
enclature of  the  natural  sciences.  Not- 
withstanding the  labors  of  so  many  in- 
genious, learned  and  acute  observers  of 
nature,  the  history  of  animals,  and  that  of 
insects  in  particular,  remained  in  a  con- 
fused state  until  the  illustrious  Linnieus 
reduced  the  chaotic  pile  to  order.  Direct- 
ing all  the  energies  of  his  clear  and  com- 
prehensive mind  to  the  subject,  he  pro- 
duced, in  his  well  known  SujgUnuiM[tur43^ 
1735,  the  firat  truly  methocucal  work.  In 
a  final  edition  of  the  same  book,  we  find 
an  arrangement  of  insects  difiering  fiiom 
that  contained  in  the  former ;  and,  as  that 
is  the  one  always  referred  to  at  the  pres- 
ent day,  and  as  his  divisions  are,  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  still  retained,  we  deem  it 
pvoper  to  notice  it  here.  He  divides  in- 
sects into  coUopterOj  hendptau,  kpidopUrOy 
ntaropUiu,  hfrnenopUra,  dSftiara  and  an* 
fero.  In  this  class  were  also  included  the 
enutacea  and  oroc^tcie^,  now  forming  the 
first  and  second  classes  of  the  third  great 
division  of  the  animal  kingdom,  or  the 
aiwmalia  arUculata.  The  system  of  Lin- 
nsus,  though  not  a  natural  one,  was  well 
adapted  to  the  limited  number  of  animals 
then  known,  and  which,  with  r^Pfct  to 
insects,  did  not  exceed  800  or  900.  Its 
subsequent  alterations  necessarily  arose 
from  the  immense  number  of  new  ones 
which  the  increasing  zeal  of  observers  de- 
tected in  eveiy  part  of  the  globe.  L' Ad- 
miral, Dethardin^  Lesser,  Degeer,Roe8e]y 
Scopoli  and  6eoffit>y,  all  contributed,  and 
some  of  them  greatly,  to  multiply  facts 
and  detect  errors.  Lyonnet,  however,  mer- 
its something  more  dian  the  bare  mention 
of  bis  name.  Animated  by  a  zeal  that  no 
disappointment  could  damp,  and  armed 
with  a  patience  that  set  obetacles  at  defi- 
ance, this  untiring  inquirer  devoted  seven 
years  of  his  life  to  the  anatomy  of  a  sin- 
gle insect — the  larva  of  a  species  ofcassus 
that  inhabits  the  willow.  The  plates  of 
bis  work,  the  TraUi  Anatormque  de  la 
CkemUe  du  ^Senile  (4to.,  1762),  18  in  num- 
ber, were  all  engraved  by  his  own  hand, 
with  a  minuteness,  fidelity  and  elegance 
that  have  seldom,  if  ever,  been  equalled. 
The  enseaMe  is  pronounced,  by  the  greatest 
authority  of  our  age,  a  chef-iPmivre  both 
of  anatomy  and  engraving.  We  cannot 
Stop  to  notice  particulariy  the  labors  of 
Bchi^r,  Seba,  Foister  and  Drury,  each 


of  whom  added  something  to  the  general 
fimd  of  knowledge.  With  respect  to 
those  of  Flibricius,  it  is  otherwise.  This 
celebrated  entomologist,  and  pupil  of  Lin- 
naeus, published  numerous  and  valuable 
works  on  his  favorite  science^  of  which 
we  will  onlv  cite  the  JSnfomo^ogia  Sifsiem- 
aUca^  emendata  d  aucta  (4  vols.,  8vo.,  J792 
^1794),  the  Supplemenhm  EnttmtoibeuB 
StfstemfUiciB  {17^\  and  the  ^stetna  iSeu- 
iheraiorunif  JRhfngotorwn,  &c.  (from  1801 
to  1605).  He  was  the  first  who  had  re- 
course to  the  parts  of  the  mouth,  or  orpms 
of  maoducation,  as  a  basis  of  distribution ; 
and  a  vast  number  of  new  species  of  in- 
sects were  described  bv  him,  in  his  re- 
markably concise  but  clear  manner,  with 
which  Gnielin,  a  naturalist,  or  rather  edi- 
tor, of  a  very  dififerent  class,  enriched  die 
Skfkema  of  Linneeus.  The  career  of  this 
distinguished  man,  whose  love  of  truth  in 
matters  of  science  is  strongly  exemplified 
in  his  well  known  emphatic  epitaph  on 
John  Hill,  was  prematurely  arrested  by 
death  in  1807,  just  as  he  was  preparing 
to  publish  his  J^sUma  (jUosudorum,  an  ex- 
tract fipom  which  is  given  by  Illiger  in  his 
Magasanffvr  hueelmhunde.  The  splen- 
did and  costly  works  of  Olivier  (5  vols., 
fol.,  Paris,  17^9—1808),  Donovan  (Lond., 
1778—1805),  Palisot  de  Beauvois  (Paris, 
fol.,  1805  et  seq.),  Cramer  (4  vols.,  4to., 
with  400  colored  pkites,  Amsterdam,  1779, 
continued  by  Stoll,  m  1  vol^  4to.,  1790  et 
seq.),  together  with  a  multitude  of  others 
of  a  less  magnificent  description,  brins  our 
sketch  down  to  a  period  in  the  annfJs  of 
the  natural  sciences  which  is  graced  by 
the  name  of  Ouvier.  It  is  to  him  that  we 
are  indebted  for  what  is  termed  the  natu- 
ral mdhodf  or  an  arrangement  in  which, 
to  use  his  own  words,  ^  all  beings  of  the 
same  genus  are  placed  nearer  to  each 
other  man  to  those  of  all  other  genera, 
the  genera  of  the  same  order  similarly 
disposed  with  respect  to  those  of  all  other 
orders,  Ate."  The  energy  and  discrimi- 
nation of  this  modem  mUcU  offSte  natural 
sciences,  as  he  has  iustly  been  styled,  aid- 
ed by  untiring  industry,  have  fixed  the 
foundations  orzoolo^  upon  the  immuta- 
ble basis  of  comparative  anatomy.  jProm 
the  moment  his  TMbou  Uimentain  de 
VHistovre  nakurdle  des  AmmauTf  and  his 
Lefons  d'Anatomie  Coimmre'e,  made  thenr 
appearance,  the  entomologist^  in  common 
with  the  cultivators  of  every  other  branch 
of  zoology,  was  sensible  that  he  at  last 
held  the  clew  by  which  he  could  hope  to 
traverse  the  hitherto  impncdcable  laby- 
rinth.. The  study  now  became  a  greater 
object  of  interest  than  ever.  Lamarck  pro- 


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ENTOMOLOGY. 


diiced  his  work  up<m  invertebral  animals, 
and  Latreilie,^ided  by  Cavier,  soon  gave 
to  the  world  bis  famous  entomological  sys- 
tam,  an  exposition  of  which  will  close  this 
necessarily  limited,  and  consequently  im- 
perfect sketch.  Among  the  modem  writeis 
of  eminence  on  tiie  su^ect  of  insects,  Mac- 
LeaVy  Leach  and  Kirbv  stand  preeminent 
in  England.  Prussia  boasts  of  her  Klug 
and  lUiger;  Germany  of  her  Knoch, 
Mannerheim  and  Gennar;  Russia  of  her 
Fischer;  Sweden  of  her  Paykull,  Gyllen- 
hal  and  Schoenherr;  and  France,  that 
favorite  seat  of  science,  of  the  greatest  en- 
tomologist of  the  age — ^the  venerable  La- 
treille.  There,  too,  coulit  Dejean  is  at 
this  moment  busied  with  his  admirable 
work  on  coleopterous  insects,  4  volumes 
of  which  are  already  published,  and 
which,  when  completed,  will  leave  noth- 
ing to  be  desired  with  respect  to  that  or- 
der. Leon  Dufour,  of  the  same  country, 
by  his  various  memoirs  on  the  anatomy 
of  a  new  species  of  braMmUy  on  that  of 
the  coUoptara^  of  the  ctcocbrue,  of  the  eica- 
della,  ot^e  forficuURy  &c^  has  given  am- 
ple jMioofs  of  his  devotion  to  the  science, 
and  of  his  title  to  the  lank  of  the  first  en- 
tomological anatomist  of  the  age.  Sa- 
vigny,  also,  who  sacrificed  his  sight  to  his 
anatomical  investigations,  and  was  one  of 
the  tavmUB  who  accompanied  the  expe- 
dition to  Egypt,  has  rendered  the  most 
important  services  to  this  branch  of  zool- 
ogy, by  his  woric  on  the  mouths  of  insects. 
Kit  while  we  willingly  render  iustice  to 
these  distinguished  foreigners,  let  us  not 
forget  what  is  due  to  ourselves.     Mel- 


sheimer  (who  fiimished  Knoch  if^ith  the 
greater  part  of  his  species),  Say,  Hentz, 
Le  Conte,  Harris,  and  manv  others,  have 
successfiilly  exerted  themsefves  in  defect- 
ing and  describing  the  insects  of  the  U. 
States;  and,  at  this  moment,  a  valuable 
work  on  the  UpukpUra  of  North  Ameri* 
ca,  by  Messrs.  Boisduval  and  Le  Conte,  is 
publishing  in  Pari& — ^The  history  of  tlie 
first  and  second  classes  of  articulated  ani- 
mals, or  the  crugtacea  (crabs,  lobsters,  &c) 
and  arachmdcs  (spiders),  is  so  involved 
with  that  of  the  third,  or  the  iaueeta  or  tn^ 
sects f  property  so  called,  that  but  little  sep- 
arate allusion  has  been  made  to  it  In  ail 
the  systems  of  which  we  have  spoken, 
these  two  classes  were  considered  as  in- 
sects. Brisson  was  the  first  who  sepa- 
rated them ;  and  his  class  of  the  cntsiafta, 
which  he  placed  before  that  of  insects^ 
contains  all  those  animals  which  have 
more  than  mx  feet,  or  the  apinpodes  of 
M.  Savigny.  It  is  only,  however,  vrithin 
a  few  years,  that  a  rigorous  application  of 
anatomical  observations  has  enabled  the 
French  naturalists  to  arrange  them  in 
their  natural  order.  They  now  form 
three  distinct  classes  of  the  third  mat 
division  of  the  animal  kingdom,  vi^ich 
comprises  the  animalia  artievkda,  or  artic- 
ulated animals.  The  Crustacea  and  oradb- 
fddes,  being  the  most  perfect  of  the  tiiree, 
80  fiir  as  their  organization  is  concerned, 
are  placed  first,  and  the  insects  last  The 
subjoined  tabular  view  shows  the  manner 
in  which  they  are  arranged  and  divided 
by  Latreille,  the  great  entomologist  of  tlw 
day. 


S^fnopUeal  Hew  qfAe  EniomoUtgiad  System  of  LatreUU. 


Class  I. 

CRUSTACEA. 

FiasT  Gerbral  Divisioir. 

MALAC06TRACA. 

a.    £ye9  om  a  mooahle  pedr 
ieU, 

Okobb  L 
OECAPODA. 

FlKST  Familt. 

BRACHYURA. 
Cancer,  L, 

Pinnipedes. 

Arcuata. 

Qoadrilatara. 

OriiicuIaUu 

Trigopa. 

Cryptopoda. 


Sbcokd  Pamilt. 

MACROURA. 

Astacus,  LaL 
Anomala. 
Locuflta. 
Astacioi' 
Carides. 

Sub-genera,  4S. 


OiDsall. 
STOMAPOOA. 

Fia«T  Familt. 

UNIPELTATA. 

8quil]a,fh6. 

SiiiHgeiiera,  6. 

BBCdNO  pAlfU.T. 

BIPELTATA. 

Phyllosoma,  Lead^ 

b.    EyeiJixedami4umU' 


Om0Ba  ni. 

AMPHIPODA. 

Gammarus,  JPob. 

Sub-genera,  26. 


Okdkk  IV. 

LiEMODIFODA. 

CysinuBfLaL 

Sub-genera,  4. 


OnDsa  V. 
ISOPODA. 
Oniscus,  L, 

Epicarides. 
CyiRothoada. 
Sphsromides. 
Idoteides. 
Asdlota. 
ODiscides. 
Sab.g«Mn,9& 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Sbcohd  Okhxral  BirisiOR. 
ENTOMOSTRACA. 

Okdk«  I. 
BRANCHIOPODA. 
Monoculus,  L. 
Lophyropa. 
Phvllopar 
Sub-genera,  18/ 

OftDEK  11. 

PiEOILOPODA. 

FruT  Familt. 

XyPHOSURA. 

LimuIuB,  Fab. 

Tachypleus,  Lubck. 

Bscoiro  Familt. 
SIPHONOSTOMA. 
Caligides,  latt. 
LerDeiformes,  id. 
Genera  and  sub-genera,  9. 

TWLOBITES. 
Genera,  5. 


Ci^ss  II. 
ARACHNIDES. 

OaoBR  I. 
PULMONARIiE. 

FiMT  Faicilt. 

ARANEIDES. 

Mygale,  WddL 

Araoea,  L, 
Tubiteles. 
Inequiteles. 
Orbitelefl. 
Laterigrades. 
Citi^des. 
Saltisrades. 
SuB-genera,  33. 

Sbcoivd  Familt. 

PEDIPALPI. 

Tarantula,  Fob. 

Scorpio,  jL. 

Sub^genera,  4. 


OaoBR  11. 
TRACHEARIiE. 

'  First  Familt. 

PSEUDO.SCORPIONES. 

Galeodee,  (Hit>. 

Chekfer,  Gtoff. 

SxcoKO  Familt. 

PYCNOGONIDES. 

Pycno^num,  Brvn, 

PhoxicbiluB,  Lai, 

Nymphon,  F<A, 

Tmibp  Famct, 

HOLETRA. 

▼OL.  lY.  45 


ENTOMOLdCfY. 

FiRiT  Tripb. 
PHALANGITA. 

Pbalangium,  L. 
GoQoIeptes. 
Silt). 

Macrocheles. 
Trogulus.    . 

Sbcond  Tmbj^ 
ACAR1DE8. 

Acarue^Ih 
Sub-gwiera,  19. 

Class  HI. 
INSECTA. 

Ordbr  I. 
MYRIOPODA. 

FtRiT  Familt. 

CHILOGNATHA. 

lulus,  h. 

Sub-genera,  6. 

Bbcohd  Familt. 

CHILOPOIXA. 

Scolopendra,  JL 

Sob-genera,  2. 

Ordbr  XL 
THYSANOURA. 

PiRiT  Familt. 
LEPISMENifi. 

Lq>i8ma,Zte 

Sub-genera,  2. 

Sbcoitd  Familt. 

PODURELLiE, 

P«durB,ik 

Sub-genera,  t, 

Ordbr  in. 

PAKAfllTA. 

Pediculu8,2k 

Sub-genera,  8, 

Ordbr  IV. 
BUCTORIA. 

Pulex^Zi. 


Ordsr  V. 
CX)LEOPTERA. 

PiMT  Grxat  Ditision. 
PenUamitra, 

FiRtT  Familt. 
CARNIVORA. 

First  Tribr. 
CICINDBLIT-*. 

Cicindala,  L, 
Sub-geoera,  9. 


fiRooiib  Trtbb^ 
CAKABICL 

Canibus,  L, 

Truncatipeanos. 
Biparlili. 
Quadnmani. 
SnnpKcimani. 
Pateliinani. 
Grandipal|n. 
Subulipalpi. 
Sub-genera,  ISX 

Third  Tribb. 
HYDBOCANTHAKI 

DytiBcufli  Qtoff. 
Gyrinufl,!;. 
Snb>genera,  6. 

Sbcohd  Familt. 
BRACHELITRA. 
Staphylinus^  J^ 
Fissilabra. 
Loa^palpi. 
Denticrura. 
Depressa. 
Microcepbala. 
Sub-genera,  S4 

Third  Familt. 
SERRICORNES. 

StcHtm  L 

8TERNOXL 

First  Tribb. 

BUPKESTfDEa 

BaprestiByZh 
Sub-genera,  4. 

Sbcokd  Tribb. 
ELATERIDE8. 

Elater,  L. 

Sub-geoera,  14b 

Section  IT. 

MALAOODERMBB 

First  Tribb. 

CBBRIONITES. 

Cebrio,  L. 
Snb-gencra,  IS. 
Bboobp  Tribb. 
LAMPYRIDBS 

Lampyrisyl^ 
'  Sub-genera,  11. 

Third  Tribb. 

MELYRIDBS. 
Bf elyria,  Ibk 
8ub-genera,  6. 
Fourth  Tribb. 
CLERfl. 

Clenn,  Qwff, 
Sub-genera,  10 

Fifth  Tribe. 
FTINIORES. 

Sab-genera,  6. 

Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


BtdAtmin, 
XYLOTROC^I. 

LymexyloD,  Fab. 
Sob-genera,  4. 

FOVKTR  Familt. 

CLAVIGORNES. 

Section  I , 
PiMT  Tkibb. 
PAIiPATORES./ 

Maadgus,  H(f. 
Sub-genen,  2. 
SxcoivD  Tubs. 
HISTBBOIDBS. 

Sub-geftera,  6. 

Thi^  Tb»b. 

SILPUALES. 

Silpha,  L. 
Bub-geuera,  9. 
FounTH  TaiBa. 
0OAPHIDITES. 

Scaphidiuin,  O&o. 

Sub-genora,  t. 

Fifth  Tbxbb. 

NITIDULARIiB. 

Nitidula,  Afr.     . 
Sttb-genera,  6. 

BisTH  Tmma* 
EMOIDITBS. 

IheoA,  LoL 

Sub-genere,  S» 
Bbtsxtm  Tbibx. 
DE&ME8TINI. 

DemifiBteByZfc 

Sob-genera,  6 
EioBTH  Tribb. 

BIARHIL 
ByrrhusiL. 

Sab-genera,  2. 

Section  U. 

FiBiT  Tbibb. 

ACANTHOPODA. 

Heterocerus,  Bom. 

Bbcoitd  Tbibb. 
MACRODACnTLA. 

Diyops,  (Xw. 

DitD*genCTa|  v* 

Fifth  Famut. 

PALPICORNES. 

FiBST  Tbmb. 

BYDBOPHIUI. 

Hydn^MliUy  Goff. 

Sub-genera,  9. 

Bbooivo  Tbibb. 

BPOfiBimOTA. 

hpheiidiuia,^  Fab, 
1. 


ENTOMOLOGY. 

Sixth  Family. 

LA3i£LLICORNES. 

PiRiT  TRiub. 
SCAftAB^lDES. 

ScaralMeus,  jL 
Coprophag^w 
Arcuicoli. , 
Xylophili. 
PhyUcHtbagi. 
Antbobii. 
Melitophili. 

Stti^geiiei  a,  93* 

Bxcoifo  TaiBS. 

LUCANIDSS: 

LucanuSyZh 
Passalus,  Olio, 

Sob-genera,  7. 

SxcoHD  General  Dituiok. 

JxUCJ'UMCfV. 

FiBJT  Familt. 

MELASOMA. 

Pimeliariae. 
BlapsideB. 
TenebrioaHin. 
Sub-genera,  36. 

Saeoira  Familt. 
TAXICORHES. 

FiBST  TklBX. 

DIAPfiEIAUaS. 

Diaperifly  Ge^ 

Sab-genera,  8. 

Bbcobv  TBiaa. 
COBSYPHENia. 

CoBByphus,  02«v. 
Sob-genw,  2. 

Tribo  Famibt. 

STENELYTRA. 

FiBST  Taias. 

BELOPII. 

Helops,  FiOf. 
Sob-genen,  !♦• 

Bbooho  Tbibb. 
dBTSLIDEB. 

Cifltela,  fb5. 
Sob-genera,  3. 

Tmbd  Tbibb. 
flERROPALPfDES. 

DvtctOBkf  Fab, 

Sabrgcnera,  7. 

FOUBTH  TUBB. 


(Edemera,  OU»* 

Sub-geneta,  4. 

Fir^  Tbibb. 
RHTNCHOSTOMA. 

Mycien]%CZ»rv. 
Sab-geiiccs  2 


FoemTH  Familt 
TRACHELIDES. 

FiBiT  Tbibb. 
LAGRlARIiE. 

Lagria,fb&. 

Sob-genera,  2. 

Bbcoitd  Tbibb. 

PYR0CBR0IDE8. 

Pyrochroa,  Geoff. 

Sob-genus,  1. 

Thibo  Tbibb. 

MORDELLONiB. 

Moidella,  L. 
Sub-genera,  o. 
Fovbth  Tbibb. 

ANTHicnnas. 
Notoxua,  Qttfi* 

Sub-genera,  2. 

Fifth  Tbibb. 
HORIALES. 
Horia,  FiA. 
Sub-genofl,  1. 

Bixth  Tbibb. 
CANTHARIDiE. 

MekPisJL 
Snb-geaera,  IS. 

Third  Geiibral  Ditisior 
TdramerOi 

FiB»T  Familt. 
RHYNCHOPHO&A. 
BnichUfl. 
AttelabiML 
Brentua. 
BrachToerua. 
Curculio. 
Lixua. 

RbnicbeDiia. 
Oamndra. 
Sub-genera,  fil. 

SXCOIID  Fajklt. 
XYI4OPHAGL 

Seolytua. 

PaiUBUA 

BoBOaehoB. 
Monotonia. 
Lectin. 
Mycetophagua. 

IVogOBHR. 
Snb«genei«,  29 

Tai»D  Familt« 
PLATYSOBIA. 
Cucujua^  Aft. 

Sob-geaera,  2. 

FovBKH  Familt. 
LONGlGORl«BB. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


WKTOKOhOGI. 


FiBTT  Tubs. 

Fourth  Gb5sral  Ditisioit. 

Bmenm  Funav. 

imiONU. 

HHmertu 

APHIDIL 

Parandnu 

Psylfcu 

Spondyiifl. 

FiBST  FaMILT. 

Thripa. 

Prionus. 

FUNGICOLifi. 

AphST 

x8BC01fD^rEIBm. 

Eumovpfaiub 

SuH;enen,9. 

CERAMBIGINI. 

Bub-genera,  3. 

IVllBO  Favily. 

Cerambyx,  L, 

"BbCONO  FAMILt. 

GALLINSECTA. 

8ub-geooiu/l6. 

APHIDIPHAGI. 

CoCQU8»Xfc 

ObriuJTL 

Coccinella,  L. 

Sub.genuml. 

Rhinotragus. 

Necydalia. 

Distichocheres. 

Sub-genera,  2. 
Tribd  Faihlt. 

Obobb  VHI.  . 
NEUROPTF.RA. 

Temesistemufl, 

PSELAPHU. 

Tn^ocenis. 
Leptocera. 

Psefaiphitt. 
Claviger. 

FiBn  Family. 
SUBULICORNES. 
Libelkila. 
Ephemera. 

Sub-gonis,  1. 

Sob.genera,7. 

Thikp  Tbibb. 
LAMIAREA. 

ObobbVI. 

Bub-gcnera,  t. 

Acrociniifl. 

ORTHOPTERA. 

Bbcond  Family 

Lamia. 
Sub-gpjiera,  12. 

PLANIPENNES. 

FiBtT  Familt. 
CUR80RIA. 

Panorpatse. 
MyrmeleonideflL 

Fourth  Tbibb. 

Forficuku 

Hemerobitii. 

LEPTURETJE. 

Blatta. 

TermitiKUB. 

Leptura,  Xj. 

Mantis. 

Periide& 

Sub-genera,  15. 

Fifth  Familt. 

fisooiiD  Fahilt. 

Tribd  Family. 

EUPODA. 

8ALTATORIA. 

PLICIPENNES. 

FiBST  Tbibb. 

Gz^ilut. 

Pfaiyganea. 

iSAGRIOfiEL 

Locusla. 

Sub^gen«a,4w 

Sagw,JW. 

Acrydium. 

Sub-genera,  15. 

ObdbbIX. 
HtMENOPTERA. 

Sbc^M  Tbibb. 

CRIOCERIDBB. 

Obobb  vn. 

Bectiml 

Crioceris,  Geoff. 

HEMIPTEIU. 

TtrebranHom 

Bub-genera,  6. 

Section  L 

FiB«T  Family. 

Sixth  Familt. 

HderopUra. 

SECURIFERA. 

CYCLICA. 

FiBtT  FAMrLr. 

FiB«T  Tbibb. 

FiB*T  Tbibb. 

GEOCQRISJS. 
Cimex,  JO. 

Sub.g«Mien,40. 

TENTUBJBDINBTiB. 

CASSIDARIiB. 

Hispa. 
Cassida. 

TeotbxedOjL. 

Sob-genera,  S. 

Bbcoud  Family. 

Bbcohd  Tbibb. 
UROCERATA. 

Sbcono  Tbibb. 

HYDROCQRISiE. 

Sirex,  L, 

CHRYSOMEUN^. 

Cryptocepbalus. 
Chrysomela. 
Sub-genera,  15. 

Nepa. 
Notooecta. 
SQb^giBn«a,5. 

Sub-genu»,  1. 

Sbooitd  Family. 
PUPIVORA. 

TniBo  Tubs. 
GALERUCITiB. 

Galeruca. 

BecHan  U, 
HomtpUra. 

FiBiT  Family. 

FiBiT  Tbibb. 

EVANIALEB. 

Foenus. 

Sub-genera,  9. 

ClCADA&IiE. 

Bbcoicd  Tbibb. 

Sbtbrth  Fami&t. 

Cicada. 

ICHNEUMONIDES. 

CLAVIPALPI. 

Fulgora. 

IcbneiimoD,  L, 

Erotylus,  Fab, 

Gicadelku 

Sub-genera,  SO. 

Sub-genera,  6. 

Digitized  by  CjOOQIC 

ENTOMOLOOY-ENTRE-DUERO-E-MINHO. 


TmMXbTwnm. 

OboxbZ. 

ObdkbXII. 

OALUGOLA. 

LEPIDOPTERA. 

DIPTERA. 

Cjm^L, 

FiBtT  Fahilt. 

FiBrr  Familt. 

DIURNA. 

NEMOCERA. 

FovwtH  Tkiss. 

Papilio,  L. 
Sub-geoera,  29. 

Culex. 

CHAhClDlM, 

Chalcis,  J\i^. 

Tipula. 
Sub-geaerm,  48. 

Siib-gencn,  16. 

Sbcovd  Familt. 
CREPUSCULARU. 

Bbcord  Familt. 

Firm  Tki  BS. 
OXYURL 

Sphinx,  L. 

TANYSTOMA. 
AbUus. 

Bethylua,  Fah. 

Empi& 

Thibo  Familt. 

Cyrtus. 

BlXTH  Tbivx. 

NOCTURNES. 

Bombylius. 

GBRY8IDE& 

Phahena,!.. 

Anthrax. 

Chiy8iB,Ii. 

BeetUml. 

Thereva. 

Leptis. 

Dolychopos. 

8ab.geMim,6. 

HtpUdiU*. 

Btction  //. 

Bub-genere,  3. 

JkuUata. 

8ectumn.  . 

Thibd  Familt. 

Vtmn  Familt. 

BomlnfcUeg. 

TABANIDES. 

HETEROGYNA. 

Tabanu8,Zb 

Fomuca. 

aeetUmni, 

Sub-genera,?. 

Mutilla. 

PteudthBmnbyces. 

FoDBTH  Familt. 

Sub-genera,  8. 

NOTACANTHA. 

Sbcoitd  Fakilt. 

SeetiomlV, 

Mydaa. 

FOSSORES. 

Jfyoturct, 

Chirmnyza. 

Bcolieue. 

8ob.ge]iera,& 

Pachygtomofl. 

EIL. 

Section  V. 

StmtiomyB. 

MchMUt. 

Sub-genera,  16. 

L«vmtM. 

Sub-genoi,  I. 

Firm  Familt. 

Nyssoiies. 

ATHERIGERA* 

CrabioDites. 

Section  VI. 

Sub-gienera,  ST. 
Thibs  Fabult- 

JikFtk'iC€9m 

FlBTT  T^IBB 

SYRPiUDiB 

SyrphuB,  L, 
Sub-genera,  M. 

DIPLOFTERA. 

Section  VIL 

FiBtT  Tbibb. 

Gtomdra. 

SscoifD  Tbibb. 

MASARIDES. 

Snb-gencTBy  3. 

CB8TRIDES. 

MbmnB,M>. 

Section  VHT. 

CEstrw^L, 

Sab.g«uui,  1, 

DeUMu. 

Sub-genera,  5. 

Bbookd  Tbibb. 

Sab-geottB,  1. 

Thibd  Tbibb. 

VBBPARIiE. 

CONOFSARIiB. 

Ve8p«,JL 

Section  IX, 
Tinaies. 

Ck>nop8,  L, 

8ub.gei>era,9. 

FOUBTH  FaHILT. 

Sub-genera,  6. 
FooBTH  Tbibb. 

ANTHOPHILA. 

Section  X. 

HU8CIDE8. 

BecHon  I. 
AndrmdtB. 

Muflca,  Is. 

Sub-g^emu,  1. 

Sub-genera,  73. 

Sixth  Familt. 
PUnPARA. 

Sab-genera,  6. 

Obokb  XI. 

Section  11, 

RHIPIPTERA. 

Hippoboecaf  Lk 
Nycteribia,  LaL 

wopicaruB, 

Xenos. 

Sob-genera,  38. 

Stylopa. 

Sub-genera,  8. 

Eirrmx-DuEEO-E-MiNHo  ;  a  province 
of  Portugal,  bounded  north  by  Ualicia,  a 
province  of  Spain ;  east  by  Traloe-Mon- 
tea  and  Spain;   aouth   by  Beire,   from 


which  it  18  separated  by  &e  river  Duero ; 
and  west  by  tlie  Atlantic :  square  mikfl, 
according  to  Hassel,  2121 ;  others,  3455: 
population,  according  to  Antilion,  907^; 


Digitized  by 


Google 


£NTRE-0irERO.&MlNHa-£PA]HINONDAS. 


633 


Ebeling,  817467 ;  Barroe,  1,133»495 :  bous- 
es, 181,853.  It  takes  its  name  from  its  sit- 
uatioD  betwe^i  the  riven  Diiero  and  Min- 
ho,  the  latter  of  which  waters  part  of 
its  northern  borders,  as  the  former  bounds 
the  soutli :  about  60  miles  from  north  to 
south,  and  35  fiora  east  to  west  The 
soil  is  fertile,  and  the  air  pure  and  healthy. 
It  produces  com;  wine,  oil  and  flax  m 
abundance,  with  great  numbers  of  sheep, 
and  plenty  of  game  and  fish.  It  is  di- 
vided into  6  jurisdictions,  which  contain 
1460  churches,  963  parishes,  and  1130 
convent&  It  has  several  seapoits,  situ- 
ated on  navigable  rivers,  .which  render  it 
very  commercial.  The  principal  towns 
nre^Bnga  (the  capital),  Oporto  (the  largest 
town),  Viana,  Guimaraens,  Amarante, 
Moncao^  and  Ponte  de  Lima. 
EifTRXsoLE.  The  same  as  Attic,  (q.  v.] 
EffvoT.    (See  MmUtarSf  Fortigny  ana 


iiOLiAN  Habp.    (See  .Eolian  Harp.) 
EoLiARS.    (See  jEoHans.) 
EoLiPiLE.    (See  JEolipQc.) 
EoLUs.    (See  JEoku,) 
f  ON,  THE  Chevalier  nB.  (See  lyEon.) 
Eos.    {See  Aurora.) 

EpaCTS  (fipm  inaymf  UuluCO,  tnlCTCfllo), 

in  chronology ;  the  excesses  of  the  solar 
month  above  the  lunar  synodical  month, 
and  of  the  solar  year  above  the  lunar  year 
of  twelve  synodical  months;  or  of  several 
solar  months  above  as  many  synodical 
months,  and  several  solar  years  above  as 
many  dozen  of  synodical  months.  The 
epacts,  then,  are  either  wfwual  or  merir 
tbruaL 

Mautrual  EpacU  are  the  excesses  of 
the  civil  or  calendar  month  above  the 
lunar  month.  Suppose,  for  example,  it 
were  new  moon  on  the  first  day  of  Janu- 
ary; since  the  lunar  month  is  39  days, 
Id  hours,  44  minutes,  3  seconds,  and  the 
month  of  January  contains  31  days,  the 
Doenstrual  epact  is  1  day,  11  hours,  15 
minutes,  57  seconds. 

Atmutd  Epaeta  are  the  excesses  of  the 
solar  year  above  the  lunar.  Hence,  as 
the  Julian  solar  year  is  365  days,  6  hours, 
mkd  the  Julian  hinar  year  354  days,  8 
hours,  48  minutes,  38  seconds,  the  annual 
epact  will  be  10  days,  21  hours,  11  min- 
utes, 22  seconds,  that  is,  nearly  11  daya 
Consequently,  the  epact  of  2  years  is  22 
days;  of  3  years,  ^  days,  or  rather  30, 
since  30  days  make  an  embolismic  or  m- 
tercalaiy  month.  Thus  the  epact  of  4 
years  is  14  days,  and  so  of  the  rest ;  and 
thus,  every  19th  year,  the  epact  becomes 
30,  or  0;  consequendy,  the  20th  year,  the 
Mwet  is  11  again ;  and  so  the  cycle  of 
45* 


epactB  expires  with  the  golden  number,  ot 
lunar  cycle  of  19  yean,  and  begins  with 
the  same ;  these  are  Julian  epacts :  tbe  Gre- 
gorian depend  upon  the  same  principlefl^ 
allowing  only  for  the  difiereuce  of  the  re« 
spective  yearai  Aa  the  new  moons  ara 
the  same,  that  is,  as  they  fall  on  the  sarao 
day  afler  every  19  years,  so  the  diflferenca 
between  the  lunar  and  solar  yeari  is  the 
same  afler  every  19  years.  And,  because 
the  said  difference  is  always  to  be  added 
to  the  lunar  year,  in  order  to  adjust  or 
make  it  e<)ual  to  the  solar  year,  therefore 
the  said  di^rence  respectively  belonging 
to  each  year  of  the  moon's  cycle,  is  ctdled 
the  qmct  of  tbe  said  year,  that  is,  the 
number  to  be  added  to  the  same  year,  to 
make  it  equal  to  the  solar  year. 

Rule  to  find  the  Gregorian  Epact.  Tha 
difi[erence  between  the  Julian  and  Gte- 
fforian  years  being  equal  to  tbe  difference 
Between  the  solar  and  lunar  year,  or  11 
days^  therefore  the  Gregorian  epact  for 
any  year  is  the  same  with  the  Julian 
epact  for  the  preceding  year;  and  hence 
the  Gregorian  epact  will  be  found  bgr 
subtracting  1  fiom  the  solden  numberv 
multiplying  the  remainder  by  11,  and 
rejectuig  the  30s.  This  rule  will  serve 
tilt  the  ^ear  1900 ;  but,  afler  that  year,  the 
Gregonan  epact  will  be  found  by  this 
rule :  Divide  the  centuries  of  the  given 
year  by  4,  multiply  the  remainder  by  17 ; 
then  to  this  product  add  43  times  the  quo^ 
tient,  and  also  the  number  86,  and  divide 
the  whole  sum  b^  25,  reserving  the  quo* 
tient:  next  multiply  the  golden  number 
by  11,  and  fiom  the  product  subtract  the  re» 
served  quotient,  and  the  remainder,  after 
rejecting  all  the  30b  contained  in  it  will 
be  the  epact  sought  The  folk)wing  table 
contains  the  goklen  numbers,  with  their 
corresponding  epacts,  till  the  year  1900. 

TaUe  of  Ongorvm  Epacts. 


OeMoB 
Number. 

EpMto. 

OoUm 
NuUmt. 

Epaett. 

OqM« 
NinlMr. 

EpMli. 

I. 

0 

VIII. 

17 

XV. 

4 

II. 

11 

IX. 

28 

XVI. 

15 

m. 

22 

X. 

9 

XVII. 

26 

IV. 

3 

XI. 

20 

XVIII. 

7 

V. 

14 

XII. 

1 

XIX. 

18 

VI. 

25 

XIII. 

12 

L 

0 

VII. 

6 

XIV. 

28 

Epaminonoas;  a  Tbeban  hero,  who, 
for  a  short  time,  raised  his  country  to  the 
summit  of  power  and  prosperity.  He 
was  descended  fiom  the  ancient  kings  of 
BcBotia,  but  was  without  fortune,  and 
lived  in  seclusion  till  his  40th  year.  He 
was  fortunate  in  eijjoying  the  instructions 


Digitized  by 


Lioogle 


634 


EPAMINONDAS— EPAULETTE. 


of  the  P^agorean  philosopher,  Lysis, 
who  inspired  him  with  the  high  senti- 
ments which  ennobled  his  life.  He 
made  his  first  public  appearance  in  Spar- 
ta, whither  he  nad  l>een  sent,  with  othera, 
at  the  invitation  of  the  Lacedemonians,  in 
order  to  end  the  war  between  the  two 
countries  by  negotiation.  In  this  affair, 
he  displayed  as  much  firmness  and  dig- 
nity as  eloquence,  and  steadfastly  opposed 
the  surrender  of  the  towns  of  Bceotia,  in 
the  possession  of  Thebes.  The  war  was 
oontuiued,  and  Epaminondas  was  made 
general.  With  6000  men,  he  defeated 
Uie  invading  army,  of  double  the  number, 
«t  Leuctra  (376  B.  C).  He  led  the  at- 
tack in  person  on  the  enemy's  phalanx, 
while  his  friend  Pelopidas,  at  the  head  of 
the  sacred  band,  fell  upon  their  flank. 
The  Spartans  lost  their  king,  Cleombro- 
tus,  and  4000  men.  Two  years  afler, 
Epaminondas  and  Pelopidas  were  made 
Boeotarchs.  They  Invaaed  Peloponnesus 
together,  detached  several  nations  from 
the  alliance  of  Lace  liemon,  and  delivered 
the  Messenians,  wliose  capital  they  re- 
built Epaminondai  then  marched  with 
his  army  to  Sparta  -  but  this  city  was  so 
bravely  and  skilfully  defended  by  Agesi- 
lans,  that  the  Thebin  hero,  finding  winter 
approaching,  and  the  Athenians  now  in 
declared  hosulity  with  Thebes,  evacuated 
Laconia,  afler  laying  waste  the  low  coun- 
tiy.  An  accusation  was  brought  against 
him,  on  his  arrival  in  Thebes,  because  he 
and  Pelopidas  had  kept  the  Boeotarchate 
beyond  the  legal  time.  "Yes,** 'he  re- 
plied, "  I  have  deserved  death ;  yet  I  pray 
that  you  would  write  on  my  grave — ^*  The 
Thebans  put  Epaminondas  to  death,  be- 
cause he  compelled  them,  at  Leuctra,  to 
attack  and  overcome  those  whom  they 
had  never  before  dared  to  meet ;  because 
his  victory  delivered  his  countrv,  and 
made  Greece  free ;  because  the  Thebans 
were  led  by  him  to  the  siege  of  Lacedie- 
mon,  which  thought  itself  fortunate  in  es- 
Aping  total  ruin ;  because  he  rebuilt  Mes- 
sene,  and  secured  it  with  strong  walls.' " 
These  Words  produced  u  general  excite- 
ment in  his  favor,  and  he  was  acquitted. 
After  procuring,  by  his  influence,  the 
freedom  of  Pelopidas,  who  was  kept  pris- 
oner by  the  tyrant  of  Pherse,  a  new  war 
broke  out  between  Sparta  and  Thebes. 
Both  sides  raised  large  armies.  Epami- 
nondas invaded  Peloponnesus  again,  and 
advanced  suddenly  upon  LacedsBinon, 
which  he  expected  to  find  destitute  of  de- 
fenders. But  Agesilaus,  having  been 'ap- 
prised of  his  march,  had  hastened  back, 
and  was  prepared  to  meet  him.     The 


Thebans,  however,  attacked  him,  and 
forced  their  way  into  the  middle  of  the 
city ;  but  despair  stimulated  the  courage 
of  the  Lacedemonians,  and  the  Thebans 
were  fbrced  to  retreat  To  make  amends 
for  this  failure,  Epaminondas  marched 
with  33,000  men  into  Arcadia,  where 
the  greatest  force  of  tlie  enemy  was  as- 
sembled.  Here  was  fought  the  battle  of 
Mantinea.  Epaminondas  led  one  of  the 
wings  against  the  Lacedsemonian  pha- 
lanx, and  routed  it ;  but  was  surrounded 
by  the  enemy,  while  he  was  pursuing 
them,  and  wounded  i^  the  breast  by  a 
javelin.  After  a  hard  conflict^  the  l%e- 
bans  rescued  his  body  and  shiekL  On 
the  other  wing,  the  battle  was  indeosive  ; 
and  both  parties,  on  hearing  of  the  death 
of  Epaminondas,  had  retued,  ailer  erect- 
ing a  trophy.  The  hero  was  still  alive, 
but  was  informed  by  the  physicians  that 
he  must  die  as  soon  as  the  weapon  was 
extracted  from  the  wound.  When  news 
of  die  victory  was  brought  him,  he  ex- 
claimed, **I  have  lived  long  enough,'* 
and  drew  out  the  weapon  with  his  own 
hands.  His  friends  regretting  that  he 
lefl  no  children,  **  I  leave,"  said  he,  ^  two 
immortal  daughters,  the  victories  at  Letic^ 
tra  and  Mantibea."  He  died  363  B.  C^ 
a^ed  48.  He  has  been  extolled  no  less  for 
his  moral  purity,  goodness  and  gentle- 
ness, than  his  military  talents.  He  never 
uttered  a  falsehood,  even  in  jest  He  was 
a  man,  as  Nepos  savs,  adorned  with  every 
virtue,  and  stained  by  no  vice. 

Epaulehent,  in  fortification,  is  a  kind 
of  breastwork,  to  cover  the  troops  in  front, 
and  sometimes  in  flank.  This  term  is  fre- 
quently used  for  any  work  thrown  up  to  de- 
fend the  flank  of  a  post,  or  any  other  place. 

Epaulette  (the  French  diminutive  of 
ispatiZe,  shoulder)  signifies  a  militaiy  orna- 
ment, wom  on  the  shoulder.  It  origin- 
ated, in  the  time  of  Louis  XIV,  from  the 
riband  by  which  tlie  belt  sustaining  the 
sword  was  kept  from  slipping  from  the 
shoulder.  In  some  annies,  every  officer 
weara  them,  as  in  the  Prussian ;  but  there  is 
a  sufficient  di^rence  between  those  worn 
by  diflerent  ranks,  to  enable  a  lieutenant  or 
a  captain  to  be  distinguished  immediately 
from  a  major  or  a  colonel,  and  these  again 
from  the  generals — a  circumstance  Some- 
times of  great  impoitance  in  battles.  Thta 
means  of  distinction  has  this  advantage, 
that  it  is  not  obvious  to  the  enemy,  as  white 
plumes,  &C.,  are.  In  the  Russian  and 
Prussian  armies,  evety  oflicer  has  two 
epaulettes;  in  the  French  army,  this  is 
not  the  case,  but  the  shoulder  on  which 
the  epaulette  m  worn  distinguisheB  a  cap- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQ IC 


EPAULETTE— DE  UEPEE. 


tain  or  Ueutenant  Many  troops  in  the 
French  service  wear  woollen  epaulettes ; 
for  instance,  the  grenadiers;  and  Napo- 
leon thought  them  an  efficient  protection 
of  tiie  shoulder  against  the  dIowb  of 
swords.  Many  of  his  cavalry  and  infiin- 
try  had  epaulettes.  Epaulettes  have  been 
introduced  into  the  English  navy,  and,  in 
that  service,  the  following  are  the  grada- 
tions of  rank,  as  distinguished  by  them. 
Masters  and  commanders  have  one  ep- 
aulette on  the  left  shoulder;  post-cap- 
tains, under  three  years,  one  epaulette  on 
tlie  right  shoulder,  afterwards  two  epau- 
lettes ;  rear-admirals  have  one  star  on  the 
strap  of  the  epaulette,  vice-admirals  two 
stars,  and  admirals  three  stars.  Ep^^u- 
lettes  are  also  worn  by  many  civil  officers 
on  the  cimtinent  of  Europe,  when  in  uni- 
form. 

Efee,  Charles  Michael  (abb^  de  V\. 
This  benefactor  of  the  deaf  and  dumb 
was  bom,  1712,  at  Versailles.     He  had 
chosen  the  clerical  profession,  but,  being 
unwilling  to  subscribe  to  the  f<»mulary 
of  &ith  introduced  on  the  occasion  of  the 
Jansenist  controversy,  he  devoted  himself 
to  law  for  a  wliile,  but  vvas  afterwards 
preacher,  and  canon  at  Troyes.    His  in- 
timacy wTth  the  celebrated  bishop  Soanen, 
and  the  accordance  of  their  religious  sen- 
timents, drew  upon  him  the  displeasure 
of  the  archbishop  of  .Paris,  who  forbade 
the  abb^,  for  some  time,  to  hear  confes- 
sions, even  those  of  his  pupils.    The  idea 
(mT  bestowing  on  the  deaf  and  dumb  the 
advantages  of  society,  by  means  of  a  lan- 
ffuaffe  of  signs,  was  not  first  conceived 
by  him,  though,  according  to  his  own 
account,  it  arose  in  his  mind  without  any 
foreign  suggestion.    As  early  as  the  end  of 
the  16th  century,  a  Spanish  Benedictine 
monk,  Pedro  de  Ponce,  had  educated  two 
children  of  the  constable  of  Castile,  who 
were  bom  deaf  and  dumb,  so  suoeesBfully 
that  they  were  able  not  only  to  jead  and 
write,  but  abo  learned  arithmetic,  several 
languages,  and  the  principles  of  religion, 
and  even  gained  some  knowledge  of  nat- 
ural philosophy  and  astronomy.    In  Eng- 
land, Switzerland,  &c.,  successful  exper- 
iments had  also  been  made  with  the  deaf 
and  dumb,   and,  in  1748,    a  Spaniard, 
named  Pereira,  came  to  Paris,  and  ex- 
hibited to  the  academy  of  sciences  some 
deaf  and  dumb   persons,   educated   by 
him,  who  excited  general  astonishment 
by  their  acquirements.     None  of  these 
teachers,   however,  had   published   any 
thing  on  the  method  employed  by  them, 
and,  excepting  the  works  of  J.  P.  Bonet 
and  Ramuez,  both  Spaniards,  only  im- 


perfect accounts  of  it  had  ever  been  given 
to  the  world.  So  that  it  is  plain  that  De 
PE^e  was,  in  some  measure,  the  invent- 
or of  this  mode  of  instmction,  which  he 
first  tried  on  two  sisters,  and  found  his 
efibrts  so  successful,  that  he  resolved  to^ 
devote  his  life  to  the  business.  This 
noble-spirited  man  was  a  true  father  to 
the  unfortunate,  for  whom  he  estabhshed 
an  institution  at  his  own  expense.  He 
spent  his  whole  income,  besides  what 
was  contributed  by  benevolent  patrons, 
such  as  the  duke  of  Penthievre,  in  the 
education  and  maintenance  of  his  pupils, 
for  whose  wants  he  provided  with  such 
dianterested  devotion,  that  he  often  de- 

S rived  himself  of  the  necessaries  of  life, 
[e  once,  when  quite  advanced  in  yeare, 
passed  the  winter  without  fuel,  in  order 
that  his  adopted  children  might  suffer  no 
want  of  any  thing,  and  he  was  often  mis- 
erably dressed,  while  they  were  constant- 
ly well  clothed.    This  benevolent  zeal  he 
carried  so  far  as  to  derange  his  pecuniary 
afiSiirs,  and  to  excite  the  displeasure  of 
his  relations ;  and  yet  he  sent  a  request 
to  Catharine  U  of  Rusna,  who  was. de- 
sirous to  aid  him,  that  she  would  send 
him  a  deaf  and  dumb  boy  from  her  do- 
minions, instead  of  presents.     His  com- 
riion  for  a  deaf  and  dumb  youth  whom 
found  in  rags,  in  the  streets  of  Pe- 
ronne,  involved  him.  in  much  difficulty. 
He  was  convinced  that  this  forlom  youth 
was  the  injured  heir  of  the  rich  family  of 
the  count  of  Solar :  he  took  him  under 
his  protection,  and  demanded  the  restora- 
tion of  his  rights.    A  lawsuit  followed, 
which  was  at  first  decided  in  his  favor ; 
but  when  he  and  the  duke  of  Penthievre 
(the  only  protectors  of  the  poor  Joseph 
Solar]  were  dead,  the  decision  was  re- 
voked, and  the  youth,  driven  into  poverty 
again,  was  compelled  to  enter  the  army 
as  a  common  cuirassier,  and  died  soon 
after  in  an  hospital.  (This  has  been  made 
the  subject  of  a  play  by  Bouilly,  lr'*f  ^  /fe 
PEpiej  which  is  rather  a  narration  in  dia- 
logue than  a  drama,  and  which  Kotzebue 
has  prepared  for  the  German  stage,  un- 
der the  same  title.)    The  abb^  de  TEp^e 
died  in  1789.    Notwithstanding  his  efforts, 
he  never  could  accomplish  his  favorite 
project,  an  institution  for  the  deaf  and 
dumb  at  the  public  expense,  which  was 
first  obtained  by  his  successor,  the  abb^ 
Sicard,  who   has  much .  improved   the 
mode  of  instmction.    De  TEp^e  left  sev- 
eral writings  on  the  instmction  of  the 
deaf  and  dumb,  and  the  method  pursued 
by  him.    Of  all  the  societies  m  Europe, 
the  philantfaroinc  society  at  Paris  was  the 


Digitized  by 


Lioogle 


D£  L'EP££-£FHQRL 


only  c»ie  which  did  itself  the  honor  of 
chooeing  this  remaikable  man  among  its 
HiexnberB.  (See  the  article  Dumb  and 
Dtaff  where  the  subject  of  tlieir  instruc- 
tion is  treated  at  length.) 

Efernat,  a  place  in  France,  depart^ 
ment  of  the  Mame,  five  leagues  and  a 
half  from  Rheims,  with  5000  inhabitants, 
is  tlie  principal  place  of  the  trade  in 
champagne,  (q.  v.)  Near  the  place  are 
large  caves,  cut  in  chalk,  in  which  great 
numbers  of  bottles  of  champagne  are  stor- 
ed, arranged  according  to  tne  vineyards. 

Ephemera  ;  the  name  of  a  genus  of 
insects,  belonging  to  the  order  munptera, 
which  is  thus  characterized :  wings  four, 
erect,  reticulated,  posterior  ones  much 
smaller ;  extremity  of  the  abdomen  fur- 
nished with  three  filiform  appendages. 
Mayjly  or  dcofjbf  is  the  popular  name 
of  the  ephemerae,  of  whiclv  there  are  sev- 
eral species.  From  the  short  duration 
of  the  existence  of  these  insects,  the  term 
^hemeral  has  been  derived,  which  is  used 
to  signify  any  thing  short-lived  or  tempo- 
rary. The  larvae,  or  grubs,  inhabit  stand- 
ing and  running  waters,  usually  abound- 
ing in  the  latter.  As  baits  for  fish,  they 
are  much  esteemed,  and  the  perfect  insect 
is  also  used  for  the  same  purpose.  Great 
numbers  ftU  into  the  water,  and  become 
the  prey  of  fishes  and  birds ;  and  they 
exist  in  such  quantities  in  Camiola,  that 
when  dead  they  are  collected  in  baskets, 
and  even  in  carls,  to  be  used  as  manure 
for  the  land.  We  are  informed  that  the 
country  }>eople  think  they  have  been  un- 
suooessflil,  if  each  does  not  procure  30 
cart-loads  of  them  for  that  purpose. 
Those  who  have  witnessed  the  occasional 
migrations  of  locusts  and  other  predatory 
insects,  will  not  think  this  incredible. 
The  ephemene  live  but  a  few  hours,  a^r 
becoming  perfect  insects,  appearing  gen- 
erally a  short  time  before  sunset,  flying 
about  in  the  most  irregular  manner,  rising 
Ukd  deseending  like  gnaM,  in  iimnense 
swarms.  They  emeige  finom  the  chiys- 
alis,  on  the  banks  of  the  sueam,  and 
make  their  exit  fi'om  the  envelope  or 
case.  A  curious  circumstance  in  their 
history  is,  that,  alter  the  developement  of 
the  [)erfect  insect,  it  is  incapable  of  per- 
forming the  offices  of  reproduction,  uiitil  it 
has  regularly  moulted  for  the  second  time. 
The  skin  is  fo«ind  attached  to  walls,  twigs 
of  trees,  &C.,  in  the  situations  where  they 
are  common.  When  at  rest,  these  insects 
preserve  the  wings  in  a  vertical  position, 
and  are  found  in  this  position,  la  a  se- 
mi-torpid state,  a  short  tune  previous  to 
their  death,  which  foUowB    ' 


diately  after  the  impregnation  of  the  le- 
male.  In  the  state  of  larvae,  they  are  aaad 
to  live  a  year,  and  in  that  of  the  cfaiysalis 
or  pupa,  two  yeare.  Respiration  is  con- 
ducted through  branchial  tuds  alone  the 
back,  and  the  pupa  differs  from  the  larva 
onlv  in  having  dorsal  appendages,  in 
which  the  wings  are  enclosed.  One  spe- 
cies known  to  naturalists  deviates  fiom 
the  characters  of  the  order  in  having  but 
two  wings,  but  in  other  respects  eorre- 
sponding  to  itp  brethren.  In  America, 
they  rarely  appear  in  such  quantities  as 
in  Europe,  and  in  no  part  of  it,  we  be- 
lieve, are  they  so  abundant  as  to  be  re- 
markable. 

Ephemxrides,  in  astronomy;  tables 
calculated  by  astronomers,  showing  the 
present  state  of  the  heavens,  for  evevy 
day  at  noon ;  tliat  is,  the  places  wherein 
all  the  planets  are  found  at  that  time.  It 
is  from  these  tables  that  the  -eclipses, 
conjunctions  and  aspects  of  the  f^anets 
are  determined,  horoscopes  or  cefeadal 
schemes  constructed,  &c. 

Ethbsus,  the  capital  of  Ionia,  in  Asia 
Bf  inor,  was  built,  according  to  Justin,  by 
the  Amazons;  according  to  Strabo,  .by 
Androclius,  the  son  of  Codrus.  It  was 
the  grand  emporium  of  western  Asia» 
faavmg  a  convenient  and  spacious  harbor. 
Though  repeatedly  destroyed  by  war  and 
earthquakes,  it  was  ,soon  rebuilt  It  was 
fomous  for  its  temple  of  Diana,  called 
Memuitm^  and  situated  between  the  town 
and  the  harbor,  the  chief  architect  of 
which  was  Cheresiphon,  or  Ctesipbon. 
It  vras  of  the  Ionic  order.  The  nationa 
of  all  Asia  Minor  were  empk>yed  290 
yean  <m  this  edifice,  which  was  4S5  feet 
long,  and  200  broad,  and  was  adotncd 
with  127  pillars,  each  60  feet  high.  Still 
more  worthy  of  notice  were  the  numer- 
ous stames  and  paintings  of  the  most 
celebrated  Grecian  masters,  to  be  seen 
there.  It  had  been  destroyed  7  or  8 
times  before  Pliny  vnote,  particularly  by 
the  notorius  Erostratus,  3^  B.  C,  wbosa 
only  object  in  burning  the  tmnple  was  to 
perpetuate  his  name.  The  temple,  how- 
ever, was  rebuilt,  with  more  magnificence 
than  ever,  by  the  Ephesians,  whose  wom- 
en contributed  their  trinkets  to  the  gene- 
ral fund  raised  for  this  purpose.  Its  ruins 
are  now  the  residence  of^cowheids  and 
their  catUe,  and  the  once  splendid  eitv  is 
a  poor  village,  called  .^utfoldL  Hirt  has 
written  en  die  temple  of  Epbeaus. 

£psiAi.TB8 ;  the  snne  as  «ieiift«». 
(q.v.) 

£pHfAi,TES.    (See  .^fou&f.) 

Eraoai;  msgHtrates  of  SpaitB,  mmb- 

Digitized  by  LjOOQ IC 


EPHORI--EPIC. 


537 


lished,  as  gome  think,  by^  Theopompus, 
745  B.  C,  or,  according  to  otfaers,  by  Ly- 
cur|[us,  to  conduct  the  internal  adminieh  ' 
tnition,  particularly  the  judicial  businesB, 
during  the  absence  of  ibe  kings.  They  had 
an  especial  superintendence  over  the  edu- 
cation of  youtn.  They  were  five  in  num- 
ber, chosen  from  the  people,  and  held 
their  office  only  a  year;  but  soon  began 
to  lessen  the  power  of  the  kings,  and  £i^ 
voured  oligarchy. 

EpHRAiMrrES.  Frederic  the  Great,  in 
the  seven  years'  'war,  established  a  mint  at 
Leipeic,  which  he  let  to  the  Jews  Ephraim, 
Itsig  and  company.  The  amount  of  rent, 
increasing  fi*om  year  to  year,  rose  at  last 
to  $7,000,000  of  the  bad  money  coined 
there.  The  Jewish  contractots  struck  off 
a  vast  quantity  of  eight  groscfaen  pieces, 
which  depreciated  in  value  every  year,  so 
that  the  fine  mark,  in  1761,  rose  to  35  dol- 
lars, and  the  old  Augustus  and  Frederic 
d'or  passed  for20do0ars.  To  impose  on 
the  public,  the  number  of  the  year  1753 
was  put  U]K>n  these  small  coins.  The 
people  gave  these  cfight  groschen  pieces 
the  name  of  EphravmUs,  At  the  end  of 
the  war,  they  were  redeemed  by  the  Saxon 
government 

Ephrata  ;  an  irregular  village  biult 
and  occupied  by  a  society  of  Seventh-day 
Baptists,  on  the  Cocalico  creek,  in  Lancas- 
ter county,  Pennsylvania,  60  miles  from 
the  city  of  Philadelphia,  and  38  from  Har- 
risburg.  This  society,  usually  denominat- 
ed the  DwfikerSy  was  founded  by  Conrad 
Beissel,  a  German  of  much  intelligence 
and  piety,  who  had  received  a  regular  ed- 
ucation at  Halle,  and  took  orders  as  a  Cal- 
vinistic  minister;  but,  being  persecuted  for 
his  opinions  on  some  points  of  theology, 
which  he  could  not  reconcile  to  his  mind, 
he  left  Europe,  and  retired  to  this  place 
about  the  year  1720,  and  soon  formed  a 
litde  colony,  called  EphraiOj  in  allusion  to 
tlie  Hebrews  who  used  to  sing  psalms  on 
the  borders  of  the  Euphrates.  It  contains 
several  very  ancient  and  singular  buildings, 
the  principal  of  which  are  a  brother  and 
a  sister  house.  The  two  houses  for  the 
brethren  and  sisters  are  very  large,  and  are 
four  stories  high :  each  contains  a  chapel, 
and  is  divided  into  small  apartments,  so 
that  six  dormitories,  which  are  barely 
large  enough  to  contain  a  cot  (in  former 
times,  a  bench  and  block  for  the  head),  a 
closet  and  an  hour-glass,  surround  a  com- 
mon room,  in  which  each  mess  have  their 
meals  and  puisue  their  respective  avoca- 
tions. This  people  are  remarkable  ibr 
their  rigid  adherence  to  the  precepts  and 
ordinances  of  the  New  Testament,  even  to 


Ihe  washing  of  the  feet  before  administer- 
ing the  sacrament ;  and  do  not  admit  of 
any  innovations  whatever  on  the  estab- 
limed  forms  and  ceremonies  of  Christ 
They  are  veiy  observant  of  the  Sabbath 
(the  seventh  day).   The  dress  of  the  breth- 
ren and  sisters  is  that  of  the  Franciscans 
or  White  Friars.     The  members  of  the 
society  are  now  much  dispersed ;  a  large 
body  of  them  now  live  in  conamunity  at 
the  Antietam  in  Franklin  county,  Penn- 
sylvania.   At  one  period,  about  60  or  70 
years  ^ce,  they  were  very  numerous, 
exceeding  500  in  the  cloister.    The  few 
that  remain  in  the  convent,  and  the  mem- 
bers in  the  adiacent  country,  differ  in  no 
respect  fit>m  their  neighbors  in  dress  or 
manners,  though  they  live  in  the  faith  of 
&eir  fathers,  and  are  remarked  for  their 
exemplaiy  lives  and  deportment     The 
ancient  communitgr  entertained  some  opin- 
ions, which,  in  the  present  day,  are  deem- 
ed visionary,  and  the  product  of  enthusi- 
asm and  speculation.      They  are  much 
misrepresented,  however,  by  those  writers 
who  assert,  that  they  live  chiefly  upon 
roots  and  other  vegetables,  the  rules  of 
the  society  not  allowing  them  flesh,  ex- 
cept on  particular  occasions;   tlifat  they 
consider'  future  happiness  to  be  attained 
only  by  penance  and  outward  mortifica- 
tion in  this  life;  and  that  they  disclaim 
violence,  even  in  cases  of  self-defence, 
and  suffer  themselves  to  be  defrauded  or 
wronged  rathec  than  go  to  law.    These 
writers  are  also  in  error  when  they  state 
that  they  allow  no  intercourse  between 
the  brethren  and  sisters,  not  even  by  mar- 
riage.   On  the*  contrary,  whenever  two 
wish  to  engage  in  the  bonds  of  wedlock, 
they  are  aided  by  the  society,  djough  they 
consider  celibacy  a   virtue.     They   are 
peaceful,  and  their  manner. of  living  is 
temperate ;  but  they  enjoy  in  moderation 
the  same  temporal  goods  and  comforts  as 
their  fellow  men.    They  are  distinguished 
for  their  music,  which  is  peculiar,  com- 
posed and  arranged  by  themselves. 

Epi  ;  a  Greek  preposition  (/it()i  having  a 
number  of  significations— on,  upo^  ^ 
over,  abovtf  under,  before,  &Ck  This  was 
the  reason  of  its  being  compounded  with 
many  words  which  pcussed  over  into  Latin, 
and  thence  into  English,  as  a  number  of 
the  following  articles  will  show. 

Epic  ;  a  poem  of  the  narrative  kind. 
This  is  all  that  is  properly  signified  by  the 
word,  although  we  generally  understand 
by  it  a  poem  of  an  elevated  chamcter, 
describing  the  exploits  of  heroes.  With- 
out entering  into  the  various  theories  of 
epic  feompositiiMi,  we  shall  state  the  views 


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EPK. 


of  OBB  of  the  inoit  diitmcuiihed  eiaticB 
of  onr  age — ^A.  W.  ron  8c£je^1 — on  Uiia 
subject  As  action  is  the  object  of  the 
drama  (a,  v.^  eo  narration  is  that  of  the 
epic  out  as  the  event  related  is  some* 
thing  already  pest,  the  epic  is  less  stirring 
than  the  drama,  which  represents  an  ac- 
tion as  just  happening,  and  therefore  fills 
the  mind  with  a  lively  excitement ;  hence 
the  more  (juiet  tone  of  the  epic,  and  the 
pauses  which  may  be  allowea  in  the  in- 
terest of  the  descriptioo,  whilst  the  char- 
acter of  the  drama  is  to  set  before  the 
q^ectator  a  rapid  succession  of  actionSi 
and  completely  engross  him  in  the  exhi- 
bition ;  hence,  too,  the  |M>et  is  allowed  to 
introduce  passages  of  philosophical  reflec- 
tions (the  frequency  and  proprie^  of 
which,  of  course,  must  be  regulated  by 
the  taste  and  judgment  of  tlie  writer) ; 
nay,  the  very  epithets  by  which  the  per- 
sons and  events  of  the  epic  poem  are  de- 
signated, are  of  a  descriptive  character, 
and  indicate  ^  poet's  oliservation  of 
what  is  going  on ;  whilst,  in  the  drama,  he 
must  not  make  himself  visible  at  aU.  The 
epic  is  not  a  hasty  journey,  in  which  we 
hunj  towards  a  certain  end,  but  an  ex- 
cursion, on  which  we  take  time  to  view 
many  objects  on  the  road,  which  the  art 
of  the  poet  presents  to  amuse  us.  Jean 
Paul  Richter,  in  bis  VorschMde  dir  AsMOik 
(Introduction  to  ^Esthetics),  says  on  this 
point:  "The  epic  poet  may  fly  from  re- 
cion  to  region,  oetween  heaven  and  hell, 
but  he  must,  at  least,  describe  his  flight  and 
his  way.  Slow  and  prolonged  deecription 
is  allowed  in  the  epic.  How  long  does 
Achilles  rage !  How  slow  is  the  death 
of  Christ  !*  Hence  the  propriety  of  a 
calm  and  minute  description  of  the  shiekl 
of  Achilles ;  hence  the  propriety  of  the 
episode.  The  multitude  of  actors  retards^ 
like  a  number  of  wheels  in  clock-work, 
the  course  of  the  machine;  since  each 
actor  requires  room  for  his  action.  Nov- 
els are  epic  compositions,  and  follow  the 
same  rules.  Yorick's  journey  occupies 
but  three  days;  the  fifth  book  of  Don 
Quixote  is  confined  to  one  evening,  in  a 
tavern.  The  action  of  the  poem  b^mes 
tedious,  it  is  true,  in  case  of  repetition,  and 
stops  when  action  foreign  to  the  main 
puipoee  is  introduced ;  but  the  main  ac- 
tion of  the  poem  may  be  divided  into 
parts  without  being  ^qplosed  to  the  charge 
of  these  fiujlts,  as  tlie  unity  of  a  day  is 
not  destroved  by  its  division  into  hours." 
Unity,  indeed,  is  necessary  in  die  epic 
as  in  every  poem,  and,  in  fact,  in  every 
production  of  art  (See  Dnana,)  But 
» In  Klopstock'f  Me$»uuk. 


this  unity  need  not  be  so  scrupulously  sly- 
served  as  iu  the  drama.  A  writer  m  ce- 
nius  may  be  allowed  to  overstep  the  role^ 
and  say,  ^'I  do  not  intend  to  give  you  a 
perfect  epic,  but  merriy  fragments,"  bb  By- 
ron has  done  in  the  case  of  the  Giaow. 
Such  productions,  however,  must  always 
mmin  exceptions  to  the  class  of  epic  com- 
positkiHSL  Parts  of  diflfereat  opoas  are 
sometimes  combined  for  an  evening^  en- 
tertairmient ;  but  no  one  woukl  call  such  a 
perlbrmance  an  opera.  The  fiagmenti 
of  a  masteriy  work  of  sculpture  may  be 
beautiful,  and  much  more  beautiful  and 
more  valuable  than  many  complete  statr 
ues;  yet  fragments  are  not  statuesL 

FVom  what  has  been  said,  it  appests 
diat  the  epic  may  treat  very  difieient  sub- 
wets,  grave  and  elevated  !>ke  Dante%  and 
Milton's  poems,  plowing  and  romiuitir  like 
Ariosto's  and  Wieland's  epios,  cheerful  ana 
ludicrous  like  Tassino's  and  Butler^  ad- 
mirable productions.  Accordingly,  epics 
have  been  divided  into  heroic ;  mock-be* 
roic,  as  the  excellent  La  Stcchia  Bmta 
(The  Rape  of  the  Bucket),  or  Pope's  Rape 
of  the  Lock,  or  Bmleau's  Mjutrm ;  romande 
as  Tasso's  Jerusalem  Delkvex^d  {oUegoik, 
as  Dante,  &c. ;  but  these  cfiviaioDS  can 
never  be  very  definite,  as  th^  pass  imper- 
ceptibly into  each  other.  Whilst  Homer 
is,  we  might  almost  say,  plosiac,  Arieelo 
is  almost  lyric,  mmI  alwayB  descriptive 
in  quite  another  style,  and  Mitton  oflen 
pours  forth  his  reUgious  sentimoots  in  a 
lyric  strain;  yet  the  poems  of  all  avs 
epics. 

As  the  language  and  the  literatureof  a  na- 
tion always  mutually  affect  each  other,  we 
trace  this  influence,  of  course,  in  ^lic  do- 
etry.  Who  can  calculate  the  great  innu- 
ence  which  Homer  probably  had  on  the 
Greek  kungiiage?  Whilst,  on  the  oftber 
hand,  it  is  partly  owing  to  the  plastic  trait 
in  the  two  ancient  languages,  that  tbii 
characteristic  was  imparteil  to  their  epis 
poetry.  Among  the  modem  languages  of 
Europe,  none  is  so  well  adapted  to  descrip- 
tion as  the  English — a  circumstance,  «> 
which,  probably,  is  partly  owing  the  great 
number  of  English  epics,  or  poems  of  sn 
epic  character,  of  which  many  are  truly 
beautifijl,  indudinff  all  varieties,  finom  tlM 
sublimity  of  Paradise  Lost  to  the  wit  of 
Hudibras.  Spenser,  Mikcm,  Glover,  But- 
ler, Po]ie,  Scott,  Byron,  Moore,  Canqibefl, 
Southey,  and  many  other  distingujahed 
names,  are  embraced  in  the  list  of  English 
epic  writers.  In  tlie  number  of  good  e^c^ 
the  Italians  are  next  to  the  English,  anionfF 
modem  nations,  and  can  produce  three  of 
the  highest  character,  while  the  Engtisb 


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cno. 


59 


licve  but  one  of  the  highest  ladc  to  oppose 
to  them:  these  three  are  Dante's  Dwina 
Commediay  one  of  the  grahdest  productions 
of  the  human  mind ;  Ariosto's  Orkauh 
/Vcrioao,  the  flower  of  romantic  poetry  ; 
and  Tasso's  Jerusalem  DeliTeied,  a  poem 
which,  if  deficient  in  <mginality  and 
chamcter,  two'  very  important  ingiedi« 
ents  of  an  epic,  cannot  be  surpassed  in 
sweetnen  and  hannony,  and,  in  fii^t,  has 
not,  in  omr  opinion,  been  equalled  in  these 
respects.  The  Itatians  are  very  rich  in 
bunesque  and  satiric  epics.  The  Germans 
possess  one  great  ancient  epic,  the  JVtMun- 
gtniUd  (q.  v.J,  a  poem  of  the  grandest 
design,  and  or  the  highest  xaiik  in  regard 
to  the  characters  described,  excelling  in 
this  respect  the  Iliad  of  Homer ;  the  chief 
personage  of  which  is  violent,  Belf-wiUed, 
and  incapable  of  self-government,  so  as  to 
fidl  inr  below  the  rank  of  a  true  hero, 
whose  attributes  should  be  firmness  and 
self^sommand,  a  spirit  unshaken  in  adver4 
aity,  and  an  intellect  adequate  to  every  exi- 
gency. But  in  respect  to  poetical  execur 
ten  and  beauty  of  language,  the  Mbelttti- 
fftmUed  cannot  be  comparoi  with  the  Ion- 
ic rhapsodies.  Of  a  very  eariy  date^  likci- 
wise,  IS  the  satirical  epdc  Reynard  the  JFhs 
(q.  v.),  a  poem  aUkeori|pnal  m  design  and 
execudon^  in  well-conceived  and  well-exr 
seated  satire.  It  may  be  considered  a 
naodel  of  satiric  epic  poetrr.  The  great- 
est modem  epic  of  the  Uermans  is  the 
Meatiadtf  by  Klopstock,  which  we  con* 
sader  fiuilty  in  its  veiy  conception,  as  the 
life  of  the  Savior  ofiere  but  litde  matter 
soitaUe  for  the  epic  poet^  so  that  the  po^ 
em  tn  general  has  little  of  an  epic  cha»* 
aclen  It  is  not  mnch  read  in  Germany; 
when  perused,  it  is  generally  as  a  task,  and 
from  a  feeling  of  duty.  In  modem  times, 
the  Geraians  have  had  several  epics  feom 
Wieland,  Schultze  and  others ;  but  he  who 
has  enjoyed  Camoens,  Ariosto,  and  the 
epics  of  die  British  poefs,  will  not  think 
that  the  German  ernes  rise  in  vahie  Iw 
eeniparison:  still  less  should  we  think 
of  extolling,  those  German  epics  which 
psr^e  more  or  less  of  the  cnaracter  of 
ic^Uic  poetiy;  and  the  most  celebrated 
or  whidi  is  Gothe^  Hernumn  v$td  Dorth 
ik€e^  a  poem  mndb  esteemed  by  his  com^ 
tiymen  in  general  (but  in  which  we  wen 
sever  able  to  take  any  great  interest),  giv- 
ing quaint  descriptions  in  incoirect  hexam- 
eters: it  must  be  remembered,  however, 
that  when  tUs  poem  was  written,  bexame- 
Isn,  in  German,  were  something  new,  and 
the  standard  of  correctness  had  then  not 
been  raised  so  high  ss  it  has  since  been, 
ehiefly  by  the  exartions  of  A*  MT.  von 


SehlefeL  Stifl  less  could  we  ever  relish 
the  Louua  of  Voss,  a  poem  which  treatt 
in  regular  epic  style  the  scenes  in  the  life 
of  a  country  clergyman,  and  in  which  the 
standing  epithet  Smvfirdig  (respectabte^is 
as  often  and  mvely  repeated,  whenever 
die  ^pastor  or  GrOnau"  is  mentioned,  as 
noifUmkd^  in  Homer,  vrith  the  name  of 
Acnille&  Descripdveness  is  not  so  promi- 
nent a  feature  in  the  Gemian  language,  as 
in  the  Enpfiisb  (it  is  more  abstract  and 
metaphysical,  hence  in  poetry  mose  lyrical), 
and  merefore  it  does  not  so  nataraUy  lead 
the  poet  to  epic  poetiy.  The  mostimeor- 
tant  epic  of  the  Spaniards  is  Ereula^s 
Aramana,  a  poem,  which,  to  fereignen^ 
aeneraliy  appears,  like  a  dutt  chronicle^ 
defective  in  poedcal  conciseness  of  lan- 
guage and  originality  of  ideas.  The 
Spaniards  possess  several  epics  of  an  al- 
lefroric-religious  character.  One>  of  the 
nM»lest  of  epic  productions,  is  Camoens* 
Liuiad,  vdiicb,  uke  a  magnificent  floweri 
spmng  naturaUy  out  of  a  heroic  and  glo- 
rious age,  and  which,  in  spite  of  the  many 
animaiwerBions  on  particular  parts  of  it,  in 
which  the  tasle  of  the  a^  mi^  have  pre- 
vaiM.  over  the  higher  claims  of  poetry,  will 
be  prized  as  long  as  noble  ideas  and  beau- 
tifol  descriptions  are  valued.  The  French 
language,  the  chief  traits  of  vrhich  are 
precvBion,  and  on  agreeable  and  often 
charming  vivacity,  is  not  very  well  adapt- 
ed for  the  qiic,  which,  not  to  become  te- 
dious in  the  slow  progress  of  the  narm- 
tive,  requires  a  copious  and  deseripdve 
langiage ;  qualities  for  wfaioh  the  Fraich 
language  is  by  no  means  remarkable.  The 
Hmriade  strikes  most  foreigners  as  a-  fell- 
ure,  in  .which  the  author^  intellect  was  su- 
perior to  his  genius.  Boiteau's  comic  ep- 
ic, the  Lubin,  is  moch  esteemed.  Of  the 
Greek  epics,  it  is  well  known  that  Ho- 
mer's  Iluti  and  OAutey  are  the  principal. 
Mcich  the  most  distmgnished  RoflMn  epio 
is  the  JSneis  of  Vifgil.  Lucan^  Phar- 
joKa  is  rather  a  fatotorical  chronicle  than 
an  epic  It  is  intended  as  on  apotheosis 
ofFonipey.  The  heentiousFetronms  also 
wrote  an  epic  on  the  civil  ware  of  CaMar  and 
Pompey.  Valerius  Ffaccus,  contempora^ 
ryot  Vespasian,  wrote  an  epic  on  the  Ar* 
gonauCB,  too  cioee  an  imitatioo' of  the  Ar^ 
gMoukca  of  ApoUoi^us  Rhodkis.  There 
are,  however,  some  noble  passages  m  Va^ 
lerius  Flaccus.  &&m  Itaficos  vrrote  an 
epic  on  the  second  Punic  war.  Sutios^ 
contoranorary  of  Domiffaui,  is  the  anthor 
of  the  J%Aaid^  which  he  dedicated  to  this 
corrupt  tyrant  His  style  is  bombastic  and 
afi^ted ;  biit  be  is  a  writer  of  genii 
Dante  aekncnrMges  this  in  his  poem. 


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£F1CHARMU8— EPICURUS. 


EncHAmMus  of  Cos,  a  phikMopher  of 
find  Pythagorean  achool,  liFed  in  the  latter 
put  of  the  fifth  century  before  Christ,  at 
Syracuse,  and  there  wroie  his  celebrated 
eomedies,  now  lost  Their  number  is  reck- 
oned at  52,  and  the  titles  of  40  of  them 
have  been  presenred.  The  tyrant  Hiero 
banished  him  fiom  Syracuse,  on  account 
of  bis  phikioophical  principles,  and  some 
allusions  in  bis  comedies.  He  ended  his 
days  in  his  native  place,  at  an  advanced  ajpe. 
The  Sicilian  comedy  of  Epicharmus,  pnor 
to  the  Attic,  grew  out  of  the  mimes,  wnich 
were  peculiar  to  this  island,  making  a  sort 
of  popular  poetiy.  He  arran^  the  sep- 
arate unconnected  scenes,  eadiibited  in  the 
mimes,  into  continued  plots,  as  in  tragedy. 
His  comedies  were  longre^uded  as  mod- 
els in  this  species  of  composition,  and  are 
as  much  distinguished  by  their  knowledge 
of  human  nature  as  bj  their  wit  and  live- 
ly dialogue.  The  Sicilian  comedy,  in  op- 
position to  the  Attic-Ionic,  is  also  desig- 
nated as  the  Doric  comedy. 

EpicBiaBHA  is  the  name  given,  in  logio 
and  rhetoric,  10  a  conclusion,  whose  pre- 
mises are  at  the  same  time  proved  by 
reasons  annexed,  so  that  an  abridged  com- 
pound argumentVpolysyllogism)  is  formed. 

Epictbtus.  This  celebrated  Sloic,boni 
at  Hieropolis,  in  Phrygia,  A.  D.  90,  lired 
at  Roine,where  he  was  the  slave  of  Epapb- 
roditus,  a  fonital  fieedman  of  Nero,  whose 
abuse  and  mal-treatment  he  bore  with 
the  fortitude  of  a  Stoic  It  is  related 
of  kim,  that,  his  master  once  striking  a 
severe  bk>w  upon  his  leg,  he  calmly  re- 
monstrated, telling  him  that  he  would 
break  the  limb.  The  Qrrant  redoubled  his 
bbwB,  and  broke  the  bone.  **  Did  I  not 
tell  thee  so?"  was  the  only  exclamation 
of  the  philoeopber.  He  was  afterwards 
set  at  lioer^,  but  always  lived  in  the  great- 
est poverty.  The  foundation  of  his  mo- 
rality was  patience  and  abstinence.  The 
excellence  of  his  system  vras  universally 
acknowledged.  Domitian  banished  him, 
with  other  philoeopberB,  from  Rome ;  for 
the  tyrant  could  not  but  hate  men  whose 
principles  breathed  sconi  of  all  injustioe 
and  wickedness.  Epictetus  settled  in  Epi- 
nis,  but  returned  after  the  death  of  Do- 
mitian,  and  was  in  hicfa  esteem  with  Adri- 
an and  Marcus  Aurdius,  and,  A.  D.  134, 
was  made  aovemorof  Cappadocia.  Arri- 
an  collected  the  sayings  or  Epictetus,  his 
teacher ;  we  have  them  still,  under  the  ti- 
de of  JSndkcricKon.  Besides  this  manual, 
we  have  four  books  more  of  philosophical 
maxims,  by  him.  Of  both  vrorks,  espe- 
dally  of  the  Enehiridum,  there  have  been 
many  editiooiL    Schweigfaftuser  has  pub- 


liriied  them  together  (Lapsic,  1790,  sqii. 
Svols.^  As  a  proof  of  the  hj|j[h  respect 
in  which  Epictetus  was  held,  it  is  said  that 
his  study  lamp  was  sold  aftier  his  death 
for  3000  drachmas. 

Elpicnaus;  bom  at  Gargettns,  near 
Athens,  342  B.  C.  This  Greek  i^ikso- 
pber  was  the  son  of  poor  'parents,  and  of 
80  studious  a  disposition,  that,  in  his  12th 
year,  he  went  to  Athens  to  attend  the  in- 
structions of  the  grammarian  Pamnhiliua. 
Once  hearinff  him  r^wat  a  verse  of  Hesiod, 
in  which  Chaos  is  called  the  fint  of  all 
created  beings,  he  inquired  who  created 
Chaos,  for  he  must  be  the  firat  of  exislen- 
ce&  The  grammarian  referred  him  to  the 
philosophen^  whom  Epicurus  henceforth 
zealou8i]r  attended.  But  he  was  not  con- 
tented with  seeing  Athens  only.  In  order 
to  cultivate  his  mmd,  and  to  coUect  infor- 
mation, he  travelled  through  various  coon- 
tries,  and  at  last,  in  his  d6th  year,  opened 
his  school  in  a  gardenat  Athens.  He  was 
soon  surrounded  by  crowds  of  sdiolanL 
He  taught  that  the  greatest  good  oouBtB 
in  a  happiness,  springinff  not  from  sensoal 
gratification  or  vicious  pleosures,  but  fiora 
virtue,  and  consisting  in  the  peace  and 
harmony  of  the  soul  with  iaeMi  He  ac- 
cordingly renounced  vice,  and  embraced 
virtue,  not  for  their  own  sakes,  but  for 
their  connexion  with  happiness,  vice  be- 
ing as  incompatible  with  it  as  virtue  is  es- 
sential to  it  He  recommended  wisdom, 
moderation,  temperance,  seclusion  from 
political  afiiuia,  gentleness,  forbearance 
tovrards  the  self-love  of  men,  fiimness  of 
soul,  the  enjoyment  of  decent  plessures 
(so  for  as  it  does  not  incapacitate  us  for  new 
pleasures),  and  contempt  of  life.  Freedom 
nom  pain  he  regarded  as  desirable,  but,  at 
the  same  time,  he  bore  with  fortitude  the 
most  excruciating  pains  of  body.  Although 
he  disdncdy  showed  the  mesning  of  bis 
doctrines  by  his .  own  exempluy  life 
(which  some,  however,  charged  with  pride 
and  envy),  yet  they  have  been  often  mis 
understood  or  misrepresented.  His  doc- 
trine of  the  origin  of  the  universe,  bor- 
rowed fix>m  Democritus,  is  atomical  and 
material.  Proceeding  upon  the  axiom, 
that  nothing  can  be  i»noduced  from  noth- 
ing, he  assumed  two  necesaaiy,  eienial 
aiM  infinite  firat  causoo  space,  and  atoma, 
or  indivisible  bodies,  arranged  in  endleas 
variety.  These  atoms,  by  virtue  of  their 
natural  sravity,  moved  in  space,  and  nun- 
sled  wim  one  another.  To  make  the  un- 
ion possible,  he  supposed  them  to  move,not 
in  straight  but  in  curved  lines.  1^  these 
motions,  thev  crossed  and  hit  each  other 
in  all  poflrible  ways ;  and  firom  their  mun- 


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5U 


combinations  and  intarvolutions, 
aroee  bodies  and  beings  of  all  kinds.  Al- 
thouffh  single  atoms  bad  no  otber  quali- 
ties than  figure  and  gravity,  tbej  produced, 
when  combined  in  bodies,  the  various 
qualities  diat  afiect  the  senses,  as  color, 
sound,  smell,  &c  He  further  taught,  that 
as  all  things  arose  from  the  union  of  atoms, 
so  all  things  will  be  again  destroyed  by 
their  dissolution ;  that  there  are  multitudes 
of  worlds,  formed  by  chance,  which  are 
continually  rising  and  falling.  The  world, 
as  it  has  had  a  beginning,  must  have  an 
end ;  and  out  of  its  ruins,  a  new  one  will 
be  formed.  He  found  no  difference  be- 
tween men  and  brutes,  and  ascribed  the 
origin  of  the  soul  to  the  same  material 
process  above  described.  The  gods,  he 
thought,  lived  in  eternal  tranquillity,  un- 
concerned about  the  world.  This  doctrine, 
which  was  not  uniusdy  charged  with 
atheism  and  materialism,  drew  upon  him 
much  opposition  and  calumny.  He  lived 
to  the  age  of  72  (270  B.  C).  His  system 
found  many  followers  in  Rome,  among 
whom  Celsus,  Pliny  the  elder,  and  Lucre« 
tius,  were  the  most  eminent,  although  it 
never  attained  the  reputation  of  the  Peri- 
patetic, Stoic,  and  Platonic  schools.  Little 
IB  left  of  his  numerous  writings.  Some 
^mgmentB  of  a  Treatise  on  Namre  have 
been  found  at  Herculaneum,  and  pub- 
lished by  Orellt  (LeiDsic,  1818).  The  oth- 
er accounts  of  his  philosophy  are  only  the 
poem  of  Lucretius,  and  the  notices  of  it 
m  Cicero,  Pliny  the  elder,  &c.,  and  two 
letters  (published  by  Schneider,  Leipsic, 
1813,  ii^  a  revised  and  improved  ediuon). 
— ^An  eincurean,  according  to  the  perverted 
meaning  of  the  epicurean  doctrine,  is  one 
who  is  devoted  to  sensual  enjoyments, 
particularly  those  of  the  table. 

Epicycle,  in  the  ancient  astronomy, 
was  a  subordinate  orbit  or  circle,  which 
was  supposed  to  move  on  the  cireumfer- 
enoe  of  a  larger  one,  called  the  different ; 
by  means  of  which  one  motion,  apparent- 
ly irregular,  was  resolved  into  two  that 
were  circular  and  uniform.  And  when 
the  oliserved  motion  was  so  irregular  and 
complicated  as  not  to  be  resolved  with  one 
epicycle,  others  were  added,  till  a  nearer 
approximation  was  obtained^  This  sys- 
tem owed  its  origin  to  a  prejudice  that 
seems  to  have  been  extremely  ancient,  in 
foror  of  circular  motion ;  and  the  prob- 
lem that  principally  engaged  the  attention 
of  astronomers  in  those  times,  was  to  aa- 
sign  the  proper  proportion  of  the  different 
and  epicycle  which  should  approximate 
nearest  to  absolute  observation.  (See  •^- 
inmomy,  Hiitory  o/y 

VOL.  IV.  46 


Epictcloid,  in  geometry,  is  a  curve 
generated  by  a  point  in  one  circle,  which 
revolves  aliout  another  circle,  either  on 
the  concavity  or  convexity  of  its  circum- 
ference, and  thus  differs  from  the  common 
cycloid,  which  is  generated  by  the  revo- 
lution of  a  circle  along  a  lighl  line ;  though 
the  latter  has  sometimes  been  assimilated 
with  the  former,  by  considering  die  right 
line  as  the  circumference  of  a  circle  whose 
diameter  is  infinite.  The  invention  of 
epicvcloids  is  ascribed  to  M.  Roemer,  the 
celebrated  Danish  astronomer. 

Epidaurus  ;  one  of  the  most  consident- 
ble  towns  and  commercial  seaports  of  an- 
cient Greece ;  situated  in  Arffolis,  in  the 
Peloponnesus ;  particulariy  celebrated  for 
its  magnificent  temple  of  iEsculapiuSi 
which  stood  on  an  eminence  not  far  nom 
the  town.  An  inscription  over  the  en- 
trance declared  it  to  be  open  only  to  pure 
souls.  Crowds  of  invalids  resorted  to  the 
place,  in  hopes  of  obtaining  a  cure  fiiom 
the  beneficent  divinity,  in  whose  honor 
festivals  were  celebrated  yearly. 

Epidemic,  or  Epidemic  Disease  (fi^om 
;iT(  and  initiiy  among  the  people),  signifies 
a  state  of  sickness  which  prevails  in  a 
place  or  tract  of  country  only  for  a  tem- 
porary i)eriod.  An  epidemic  always  orig- 
inates in  trandent  external  influences^ 
which  gradually  produce  such  changes  in 
the  bodily  system,  as  finally  bring  on  the 
sickness.  Thus  many  diseases  appear  to 
arise  from  some  peculiar  morbid  matter  in 
the  atmosphere,  brought  by  particular 
winds ;  e.  g.,  the  influenza,  and  other  dis- 
eases :  also,  poor  or  scanty  food,  un- 
wholesome mixtures,  &c.,  ma^  occasion 
epidemics.  Seasons  of  scarcity,  which 
compel  men  to  have  recourse  to  unusual 
means  of  subsistence,  (as,  for  example,  in 
Norway  and  Sweden,  to  the  bark  of  trees 
instead  of  com),  oflen  occasion  epidemics. 
The  ergot  in  rye  is  supposed  to  be  the 
cause  of  raphama.  Bad  barley,  or  much 
mixture  of  bearded  darnel  {lotiumtemulen- 
turn),  makes  the  beer  which  is  prepared 
from  it  unwholesome,  and  produces 
sickness  in  those  who  partake  of  it. 
Causes  producing  a  disturl)ed  state  of 
mind,  such  as  war,  sieges,  earthquakes, 
&c.,  by  their  eflects  on  the  nervous  sys- 
tem, may  very  much  favour  the  produc- 
tion of  epidemic  diseases,  or,  at  least,  ren- 
der ^em  more  malignant.  Epidemics 
sometimes  begin  with  a  few,  sometimes 
attack  great  numbera  of  persons  at  once, 
as  commonlyhappens  in  a  great  and  sud-r 
den  change  of  wind  or  weather.  If,  for 
instance,  afler  a  long  continuance  of  h 
West  or  .south-west  wind,  vrith  waim 


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EPID£MIC--EP16ASTRIC. 


weather,  k  suddenly  changes  to  an  east  or 
north-eai^  wind,  we  hear  iieople  complain- 
ing directly  of  coughs,  colds,  rheumatisms) 
&C.  An  efiidemic,  at  its  commencement, 
is  usually  mild,  and  becomes  more  dan- 
gerous OS  it  spreads ;  as  it  goes  ofl^  it,  for 
the  most  pait,  assumes  a  mild  character 
aAain.  It  frequently  terminates  as  enidu- 
uly  as  it  l)egan,  but  sometimes  suculenly. 
Many  persons  are  not  at  all  affected  l^ 
the  prevailing  epidemic.  The  cause  prob- 
ably lies  in  tlieir  bodily  habit,  which  is 
opposed  to  the  prevailing  influences,  and 
makes  them  capable  of  reastin^  them 
longer  than  other  persons.  Thus  it  often 
happens  that  men  with  chronic  complaints, 
hypochondriacs,  &c,  remain  free  from 
epidemic  disorders.  Epidemics  are  oflen 
confounded  with  conta^ous  disordef^ 
The  first  originally  are  not  contagious; 
tifieir  origin  and  propasation  depend  on 
general  influences,  and  they  commonly 
generate  no  contagious  matter,  producing 
the  same  disease  in  another  body  by  con- 
tact with  it  It  ift  only  in  narticular  cir- 
cumstances, espedally  if  the  disorder  is 
a  violent  one,  and  many  patients  are 
crowded  into  a  narrow  room,  that  a  con- 
tagious matter  can  be  generated,  forming 
a  corrupt  atmosphere  about  the  sick,  and 
capable  of  exciting  the  disease  in  persons 
who  come  near  it.  Even  under  these  cir- 
cumstances, contagion  does  not  necessari- 
ly take  place,  and  tlie  ignorant  generally 
conceive  a  hasty  and  groundless  fear  of 
contagion.  Thus,  for  mstance,  that  is 
frequently  ascribed  to  contagion,  which  is 
only  the  consequence  of  a  violent  shock 
of  the  nervous  system  at  the  sight  of  a 
aick  person,  jierhaps  in  a  loathsome  state, 
whereby  the  disease,  to  which  the  body 
was  already  disposed,  is  more  quickly 
developed. 

EpiDEaMis  (from  in}^  upon,  and  iipfiv^ 
the  true  skin) ;  tiie  scarf-skin.  (See  Cu- 
UcU,  and  Skiru) 

Epidote.  This  mineral  is  found  ciys- 
tallized  in  rhombic  prisms  variously  mod- 
ified, both  laterally  and  at  its  extremities. 
It  cleaves  parallel  to  the  sides  of  a  right- 
oblioue-ancled  prism  of  115**  SG',  and 
64**  34',  which  is  therefore  its  primary 
ciystal.  Some  of  its  more  interesting 
secondary  or  actually  occurring  forms 
are  the  following,  viz. :  1.  the  primary 
crystal,  altered  by  the  truncation  of  its 
acute  laieFal  edges,  and  terminated  at  both 
extremities  by  dihedral  summits;  %  the 
•ame,but  terminated  by  four-sided  pyr- 
amids, whose  apices  are  tnmcated;  a 
the  primary  crystal,  with  all  its  lateral 
'     adges  tnmcated' aikd  terminated  as  in  the 


last  instBiice.    The  prisms  are  generaHjr 
streaked  longitudinally;  lustre,  vitreous; 
color,  green  and  gray  prevalent    Among 
the  most  common  shades  of  the  first  is 
pistachio-green;  the  gray  colors  pass  into 
white ;   tnnsluceDt   on  the   edges,  and 
sometimes  transparent;  brittle;  haidneas 
above  that  of  feldspar,  and  litde  inferior 
to  quartz ;  specific  gravity,  3.26  to  S.4SL 
Some  of  the  laiger  crystals  from  Norway 
consist  of  concentric  coats,  the  outer  ones 
of  which,  being  peeled  ofl^  leave  a  crystal 
with  smooth  fiuxsL     Thin  ciystala  are 
often  observable.    When  massive,  the  in- 
dividuals   are    columnar,   straight,   and 
either   parallel    or  divergent ;   they  are 
sometimes  granular,  and  even  become, 
occasionally,  impalpable,  when  they  are 
strongly  connected.    The  deep  green  va- 
rieties are  called,  in  common  language, 
epidoie^  while  the  ^y  are  deBommated 
zoiaite ;  no  distinction  exists  between  the 
two,  except  what  arises  out  of  color.    The 
granular  variety  has  also  been  distinguish- 
ed by  the  separate  appellation  of  soona; 
and  a  light  reddish-black  variety  fh»m 
Piedmont,  which  is  highly  charged  with 
oxide  of  manganese,  has  be^i  called  the 
numganuiantfidoU.    The  chemical  com- 
position of  epidote  is  as  follows,  the  spe- 
cimen, analyzed  conmsting  of  the  green 
variety  from  Norway:    silica,  37;    alu- 
mine,  21 ;  lime,  15 ;  oxide  of  iron,  24 ; 
oxide  of  manganese,  1.50.     Before  the 
blow-pipe,  this  species  mehs,  with  much 
intumescence,  into  a  greenish  transparent 
glass.     Epidote  is  found  in  the  oldest 
rocks,  in  wbicli  it  occupies  dnisv  cavities^ 
or  narrow  veins,  being  irregularly  distrib- 
uted through  tliem,  without  ever  entering 
into  their  composition,  as  a  regular  in- 
gredient.    Magnificent  crystals  of  it,  two 
or  three  inches  in  length,  and  one  or 
two  in  diameter,  are  found  at  Arendal,  in 
Norway,  and  are  hence  called  .ArendaMit. 
Similar  varieties  occur  in  Sweden,  and 
at  Franoonia,  New  Hampshue.     Finely 
crystallized  specimens  come  from  Pied- 
mont ;  and  the  zoisite  variety  is  found  in 
the  Tyrol,  and  in  a  great  number  of  places 
in  the  U.  States.    The  transparent  ciye- 
tals,  of  a  fine  color,  are  sometimes  wrought 
by  the  lapidary ;  though  they  are  esteem- 
ed of  little  value  m  jewelry. 

EncusTRi'c  (efngaatrieuB^from  hl^  ^p^» 
or  above,  and  xMrr4f>,  the  stomach).  That 
part  of  the  abdomen  that  lies  over  the 
stomach  is  called  the  qnmgtrie  region.  It 
reaches  fiiom  the  pit  of  the  stbmi^  to  an 
imaginaiy  line  above  the  navel,  supposed 
to  be  drawn  fimn  one  extremior  of  the  last 
of  the  fiJse  ribs  to  the  4>ther.    msides  ava 


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called  hfpethondnOj  and  are  e^eted  by 
the  false  ribs,  between  which  lies  the 
epigastrium. 

EpieLOTTts  (from  hi,  upon,  and  ^Aurn;, 
the  tongue);  the  cartilage  ait  the  root  of 
the  tongue,  that  falls  upon  the  glottis,  or 
superior  opening  of  the  larynx  ;  upper 
part  of  the  windpipe.  Its  figure  is  nearly 
oval ;  it  is  concave  posterioriy,  and  con- 
vex anteriorly.  It9  apex  or  superior  ex- 
tremity is  loose,  and  is  always  elevated 
upwards  by  its  own  elasticity.  While 
the  back  of  the  tongue  ia  drawn  back- 
waida  in  swallowing,  the  epiglottis  is  put 
over  the  aperture  of  the  laiynx ;  hence  it 
shuts  up  the  passage  from  the  mouth  into 
the  larynx.  The  base  of  the  epiglottis  ie 
fixed  to  the  thyroid  cartilage,  the  os  by- 
oides,  and  the  base  of  the  tongue,  by  a 
strong  ligament 

EpieoNi ;  the  collective  name  of  the 
sons  of  the  seven  Gieek  princes,  who 
conducted  the  ^rst  war  agamst  Thebes, 
without  success.  The  name  signifies 
q/ler-iom,  or  iueccMon,  from  M  and  yty 
9n$aiy  to  be  bom.    (See  Ththet.) 

Epioram  (from  M,  upon,  and  rp<<^,  I 
write);  originally  an  inscription,  then  a 
poetical  inscrip^on  in  temples,  on  tombs, 
&c.  The  object  requires  brevity,  but 
admits  of  all  kinds  of  sentiments  and 
ideas;  and  it  is  agreat  mistake  to  suppose 
the  epigram  always  satiricaL  From  its 
<concise  and  expressive  character,  it  is, 
indeed,  well  fitted  for  satire,  and  often 
employed  for  satirical  purposes,  as  it  was, 
likewise,  with  the  Romans ;  but  an  epi- 
gram may  be  didactic,  satiric,  comic, 
^ric,  or  elegiac  Leasing,  in  his  Theory 
of  the  Epigram,  saye^  that  it  is  mode  up 
of  two  parts—of  an  interesting  idea  and 
a  striking  conclusion ;  but  Herder  has 
shown  .tiiat  this  is  not  the  essential 
character  of  the  epigram,  though  a  fre- 
quent and  agreeable  form.  It  was  not, 
by  any  means,  gen«ielly  the  case  with 
the  Greek  epijmms.  The  epigram,  with 
the  Romans,  flourished  roost,  as  was  nat- 
ural, in  corrupt  times,  when  satire  found 
most  occasion  for  reproach,  and  wit  took 
the  place  of  noble  ideas.  Catullus  and 
Martial  were  distinguished  epigrammatic 
poets  among  the  Romans.  Marot,  in  the 
time  of  Francis  I,  Phron,  J.  B.  Rousseau, 
Lebrun,  Boileau,  and  even  Racine,  are 
distinguifilied  in  this  department  among 
the  French.  The  most  piquant  epigrams 
of  the  Romans  and  French  are  also  the 
most  licentious ;  and  ofiend  as  much  by 
their  indelicacy  as  they  divert  fay  their  in- 
genuity. The  tender  and  pathetic  epigram 
of  the  Greeks  has  been  supplied  by  tiie  mad- 


rigal among  the  Italians,  Spanish,  Portia 
guese  and  French.  The  French  have  distin- 
guished themselves  beyond  most  notions  in 
epigram.  Lebrun8ays,in  one  of  lus  poems, 

fV  Ptpigrammt,  h  ixt  tingtiime  foU, 

Ne  vous  plait  ndeuxi  die  n*est  aatez  borme. 

Epioraph  ;  the  inscription  (q.  v.),  e.  g., 
on  a  temple,  or  prefixed  to  a  fai^ok  (mot- 
tb]* — Epigraphf ;  the  study  or  knowledge 
of  inscriptions,  a  science  auxiliary  to  his- 
tory. The  epiffra^bic  side  of  a  coin  » 
that  on  which  me  image  and  the  inscrip- 
tion are  impressed :  numepifpri^hic  is  the 
name  given  to  it,  if  it  has  only  an  inscrip- 
tion ;  anepigra^hic,  if  it  has  imlv  an  ima^fs. 
!(For  the  origin  of  tiie  word,  see  Ep%r 
gram.) 

Epilepsy  (in  Latin,  tfiUpday  from 
the  Greek  ht\dnfia»^  to  seize  upon) ;  a 
nervous  disease,  depending  on  various 
caused,  often  exceeidingly  complicated, 
and  incapable  of  being  removed ;  hence  so 
often  an  incurable  periodical  disease,  ap- 
pearing in  single  paroxysms.  It,  for  the 
most  part,  is  preceded  by  a  cold  vapor 
(aura  mUpiica)^  creefHUg  up  from  the 
foot  or  nand  to  the  breast  and  head ;  but 
sometimes  there  are  no  procursive  symp- 
toms. The  patient  suddenly  fiills,  com- 
monly with  a  cry,  the  thumbs  are  con- 
vulsed, other  parts  are  agitated  more  or 
less,  entire  insensibility  succeeds,  the 
breath  is  short  and  quick,  broken,  and 
accompanied  with  i  groans,  the  mouth 
foams,  th^  fiice  is  convulsed,  the  teeth 
gnash  together,  the  eyes  are  distorted,  the 
urine  and  other  evacuations  are  dischar- 
ged involuntarily,  the  eyes  are  wide  open 
and  staring,  and  insensible  to  the  light 
The  paroxysm  is  usually  over  in  10  or  30 
minutes.  The  patient  awakes  as  from  a 
deep  sleep,  entirely  unconscious  of  what 
has  past;  he  feels  nothing  unpleasant, 
except  ftti^ue,  and  a  littie  pain  in  his 
limbs.  Sometimes  the  paroxysms  occur 
9  or  10  times  in  an  hour,  or  oftencr; 
sometimes  only  once  a  month,  at  the 
change  of  the  moon,  or  every  ^ix  months, 
or  at  still  longer  periods.  During  the 
paroxysm,  all  thax  is  to  be  attended  to  is 
to  prevent  the  patient  from  injuring  him- 
eelt.  All  other  attempts,  such  as  K>reing 
open  the  thumbs,  and  die  hke,  are  of  no 
avail,  except  to  tenninate  the  paroxysm 
sooner,  but,  at  the  same  time,  occasion  a 
quicker  return  of  it,  and  render  the  dis- 
ease more  difficult  to  cure. 

Epilogue  (from  the  Greek  M  and 
X^iK,  word,  speech);  the  closing  address 
to  the  audience  at  the  end  of  a  play. 
The  epilogue  is  the  opposite  of  the  pf- 
U^u€j  or  opening   address.     Many  of 


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544 


EPILOGUE-^PINAY. 


Sbakspeare's  plays  have  an  efnlogue  as 
well  as  prologue,  in  which  the  poet  some- 
dmes  craves  the  indulgence  of  tlie  spec- 
tators for  the  faults  of  liis  piece  and  the 
performance,  and  sometimes  intimates  in 
what  light  his  woik  is  to  be  considered. 
The  epilogue  is  sometimes  a  necessary 
appendage,  to  tell  us  somethine  of  a  com- 
position, which  cannot  be  ^thered  from 
the  composition  itself.  As  it  is  veiy  diffi- 
cult to  prevent  prologues  and  epilogues 
from  sinking  into  mere  common-places, 
and  from  injuring  rather  than  aiding  the 
play,  they  afford  an  opportunity  for  real 
genius  to  show  its  powers.. 

Epihenides  ;  a  celebrated  philoeo-' 
pher  and  poet  of  antiquity,  bom  in  Crete, 
in  the  6th  century  before  Christ  By 
some  he  is  reckoned  among  the  seven 
wiiEte  men,  instead  of  Periander.  He  is 
represented  as  favored  with  divine  com- 
munications, and  as  an  infallible  prophet 
When  the  Athenians  were  visited  with 
war  and  pestilence,  and  the  oracle  de- 
clared that  they  had  drawn  on  themselves 
the  divine  anger  by  the  profanation  of 
the  temple,  in  which  the  followers  of 
Gylon  had  been  put  to  death,  and  must 
expiate  their  oflence,  they  sent  for  Epi- 
menides  who  was  renowned  for  his  wis- 
dom and  piety,  from  Crete,  to  reconcile 
them  to  the  god&  He  pnldfied  their 
wishes,  and  introduced  various  useful  in- 
stitutions. On  his  departure,  be  refused 
to  accept  any  presents,  and  asked  no 
other  reward  than  a  branch  from  the  olive 
consecrated  to  Minerva.  There  is  a  story 
of  his  having  slept  in  a  cavern,  according 
to  some,  40  years,  and  according  to  others, 
a  still  longer  period.  On  awaking,  he 
found,  to  his  astonishment,  every  thing 
chanjied  in  his  native  town.  He  died 
in  his  native  country,  at  an  advanced 
age.  This  story  is  the  ground-work  of 
G^the's  poem,  the  Waking  of  Epimeni- 
des,  for  the  anniversaiy  of  the  battle  of 
Leipsic. 

Epimethxus,  in  Greek  mythology;  a 
son  of  Japetus  and  Clymene ;  he  mar- 
ried Pandora,  by  whom  he  had  Pyrrha, 
the  wife  of  Deucalion.  (ApttUod.  i,  7,  2.) 
It  was  Epimetheus  who  had  the  curios- 
ity to  open  the  box  which  Pandora  had 
brought  virith  her,  and  from  which  issued 
a  train  of  evils,  that  have  ever  since  afflict- 
ed the  human  race.  Hope  alone  remain- 
ed in  the  bottom  of  the  box,  Pandora 
having  shut  it  before  she  couk)  escape, 
that  she  might  comfort  mortals  afier  they 
had  expiat^  their  sins.  It  is  to  be  re- 
marked, that  in  this  Greek  tradition,  cu- 
riosity and  disobedience  are  made  the 


origin  of  evil,  as  in  the  Mosaic  account 
of  the  fall.    (See  Pandora,) 

Epinat,  Louise  (madame  d*)<     This 
accomplished  latly,   celebrated    for   her 
connexion  with  Rousseau,  was  the  daugh- 
ter of  M.  Tardieu  Desclavelles^  who  tost 
his  life  in  Flanders,  in  the  service  of  Louis 
XV,  and  left  his  family  in  veiy  moderate 
circumstances.    This,  and  the  mvor  which 
Deschivelles  had  enjoyed  at  court,  excited . 
an  interest  for  the  daughter,  and  she  was 
married   to  M.  Delalive  de  Bellegarde^ 
who  received  the  office  of  farmer-generaL 
But  the  extravagance  of  the  young  man 
soon  disturiied  the  happiness  which  had 
been  expected  from  this  union.    During 
the  eariier  part  of  her  life,  sbe  fonmed  aa 
acquaintance    with  the  philosopher   of 
Geneva,  who,  quick  and  susceptible  hi 
all  his  feelings,  devoted  himeelf  to  the 
fliscinating    and    accomplished    woman 
with  an  ardor,  the  depth  and  strength  of 
which  he  describes  himself  in  his  Con- 
fessions.   She  was  not  insensible  to  the 
homage  of  her  hear,  as  she  used  to  caH 
him,  on    accoimt   of  his  eccentricitiesL 
She  did  all  that  was  in  her  power  to  place 
him  in  a  situation  corresponding  to  he 
wishes.     She  gave  him  a  cottage  (the 
hermitage,  since  so  famous)  in  her  paik 
of  Chevrette,in  the  vale  of  Montmorency. 
Here  the  author  of  the  J^oundk  HddlMt 
passed  many  days,  rendered  happy  by  his 
romantic  attachment  to  madame  d'Epi- 
nay ;  until  he  became  jealous  of  baron 
Grimm,  whom  he  had  himself  introduced 
to  his  mistress;  and  in  consequence  of 
this  fueling,,  whkh  he  took  no  pains  tc 
conceal,  a  coolness,  and  finally  an  aver- 
sion took  place  between  him  and  the 
lady,  which  is  but  too  plainly  expressed 
in  his  Confessions.     A  defence  of  the 
hiter  conduct  of  madame  d'Epinay  to- 
wards Rousseau  may  be  found  in  Grimm% 
Correspondence,  where  an  account  is  also 
given  of  some  works  written  by  her,  of 
which  the  most  celebrated  is  Le$  Gtmwr- 
Mrfiotw  d^EmHit.     In  this  the  authoress 
in  a  rather  cold,  but  neat  style,  sets  forth 
the  principles  of  moral  instruction   fer 
children,  with  equal  elegance  and  depth 
of  thought     It  obtained,  in  1783,  the 
prize  offered  by  Monihion  (then   chan- 
cellor to  the  coimt  d*Artois)  for  useful 
works  of  this  kind,  in  preference  to  the 
AdiU  d  ThMore  of  madame  de  Genlis^ 
She  also  wrote  LMres  h  man  FSsj  and 
Jlfet  Moments  heureux.     An  abridgment 
of  her  highly  interesting  memoin,  and 
her  correspondence,  blowing  her  relationa 
with  Duck)s,  Rousseau,  Grimm,  Holbach, 
Lambeit,  &^  appeared  in  Paris,  io  S 


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EPINAY— EPISODE. 


545 


vols.,  1818.  They  £^ve  a  true  picture 
of  the  refined  but  corrupt  manners 
which  prevailed  among  the  higher  clas- 
ses in  France  during  the  government 
of  Louis  XV.    Madame  d'Epfaiay  died  in 

178a 

Epiphant  ;  a  festival,  otherwise  called 
the  nicmifestiiion  of  Christ  to  the  GeniiUSf 
observed  on  the  6th  of  January,  in  honor 
of  the  appearance  of  our  Savior  to  the 
three  magi,  or  wise  men,  who  came  to 
adore  him,  and  bring  him  presents.  The 
kings  of  England  and  ^pain  offer  gold, 
frankincense  and  myrrh,  on  Epiphany,  or 
twelfth  day,  in  memory  of  the  onerings  of 
the  wise  men  to  tlie  infant  Jeeus.  The 
festival  of  Epiphany  is  called  by  the 
Greeks,  the^ttM*  of  light$,  because  our 
8avior  is  said  to  have  been  baptized  on 
this  day ;  the  baptism  is  by  them  called 
tUummatioiu  The  feast  of  Epiphany  is 
also  called,  in  Germany,  the  festwd  of 
the  three  holy  kings.  The  primitive 
church  also  gave  this  nathe  to  the  birth- 
day of  our  Savior.  The  Greek  ehurch 
caUs  the  same  feast  Theophamf  (appear- 
ance of  God)^ 

Epipho Riu  This  figure  of  rhetoric  is  the 
emphatic  repetition  of  a  word  at  the  •end 
of  several  sentences,  or  stanzas,  as  the 
anaphora  is  the  repetition  of  it  at  the  be- 
ginning. Thus,  in  Byron's  song,  Zwii  /in,  <f«( 
oyviffw,  these  words  are  repeated  at  the 
end  of  every  stanza ;  and  in  the  Spanish 
Romance  muy  ddoroso  (translated  by  By- 
ron I  the  words  Ay  de  mi,  Alhama ! 

Epirus;  a  province  bordering  on 
Greece,  and  often  included  in  it ;  the  most 
southeriy  part  of  modem  Albania,  (q.  v.) 
The  oracle  of  Dodona  (q.  v.),  the  okiest 
in  Grreece,  was  in  Epirus,  in  a  temple  of 
Jupiter,  which  was  built  according  to  the 
direction  of  a  black  pigeon,  or  rather  of 
an  Egyptian  priestess.  There  are  no 
traces  remaining  of  that  celebrated  city, 
nor  has  the  grove  of  oaks,  with  the  never- 
fiuling  'Ibuntahis,  been  yet  discovered. 
MytlMkigy  probably  derived  from  this 
country  the  infernal  rivers  of  Acheron 
and  Cocytus ;  and  here,  too,  the  poisonous 
vapors  exhaled  from  Avernus  (now  Hilled 
VaU  ddl^  Orao).  The  country  is  moun- 
tainous, but,  along  the  sea-coast,  pleasant 
and  fertile.  In  ancient  times,  the  Cha- 
onians  were  the  most  powerful  tribe. 
Several  Greek  colonies  settled  among 
them.  The  most  celebrated  of  the  kings 
of  Epirus  was  Pyrrhus,  who  made  war 
upon  the  Romans.  Being  delivered  fh>m 
the  Macedonian  yoke  vj  the  Romans, 
when  they  conauered  Philip  II,  the  Ept- 
fots.  gradually  became  so  powerfii],  that 
46  * 


they  assisted  Antiochus  and  Perseua 
against  the  Romans,  but  thereby  only 
hastened  their  own  downfall.  Paul  us 
iEmilius  (q.  v.)  subdued  them,  and  gave 
up  their  towns  to  pillage.  Seventy  towns 
were  destroyed,  and  1m),000  men  sold  into 
slavery.  Epirus,  from  tliis  time,  shased 
the  fortunes  of  the  Roman  empire,  till  it 
was  conquered  by  the  Turks,  under  Amu- 
rath  II,  in  1432.  Castriot  (Scanderbqaf, 
q.  v.),  the  last  of  the  royal  family  in 
Epiriis, .  and  educated  at  the  Ottoman 
court,  threw  off  the  Turkish  yoke ;  but, 
after  his  death,  his  country  was  acain  con- 
quered by  Mahomet  II,  1466.  It  is  prin- 
cipally inhabited  by  Arnauta  fq.  v.) 

Episcenium,  in  modern  theatres,  Htm 
front  part  of  the  stage ;  in  ancient  thea- 
tiies,  the  upper  part  of  the  scene. 

Episcopact.  (See  Englandy  Church 
pf  and  Roman  Catholic  Church.) 

Episode  (Latin  episodiunif  from  the 
Greek  hiaSiiav)  is  employed  by  Aristotle, 
in  two  significations.  Sometimes  it  de- 
notes those  parts  of  a  play  which  are  be- 
tween tlie  choruses,  and  sometimes  an 
incidental  narrative,  or  digression  in  a 
poem,  which  the  poet  has  connected  with 
the  main  plot,  but  which  is  not  essential  to 
it  In  modern  times,  it  has  been  used  in 
the  latter  sense  only.  With  the  best  poets, 
the  episode  is  not  a  mere  patch  or  piece 
to  fill  out  the  poem,  not  an  unnecessaiy 
appendage,  serving  merely  to  swell  the 
size  of  the  work,  but  it  is  closely  connected 
with  the  subject,  points  out  important  con- 
sequences, or  developes  hidden  causes. 
Of  this  kind  is  the  narrative  of  the  de- 
struction of  Troy,  in  Virgil's  iEneid.  This 
was  the  cause  of  the  liero's  leaving  his 
country,  and  wandering  over  the  sea ;  but 
the  poet  does  not  commence  with  it,  be- 
cause he  wishes  to  bring  the  ^ot  into  a 
narrower  R])ace,  in  order  to  raalce  it  more 
distinct  and  lively.  He  therefore  inserts 
it  in  the  course  of  the  story,  but  so  skil- 
fully, that  we  expect  it  in  this  very  place; 
and  it  not  only  serves  as  a  key  to  what 
has  gone  before,  but  prepares  us  for  what 
is  to  come,  ^iz.,  the  passion  of  Dido.  In 
this  way,  the  episode  becomes  an  essential 
part  of  die  whole,  as  it  must  necessarily 
be,  if  it  is  of  any  importance  to  preserve 
the  unity  of  the  poem.  So  with  the  tate 
in  Wieland's  Oberon ;  it  appears  inciden- 
tal, but  explains  to  us  the  reason  of  Ol)e- 
ron's  singular  interest  in  tlie  fate  of  Huon. 
In  epic  poetry,  there  is  much  more  room 
for  the  episode  than  in  dramatic,  where 
the  poem  is  confined  to  a  present  action. 
The  term  episode  has  also  been  transfer- 
red to  painitiii^,  especially  historio  paint- 


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546 


EPISODE—EPITAPIL 


ing,  in  a  sense  analogous  to  that  which  it 
hoB  in  poetry. 

Epjstolje  obscurorum  Yirorum 
(Letters  of  obscure  Men — ^in  the  double 
sense  of  obscure) ;  a  collection  of  satirical 
letters,  which  first  appeared  in  1515,  pre- 
tending  to  be  written  by  well  known  cler- 
gymen and  professors  in  the  countries 
on  the  Rhine,  particularly  of  Cologne, 
in  barbarous  Latin,  in  which,  together 
with  theological  controversies  on  dilferent 
topics,  were  contained  shaq)  satires  on  the 
excesses  of  the  clergy  of  that  time.  The 
celebrated  Ulrich  von  Hutten,  with  other 
men  of  learning,  took  part  in  this  work. 
Oldest  edition,  by  Aldus  Manutius  (Co- 
logne, 1505,  4to.).  In  1517,  these  letters 
were  numbered  among  the  prohibited 
books  by  a  papal  bull.  They  have  been 
lately  republished,  in  1826.  Tliis  was  un- 
doubtedly one  of  Uie  most  interesting  pub- 
lications of  its  time. 

EpisTTLiUBf.  (See  ArckUedurej  vol.  1, 
page  338,  right  column.) 

Epitaph  (from  the  Greek  iinra^ow,  from 
U\,  upon,  and  r6^(,  tomb) ;  the  inscription 
on  a  tombstone.  The  Greeks  applied 
this  name  to  those  verses  which  were 
sung  in  memory  of  a  deceased  person,  on 
the  day  of  his  funeral,  and  on  the  anni- 
vensary  of  this  day.  An  epiuiph  should 
be  characterized  by  brevity  and  truth. 
Nothing  can  be  farther  from  its  nature 
than  the  long-winded  stories  on  tombs,  of- 
ten, as  untrue  as  they  are  long,  and  which 
differ  from  common  prose  ui  nothing  but 
an  arbitrary  division  into  long  and  short 
lines.  The  Germans  have  a  proverb, "  He 
lies  like  a  tombstone,  and  is  as  impudent 
as  a  newspaper.**  The  English  are  pecu- 
liarly addicted  to  long  epitaphs,  relating  a 
whole  life,  with  a  catalogue  of  the  merits 
of  the  deceased.  An  English  church- 
yard affords  much  food  for  reflection.  It 
18  plain,  that  tlie  form  of  an  epitaph  should 
correspond  with  the  character  of  the  sub- 
ject of  it  The  epitaphs  of  men  who 
have  performed  great  actions,  known  to 
the  whole  world,  or  who  have  made  dis- 
coveries in  science  and  art,  which  are 
acknowledged  by  their  a^  should  be  as 
simple  as  possible,  consistmg  of  little  else 
than theu: name, which  is, ofitself,  enough 
to  bring  up  a  whole  history  to  the  memo- 
ly  of  the  reader.  Long  panegyric  and 
reflection  are  out  of  p&ce  here.  Who 
would  not  prefer,  on  a  tombstone  erected 
to  Washington,  the  single  name  Wash- 
ingion,  to  any  attempt  to  point  out  his 
merits  ?  The  column  erected  to  the  mem- 
ory of  general  Massena,  who  is  buried  in 
the  eimMre  de  VEd^  in  Paria^  contains 


only  the  word  MusUna.  And  nropficity 
is  equally  essential  to  give  effect  to  the 
record  of  the  gentle  virtues  of  domestic 
hfe. 

We  will  here  give  a  few  epitaphs  de- 
serving of  remembrance.  One  of  the 
happiest  is  that  of  sir  Christopher  Wren, 
in  St  Paul's,  London,  of  which  he  was  the 
architect : 

Si  numuTntfUttm  quceritf  cimtmspiee. 

Mercy's  epitaph  on  the  field  of  bottle  at 
Nordlingen  is  also  very  appropriate.   It  isi 

StOf  rioter;  heroem  calcas. 

The  marchioness  of  Santa  Cruz  caused 
a  monument  to  be  executed  by  Canova, 
for  her  daughter,  intending  it  to  cover  also 
her  own  remains,  with  this  inscription : 

Mater  infelieissima  Jitia  H  tibL 

Count  Tessin,  governor  of  Gustavus 
III  of  Sweden,  onlered  the  words 

Tandem/eiix 

to  be  inscribed  on  his  tomb.  The  follow- 
ing is  sir  Isaac  Newton's  epitaph : 

Isaacum  Newtcnf 

Quern    immortalem 

Tftaniur  TempuSf  Aafaira,  Cmhim, 

MortaUm  hoc  Manmor 

Fatetur. 

M.  Ducis  wrote  the  following  epitaph 
on  his  friend  J.  J.  Rousseau,  buned  on 
the  island  in  the  lake  of  Ennenonville. 
(q.V.) 

Entrt  ee$  petqpliers  paitiAles, 
Repoee  Jean-Jacquet  Rousseau. 
Amrochetf  vcmrs  droits  et  sensibles. 
Voire  ami  dort  sous  ce  tomheau. 

One  of  the  simplest  and  saddest  is  thsl 
of  pope  Adrian,  written  by  himself: 

AdriamtSf  Papa  VF,  hie  situs  est, 
Qtd  nUnl  sibi  infdieim 

Quam  quod  imperaret, 
Duxit. 

The  following  epitaph,  by  doctor  John- 
son, on  a  celebrated  musician,  is  extreme- 
ly happy: 

Phiilij}S,  tDkose  touch  harmonious  aould  rewumt 
The  pangs  of  guilty  potter  and  hAptess  iooe. 
Rest  heref  tnstressed  by  poverty  ntf  more  ; 
Find  here  that  calm  thou  gac'st  so  oft  before  ; 
Sleep  undisturbed  within  this  peaeenU  Mrme, 
THU  angels  wake  thee  with  a  note  tike  thine. 

But  the  finest  we  have  ever  read  is  the 
simple  inscription  'in  St  Anne's  church, 
at  Cracow,  dedicated  by  count  Sien- 
kowski  to  the  illustrious  Copernicus : 

StOf  sU,  ne  mmteart. 
The    very  words  of   Scripture,  which 
were  used  as  a  pretext  for  the  penecutioo 


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of  the  great  truth  which  he  disoovered,  are 
here  employed  to  form  his  epitaph. 

Epitaphs,  notwithstanding  the  solemn 
circumstances  with  which  they  are  asso- 
ciated, have  not  imfrequently  been  made 
the  vehicles  of  p^easantry,  or  of  satire,  as 
in  the  following,  compoised  by  La  Fon- 
taine OB  himself: 

Jf.an  s'en  a/la  comme  il  4tait  venUf 
Mangeant  ie/ond  axec  U  rerenu. 
CroyarU  tr^sor  cfiose  ^eu  n^etsaire  ; 
QiMfU  <)  son  temps ^  Inen  sut  U  dispenser  ; 
Vetur  pmrts  en  fit  ^  dont  il  so&lait  passer 
Vtme  h  dormir  et  Vautre  h  ne  rien/aire. 

The  quaint  humor  of  doctor  Franklin 
also  expreffied  itself  in  the  following 
lines: 

7^6  body 

of 

Ber^amin  Franklin,     . 

printer, 

(like  the  cover  of  an  old  book, 

its  contents  torn  out, 

and  stripped  of  its  lettering  and  gilding,) 

lies  here,  food  for  worms  ; 

yet  the  work  itself  simll.  not  be  lost ; 

for  U  will  (OM  he  believed)  appear  once  more 

in  a  new 

and  more  beatUifid  edition, 

corrected  and  amended 

by 

the  Author, 

Of  satirical  epitaphs,  one  of  the  beat 
known  is  that  on  Piron,  written  by  him- 
self, in  a  spnit  of  revenge,  against  the 
French  academy : 

Ci-git  Piron  qui  nefut  rien 

Pas  mime  acodhnieien. 

The  following  is  said  to  be  found  in  the 
cemetery  of  Pe^e  la-Chaise : 

Ci-git  mafemme.    Ah  !  qu^elle  est  bien 
Pour  son  repos  et  pour  le  mien. 

The  following  was  made  on  Montmaui^ 
a  man  of  remarkable  memory,  but  de- 
ficient in  judgment : 

Sous  cetie  cosaque  noire 
Repose  bien  doiteement, 
Montmaw,  d^heureuse  mimoire, 
Attendant  lejugement. 

We  cannot  assert,  however,  that  these 
thrpe  last,  any  more  than  the  two  pre- 
ceding them,  ever  ajppeared,  except  on 
paper. 

Epitaphs  have  not  unfrequently  been 
written  on  animals,  as  the  following: 

Voiseau,  sous  ctsfteurs  etderri, 
N'enchantait  pas  par  son  ramage, 
ITStonnait  pas  par  son  plumage, 
Mais  il  axmaU  ;  ilfut  pieuri. 

Byron's  misanthropy  vented  itself  in 
the  epitaph  on  his  Newfoundland  dog, 
which  he  concluded  with  the  following 


To  mark  a  friend^  s  remains  these  stones  arise  ; 
/  tuner  knew  but  one,  and  here  he  lies. 

Eptthalamiuh  (from  adXa/ib$);  a  nup- 
tial song.  Among  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans, it  was  sung  bv  young  men  and 
nisfids  at  the  door  of  the  bridal  chamber 
of  a  new  married  couple.  It  was  accom- 
panied with  shouting  and  stamping  vrith 
the  feet  It  consisted  of  praises  of  the 
bridegroom  and  bride,  with  wishes  for 
their  happiness.  Among  the  Romans,  the 
husband  scattered  nuts  among  the  young 
men  at  the  same  time.  Examples  may 
be  seen  in  Theocritus's  epithalamium  of 
Helen,  and  the  epithalamium  of  Catul- 
lus. 

Epitobcs  (from  the  Greek  hitoith,  from 
h\  (Oi  v.],  and  rc^rw,  1  cut) ;  an  abridgment, ' 
an  abbreviation,  or  compendious  abstract. 

Epoch,  or  EaA,  is  a  certain  fixed  point 
of  time,^  made  famous  by  some  remarka- 
ble event,  from  whence,  &s  from  a  root, 
the  ensuing  years  are  numbered  or  com- 
puted. As  there  is  no  astronomical  con- 
sideration to  render  one  epoch  prefbrable 
to  another,  their  constitution  is  purely 
arbitrary,  and,  therefore,  various  epochas 
have  been  used  at  different  times,  and 
among  different  nationa  The  following 
article  is  from  the  Companion  to  the  Brit- 
ish Ahnanac  for  1890:—' 

It  will  render  the  comparison  of  eras 
much  easier,  if  we  give  some  account  of 
what  is  meant  by  a  solar  and  a  lunar  year. 
A  solar  year  is  that  space  of  time,  during 
which  all  the  seasons  have  their  course. 
This  takes  place  in  365  days,  5  hours, 
48  minutes,  and  49  seconds ;  and  an  ap- 
proximation to  that  time  has  been  adopted 
oy  those  nations  which  have  had  suf^ 
ffcient  astronomical  science  to  determine 
it.  But,  as  it  would  be  impracticable  to 
begin  every  new  rear  at  a  different  hour 
of  the  day,  which  would  be  necessary  if 
the  perfect  year  should  always  be  com- 
pleted before  the  commencement  of  a 
new  one,  965  daj's  have  been  taken  as  the 
length  of  a  year,  leaving  the  odd  hours 
and  minutes  to  accumulate  until  they 
amount  to  a  whole  day,  when  they  are 
added  to  the  year,  making  what  is  called 
a  leap  year,  or  intertsdUxry  year,  of  966 
days.  The  various  ways  of  doine  this 
will  be  detailed  when  we  speak  of  the 
different  eras.  Some  nations  still  use  a 
year  of  965  days,  without  any  intercala- 
tion ;  and  this  is  called  a  vagutj  or  erratic 
year,  because  its  commencement  varies 
through  all  tiie  different  seasons.  A 
lunar  year  consists  of  12  moons,  or  954 
days.  This  may  be  convenient  enough  ' 
for  short  poiods,  but  is  so  ill  adapted  for 


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EPOCH. 


the  computation  of  a  civilSzed  nation,  that 
none  but  Muhammedans  have  continued 
in  the  use  of  it,  even  for  a  little  time.  It 
suits  the  course  of  time  so  ill,  that  its  com- 
mencement varies,  in  a  few  years,  through 
all  the  seasons ;  and  many  men  amongst 
the  nations  which  use  it  can  rememljer 
the  fasts  and  festivals  altering  from  sum- 
mer to  winter,  and  again  from  winter  to 
summer,  and  their  se^-time  ami  harvest 
alternately  wandering  from  the  heginning 
of  the  year  to  the  end.  The  luni-solar 
year  is  that  in  which  the  months  are 
regulated  acconling  to  the  course  of  the 
moon,  but  to  which,  from  time  to  time,  a 
month  is  added,  whenever  the  year  would 
range  too  widely  from  its  original  situa- 
tion. This  year  is  inconvenient,  from  its 
vaiying  duration ;  but  as,  in  a  long  course 
of  years,  the  montlis  remain  nearly  at  the 
,  same  situation,  it  is  less  objectionable  than 
tlie  pure  lunar  year.  It  was  the  mode  of 
computation  of  tlie  Greeks  and  Romans, 
and  is  even  now  that  of  the  Chinese,  Tar- 
tars, Jaimnese  and  Jews.  All  these  vaiy- 
ing modes  render  the  comparison  of  dates 
much  more  difficult  tiian  it  appears  to  be 
at  tlie  first  view.  We  shall  endeavor  so 
fiu*  to  simplify  the  calculation  as  to  enable 
any  arithtnetician  to  compute,  within  a 
day  or  two,  the  eras  of  every  nation,  and 
to  reduce  tfaem  to  tlie  Christian  era. 

TV  AosMRt  ErtL  The  Roman  year,  in 
its  arrangement  and  divisfiont  is  that  on 
which  our  year  is  entirely  founded.  Tlie 
Romans  reckoned  tlieir  time  from  th« 
date  which  some  of  their  antiouaries 
choae  to  assign  for  the  founding  of  Kome, 
viae  the  21st  of  April,  in  the  S2d  year  of 
the  fjth  Olympiad,  or  754  B.  C.  This  ere 
is  designated  by  the  lettera  A.  U.  C,  or  ob 
wrbe  eonetUa  (from  the  building  of  the 
city).  Tiie  first  year  used  by  them,  and 
attributed  to  Romulus,  consisted  of  ten 
montlis,  from  March  to  December,  or  904 
days.  (For  an  accoimt  of  the  Roman 
mode  of  computing  time,  see  Calendar,] 
The  Roman  j^ear  has  been  adopted  by 
almost  all  Christian  nations,  with  no  other 
variation  than  taking  the  birth  of  Christ  as 
the  commencement,  instead  of  die  building 
of  Rome.  If  the  given  Roman  year  be  leas 
than  754,  deduct  it  from  754 ;  if  the  given 
Roman  year  be  not  less  than  754,  deduet 
753  fh>m  it ;  the  remainder  gives  the  year 
(B.  C.  and  A.  D.,  in  the  firet  and  aeeond 
coses  resfiecdvely)  in  which  tlie  Roman 
year  commences.    Examples : — 

Required  the  year  780  A.  U.  C. 
deduct  753 

^  A.a 


Requirsd  the  year  701  A.  U.  C. 
754 
701 

"^RC. 

TTie  OiympiatU.  The  Greeks  computed 
their  time  oy  die  celebrated  era  of  the 
Olympiads,  which  date  from  tJie  year  776 
B.  C,  being  the  year  in  which  Coroebus 
was  successful  at  the  Olympic  game& 
This  era  differed  from  all  otliers  in  being 
reckoned  by  periods  of  four  years  instead 
of  single  years.  Each  jieriod  of  4  yean 
was  called  an  Olympiad;  and,  in  marking 
a  date,  the  year  and  Olympiad  were  both 
mentioned.  The  year  was  luni-solar,  of 
12  or  13  months.  The  names  of  the 
months  varied  in  the  different  stales  of 
Greece,  but  the  Attic  months  are  most 
usual.  (For  a  further  account  of  the  Greek 
mode  of  computing  time,  see  CaUndar.) 
To  reduce  the  date  by  Olympiads  to  our 
eni,  multiply  the  past  Olympiad  by  4, 
and  add  the  odd  years ;  subtract  the  sum 
from  777  if  before  Christ,  and  subtract 
776  from  the  sum  if  after  Christ ;  the  re 
mainder  will  be  the  beginning  of  the  ^ven 
vear.  To  decide  on  me  exact  day  woukl 
be  very  difficult,  on  account  of  the  altera- 
tions which  the  system  has  undergone. 
It  will  be,  perhaps,  sufficient  to  ob»ve, 
that  the  year  begins  within  a  fortnight  of 
the  middle  of  July. — ^N.  B.  Some  au- 
thors, as  Jerome  and  Eusebius,  have  con- 
founded the  Olympiads  with  the  era  of 
the  Seleucides,  and  computed  them  from 
the  1st  of  September. 

The  ChriBtum  Era,  Tlie  Christian  era, 
used  by  almost  all  Christian  nations,  dates 
from  January  Ist,  in  the  middle  of  the 
4th  year  of  the  194th  Olympiad,  iu  the 
753d  of  the  building  of  Rome,  and  4714th 
of  the  Julian  period.  It  was  ^list  ialro- 
duced  in  the  sixth  century,  but  was  not 
veiy  generally  emploved  for  some  cen- 
turies after.  The  Christian  year,  in  iti 
division,  fblk>ws  exactly  the  Roman  year; 
consisting  of  365  days  for  three  succes- 
sive years,  and  of  366  in  the  fouith  year, 
wbk;h  is  termed  U<m  year.  This  comfMi- 
tation  subsisted  for  liKX)  years,  tfaroiigiioiit 
Europe,  without  alteration,  and  is  still  osed 
1^  the  fbllowers  of  the  Greek  church : 
other  Christians  have  adopted  a  stiffht  al- 
teration, which  will  be  shortly  exiiSjBined. 
The  simpUcity  of  this  form  baa  brought 
it  into  very  general  use,  and  it  is  custom- 
ary for  astronomers  and  chronoloffists,  in 
treaihig  of  axkcient  times,  to  date  back  In 
the  stone  osder  from  iti  commeocemenL 
There  ia,  uarfbrtunately,  a  little  ambiguicy 
on  this  head,  some  persons  reckoning  ikm 


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640 


year  immediately  before  the  birth  of 
Christ,  aa  1  B.  U.,  and  others  noting  it 
with  0,  and  the  second  year  before  Christ 
with  i,  makfng  always  one  less  than  those 
who  uae  the  former  notation.  The  first  is 
the  most  usual  mode,  and  will  be  employ- 
ed in  all  our  compatations.  The  Chrfstian 
year  (or  Julian  year),  arranged  as  we  have 
Rliown,  was  11'  11"  too  long,  amounting 
to  a  day  in  nearly  129  years ;  and,  towarda 
the  end  of  the  sixteenth  cenmry,  the  time 
of  celebrating  the  church  festivals  had 
advanced  ten  days  beyond  the  periods 
fixed  by  the  council  of  Nice,  in  S25.  It 
was  in  consequence  ordered,  by  a  buU  of 
Gregory  XIII,  that  the  year  1582  should 
consist  of  355  days  only,  which  was  ef- 
fected by  omitdnff  ten  days  in  tlie  month 
of  October,  viz.,  mm  the  5th  to  the  14th ; 
and,  to  prevent  the  recurrence  of  a  like 
irregularity,  it  was  also  ordered,  that,  in 
tliree  centuries  out  of  four,  the  last  year 
fihcHild  be  a  common  year,  instead  of  a 


leap  year,  as  it  would  have  been  by  the 
Julian  calendar.  The  year  1(>00  remain- 
ed a  leap  year,  but  1700, 1800  and  1900 
were  to  be  common  years.  This  amend- 
ed mode  of  computing  was  called  the 
new  styUj  and  was  immediately  adopted 
in  all  Catholic  countries,  while  the  old 
dylt  continued  to  be  employed  by  other 
Christians.  Gradually  the  new  s^le  was 
employed  by  Protestants  also.  The  last 
ten  days  of  1699  were  Omitted  by  the 
Protestants  of  Germany,  who,  in  conse- 
quence, began  the  year  1700  with  the 
new  style ;  and  in  England,  the  reformed 
calendar  was  adopted  m  the  year  1752,  by 
omitting  eleven  days,  to  which  the  dif- 
ference between  the  styles  then  amounted. 
The  alteration  was  efieeted  in  the  month 
of  September,  the  day  which  would  have 
been  the  third  being  called  the  fourteenth. 
The  Russians  continued  to  use  the  old 
style  till  the  present  year,  1890.  when  they 
adopted  the  new  style. 


To  turn  the  (M  ShfU  to  ihe  Mw. 

From  the  alteration  of  style  to  the  29th  February,  1700,  add  10  days. 

From  Ist  of  March,  1700,  to  29th  of  February,  1800,  <*  11  « 
"       «  «*        1800,   «    «*  «  1900,    «  12    «* 

«       «  «        1900,   «    «  «  2100,    «  13    « 

Examples. 
17th  March,        1801,  O.  S.,  is  29th  March,     1801,  N.  S. 


19ih  February,  1703,  O.  S., 
24th  December,  1G90,  O.  S., 
20th  December,  1829,  O.^  S., 

There  will  sometimes  be  a  difl^rence 
of  one  year  in  a  date,  from  the  circum- 
stance that,  in  many  countries,  the  time  of 
beginning  the  year  has  varied.  In  Eng- 
land, until  the  year  1752,  the  year  was 
considered  to  begin  on  the  25tli  of  March : 
any  date,  therefore,  fipom  the  1st  of  Janu- 
ary to  the  24th  of  March,  will  be  a  year 
too  little.  It  had  been  the  practice,  for 
many  years  preceding  the  change  of  style, 
to  write  both  yearsj  by  way  of  obviating 
mistakes ;   as,  Ist  of  February,  170J  or 


IS  2d  March,  1703,  N.  S. 
is  3d  January,  1691,  N.  S. 
is    Ist  January,  1830,  N.  S. 

ter  any  particular  date,  as  is  ne 
when  the  era  begins  at  a  later  perio 
But,  unfortunately,  writers  are  not  agreed 
as  to  the  precise  time  of  commencing. 
We  consider  the  creation  as  taking  plai^ 
4004  years  B.  C. ;  but  there  are  about  140 
different  variations  in  this  respect.*  The 
following  are  those  that  have  been  most 
generally  used : — 

Tht  Era  of  CotiskmHnopU,  In  this  era 
the  creation  is  placed  5506  years  B.  C. 
It  was  used  by  the  Russians  until  the  time 


1707-^  meaning  the  year  1708,  if  begim    of  Peter  the  Great,  and  is  stiU  used  in  the 
in  January,  or  1707,  if  begun  in  March.    '^      •     '       •      '"• 
In  some  countries,  Easter  day  was  the  first 
day  of  the  year;    in  others,  the  Ist  of 
March ;  and  in  others,  again,  Christmas 
day ;  but  no  certain  rule  can  be  given,  as, 
even  in  the  same  nation,  different  provinces 
followed  a  different  custom.    All  nations, 
at  present  using  either  the  old  or  new 
style,  begin  the  year  on  the  Ist  of  Januaiy. 
The  CreaUon  has  been  adopted  as  an 
epoch  by  Christian  and  Jewuah  writers,' 
and  would  have  been  found  very  con- 
venient, by  doing  away  with  the  difficultjr 
adJ  ambiguity  of  counting  before  and  ar- 


Greek  church.  The  civil  year  begins  the 
first  of  September,  and  the  ecclesiastical 
towards  the  end  of  March ;  the  day  is  not 
exactly  determined.  To  reduce  it  to  our 
era,  subtract  5506  years  from  Januaiy  to 
August,  and  5509  mm  September  to  the 
end. 

Era  of  Aniiachj  and  J^  qf  jdUxandria, 
We  place  these  together,  because,  although 
they  differed  at  their  fonnation  by  10 
years,  they  afterwards  coincided.  They 
were   both   much  in  use   by  the  eariy 

*  See  CompaoioD  to  the  British  Ahnaoac  for 
18S8,  p.  40. 


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EPOCHL 


Chrifllian  writen  attached  to  the  churches 
of  Aotiocb  and  Alexandria.  In  tlie  com- 
putation of  Alexandria,  the  creation  was 
considered  to  be  5502  years  before  Christ, 
and,  in  consequence,  the  year  1  A.  D.  vns 
equal  to  5503.  This  computation  contin- 
ued to  the  year  284  A.  D^  which  was 
called  578a  In  the  next  year  (285  A.  D.), 
which  riiould  have  been  5787,  ten  years 
were  discarded,  and  the  date  became 
5777.  This  is  still  used  by  the  Abyasin- 
ians.  The  ere  of  Antioch  considered  the 
creation  to  lie  5492  yeais  before  Christ, 
and,  therefore,  the  year  285  A.  D.  was 
5777.  As  this  was  equal  to  tlie  date  of 
Alexandria,  tlie  two  eras,  from  this  time, 
were  considered  as  one.  Dates  of  the 
Alexandrian  era  are  reduced  to  the  Chris- 
tian era  by  subtracting  5502  until  the  year 
5766,  and  after  that  time  by  subtracting 
5492.  In  the  em  of  Antioch,  6492  are 
always  subtracted. 

Tlie  Ahu$9iman  Era.  The  Abyssinians 
reckon  their  years  from  the  creation, 
which  they  place  in  the  5493d  year  before 
our  era*,  on  tlie  29th  of  August,  0I4  style; 
and  their  dates  will  consequently  exceed 
ours  by  5492  years  and  125  days.  They 
have  12  montlis  of  30  days  each,  and  5 
days  added  to  the  end,  called  pagomenf 
from  the  Qreek  word  hayofttvat  (added). 
Another  day  is  added  at  the  end  of  every 
4th  year.  To  know  which  year  is  leap 
year,  divide  the  date  by  4,  and  if  3  re- 
main, the  year  will  be  leap  year.  It 
olways  precedes  the  Julian  leap  year  by 
1  year  and  4  months.  To  reduce 
Abyssinian  time  to  the  Julian  year,  sub* 


tract  5498  yean  and  125  daya.  The 
Alnrssinians  also  use  the  era  of  Maityn^ 
or  INocletian,  with  the  aame  mootlis  as  1b 
the  above. 

The  Jewish  Era.  The  Jevra  usually 
empk>yed  the  em  of  the  Sekuridws  until 
the  fifteenth  century,  when  a  new  mode 
of  computing  was  adopted  by  them. 
Some  insist  strongly  on  the  antiquity  of 
their  present  era ;  but  it  is  generally  be- 
lieved not  to  be  more  ancient  than  the 
century  above  named.  They  date  firom 
the  creation,  which  they  consider  10  have 
been  3760  yeare  and  3  months  beibre  the 
commencement  of  oiu:  era.  Their  year 
is  luni-solar,  consisting  either  of  12  or  13 
months  each,  and  each  month  of  29  or  30 
days.  The  civil  year  commences  with  ar 
imiiiediatel^ir  after  tlie  new  moon  follow- 
ing the  equinox  of  autumn.  The  averafe 
l«igth  of  the  year  of  12  months  is  3^ 
days ;  but,  l^  varying  the  length  of  the 
months  Marcbesvan  and  Chisleu,  k  may 
consist  of  353  or  355  d^s  also.  In  the 
same  manner,  the  year  of  13  months  mav 
contain  383,  384,  or  385  daya.  In  19 
years,  12  years  Iwve  12  montlia  each,  and 
7  years  13  months.  The  following  table 
or  19  yearn  will  show  the  nuniber  of 
mondis  in  each  year,  as  well  as  die  fint 
day  of  their  year,  reduced  to  the  new 
style.  The  .fimt  day  will  not  always  be 
quite  accui^te,  as  ceitaui  lucky  and  un- 
lucky days  require  thepostponement  of  a 
day  in  some  yean.  The  year  must  be 
divided  by  19,  and  the  remainder  will 
show  the  year  of  the  cycle.  If  there  be 
no  remainder,  it  is  the  19th  year. 


Yrar  of  th*  eycle. 

The  1st  begins  about  the 


2d 

dd 

4th 

5th 

6tli 

7th 

8th 

9th 

10th 

11th 

12th 

13th 

14th 

15th 

16th 

17th 

18th 

19th 


of  October,  and  ccftrunsts  of 


12 


22d  of  September, 12 


.  10th 
29th 
19th 
8th 
27th 
16th 


13 
12 
12 
13 

12 
13 


iSth  of  Octolier, .  12 

2Sth  of  September, 12 

14th  «  13 

2d   of  October,     12 

21st  of  September, 12 


10th 
29th 
18th 
7th 
25th 
14th 


13 
12 
12 
13 
12 
13 


*  The  Abyasinians   plaM  Ae  birth  of  Chriit  in  the  5500(h  year  of  the  creation,  aad  ceve- 
qneaUy  e^  yean  aAor  our  era. 


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EPOCH. 


551 


To'V^uce  the  Jewii^  time  to  oufs,  sub- 
tract 3761,  and  the  remftinder  wiU  show 
the  year:  the  beginning  of  the  year  may 
be  aseertained  by  the  a^ve  table,  and  the 
months  must  be  counted  from  that  time. 
The  ecclesiastical  year  begins  six  months 
earlier,  with  the  month  of  Nisan.  Con- 
sequently, when  the  given  year  is  eccle- 
siaaticalt  deduct  a  year  in  the  date  from 
Nisan  to  Elul,  inclusive.  The  Jews 
frequently,  in  their  dates,  leave  out  the 
thousands,  which  they  indicate  by  plac- 
ing the  letters  paS  meaning  ftspsnaS  ^  ac- 
cording to  the  lesser  computation."  It 
will  be  unnecessary  to  mention  the  various 
other  epochs  that  have  taken  place  from 
the  creation,  as  those  detailed  or  referred 
to  are  the  only  ones  that  hav6  been  in  fj;en- 
eral  use. 

The  Era  of  MbmuuBor  received  its 
name  from  that  of  a  prince  of  Babylon, 
under  whose  reign  astronomical  studies 
were  much  advanced  in  Chaldcea.  The 
years  are  vagae,  containing  965  days  each, 
without  intercalati(m.  .  The  first  day  of 
the  era  was  Wednesilay,*  February  jfetb, 
747  Bw  C.  To  find  the  Julian  year  on 
which  the  year  of  Nabonassor  begins, 
subtract  the  given  year,  if  before  Christ, 
from  748,  and  if  after  Christ,  add  it  to 
747. 

The  EgmHan  Ercu  The  old  Egyptian 
year  was  identical  wiA  the  era  of  Nabo- 
naasar,  beginning  on  the  28th  February,  747 
B.  C,  and  consisting  of  365  days  only. 
It  was  reformed  30  years  before  Christ,  at 
which  period  the  commencement  of  the 
year  hsul  arrived,  by  continually  receding, 
to  the  29th  of  August,  which  was  deter- 
mined to  be  in  future  the  first  day  of  the 
year.  Their  years  and  months  coincide 
exacdy  with  those  of  the  era  of  Diocle- 
tian. It  appears  from  a  calculation,  that, 
in  3P  B.  C,  the  year  must  have  begun  on 
the  31st  of  August;  in  which  case  we 
hiust  suppose  the  reformation  to  have 
ttJsen  place  eight  years  earlier:  however 
that  may  be,  it  is  certain,  that  the  29th  of 
Angu^  was  jtlie  day  adopted,  and  the 
number  of  the  year  one  more  than  would 
have  resulted  from  taking747  as  the  com- 
mencement of  the  era.  To  reduce  to  the 
Christian  era,  subtract  746  yearn  125  days. 
The  old  Egyptian  year  was  in  use  for 
above  a  century  after  Christ ;  the  re- 
formed year  being  at  fiist  used  only  by 
the  Alexandrians. 

The  Julian  Period  is  a  term  of  yeaiB 
produced  bv  the  multiplication  of  the 
lunar  cycle  19,  solar  cycle  28,  and  Roman 

*  This  is  said,  by  mistake,  to  be  Thursday,  in 
L'ArtdeviriJier  let  Dates. 


indiction  1&  It  consists  of  7980  yean^ 
and  began  4713  years  before  our  era.  It 
has  been  employed*  in  computing  time,  to 
avoi<l  the  puzzling  ambiguity  attendant  on 
reckoning  any  period  antecedent  to  our 
era,  an  advantage  which  it  has  in  c«fri- 
mon  with  tlie  mundane  eras  used  at  dif- 
ferent times.  By  subtracting  4713  from 
the  Julian  period,  our  year  is  found.  If 
before  Christ,  subtract  the  Julian  period 
&om  4714, 

The  Era  of  Dioddian^  called  also  Ove 
Era  of  Martyrs,  was  much  used  by  Chris- 
tian writers  until  the  introduction  of  the 
Christian  era  in  the  sixth  century,  and  is 
still  employed  Iw  the  Abyssinians  and 
Copts.  It  dates  from  the  day*  When  Dio- 
cletian was  proclaimed  emperor,  at  Chal- 
cedon,  29th  August,  284.  It  is  called  the 
Eraj^  Martyrs^  from  the  persecution  of 
the  Cfhristians  in  the  reign  of  Diocletian, 
The  yeai*  consists  of  3&  days,  with  an 
additional  day  eveiy  fourth  year.  Divide 
the  date  by  4,  and  if  3  remain,  the  year  is 
bissextile.  It  contains  12  months  of  30 
days  each,  with  5  additional  in  common 
years,  and  6  in  leap  yearn^  To  reduce 
the  years  of  this  era  to  those  of  the 
Christian,  add  283  years  240  davs. 
When  the  Diocletian  year  is  the  year  after 
leap  year^  it  begins  one  day  later  than 
usual,  and,  in  consequence,  one  day  must 
be  added  to  the  Christian  year,  from  the 
29th  of  August  to  the  end  of  the  follow- 
ing February. 

The  Grecian  Era,  or  Bra  of  the  Seiett^ 
cides,  daiea  from  the  reign  of  Seleucus 
Nicator,  311  years  and  4  months  before 
Christ  It  was  used  in  Syria  for  many 
years,  and  fiiequently  by  the  Jews  until 
the  ]5th  century,  and  by  some  Arabians 
to  this  day.  The  Syrian  Greeks  began 
their  year  about  the  Oommencement  of 
September;  other  Syrians  in  Ociober, 
and  the  Jews  about  Uie  autumnal  equi- 
nox. We  shall  not  pretend  to  great  accu- 
racy in  this  era,  the  opinions  of  authors 
being  very  various  as  to  its  commence- 
ment It  is  used  in  the  book  of  the  Mac- 
cabees, and  appears  to  have  begun  with 
Nisan.  Their  year  was  solar,  and  con- 
sisted of  365  days,  with  the  addition  of  a 
day  every  fourth  year.  To  reduce  it  to 
our  era,  supposing  it  to  begin  1st  Sep- 
tember, 312  B.  C,  subtract  311  years  and 
4  months. 

The  Death  ofJkxander  the  Great  dates 
from  the  12th  of  November,  324  B.  C.,t 

^     *  Diocletian  was  Dot.  in  reality,  proclaimed 
ontil  some  months  after  tnis  time. 

t  This  would  be  more  accurately  323  B.  C^, 
but  ibe  above  date  i«  more  osoally  adopted. 


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552 


EPOCH. 


OD  which  day  ttie  425ch  year  of  Nabo- 
nafisar  began.  This  era  was  computed  by 
yearo  of  365  days,  with  a  Jeap  year  of 
366  every  four  years^  like  the  JiuiaQ  year. 
The  months  were  of  30  days  each,  with 
5  additional  To  compute  it,  deduct  323 
from  the  given  year,  and  the  remainder 
will  1)6  tlie  year  of  the  Christian  era. 
If  before  Christ,  deduct  the  year  from 
324. 

The  Era  of  Ture  began  the  19th  of 
October,  125  B.  C.,  with  jthe  month  Hy- 
perbereteeua  The  months  were  the  same 
as  those  used  in  the  Grecian  era.  The 
year  is  similar  to  the  Julian.  To  reduce  it 
to  our  era,  subtract  124 ;  and  if  the  given 
year  be  less  than  125,  deduct  Jt  from  125^ 
and  the  remainder  will  be  the  year  before 
Christ 

The  C^uarean  Era  ofAntioch  veas  used 
in  Syria,  by  Greeks  and  Syrians.  The 
months  are  the  same  as  those  given  under 
the  Grecian  era.  The  Ghreeks  began  with 
Crorpiseus,  September,  in  tlie  year  49  B. 
C,  and  the  Syrians  with  Tishri  I,  Octo- 
ber, of  48  B.  C. 

The  Era  ofAhrahaan  is  used  by  Euse- 
biuB,  and  begins  tlie  1st  of  October,  2016 
B.  C.  To  reduce  this  to  the  Christian 
era,  subtract  2015  vears  3  months^  and 
the  remainder  will  be  the  year  and . 
month. 

The  SpamA  Era^  or  Era  of  the  duanj 
is  reckoned  from  the  Ist  of  Januaiy,  % 
years  B.  C,  being  the  year  following  the 
conauest  of  Spain  by  Augustus.  It  was 
much  used  in  Africa,  Spain  and  the  south 
of  France.  By  a  synod  held  in  1180,  its 
use  was  abolished  in  all  the  churches  de- 
pendent on  Barcelona.  Pedro  IV  of  Ar- 
ragon,  abolished  the  use  of  it  in  his 
dominions  in  1350.  John  I  of  Castile 
did  the  same  in  12SSL  It  continued  to  be 
used  in  Portugal  until  1455.  The  months 
and  days  of  this  era  are  idehtieal  with 
those  of  the  Julian  calendar;  and,  conse- 
quently, to  turn  this  time  into  that  of  our 
era,  we  have  only  to  sobtiact  38  from  the 
year.  Thus  tlie  Sfianish  year  750  is 
equal  to  the  Julian  712.  If  the  year  be 
before  the  Christian  ers,  subtract  it  from 
39. 

The  Era  of  Ycukgird  IH  or  thePersim 
Era,  was  formerly  universally  adopted  in 
Persia^and  is  still  used  by  the  Parsees  in 
India,  and  bv  the  Arabs,  in  certain  com- 

yutations.  This  era  began  on  the  16th  of 
une,  A.  D.  632l  The  year  consisted  of 
365  days  only,  and,  therefore,  its  com- 
mencement, like  that  of  the  old  Egyptian 
and  Armenian  year,  antici|Nited  theJulian 
year  by  one  day  in  eveiy  four  years.   Thii 


di^renee  amounted  to  nearly  112  days 
in  the  vear  1075,  when  it  was  reibrmed 
by  Jelaledin,  who  ordered,  that,  in  future, 
the  Persian  3'ear  should  receive  an  ad- 
ditional day  whenever  it  aliould  appear 
necessary  to  postpone  the  commencement 
of  the  following  year,  that  it  might  occur 
on  the  dav  of  the  sun's  passing  the  same 
degree  of  the  ecliptic  This  took  place 
generally  once  in  4  years ;  but,  after  seven 
or  eight  intercalations,  it  was  postponed 
for  a  year.  .It  will  be  observed,  that  such 
an  arrangement  must  be  perfect,  and  that 
this  calendar  could  never  require  refor- 
mation I  but  it  has  the  inconv^ience  of 
making  it  verv  difficult  to  determine  be- 
forehand the  length  of  any  given  year,  as 
well  as  that  of  causing  a  difference  occa- 
sionally in  the  computation  of  pesrsons 
living  under  diflferent  meridians;  those 
living  towards  the  East  sometimes  begin- 
ning tlieir  year  a  day  after  others  more 
westwardly  situate ;  the  sun  rising  in  the 
old  sign  to  those  in  the  fonner  situaliop, 
who  consequently  continued  in  the  old 
year  another  day ;  wTiile  the  othere,  har- 
mg  their  sun  rise, in  the  new  sign,  began 
a  new  year.  The  present  practice  of  the 
Parsees  in  India  varies  in  different  prov- 
inces, some  beginning  the  year  in  Sep- 
tember, and  others  in  October.  The 
cnonths  have  each  30  days,  and  the  inter- 
calation of  5  or  6  days  occurs  at  the  end 
of  Aban.  To  reduce  this  era  to  the 
Christian  year,  add  630  to  the  given  year, 
and  the  sum  will  be  the  year  of  our  em 
in  wliicb  the  year  begins,  according  to  the 
practice  of  tlie  Paisees.  Every  day  of 
the  Persian  month  has  a  different  name. 

The  Era  of  the  Armefdana,  The  Ai^ 
menians  began  their  era  on  Tuesday^  the 
9th  of  July,  A.  D.  552.  Their  year  con- 
sists of  365  days  only,  and  therefore  an- 
ticipates the  Julian  one  day  in  every  four 
years.  The  Armenian  ecclesiastical  year 
begins  on  the  11th  of  August,  aiKi  has  an 
additional  day  at  the  end  of  every  fourth 
year ;  and  consequently  coincides  in  di- 
vision with  the  Julian  year.  To  reduce 
ecclesiastical  Armenian  years  to  our  time, 
add  551  year»  and  222  days.  In  leap 
years,  subtract  one  day  from  MarcJi  1  to 
August  10. — ^The  Armenians  frequently 
use  the  old  Julian  style  and  months  in 
their  correspondence  with  Europeans 

For  the  French  Revolutionarv  Calendar 
see  Calendar^  vol  2,  page  40£  As  tliis 
plan  lasted  so  short  a  time,  it  will  take 
less  space  to  insert  a  table  of  years  cor- 
responding vnth  the  Christian  era,  than  to 
give  a  rule  for  the  deduction  of  one  era 
from  another. 


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1  1793-5 

2  1793-4 

3  1794-^ 

4  1795—6 

5  1796—7 

6  3797-^ 

7  1798—9 


8  1799—1800 

9  1800—1801 

10  1801—2 

11  1802-5 

12  1803-4 

13  1804-5 

14  1805-6 


The  Mohammcdafi  Ertt,  or  Era  of  the  He- 
girOf  dates  from  the  flight  of  Mohammed 
to  Medina,  which  event  took  place  in  the 
niffht  of  Thureday,  the  15th  of  July,  A.D. 
622;  The  era  commences  on  the  follow- 
ing dav,  viz.,  the  16th  of  July.  Many 
chronologists  have  coniT)uted  this  era  from 
the  15th  of  July,  but  Cantemir  has  given 
examples,  proving  that,  in  most  ancient 
times,  the  16th  was  the  first  day  of  the 
era ;  and  now  there  can  be  no  question, 
that  such  is  the  practice  of  Mohammedans. 
The  year  is  purely  lunar,  consisting  of  12 
months,  each  month  commencing  with 
the  appearance  of  the  new  moon,  without 
any  intercalation  to  bring  the  commence- 
ment of  the  year  to  the  sam^  season.  It  is 
obvious,  that,  by  such  an  arrangement, 
every  year  will  begin  much  earlier  in  the 
season  than  the  preceding,  being  now  in 
summer,  and,  in  the  course  of  16  years,  in 
winter.  Such  a  mode  of  reckoning,  so 
much  at  variance  with  the  order  of  nature, 
could  scarcely  have  been  in  use  beyond 
the  pastoral  and  semi-barbarous  nation  by 
whom  it  was  adopted,  without  tlie  power- 
ful aid  of  fanaticism ;  and  even  that  has 
not  been  able  to  prevent  the  use  of  other 
methods  by  learned  men  in  their  compu- 
tations, and  by  governments  in  the  collec- 
tion of  revenue.  It  will  also  be  remark- 
ed, that,  as  die  Mohammedans  begin  each 
month  with  the  appearance  of  3ie  new 
moon,  a  few  cloudy  days  might  retard  the 
commencement  of  a  month,  making  the 
preceding  month  longer  than  usual.  This, 
in  fact,  is  the  case,  and  two  parts  of  the 
same  country  will  sometimes  differ  a  day 
inconsequence;  although  the  clear  skies 
of  those  countries  where  Islamism'  pre- 
vails rarely  occasion  much  inconvenience 
on  tins  head.  But  in  chronology  aod 
history,  as  well  as  in  all  documents,  they 
use  months  of  30  and  29  days,  alternately, 
making  the  year  thus  to  consist  of  354 
days:  eleven  times  in  30  years, one  day  is 
added  to  the  last  month,  making  355  days 
in  that  year.  Consequently  the  average 
length  of  a  year  is  taken  at  354^^  days, 
the  12th  of  which  is  29^7;  differing 
from  the  trae  lunation  very  httle  more 
than  3  seconds,  which  will  not  amount  to 
a  day  in  less  than  2260  years — a  degree  of 
exactness  which  could  not  have  been  at- 
tained without  long  continued  obeerva- 

voL.  IV.  47 


tions.  The  hitercalary  year  of  355  days 
occurs  on  the  2d,  5th,  7th,  lOili,  13th, 
15th,  18th,  21st,  24th,  26th,  and  29th 
years  of  every  30  years.  Any  year  being 
given,  to  know  whetiier  it  be  mtercalary  or 
not,  divide  by  30,  and  if  either  of  the 
above  numbers  remain,  the  year  will  be 
one  of  355  days.  To  reduce  the  year  of 
the  Hegira  to  that  of  the  Cliristian,  the 
following  mode,  though  not  strictly  accu- 
rate, is  sufSciendy  so  for  most  purposes. 
The  Mohammedan  year  being  a  lunar 
year  of  354  days,  33  such  vears  will 
make  32  of  ours.  We  have  only,  then,  to 
deduct  one  year  for  each  33  in  any  given 
number  of  Mohammedan  years,  and  add 
622  (the  year  of  our  era,  from  which 
their  computation  commences],  and  we 
obtain  the  corresponding  year  of  the 
Christian  era. 

hvUxm  Chronology.  The  natives  of  In^ 
dia  use  a  great  variety  of  epochs,  some  of 
which  &re  but  little  understood,  even  by 
themselves,  and  almost  all  are  deficient 
in  universality  and  uniformity,  so  that  the 
same  et)och,  nominally,  will  be  found  to 
vary  many  days,  or  even  a  year,  in  difler- 
ent  provinces.  The  solar,  or,  more  prop- 
erly, the  sidereal  year,  is  that  which  is 
most  in  use  for  public  business,  particu- 
larly since  the  introduction  of  European 
Cower  into  India.  This  year  is  calculated 
y  tho  Indian  astronomers  at  365  days,  6 
hours,  12  minutes,  30  seconds,  or,  ac- 
cording to  others,  36  seconds.  Therefore, 
in  60  Indian  years,  there  will  be  a  day 
more  than  in  60  Gregorian  years.  The 
difference  arises  from  not  taking  into  con- 
sideration the  priecession  of  the  equi- 
noxes, which  is  equal,  in  reality,  to  some- 
thing more  than  20  minutes,  though  by 
them  calculated  at  23  minutes.  The  luni- 
solar  computation  is  not  at  present  sb 
common  as  it  formerly  was,  althou^ 
still  much  used  in  some  parts  of  India, 
and  common  every  where  m  tlie  regula- 
tion of  festivals,  and  in  domestic  arrange- 
ments. Both  the  solar  and  luni-solar 
forms  may  be  used  with  most  of  the  In- 
dian eras,  though  some  more  ])axticularly 
affect  one  form  and  some  the  other.  Tlie 
luni-Bolar  mode  varies  in  diflSbrent  prov- 
inces, some  beginning  Ihe  month  at  full 
moon,  otliers  at  new  moon.  We  shall 
describe  that  beginning  by  the  full  moon, 
which  is  used  in  Bengal ;  the  other  methr 
od  will  be  easily  understood  when  this  is 
known.  Each  year  begins  on  the  dwr  of 
full  moon  precedmg  the  be^nning  of  th# 
solar  year  of  the  same  date.  The  months 
are  divided  into  halves,  the  first  of  whic^ 
.is  eutided  hadi,  or  dark,  being  fi:om  the 


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fun  moon  to  the  new ;  and  the  last,  sudij 
or  bright,  finom  new  to  full  moon.  These 
divisions  are  sometimes  of  14  and  some- 
times of  15  days,  and  ore  numbered  gen- 
erally fiom  1  to  15,  thouffh  the  last  day 
of  the  badi  half  is  called  15,  and  that  of 
sudi  is  called  30.  By  a  complicated  ar- 
rangement, a  day  is  sometimes  omitted, 
and  again  a  day  in  intercalated,  so  tJiat, 
mstead  of  going  on  regularly  in  numeri- 
cal order,  these  days  may  be  reckoned  1, 
1, 2, 3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  10.  The  subject  is 
enveloped  in  some  obscurity ;  and  it  will 
be,  perhaps,  sufficient  to  obSerVe,  that  the 
time  of  a  lunation  is  divided  into  30  ports, 
called  tUtiM^  and,  when  two  tiths  occur  in 
the  same  solar  day,  that  day  is  omitted  in 
the  lunar  Teckoning,  and  restored  by  in- 
tercalation at  some  other  period.  When 
two  full  moons  occur  in  one  solar  month, 
the  month  also  is  named  twice,  making  a 
year  of  13  months.  In  the  case,  also,  of 
a  short  solar  month,  in  which  there  sliould 
be  no  full  moon,  the  month  would  be 
altogether  omitted.  All  these  circum- 
stances render  the  luni-solar  computation 
a  matter  of  much  difficulty ;  and  to  re- 
duce it  exactly  to  our  era,  would  require 
a  perfect  knowledge  of  Hindoo  astrono- 
my. But  as  the  solar  reckoning  is  by  far 
the  most  general,  we  shall  only  observe; 
that  the  lunar  month  precedes  the  solar 
month  by  a  lunation  at  most ;  and  conse- 
ouentl  V  a  lunar  date  may  be  nearly  known 
from  the  solar  time,  which  is  of  easy  cal- 
culation. The  eras  which  are  generally 
known  are  the  following : — 

The  Caliyu^,  This  era  is  the  most 
ancient  of  India,  and  dates  from  a  period 
3101  years  before  Christ.  It  begins  with 
the  entrance  of  the  sun  into  the  Hindoo 
sign  Aswin,  Which  is  now  on  the  11th  of 
April,  N.  S.  In  the  year  1600,  the  vear 
began  on  the  7th  of  April,  N.  S.,  mm 
which  it  has  now  advanced  4  days,  and, 
from  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  is 
«till  advancing  at  the  rate  of  a  day  in  60 
years.  The  number  produced  by  sub- 
tracting 3102  from  any  given  year  of  the 
Caliyug  will  be  the  Christian  year  in 
which  the  given  year  begins, 

Tke  Era  of  Salivahana  may  be  ioined 
here  to  that  of  the  Caliyuff,  being  identi- 
cal with  it  as  to  names  of  months,  divis- 
ions and  commencement,  and  differing 
only  itt  the  date  of  the  year,  which  is  3179 
years  more  recent  than  that,  and  there- 
fore 77  yean  since  our  era.  It  is  much 
used  in  the  southern  and  western  prov- 
hiees  of  India,  and  papen  are  frequently 
dated  lo  both  eras.  The  years  of  this 
«im  are  called  Sbeo.    The  number  77  must 


be  added  to  find  the  eouivalent  year  of 
the  Christian  era.  Both  tliese  eras  are 
most  commonly  used  with  solar  time. 

The  Era  of  Vicramadityay  which  has 
its  name  from  a  sovereign  of  Malwa,  may 
also  be  placed  here,  as  it  uses  the  same 
months  as  the  two  above  mentioned  ;  but 
it  is  more  generally  used  with  lunar  time. 
This  era  is  much  employed  in  the  north 
of  India,  and  its  years  are  called  SamoaL 
It  began  57  years  before  Christ;  and  that 
number  must  be  deducted  to  bring  it  to 
our  era.  In,  Guzerat,  this  era  is  us^,  but 
it  begins  there  about  the  autumnal  equi- 
nox. The  months  all  begin  on  the  days 
of  the  entrance  of  the  sun  into  a  sign  of 
the  Hindoo  zodiac,  and  ihey  vary  ixoni 
29  to  32  days  in  length,  though  making 
up  365  days  in  the  total,  in  common  years, 
and  366  in  leap  years.  The  intercaJatioii 
is  made  when  and  where  it  is  required, 
not  according  to  any  arbitrary  rule,  but 
by  continuing  the  length  of  each  month 
until  the  sun  has  completely  passed  each 
sign.  This  will  bring  abwit  26  leap  years 
in  every  century.  It  would  require  long 
and  complicated  calculations  to  find  ex- 
acdy  the  commencement  and  duration  of 
each  month,  but  we  shall  not  err  more 
than  a  day  or  two  by  considering  them  to 
be  of  30  and  31  days  alternately. 

The  BenraUe  year  appears  to  have 
been  once  identical  with  the  Hegira ;  but 
the  solar  computation  having  subsequent- 
ly been  adopted,  of  which  3ie  years  ex- 
ceed those  of  the  Hegira  by  11  days,  it 
has  lost  nearly  11  days  every  year,  and  is 
now  about  9  years  later,  the  vear  1245  of 
the  Hegira  beginning  in  July,  1829,  and 
the  Bengalee  year  1236  beginning  ]3lh 
of  April  of  the  same  year.  The  number 
593  must  be  added  to  bring  this  to  the 
Christian  era. 

The  Chmeat,  like  all  the  nations  of  the 
north-east  of  Asia,  reckon  their  time  hv 
cycles  of  60  years.  Instead  of  numbering 
th^m  as  we  do,  they  give  a  different  name 
to  every  year  in  tlie  cycle.  As  all  those 
nations  follow  the  same  system,  we  shall 
d^ail  it  here  more  particularly.  They 
have  two  series  of  words,  one  often,  and 
the  other  of  twelve  words ;  a  combina- 
tion of  the  first  words  in  both  orders  n 
the  name  of  the  firat  year ;  the  next  in 
each  series  are  taken  for  the  second  year; 
and  so  to  the  tenth :  in  the  eleventh  year, 
the  series  of  ten  beins  exhausted,  the^ 
begin  again  with  the  first,  combining  it 
with  the  eleventh  of  the  second  series ;  in 
the  twelfth  vear,  the  second  word  of  the 
first  series  is  combined  with  the  twelfth 
of  the  second;  for  the  thiiteeoth  year, 


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5SS^ 


cne  combinatiofi  of  the  third  word  of  the 
first  list  with  the  first  of  the  second  list,  is 
taken,  that  list  also  being  now  exhausted. 
To  make  this  clearer,  we  shall  designate 
the  series  often  by  the  Roman  letters, 
that  of  twelve  by  the  italics,  and  the 
whole  cycle  of  60  will  Stand  thus : — 
laa      16  fd       Slag*     46  f  k 
2hb      17  gc        32  b A     47  gl 
3  c  c      18  h/       33  c  t      48  h  w 
4dd     19  ig       34  d&     49  i  a 

5  ee      20  kX        35  et       50  k  6  , 

6  f  /     21  a  t        36  f  m     51  a  c 

7  gg  22b&  37ga  52b(/ 
8hh  23c/  d8h6  53ce 
9  i  »      24  dm      39  i  c      54  d/ 

10  kit     25  e  a       40  kd     55  eg 

11  a  2      26  f  6        41  a  e      56  f  A 
12biii     27  gc        42  b/     57  gi 

13  ca      28  hd       43  eg     58  hk 

14  dh     29  i  e       44  dh     59  i  2 

15  ec      30  k/       45et      60km. 

The  series  of  10  is  designated  in  China 
by  the  name  of  teen  Aon,  or  celestial  signs. 
The  Chinese  mouths  are  lunar,  of  29  and 
30  days  each.  Their  years  have  ordinarily 
12  months,  but  a  13th  is  added  whenever 
there  are  two  new  moons  while  the  sun  is 
in  one  sign  of  the  Zodiac.  This  will  oc- 
cur seven  times  in  19  y^ars.  The  boasted 
knowledge  of  the  Chinese  in  astronomy 
has  not  been  sufficient  to  enable  them  to 
compute  Aeir  time  correctly.  In  1290 
A.  D.,  the  Arab  Jemaleddin  composed  a 
calendar  for  them,  which  remained  in  use 
until  the  time  of  the  Jesuit  Adam  Schaal, 
who  was  the  director  of  their  calendar 
imtil  1664.  It  then  remained  for  five 
years  in  the  hands  of  the  natives,  who  so 
deranged  it,  that,  when  it  was  acain  sub- 
mitted to  the  direction  of  the  Christians, 
it  was  found  necessary  to  expunge  a 
month  to  bring  the  commencement  of  the 
year  to  the  proper  season.  It  has  since 
that  time  been  almost  constantly  under 
the  care  of  Christians.  The  firat  cycle, 
according  to  die  Romish  missionaries,  be- 
gan February  2397  B.  C*  We  are  now, 
therefore,  in  the  71st  cycle,  the  27th  of 
which  will  begin  in  1830.  To  find  out 
the  Chinese  time,  multiply  the  elapsed 
cycle  by  60,  and  add  the  odd  years ;  then, 
if  the  time  be  before  Chrfet,  subtract  the 
sum  firom  2398 ;  but  if  after  Christ,  sub- 
tract 2397  from  it ;  the  remainder  will  be 

*  Dr.  Morrison  carries  it  back  to  the  61st  year 
of  Hwaiig-te,2d96  B.  C,  making  the  present  year 
to  fall  in  the  74th  cycle :  but^  according  to  the 
celebrated  historian  Ohoofootze,  Hwang-te  reign- 
ed about  2700  B.  C,  making  7^  cycles  from  that 
period,  which  is,  probably,  more  correct  than 
either  of  the  above  ttatemenU. 


the  year  required.  The  Chinese  frequently 
date  fix>m  the  year  of  the  reigning  sove- 
reign ;  and  in  that  case,  there  is  no  way  of 
having  the  corresponding  date,  but  by  a 
list  of  emperors.  We  subjoin  a  list  of 
those  who  have  reigned  for  the  last  two 
centuries. 

Tartar  Dynasty. 

Hi-tsong  began  to  reign  A.  D.  1616. 

Hoai-tsong      ««         «        «       1627. 

Shun-chi        a         a       «      1644. 

Kang-hi         u         u        u      i6e2. 

Yong-chiiig    "         «        «       172a 

Kien-lung       "         "        "       173a 

Kia-kbig        a         u       u      1796. 

Tara-kwang  «         «       «      J820, 
DOW  emperor. 

TA«  Japantst  have  a  cycle  of  60  yean, 
like  that  of  the  Chinese,  formed  by  a 
combination  of  words  of  two  series.  Th» 
series  of  ten  is  formed  of  the  names  of 
the  elements,  of  which  the  Japanese 
reckon  five,  doubled  by  the  addition  of 
the  masculine  and  feminine  endinffs^e; 
and  to.  The  cycles  coincide  with  those 
of  the  Chinese ;  but  a  name  is  given  to 
them  instead  of  numbering  them.  Their 
years  begin  in  February,  and  are  luni-so- 
lar,  of  12  and  13  months^  with  the  inter- 
calations as  before  mentioned  under  the 
head  of  Ckauu  The  first  cycle  is  said  to 
begin  660  B.  C. ;  but  this  cannot  be  cor- 
rect, unless  some  alteration  has  taken 
g\f\ice,  as  the  Chinese  cycle  then  began 
57  B.  C.  We  know,  however,  too  litUo 
of  Japan  to  pronounce  positively  respect- 
ing it ;  but  thus  far  it  is  certain,  that  the- 
^cle  now  coincides  with  tliat  of  the 
Chinese. 

To  an  article  of  this  nature  it  may  not 
be  thought  superflous  to  append  a  slight 
notice  of  the  manner  in  which  some  of 
the  aboriginal  tribes  of  America  reckoned 
their  time  before  its  discoveiy  by  the  na- 
tives of  Europe.  The  science  of  astrono- 
my seems  to  have  advanced  there  to  a 
much  greater  extent  than  is  commonly 
imagined.  The  extraordinary  accuracy 
of  uio  Mexicans  in  their  computations, 
surpassing  that. of  the  Europeans  of  their 
time,  cannot  be  accounted  for  other- 
wise than  by  the  supposition  that  they 
had  derived  it  from  some  people  more 
civilized  than  themselvet ;  and  would  ap- 
pear incredible,  if  not  well  attested  by 
Spanish  authors  of  the  15th  century,  as 
•  well  as  by  many  hieroglyphic  almanacs 
yet  remaining,  of  undoubted  antiquity. 
The  Penivians  and  Muyscas  had  liiuar 
years  of  great  accuracy  also ;  but  this  is 
less  Burpriamg,  as  the  phases  of  the  moon 


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are  tufficieDdy  yisible  to  (he  eje,  and 
their  returns  frequent.  We  shall  detail 
that  of  the  Mexicans  onlj. 

The  year  of  the  Mexicans  consisted  of 
965  days ;  it  was  composed  of  eighteen 
■Donths  of  twenty  days  eacli,  and  five  ad- 
ditional, called  ntmaniemi^  or  void.  At 
the  end  of  a  cycle  of  58  years,  13  days 
were  added,  and  at  the  end  of  another 
cycle  12  days,  and  so  on,  ahemately, 
making  an  addition  of  25  days  in  104 
yeaiB.  This  made  the  mean  year  to  con- 
sist of  365  days,  5  hours,  46  minutes,  9^^ 


seconds,  being  only  9^  ^li'^  shorter  than 
the  truth.  As  the  wanton  destruction  of 
the  Mexican  monuments  and  hieroglyph- 
ic records,  by  their  cruel  and  iHurbarous 
conquerors,  has  left  little  to  study,  and 
the  extermination  of  the  Mexicans  of 
superior  order  has  done  away  with  their 
system,  we  shall  not  detail  the  names  of 
their  months  and  particulais  of  their  cycfee, 
which  afford  sinking  coincidences  with 
those  of  the  Tartare,  Japanese,  &c.  We 
shall  only  add,  that  their  first  cycle  began 
in  the  month  of  Januaiy,  A.  D.  1090. 


List  ofihe  Corrupondence  of  Eras  teith  the  Tear  1830L 

(When  the  coromencemeiit  of  the  year  coinctdes  with  the  Christian  year,  that  aJore  will  be  gireii ; 
wheu  it  begins  at  a  different  seasoOi  the  month  in  which  the  1st  of  January,  1830,  occun  will  be  also 
stated.] 

Arrangement  Correspond-    Abbre- 

fn  preceding  ence  with    ▼iatkios. 

Article.  1830. 

1  Roman  year * 2583    A.  U.  C, 

2  Olympiads 7th  month  Ist  year  of   652    Olymp. 

3  Year  of  the  world (Constantinopolitan  account^  7338    A*  M.  Const 

4  **  ** (Alexandrian  account]  7322    A.  M.  Alex. 

5  "  «     .  .  .  .    (Abyssinian  account)  24th  Taljsas  7322    A.  M.  Abysa. 

6  «  "     (Jewish  account)  7th  Thebet  5590    A.  M. 

7  Era  of  Nabonassar 8th  mondi  of  2578    iEr.  Nab. 

8  Egyptian 24th  Cohiac  2576    A.  Mg. 

9  Julian  period    6543    Jul.  Per. 

10  Diocletian,  or  of  Martyrs 24th  Cohiac  1546  ^r.  Diocl. 

11  Seleucides,  or  Grecian Audynaeus  2141  iEr.  Seleuc. 

12  Death  of  Alexander ' 3d  month  2153  A.  Mort.  AIcjl 

13  Era  of  Tyre 4th  month  1954  JEr.  T>t. 

14  Caesarian  of  Antioch (Greek  account)  Audynaeus  1878  Caes.  Ant. 

15  **  «*    (Syrian  account)  Canun  II  1877 

10  Era  of  Abraham 4th  month  3845    JEr.  Abr. 

17  Spauish,  or  of  theCiesars 1868    A.  Cies. 

18  Persian  era  of  Yezdegird  III (Parsee  account)  >    ,,qq     *   o^^ 

4th  or  5th  month  5   "^    ^^"^ 

19  Armenian  common  year 29th  Drethari  1279    An.  Arm. 

20  **  ecclesiastical  year 12th  Kagoths  1278 

21  Hegira 7th  Regeb  1245  A.  H. 

22  Caliyug .    Poos  or  Margaly  i^TSl  Cat 

23  Salivahana  (Saca) "  «  1752  Saca. 

24  Vicramaditaya  (Samvat) «  «  1886  Samvat 

25  Bengalee «  «  1236  Beng. 

26  Fuslee  (Bengal  account) «  «  1237  FusL 

27  «      (Telinga  account) «  "         1239    Fusl. 

28  Parasurama 4th  month  of  1C05    Paras. 

29  Grahaparivrithi 54th  year  of  21st  cycle    Grab. 

30  Brihuspotee  (Bengal) 35th  year  of  84th  cycle    Cyc  Brih. 

31  "  (TeUuga) 24th  year  of  83d  cycle 

32  Chinese  year 11th  month  of  Kechow,  71  st  cycle 

Epode  (Latin  epodos,  from  the  Greek  finale.  This  epode  had  a  peculiar 
^iTM Jdc,  from  ixi  and  cU^  I  sing) ;  the  last  ure^  and  an  arbitrary  number  of  verses, 
division  in  the  choral  song  of  the  an-  By  the  term  epode  is  also  understood  a 
cients,  which  was  sung  when  the  chorus,  sort  of  satirical  ode ;  according  to  Hephees- 
after  the  strophe  and  antistrophe,  had  tion,  one  which  has  longer  and  shorter 
renirned  to  its  place  (see  Chorus) ;  so  iambic  verses,  following  eacJi  other  alter- 
that  it  was  a  Jtind  of  dosing  song,  or  nately.    This  name  is  also  given  to  tfa6 


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5S7 


5th  book  of  the  odes  of  Horace.  All  the 
odes  in  this  book,  however,  are  not  satir- 
ical, and  Scaliger  therefore  supposes,  that 
the  name  here  si^ifies  an  appendix  to 
the  odes ;  the  ,epodes  having  been  joined 
to  the  other  wcffks  of  the  poet  after  his 
death. 

Epopee.    (See  Epic.) 

Epoftje  (from  the  Greek  hi  and  airra^ai, 
I  see] ;  inspectors,  or  spectators,  i.  e.,  in- 
'itiatecl ;  a  name  given  to  those  who  /were 
admitted  to  view  the  secrets  of  the  great- 
er mysteries,  or  religious  ceremonies  of 
the  ancient  Greeks. 

Eprouvette;  the  name  of  an  instni- 
ment  for  ascertaining  the  strength  of  fired 
gunpowder,  or  of  comparing  tlie  strength 
of  different  kinds  of  gun  powder.  One  of 
the  best,  for  the  proof  of  powder  in  artille- 
ry, is  that  contrived  by  doctor  Hutton.  It 
consists  of  a  small  brass  gun,  about  Si  feet 
long,  suspended  by  a  metallic  stem,  or  rod, 
turning  by  an  axis,  on  a  firm  and  strong 
fiwne,  by  means  of  which  the  piece  os- 
cillates in  a  circular  arch.  A  little  below 
the  axis,  the  stem  divides  into  two 
branches,  reaching  down  to  the  gun,  to 
which  the  lower  ends  of  the  branches  are 
fixed,  the  one  near  the  muzzle,  the  other 
near  tlie  breech  of  the  piece.  The  upper 
end  of  tlie  stem  is  firmly  attached  to  the 
axis,  which  turns  very  fVeely  by  its  ex- 
tremities in  the  sockets  of  the  supporting 
frame,  by  which  means  the  gun  and  stem 
vibrate  together  in  a  vertical  plane,  with 
a  very  small  degree  of  friction.  The 
piece  is  charged  with  a  small  quantity  of 
powder  (usually  about  two  ounces),  with"* 
out  any  ball,  and  then  fired ;  ^y  the  force 
of  the  explosion,  the  piece  is  made  to 
recoil  or  vibrate,  describing  an  arch  or 
angle,  which  will  be  greater  or  less  ac- 
conling  to  the  quantity  or  strength  of  the 
powder. 

Epsom  ;  a  place  in  England,  15  miles 
south  of  London,  in  Surrey ;  population, 
2890.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  medicinal 
springs,  of  a  purgative  quality,  and  for 
the  downs,  on  which  horse-races  annually 
take  place.  Near  it  Henry  VIII  built  a 
splendid  palace,  called  ATofuucL 

Epson  Salt  (sulphate  of  maffnesia, 
cathartM  salt)  appears  in  capillary  fibres  or 
aciciilar  crystals ;  sometimes  presents  mi- 
nute prismatic  ciystals.  The  fibres  are 
fiometunes  collected  into  masses;  and  it 
also  occurs  in  a  loose,  meal  v  powder :  its 
color,  white,  grayish  or  yellowish :  it  is 
transparent,  or  translucent,  with  a  saltish, 
bitter  taste.  It  is  soluble  in  its  own  weight 
of  cold  water,  and  effloresces  on  exposure 
to  the  air.   It  is  composed  of  water,  sulphu- 


ric  acid  and  magnesia.  It  is  found  cover- 
ing the  Crevices  of  rocks,  in  caverns,  old 
Eits,  &C.,  in  the  vicinity  of  Jena,  on  the 
[arz,  in  Bohemia,  &c.,  in  mineral  springs, 
in  several  lakes  in  Asia,  and  in  sea-water. 
It  is  obtained  for  use  from  these  sources, 
or  by  artificial  processes,  and  is  employed 
in  medicine  as  a  purgative.  The  English 
name  is  derived  from  the  circumstance 
of  its  having  been  first  procured  from  the 
mineral  waters  at  Epsom,  England.  (Seo 
MaeneticL) 

EquATio2«,  in  algebra,  is  the  expres- 
sion of  the  equality  of  different  indica-» 
tions  of  the  sama  magnitude ;  as,  for  in- 
stance, 9  and  2  are  equal  to  11,  in  math- 
emadcal  characters  is  expressed  thus: — 
9-f  2:=11 ;  or,  3  from  4  leave  1,  is  4-^ 
=1.  An  equation  may  contain  known 
quantities  and  unknown  quantities.  The 
latter  are  usually  indicated  by  the  last 
letters  of  the  alphabet ;  and  it  is  one  of 
the  main  objects  of  mathematics  to  re-, 
duce  all  questions  to  equations,  and  to 
find  the  value  of  the  unknown  quantities 
by  the  known,  which  is  sometimes  a 
difiicult,  but,  at  the  same  time,  interesting 
operation;  because  x,  or  the  unknown 
quantity,  may  be  given  under  so  involved 
a  form  as  to  require  the  greatest  tact  to 
determine  its  value.  The  work  of  Meier 
Hirsch,  already  mentioned  in  the  article 
^^ebroj  is  perhaps  the  best  collection  of 
equations  for  solution.  There  must  alwayg 
be  as  many  equations  as  there  are  un* 
known  quantities;  and  it  is  not  always 
easy  to  form  these  from  the  question  pro- 
posed. The  equation  is  called  aiTMole^ 
qtuubraUe,  cMcy  bicubicj  of  the  JifViy  o&c. 
deme^  according  to  the  exponent  of  the 
unknown  quantity;  for  instance  (x^ — 
4€(hf-]-3qf)  x*=pq — sin  4p,  is  an  equation 
of  the  sixth  degree.  Equadons  are  the 
soul  of  all  algebraical  operations. 

EquATioN  or  Payments,  in  arithmetic, 
IS  the  finding  the  time  to  pay  at  once  sev- 
eral debts  due  at  different  times,  and 
bearing  do  interest  till  ofler  the  time  of 
paynoent,  so  that  no  loss  shall  be  sustain- 
ed by  either  party.  The  rule  commonly 
S'ven  for  this  purpose  is  as  follows: — 
ultiply  each  sum  by  the  time  at  which 
it  is  due ;  then  divide  the  sum  of  the 
products  by  the  sum  of  the  payments, 
and  the  quotient  will  be  the  time  required. 
Thus,  for  example,  A  owes  B  £190,  to 
be  paid  as  follows ;  viz.  £.50  at  6  montha» 
£60  at  7  months,  and  £80  at  10  mondis: 
what  is  the  equated  time  at  which  the 
whole  ought  to  be  paid,  that  no  loss  may 
arise,  either  to  debtor  or  creditor?  By 
the  rule, 


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558 


EQUATION  OP  PAYMENTS— EQUESTRIAN  ORDER. 


50X  6  =  300 
60X  7  =  420 
80  X  10  =  800 


190 


)  1520  (8  months,  equat 
—  1580  time. 

This  nile,  however,  is  founded  on  a  sup- 
position, that  the  interest  of  the  seveml 
debts  which  are  payable  before  the  equa- 
ted time,  from  their  terms  to  that  time, 
ought  to  be  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  in- 
terest of  the  debts  payable  after  the 
equated  time,  from  tnat  time  to  tlieir 
terms  respectively,  which,  however,  is 
not  correct,  as  it  is  the  discount  that  is 
to  be  considered,  and  not  the  interest, 
in  the  latter  sums.  In  most  cases,  how- 
ever, tliat  occur  in  business,  the  en-oris 
so  trifling,  diat  the  popular  rule  will  prob- 
ably always  be  made  use  of,  as  being  by 
far  the  most  eli^ble  and  expedltipus 
method  that  we  could  suggest 

EquATTO?r  of  Time,  in  astronomy,  de- 
notes tlie  difference  tietween  mean  and 
apparent  time,  or  the  reduction  of  tlie  ap- 
parent unequal  time,  or  motion  of  the 
sun  or  a  planet,  to  equable  and  moan 
time  or  motion.  If  tlie  earth  had  only  a 
diUmal  motion,  without  an  annual,  any 
given  meridian  would  revolve  from  the 
sun  to  the  sun  again  in  the  same  space 
of  time  as  from  any  star  to  the  same  star 

Xm,  because  the  sun  would  never 
nge  his  place  with  respect  to  the  stars. 
But  as  tlie  earth  advances  almost  a  de- 
gree eastwartl  in  its  orbit  in  the  time  that 
it  turns  eastward  round  its  axis,  what- 
ever star  passes  over  the  meridian  on  any 
day  with  the  sun,  will  pass  over  the  same 
meridian  on  the  next  day,  when  the  sun 
is  almost  a  degree  short  of  it,  that  is,  3 
minutes  56  seconds  sooner.  If  the  year 
contained  only  360  days,  as  tlie  ecliptic 
does  360  degrees,  tlie  sun's  apparent 
place,  so  far  as  his  motion  is  equable. 
Would  change  a  degree  every  day,  and 
then  the  sidereal  days  would  be  4  min- 
utes shorter  than  tlie  solar.  The  mean 
and  apparent  solar  days  are  never  equal, 
except  when  the  sun's  daily  motion  in 
right  ascension  is  59";  which  is  neariy 
the  case  about  the  15th  of  April,  the  15th 
of  June,  the  1st  of  Septemlier,  and  24th 
of  December,  when  the  equator  is  C,  or 
neariy  so ;  and  it  is  ait  its  greatest  about 
the  Ist  of  November,  when  it  is  1&  14". 

EquATOR.  By  the  celestial  equator  is 
tmderetood  that  imaginary  great  circle  in 
the  heavens,  the  plane  of  which  is  per- 
pendicular to  the  axis  of  the  earth ;  it  is 
eveiywhere  90^  distant  from  the  poles  of 
the  earth,  which  are  therefore  its  pokt^ 


and  its  axis  is  the  axis  of  the  earth.  It 
divides  the  celestial  spliere  into  die  north- 
ern and  southern  hemisplieresw  During 
his  apparent  yearly  course,  the  sun  is 
twice  in  the  equator,  at  the  beginning  of 
spring  and  of  autumn.  (See  Eqvmox, 
and  Day,)  Then  the  day  and  night  are 
eoual, — whence  the  name  of  equator. 
The  situation  of  the  stars,  with  respect  to 
the  equator,  is  detennined  by  their  declen- 
sion and  right  ascension,  (q.  v.)  The 
equator,  or  equinoctial,  called  by  niarinera 
simply  the  /tnc,  is  tliat  great  circle  of  our 
globe,  every  point  of  which  is  90  degrees 
from  tlie  pales,  which  are  also  its  poles, 
and  its  axis  is  the  axis  of  the  earth.  It  is 
in  tlie  plane  of  the  celestial  equator.  All 
places  which  are  on  it,  have  invariably 
equal  days  and  ni^ts.  (See  Iky,)  Our 
earth  is  divided  by  it  into  the  northern 
and  southern  hemispheres.  The  diur- 
nal revolution  of  the  earth  is  in  the  di- 
rection of  it  It  crosses  the  centre  of 
Africa,  the  islands  of  Sumatra,  Borneo, 
Celelx^s,  &c.,  in  Asia,  then  traverees  the 
Pacific  ocean,  and  crosses  South  Ameri- 
ca, in  Colombia,  thence  proceeds  through 
the  Atlantic  back  to  Africa.  To  cross 
tlie  line,  m  navigation,  is  to  pass  over  the 
equator.  The  equatorial  regions  are  sub- 
ject to  long  calms,  alternating  with  fri^t- 
ful  hurricanes.  As  equal  or  mean  time 
is  estimated  by  the  passage  of  arcs  of  the 
equator  over  the  meridian,  it  frequently 
becomes 'necessary  to  convert  parts  of 
the  equator  into  time,  and  the  converee, 
which  is  iierfonned  by  the  following 
analogy,  viz. — as  1.5°  :  1  hour  :  :  any  are 
of  the  equator  :  the  time  it  has  been  io 
passing.  Or,  conversely,  1  hour  :  15° 
:  :  any  given  time  :  to  the  are  of  the 
equator. — ^From  this  circle  is  reckoned 
tlie  latitude  of  places,  both  north  and 
south,  in  decrees  of  the  meridian.  (See 
LaHiiide,  and  LongUude.) 

EQUATORIAL,    UnIVBRSAI^   Or  POBTA- 

BLB  Observatory  is  an  instrument  in- 
tended to  aiwwer  a  number  of  useful  |Nir- 
poses  in  jiractical  astronomy,  independent 
of  any  particular  observatory.  It  may  be 
employed  in  any  steady  room  or  place, 
fornerfonnin^  many  useful  problems. 

EquERRT,  m  the  British  customs;  aa 
officer  of  state,  under  the  roaster  of  the 
horse.  There  are  five  equerries,  who 
ride  abroad  with  his  majesty ;  for  which 
purpose,  they  give  their  attendance 
monthly^  one  at  a  time,  and  are  allowed 
a  tatile. 

EquBSTRiAir  Ordbb,  in  Roman  anti- 
quities {ordo  equeatris).  The  tgmim  did 
not  at  first  fbnn  a  djmmct  onJer,  but  vntm 


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EQUESTRIAN  OBDEIl-EQUINOX. 


569 


merely  Relected,  100  fit>m  each  tribe,  as 
the  body-guard  of  the  king,  and  were 
called  dUreSj  because  they  were  mount- 
ed. Their  number  was  afterwards  in- 
creased ;  but  when  the  tqwUa  became  a 
distinct  order,  or  class,  is  not  known  with 
certainty ;  it  was  probably  soon  after  the 
expulsion  of  the  kings.  None  but  those 
who  were  named  by  the  censor  belonged 
to  the  order  of  eqmtes ;  tliey  were  taken 
fjrom  plebeian  or  patrician  fiunilies,  and 
tliose  wJio  were  of  illustrious  descent  were 
called  iUustres,  apecioai^  &c.  Their  nunh> 
ber  was  not  fixed.  In  the  latter  periods 
of  the  republic,  property  of  the  value  of 
400  sestartia  was  required  for  admission 
into  it  The  privileges  of  a  knight  or 
equts  were,  1.  to  receive  a  horse  from  the 
state ;  2.  a  gold  ring  (hence  onrttilo  avreo 
donwri,  i.  e.  to  be  made  a  knight) ;  3.  cm- 
gvaiua  davus,  a  narrow  strip  of  piuple  on 
the  tunic ;  4.  a  |)articiilar  seat  on  public 
occasions.  At  first,  their  duty  was  to 
serve  tlie  republic  in  war ;  but,  at  a  later 
period,  they  became  judges,  and  farm- 
ers of  the  public  revenues.  Caiusaud 
Tiberius  Gracchus  wrested  the  right  of 
being  judges  from  the  senate,  and  gave 
it  to  the  eqviles.  Some  authors  date  the 
elevation  of  the  equiUes  to  a  tliird  class  at 
this  period.  Every  fifth  year,  the  censor 
held  a  review  of  the  equiUeSy  on  which 
occasion  they  passed  before  him,  leading 
their  horses.  If  any  one  of  their  number 
had  been  guilty  of  any  offence,  even  if  he 
had  only  neglected  his  horse,  the  censor 
ordered  it  to  be  sold,  which  was  equiva- 
lent to  degrading  him  from  the  order; 
hence  cutimere  eqmjon,  to  degrade  a 
knight.  Others,  who  had  committed 
slighter  offences,  for  which  they  were  to 
be  deprived  of  their  rank,  were  omitted 
in  the  list,  which  was  read  aloud  by  the 
censor.  The  first  on  the  list  was  adled 
princeps.  The  farmers  of  the  revenue 
were  divided  into  classes,  each  having  a 
president,  called  magiater  socieiaiia:  the 
meml)ers  were  call^  pvblicanL  They 
were  hated  in  the  provinces. 

EquiLiBRisT  (from. the  Latin  <B^utZifr« 
rium) ;  one  who  keeps  his  balance,  in  un- 
natural podtions  and  hazardous  move- 
ments. The  equilibrist  entertains  the 
spectator  by  his  artful  motions,  attitudes, 
^ps,  &c.  Every  rope-dancer  is  an 
eouiUbrisL  India  is  the  native  countiy 
or  equilibrists;  and  the  accounts  given  by 
travellers  of  the  Indian  balancers  border 
on  the  incredible.  The  French,  too,  are 
distinguished  as  eauilibrists.  Such  per- 
formere  are  met  ynm  in  all  die  laiige  cities 
of  Europe  and  America.    The  equilifariati 


are  frequently  tdso  bufilMMis,  juggiers^ 
conjurers,  &c 

E<tui5ocTiAL,  in  astronomy;  a  great 
circle  of  the  sphere,  wider  which  the 
equator  moves  in  its  diurnal  motion.  It 
is  the  same  as  the  cdesUal  equator.  (See 
Eqwaior,) 

EquiNocTiAi*  Gales  ;  storms  which 
are  observed  generally  to  take  place  about 
the  time  of  the  sun's  crossing  the  equator 
or  equinoctial  line,  at  which  time  there 
is  equal  day  and  night  throughout  the 
world. 

EQUINOCTIAL  Points  are  die  two 
pomts  wherein  the  eouator  and  ecUptic  in- 
tersect each  other:  tne  one,  being  in  the 
first  point  of  Aries,  is  called  the  vernal 
point ;  and  the  other,  in  the  first  point  of 
Libra,  the  autumnal  point.     . 

EquiNox  is  that  time  of  the  year 
when  the  day  and  nisht  are  equal:  die 
length  of  the  day  is  then  12  hours ;  the 
sun  is  ascending  6  hpurs,  and  descending 
the  same  dme.  This  is  the  case  twice  a 
year,  in  die  spring  and  in  autumn,  when 
the  sun  is  on  the  equator.  When  the  sun 
is  in  this  situation,  the  horizon  of  every 
place  is,  of  course,  divided  into  two  equed 
parts  by  the  circle  bounding  ligh^  and 
darknc^ ;  hence  the  sun  is  visible  every 
where  12  hours,  and  invisiUe  for  the 
same  dme  in  each  24  hours.  (See  Day.) 
The  vernal  equinox  marks  the  beginning 
of  sprinff,  the  autumnal  that  of  autumn : 
at  all  other  times,  the  lengths  of  the  day 
and  of  the  night  are  unequal,  and  their 
difference  is  the  greater  the  more  we  ap- 
proach either  pole,  and  in  the  same  lati- 
tude it  is  every  where  the  same.  Under 
the  line,  this  inequality  entirely  vanishes : 
there,  during  the  day,  which  is  equal  to 
the  night,  the  sun  always  ascends  6  hours, 
and  descends  6  hours.  In  the  opposite 
hemisphere  of  our  earth,  the  inequality 
of  the  days  increases  in  proportion  to  the 
latitude:  the  days  increase  there,  while 
they  diminish  with  us,  and  wx  versa. 
The  points  where  the  ecliptic  comes  in 
contact  with  the  equator  are  called  equir 
nodial  pouts.  The  vernal  equinoctial 
point  was  formerly  at  the  entrance  of  the 
constellation  of  Aries;  hence  tiie  next 
30  degrees  of  the  ecliptic,  reckoned  east- 
ward from  it,  have  been  6alled  Aries ;  but 
this  point  long  ago  deserted  the  constella- 
tion of  Aries,  and  now  stands  under 
Pisces;  for  it  is  found  by  observation, 
that  the  equuioctial  points,  and  all  the 
other  points  of  the  ecliptic,  are  continual- 
ly moving  backward,  or  westward ;  which 
retrograde  motion  of  the  equinoctial  points 
IS  what  is  called  the  fruessian  qf  tie 


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EOuiNox— Eaumr. 


tqumoxts.  (See  Prteution.)  It  appeare 
from  the  result  of  calculations,  tbat  tlie 
path  of  eittier  of  the  polee  is  a  circle,  tlie 
poles  of  which  coincide  with  those  of  the 
ecliptic,  and  that  the  pole  will  tnove  along 
that  circle  so  slowly  as  to  accomplish  the 
whole  revolution  in  about  25,791  years, 
nearly.  The  diameter  of  this  circle  is 
equal  to  twice  the  inclination  of  the  eclip- 
tic to  the  equator,  or  about  47  degrees. 
Now,  as  the  ecUptic  is  a  fixed  circle  in 
the  heavens,  but  the  equator,  which  must 
be  equidistant  from  the  poles,  moves  with 
the  poles,  therefore  the  equator  must  be 
constantly  changing  its  intersection  with 
the  ecliptic  And  from  the  best  observa- 
tions, it  appears,  that  the  equator  cuts  the 
ecliptic  every  year  50  seconds  S&  more 
to  tiie  westwaiti  than  it  did  the  year  be- 
fore ;  hence  the  sun's  arrival  at  the  equi- 
noctial point  precedes  its  arrival  at  the 
same  fixed  point  of  the  heavens  every 
vear  by  20  minutes  23  seconds  of  time,  or 
by  an  arc  of  50  seconds  .25.  Thus,  1^ 
little  and  little,  these  equinoctial  points 
will  cut  the  ecliptic  more  and  more  to  the 
westward,  till,  after  25,791  yean,  they  r&- 
tuni  to  the  same  point. 

EquisETUM;  a  genus  of  plants,  be- 
longing to  the  Linnsean  class  cryploga- 
micu  The  species  are  very  common  in 
wet  places,  and  are  commonly  called 
horse-tmls.  The  fructification  is  m  termi- 
nal oval  or  conical  heads,  composed  of 
peltate  scales;  the  seeds  numerous  and 
very  minute ;  the  stem  simple  or  branched, 
striate,  and  composed  of  articulations,  each 
surrounded  at  base  with  a  scarious  sheath, 
which  is  toothed  on  the  margin;  the 
branches  are  verticillate  and  destitute  of 
leaves.  Five  species  are  natives  of  the  U. 
States,  all  common  to  the  Eastern  continent 
The  E.  hycmaU  (shave-giass  or  scouring- 
rueli)  has  a  remarkably  rough  stem,  and 
is  used  for  polishing  wood,  ivory,  and  the 
metals ;  for  this  purpose,  a  piece  of  iron 
wire  is  introduced  into  the  hollow  of  the 
stem,  which  is  then  rubbed  against  the 
substance  under  operation.  The  asperity 
of  the  cuticle  is  owing  to  its  containing  a 
proportion  of  silex.  Being  a  rare  plant 
in  England,  it  is  imported  into  that  coun- 
try in  considerable  miautities  from  Hol- 
land, and  is  an  article  of  commerce  in 
other  parts  of  Europe :  the  value  of  that 
exported  from  the  Rhone  is  estimated  at 
nearly  $2000  annually.  We  are  not 
aware  that  this  plant  has  been  found  very 
abundantly  at  any  particular  locality  in 
the  U.  States,  though  it  occurs  sparingly 
throughout  a  great  portion  of  tlie  Union. 

EquiTT.  WecalithatyinamoralaeDse, 


eqmhf,  which  is  founded  in  natural  jus- 
tice, in  honesty,  and  in  ricfat,  er  tf^iio  H 
bono.  So^  in  an  enlarged  view  (as  Mr. 
Justice  Blsckstone  has  observed,  3  Qmm. 
429),  **  equity,  in  its  true  and  genuine 
meaning,  is  the  soul  and  spirit  of  all  law; 
positive  law  is  construed,  and  rational  law 
IS  made  by  it  In  this,  equity  is  symmy- 
mous  with  justice ;  in  that,  to  the  true  and 
sound  interpretation  of  the  rule."  Henoe 
Grotius  has  defined  it  to  be  the  correction 
of  that,  wherein  the  law,  by  reason  of  its 
generality,  is  deficient  It  is  applied  to 
cases  which  the  law  does  not  exaictly  de- 
fine, but  which  it  submits  u>  the  sound 
judgment  of  the  proper  interpreter,  loMris 
oom  viri  permUhi.  In  this  sense,  equity 
must  have  a  place  m  eveiy  rational  sys- 
tem of  jurisprudence ;  if  not  in  naine^  at 
least  in  substance.  It  is  impossible,  tbat 
any  code,  however  minute  and  particular, 
should  embrace  or  provide  for  the  infiniie 
variety  of  human  anain,  or  should  furnish 
rules  applicable  to  all  of  them.  Eveiy 
system  of  laws  must  necessarily  be  de- 
fective ;  and  cases  must  occur,  to  which 
tlie  antecedent  rules  cannot  be  applied 
without  injustice,  or  to  which  they  can- 
not be  applied  at  alL  It  is  the  ofiice, 
therefore,  of  a  judge,  to  consider  whether 
the  anteoedent  rule  does  apply,  or  ou^ht, 
according  to  tlie  intention  of  the  lawgiver, 
to  apply  to  a  given  case ;  and,  if  there  be 
two  rules,  nearly  appmachinff  to  it,  but  of 
opposite  tendency,  which  ou^t  to  govern ; 
and,  if  there  exi^  no  exact  rule  applicable 
to  all  the  circumstances,  whether  the  par- 
ty is  remediless,  or  the  rule  furnishing  the 
closest  analogy  ought  to  be  followed. 
The  general  words  of  a  law  may  em- 
l^race  all  cases ;  and  yet  it  may  be  qlear 
tliat  all  could  not  have  been  intentionally 
embraced ;  for,  if  they  were,  it  would  de- 
feat the  obvious  objects  of  the  legislation. 
So  words  of  doubtful  import  may  he 
employed,  and  of  a  more  or  less  extensive 
meaning.  The  question,  in  such  cases, 
must  be,  in  what  sense  the  words  were 
used ;  and  it  is  the  part  of  a  judge  to  look 
to  the  objects  of  the  legislature,  and  to 
give  such  a  construction  of  the  words  as 
will  further  those  objects.  He  is  not  at 
liberty  to  set  aside  the  law,  but  to  ex- 
pound it  Custos  non  amdiUir  jnri$,  j^ 
Dore,  avppUrty  nderpntari,  mittgart  jut 
cmUpoiuiti  wuktrt  oei  iMtrt  non  jMbmi 
(Taylor's  EimitnU  of  CM  Law,  214). 
This  is  an  exercise  of  equitable  construe-  ■ 
tion.  It  is  the  administration  of  equity. 
Hence  arises  a  variety  of  rules  of  intc^re- 
tation  of  laws  according  to  their  nature 
and  opentMMiy  whether  they  aro  leooedial 


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EQUITY. 


561 


or  penal,  or  restrictive  of  general  right,  or 
in  advancement  of  public  justice.    But 
this  is  not  the  place  to  consider  those 
niles,  or  the  apphcation  of  them  in  differ* 
ent  systems  or  law.    In  the  law  of  Eng- 
land and  tbcU.  States,  equity  has  a  dif- 
ferent and  more  restrained  meaning.    We 
distinguish^ our  remedies  for  wrongs,  or 
for  the  enfoi:cement  of  rights,  into  two 
classes — those  which  are  admiViistered  in 
courts  of  law,  and  those  which  are  ad- 
ministered   in    courts  of  equity.     The 
lights  secured  by  the  itsrmer  are  called 
l^al ;  those  secured  by  tiie  latter  are 
called  eqmtabh.    The  former  are  said  to 
be  rights  and  remedies  at  common  law, 
because    recognised    and    enforced    in 
courts  of  common  law.    The  latter  are 
said  to  be  rights  and  remedies  in  equity, 
because  they  are  administered  in  courts 
of  equity  or  chancery,  or  by  proceedinfis 
in  other  courts  analogous  to    those  m 
courts  of  equity  or  chancery.    Now,  in 
England  and  America,  courts 'of  common 
law  j>roceed  by  certain  prescribed  forms, 
and  give  a  gencraljudgmenx  for  or  a^inst 
the  defendant    They  entertain  jurisdic- 
tion only  in  certain .  actions,  and   give 
remedies  according  to  the  particular  exi- 
gency of  such  actions.     But  there  are 
man^  cases  in  which  a  nmple  judgment 
for  either  party,  without  qualifications  and 
conditions,  and  particular  arrangements, 
will  not  do  entire  justice,  ex  aquo  et  honoy 
to  either  party.    Some  modification  of 
the  rights  of  both  parties  are  required ; 
some  restraints  on  one  side  or  the  other ; 
and    some  peculiar  adjustments,  either 
present  or  future,  temporary  or  perpetual. 
Now,  in  all  these  cases,  courts  or  com- 
mon law  have  no  methods  of  proceed* 
ing,  which  can  accomplish  such  objects. 
Their  forms  of  actions  and  judgment  are 
not  adapted  to  them.    The  proper  remcr 
dy  cannot  be  found,  or  cannot  oe  admin- 
istered to  the  full  extent  of  tiie  relative 
rights  of  all  parties.     Such  prescribed 
forms  of  actions  are  not  confined  to  our 
law.    They  were  known  in  the  civil  law; 
and  the  parly  could  apply  them  only  to 
their  original  purposes.    In  other  cases, 
he  had  a  special  remedy.    In  such  cases, 
where  the  courts  of  common  law  cannot 
grant  the  proper  remedy  or  relief,  tiie  Uw 
of  England  and  of  the  U.  States  (in  those 
states  where  equity  is  administered)  au- 
thorizes an  application  to  the  courts  of 
equity  or  cliancery,  which  are  not  con- 
fined or  limited  in  their  modes  of  relief 
by  such  narrow  regulations,  but  which 
grant  relief  to  all  parties,  in  cases  where 
they  have  rights^  tx  tequo  d  iono,  and 


modify  and  fashion  that  relief  according 
to  circumstances.    The  most  general  de- 
scription  of  a  court  of  equity  is,  that  it 
has  jurisdiction  in  cases  where  a  plain, 
adequate  and  complete  remedy   cannot 
be  had  at  law ;  tiiat  is,  in  the  common 
law  courts.    The  remedy  must  he  plain; 
for,  if  it  be  doubtfol  and  obscure  at  law, 
equity  wiQ  assert  a  jurisdiction.     So  it 
must  be  adequate  at  law ;  for,  if  it  fall  short 
of  what  the  party  is  entitled  to,  that  founds 
a  jurisdiction  in  equity.    And  it  must  be 
complete ;  that  is,  it  must  attain  its  full  end 
at  law ;  it  must  reach  the  whole  mischief 
and  secure  the  whole  right  of  the  party, 
now  and  for  the  future ;  otherwise  equity 
will  interpose,  and  ^ve  relief.    The  juris- 
diction of  a  court  of  equity  is  sometimes 
concurrent  with  that  of  courts  of  law  5 
and  sometimes  it  is  exclusive.    It  exer- 
cises   concurrent    jurisdiction    in    cases 
where  tiie  rights  are  purely  of  a  legal 
nature,  but  where  other  and  more  effi- 
cient aid  is  required  than  a  court  of  law 
can  afford,  to  meet  the  difiiculties  of  the 
case,  and  ensure  full  redress.    In  some 
of  these  cases,  courts  of  law  formeriy  re- 
fused all  redress ;  but  now  will  grant  it 
But  the  jurisdiction  having  been  once 
justly  Acquired  at  a  time  when  there  was 
no  such  redress  at  law,  it  is  not  now  re- 
hnquished.    The  most  common  exercise 
of  concurrent  jurisdiction  is  in  cases  of 
account,  accident,  dower,  fraud,  mistake, 
partnership  and  partition.     The  remedy 
is  here  oflen  more  complete  and  effectual 
than  it  can  be  at  law.    In  many  cases 
falling  under  these  heads,  and  especially 
in  some  cases  of  fraud,  mistake  and  ac- 
cident, courts  of  law  cannot  and  do  not 
afford  any  redress ;  in  others  they  do,  but 
not  always  in  so  perfect  a  manner.    A 
court  of  equity  also  \b  assistant  to  tfie 
jurisdiction  of*^  courts  of  law,  in  many 
cases,  where  the  latter  have  no  like  au- 
thority.     It  will  remove  legal  impedi- 
ments to  the  fair  decision  of  a  question 
depending  at  law.      It  will    prevent   a 
party  from  improperly  setting  up,  at  a 
trial,  some  title  or  claim,  which  would  be 
inequitable.    It  will  compel  him  lo  dis- 
cover, on  his  own  oath,  facts  which  he 
knows  are  material  to  the  right  of  the 
other  party,  but  which  a  court  of  law 
cannot  compel  tiie  party  to  discover.    It 
will  perpetuate  the  testimony  of  witnesses 
to  rights  and  tities,  which  are  in  danger 
of  being  lost  before  the  matter  can  be 
tried,    ft  will  provide  for  th«  safety  of 
property  in  dispute  pending  litigation.    It 
will  counteract  and  control,  or  set  aside, 
firaudiileut  judgnMUts.     It  will  exercise, 


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EQUITY— CHEMICAL  EQUIVALENTS. 


in  many  cases,  an  exchttwe  jurisdiction. 
This  it  does  in  all  cases  of  merely  equi- 
UMt  rights,  that  is,  such  rights  as  are 
not  recognised  in  courts  of  law.  Most 
cases  of  thist  and  confidence  fall  under 
this  head.  Jts  exclusive  jurisdiction  is 
also  extensively  exercised  in  granting 
special  relief  beyond  the  reiach  of  tlie 
common  law.  It  will  grant  injunctions 
to  prevent  waste,  or  irreparable  mjury,  or 
to  secure  a  setded  riglit,  or  to  prevent 
vexatious  litigations,  or  to  compel  the 
restitution  of  title  deeds;  it  will  appoint 
receivers  of  property,  where  it  is  in  dan- 
ger of  misapplication ;  it  will  compel  the 
surrender  of  securities  improperly  ob- 
tained ;  it  will  prohibit  a  party  from  leav- 
ing the  country  in  order  to  avoid  a  suit ; 
it  will  restrain  any  undue  exercise  of  a 
legal  right,  against  conscience  and  equity ; 
it  will  decree  a  specific  performance  of 
contracts  respecting  real  estates:  it  will, 
in  many  cases^  supply  the  ini perfect  exe- 
cution of  iustrumentB,  and  reform  and 
alter  them  according  to  the  real  inten- 
tion of  the  parties;  it  will  grant  re- 
lief in  cases  of  lost  deeds  or  securities ; 
and,  in  all  cases  in  which  its  interference 
is  qsked,  its  general  rule  is,  that  he  who 
asks  equity  must  do  equity.  If  a  party, 
therefore,  should,  ask  to  have  a  bond  for 
a  usurious  debt  given  up,  equity  could 
not  decree  it  unless  he  could  brih^  into 
court  the  money  honestly  due  without 
usury;  This  is  a  very  general  and  im- 
perfect outline  of  the  jurisdiction  of  a 
court  of  eauity ;  in  respect  to  which  it  has 
been  justly  remaricea,  that,  in  mattere 
within  its  exclusive  jurisdiction,  where 
substantial  justice  entitles  tlie  party  to  re- 
lief, but  the  positive  law  is  silent^  it  is 
impossible  to  define  the  boundaries  of 
that  jprisdiction,  or  to  enumerate,  with 
precision,  its  various  principles.  (Those 
who  wish  for  more  information  on  the 
subject  may  consult  the  elementary  trea- 
tises of  Fonblanque  on  Equity,  lord 
Redesdale's  Treatise  on  Equity  Pleadings, 
and  Cooper's  Equity  Pleadings;  and  the 
Practical  Treatises  of  Equity  by  Maddock 
and  JeremyJ 

£^i(y,  Cfouria  of.  The  equity  juris- 
diction, ui  England,  is  vested,  principally, 
in  the  high  court  of  chancery.  fSee 
Chancellor,)  The  court  is  distinct  from 
the  courts  of  law.  American  courts  of 
equity  are,  in  some  instances,  distinct 
from  those  of  law ;  in  others,  the  same 
tribunals  exercise  the  jurisdiction  both  of 
courts  of  law  and  equity,  though  their 
fi>rins  of  proceedittff  are  different  in  tlieir 
two  capacities.    The  supreme  court  of 


the  U«  States,  and  the  circuit  courts,  are 
invested  vrith  general  equi^  powers,  and 
act  either  as  courts  of  law  or  equity,  ac- 
cording to  the  form  of  the  process  and  the 
subject  of  a4Judication.  In  some  of  the 
states,  as  New  York,  Vii^^ia  and  South 
Carolina,  the  equity  court  is  a  distinct  tribu- 
nal, havinff  its  appropriate  judge,  or  chan- 
cellor, and  ofiicers.  In  most  of  the  states, 
the  two  jurisdictions  centre  in  the  same 
judicial  officera,  as  in  the  courts  of  the  U. 
States;  and  the  extent  of  equity  jurisdic- 
tion and  proceedings  is  very  various  in 
the  different  states,  beinj?  very  ample  in 
Comiecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Ma- 
ryland, Viiiginia  and  South  Carolina,  and 
more  restricted  in  Maine,  Massachusetts^ 
Rhode  Island  and  Pennsylvania.  But  the 
salutary  uifluence  of  these  powere  on  the 
judicial  administration  generally,  by  the 
adaptation  of  chancery  forms  and  modes 
of  proceeding  to  many  cases  in  which  a 
court  of  law  affords  but  an  imperfect  rem- 
edy, or  no  remedy  at  all,  is  producing  a 
gradual  extension  of  them  in  those  states 
where  they  have  been  heretofore  very 
limited.  (See  Chancdior^  Commum  Lax^ 
and  Cwaia,) 

Eqcjitt  or  REnEHPTioN.  Upon  a  mort- 
gage, although  the  estate,  upon  nonpay- 
ment of  the  money,  becomes  vested  in  the 
mortgagee,  yet  equity  considere  it  only  a 
pledge  for  the  money,  and  gives  the  party 
a  right  to  redeem,  which  is  called  bn 
e^'^  of  redemption.  If  the  mortgagee  is 
desirous  to  bar  the  equity  of  redempdony 
h^  may  oblige  the  mortgager  either  to  pay 
the  money  or  be  forecloera  of  his  equity, 
which  is  done  by  proceedings  in  chan- 
cery by  bill  of  foreclosure.  (See  Mart- 
gage,) 

EqcJiVAUSNTS,  Chemical  ;  a  term  em- 
ployed in  chemical  philosophy,  to  express 
the  system  of  definite  ratios,  in  which  the 
corpuscular  subjects  of  this  science  recip- 
rocally combine,  referred  to  a  common 
standard,  reckoned  unity.  The  principal 
facts  relating  to  chemical  combinations  re- 
quire to  be  stated,  in  order  to  render  the 
present  subject  intelligible.  And  in  the 
first  place,  leaving  out  of  view  the  combi- 
nations of  liquids  with  each  otlier,  and 
tlie  common  cases  of  solution  in  water 
and  alcohol,  the  first  law  relating  to  the 
combination  pf  substances  is,  that  the  com- 
potUion  of  bodUs  u  fixed  and  mcariabU; 
or,  in  other  words,  a  compound  substance, 
so  long  as  it  retains  its  characteristic  prop- 
erties, always  consists  of  the  same  ele- 
ments, united  together  in  the  same  pro- 
portion. Sulphuric  acid,  for  example,  is 
aliyays  composed  of  sulphur  and  oxygen, 


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563 


in  the  latio  of  16  puts,  by  weight,  of  the 
former,  to  24  of  the '  latter ;  no  other  ele- 
ments can  form  it,  nor  can  its  own  ele- 
ments form  it  in  any  other  proportion. 
Sulphate  of  barytes,  in  like  manner,  is  al- 
ways composed  of  40  parts  of  sulphuric 
acid  and  78  of  barytes.  If  sulphunc  acid 
and  barytes  should  enter  into  combination 
in  any  other  proportion,  some  new  t:om- 
pound,  different  from  sulphate  of  barytes, 
would  be  formed.  The  second  law  re- 
latini^  to  this  subject  is,^  that,  u^ien  one  body 
comUnea  until  mvoUvar  m  different  propor- 
HonSy  the  larger  proportion  of  one  ^/tiu  if^ 
grtdienU  has  a  9impU  a/iOmeiicai  ratio  to 
the  smaller  proportion  ;''^he  second  quan- 
tity beinff  a  simple  multiple  of  the  first ; 
and  if  there  is  a  third  or  fourth  propor- 
tion, the  same  ratio  continues  Mtiyeen 
them.  The  combinations  of  the  two  sub- 
stances, which,  in  their  gaseous  state, 
form,  by  their  mixture,  the  atmosphere, — 
oxygen  and  nitrogen, — unite  in  five  differ- 
ent proportions,  and  form  a  good  illustra- 
tion of  this  law,  these  proportions  haviiig 
to  each  other  the  simple  ratio  of  1, 2,  $ 

^»  •'•  NUroffen.  Oxygen, 

Nitrons  oxide  consists  of   14  o 

Nitric  oxide, 14        16 

Hypo-nitrous  acid,  ....  14        94 

Nitrous  acid, 14        33 

Nitric  acid, 14        40 

To  give  an  example  from  the  salts, — the 
bicarbonate  of  potash  contains  twice  as 
much  carbonic  acid  as  the  carbonate ;  and 
the  oxahc  acid  of  the  three  oxalates  of 
potash  is  in  tlie  ratio  of  1, 2;  and  4.  This 
law  is  often  called  Uu  law  of  muUipUs^  or 
of  combtJuUion  in  multiple  proportum.  It 
has  been  established  only  by  compara- 
tively recent  investigations,  but  the  .most 
rigid  researches  have  abundantly  evinced 
that  it  is  a  well-founded  law. — ^The  third 
law  of  combination  is  no  less  remarkable 
than  the  preceding,  and  is  intimately  con- 
nected with  it  Water  and  hypo-sulphur- 
ous acid  may  be  adduced  for  its  illustra- 
tion. The  former  is  composed  of  8  ox- 
ygen to  1  hydrogen ;  die  latter  of  8  oxygen 
to  16  sulphur.  Now,  the  well-known 
substance  sulphureted  hydrogen  is  con- 
stituted of  1  hydrogen  to  16  sulphur ;  that 
is,  the  quantities  of  hydrogen  and  of  sul- 
phur, which  combine  witli  the  same  quan- 
tity of  oxvgen,  combine  with  one  another. 
Again,  40  parts  of  selenium,  with  8  of  ox- 
y^n,  form  the  oxide  of  selenium,  and, 
with  1  of  hydropen,  seleniureted  Imlro- 
gen ;  36  parts  of  chlorine,  with  8  of  oxy- 
gen, constitute  the  oxide  of  chk)rine,  and, 
with  1  of  bydrogen,  fonn  oiuriatic  acid 


gas ;  16  parts  of  sulphur  combine  with  36 
of  chlorine  to  form  the  chloride  of  siil- 
phun  It  is  manifest,  from  these  exam- 
ples, that  bodies  unite  according  to  pro- 
portional numbers ;  and  hence  has  arisen 
the  use  of  certain  .terms,  as,  proportion^ 
cotMmng  propartiony  or  eqidomenl^  to  ex- 
press them.  Thus  the  combining  pro- 
portions of  the  substances  just  alluded  to 
are, — 

jlydrogen,    ....*..,   1 

Oxygen, 8 

Sulphur, 16 

Chlorine, 36 

Selenium, 40 

When  one  body  combines  with  another 
in  more  than  one  proportion,  then  the  law 
of  multiples,  aheady  explamed,  comes  in- 
to action.    Thus 

Hypo-sulphurous)    Sulphur,  Oxygen. 

acid    is    com-  [  16  or  1  pr.  -|-  8  or  1  pr. 

posed  of  ) 

Sulphurous  acid,  16  or  1  pr.  -J- 16  or  2  pr. 
Sulphuric  acid,      16  or  1  pr.  -f-  24  or  3  pr. 

The  most  usual  combination  ia  1  propor- 
tion of  one  body  either  witli  1  or  with  2 
proportions  of  another.  Combinations  of 
1  to  3,or  1  to  4,  are  veiy  uncommon,  unless 
the  more  simple  compounds  likewise  exisL 
But  this  law  does  not  apply  to  elementary 
substances  only,  since  compound  bodies 
have  their  combining  proportions,  which 
may  likevirise  be  expressed  in  numbers. 
Thus,  since  water  is  composed  of  one  pro- 
|}ortion,  or  8,  of  oxygen,  and  one  propor- 
tion, or  1,  of  hydrogen,  its  combining 
proportion  is  9.  The  pro^rtion  of  suP 
phuric  acid  is  40,  because  it  is  a  compound 
of  one  proportion,  or  16,  of  sulphur,  and 
tliree  proportions,  or  24,  of  oxygen ;  and, 
in  like  manner,  the  combining  propor- 
tion of  muriadc  acid  is  37,  because  it  is  a 
compound  of  one  propordon,  or  36  of 
chlorine,  and  one  proportion,  or  1,  of 
hydrof^n.  The  propordonal  number  of 
potassium  is  40,  and,  as  that  quantity 
combines  with  8  of  oxygen  to  form  pot- 
ash, the  combining  firoportion  of  potash 
is  48.  Now,  when  these  compounds 
unite,  one  pro|K)rtion  of  tiie  one  combines 
with  one,  two,  tliree  or  more  proportions 
of  the  other,  precisely  as  the  simple  sub- 
stances do.  The  hydrate  of  potash,  for 
example,  is  constituted  of  48  potash  and  9 
of  waterj  and  its  combining  proportion  is, 
consequently,  48-f-O,  or  57.  The  sulphate 
of  potash  is  composed*  of  40  sulphuric 
acid  -f-  46  |K)tash.  The  combining  pro- 
porlaon  of  this  salt  is,  therefore,  88.  The 
muriate  of  the  same  alkali  is  compoaed  of 


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CHEMICAL  EQUIVALENTa 


37  muriatic  acid  +  48  potash ;  its  com-  which  contain  the  smallest  proportion  of 
bining  proportion  is,  therefore,  85.  The  okygen  or  hydrogen  in  combination  with 
compoedtion  of  the  salts  affords  an  excel-  some  other  substance,  the  quantities  of 
lent  illustration  of  this  subject ;  and,  to  each  being  the  smallest  that  can  unite  to- 
exemplify  h  still  further,  a  list  of  the  pro-  gether.  Carbonic  oxide  with  respect  to 
portional  numbers  of  a  few  acids  and  al-  caibon,  and  sulphurated  hydrogen  with 
Kaliue  bases  is  subjoined.  respect  to  sulphur,  answer  this  description 

-,,      .       .,        ,A    T-*i--  iQ    perfectly.    The  former  consists  of  8  oxy- 

Fluonc  acid, .  .  10    Lithia, . 18    ^^q  carbon ;  the  latter  of  1  hydii- 

Pho8phoncacid,2B    Magnesia,.  .  .  ^    ^^  ^^^  jg  ^^^^^     ^^^  propoitional 

Munatic  acid    .  37    Lime, ^    ^^^^e^  ^  ^l^^;  j    consequently,  6,  and 

Siilphuncacid,  40    Soda, ^    ^^  ^^^       ^^    The  pro^rtions  of  aU 

Nimcadd  .  .  .  54    Potosh,  •  •  •  •  ^    other  Ibodi^s  may  be  Jotennined  m  the 
Arsenic  acid,.  .  62    Sd^ua,    .  .  .  ^    ^^^  ^^^^^    ^g.,^^^  ^^^   proportional 
isarytes, ....         numbers   merely   express    the    relative 
Now  bodies  uniting  according  to  their    quantities  of  difierent  substances  which 
proportional  numbers,  as  has  been  seen    combine  together,  it  is,  in  itself^  immateri- 
alrave,  the  proportion  of  each  base  ex-    a1  what  figures  are  employed  to  express 
presses  the  precise  quantity  required  to    them.    The  only  essential  point  is,  that 
neutralize  a  proportion  of  each  of  the    the  relation  should  be  strictly  observed. 
acid&    Thus  18  of  Uthia,  32  of  soda,  and    Thus  we  may  make  the  combining  pro- 
78  of  barytes  combine  with  10  of  fluoric    portion  of  hydrogen  10 ;  but  then  oxygen 
acid,  forming  the  neutral  fluates  of  lithia,    must  be  60,  carbon*  60,  and  sulphur  160. 
soda  and  baiytes,  and  are  tenned  equivth    Doctor  Tliomson  makes  oxygen  1,  so  that 
lenla  of  each  other,  as  well  as  of  fluoric    hydrogen  is  eight  times  less  than  unity,  or 
acid.    The  same  fact  is  obvious,  with  re-    0.125,  carbon  0.75,  and  sulphur  2.    Doc- 
spect  to  the  acids ;  for  28  of  phosphoric,    tor  Wollaston  fixes  oxygen  at  10,  by  which 
40  of  sulphuric,  and  62  of  arsenic  acid    hydrogen  is  1.25,  carbon  7.5,  and  so  on. 
unite  with  28  of  lime,  forming  a  neutral    According  <to  Berzelius,  oxygen  is  100. 
phosphate,  sulphate  and  arseniate  of  lime.    The  system  of  Wollaston  becomes  the 
and  these  acids,  in  like  manner,  are  equiv-    same  as  doctor  Thomson^s  by  merely  di- 
alents  of  each  other  and  of  lime.    These    viding  by  10 ;  that  is,  by  placing  the  deci- 
circumstances  afford  a  ready  explanation    mal  point  more  to  tlie  left  by  one  figure ; 
of  the  &ct,  that  when  two  neutral  salts    and  then,  if  we  multiply  by  8,  it  is  con- 
mutually  decompose  one  another,  the  re-    verted  into  Mr.  Dalton's  scale,  in  which 
suiting  compounds  are  likewise  neutral    hydrogen  is  the  standard. — ^Tables  of  the 
If  88  parts  of  neutral  sulphate  of  potash    combining  quantities  of  all  chemicar  agents 
are  mixed  with  132  of  the  nitrate  of  ba-    have  been  drawn  up  and  arrang^  to 
lytes,  the  78  boiytes  unite  with  the  40  sul-    guide  the  chemist  in   experimental  re- 
phuric  acid,  and  the  54  nitric  acid  of  the    searehes.    The  utility  of  these  tables  is 
nitrate  combine  with  the  48  potash  of  the    very  extensive.    Through  their  aid,  and 
sulphate — ^not  a  particle  of  acid  or  alkali    by  remembering  the  proportional  nuin- 
remaininff  in  an  uncombined  condition,    bers  of  a  few  elementary  substances,  the 
The  method  of  determining  the  propor-    composition  of  a  great  number  of  com- 
tional  numbers,  as  might  be  anticipated    pound  bodies  ma^  be  calculated  with  fb- 
from  what  has  gone  before,  is,  to  analysee    cility.    By  knowing  that  6  is  tlie  com- 
a  definite  compound  of  two  simple  sub-    bining  proportion  Of  carbon  and  8  of 
stances  which  possess  an  extensive  range    os^gen,  it  is*  eaey  to  recollect  the  compo- 
of  affininr.    No    two    bodies  are  bet^    sition  of  carbonic   oxide  and   carbonic 
adapted  ror  tliis  purpose  than  oxygen  and    acid, — ^the  first  being  6  carbon  -j-  8  oxy- 
hydrogen,  and  that  compound  of  tliese  is    gen,  and  the  second  6  carbon  -j- 16  oxy- 
selected  which  contains  the  smallest  quan-    gen.    40  is  the  number  of  potassium,  and 
tity  of  oxygen.    Water  is  such  a  sub-    p)»tash,  being  its  protoxide,  is  composed 
stance ;  and  it  is  therefore  regarded  as  a    of  40  potassium  -f- 8  oxygen.    From  tfa^e 
compound  of  one  proportion  <x  oxygen  to    few  data,  we  know  at  once  the  compoei- 
one  proportion  of  hydrogen.    But  analy-    tion  of  the  carbonate  and  bicarbonate  of 
ais  proves  that  it  is  composed  of  8  parts    potash.    The  first  is  22  carbonic  acid  4- 
of  the  fonner  to  1  of  the  latter,  by  which    48  potash ;  the  second,  44  carbonic  acid 
the  relative  weights  of  tlieir  proportions    -^  48  potash.    These  tables  are  rendered 
are  determined,  that  of  oxygen  being  eight    still  more  useful,  if  accompanied  by  a  log- 
times    heavier   than  that  of  hydrogen,    ometric  sKdhig  scale,  die  application  oif 
Some   oompounds  are   next  mraminad    which  to  this  puqiose  was  a  happy  i 


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tion  of  doctor  Wollaston.  As  it  is  not 
poesible  to  include,  on  a  single  sciile,  the 
oames  of  all  substances,  those  are  selected 
which  are  the  most  frequent  subjects  of 
reference.  Tiiese  are  arranged  in  the*  or- 
der of  their  relative  weights,  and  at  such 
distances  from  each  other,  according  to 
their  weights,  that  tlie  series  of  numbers, 

C laced  on  a  sliding  scale,  can  at  pleasure 
6  moved,  so  that  any  number  express- 
ing the  weight  of  a  compound  may  be 
brought  to  correspond  with  the  place  of 
that  com|K>und  in  the  adjacent  column. 
The  arrangement  is  tfien  such  that  the 
weight  of  any  ingredient  in  its  composi- 
tion, of  any  reagent  to  be  employed,  or 
precipitate  tliat  might  be  obtained  in  its 
analysis,  will  be  found  opposite  the  point 
at  which  its  respective  name  is  placed. 
Let  us  illustrate  its  use  by  a  few  exam- 
ples. 1.  The  quantity  of  any  substance, 
which  is  equivalent  to  a  given  quantity  of 
any  otfier  inscribed  on  the  scale,  may  be 
learned  by  inspection ;  the  quantities  taken 
being  quite  arbitrary,  and  such  as  are  lia- 
ble to  suit  the  puq)ose  at  any  time.  Thus, 
by  bringing  50,  on  the  slider  (in  a  scale 
where  the  weight  of  hydrogen  is  express- 
ed by  1),  opposite  to  magnesia,  or  to  its 
equivalent,  20,  it  will  be  seen  ttiat  50  parts 
of  that  earth  are  equivalent  to  70  lime, 
120  potash,  &c.  2.  it  ascertains  the  quan- 
tity of  each  base  that  is  equivalent  to  a 
given  quantity  of  any  acid.  Thus  50  on 
Sie  slider  being  brought  opposite  to  sul- 
phuric acid,  or  to  its  equivalent,  40,  it  ap- 
|)ears  tliat  50  fmrts  of  this  acid  saturate  25 
of  magnesia,  35  lime,  60  potash,  &c.  lu 
a  siiniliur  manner,  it  is  capable  of  indicat- 
ing tlie  quantities  of  different  acids  re- 
quired to  saturate  each  base;  thus  50 
parts  of  magnesia  saturate  100  of  sulphu- 
ric acid,  135  nitric  acid,  &c.  3.  It  ena- 
bles us  to  determine,  by  inspection,  the 
pro{)ortions  of  the  comix)nents  in  a  given 
quantity  of  any  sulistance  of  known  com- 
])osition.  Thus,  by  bringing  100,  on  the 
slider,  opposite  to  72,  the  equivalent  of 
dry  sulphate  of  soda,  we  find  55.5  on  the 
slider,  opposite  to  the  equivalent  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  44.5  opposite  to  the 
equivalent  of  soda;  numbers  which,  to- 
gether, make  up  100  of  the  salt  It  ex- 
presses not  only  the  proximate,  but  die 
ultimate  elements  of  compounds.  Thus, 
keeping  the  slider  in  the  same  situation  as 
above,  we  find  22.4  on  the  slider,  opposite 
to  16,  the  equivalent  of  sulphur,  and  33.1 
opposite  to  24,  the  equivalent  of  three  pro- 
portions of  oxygen ;  and  22.4-{-33.1  make 
up.  together,  55.5  of  sulphuric  acid.  By 
reference  to  the  equivdeots  of  sodium  and 
voju.  IV.  48 


oxygen,  we  find,  also,  that  44  parts  of  soda 
are  made  up  of  33  sodium  and  11  oxyseiL 
4.  The  quantity  of  any  substance  required 
to  decompose  a  given  quantity  of  another, 
by  simple  elective  attraction,  is  at  onc9 
taught  by  the  scale.  Thus,  if  we  wish 
to  know  the  smallest  quantity  of  sulphu* 
ric  acid  adequate  to  decompose  100 
parts  of  chloride  of  sodium,  by  bringing 
100,  on  the  slider,  opposite  to  chloride  of 
sodium,  or  its  equivalent,  60,  we  find  66i, 
on  the  slider,  opposite  to  40,  the  equiva- 
lent of  dry  sulphuric  acid,  and  opposite  to 
49,  the  equivalent  of  sulphuric  acid  of 
commerce,  we  find  81i  of  the  latter.  We 
must,  therefore,  employ  66^  of  the, former, 
or  81  i  of  the  latter.  Again,  to  know  the 
quantity  of  dry  sulphate  of  soda  wliich 
would  result  if  all  tiie  common  salt  were 
decomposed,  we  shall  find  120,  on  the 
slider,  opposite  to  the  dnr  sulphate,  or  to 
its  equivalent,  72,  and  270  opposite  to  the 
crystallized  sulphate,  or  to  its  representa- 
tive number,  162.  5,  The  quantities  of 
salts,  each  consisting  of  two  ingi'cdientB, 
that  are  required  for  mutual  decomposi- 
tion, may  be  learned  by  a  similar  use  of 
the  sliding  scale.  Supposing,  for  instance, 
that  we  have  83  poits  of  sulphate  of  pot- 
ash, and  wish  to  know  the  quantity  of 
chloride  of  barium  required  for  their  de- 
composition ;  bring  83,  on  the  slider,  op- 
posite to  sulphate  of  potash,  or  to  88,  its 
representative,  and  opjwsite  to  106,  the 
equivalent  of  chloride  of  barium;  we  find 
100  on  the  slider,  which  is  the  number 
required.  The  results  of  this  decom|)o§i- 
tion  may  also  be  learned  by  examining 
the  instrument  when  in  the  same  situation 
of  the  slider;  for  opposite  to  the  equiva- 
lent of  sulphate  of  barytes,  118,  we  find 
on  the  slider  111,  and  opposite  to  chloride 
of  potassium  we  find  71.5  on  the  slider, 
the  two  last  numbei-s  indicating  the  result- 
ing quantities  of  the  new  compounds 
Again,  from  the  weight  of  a  precipitate,  it 
is  easy  to  deduce  the  quantities  of  aalm 
which  have  afforded  it.  Thus,  if  we  had 
obtained  by  experiment  120  parts  of  dry 
sulphate  of  barytes,  on  bringing  that 
number  opposite  to  its  equi\'aleiit,  118^ 
we  see  at  once  that  they  may  have  result- 
ed from  89i  of  sulphate  of  potash,  and 
108  of  chloride  of  barium;  and  moreover, 
that  120  parts  of  barytic  sulphate  ah) 
composed  of  40.6  sulphuric  acid,  and  79.4 
barytes ;  the  sulphuric  acid  consisting  of 
16.0  sulphur  and  24.1  oxygen,  and  tlie  ba- 
rj'tes  of  8.15  oxygen  and  71.25  barium. 
Other  applications  still,  of  the  scale  of 
chemical  equivalents,  are  pointed  out  by 
doctor  Wollaston  in  his  memoir,  explana- 


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CHEMICAL  EQUIVALENTS— ERCILLA  Y  ZUNIGA. 


live  of  its  principle  and  uses,  in  the  Phil 
Trans,  for  1814;  but  the  accurate  and 
ready  solution  of  so  many  important  pmc- 
tical  problems  as  have  been  noticed  above 
are  sufficient  to  show  its  importance  to 
the  chemist  Doctor  Ure  remarits  of  it, 
that  it  is  ''an  instrument  wliich  lias  con- 
tributed more  to  facilitate  the  general 
study  and  practice  of  chemjstiy  imn  any 
other  invention  of  man.** 

Era.  (See  Epochs  and  Mra,) 
Erasmus,  Desiderius,  bom  at  Rotter- 
dam, 1467,  was  die  illegitimate  son  of  a 
Dutchman  of  Gouda,  by  name  Crerard,  and 
the  daughter  of  a  physician.  He  was  a 
anging-Doy  in  the  cathedral  of  Utrecht 
tillnis  ninth  year,  then  entered  the  school 
at  Deventer,  where  he  displayed  such 
brilliant  powers,  that  it  was  predicted  that 
he  would  be  the  most  learned  man  of  his 
time.  After  the  death  of  his  parents, 
whom  be  lost  in  his  fourteenth  year,  liis 
guardians  compelled  him  to  enter  a  mon- 
astery ;  and,  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  he  a»- 
flumed  the  monastic  habit  The  bishop 
of  Cambray  delivered  him  from  this  con- 
straint In  1492,  he  travelled  to  Paris,  to 
perfect  himself  in  theology  and  polite  lit- 
erature. He  there  became  the  instnicter 
of  several  rich  Englishmen,  from  one  of 
whom  be  received  a  pension  for  life.  He 
accompanied  them  to  England  in  1497, 
where  he  was  graciously  received  by  the 
king.  He  returned  soon  after  to  Paris, 
and  then  travelled  into  Italy  to  increase  his 
stock  of  knowledge.  In  fiologna,  where 
h©  received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  theo- 
k^,  he  was  one  day  mistaken,  on  account 
of  his  white  scapuliuy,  for  one  of  the  phy- 
sicians who  attended  tliose  sick  of^  the 
plague ;  and,  not  keeping  out  of  tlie  way 
of  the  people,  as  such  persons  were  re- 
quired to  do,  he  was  stoned,  and  narrowly 
escaped  with  his  life.  This  accident  was 
the  occasion  of  his  asking  a  dispensation 
from  the  vows  of  his  onier,  which  the 
pope  granted  himc  He  visited  Venice, 
radua  and  Rome ;  but,  brilliant  as  were 
the  offers  here  made  him,  he  preferred  the 
invitation  of  his  friends  in  England,  where 
the  fkvor  in  which  he  stood  with  Heiuy 
VIII  promised  him  still  greater  advonta- 
gfSB,  When  he  visited  the  lord  chancellor 
sir  Thomas  More  witliout  making  him- 
self known  to  him,  the  chancellor  was  so 
delifffated  with  his  conversation,  that  he 
exeiainied  **You  are  either  Erasmus  or 
the  devil**  He  was  offered  a  benefice,  but 
was  unvrillingto  fetter  liiniself  by  an  office 
of  this  kind.  He  was  for  a  short  time 
professor  of  Greek  at  Oxford.  He  after- 
wards travelled  through  Genoany  uul  tlM 


Netherlands,  and  went  to  Bale,  where  he 
had  his  works  printed  by  Froben.  He 
died  in  1536.  His  tomb  may  be  seen  at 
Bile,  in  the  Calviuistic  cathedral. — ^To  pro- 
found and  extensive  learning  Erasmus 
joined  a  refined  taste  and  a  delicate  ^it 
Pfaturally  fond  of  tranquillity  and  indepen- 
dence, he  preferred  the  pleasures  of  lite- 
rary ease  and  retirement  to  the  pomp  of 
high  life.  His  caution  and  worldly  pru- 
dence offended  many  of  the  best  men  of 
Iris  times.  He  did  great  and  lasting  ser- 
vice to  the  cause  of  reviving  kaming. 
Although  he  took  no  direct  part  in  tiie  ref- 
ormation, and  was  reproached  by  Lutiier 
for  lukewarmness,  he  attacked  the  disor- 
ders of  monkeiy  and  supeistition,  and 
eveiy  where  promoted  the  cause  of  truth. 
He  vrished  tor  a  general  ecclesiastical 
council,  to  be  competed  of  the  most  learn- 
ed and  enlightened  men,  but  did  not  live  to 
see  his  wish  accomplished*  He  therefore 
confined  his  efforts  to  serve  the  world  by 
his  writings,  which  will  always  be  prized  for 
tlieir  interesting  matter  and  graoefiil  style. 
The  best  edition  is  by  Le  Clerc,  Leyden, 
1703, 10  vols.  foL  His  hfe  has  been  writ- 
ten by  Buriguy.  Joitin*s  life  of  Erasmus 
is  a  valuable  work.  Besides  his  editions 
of  various  classics,  and  his  other  philologi- 
cal and  theological  writings,  we  will  oidy 
mention  his  well  known  book  in  praise  of 
folly  (Encomium  MoriaB)^  and  his  collo- 
quies. His  letters  are  very  valuable  in 
reference  to  the  history  of  that  period. 

Erato  (from  ipaw,  I  lovej ;  one  of  the 
muses,  whose  name  si^ifies  loving^  or 
lovely.  She  has  much  m  common  with 
Terpsichore — the  same  attributes,  the  same 
dress,  and  frequently  a  lyre  and  pUdnmL 
She  presides  over  the  songs  of  lovers,  and 
touches,  as  Ovid,  in  his  Art  of  Love,  in- 
forms ufi,  tlie  hearts  of  the  coklest  maidens 
by  her  tender  kys.    (See  Muses,) 

Eratosthenes,  a  learned  man  in  the 
times  of  the  Ptolemies,  bom  at  Cyrene,  in 
Africa,  B.  C.  ^5,  librarian  at  Alexandria, 
improved  the  science  of  mathematical  ge- 
ography, which  he  corrected,  enlarged, 
and  reduced  to  system.  He  gained  his 
greatest  renown  by  his  investigations  of 
the  size  of  the  earth.  He  rendered  much 
servk^  to  the  science  of  astronomy,  and 
first  observed  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptics. 
(See  Ediptic,)  Of  his  writinj^  one  only 
remains  complete, — Catasterumij — ^which 
treats  of  the  constellations  (Scfaaubach, 
with  a  commentary,  1795).  Of  liis  geo- 
graphical woiks,  which  were  k>ng  in  mgh 
repute,  the  scattered  remains  were  collect- 
ed and  published  by  Seidel,  179a 

Erciuu  t  ZuNiai,  don  Alonzo  de; 


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sa9 


knight  of  St  James,  and  chamberiain  to  the 
emperor  Rodolph,  the  third  son  of  a  Spanish 
jurist,  who  was  also  a  knight  of  the  above 
order.  When  he  was  born  is  uncertain, 
but  it  was  before  1540.  His  mother,  from 
whom  he  inlierited  the  name  of  Zuhiga, 
carried  him,  afler  the  early  death  of  his 
father,  to  the  coiut  of  the  empress  IsabeUa, 
consort  of  Charles  V.  The  young  Alonzo 
was  page  to  the  Infimt  don  rhilip,  and  ac- 
companied him  on  his  travels  through  the 
Netherlands  and  a  part  of  Germany,  and 
through  Italy,  Poland,  Bohemia  and  Hun- 
gary, and,  in  1554,  went  with  him  to  Eng- 
land) on  the  occasion  of  his  marriage  with 
<{ueen  Mary.  Soon  after  this,  an  insurrec- 
tion breaking  out  amon^  the  Araucanians, 
a  tribe  of  Indians  on  the  coast  of  Chile, 
Ercilla  joined  an  expedition  sent  against 
them.  The  difficulties  which  thB  §pan- 
hirds  had  to  encounter,  the  heroic  resist- 
ance of  the  natives,  and  the  multimde  of 
gallant  deeds  by  which  the  war  was  sig- 
nalized, inspired  the  young  and  breve 
Ercilla  with  the  idea  of  making  it  the  sub- 
ject of  an  epic  poem,  to  which  he  gave  the 
name  of  La  Araucana.  He  began  the 
work  on  the  spot,  writing  often  during  the 
niffht  what  had  been  achieved  in  the  day 
(Tvmanio  ora  la  espada,  ora la pluma), and 
was  obliged  sometimes,  for  want  of  paper, 
to  use  pieces  of  leather.  Ercilla  is  said 
afierwards  to  have  come  near  losing  his 
life  by  reason  of  a  groundless  charge  of 
mutiny,  and  to  have  been  actually  on  tlie 
scaffold  before  his  innocence  was  made 
known.  He  returned  to  Spain,  very  much 
out  of  health,  and  after  having  finished  the' 
first  part  of  his  epic.  All  this  hs  i>erformed 
before  completing  his  29th  year.  In  1570, 
he  married  Maria  Bazan,  at  Madrid,  whose 
charms  and  virtues  are  celebrated  by  him 
in  various  passages  of  his  poem.  In  1577, 
the  first  port  of  his  poem,  in  1590,  the 
whole,  was  published.  His  merits  were 
not  rewarded ;  for  he  died  at  Madrid  in 
great  poverty  and  obscurity.  The  time 
and  circumstances  of  his  death  are  uncer- 
tain ;  he  must  have  been  alive,  however,  in 
1596,  as  Mosquera,  in  his  book  on  military 
discipline,  speaks  of  him  as  his  contempo- 
rary. He  left  no  legitimate  children,  but 
two  natural  sons  and  a  daughter. — The 
Araucana  is  a  historical  epic  in  the  oc- 
tave measure,  in  which  the  author  con- 
fines himself,  with  the  exception  of  some 
episodes  and  a  few  fictions,  to  the  exact 
historical  course  of  events.  Hence  the 
poem  often  assumes  almost  the  character 
of  a  chronicle.  Voltaire's  judgment  on 
this  poem  (in  his  Kssaisurla  Poisie  ipiqut) 
shows  that  he  had  not  read  it    Cervantes, 


in  the  sixth  book  of  Dow  Quixote,  nudes  it 
by  the  side  of  the  best  Italian  epics ;  but 
probably  few  persons,  uninfluenced  by  pa- 
triotic pride,  will  agree  with  hinb  It  nas 
been  continued  by  a  certain  don  Diego  do 
Santisteban  Osorio.  Lope  de  Vega  has 
ti^en  fit>m  the  epic  of  Ercilla  the  materi- 
als for  his  piece  Arauca  Conquered.-^ 
The  first  part  of  the  Araucana,  as  already 
stated,  appeared  in  1577,  in  15  cantos ;  the 
second  part  in  1576 :  the  whole,  in  three 
mrtB,  1590,  contains  37  cantos ;  new  ed. 
Madrid,  177&  It  has  been  translated  into 
Italian,  and  twice  into  French  (but  abridge 
edl  Paris,  1824.    (See  Araucaman$A 

Erebus  ;  son  of  Chaos  and  DorknesB. 
He  married  his  sister.  Night,  and  was  the 
father  of  the  light  and  Day.  The  Parcn, 
or  Fates  (q.  v.^  by  some,  are  called  hito 
daughters.  He  was  transformed  into  a 
river,  and  plunged  into  Tartarus,  because 
he  aided  the  Titans.  From  him,  the  name 
Erebus  was  given  to  the  infernal  regions, 
particuhrly  that  part  of  it  which  is  desig- 
nated as  the  abode  of  virtuous  shades,  and 
fit)m  which  they  pass  over  immediately  to 
the  Elysian  fields. 
Erbctheus.  (See  EricUumius.) 
Erbmits  (from  the  Greek  fynt^t  a  des- 
ert) ;  one  who  sechides  himself  fiiom  so* 
ciety.  (See  AnachoriU.) 
Eresicthox.  (See  ErmcOum.) 
Erfurt  ;  an  important  Prussian  fortren 
in  Thuringia.  It  was  ceded  to  Prussia  at 
the  peace  of  Paris,  since  which  time  its 
fbrtitications  have  been  much  strengthen- 
ed. It  is  «tuated  on  the  great  road  wliioh 
leads  fiiom  Frankfort  on  uie  Maine  to  the 
north  of  Germany,  passing,  in  part  of  its 
course,  alonff  the  mountains  called  the 
Thuringian  Forest  (Thiiringer  H^ald\  In 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  century,  Erfurt 
was  a  flourishing  conunercial.  place,  and 
contained  not  less  than  60,000  inhabitants: 
at  present,  there  are  not  more  tlian  21,330, 
in  2781  houses.  The  univerntv,  establish- 
ed in  1378,  was  suppressed  by  the  Prussian 
government  in  181G,  for  the  purpose  of 
merging  it  in  one  of  those  great  estab- 
lisliments  for  education,  of  which  Prus- 
sia has  so  many.  The  inhabitants  are 
moedy  Lutherans.  There  are  two  forts, 
called  Petersberg  and  Cyriaksberg.  Erfurt 
is  the  capital  of  a  government,  and  the 
seat  of  several  courts,  and  contains  a  royal 
academy  of  practical  science,  two  gjfmna- 
8%a  (royal  schools),  an  institution  for  the 
deaf  and  dumb,  a  musical  society,  and  seve- 
ral other  institutions.  The  large  hell  called 
Susanna,  made  of  the  finest  bell-metal,  and 
weighing  275  cwt^  and  the  cell  in  wliich 
Luther  uved,  while  an  Augustine  monk, 


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ERFURT— ERUARD. 


from  1505  till  1512,  are  shown  as  curiosities. 
According  to  tradition,  Erfurt  was  founded 
as  early  as  the  fifth  century,  by  a  certain 
Erpes.  It  was  not  a  free  imperial  city,  bat 
always  maintained  a  sort  of  mdependeuce, 
notwithstanding  the  claims  of  ttie  elector 
of  Mentz.  In  1483,  it  concluded  a  treaty 
with  Saxony,  by  which  it  agreed  to  pay 
an  annual  sum  for  protection.  In  the 
seventeenth  century,  the  elector  of  Mentz 
finally  obtained  possession  of  it.  In  1814, 
it  was  granted  to  Prussia,  by  the  congress 
of  Vienna.  The  goYemment,  of  which  it 
is  the  capital,  contains  1404  square  miles, 
with  ^7,500  inhabitants,  in  22  large  towns, 
12  small  towns,  and  401  villages.  Erfurt 
is  celebrated  for  the  interview  between 
Napoleon,  and  Alexander  (emperor  of  Rus- 
sia), several  kings,  and  many  princes,  in 
September,  1808,  when  the  French  empe- 
rors power  was  at  its  acme.  The  chief 
object  of  Na(ioleon  was  the  entire  pacifi- 
cation of  Europe,  as  he  believed  he  had 
finally  succeeded  in  effecting  that  of  the 
continent  (See  the  article  Congrtss,  voL 
JiL  p.  431.}  He  and  Alexander  jointly 
invited  die  king  of  England  to  accede  to 
the  ])eace;  but  tlieir  pressing  letter  was 
answered  only  by  the  minister,  who,  as 
Napoleon  expressed  himself,  attempted  to 
renew  the  questions  which  had  been  de- 
cided at  Jena  and  Friedland.  **  He  wislied 
me,'*  says  he,  "  to  confess  that  I  had  been 
guilty  of  violence  at  Bayonne,  by  acknowl- 
edging tlie  cortes  of  Spain  and  the  re- 
gency of  Portugal."  We  add  here,  that 
rem&<4(able  document,  the  letter  of  Napo- 
leon and  Alexander  to  the  king  of  Eng- 
land, which  is  onlv  a  repetition  of  the  sen- 
timents expressed  by  Napoleon,  in  his  letter 
to  George  III,  afler  his  adoption  of  the 
title  of  emperor : — **^  Sire,  the  present  situa- 
tion of  Europe  has  brought  us  together 
at  Erfurt  Our  firat  wish  is  to  fulfil  the 
desire  of  all  nations,  and,  by  a  speedy  pa- 
cification with  your  majesty,  to  take  the 
most  effectual  means  for  relieving  the  suf- 
ferings of  Europe.  The  long  and  bloody 
war,  which  has  convulsed  the  continent, 
is  at  an  end,  and  cannot  be  renewed. 
Many  changes  have  taken  place  in  Eu- 
ro|ie ;  many  governments  have  been  de- 
fitroye>d.  The  cause  is  to  be  found  in  the 
uneasiness  and  the  sufiferings  occasioned 
by  the  stagnation  of  maritime  commerce. 
Greater  olianges  still  may  take  place,  and 
all  will  be  unfavorable  to  the  politics  of 
England.  Peace,  therefore,  is,  at  the  same 
time,  the  common  cause  of  the  nations  of 
tlie  continent  and  of  Great  Britain.  We 
unite  in  requesting  your  majesty  to  lend 
an  ear  to  the  voice  of  humanity,  to  sup- 


press that  of  the  pasaons,  to  reconeile 
contending  interests,  and  secure  the  wel- 
fiue  of  Euroi)e,  and  of  the  generation  over 
which  Providence  has  placed  us."  This 
letter  was  answered  by  Canning,  with  an 
open  note  to  Napoleon's  muiister  of  foreign 
affairs.  h\  the  answer  which  Napoleon 
sent  to  the  letter  of  the  emperor  Francis 
of  Austria,  wliich  contained  the  liveliest 
assurances  of  his  good  disposition,  the 
French  emperor  entreats  him,  in  tlie  most 
decisive  language,  to  adopt  a  frank,  open 
and  sincere  policy. 

Ergot  is  an  elongated,  cylindrical  ex- 
crescence, a  little  curved,  and  somew^hat 
resembling  a  horn,  which  sometimes  takes 
the  place  of  tlie  grain  in  several  cultivated 
pBEBes,  particularly  in  lye,  which,  when 
in  this  state,  is  commonly  galled  spurred 

2fe,  It  has  been  considered  by  some  au- 
lors  as  a  disease,  by  otliers  as  a  fungus, 
and  has  been  referred  by  tlie  latter  to  the 
gem\8  scUroHunL  A  grain,  when  attack- 
ed, becomes  at  first  soft  and  pulpy,  after- 
wards hardens,  and  donates  gradually; 
when  young,  it  is  red  or  viohiceous,  after- 
wards lead  colored,  and  finally  black, 
with  a  white  interior:  generally  two  or 
three  grains  in  a  spike  only  are  affected : 
wet  weather  is  favorable  to  its  develope- 
ment  When  bread  containing  this  sub- 
stance has  been  eaten,  it  has  produced 
very  formidable  consequences — sometimes 
guigrene  of  the  extremities  and  death. 
Ergot  is  an  important  article  in  maiaia 
medica ;  has  been  found  capable  of  exert- 
ing a  very  powerful  and  specific  action 
upon  the  uterus,  and  is  administered  in 
small  doses  in  certain  extreme  cases.  This 
remedy  has  been  principally  used  in  the 
U.  States.  Of  late,  it  has  been  success- 
fully employed  in  France. 

Erhard,  Christian  Daniel,  professor  of 
criiuiual  law  at  Leipsic,  was  bom  1759,  at 
Dresden,  and  studied  law  from  1778  to  1781, 
at  Lei|)sic,  where  he  devoted  himself  to 
history,  ))hilo8ophy  and  the  arts.  In  1801, 
the  empNeror  Alexander  I  appointed  him 
corresfiondent  of  the  legislative  commis- 
sion at  Petersburg,  with  a  pension^:  many 
academies,  likewise,  appointed  him  an 
lionorary  member.  He  obtained  impor- 
tant places  as  an  instructer  in  his  science, 
and  also  as  a  practical  jurist  His  vni- 
tings  are  on  tlie  important  subjects  of 
philosophical  and  positive  law,  and  con- 
tain many  original  views.  His  fiune  was 
widely  extended  by  his  worii  on  the  legis- 
lation of  Leo(K)ld  II  in  Tuscany.  In  liis 
remarks  on  the  works  of  Algernon  Sidney, 
on  forms  of  government,  in  several  trea- 
tises publjalicd  by  him  m  his  AmaJtihta^ — 


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ERHAAD— ERICTIIONIUS. 


M 


a  periodical  of  1788 .and  1789, — in  the  pref- 
ace to  his  traualation  of  the  comnvercial 
code,  and  tlie  civil  code  of  France,  and 
in  his  essays  De  Arbitrio  Judtcis^  and  De 
MttUme  lurHj  he  has  discussed  some  of 
the  most  important  subjects  of  legislation. 
His  translation  of  the  Code  Mapoli<m  (2d 
edition  1811),  is  universaUy  acknowledged 
to  be  the  besL  His  last,  and,  perhaps, 
his  ^[reatest  labor,  was  the  sketch  of  a 
criminal  code  for  Saxony.  As  far  as  it 
was  finished,  it  has  been  published  hj 
one  of  his  scholars— doctor  FridericL 
He  died  in  1813.  He  united  variety  of 
learning,  acuteness,  wit,  and  agreeable 
manners,  to  the  most  excellent  feeliugs. 

EaiiARD^  John  Benjamin,  doctor  of 
medicine  at  Berlin,  was  bom  1766,  at 
Nuremburg.  His  &ther,  a  poor  wire-draw- 
er, who  had  a  good  deal  of  musical  and 
literary  taste,  endeavored  to  cultivate  the 
same  tastes  in  his  onl^  child.  The  boy 
left  school  at  the  a^  oi  11  years,  and  was 
desirous  of  learning  his  father's  trade, 
and  becoming  acquainted  with  engraving. 
He  received  mstniction  in  drawing,  ai^ 
aflerwaids  in  engraving,  in  French  and 
Italian,  and  also  took  lessons  on  the  harp- 
sichord. Being  destitute  of  books,  be  en- 
deavored to  procure  philosophical  works 
from  the  dealers  in  old  books;  but  he 
could  obtain  nothing  but  a  few  Latin 
manuals  of  the  school  of  Wolf  A  love 
for  Latin  and  Greek  was  awakened  in 
bim ;  philosophy  led  him  to  mathematics ; 
and  here,  too,  the  writings  of  Wolf  were 
bis  guides.  Thus  Erhaid  was  engaged 
till  his  Idth  year,  when  an  epileptic  attack 
obliged  him  to  renounce,  tor  a  time,  all 
mental  ezerdon.  After  his  recovery,  he 
resumed  his  studies  in  philosophy  and 
the  mathematics  in  his  16tn  year.  At  20, 
be  formed  an  acquaintance  with  a  cele- 
brated surgeon,  Siebold,  who  was  aston- 
ished at  such  proficiency  in  a  youn^^  me- 
chanic, and  endeavored  to  engage  him  in 
the  study  of  medicine  at  Wurzburg.  £r- 
bard,  however,  in  consecjuence  of  his  re- 
publican prmciples,  contihued  still  to  live 
as  a  mechanic.  He  had  choecn  his  guides 
in  morals  when  a  boy  of  14,  and,  in  the 
main,  was  always  faithful  to  them.  He 
says  in  a  manuscript  essay,  *<One  of 
these  guides  was  a  slave  and  the  other  an 
emperor, — ^Epictetus  and  Marcus  Aureh- 
us, — and  by  their  advice,  I  determined  to 
desire  nothing  but  what  fate  forced  upon 
me ;  while  ihey  both  taught  me  to  seek  for 
happiness  not  in  external  chrcumstances, 
but  in  my  own  heart."  After  the  death 
of  his  mother,  in  1787,  Erhard  resolved 
to  go  to  Wurzburff  to  study  medjcine. 


He  remained  there  two  years,  and,  in 
1792,  obtained  a  doctor's  degree  at  Altorf. 
He  had  no  inclination  to  die  practice  of 
plnrsic,  on  account  of  the  situation  of 
aftairs  at  tliat  time.  The  French  revolu- 
tion filled  him  with  fean  for  the  fate  of 
Germany.  He  was  in  doubt  what  part  to 
act,  hating  the  aristocratic  party  for  what 
tliey  inteiMled  to  do,  and  the  democratic 
uarty  for  what  they  had  actually  done ; 
he  detennined,  therefore,  to  visit  North 
America.  But,  having  lost  all  his  proper- 
ty in  1793,  by  the  treacheiy  of  an  agent, 
he  became  much  embarrassed,  and,  in 
1797,  accepted  a  place  in  Anspach  under 
the  minister  Von  Hardenberg.  Two  years 
after,  he  went  to  Berlin,  where  he  re- 
ceived permission  to  practise  physic,  to 
which  ne  afterwards  entirely  devoted 
himself.  He  died  in  1827.  Among  hia 
works,  are  his  treatise  on  the  m^ical 
science,  and  his  Theoiy  of  Laws,  which 
relate  to  the  health  of  citizens,  and  the 
use  of  medical  science  in  legislation, 
which  was  published  at  Tiibingen,  in 
1800.  His  ti-eatise  On  the  Right  of  the 
People  to  a  Revolution  (Jena,  1795)  ex- 

Eresses  the  views  to  which  he  was  led 
y,  reflection  on  the  great  events  of  that 
period. 

Eric  Fourteen  kings  of  this  name 
have  reiffned  in  Sweden,  the  last  of  whom 
ascended  the  throne  in  1560.  He  ex- 
hibited much  eneigy  of  character,  but 
drove  his  brothera  to  rebellion  by  his  vio- 
lence and  severity.  His  tyranny,  and  a 
disgraceful  marriage,  alienated  the  minds 
of  his  sul^ects ;  and  his  brothers,  John 
and  Charles,  formed  a  party  against  hioi, 
which  deprived  him  of  die  crown,  in 
1568,  with  the  consent  of  the  states.  Ho 
died  (1577)  in  prison  by  poison.  He  was 
active  and  industrious.  A  patron  of  the 
arts,  he  esteemed  and  patronised  artists 
and  mechanics,  received  the  Huguenots 
witli  open  amis,  abolished  many  super- 
stitious usages  in  reUgion,  and  rendered 
commerce  and  navigation  flourishing; 
His  judicial  institutions,  too,  are  particu- 
larly worthy  of  praise.  He  created  a  hish 
nobility  in  Sweden^  by  conferring  the 
dignity  of  count  and  baron.  (See  Cel- 
sius's History  of  Eric  XIK,  in  Swedish, 
Greifswalde,  1776.) 

Ericthonius,  or  Erecthxus,  son  of 
Dardanus  and  Batea,  and  gral^scm  of 
Jupiter,  was  king  of  Troas.  He  was  the 
ricnestman  in  his  kingdom,  having  in  his 
meadows  9000  mares  with  foals.  Boreas 
foil  in  love  with  one  of  these  mares,  and 
transformed  himself  into  a  horse.  The 
product  of  this  imion  was  12  oolti^  which 


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570 


ERICTHONIUS— ERIGENA. 


bounded  over  the  plains  without  injuring 
a  spire  of  grass,  and  skimmed  the  waves 
of  the  sea.  Ericthonius  obtained  the  king- 
dom of  Troy  by  the  death  of  his  brother 
Ilus  without  children.  He  married  Asty- 
oche,  the  daughter  of  Simos,  by  whom 
(or,  according  to  some  by  CalUrrhoe, 
the  daughter  of  Scamander)  he  became 
the  father  of  Tros, — ^Another  Ericthonius^ 
king  of  Athens,  was,  as  fable  relates,  the 
son  of  Vulcan  and  Atthis,  daughter  of 
Cranaus.  Ericthonius  was  educated  in 
the  teniple  of  Minerva,  by  the  goddess  her- 
self. When  he  grew  up,  he  drove  Am- 
phitryon from  his  throne,  and  reigned  in 
Lis  stead.  He  erected  a  statue  to  Miner- 
va; or,  according  to  some  a  temple  in 
the  citadel,  and  instituted,  in  her  honor, 
the  festival  called  PanoUhencton.  The 
fabulous  history  of  this  Ericthonius  is 
difterently  related.  He  is  said  to  have 
had  dragon's  feet ;  and,  on  account  of  his 
inability  to  walk,  to  have  invented  a  four- 
wheeled  covered  wagon  to  conceal  his 
feet  in  it.  For  this  reason,  Jupiter  placed 
him  among  tlie  stars,  where  he  became  a 
constellation,  under  the  natue  of  Bootes 
(q.v.) 

Eridanus  (probably  the  Po,  in  Italy) ; 
a  river  famous  in  mythology,  mentioned 
in  the  return  of  the  Argonauts.  When 
Phaeton,  who  is  also  called  Eridanus,  was 
struck  by  the  thunderbolts  of  Jupiter,  he 
fell  into  this  river — and  his  three  sisters, 
the  Heliades,  lamented  him  till  they  were 
changed  into  poplars.  They  did  not 
cease  to  weep  for  him  even  in  this  con- 
dition; and  their  tears,  falling  into  the 
water  of  the  river,  became  transparent 
amber.  It  is  believed  by  many,  that  the 
amber  found  on  the  shores  of  the  Baltic 
passed,  by  barter,  through  several  savage 
tribes,  until  it  reached  the  Adriatic  sea, 
where  Greek  and  Phoenician  merchants 
came  to  buy  iL 

Erie  ;  a  lake  of  North  America,  through 
which  the  boundaiy  line  runs  which  sep- 
arates the  United  States  from  Canada; 
aliout  280  miles  in  length  from  S.  W.  to 
N.  E.,  from  10  to  63  in  breadth,  and  658 
in  circumference ;  containing  about  12,000 
square  miles.  It  is  130  feet  deep,  and  its 
surface  is  :334  feet  above  that  of  lake  On- 
tario, with  which  it  is  connected  by  the 
Wetland  canal,  and  565  feet  above  the 
tide  water  at  Albany,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  the  great  Erie  canal ;  Ion. 
1^  W  to  83P  l(y  W.;  lat.  41«  20f  to 
42°  50^  N.  This  lake  is  of  dangerous 
navigation,  on  account  of  the  great  num- 
ber of  rocks  which  project,  for  many 
miles  togeib«r,  fiom  the  northern  atote^ 


without  any  shelter  from  storms.  A  con 
stant  current  sets  down  lake  Erie,  and, 
with  the  prevalence  of  north-western  and 
south-western  winds,  renders  the  up-lake 
navigation  tedious.  There  are  several 
tolerably  good  harbors  on  the  south  shore, 
the  principal  of  which  are  Buffalo  and 
Dunkirk,  New  York ;  Erie,  Pennsylvania ; 
Sandusky,  Ohio,  besides  the  harl)or  at 
Put-in-bay  island.  It  dischai^s  its  waters 
at  the  north-east  end  into  the  river  Niagara. 
A  battle  was  fought  on  this  lake,  Sep- 
tember 10th,  1813,  between  the  American 
fleet,  under  commodore  Perry,  and  the 
English  fleet,  in  which  the  latter  vmas 
taken.  The  lake  is  now  navigated  by 
seven  steam-boats.  The  rapid  progress 
of  civilization  is  also  perceptible  in  the 
region  beyond  it  In  1812,  tlie  news  of  the 
declaration  of  war  against  G.  Britain  by  the 
U.  States  did  not  reach  the  post  of  MichiH- 
mackinac  under  two  months.  It  is  now 
witlijn  ten  days'  distance  from  the  Atlan- 
tic ocean.  Its  navigation  will  probablv  he 
much  increased  when  the  Ohio  and  Erie 
canal  is  finished.  (See  Canals^  and  hUor- 
nal  JSTavigatioru) 

Erioena  (John  Scotus).  The  birth- 
place of  this  eminent  scholar  and  meta- 
physician has  been  disputed ;  notwith- 
standing the  patronymic  usually  affixed 
to  his  name,  signifying  the  biskman,  the 
weight  of  evidence  seems  to  pre<lominate 
in  favor  of  Ayrshire,  in  Scotland.  At 
an  early  age,  he  visited  Greece,  and  espe- 
cially Athens,  where  he  devoted  himself 
to  the  study  of  Oriental  as  well  as  clas- 
sical literature,  and  became  no  mean  pro- 
ficient in  logic  and  philosophy.  Charies 
the  Bald,  king  of  France,  invited  him  to 
his  court,  and  encouraged  him  in  the  pro- 
duction of  some  metaphyseal  disquisi- 
tions, which  gave  great  offence  to  the 
church,  by  the  boldness  with  which  he 
impugned  the  doctrines  of  transubetan- 
tiation  and  predestination.  But  his  grand 
offence  was  the  translating  into  Latin  a 
pretended  work  of  Dionysius  the  Areop- 
agite,  tbe  supposed  first  Christian  preach- 
er in  France.  Many  jiassages  in  this 
treatise,  altliough  popular  among  the  cler- 
gy of  the  east,  were  extremely  obnoxious 
to  the  Romish  hierarchy ;  and  a  perempto- 
ry order  from  pope  Nicholas  to  Charies, 
commanding  the  immediate  transmission 
of  the  culprit  to  Rome,  induced  tliat  mon- 
arch to  connive  at  his  escape  into  England, 
in  preference  to  delivering  him  up  to  the 
vengeance  of  the  papal  see.  Alfred  the 
Great  received  Eripua  gladly,  and  placed 
him  at  the  head  of  the  establishment  late- 
ly founded  by  him  in  Oxford,  then  called 


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ERIGENA— ERLANGEN. 


571 


the  Exnf^''8  hdU,  and  now  more  generally 
known  as  Braxen^nose  coUege.  Here  he 
continued  to  lecture  on  matbematicB,  logic 
and  astronomy,  about  tlie  year  879 ;  but, 
after  a  residence  of  Httle  more  than  three 
years,  disputes  arising,  traditionally  said 
to  have  proceeded  from  the  severity  of 
his  discipline,  he  gave  up  his  professor- 
ship, ana  redred  to  the  abbey  of  M a]me&- 
bury,  where  he  again  superintended  a 
number  of  pupils,  whom  the  fame  of  his 
learning  had  drawn  to  him.  The  time 
of  his  decease,  or  murder, — for  he  is  said 
to  have  been  stabbed  to  death  by  his 
scholars,  with  the  iron  styles  or  bodkins 
then  in  use  for  writing, — is  variously  stated 
as  having  occurred  in  the  years  874,  884, 
and  886;  it  is,  however,  more. credibly 
asserted,  that  the  jealousy  of  the  monks, 
rather  than  the  insubordination  of  his  pu- 
pils, was  the  real  cause  of  his  death,  inas- 
much as  his  heterodoxy  had  given  great 
offence  to  their  fraternity.  This  state- 
ment of  facts  has,  however,  been,  with 
considerable  probability,  disputed  by  other 
writers,  who  are  of  opinion  that  the  Eng- 
lish historians  have  confounded  John 
Scotus  Erigena  with  another,  John  Scot, 
abbot  of  Ethelingay,  who  taught  at  Ox- 
ford. In  proof  of  the  latter  supposition, 
Mackenzie,  in  his  first  volume  of  Scottish 
writers,  quotes  a  letter  from  Anastasius 
Bibliothecarius  to  Charles  the  Bald,  writ- 
ten in  875,  which  speaks  of  Erigena  as 
then  dead.  Doctor  Heniy,  in  his  History 
of  England,  thinks  it  probable  tliat  be 
died  in  France.  A  treatise  written  hj 
him  with  great  acuteness  and  metaphysi- 
cal subtiity,  De  Dwigiane  NdtunZy  was 
published  at  Oxford,  in  folio,  by  doctor 
Gale,  in  1681.  A  work  of  his,  against 
transubstantiation,  entitled  Dt  Carport  U 
Smupdnt  Dominij  is  also  extant,  print- 
ed m  1558.  He  is  said  to  have  been,  as 
celebrated  for  his  wit  as  for  his  learning. 

Erinntes.    (See  ISiries.) 

Eriphtle,  daughter  of  Talaus,  and 
wife  of  Amphiaraus(q.  v.),  whom  she  be- 
trayed for  a  necklace  presented  to  her  by 
Polynices,  so  that  he  was  compelled  to  go 
to  the  war  of  the  seven  princes  against 
Thebes,  where  he  knew  he  was  to  perish. 
Her  son,  Alcmeon,  slew  her  for  her 
treachery;  but  iGsculapius  restored  her 
to  Ufe.  The  necklace  was  made  by  Vul- 
can, and  had  the  power  of  rendering 
whoever  wore  it  unlucky. 

Eris,  the  goddess  of  discord,  daughter 
of  Night,  and  sister  of  Nemesis  and 
the  Pare®  or  Fates  (q.  v.),  not  being  in- 
vited to  the  marrisge  of  Peleiis,  she  re* 
venged  herself  by  throwing  a  goUen  ap- 


ple into  the  room  where  the  gods  and 
goddesses  were  assembled,  with  this  in- 
scription: For  the  most  heautijul.  Juno, 
Minerva  and  Venus  contended  for  it; 
hence  it  was  called  the  (^le  of  disconL 
Jupiter  appointed  the  son  of  Priiun,  Paris, 
then  a  shepherd  on  mount  Ida,  judge.  He 
awarded  the  apple  to  Venus,  and  was  re- 
warded by  her  with  the  l>eautiful  Helen, 
on  whose  account  the  Trojan  war  was 
kindled. 

Erisicthon,  or  Eresicthon,  son  of 
Triopas,  king  of  Tliessaly.  He  attempt- 
ed to  cut  down  a  grove  sacred  to  Ceres. 
Beginning  with  a  large  and  beautiful  oak, 
the  abode  of  one  of  the  dryads,  under  the 
shade  of  which  the  rest  of  the  dryads 
commonly  celebrated  their  dances  in 
«[>ite  of  all  previous  warnings,  in  spite  of 
the  blood  of  the  nymph,  which  flowed 
from  the  first  stroke,  he  would  not  re- 
linquish his  design  till  the  oak  fell,  and 
its  spiritual  inhabitant  was  deprived  of 
life.  The  rest^f  tiie  dryads  now  fled  to 
Ceres,  and  implored  her  venipeance  on 
this  act  of  impiety.  Tlie  goddess  des- 
patched the  demon  of  hunger,  which 
overshadowed  Erisicthon  with  its  wings 
while  he  slept,  and  breathed  into  him  its 
poisonous  breath.  From  this  moment,  a 
continual  craving  for  food  raged  within 
him.  He  soon  consumed  all  bis  posses- 
sions, and,  when  food  could  no  longer  be 
procured  for  him  by  the  art  of  his  daugh- 
ter, who  had  many  times  sold  herself  for 
a  slave  from  love  to  him,  and  escaped 
ffom  her  purchasers  by  her  power  of 
assuming  difierent  forms,  which  she  hod 
received  from  Neptune,  he  devoured  his 
own  limbs,  as  far  as  he  could  reach 
them,  and  died- in  a  dreadful  state  of  des- 
pair. 

Erlanoen;  a  city  in  the  kingdom*  of 
Bavaria,  circle  of  the  Rezat,  on  Uie  Reg- 
nitz,  containing  813  houses,  with  11,580 
inhabitants;  lat  4SF  W  2I&' ^. ;  Ion.  ll'^ 
14'  E.  The  city  is  distinguished  for  its 
university,  founded  in  1743,  by  Frederic, 
margrave  of  Bayreuth.  When  Erlangen 
fell  under  the  Prussian  sceptre,  the  uni- 
versity began  to  flourish ;  but,  this  part  of 
the  country  being  taken  fiY>m  Prussia  in 
1806,  the  university  remained  in  a  ]an- 
guishinff  condition  until  the  district  was 
annexed  to  Bavaria.  (See  Aaspaeh.)  It 
then  became  important  as  the  Protestant 
university  of  the  countiy,  and  several  dis- 
tinguished scholars  were  appointed  pro- 
fessorsL  The  regular  revenue  of  the  uni- 
versity is  from  60  to  70,000  rix  dollars 
(from  about  40  to  50,000  Spanish  dollars) ; 
iNit  the  government  often  makea  it  addi- 


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ERLANGEN— ERNESTL 


tkmal  mnts.  The  Ubrary,  nnce  that  of 
Altdoif  has  been  added  to  it,  contaiiia 
100,000  volumes. 

Ermark  ;  a  Turkish  word,  signifyinff 
rtr«r,  and  contained  in  many  geographical 
names,  as  Aizi{-£rffMirfc(Red>river);  JekU- 
Ermark  (Grecn--river). 

Ermenonville  ;  a  villaffeinthe  depart^ 
raent  de  POise,  about  8  leagues  from 
Paris ;  the  coontry  seat  of  M.  de  Girardin, 
celebrated  for  its  large  and  handsome 
park,  in  whicli  the  remains  of  Rousseau 
were  entombed  upon  an  island  of  poplars. 
French  ami  foreigners,  particularly  the 
English,  frequently  go  thitlier  from  Paris, 
dunng  the  summer,  to  visit  the  tomb  of 
Rousseau.  In  fonner  days,  the  fair  Gabri- 
elc  d'Estr&es  resided  at  Ermenonville,  in 
a  huntinff  castle,  of  which  a  tower  still 
standing,  bears  the  name  of  that  fiivorite 
of  Henry  IV.  After  her  death,  Ermenon- 
ville  fell  into  the  hands  of  that  faithful 
friend  of  Henry,  whom  grief  for  the  loss 
of  his  master  carried  on  two  days  after 
tlie  king^s  assassination  by  Ravaillac.  £r«> 
menon ville  has  been  made  still  more  re- 
markable in  later  times.  J,  J.  Rousseau 
died  there,  after  having  lived  there  only 
six  weeks.  His  bones  were  removed  from 
the  island  of  poplars  to  the  Pantheon. 
The  ornaments  of  art  contribute  to  tiie 
embellishment  of  this  beautiful  spot,  so 
highly  ftivored  by  nature.  The  elder  de 
Girarilin,  autliorof  a  work  on  horticulture, 
ex])ended  3,000,000  francs  on  it  in  30 
years. 

Ermiiie  (mtuida  enwfnea,  Un.).  This 
beautiful  little  animal  belongs  to  the  tribe 
dUgitigrada,  or  quadrupeds  characterized 
by  moving  on  the  extremities  of  their  toesL 
and  endowed  witit  a  greater  degree  of 
agility  than  that  possessed  by  the  pUmH- 
graia,  or  those  walking  on  the  whole  sole 
of  tlie  foot  The  ermine,  accord iuc  to  tlie 
observations  of  the  prince  of  Musignano, 
is  the  common  weasel  of  the  U.  States  in 
its  winter  hair.  It  is  found  in  the  northern 
parts  of  this  continent,  and  tliose  of  Asia 
in  great  abundance ;  though  it  is  not  con- 
fined to  these  regions,  since  it  occurs  even 
in  our  Middle  States,  and  also  in  the  tem- 
perate parts  of  Eurofie.  In  the  Middle 
and  Eastern  States,  it  Is  known  as  the  ireo- 
9d ;  further  north,  and  in  England,  it  is 
called  iloat  in  its  siunmer,  and  ermtne  ut 
its  winter  hair.  In  France,  in  summer,  it 
is  termed  rofcM,  and  in  winter  hermmt :  in 
this  state,  it  is  tlie  mu$  Pontics  of  iliny. 
The  habits  of  the  ermine  are  very  similar 
to  those  of  the  common  weasel  of  Eu- 
rope, frequenting  bams  and  out-bouses, 
generally  making  itsr  retreats  beneath  the 


floor  and  rafters.  It  feeds  on  mice  and 
rals,  and  eoon  clears  its  haunts  of  these 
pernicious  depredators  ;  but  it  does  not  al- 
ways confine  itself  to  this  food.  It  is  very 
destructive  to  poultry,  birds  and  vouog 
rabbiis ;  it  is  also  a  great  devourer  of  eggSL 
In  the  neighborhood  of  Hudson's  bay,  pf- 
raine  are  very  abundant,  partlculany  in 
the  barren  grounds  and  open  plains. 
When  in  pursuit  of  then:  prey,  they  cany 
their  tails  horizontally,  and  display  great 
quickness  and  agiliiy.  During  the  win> 
ter,  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  disdnguish 
them,  from  their  color  so  closely  resem- 
bling that  of  tlie  snow.  Like  many  other 
species  of  this  genus,  the  ermine  has  the 
faculty  of  ejecting  a  fluid  of  a  musky  odor. 
In  its  summer  dress,  it  is  of  a  light,  femi- 
tfinous  or  chestnut-brown  color  over  the 
head,  back,  sides  and  upper  half  of  the 
tail ;  the  under  part  is  nearly  of  a  pure 
white ;  the  lower  pordon  of  the  tail  be- 
comes gradually  darker,  till,  at  the  extrem- 
ity, it  is  quite  black.  Its  fur  is  short,  soft 
and  silky.  In  its  winter  coot,  it  is  of  a 
pure  white  over  the  whole  head,  body 
and  limbs,  the  lower  half  of  the  tail  alone 
retaining  its  dark  hue.  The  fur,  at  this 
time,  is  much  longer,  thicker  and  finer 
than  in  summer.  Iii  Norway,  it  is  taken 
in  traps  baited  with  flesli ;  in  Siberia,  it  is 
either  shot  with  blunt  arrows,  or  taken  m 
a  trap  made  of  two  flat  stones,  propped 
by  a  sdck,  to  which  is  festenetl  a  baited 
string,  whicli,  on  the  least  touch  of  the 
animial,  releases  the  stone,  which  falls  and 
crushes  it.  The  fur  of  tlie  ennine  is  in 
great  request,  and  was  formerly  one  of 
the  insignia  of  magistrates.  When  used 
as  linings  of  cloaks,  the  black  tuft  from 
the  tail  is  sewed  to  the  skui  at  iiregukur 
distances.  This  animal  is  not  rradily 
tamed :  when  caught,  and  kept  in  a  cage^ 
it  exliibits  eveiy  mark  of  its  ferocious  and 
savage  character,  by  killing  or  injuring 
every  thing  witliin  its  reach. 

Erxvxsti,  John  Augustus,  founder  of  a 
new  theological  and  philosophical  school 
in  Germany,  was  bora  at  Tennstadt,  in 
Thuringia,  1707.  He  studied  theology  at 
Pfbrta,  Wittenbeig  and  Leipsic  Having 
been  made  associate  instructer  (1731)  and 
rector  (1734)  of  the  Thomas-school  in 
Leipmc,  he  devoted  himself  priucifMlly  to 
anciem  literature,  and  die  studies  connect- 
ed with  it.  In  1742,  he  was  appointed  ex- 
traonlina^  professor  of  ancient  literature 
in  tiie  university  there,  and,  in  175G,  onii- 
naiy  professor  of  eimjueoce.  In  1759, 
an  ordinary  professorship  of  tbeok>gy  was 
added  to  his  otiier  oflioes.  He  performed 
the  duties  of  both  professorahips  till  1770^ 


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ERNESTI— ERPENIUS. 


573 


when  he  resigned  the  former.  He  be- 
came, in  succession,  first  professor  of  the 
theological  faculty,  canon  at  Misnia,  as* 
sessor  of  the  consistory  at  Leipsic,  and 
president  of  the  Jablonowski  academy 
of  sciences  at  Lei]isic.  He  died  1781. 
By  a  careful  study  of  profane  philology, 
he  had  fined  himself  for  a  thorough  study 
of  theology,  and  was  thus  led  to  a  more 
judicious  exegesis  of  the  biblical  writers, 
and,  in  general,  to  more  liberal  theological 
views.  Theological  criticism,  so  fiir  as  it 
is  founded  on  fmilology  and  grammatical 
illustrations,  was  greatly  promoted  by 
him.  Of  his  accuracy  as  a  critic  and 
grammarian,  his  editions  of  Xenophon'b 
Mtmorabilia  of  Socrates,  the  Clouds  of 
Aristophanes,  Homer's  works,Callimaclius^ 
Polybius,  Suetonius,  Tacitus,  and,  above 
all,  his  admirable  edition  of  Cicero's  works 
(first,  at  Leipsic,  1738),  are  sufficient  proofs. 
For  the  elegance, of  his  Latin  ^le,  he 
well  deserves  to  be  called  the  Cicero  of 
Germanv.  His  Opuscula  Orat.  (Leyden, 
1762),  Oratum,  (Leipsic,  1791),  hitia  boc- 
irin,  SolidioHs  (LeiiJsic,  1736),  have  been 
often  published.  His  theological  writings 
are  no  less  numerous. — ERifEsfi,  Augustus 
Wifliam,  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  bom 
1733,  and  died  1801 .  He  was  professor  of 
philosophy  and  eloquence,  and  a  distin- 
guished philologist  We  are  indebted  to 
him,  among  other  works,  for  a  goo<1  edi- 
tion of  Livy  and  Ammianus  Marcellinus. 

Eros  ;  the  Greek  name  of  Cupid  and 
Amor  (which  see;  see  also  ^teros), 

Erostratus.    (See  Heratostratus,) 

Erotic  (from  the  Greek  ?/>««»  love) ;  re- 
lating to  love. — Erotic  Poetry;  amatory 
poetry. — ^The  name  of  erotic  writers  has 
been  applied,  in  Greek  literature,  particu- 
larly to  a  class  of  romance  writers,  and  to 
the  writer  of  the  Milesian  Tales.  These 
writeni  belong  to  the  later  periods  of  Greek 
literature,  and  abound  in  sophistical  sub- 
tilties  and  ornaments.  The  best  of  them 
are  Achilles  Tatius,  Heliodonis,  I^ngus, 
Xenophon  of  Ephesus,  and  Chariton. 
There  is  a  collection  of  them — Scriptores 
eroiici  Gratci,  Cura  Mitsch/aiichai  (Bipont 
1793— 1793,  3  vols.). 

Erotomant  (fix)m  fp«f»  love,  and  i^nviat 
madness).  This  term  has  been  employed, 
by  some  writers,  to  denote  that  modifica- 
tion of  insanity,  of  which  the  passion  of 
love  is  the  origin,  and  in  which  the  love 
of  a  fmrticular  individual  constitutes  the 
predominant  idea,  occupying  the  whole 
attention  of  the  patient  Licentious 
thoughts  and  physical  excitement  do  not 
exist  in  this  disease.  Those  who  are  af- 
flicted with  erotomany  fix  their  affisctions 


on  a  certain  object,  often  one  which  they 
liave  bad  but  a  single  opponunity  to  see ; 
sometimes  also  one  which  cainiot  return 
their  love.  The  eye  is  lively  and  animat- 
ed ;  the  look,  passionate ;  but  the  conduct 
of  the  subjects  always  within  the  limits  of 
propriety.  They  forget  themselves,  and 
yield  a  pure,  often  a  secret  woFsliip  to 
their  idol,  whose  wishes  and  caprices 
tliey  implicitly  obey.  Someti mes  erotoma- 
ny begins  under  the  form  of  mekncholy, 
instead  of  raving ;  the  patient  is  pensive 
and  silent:  it  then  tenninates  in  a  sort  of 
nervons  fever.  The  discovery  of  it  is 
sometimes  difficuh  :  the  ywmion  betrays 
itself;  however,  at  the  sight,  or  even  the 
name,  of  the  loved  object;  the  counte- 
nance grows  animated  ;  the  pulse,  quick, 
strong  and  spasmodic.  Hippocrates,  by 
tliese  ^mptoms,  discovered  tlie  love  of 
Perdiccas  to  his  fiither's  mistress;  and  Era- 
sistratus,  the  affection  of  Antiochus  for  his 
step-mother,  Stratonice.  Erotomany  some- 
times passes  uito  perfect  delirium,  leads 
to  suicide,  hysterics,  &c.  It  depends  on 
the  same  causes  as  other  mental  diseases. 
Young  people  are  peculiarly  stibject  to  it, 
wlio  have  an  excitable  nervous  system  and 
a  lively  imagination,  who  give  tliemselves 
up  to  excess  in  pleasure,  or  are  spoiled  by 
reading  romano^  and  rendered  eneminato 
by  an  injudicious  education  and  indolence. 
iJowand  light  diet  has  been  reconnnended 
in  this  disease,  togetlier  with  active  exertion 
of  l)ody  and  mind. 

Erpeivics,  Thomas  (properly  Van  Er- 
pen),  a  learned  Orientalist,  was  bom  at 
Gorcum  in  Holland,  in  1584,  and  studied 
at  Leyden,  where  lie  at  first  despaired  of 
success.  His  confidence,  however,  was 
soon  revived,  and  he  returned  to  his  stud- 
ies with  so  much  zeal,  that  his  progress 
justly  astonished  his  instructers.  His 
fame  rests  principally  on  his  acquaintance 
with  the  Oriental  languages,  which  lie 
began  to  learn  under  Joseph  Scaliger. 
To  extend  his  knowledge  of  them,  he  vis- 
ited England,  France,  Italy  and  <]lennaiiy, 
and  became  acquainted  with  the  most 
eminent  scholars,  who  gave  him  advice 
and  instruction.  He  was  received  with 
particular  marks  of  friendsliip  by  the 
great  Casaubon.  He  learned,  at  the  same 
time,  the  Persian,  Turkish  and  Ethiopian 
languages.  After  a  tour  of  four  years,  he 
retunied,  in  J 612,  to  Holland,  and  was 
appointed  professor  of  Arabic  and  other 
Oriental  languages,  exce))t  the  Hebrew, 
the  Hebrew  professorehip  being  already 
filled.  Erpenius  discharged  die  duties  of 
this  office  with  ability  and  zeal.  He  es- 
tablished a  press  at  great  expense,  for  the 


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574 


EBP£NIUS-ERSKINE. 


printing  of  wodks  of  Oriental  liteKBture. 
In  1619,  a  second  Hebrew  profesBOmhip 
was  founded  at  Leyden,  and  committed  to 
£rpeniu&  Soon  after,  he  received  the  office 
of  Oriental  interpreter  to  the  states-general 
The  most  learned  Arabs  admired  the  el^ 
^ance  with  which  he  expressed  liimself 
in  their  language,  so  rich  in  delicate  pe-> 
culiarities.  His  reputation,  as  a  perfect 
master  of  the  AraUc,  became  universal, 
and  he  was  repeatedly  invited  by  the  king 
of  Spain  to  explain  inscriptions  on  the 
Moonsh  building  and  monuments.  The 
works  of  Erpenius  (some  of  which  were, 
published  after  his  death)  are  held  in  the 
highest  estimation.  It  was  his  intention 
to  publish  an  edition  of  the  Koran,  with  a 
Latiu  translation  and  a  commentary,  a 
Thesaurus  OmmmaHeus  of  the  Arabic,  and 
sn  Arabic  dictionary ;  but  he  was  carried 
off  by  a  contagious  disease,  in  1624,  at  the 
age  of  40.  Beside  his  Chrammatica  JtrMr 
CO,  his  Qrammed^ca  Hdrraica,  and  other 
grammatical  works,  his  most  valuable  and 
celebrated  publication  is  his  Etmacim 
Htst&ria  Staicemea  (1625,  folio). 

Error,  in  astronomy,  is  the  difference 
between  the  places  of  any  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  as  determined  by  calculation  and 
observation.  Thus  the  error  in  the  lunar 
tabtes  is  the  difierence  between  the  place 
of  the  moon,  as  given  in  tiie  tables,  and  as 
determined  by  observation ;  and  this  error 
IS  nuoked  with  the  sign  -f-  or  — ,  accord- 
ing as  it  is  to  be  added  to  or  subtracted 
from  the  tabular  result. 

Ersch,  John  Samuel ;  the  father  of  mod- 
em Grerman  biblioffraphy.  He  was  bom 
at  Gros8gk>gau,  in  Lower  Silesia,  June  23^ 
1766,  and,  while  a  mere  tyro,  allowed  un- 
common k>ve  for  bibliogFaphy,  Being  en- 
couraged in  this  pursuit  by  Tabri  and 
other  learned  men,  he  published  the  Rep- 
ertory of  the  German  Journals,  and  oth- 
er Periodical  Collections  of  Information 
on  tiie  Subjects  of  Geo^phy,  History, 
and  Sciences  connected  with  them,  179(0^ 
1792,  3  vols.  Becoming  known  to  Schfitz 
and  Hufeland,  they  engaced  him  in  the 
editing  of  their  Universal  Repertory  of 
Literature,  17a'>— 1790.  This  work  was 
published  in  1793,  and  was  followed  in 
1799  by  the  Qutnouermtum,  extending  from 
1791  to  1795 ;  and,  in  1806,  by  anotiier,  ex- 
tending from  1796  to  1800.  These  wori«s 
contain  notices  of  all  the  separate  publi- 
cations which  appeared  during  that  pe- 
riod, and  even  all  the  essays  printed  in  the 
joumals  and  other  periodicals.  They 
are  executed  with  accuracy,  on  a  good 
plan,  and  witii  a  general  account  of  re- 
views, whose  character  for  partiality  or 


impartiality  is  illustrated  by  examples.  At 
the  same  time,  Ersch  began  to  prepare  a 
Universal  Dictionary  of  Modem  Authors^ 
which  he  afterwards  limited  to  European 
writers.  This  was  the  origin  of  his  C^ddkr- 
tes  FVankrcick  (Literaiy  France,)  Hamburgh 
1797 — 1806, 3  vols.,  with  two  supplements. 
In  the  year  1803,  he  was  made  professor 
of  geography  and  statistics  in  the  univeisi- 
ty  of  Halle,  where  he  publislied  his  Man- 
ual of  German  Literature,  from  the  Mid- 
dle of  the  18th  Century  till  the  latest  Times 
(Amsterdam  and  Leipsic,  1812,2  vols.  Svo., 
2d  edition,  Leipsic,  1822),  and  the  Uni* 
veisal  Encyclopaedia  of  Arts  and  Sciences 
(Leipac,  181 8, 4to) :  16  parts  had  appeared 
in  1 827.  By  the  former  work,  he  firet  gave 
a  systematic  character  to  modem  German 
bibliography;  and  its  completeness,  ac- 
curacy and  arrangement  make  it  a  model 
for  such  a  work.  What  knowledge,  what 
attention  and  industry,  are  requisite  to 
conduct  a  woilc  like  the  £ncyck>piedia, 
as  he  has  done  it,  needs  no  explanation. 
He  died  in  January,  1828. 

Erskine,  Thomas,  lord  Eiskine,  an 
eminent  lawyer,  was  tiie  third  and  young- 
est son  of  •DaVid  Henry  Krskine,  tendi 
earl  of  Buchan,  in  Scothmd.  He  was 
bom  in  the  year  17^,  and  was  educated 
partly  at  the  high  school  of  Eklinbiii^, 
and  |jartly  at  tiie  university  of  St.  An- 
drews. The  contracted  means  of  his 
family  rendering  a  profession  necessaiy, 
he  WAS  embarkcxl  at  Leith  as  a  midship- 
man, and,  from  this  time,  did  not  revisit 
Scotland  until  a  few  years  before  his 
deatii.  He  never  obtained  a  conimiseaon 
in  the  navy,  which  he  quitted  after  a  ser- 
vice of  four  years,  and  entered  into  the 
royals,  or  first  regiment  of  foot,  in  1768L 
In  1770,  he  manied,  and  went,  with  his 
regiment,  to  Minorca,  where  he  spent  three 
years.  He  served  in  the  army  six  year^ 
and,  during  that  time,  acquired  considera- 
ble rejjutation  for  tiie  acuteness  and  veisa- 
tility  of  his  talents  in  conversation ;  and  it 
is  8up])08ed  tiiat  this  circumstance,  and  the 
earnest  fiereuasion  of  his  mother, — a  ladj 
of  uncommon  acquireinenta  and  penetra- 
tion,— induced  him,  at  the  age  of  20,  to  era- 
brace  the  legal  profession.  He  entered  as 
a  fellow-commoner  at  Trinity  college, 
Cambridge,  in  1777,  merely  to  obtain  a 
degree,  to  which  he  was  entitied  as  the 
son  of  a  nobleman,  and  tiiereby  to  shorten 
his  passage  to  the  bar ;  and  he,  at  the  same 
time,  entered  himself  a  student  of  Lin- 
coln's Inn.  He  also  became  a  pupil  in  ihe 
office  of  Mr.,  afterwards  juage  Buller^ 
then  an  eminent  s))ecial  pleader,  and  sub- 
sequently in  that  of  Mr.,  afterwards  banin 


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£RSKINE. 


575 


Wood.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1778, 
and  his  success  was  immediate.  Acciden- 
taJlv  introduced  to  captain  Baillie,  who 
bad  been  removed,  by  the  earl  of  Sand- 
wich, from  the  superintendence  of  Green- 
wich hospital,  he  was  employed  by  that 
gentleman  to  oppose  a  motion  of  the  at- 
torney-general, tor  leave  to  file  an  indict- 
ment against  him  for  &  libel  on  the  earl. 
He  showed  so  much  eloquence  and  spirit 
on  this  occasion,  that,  on  leaving  the  court, 
he  received  90  retainers  fix)m  attorneys 
who  happened  to  be  present  This  occur- 
rence took  place  in  the  Michaelmas  fol- 
lowing tlie  Trinity  tenn  in  which  he  had 
been  admitted ;  and,  in  a  few  mouths  af- 
terwards, he  was  equally  favored  by  being 
chosen  to  appear  at  the  bar  of  the  house 
of  commons,  as  counsel  for  Mr.  Caman, 
the  bookseller,  against  a  bill  introduced  by 
lord  North,  then  prime  minister,  to  restore 
to  the  universities  the  monopoly  in  alma- 
nacs, which  Mr.  Caman  had  succeeded 
JO  aliolisbing  by  legal  judgment  His 
speech  in  opposition  to  this  impolitic  pro- 
posal was  much  admired,  and,  the  bill  be- 
mg  lost  by  a  considerable  majority,  his 
reputation  became  so  established,  that  he 
was  henceforward  engaced  either  for 
plaintiff  or  defendant  in  the  most  impor- 
tant causes  during  a  practice  of  25  years. 
In  May,  1783,  he  received  a  silk  govro, 
and,  the  same  year,  was  elected  member 
of  parliament  for  Portsmouth.  The  latter 
honor  he  acquired  from  tlie  reputation  he 
obtained  there  when  acting  as  counsel  on 
the  celebrated  trial  of  achniral  Keppel ; 
and  he  was  unanimously  rechosen  for  the 
same  borough  on  every  succeeding  elec- 
tion, until  raised  to  the  peerage.  The 
rights  of  juries  he  firmly  maintained  on 
all  occasions,  but  particularly  in  the  cel- 
ebrated trial  of  tlie  dean  of  St  Asaph  for 
libel,  when  justice  Buller  refused  to  re- 
ceive the  verdict  of  ^  guilty  of  publishing 
only,"  as  returned  by  the  jury.  In  178^ 
he  found  anotiier  fortunate  opportunity 
for  the  display  of  his  peculiar  eloquence, 
in  a  defence  of  Mr.  Stockdale,  the  book- 
seller, for  publishing  what  was  charged  as 
a  libellous  pamphlet  in  fiivor  of  Mr.  Has- 
tings, whose  situation  at  the  time  (being 
then  about  to  take  his  trial)  gave  him  ad- 
mirable scope  for  the  animated  appeal  to 
feeling,  by  which  his  oratory  was  so  fe- 
licitoiuily  distinffuisbed.  In  1792,  being 
employed  to  defend  Thomas  Paine,  when 
prosecuted  for  the  second  part  of  his  Rights 
of  Man,  he  deelared  that,  waiving  all  per- 
sonal convictions,  be  deemed  it  right,  as 
an  English  advocate,  to  obey  the  call :  by 
tbe  mainrenance  of  which  prinoiple,  he 


lost  his  office  of  attonwy-genera]  to  tlie 
prince  of  Wales.  The  most  arduous  ef^ 
fort,  however,  in  his  professional  life, 
arose  out  of  tlie  port  cost  upon  him,  in 
coimmction  with  Mr.,  aflerwanis  sir Vica- 
ly  Gibba^  in  the  trials  of  Hardy,  Tooke, 
and  others,  for  high  treason,  in  171^1. 
These  trials  lasted  ror  several  weeks ;  and 
the  ability  displayed  by  Mr.  Erskine  on 
this  eventful  occasion  was  admired  and 
acknowledged  bi^  all  parties.  He  was  a 
warm  partisan  of  Mr.  rox,  and  a  strenu- 
ous opposer  of  the  war  with  France ;  on 
which  subject  he  imbodied  his  sentiments 
in  a  pamphlet,  entitled  A  View  of  the 
Causes  and  Consequences  of  tiie  Vfkar  with 
France ;  when  such  was  tiie  attraction  of 
his  name,  that  it  ran  through  the  unpre- 
cedented number  of  48  editions.  In  1809 
the  prince  of  Wales  not  only  restored  him 
to  his  oflice  of  attorney-general,  but  made 
him  keeper  of  his  seals  for  the  duchy  of 
Cornwall.  On  the  death  of  Mr.  Pitt,  in 
1806,  when  lord  Grenville  received  the 
commands  of  Georae  III  to  form  a  new 
administration,  Mr.  Erskine  was  created  u 
peer  bv  the  title  of  lord  Erskine,  of  Re- 
stormel  distle,  in  Cornwall,  and  raised  to 
the  dimity  of  lord  high  chancellor  of 
Great  Britain ;  but  was  soon  removed  by 
the  dissolution  of  the  brief  administratioi: 
of  which  he  formed  a  part.  Owing  to  a 
decay  in  fortune,  originating  in  an  unfor- 
tunate landed  purchase,  ami  a  great  fall 
of  income  firom  the  loss  of  professional 
emoluments,  the  latter  years  of  his  life 
were,  notwithstanding  the  extreme  buoy- 
ancy of  his  spirits,  exceedingly  imbitlered. 
Nor  were  tiiese  difiiculties  abated  by  tiie 
circumstance  of  an  unhappy  second  mar- 
riage, and  some  eccentricity  of  conduct, 
exceedingly  incompatible  with  his  aae  and 
station.  In  his  leisure,  he  amused  him- 
self by  editing  several  of  the  state  trials. 
The  preface  to  Mr.  Fox's  Speeches  was 
also  written  by  him,  as  well  as  a  political 
romance,  in  two  volumes,  entided  AnnO' 
to,  and  some  pamphlets  in  support  of  the 
Greek  cause.  He  died  in  1823,  of  an  in- 
flammation of  the  chest  The  talents  of 
lord  Erskine  were  peculiariy  those  of  the 
accomplished  advocate,  in  which  charac- 
ter he  exliibited  a  power  of  commanding, 
at  the  instant,  all  the  resources  of  hia 
mind,  and  a  dexterity  of  applying  them, 
which  no  one  at  the  Englisli  oar  ever  ex- 
ceeded. This  feculty,  united  with  great 
spirit  and  courage,  rendered  him  peculiariy 
able  on  the  def^isive  side  of  pobtical  per- 
secution; and  some  leading,  but  diniuted 
constitutional  doctrines  have  bean  firmly 
established  by  his  exertions.    Asa  senoto- 


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sre 


ERSKINE— ERZERUM. 


rial  orator,  his  claims  were  but  secondaiy ; 
nor  as  a  political  writer  is  he  entitled  to 
much  distinction.  Many  of  Erskine^s 
qfie^ches  at  tlie  bar  have  been  published 
under  tlie  foUowin^  titles:  Speeches  of 
the  Hon.  Thomas  Erskine,  now  Lord  E»- 
kine,  when  at  the  Bar,  on  Subjects  con- 
nected with  the  Liberty  of  the  Press  and 
against  Constructive  Treasons,  in  4  vols. 
2d  edition,  London,  1813 ;  and  Speeches  of 
Lord  Erskine,  when  at  the  Bar,  on  Mis- 
celianeous  Subjects,  1810,  by  Ridgway. — 
David  Montague,  the  eldest  of  his  sons, 
now  lord  Erskine,  was  for  some  time 
minister  plenipotentiary  to  the  U.  States, 
and  afterwards  resident  at  the  court  of 
W(irtemberg. 

Eruption,  in  medicine ;  a  sudden  and 
copious  excretion  of  humorsj  and  the  same 
with  exanihemOfOr  breaking  out ;  as  the  pus- 
tules of  the  plague,  small-pox,  measles,  &c. 

Erwin  Of  Steinbach;  a  celebrated 
architect  in  the  ISth  centuij.  (See  Stnu- 
burg,  MinsUr  of,) 

Ertnoo  (erungtum) ;  a  genu's  of  plants, 
belonging  to  ttia  natural  order  umbMiferiE, 
J'he  species  are  herbaceous,  and  have 
something  of  the  aspect  of  the  thistle ;  the 
leaves  are  alternate,  simple  or  divided, 
and  are  furnished  with  spines  on  their 
margins ;  the  flowers  are  sessile,  often  of 
a  bluish  color,  capitate,  and  surrounded 
by  a  common  receptacle.  The  E,  cam' 
pntre  was  formeriy  much  employed  in 
^Europe  as  a  tonic,  and  as  proper  to  excite 
appetite  ;  but  its  virtues  are  feeble,  and  it 
has  now  gone  out  of  use,  except  as  a 
sweetmeat.  Several  species  of  eiyngium 
inhabit  the  southern  and  south-western 
parts  of  the  U.  States,  and  one  is  found  as 
for  north  as  Philadelphia. 

Ertstpelas  (from  ipwa,  I  draw,  and 
ncXitr,  aifjoining ;  named  from  the  neigh- 
boring parts  being  alTected  bv  the  erup- 
tion) ;  the  rose,  or  St.  Anthony's  Are. 
This  disease  is  an  inflammatoiy  afllection, 
principally  of  the  skin,  when  it  makes  its 
appearance  externally,  and  of  the  mucous 
membrane,  when  it  is  seated  internally ; 
and  ii  more  liable  to  attack  women  and 
children,  and  those  of  an  irritable  habit, 
than  those  of  a  plethoric  and  robust  con- 
stitution. Erysi|)elas  sonetimes  returns 
periodically,  attacking  the  patient  once  or 
twice  a  year,  or  even  once  every  month ; 
and  then,  by  its  repeated  attacks,  it  oflen 
podually  exhausts  the  strength,  especially 
if  the  patient  be  old  and  of  a  bad  habit. 
Every  part  of  the  body  is  equally  liable  to 
it ;  but  it  more  frequently  appeare  on  the 
^ice,  le^i  and  feet,  than  any  where  else, 
^vhen  seated  eztemally.    It  is  brought  on 


by  all  the  causes  that  are  apt  to  excite  in- 
flammation, such  as  injuries  of  all  kinds, 
the  external  application  of  stimulants,  ex- 
posure to  cold,  and  obstructed  perspira- 
tion ;  and  it  may  likewise  be  occasioned 
by  a  certain  matter  generated  within  the 
body,  and  thrown  out  on  its  sur&ce.  A 
particular  stete  of  the  atmosphere  seems 
sometimes  to  render  it  epidemical.  A  spe- 
cies of  erysipelatous  innommation,  which 
most  usually  attacks  the  trunk  of  the  body, 
is  that  vul^y  known  by  the  name  of 
Mn^kSf  heing  a  corruption  of  the  French 
word  ceingU,  which  implies  a  belL  In- 
stead  of  appearing  a  uniform  inflamed 
surface,  it  consists  of  a  number  of  little 
pimples  extending  round  the  body  a  little 
above  the  umbilicus,  which  have  vesicles 
formed  on  them  in  a  short  time.  Little  or 
no  danger  ever  attends  this  species  of 
erynpelas. 

Erzerum,  or  Aeserum,  or  Arz-roum 
(anciently  .^rze) ;  a  city  and  the  capital  of 
Turkish  Armenia,  or  Turcomania,  and 
also  of  a  pachalic  to  which  it  gives  name ; 
250  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Aleppo,  510  E.  bv  S. 
of  Constantmople ;  Ion.  4(r  57'  E. ;  laL'39^ 
58^  N. ;  population,  aceoiding  to  Hassel, 
Cannabich,  Malte-Brun,  &c.,  only  25,000. 
According  to  the  Edinburgh  Gazetteer, 
100,000,  or  190,000.  Mr.  Morier,wbo  visited 
this  city  in  1808,  gives  the  following  esti- 
mate: Turkish  families, 50,000;  Armenian, 
4  or  5000 ;  Greek,  100 ;  Persians  lining  in  a 
caravansary,  about  1 000.  Mr.  Morier  men- 
tions, that  from  the  original  estimate  be  de- 
ducted more  than  one  third  of  the  number 
of  Turkish  fiunilies ;  but  the  reduced  state- 
ment, at  the  rate  of  five  persons  to  a  lamily, 
makes  the  Turkish  population  amount  to 
250,000.  It  is  an  Armenian  arclUiishop^a 
and  Greek  bishop's  see.  Erzerum  is  situ- 
ated near  the  head  of  the  Euphrates,  on  a 
rising  ground,  at  the  base  of  a  chain  of 
mountains,  which  are  usually  covered  with 
snow.  The  climate  is  healthy,  but  the  cold 
in  winter  intense.  It  is  surrounded  by  a 
double  stone  wall,  with  four  gates.  It  is 
well  built ;  the  houses  generally  of  stone, 
with  roflers  of  wood,  ami  termoed,  having 
grass  growing  on  the  tops,  and  sheep 
and  cdves  fading  there ;  so  that|  when 
seen  fh>m  a  distance^  the  roofs  of  the 
houses  can  hardly  be  distinguished  from 
the  plain  at  their  foundation.  The  streets 
are  mostly  paved,  the  bazars  are  spa^ 
cious  and  well  stocked,  and  the  place  ex- 
hibits an  appearance  of  much  industry. 
It  contains  aoout  100  mosques,  1  Gredc 
and  2  Armenian  churches,  and  16  bathsL 
It  has  considerable  manuflicttires,  and  oa 
extensive  trade  in  copper,  and  articles  £ix>m 


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BRZERUM— ESCHENBACH. 


577 


Persia,  and  cotintries  nbith-west  of  Hin- 
dwtau.  It  is  a  very  ancient  town ;  the 
inhabitants  date  ita  foundation  from  the 
time  of  Noah.  Population  of  the  pachalic, 
according  to  liaasel,  300,000.  Square 
miles,  21,400. 

Erzoebirge  (German ;  meaning  the  crt 
mountoiYur);  achainof  mountains  running 
'  between  Soxony  and  Bohemia,  till  they 
meet  the  Riesengebfrge,  on  the  irontiefs 
of  Silesia.  The  highest  summits,  which 
are  on  the  side  of  Saxony,  rise  to  3800 
or  3900  fbet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
The  Erzgebirge  consist  chiefly  of  the 
gneiss  granite  formation,  and  in  this  the 

SrincipsJ  beds  of  ore  are  to  be  found, 
[asses  of  porphyry  and  basalt  are  found 
on  and  in  this  formation.  Towards  Sax- 
ony, beds  of  clay  slate  rest  on  the  gran- 
ite and  gneiss ;  and  above  the  clay  slate 
are  granite  and  syenite.  Towards  Bohe- 
mia, the  primitive  formation  is  covered 
for  a  consideral)le  extent  by  brown  coal 
mountains,  and  the  remainder  by  clay 
slate.  These  mountains  are  rich  in  mines 
of  silver,  iron,  copper,  lead,  cobalt,  arsenic, 
&c.  Engebirge  is  also  the  name  of  one 
of  the  five  circles  of  the  kingdom  of  Saxo- 
ny, comprising  2456  square  miles,  with 
450  to  500,000  inhabitants.  The  whole 
circle  is  one  of  the  most  industrious  in 
Germany.  Mining  occupies  more  than 
12,000  of  the  people.  Freiberg,  Anna- 
berg,  Schneeberg,  &c.,  hare  become  im- 
portant by  means  of  the  neighboring  sil- 
ver and  tin  mines,  the  smeltinff  works,  the 
manufactories  of  arsenic  and  of  a  blue 
color  from  cobalt  The  Erzgebirge  is  the 
chief  manufacturing  district  in  Saxony. 
Annaberg  is  the  chief  seat  of  tlie  lace- 
making  business.  There  are  manufacto- 
ries of  calico,  cloth,  stockings,  arms,  nee- 
dles, gold  and  silver  lac«,  of  ^ax  and  wool, 
and  cotton.  Chemnitz  and  Zwickau,  towns 
in  tliis  circle,  carry  on  an  active  business 
in  tlie  sale  of  the  manufactured  goods, 
which  are  exi>orted  to  many  parts  of  the 
world. 

Es,  or  Eis  (h  or  ^k)  ;  a  Greek  preposi- 
tion, signifying  io.  It  has  been  added,  in 
the  Romaic  language,  to  several  geo- 
graphical names,  and  has  contributed  to 
corrupt  the  ancient  names ;  for  instance, 
Setines,  the  modem  name  of  Athens,  is 
formed  from  ts  Athmni,  to  Athens  ;  Sti- 
ves, for  es  TkwaL  to  Thebes ;  Istamboul, 
or  Stamboul  (Constantinople),  for  ts  tin 
poUn,  literally  translated,  to  the  city. 

Escalade^  in  war;  a  furious  attack  of 
a  wall  or  a  rampart,  carried  on  with  lad- 
ders, to  ]ysm  the  ditch  or  mount  the  ram- 
part, wiuiout  |iit)ceeding  in  form,  breaking 

VQU IV.  49 


ground,  or  carrying  on  regidar  worics  to 
secure  the  men. 

Escape,  in  law,  is  where  a  person  ar- 
rested gains  his  liberty  before  he  is  deliver- 
ed by  law.  Escapes  ore  either  in  civil  or 
criminal  cases ;  and  may  be  distinguished 
into  voluntary  and  negligent;  voluntary, 
where  it  is  w&h  the  consent  of  the  keeper ; 
negli^nt,  where  it  is  for  want  of  due  care. 
In  civil  oases,  afler  the  prisoner  has  been 
suffered  voluntarily  to  escape,  the  slierifT 
can  never  after  retake  him,  and  must  an- 
swer for  the  debt ;  but  the  plaintiff  may 
retake  him  at  any  time.  In  the  case  of  a 
negligent  escape,  the  sheriff,  upon  fresh 
pursuit,  may  retake  the  prisoner,  and  the 
sheriff  shidl  be  excused  if  he  has  him  again 
before  any  action  is  brought  against  him- 
self for  the  escape.  In  crinKuol  cases,  an 
escape  of  a  peison  arrested  is  an  ofl^ce 
against  public  justice,  and  the  party  is 
punishable  by  fine  and  imprisonment 

Escheat,  in  law,  denotes  un  obstruc- 
tion of  the  course  of  descent,  and  a  conse- 
quent determination  of  the  tenure  by  some 
unforeseen  contingency ;  in  which  case, 
the  land  naturally  results  back  to  the  origi- 
nal grantor,  or  lord  of  the  fee. 

EscHENBACH,  Wolfram  von,  who  flour- 
ished in  the  first  half  of  the  13th  century ; 
one  of  the  most  voluminous  and  also  of 
the  most  distinguished  German  poets  of 
the  Suabian  period.  Of  a  lively  imagin- 
ation and  penetrating  spirit,  rich  and 
original  in  his  descriptions,  and  a  com- 

Elete  master  of  language  and  versification, 
e  elevated  himself  to  a  high  rank  among 
epic  poets.     Nothing  is  known  of  his 

{)rivate  oireumstances,  except  that  he  be- 
onged  to  a  noble  family,  probably  in  the 
Upper  Palatinate.  He  was  knighted  at 
Uenneberg,  and  pissed  his  life  in  the 
performance  of  the  duties  of  chivalry, 
being  supported  by  hid  {loetioal  genius 
and  the  liberality  of  princes.  He  distin- 
guished- himself  among  the  minnesingers 
(q.  V.)  of  the  Wartburg.  Towanls  the 
end  of  his  life,  he  returned  to  die  castle  of 
his  fathers,  and  woa  buried  in  the  church 
of  Our  Lady  of  Eschenbach.  (See  an  ac- 
count of  him  in  the  Museum  of  ancient 
Gennan  Literature  and  Art,  {wblished  by 
Hagen,  Docen  and  BCisching,  vol.  1st) 
His  poems  are  partly  original,  and  partly 
imitated  from  the  French  and  Proven- 
cal literature.  The  most  esteemed  of 
his  numerous  works  are.  The  Parcival 
(printed  1477,  4to.,  found  also  in  Mfiller's 
Collection),  the  Titurell,  or  the  Guardian 
of  the  Graale  (printed  in  1477,  4to.l  the 
Margrave  of  Narbonne,  Lohengrin  (edit- 
ed by  Gbnea,  Heidelberg,  1813),  Williimi* 


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578 


ESCHENBACfi— ESCXHIT. 


of  Orange,  and .  Godfrey  of  Boulogne. 
Sonne  of  his  poeins  are  in  the  Collection 
ofManessi. 

EscHENBURO,  John  Joachim,  professor 
in  the  Caroliuum  at  Brunswick,  was  bprn 
at  Hamburg,  in  1743,  and  died  at  Bruns- 
wick, in  IfiQO.  He  received  his  early  ed- 
ucation at  Hamburg,  then  studied  at 
Leipsic,  under  Emesti,  Gallert,  Moms 
and  Clodius,  and  at  Gottingen,  under 
Heyne  and  Michaelia  He  aflerwards 
went  to  Brunswick  as  a  tutor;  and,  on 
the  death  of  the  poet  Zacliarias,  he  was 
appointed  to  tlie  professorship  in  the  Car- 
olinum  there — an  office  which  he  filled 
till  his  death.  Grermany  is  indebted  to 
him  for  an  acquaintance  with  many  good 
Englisli  writers  on  aesthetics ;  for  exam- 
ple. Brown,  Webb,  Bumey,  Fuseli  (prop- 
erly, Fuesaly^  and  Hurd.  Eaclienburg 
translated  their  works,  with  valuable  ad- 
ditions to  some  of  them.  He  also  pub- 
lished, in  different  periodicals,  accounts 
of  English  literature,  and  thus  contributed 
to  make  the  literary  treasures  of  England, 
an  object  of  great  admiration  among  the 
Germans.  Ills  most  valuable  work  was 
a  translation  of  Shakspeare  (Zurich. 
1755-87,  14  vols.,  also  1798--1806,  12 
vols.).  Wieland  had  engaged  in  this  un- 
dertaking before  Eschenburg ;  but  the 
translation  of  the  lattej*  is  the  most  com- 
,  plete  which  has  yet  been  made,  and  is 
still  esteemed,  though  inferior  to  Schle- 
gePs  in  elegance,  harmony  and  verbal 
accuracy.  He  extended  his  reputation 
by  the  publication  of  his  lectures,  de- 
livered in  tlie  Carolinum,  by  his  Theo- 
tie  und  Iditeratur  der  sthimen  IViMtn- 
SchaJUnj  ndtst  einar  Beispidsammlivnf  da- 
7Uy  and  by  his  Hgndbuck  der  classvchen 
lAteraiur.  •  . 

Esctti.vES.    (See  Mschinjta.) 
EscHTLUs.    (See  Mschtha.) 
EscLEFiADES.    (See  MscUpjades,) 
EscLEPiAmc.    (See  MscUpiadic,\ 
Escoiquiz,  don  Juan,  the  confidential 
friend  of  Ferdinand  VII,  bom  in  1762, 
of  an  ancient  family  of  Navarre,  was,  in 
bis  youth,  page  to  Charles  III.     From 
an  inclination  for  serious  studies,  he  chose 
a  religious  in  preference  to  a  military  life, 
and  received  a  canonicate  in  tlie  cathedral 
at  Sarafossa.    His  amiable  qualities  ac- 
quired tor  him  many  friends  and  patrons 
at  court,  and  he  was  appointed  instructer 
V>  the  prince  of  Astunas.    He  soon  suc- 
ceeded in  winBinff  the  favor  of  the  prince. 
The  courage  and  fitinkness  with  which 
he  expresm  himself  to  Uie  king  and 
queen  in  1797, 1798,  on  the  subject  of  the 
qdamitiea  which  preaaed  so  heavily  on 


Spain,  drew  upon  Urn  the  enmity  of  the 

Erince  of  peace  (Godoy),  who  procured 
is  banishment  to  Toledo.  Escoiquiz 
sought,  even  in  his  exile,  by  memorials^ 
which  he  sent  to  the  king,  to  undeceive 
the  royal  family  as  to  tiie  favorite,  but 
ineffectually.  The  prince  of  peace  gained 
a  continually  increasing  influence  with 
the  king,  so  tliat  the  prince  of  Asturiaa, 
in  March,  1807,  wrote  to  Escoiquiz,  ^  that 
he  was  in  fear  for  his  crown,"  and  **  look- 
ed to  him  for  advice  and  assistance." 
Escoiquiz  immediately  hastened  to  Ma- 
drid, where  the  revolting  affair  of  the  £e- 
curiai  was  agitated,  lie  defended  the 
prince  of  Asturias  vrith  so  much  ability 
as  to  effect  a  decided  change  in  public 
opinion.  When  Ferdinand  ascended  the 
throne,  in  1808,  Escoiquiz  was  made 
counsellor  of  state.  He  advised  the  jour- 
ney to  Bayonne,  and  accompanied  Fer- 
dinand thitlier.  He  was  present  at  the 
interview  with  Napoleon,  who  knew  his 
influence,  and  labored  to  gain  him.  Es- 
coiquiz constantly  exhorted  the  king  of 
Spain  not  to  abdicate  the  throne,  what- 
ever consequences  might  ensue.  The 
al)dication,  however,  took  place,  and  Es- 
coiquiz accompanied  Ferdinand  to  Va- 
len^ay,  but  was  soon  after  separated  fipom 
him,  and  removed  to  Bourses,  where  he 
lived  in  retirement  four  ana  a  half  years. 
He  returned  to  Valen^yj  December,  1813, 
when  the  course  of  events  bad  rendered 
Napoleon  inclined  to  a  reconciliation  wi  Ji 
Ferdinand  VII  and  the  Infant,  and  took 
port  in  all  the  proceedings  which  seated 
the  Bourbons  on  the  throne  of  SfieiD, 
immediately  before  the  final  fall  of  Na- 
poleon. In  1814,  he  lefl  tlie  court,  and 
retired  to  Saraffossa.  He  fell  into  dis- 
grace, because  he  had  advised  the  king 
to  accept,  at  least  in  part,  the  constitution 
of  the  cortes.  He  benaved  with  firmness 
when  arrested  by  order  of  the  king. 
Some  time  afler,  he  was  recalled,  but  was 
disgraced  a  second  time.  Escoiquiz  also 
acquired  some  reputation  as  an  author, 
and  translated  into  Spanish  Young's 
Ni{rht  Thoughts,  Milton's  Paradise  Lcnt^ 
and  other  works.  His  explanation  of  the 
motives  which  induced  Ferdinand  to  so 
to  Bayonne,  is  an  important  document  Kir 
the  histoiy  of  the  time.  He  died  in  exiie^ 
at  Rouda,  in  Andalusia,  in  1820.  His  life 
is  a  fair  conmientazy  on  Ferdinand^ 
character. 

Escort  ;  a  guard ;  a  body  of  szmed 
men  which  attends  an  officer  or  baggage, 
provisions  or  munitions  conveyed  by  land 
from  place  to  place,  to  protect  them. 
This  word  is  sometimes  used  for  naval 


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ESCORT— ESCURIAL. 


599 


protectors  ;  but  the  proper  word  in  this 
case  18  convoy,  (q.  v.) 

EacuLAPius.  (See  JEsculapiui,) 
EscuRiAL  {d  EacoTial\  a  celebrated 
buildiDg,  is  situated  midway  up  the  as- 
cent of  the  chain  of  inountaiiia  which 
boundB  Old  Castile,  22  miles  from  Madrid. 
The  choice  of  this  rugged  situation  by 
Philip  II  indicates  the  stem  and  melan- 
choly character  which  histoiy  ascribes  to 
that  prince.     It  was  erected  in  eonse- 

3uence  of  a  vow  made  by  Philip,  on  the 
ay  of  the  batde  of  St.  Quentin,  at  which, 
however,  he  was  not  present  He  ded- 
icated it  to  St  Lawrence,  whose  iestival 
was  on  that  day.  Every  thing  in  the 
ICscurial  reminds  us  of  the  instrument 
of  the  martyrdom  of  this  saint— «  grid- 
iron. It  is  seen  upon  the  doo^^  win- 
dows, altars  and  sacerdotal  habits;  the 
edifice  itself  is  in  that  form.  It  is  a  quad- 
rangular building,  witii  tlie  principal  front 
to  the  west,  behind  which  is  a  mountain ; 
the  opposite  side,  wliich  faces  Madrid, 
has  the  form  of  the  shortened  handle  of  a 
gridiron ;  and  the  four  legs  are  represent- 
ed by  the  four  little  square  towers  which 
rise  above  the  foiv  angles.  The  exterior 
of  the  Escurial  is  not  magnificent  in  the 
architecture.  It  has  rather  the  austere 
simplicity  of  a  convent  than  the  elegance 
of  a  palace.  In  front  of 'the  door  of  the 
church  is  a  fine  peristyle ;  over  the  front 
of  which  vre  six  colossal  statues  of  the 
kings  of  Israel,  which  appear  as  if  just 
balanced  on  their  slender  pedestals.  The 
two  in  the  middle  are  David  and  Solo- 
mon. The  sculptor  has  endeavored  to 
^ve  to  these  two  statues  the  features  of 
Charles  V  and  Philip  II.  The  number 
of  windows,  doors  and  cx)uns  has  been 
exaggerated  to  a  ridiculous  degree,  in  the 
descriptions  of  the  abb6  de  Vayrac  and 
seiior  Colmenar.  They  state  that  there 
are  11,000  doors.  In  the  whole,  there  is 
something  striking,  but  it  does  not  corre- 
spond to  the  idea  formed  of  it  from  the 
accounts  given  by  those  writers.  The 
edifice  is  built  of  hewn  stone,  of  a  species 
of  granite;  its  color  has  become  brown 
with  time,  and  adds  to  the  austerity  of 
the  building.  It  is  a  quaih:angle,  740  feet 
in  length,  by  580  in  breadth.  The  Escu- 
rial is  said  to  have  cost  50,000,000  dollars. 
The  most  remarkable  pictures  are  the 
Virgin  Mary,  by  Guide ;  the  Woman  taken 
in  Adultery,  and  St  Jerome  writing,  by 
Vandyke ;  the  Martyrdom  of  St  Uraula, 
and  the  Fall  of  the  Angels,  by  Pellegrino 
Tibaldi,  in  the  church,  where  are  also 
some  good  paintings  by  Navarrete  and  by 
Lucas  Cambiano.     In  the  two  vestries 


are  severs]  ptetuies  #f  Paul  Veronese^ 
Rubens,  Spagnoletto,  and  Titian ;  an  As- 
sumption, by  Annibal  Carracci,  and  tlie 
Lord's  Supper,  by  Tintoretto.  The  altar 
piece  in  the  vestry,  by  tbe  Portuguese 
Ulaudio  Coeiho,  is  one  of  the  most  stri- 
king j  it  is  Charles  II,  accompanied  by 
the  nobility,  on  his  knees  before  the  holy 
sacramenti  The  pictures  of  St  Sehas* 
tian,  of  natural  size,  and  the  Savior  dis- 
puting vrith  a  doctor  of  the  law,  are 
some  of  the  best  among  those  of  Titian. 
Three  by  Raphael-— one,  called  the  peariy 
on  account  of  its  superior  excellence,  is 
a  Holy  Family ;  another,  the  Visitation, 
in  which  the  modesty  of  the  virgin,  and 
her  embarrassment  on  appearing  before 
Elizabeth,  with  die  unexpected  signs  of 
her  pregnancy,  cannot  be  too  much  ad- 
mired. The  Pantheon  is  a  subterranean 
apartment,  situated  immediately  beneath 
the  grand  altar  of  the  chapel.  A  long, 
arched  stairway,  lined  on  all  sides  wim 
polished  marble,  and  descending  far  be- 
low the  surface  of  the  earth,  conducts  to 
this  apartment  The  whole  interior  is 
lined  with  dark  marble,  beautifully  veined, 
and  of  creat  lustre.  This  is  the  burying 
place  of  the  Spanish  royal  family.  The 
bodies  of  the  princes  who  have  not  reign- 
ed are  deposited  m  one  chamber,  tlioee 
of  the  kings  and  queens  in  another.  The 
remains  of  the  duke  of  Vendome  rest  m 
the  Pantheon,  as  those  of  marshal  Tu- 
renne  do  in  the  church  of  St  Denis.  A 
superb  lustre,  pendent  from  the  cupola, 
is  lighted  up  on  extraordinary  occasious. 
The  coffins  which  contain  the  bodies  of 
the  kings  and  queens  are  placed  on  each 
side  of  an  altar,  in  tliree  rows,  and  in  dif- 
ferent compartments.  The  cases  are  of 
bronze  and  porphyry,  and  sim))le  yet  no- 
.ble  in  their  fonu.  The  two  great  clois- 
ten  arejtainted  in  finesco;  the  paintings 
are  by  Tilwldi,  and  tlie  figures  are  of 
colossal  size.  Guercino,  Velasquez,  and 
other  celebrated  painters,  have  ornament- 
ed several  galleries  and  cloisters.  Here 
is  the  fiunous  picture  of  Raphael,  called 
the  Madonna  del  Pez.  This  picture  rep- 
resents the  young  ToUt,  conducted  by 
the  angel  Raphael,  ofiering,  with  a  timid 
air,  the  tribute  of  his  fish.  The  group  is 
composed,  beside  the  angel  and  Tobit,  of 
Chiist,  the  virgin  Mary,  and  St  Jerome, 
in  a  cardinal's  habit,  reading  tlie  Bible  to 
them.  The  library,  founded  by  Philip 
II,  and  much  augmented  by  his  son,  is 
remaricable  for  the  large  number  of  Greek 
and  Arabic  manuscripts,  and  for  the 
paintings.  There  are  several  pleasure- 
houses  at  a  short  distance  from  the  con> 


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ESCURIAL— ESPINASSE. 


vent,  belonging  to  the  Infantes.  The 
monks  are  very  liberal,  and  allow  any 
person,  of  decent  dress  and  demeanor, 
fiee  access  to  the  Ubniry  and  all  its  books. 
The  royal  family  used  to  pass  six  weeks 
here  every  year,  before  king  Ferdinand's 
reign  ;  it  is  now  scarcely  ever  visited  by 
his  majesty  or  his  brothers.  The  number 
of  monks  is  now  (1830)  140  or  150. 

Escutcheon,  m  heraldry,  is  derived 
from  the  French  icusson,  and  that  from 
the  Latin  scutum.  It  signifies  tlie  shield 
whereon  coats  of  arms  are  represented. 

EsKi ;  a  Turkish  word,  signifying  oldj 
contained  in  several  geographical  names ; 
as,  Eski  cheher,  old  city. 

EsKiMAUX.    (See  Esquimaux.) 

EsMENARD,  Joseph  Alphonse ;  a  poet, 
born  in  1769,  at  Pelissone,  in  Provence. 
After  having  finished  his  education  at 
Manieilles,  he  made  a  voyajro  to  St.  Do^ 
mingo,  and,  on  his  return,  rormed  an  ac- 
quaintance with  Marmontel,  which  de- 
velo|)ed  his  literary  tastes.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  revolution,  he  belonged  to  the 
dub  of  Feuillans,  and  on  its  downfall 
was  obliged  to  leave  the  country.  He 
titivelled  five  years  in  England,  Germa- 
ny and  Italy,  and,  on  his  return  from 
Constantinople,  settled  in  Venice,  where 
he  formed  the  design  of  his  poem  La 
Mfoigation.  He  returned  to  France,  was 
again  banished  for  his  political  writings, 
returned  after  the  revolution  of  the  18th 
Brumaire,  and  labored  with  La  Harpe 
and  Fontanes  on  the  Mereure  de  la  FVance. 
He  accompanied  Le  Clerc  to  St.  Domin- 
^,  and,  after  his  return,  received  a  iilace 
in  tlie  ministry  of  the  interior.  His  Aovt- 
fotion  appeared  in  the  year  1805.  He 
IS  blamed  for  many  defects,  but  his  talent 
for  describing  scenes  on  the  ocean  is  uni- 
versally admired.  In  1808,  he  brouj^ht 
upon  the  stage  an  opera,  endtled  Tr(^an^ 
and  was  banished  once  more  by  Napo- 
leon, after  having  been  assailed  by  nu- 
merous enemies,  and  made  a  tnemW  of 
the  institute.  After  three  months,  he  re- 
turned from  exile,  and  died  in  1811. 

EsMERALDAS ;  a  province  of  Colom- 
bia, on  the  coast  of  the  Pacific  ocean, 
abounding  in  wax,  copal,  Iwlsams,  manil- 
la,  indigo,  tobacco  and  excellent  cacao. 
Its  mountains  are  covered  with  rare  and 
valual)le  woods,  and  contain  gold  mines. 
Fine  emeralds  are  also  found  in  this  prov- 
ince.— EsmeraUas  is  likewise  the  name 
of  a  river  and  a  seaport  of  tliis  province. 

EsTfEH,  EsNE,  or  AsNA  (called,  by  the 
Egyptians,  SrU^  or  Sna) ;  a  city  of  Upper 
E^pt,  in  the  Thebaid,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Nile,  about  27  miJea  S.  of  the  ruins 


of  Thebes,  and  350  S.  S.  E.  of  Cairo ;  lat. 
25°  17'  38"  N. ;  Ion.  32°  34'  56f'  E.  Es- 
neh  stands  on  the  site  of  tlie  ancient  La- 
topohs.  Among  the  ruins  there  is  a  bean- 
tiiul  portico  or24  columns,  which  is  one 
of  the  most  perfect  remains  of  Egyfitian 
architecture.  The  ceiling  contains  a  zo- 
diac, which  has  been  supposed  to  be  2000 
years  older  than  diat  or  Dendenih ;  but 
Champollion,  in  one  of  his  letters,  dated 
1829,  is  decidedly  of  the  opinion  that  the 
great  temple  of  Elme,  as  it  is  called,  instead 
of  being  one  of  the  most  ancient  buildincs 
of  Egypt,  is  one  of  the  most  modem.  He 
draws  this  conclusion  from  the  rudeness 
and  stifthess  -of  the  bass-reliefe  and  hiero- 
glyphics, as  well  as  from  tlie  inscriptions. 
The  latter  contain  merely  the  names  of 
different  Roman  ernperora.  ^  The  real  age 
of  the  pnmaos  of  f^eh,"  says  M.  Chana- 
pollion,  **  is,  therefore,  not  of  a  more  re- 
mot^  period  than  the  reign  of  the  empe- 
ror Claudius ;  and  the  sculptures,  among 
which  is  tlie  femous  zodiac,  are  as  late  as 
the  time  of  Caracalla."  Tlie  marquis 
Spineto,  in  his  Lectures  on  tlie  Elements 
of  Hieroglyphics,  is  of  the  same  opinion. 
Esneh  is  of  considerable  importance  in  a 
commercial  point  of  view.  The  great  car- 
avan coming  from  Sennaar  stops  at  this 
place,  and  a  camel  market,  famous  through- 
out all  Egypt,  is  held  here.  Amon?  the 
population  of  Esneh  are  300  Cofitic  rami- 
lies.  Not  far  from  it  are  the  ruins  of  an- 
other temple,  with  a  zodiac,  not  so  well 
preserved,  however,  as  that  in  tlie  ceiling. 
Feb.  25, 1799,  the  French  were  attacked 
here  by  the  Mamelukes. 

Esop.    (See  JEsop.) 

Esopus.    (See  Msopus.) 

Esoteric  (Greek;  secret,  revealed  only 
to  tlie  initiatedj.  In  the  mysteries  or  se- 
cret societies  oi  the  ancients,  tlie  doctrines 
were  distinguished  into  the  esoteric  and 
exoteric,  tlie  fbnner  for  the  inidated,  who 
were  |)ermitted  to  enter  into  the  sanctua- 
ry itself  (the  Esoterics),  and  the  latter  for 
the  uninitiated  (the  Exoterics\  who  re- 
mained in  tlie  outer  court  The  same 
distinction  is  also  made,  in  philosophy,  be- 
tween those  doctrines  which  belong  pe- 
culiarly to  the  initiated,  and  those  which 
are  adapted  to  tlie  limited  capacides  of  the 
mileamed. 

EspAGNOLETTO.    (Sco  Spagnoktto.) 

Espaliers  ;  rows  of  trees  planted  about 
a  garden,  and  trained  up  regularly  to  a 
lattice  of  wood- work,  in  a  close  hedge,  for 
the  defence  of  tender  plants. 

EspiNASSE,  Julie  Jeanne  El^onore. 
This  amiable  lady,  v<^o  united  the  most 
brilliant  talents  to  a  heart  susceptible  of 


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ESPINAS8E-ESQUIMAUX. 


681 


the  WMincet  love,  was  born  at  Lvons, 
1732.  She  was  an  illegitimate  child,  but 
passed  for  the  daughter  of  a  citizen,  whose 
name  she  bore,  bhe  was  selected  as  a 
companion  by  the  marchioness  du  Def- 
fand,  whose  oflfers  she  gladly  accepted, 
being  in  a  state  of  extreme  indisence.  At 
first,  tlie  two  ladies  lived  togeUier  in  the 
greatest  harmony;  but  the  superior  at- 
tractions of  Julie,  which  captivated  even 
d'Alembert,  a  most  devoted  admirer  of 
du  Defiand,  soon  made  the  marchioness 
regard  her  as  a  dangerous  rival,  and  their 
connexion  was  broken  off.  MUe.  I'EIspi* 
nasse,  however,  had  already  made  manv 
friends,  and  the  king,  by  the  recommend- 
ation of  the  duke  de  Choiseul,  granted  her 
a  pension.  From  this  time,  she  shonei  in 
the  great  world,  surrounded  by  a  brilliant 
circle  of  admirers.  D'Aiembert  endeav- 
ored in  vain  to  obtain  her  affections ;  he 
only  succeeded  in  obtaining  her  esteem. 
The  marquis  of  Mora,  a  young  Spanish 
nobleman,  loved  her,  and  was  loved  in  re- 
turn ;  but  was  soon  superseded  in  her  af* 
feetions  by  colonel  Guibert,  celebrated  for 
his  connexion  with  Frederic  11.  Her 
letters  show  the  strength  of  her  sensibili- 
ty and  the  caprices  of  her  love,  which 
was  blindly  lavished  without  regard  to  re- 
ciprocation.   She  died  in  1776. 

Kspiritu-Saivto,  or  Spiritu-Santo 
(the  Spanish  for  Holy  Ghost) ;  a  name  of- 
ten occurring  in  geography.  For  instance, 
It  belongs  to  a  place  on  the  island  of  Cu-> 
ba ;  to  a  bay  or  Florida ;  to  Jin  island  in 
the  ffulf  of  California ;  to  a  bay  of  Mexi- 
co, &c. 

Esplanade,  in  fortification;  the  dop- 
ing of  the  panqMt  of  the  covered  way  to- 
wards the  open  country ;  the  same  with 
giacia, 

EspR^MSNii.,  James  Duval  d',  a  native 
of  Pondichenry,  counsellor  of  the  parliar 
ment  of  Paris,  and  deputy  fron»  the 
nobili^  to  the  states-general  in  1789, 
was  distinguished  for  telent  and  virtue. 
D'£spr6m6nil  had  entertained  the  pro- 
ject of  restoring  to  France  die  states- 
general  ;  and,  at  the  session  of  the  par- 
fiament,  Nov.  19,  1787,  he  spoke  with 
energy  in  favor  of  that  scheme,  and  in 
opposition  to  the  measures  of  the  ministry. 
He  renewed  his  animadversions,  May  3, 
1788,  in  consequence  of  which  he  was 
seized  and  banished  to  the  isle  of  St  Mar- 
garet Being  recalled  to  Paris  in  1789,  he 
was  nominated  a  deputy  to  the  states-gen- 
eral, when  he  defended  the  monarchv 
against  innovators  with  as  much  warmth 
as  he  had  before  opposed  the  despotism 
of  the  ministiy.  He  made  a  speech 
49* 


against  the  union  of  the  different  orders, 
and,  when  he  saw  the  minority  of  the  no- 
bles about  to  leave  the  chamber  of  ses- 
sion, lie  exclaimed,  **  We  are  on  tlie  field 
of  battle:  tlie  cowards  desert  us:  but  let 
us  close  our  ranks,  and  we  are  still  strong 
enough."  In  opposing  the  establishment 
of  paper  monev,  in  ^ptember,  1790,  he 
made  the  singular  proposition  to  reestab- 
lish the  monarchy  in  the  full  plenimde  of 
its  power.  He  afterwards  endeavored  in 
vain  to  curb  the  revolutionary  fury,  to 
which  he  was  destined  to  fall  a  victim. 
On  the  27th  of  July,  1792,  he  was  assail- 
ed by  a  band  of  armed  tn^n,  by  whom  he 
was  badly  wounded,  and  narrowly  escap- 
ed being  killed.  His  friends  then  entreat- 
ed him  to  leave  France ;  but  he  refused, 
saving  he  ought  to  await  the  consequences 
of  a  revolution  of  which  he  had  been  one 
of  the  prime  movers.  He  was  at  length 
condemned  by  the  revolutionary  tribunal, 
and  perished  on  the  scaffold  in  1793. 
D'£spr6m^nil  was  48  years  of  age  at  the 
time  of  his  execution. 

Esprit,  in  French,  si^ifies  spirii.  In 
English,  the  phrase  eapnt  de  corps  is  not 
unvequently  used  in  tlie  sense  of  attach- 
ment to  tlie  class  or  body  of  which  one  is 
a  member. 

EsquiMAtJX  9^an  Indian  nation  of  North 
America,  occupying  nearly  all  of  the 
northern  part  of  the  continent,  from 
Prince  William's  sound  along  the  coasts 
of  the  Icy  sea  and  of  Hudson's  bay  to  the 
borders  of  the  Atlantic  on  the  Labrador 
coast  Those  to  the  N.  W.  of  Hudson's 
bay  are  of  a  larger  size  than  tliose  of  Lab- 
rador, but  they  are  all  dwarfish.  Tbeur 
origin  is  uncertein ;  but  the^  are  evident- 
ly oiffeitiit  from  the  aborigines  generally 
diffused  over  the  counUy,  in  lansua^ 
character,  habits  of  living,  complexion 
and  stature.  Their  features  are  harsh 
and  disagreeable,  their  cheek  bones' prom- 
inent, their  noses  smaJl  and  flat,  their  eyes 
small  and  black,  and  tlieir  lips  thick. 
They  are  clothed  in  the  skins  of  marine 
animals,  which  constitute  their  principal 
subsistence.  Besides  taking  seals  and 
whales,  tliev  hunt  the  reindeer,  the  bear, 
wolves,  and  other  wild  beasts.  Their  do- 
mestic animals  are  a  large  kind  of  dogs, 
which  thev  use  for  draught  and  the  chase, 
and  which  they  prefer  to  the  reindeer. 
Tiieir  arms  are  bows  and  airows,  speare 
and  knives.  Their  canoes  are  composed 
of  a  frame  of  wood  or  whalebone,  cover- 
ed with  seal  skins.  The  smaller  kind,  ca- 
pable of  containing  only  one  person,  are 
called  kfofoks.  They  sometimes  use  a 
larger  kind,  called  oomiakj  for  transport- 


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ESQUIMAUX— ESSENTIAL  OILS. 


mg  luggage  and  removing  their  families, 
wliicii  ^oni  accommodations  fbr  twenty 
penions.  There  is  no  authentic  account 
of  their  numbers.  They  are  represented 
as  being  without  any  kind  of  govenmient, 
and  nothing  is  known  of  their  reliffious 
notions.  Tbev  wrap  up  the  dead  in  skins, 
and  deposit  the  body,  with  theannsof 
the  decease«l,  in  the  holk>w  of  a  rock.  In 
17(>l,  the  Moravian  Brethren  from  Green- 
land established  a  mission  in  Labrador. 
They  have  induced  the  Esquimaux  with- 
in their  influence  to  abolish  the  custom  of 
putting  to  death  widows  and  orphans,  and 
that  oi  abandoning  the  aged  who  were  iiv- 
caiwble  of  procuring  their  own  subsisi- 
cnce.  The  missionaries  are  of  opinion 
that  the  Esquimaux  oriffinated  from 
Greenland,  on  account  of  the  great  simi- 
larity of  their  manncra  and  customs,  and 
of  their  language,  to  those  of  tJie  Green- 
landers. 

EsquiRE;  anciently,  the  person  that 
Attended  a  knight  ui  tlie  time  of  war,  and 
earned  his  shield.  Those  to  whom  the 
title  of  esquire  is  now  due  in  England,  ore, 
all  noblemen's  younger  sons,  and  the  el- 
dest sons  of  such  younger  sons ;  the  eldest 
sons  of  knights,  and  theireMest  som;  the 
officers  of  tiie  king's  courts,  and  of  his 
household  ;  counsellors  at  law,  justices 
of  the  peace,  &c.,  though  the  latter  are 
only  esquires  in  reputation:  besi<ie8,  a 
lustice  of  the  fieace  holds  this  title  no 
longer  than  be  is  in  commission,  in  case 
he  18  not  odierwise  qualified  to  bear  it; 
but  a  sheriff  of  a  countv,  who  is  a  superi- 
or oflicer,  retains  the  title  of  ej^nitre  during 
life,  in  consequence  of  the  trust  once  re- 
posed in  him.  The  beads  of  some  an- 
cient families  are  esquires  by  right  of 
prescription. 

Ess,  Charles  van,  bom  in  1770,  at  War- 
burg, in  the  bishopric  of  Paderboni,  en- 
tered the  Benedictine  abbey  of  Huysburg, 
near  Halberstadt,  in  1788,  where  he  sub- 
sequently became  prior;  but,  on  the  sup- 
pression of  die  abfa«y,  in  1804,  he  became 
a  parish  preacher  at  this  place.  In  1811, 
the  bishop  of  Paderbom  ap|iointed  him 
episco[Mil  commissioner,  with  tlie  fUli 
powers  of  vicar-general  in  the  depart- 
ments of  the  Elbe  and  SaaL  In  tliis  situ- 
ation, he  evinced  a  great  predilection  for 
tlie  Roman  see.  It  is  said  that  he  took 
but  linle  part  in  the  transktran  of  the 
New  Testament  which  was  puhlislied 
under  his  and  his  brother's  name,  and  he 
subsequently  disclaimed  any  cooperation 
in  it.  In  1810,  he  wrote  a  Histoiy  of  the 
Abbey  of  Hu>'8bunr,  and,  at  the  time  of 
the  Protestant  jubilee,  in  1817,  a  Short 


i 


History  of  Religion,  which  was  publicly 
burnt  bv  the  scholars  m  Hallierstadt,  at 
the  celebration  of  the  festival  of  the  refor- 
mation, and  which  was  answered  by  some 
scholars  in  the  vicinity.  He  died  Oct  22; 
1824.^ — His  brother,  Leander  van  Esb, 
Benedictine  of  the  abbey  of  Marienmfin- 
ster,  in  the  territory  of  Paderbom^  and,  at 
a  later  period,  a  parish  fniest  at  Schwa- 
lenberg,  in  the  principality  of  Lippe,  and, 
since  181.%  professor  extraordinary  of  tlie- 
ology,  and  preacher  at  Marburg,  also  one 
of  die  directors  of  the  seminary  for  teach- 
ers at  that  city,  has  distinguished  himself 
by  his  translation  of  the  New  Testament, 
published  at  Sulzbach,  by  SeideL  The 
pope,  it  is  trve,  has  lately  prohibiteil  thii 
translation ;  but,  in  1820,  a  new  edition  ap- 
peared, under  the  name  of  I^eander  only. 
This  translation  has  had  a  great  influence 
u|x>n  the  German  Catholics. 

Essaying.    (See  JUaayiingJ) 

EssENES,  or  EssAAifs;  a  sect  among  the 
Jews,  the  origin  of  which  is  unknown,  as 
well  as  the  etymology  of  their  name. 
They  are  first  mentioned  in  the  book  of 
Maccabees,  about  B.  C.  150.  They  lived 
in  solitude,  and  had  all  their  pooocaaions 
in  common.  Certain  examinatioi»  pre- 
ceded the  admission  of  candidates  to  their 
society.  Philo  says,  that  tliey  sacrificed 
no  living  creature,  and  that  they  shunned 
cities.  Joeephus  says,  diat  they  sent  pres- 
ents to  the  temple,  but  offered  no  sacri- 
fices there.  They  had  purer  ideas  of  God 
than  the  Jews  commonly  entertained,  a 
strict  code  of  morals,  and  a  Pythagorean 
manner  of  life.  Instead  of  performing 
external  rites,  they  devoted  themselves  to 
prayer  and  silent  devotion,  scrupulously 
observed  the  Sabbath,  were  extremely  afah 
stinent,  and  healed  diseases  of  every  kind 
by  roots  and  herbs.  They  rejected  the 
subdlties  of  the  Pharisees  and  tiie  epicu- 
reanism of  the  Sadducees.  HistoiV  no 
where  supports  the  supposition  tliat  Jesus 
and  John  were  members  of  this  liody. 
(See  Bellermann's  Anaad  AecmmU  of  Out 
Esaenta  and  Tkarapeida,  Beriin,  1^21.} 
The  principal  ancient  writers  who  give 
an  account  of  this  sect  are  Josephus,  Phik> 
and  Pliny. 

Essential  Oils.  This  name  is  applied 
to  those  volatile  fluids  usually  obtained 
from  aromatic  pkmts,  by  subiecting  them 
to  distillation  with  water.  The  oil  is  vol- 
atilized with  the  aqueous  vapor,  and  is  ea- 
sily condensed ;  a  small  portion  of  it  is 
retained  in  solution  by  the  water ;  but  the 
greater  port  separates,  and  is  ohtained 
pure  from  the  diflerence  in  their  specific 
gravity.    In  some  instances^  as^  for  exam- 


Digitized  by 


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ESSENTIAL  OILS— ESTAFET. 


583 


pie,  in  the  rind  of  the  orange  and  lemon, 
the  oil  exists  in  distinct  Tesicles,  and  may 
be  obtained  by  expression.  The  principal 
volatile  or  essential  oils  are  those  of  tur- 
pentine, aniseed,  nutmeg,  lavender,  cloves, 
caraway,  peppennint,  spearmint,  sassafras, 
camomile  and  citron.  The  taste  of  these 
oils  is  acrid  and  burning;  and  tlieir  odor 
very  pungent,  generally  resembling  the 
taste  and  smell  of  the  vegetables  affording 
them.  They  are  generally  fluid,  and  re- 
main so  even  at  a  low  temperature ;  but 
some  congeal  at  a  very  moderate  degree 
of  cold,  and  others  are  naturally  concrete. 
They  are  extremely  volatile,  and  boil  at  a 
temperature  considerably  above  that  of 
boiling  water;  thus  oil  of  turpentine  boils 
at  315°.  They  are  very  soluble  in  strong 
alcohol,  but,  on  adding' water  largely,  are 
precipitated.  They  are  soluble  in  ether 
in  like  manner,  but  do  not  form  soaps 
-(▼ith  the  alkalies,  by  which  they  are  dis- 
tinguished from  the  fixed  oils.  They  are 
readily  inflamed  by  strong  nitric  acid; 
especially  with  the  precaution  of  adding  a 
little  sulphuric  acid  to  render  the  former 
more  concentrated.  Exposed  to  the  ac- 
tion of  the  air,  they  undergo  an  alteration 
in  consequence  of  the  absorption  of  oxy- 
gen, become  thickened,  and  gradually 
change  into  a  solid  matter,  resembling  the 
true  resins.  Whon  digested  with  sulphur, 
they  unite  with  it,  forming  what  have  been 
called  balaama  of  ndphur.  One  of  the 
most  useful  and  abunaant  of  the  essential 
oils  is  that  of  turpentine,  commonly  called 
spirit  ofharpentitie.  It  is  obtained  by  dis- 
tilling turpentine  and  water,  in  due  pro- 
portions, from  a  copper  alembic.  It  is  per- 
iectly  limpid  and  colorless,  has  a  strong 
smell,  a  bitterish  taste,  boils  at  316°,  and  is 
extremely  inflammable.  Ic  is  the  solvent 
employed  in  making  a  variety  of  varnishes ; 
but  for  purposes  of  nicety,  it  requires  to  be 
recdfied  by  a  second  distil!atiou.  In  gen- 
eral, the  volatile  oils  are  used  in  the  prac- 
tice of  medicine,  or  as  perfumes.  Those 
applied  to  the  latter  use,  as  the  essence  of 
rose,  of  jasmine,  violet,  &c.,  are  possessed 
of  a  more  feeble  odor,  and,  being  obtained 
finom  the  floweis  of  their  respective  plants, 
require  much  care  in  their  preparadon. 
This  is  done  by  spreading  upon  white 
wool,  impregnated  with  olive  oil,  the  petals 
of  the  flowers,  and  leaving  them  for  some 
time,  covered  over  with  a  woollen  ^lotfa, 
upon  which  flowers  are  also  scattered. 
The  flowers  are  renewed  from  time  to 
time,  until  the  olive  oil  employed  appears 
to  be  saturated  with  the  oil  of  the  flowers, 
when  this  last  is  separated  by  digesting 
the  wool  in  alcohol 


EssEquiBO ;  a  river  of  English  Guiana, 
which  flows  into  the  Atlantic;  Ion.  58°  3(y 
W. ;  laL  7°  N.  It  is  20  miles  wide  at  its 
mouth,  but  difiicult  of  navigation,  on  ac-\ 
count  of  the  sand  bonks,  which  run  in 
difierent  directions  across  its  entrance.  It 
contains  a  number  of  islands.  The  influ- 
ence of  the  tide  is  felt  about  100  miles  up 
the  river. 

EssEquiBo  ;  a  settlement  of  English 
Gruiana,  on  the  lx>rderB  of  tlie  above  river, 
originally  belonging  to  tlie  Dutch,  hut, 
afler  having  several  times  changed  pos- 
sessors, was  finally  ceded  to  Great  Britain 
in  1814.  The  settlement  is  flourishing, 
the  country  well  cultivated,  and  extremely 
ferule,  in  coflee,  cotton,,  cocoa  and  sugar. 

EssBX,  earl  o^  (See  Dtvereux,) 

Essex;  a  post-town  in  Essex  county. 
New  York,  on  the  western  shore  of  lake 
Champlain ;  14  miles  south-west  of  Bur- 
lington, 16  from  Elizabeditown.  There 
is  a  flourishing  village  on  the  lake  in  tliis 
township,  which  has  considerable  trade. 
The  celebrated  tplii  rock  is  in  tliis  town- 
ship, 5  miles  south  of  the  village.  It  pro- 
jects 50  yards  into  lake  Champlain ;  the 
point,  consisting  of  about  halt  an  acre, 
and  covered  widi  trees,  is  separated  from 
the  main  rock  aboiit  20  feet.  The  height 
of  the  rock,  on  each  side  of  the  opening, 
is  about  20  feet  It  appears  to  have  been 
separated  by  some  great  convulsion,  and 
is  esteemed  a  great  curiosity. . 

EssLiNOEN.    (See  Aafptnu) 

ESTACHAR,  or  ESTAKAR,  OX  ISTACHAR  ; 

a  town  in  Persia,  in  Cbusistan ;  30  miles 
N.  N.  E.  of  Schiras,  160  S.  S.  E.  of  Ispa- 
han; Ion.  53^  40^  E. ;  lat.  30°  S'  N.  Near 
it  are  the  ruins  of  ancient  Persepolis. 
These  ruins  are  on  a  plain,  6  miles  in 
breadth,  and  105  in  length,  from  north- 
west to  south-east  It  is  usually  called 
Murdaajo^  and  the  inhabitants  pretend  that 
it  included  880  villages.  The  soil  is 
chiefly  converted  into  arable  land,  and 
watered  by  a  great  number  of  rivulets. 
According  to  I^  Bruyn,  no  traces  of  the 
city  now  remain ;  the  magnificent  ruins 
which  he  saw  in  the  year  1704,  and  of 
which  he  has  given  a  description,  with 
many  plates,  are  those  of  the  royal  palace 
of  the  ancient  kings  of  Persia,  which  the 
Persians  call  Chtniwnar,  or  Chalmenaer^ 
which  signifies  for^  ddumfu.  Among 
other  ruins  are  those  of  a  tomb,  supposed 
to  be  the  tomb  of  Darius. 

EsTAFET ;  a  particular  kind  of  cou- 
rier, who  goes  only  a  certain  distance, 
when  he  is  relieved,  like  a  mail-carrier. 
He  rides  on  honeback,  and  is  furnished 
by  the  post-ofiSce.    Estafettes  travel  faster 


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684 


ESTAFET— ESTATE. 


than  tbe  mails,  and  may  be  had  at  any 
time  on  the  European  continenL  They 
are  oflen  employed  by  merchants  to  convey 
information  of  fluctuations  in  the  stocks, 
the  early  knowledge  of  which  is  often  of 
the  higliest  importance.  Estafettes  are 
bound  to  perform  the  different  stages  in  a 
certain  time,  and  not  to  carry  any  other 
letters  than  those  of  their  employer,  with- 
out his  |)ermi8sion.  In  Italian,  the  word 
is  aiqffetta,  in  German,  sUffeUe,  in  French, 
esUiftUe^  in  Spanish,  estqfeta,  the  Italian 
being  the  original.  It  is  proliably  derived 
from  ataffa^  a  stirrup,  aiaffetta  signifying 
a  small  stirrup^  perhaps  formerly  used  in 
preference  by  estafettea 

EsTAFPETTE  d'Aloer,  L\  At  the  time 
of  the  French  expedition  to  AlgierH, 
in  1830,  a  spmi-wcekly  paper  of  this 
name  was  published  in  Africa;  it  was 
a  political,  military,  commercial  and  mar- 
itime journal,  containing  the  bulletins, 
&C.,  of  the  armies,  describing  the  en- 
pigements  with  lithographic  plans,  giv- 
ing sketches  of  the  African  coinmorce, 
and  of  tlie  I'esources  and  customs  of  the 
country,  military  anecdotes,  &c^  Such  a 
paper  is  unique.  We  cannot  helpwish- 
mgthatScipiohad  published  a  Cursor  ^f' 
ricofttu,  or  Alexander  an  *Ayv<>0(  'Avi'ivd^. 
But  we  should  then,  probaliiy,  complain 
as  much  of  the  mass  of^  information  as  we 
now  do  of  its  defectiveness.  The  Estaffette 
18  regularly  sent  to  France  by  steam-lKiats. 

EsTAiNo,  Charles  Henry,  count  d',  ad- 
miral and  lieutenant-general  of  the  armies 
of  France  before  the  revolution,  was  a 
native  of  Ravel,  in  Auvergiie,  and  was  de- 
scended from  an  ancient  fkmily  in  that 
province.  Count  d'Estaing  commenced 
nis  career  by  serving  in  tlie  East  Indies 
under  Lally,  when  he  was  taken  prisoner 
by  the  English,  and  sent  home  on  his  pa- 
role. Havuig  engaged  in  hostilities  again 
before  he  had  been  regularly  exchanged^ 
he  was  taken  a  second  time,  and  im|>ri»- 
oned  at  Ponsmouth.  During  the  Ameri- 
can war,  he  was  employed  us  vice-admi- 
ral. At  the  capture  of  tbe  island  of  Gre- 
nada he  distinruished  himself;  but  on 
every  occasion  he  showed  more  courajire 
tlian  conduct  or  professional  skill,  lie 
promoted  the  revolution  ;  and,  in  17H?), 
he  was  appointed  a  coiiunaiHiunt  of 
the  national  guards  at  Versailles.  In 
1791,  he  addressed  to  the  national  a.««iem- 
bly  a  letter  full  of  protestations  of  at- 
tachment to  the  coBStimtiofi,  on  the 
occasion  of  the  approaching  trial  of 
the  king.  He  suffered  under  the  guil- 
lotine, 1793,  as  a  counter-revolutionist,  at 
the  age  of  65. 


EsTAHiNET  {F\rmch);  a  public  place 
where  smokine  is  permitted,  which,  in 
France,  is  not  mlowed  generally  in  coffee- 
houses, &C.  In  the  Netherlands,  public 
houses  in  general  are  called  eslamintUf  be- 
cause smoking  is  permitted  in  all.  JSito- 
minds,  with  their  floods  of  beer  and  clouds 
of  smoke,  Ornish  an  important  pan  of  a 
Dutchman's  happiness.  In  London,  aJso^ 
tlie  same  name  has  been  given  to  co^e- 
houses  where  smoking  is  permitted. 

Estate,  in  law,  signifies  the  title  or 
interest  which  a  person  has  in  lands,  ten- 
ements, hereditaments,  or  other  eflecta, 
the  word  being  derived  from  the  Latin  sio- 
tus,  which  means  the  condition  or  circum- 
stance in  which  a  person  stands  in  regard 
to  his  }m>perty.  Estate  is  real  or  personaL 
The  phrase  personal  esUde  is  applicable 
not  only  to  movables,  goods,  money, 
bonds,  notes,  but  also  to  some  fixtures 
temporarily  attached  to  lands  or  build- 
ings; and  the  distinction  between  those 
fixtures  which  are  tempoiarily  sucb* 
and  those  which  belong  to,  and  fbnn 
a  part  of  the  house,  or  other  real  estate,  is 
of  importance,  as  tiiis  distinction  will  de- 
termine how  it  is  to  be  attached  on  meaie 
process,  or  seized  and  sold,  or  set  off  on 
on  execution,  and  also  how  it  descends 
on  the  decease  of  the  proprietor.  But 
peisonal  estate  also  applies  to  some  inter- 
ests in  lands  or  houses ;  thus  a  lease  of 
them  for  a  certain  number  of  years,  thou^ 
it  be  more  than  a  hundred,  and  so  longer 
than  any  person  is  likely  to  five,  is  per- 
sonal estate ;  and  yet  an  estate  for  tlie  life 
of  the  owner,  or  of  any  other  person,  in 
these  subjects,  though  the  person,  by 
whose  life  the  interest  is  limited,  may  be 
ever  so  old  or  infirm,  and  fikeiy  to  survive 
ever  so  short  a  time,  is  real  estate,  and  is 
subject  to  tbe  law  regulating  such  estate, 
in  regard  to  sales  and  descents.  Real 
estate  in  lands  is  of  various  kinds  and  de- 
scriptions, according  to  the  quantity  of  in- 
terest, its  duration,  or  the  time  by  wbiefa  it 
is  limited  in  respect  to  its  commencement 
or  termination*,  and  the  number  and  con- 
dition of  the  owners.  A  fte  simple  is  tiie 
amplent  estate  wiiich  tbe  law  admits  of. 
(St^e  Fee.)  AfitehM  is  an  estate  for  the 
life  of  any  person  or  persons,  or  msty 
greater  estate.  An  estate  in  tail  is  one 
limited  to  certain  heirs.  (See  fnfosZ.) 
Only  real  estate  and  a  fiieehold  greater 
than  for  the  life  of  one  peison,  can  be  en- 
tailed ;  bat  such  an  estate  is  of  Taiious 
kinds,  such  as  totl-inaie,  where  it  descends, 
in  snccessive  order,  to  the  male  heirs  of  the 
grantee  in  direct  descent  ;  taU^/ewude, 
where  it  is  thus  limited  to  the  female  de- 


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Bcandants :  if  it  goes  in  successive  order 
to  bis  descendants  without  any  distinc- 
tioi ,  it  is  called  on  estate  in  ttnl-gmeral ;  if 
it  is  limited  to  certain  descendants,  as  the 
children  of  a  certain  wife,  it  is  an  estate  in 
taitnspeeiid.  Au  estate  in  remainder  is  one 
of  which  the  owner  is  to  come  into  pos- 
session after  the  expiration  of  an  inter- 
mediate estate  of  another  person,  or  num- 
ber of  persons  or  heirs ;  and  so  also  is  an 
estate  in  reversion:  thus,  if  one  grants  an 
estate  tail,  this  estate  tail  may  expire,  in 
which  case  the  lands  will  come  Ixick  or 
revert  to  the  grantor,  and  his  estate,  which 
still  remains  to  him  after  he  has  granted 
the  estate  tail,  is  therefore  called  a  reoer- 
siofu  As  to  the  number  of  owners,  an  es- 
tate in  conuiimi  is  a  froehold  belonginj^  to 
more  than  one  proprietor,  in  undivided 
shares ;  and  so  also  is  an  estate  in  joitvt' 
ie!iumcy;AMt  there  is  this  distinction  be- 
tween these  two  kinds  of  estates,  that 
when  one  joint-tenant  dies,  his  share 
goes  to  the  other  joint-tenants,  which  is 
not  the  case  in  tenancies  in  common.  An 
estate  in  coparcenary  arises  when  an  es- 
tate in  fee  simple  descends,  on  tlie  decease 
of  the  owner,  to  his  daughters,  sisters, 
aunts,  or  female  cousins,  or  their  repre- 
sentatives,  being  females ;  and  they  are 
called  coparceners^  or,  for  brevity,  /Mzrce- 
ners.  Real  estate  left  to  any  one  by  will 
is  called  a  devigCy  or  an  estate  by  devise^  in 
distinction  from  «  bequest  of  personal 
property,  which  is  called  a  legacy. 

KsTATES  (in  politics).  Man,  in  the  ru- 
dest state  of  human  existence,  lives  almost 
entirely  independent.  We  cannot  properly 
sp^EdL  of  liberty  in  such  a  state,  because 
liberty,  trulv  so  called,  implies  the  protec- 
tion of  each  man's  rights  by  the  laws  of 
an  organized  society,  the  main  object  of 
political  institutions  being  to  secure  in- 
dividual liberty,  by  affording  equal  pro- 
tection to  all.  But  what  a  number  of  gra- 
dations are  to  be  found  between  the  law- 
lessness of  the  savage  and  the  rational  in- 
dependence of  the  citizen  of  a  fi'ee  state. 
There  are  several  prominent  stages  in  the 
progress  of  man  from  the  one  to  the  other 
of  these  points: — a.  The  state  of  unsettled 
and  roving  tribes,  the  hunters  and  nomades. 
Though  very  great  difference  exists  among 
nations  in  this  state,  yet  all  political  devel- 
openjkent  is  so  much  checked  by  the  non- 
existence of  landed  property  (tlie  begin- 
ning of  prouer  civilization  J,  that  we  may 
class  tiiem  all  together,  b.  The  uatriarchal 
state,  in  which  the  authority  and  power  of 
tlie  father  of  a  family  {pabriapoteatas)^  diat  of 
the  oiagistrate  and  of  the  priest  are  united 
in  one  person :  this  is  the  firet  rude  begin- 


ning of  political  civilization.*  c.  The  state 
in  which  the  authority  of  the  father  and 
the  magistrate  are  separated,  but  tljat  of 
the  priest  and  the  magistrate  still  remain 
blended.  This  is  the  theocratic  state.  In 
this,  priests  form  a  separate  caste,  and  are 
the  rulers,  d.  When  the  authority  of  the 
father,  priest  and  magistrate  are  separated, 
and  the  distinction  between  the  family  and 
state  is  clearly  understood,  but  yet  birth 
decides  to  what  class  an  individual  he- 
longs.  This  is  the  state  of  castes.  The 
whole  people  is  divided  into  different 
classes,  with  different  privileges,  e.  That 
state  of  government,  which  prevails  in 
many  parts  of  Europe,  where  the  nobility 
have  hereditary  privileges,  and  correspond 
to  the  castes  in  the  East,  whilst  the  other 
subjects  are  divided  into  classes  distin- 
guished by  their  occupations,  as  peasants, 
citizens,  &c.  /.  That  state  of  political  soci- 
ety in  which  all  the  members  have  equal 
privileges  and  rights,  and  are  subject  to 
equal  burdens.  In  this  class  must  be  includ- 
ed several  of  the  republics  of  antiquity,  not- 

*  We  cannot  abstain  here  from  a  few  remarks 
on  the  gross  error  of  many  politicians  of  Europe^ 
of  whom  Charles  Louis  de  Haller  must  be  con* 
sidered  the  head,  on  accoaiit  of  his  notorious 
work  Reatauration  der  Staatswissenscha/t,  oder 
Theorie  des  natUrlichen  gtaelligen  Zustandes,  der 
Ckimere  des  KUnstlicn-bUrfferliclun  entgegen^ 
gtsetzty  Wintenhur,  1816—1820,  4  vols.  (Resto- 
ration of  the  Science  of  Politics,  or  Theory  of  the 
natunU-social  State,  in  Opposition  to  the  Chimera 
of  the  artificial'Civil).  These  absolutisU  ridicule 
the  idea  of  a  social  contract,  as  the  basis  of  the 
political  constitution  of  a  nation,  deriving  nil  their 
arguments  afainst  it  from  the  patriarchaforigiu  of 
the  polilicar  state.  Political  unions,  say  Uiey, 
no  wnero  be^  with  such  a  contmct,  but  crew  out 
of  the  relations  of  families.  Haller  calls  it  an 
idea  communicated  to  him  from  Heaven,  that,  the 
father  being  the  natural  ruler  of  the  children,  the 
master  stands  in  the  same  relation  to  his  slaves, 
and  the  prince  to  his  subjects.  He  says  there  is 
no  founaation  for  the  notion  that  princes  are  made 
for  their  subjects,  but  both  are  correlative — a 
very  logical  deduction,  certainly,  from  the  original 
condition  of  men  !  as  if  the  highest  branches  of 
mathematics,  particularly  the  exalted  and  ab- 
stract theory  of  functions,  were  visionary  and 
groundless,  because  mathematics  began  with  sim- 
ple calculations  applied  to  the  most  ordinary  busi- 
ness of  life,  geometry,  with  the  surveying  of  the 
banks  of  the  Nile  after  its  inundation !  as  if  the 
laws  of  architectore  applied  to  the  erection  of  the 
stately  cathedral  were  chimerical,  because  archi- 
tecture began  with  the  construction  of  miserable 
huts  !  as  il  grammatical  writing  were  nonsense, 
because  language  began  with  inarticulate  sounds ! 
as  if  the  laws  of  war,  by  which  its  horrors  are 
mitigated,  were  unfounded,  because  war  began 
with  common  murder !  Yet  Mr.  Bailer's  theory 
is  so  well  received  by  the  illiberal  party  in  Ger- 
many, that  a  production  which  most  probably 
would  not  even  have  found  a  publisher  in  Eng- 
land or  the  U.  States,  is  there  held  up  as  a  standani 
work !    (See  CimatUutioM,) 


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ESTATEa 


withstandiDj;  a  large  pordon  of  the  infaidt)- 
itantB  were  in  servitude  ;  for  the  ekives,  in 
these  cases,  were  not  consider*^  as  belong- 
ing to  the  state,  were  not  members  of  the 
political  society.  Such  an  anomalous  form 
of  government  as  existed  in  Algiers,  where 
a  tribe  of  soldiers,  kept  up  by  perpetual 
recruits  from  abroiEul,  and  excluding  their 
own  children  from  any  share  in  their  polit- 
ical privileges,  elected  their  ruler,  and  tyr- 
atmised  over  the  other  inhabitants  of  the 
country,  without  allowing  them  any  rights 
(altl)ough  they  did  not  actually  treat  tlieni  as 
slaves,  at  least  not  as  the  property  of  individ- 
uals),—-such  a  government  does  not  fell  un- 
der any  one  of  the  established  divinons, 
and,  in  fact,  can  hardly  be  regardc<l  in  a  dif- 
ferent light  from  an  association  of  robbers. 
That  condition  of  government  mentioned 
under  e  forms  the  subject  of  this  article. 
Estates  are  those  political  bodies  which 
partake,  either  directly  or  by  representa- 
tion, iu  the  government :  they  are  different 
from  cor|M>rations  (q.  v.),  which  very  often 
had,  and  still  have,  certain  political  privi- 
leges. Estates  are  of  Teutonic  orijpn, 
being  found  only  in  countries  occupied 
by  tlie  descendants  of  Teutonic  tribes. 
They  are  to  be  considered  as  a  conse- 
quence of  the  feudal  system,  which  origi- 
nated from  certain  customs  prevalent 
among  tlie  (Germans,  and  from  tlieir  con- 
quests. (See  Feudal  System.)  From  the 
feudal  system  sjirang  the  modem  hered- 
itary nobles — a  privilege<l  body,  partaking 
essentially  iu,  or,  iu  some  instances,  chiefly 
forming  the  government.  (See  JVolnlity.) 
Bondage  became  gradually  established — an 
institution,  in  many  cases,  of  much  mure 
recent  date  than  those  who  jirofit  by  it 
maintain.  (See  ViUenc^.)  At  the  same 
time  that  the  high  nobility  began  to  con- 
stitute a  distinct  and  hereditary  class 
(which  is  of  much  later  date  tlian  tiie  ori- 
gin of  feudalism),  the  high  clergy,  in  many 
countries,  t)egan  to  participate  iu  the  gov- 
ernment OS  a  body,  which  tliey  were,  iu 
those  Imrbarous  times,  as  much  entitled  to 
do  as  the  warlike  nobility ;  since  they  were 
the  only  members  of  society  witli  whom 
the  little  knowledge  which  had  survived 
the  tearful  storms  of  the  dark  ages  liad 
taken  refuge.  More  or  less  distinct  from 
each  othei",  and  from  the  lower  orders  of 
their  resfKsctive  classes,  tlie  high  nobility 
and  clergy  continued  to  fonn  the  estates, 
which,  together  wfth  the.  prince,  consti- 
tuted the  general  government  so  far  as 
any  general  govern inent  can  \ye  said  to 
have  existed,  when  every  feudal  lord  was, 
in  most  respects,  entirely  inde|}endent, 
and  the  higher  clergy  were  ahnost  always 


feudal  lords,  bo  that  a  conflict  of  i 
raerable  interests,  privileges  and  libertes 
prevented  any  general  and  orderly  admin- 
istration of  government  and  justice.  ^  That 
prodigious  fabric  (as  Hume  calls  it),  lor 
several  oenturies,  preserved  such  a  mix- 
ture  of  liberty  and  oppression,  order  and 
anarchy,  stability  and  revolution,  as  was 
never  experienced  in  any  other  age,  or  any 
other  part  of  the  world."  But  the  time 
appeared  when  cities  began  to  claim  and 
assume  political  rights,  tlie  time  to  which 
we  may  apply,  in  respect  of  all  Europe, 
what  Sjpehnaii  applies  to  England  at  the 
time  or  the  Norman  conquest,  Mtui 
seehnan  rHUcUur  crda.  It  is  to  the  cities 
that  we  owe  the  origin  of  the  third  estate,  or 
citizens,  from  wliom,  through  their  coaieeis 
witli  the  other  esuites  or  estate  (if  the  no- 
bility and  clergy  were  united),  and  through 
their  greater  number,  which  rendered  a 
represenbition  of  them  neeesaaiy,  origin- 
ated more  general  views  of  the  adrainis- 
tration  of  goverament  and  justice,  more 
equitable  laws,  and  more  correct  notions 
of  individual  liberty.  To  the  histofian, 
who  sees,  amid  the  conflicts  of  feudaliam, 
the  beginning  of  the  political  importance 
of  the  cities,  it  is  like  the  first  apiieanuice 
of  the  rays  of  momin|^  after  a  long  and 
stoimy  night.  (See  Cihes,)  But  the  pow- 
er of  the  other  estates  was  too  great ;  nor 
was  it  to  be  expected  that  the  third  estate 
should  be  in  advance  of  tlie  age :  a  gen- 
eral representation  was  not  vet  founded. 
The  period  from  the  downfall  of  the  Ro- 
man empire  to  the  establishment  of  tiie 
constitution  of  the  U.  States,  may- be  call- 
ed, by  \^ay  of  distinction,  the  time  o/*  nrin- 
leges,  haniPy  any  |iart  of  the  political  sys- 
tem being  established,  or  administered  on 
general  principles,  or   a  well  organized 

Elan,  but  ahnost  every  thing  being  done 
y  s{)eoial  privileges  and  grants;  common 
rights  arising  from  citi'zenship  being  hard- 
ly recognised,  the  individual  enjqsring 
only  certain  privileges,  as  a  member  of 
a  favored  class.  Tlie  privileges  of  these 
three  estates,  arising  from  different 
causes,  and  acquired  in  different  ways, 
were,  of  course,  very  different  However, 
the  right  to  grant  taxes  was  common  to 
all,  because  taxes  were  at  first  conadcred 
as  a  mere  gift  to  the  prince,  it  b»:Jiifr  cus- 
tomary in  all  the  Teutonic  estates  for  tlie 
monarch  to  defray  th^  expenses  of  gov- 
eniment,  particularly  of  war,  on  account 
of  the  large  share  of  property  which  was 
every  where  set  aside  for  him,  as  has  been 
shown  in  the  article  Chit  lAsL  (See  also 
Domain.)  However,  in  many  countries^ 
the  estates  were  not  called  together;  in 


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567 


otherR,  their  conduct  rendered  them  veiy 
UDDopulor.  Both  their  own  incapacity 
ana  the  power  of  the  government  render- 
ed them,  in  most  countries,  either  useless 
or  ohnoxious;  and,  in  many  counuies,  both 
tlie  people  and  the  government  were 
equally  desirous  to  aboush  them,  Ujough 
for  dinerent  reasons.  The  time  of  the 
French  revolution  approached,  and  views 
of  general  justice  and  legal  equaliw  be- 
came popular  throughout  Europe.  Every 
reader  knows  that  uie  system  of  the  es- 
tates was  abolished  in  France,  and  all  the 
countries  where  the  French  obtahied  an 
ascendency  in  the  new  formation,  or  the 
refonnation  of  governments.  Since  the 
downfell  of  Napoleon,  many  goveniments 
have  reestablished  the  estates,  or  endeav- 
ored to  satisfy  the  spirit  of  the  age,  which 
calls  for  a  secure  mdividual  liberty,  by  a 
new  organization  of  them.  This  sub- 
ject has  lieen  particularly  treated  in  the 
article  ConsHtutiotu  (q.  v.)  In  Sweden, 
there  is  a  fourth  estate — that  of  the 
crown  peasants.  Circumstances  have 
changed  so  entirely,  civilization  has  so 
nearly  equalised  the  different  orders,  the 
interests  of  men  have  become  so  general- 
ized, that  the  institution  of  estates  has  be- 
come unsuited  to  the  wants  of  the  age : 
they  have  had  their  time,  and  have  become 
obsolete.  They  are  directly  contraiy  to 
the  spirit  of  our  age,  as  is  the  whole  feudal 
systen.,  and  can  only  be  considered  as 
remnants  of  former  times,  forms  irom 
which  the  spirit  has  Ions  since  defnuted. 
They  serve  at  present  on^  to  frustrate  the 
most  just  and  reasonable  demand  of  soci- 
ety— ^individual  liberty,  protected  by  equal 
laws  and  an  equal  representation. 

EsTE ;  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  il- 
lustrious families  of  Italy.  Muratori  traces 
its  origin  to  those  pett^  princes  who  gov- 
erned Tuscany  in  the  time  of  the  Carlovin- 
gians  (10th  century).  In  later  times,  they 
received  from  the  emperors  several  districts 
and  counties,  to  be  held  as  fieis  of  the  em- 
pire, viz.  E^ste,  Rovigo,  M onUigiiana,  Ca- 
sal  Maggiore,  Pontremoli  and  Oberten^, 
with  the  title  of  mai-quis.  Of  this  family 
was  Guelfo  IV,  who,  having  received  the 
investiture  of  the  duchy  of  Bavaria, 
founded  the  house  of  Brunswick,  which, 
from  this  circumstance,  was  called  the 
EBienmm  Owlf.  During  the  12th,  Idth, 
and  14th  centuries,  the  history  of  the  house 
of  Este  is  connected  with  the  vicissitudes 
of  the  other  ruling  fiimilies  and  free  states 
of  Upper  Italy.  In  the  contests  between 
the  Guelfs  and  Ghibelines,  the  marquises 
of  Estie,  as  leaders  of  the  Guelf  (MUty, 
aoquired  the  teirilorieB  of  Femua  and 


Modena,  notwithstanding  many  reverses. 
This  house  was  much  distiogiushed  for 
its  patronage  of  the  arts  and  sciences. 
Nicolas  II  (died  1388)  first  made  the  court 
of  Ferrara  the  seat  of  refinement  and 
taste.  The  reign  of  Nicolas  II{  (died 
1441J  was  atiU  more  brilliant.  He  opened, 
in  1402,  the  university  o^*  Ferrara,  founded 
by  his  ikther,  Albert,  and  which  had  been 
suppressed  durina  his  minority ;  he  also 
founded  that  of  Parma.  His  liberality 
attracted  tlie  moat  disdnguisbed  men  of 
the  age,  among  whom  were  Guariuiof 
Verona,  the  ancestor  of  the  celebrated 
poet,  and  Giovanni  Aurispa.  He  trans- 
mitted his  love  of  literature  to  his  sons, 
Lionel  and  Borso,  who  endeavored  to 
render  Ferrara  the  country  c^  scholars 
and  }Joets.  The  reign  of  Lionel  was  dis- 
tinguished neitlier  by  conquests  nor  other 
great  political  occurrences ;  but  no  prince 
of  the  house  of  Este  Was  more  beloved 
by  his  contem})oraries  for  his  amiable  dis- 
position, the  charms  of  his  wit,  and  the 
elegance  of  his  manners.  He  encouraged 
industry  and  commerce,  the  arts  and 
sciences,  by  every  method,  and  was  him- 
self a  model  of  eloquence  in  the  Latin 
and  Italian  languages.  He  corresponded 
with  the  most  aistinguished  men  of  Italy, 
and  contributed  more  than  any  prince  of 
his  time  to  restore  ancient  hterature  to 
that  splendor  which  rendered  the  16th 
century  so  illustrious.  Under  his  brother 
anil  successor,  Bono,  fdied  1471),  agricul- 
ture, commerce,  and  all  the  arts  of  peace, 
were  in  a  flourishing  <M>udition.  Boiso 
was  fond  of  pomp,  but,  as  he  neither  main- 
taiued  fortresses  nor  armies,  his  expendi- 
tures did  not  exhaust  his  finances.  The 
empeixu*  Frederic  III,  enchanted  with  his 
reception  by  Borso,  on  his  passage  through 
Ferrara,  conferred  on  him  the  tide  of 
duke  of  Modena  and  R^gio.  Borao  also 
obtained  from  the  pope,  Pius  V,  the  duchy 
of  Ferrara,  which  he  held  as  a  fief  of  the 
church.  His  successor,  Errxde  I  (died 
1505),  sufiTered  much  from  the  Venetians 
and  their  allies,  who  wished  to  deprive  the 
house  of  Este  of  its  territories ;  hut  Milan, 
Florence  and  Naples  took  arms  in  his 
defence,  and  a  general  war  was  the  con- 
sequence. Afier  concluding  a  ({isadvan- 
tageous  peace  in  \4M,  Ercole  maintained 
a  neutrality   for  21  years,  although  im- 

S)itant  revolutions,  took  place  in  Italy. 
uring  this  period,  his  subjects  enjoyed  all 
the  bluings  of  peace,  and  his  capital  was 
distinguished  for  elerauce  and  retinemeDt. 
Boiardo,  count  of  Scandiano,  the  cele- 
brated author  of  Orlando  hnmnoraio,  was 
his  friend   and  miniBten     Ariosto,  yot 


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very  young,  already  enjoyed  the  ducal 
ikvor,  and  the  court  of  Ferniia  was  adorn- 
ed by  the  most  celebrated  geniuses  of  the 
period.  Ilis  son,  Alfonso  I  (died  1534), 
succeeded  him.  His  second  wife  was  the 
fiimoiM  Lucretia  Borgia,  whose  bril- 
liant talents  and  love  of  literature  con- 
tributed in  some  measure  to  obliterate  the 
infamy  of  her  eariy  Years.  Arioeto  was 
in  the  service  of  Alfonso's  brother,  the 
cardinal  Ippolito,  a  patron  by  no  means 
wortliy  of  such  a  poet  His  sacred  office 
could  not  restrain  him  fh>ni  violence  and 
crime;  and  he  caused  the  eyes  of  his 
brotlier  Julius,  his  rival  in  the  afiections 
of  a  lady,  to  be  put  out,  because  she  bad 
praised  thoir  bet^nty.  Alfonso  suffered 
this  barbarous  act,  at  which  all  Fenani 
was  indisnant,  to  so  unpimisheil ;  but  the 
injured  Julius  and  his  nrother  Ferdinand 
entered  into  a  conspiracy  to  dethrone 
him,  for  tlie  purpose  of  rendering  his  re- 
venge on  Ippolito  more  sure.  The  con- 
spiracy was  detected,  and  the  punishment 
of  the  two  brothcra  was  commuted  into 
perpetual  imprisonment,  at  the  moment 
when  the  axe  was  suspended  over  their 
heads.  Alfonso  also  displayed  great  mili- 
tary talents.  He  entered  into  the  league 
of 'Cambray,  in  1509.  The  Venetians, 
under  Aneelo  Trevisani,  appeared  at  the 
mouth  of^  the  Po,  and  spread  terror 
through  the  whole  province  of  Ferrara. 
He  enclosed  this  fleet,  which  ascended 
the  river,  within  the  fire  of  liis  batteries 
constructed  on  both  banks,  captured  part, 
and  burnt  the  rest :  this  victory  was  com- 
memorated by  the  moat  celebrated  lUilian 
poetH.  Pope  Julius  II  abandoned  tlie 
league  of  Cambray,  and  joined  the  Vene- 
tians; he  laid  Alfonso,  whom  he  could 
not  persuade  to  follow  his  example,  under 
an  interdict,  and  declared  all  his  papal 
fiefs  forfeited.  By  tliis  measure  of  Julius, 
Alfonso  lost  Modena,  and  was  deserted  by 
his  allies.  The  French,  however,  con- 
tinued in  their  alliance  with  him,  and  he 
contributed  to  the  victory  which  they 
gained  at  Ravenna  in  1512.  But,  tlie 
French  lieing  soon  afler  obliged  to  leave 
Italy,  Alfonso  stood  alone.  Meanwhile 
Julius  died  ;  but  his  successor,  Leo  X,  re- 
fused xq  restore  to  Alfonso  the  cities  of 
Modena  and  Reggto,  which  Francis  I, 
who  favored  tlie  house  of  Este,  had 
obliged  him  to  promise.  The  papal  court 
even  attempted  the  assasRination  of  tlie 
duke,  by  the  captain  of  his  guard.  Al- 
fonso, dins  menaced  on  all  sides,  was 
preparing  to  defend  himself,  when  the 
deadi  of  Leo  X  (1531)  delivered  the  house 
of  Este  from  the  impending  ruin.  Adrian 


VI  revoked  the  censores  of  the  church ; 
but  Clement  VII,  his  successor,  seemed 
to  have  inherited  the  hatred  of  his  uncle 
Leo;  he  kept  Alfonso  out  of  possessioDof 
Modena,  and  even  endeavored  to  deprive 
him  of  his  other  states*  Soon  afterwarda, 
the  capture  of  Rome  (1587)  enabled  the 
emperor  Charies  V  to  restore  to  him  his 
ancient  possessions,  and  to  confirm  the 
claims  of  the  house  of  Este.  Alfonso 
excelled  all  the  Italian  princes  of  his  time, 
in  uniting  military  glory  with  political 
talents;  none  of  them  was  surrounded  by 
more  distinguished  men,  and  none  has 
been  celebr^ed  by  nobler  poets;  among 
whom  Ariosto  is  the  moat  illustrious.  Hia 
successor,  Ercole  II  (died  1559),  was  at- 
tached to  Charies  V,  who,  by  bis  great 
preponderance,  subjected  all  Italy  to  bis 
influence.  His  brother  Ippolito,  at  Rome, 
on  the  contrary,  was  attached  to  llie  French 
intei^est  This  cardinal,  who  built  the 
splendid  vUla  iPEiU^  at  Tlvoii,  was  the 
most  munificent  patron  of  the  arts  and 
sciences  of  that  a^e.  Alfonso  II  ^fdaed 
1597)  inherited,  it  is  true,  from  his  anoe»- 
tors,  a  love  of  letters,  but  a  sdll  greater 
fondness  for  wxup  and  luxury.  His  dis- 
putes with  tne  grand-duke  of  Tusrany, 
regarding  the  precedency,  and  his  eflbiis 
to  obtain  the  crown  of  Poland,  which  in- 
volved him  in  great  expense,  occupied  his 
whole  political  career.  His  finances  were 
exhausted,  and  his  subjects  bunleoed  with 
taxes.  The  first  poets,  and  most  distin- 
guished men  of  Italy,  continued,  how- 
ever, to  adorn  his  court ;  but  the  persecu- 
tions  of  TasBO  suggest  only  melanrfaoly 
or  disgraceful  recollections  for  die  hoino 
of  Este.  The  seven  years  which  the 
poet  passed  in  a  mad-house,  either  lor 
having  dared  to  love  the  princess  Leonora, 
nster  of  the  duke,  or  because,  in  the  ex- 
cess of  his  passion,  he  had  so  far  forpoi 
himself  as  to  ofiend  the  pride  of  his  sove- 
reign, bear  witness  to  the  cruelty  of  Al- 
fonso. Although  he  was  married  three 
times,  he  was  childless ;  and  he  appointed 
his  cousin  Cnsar  (died  1628),  son  of  a  nat- 
ural son  of  Alfonso  I,  his  successor.  On 
Caesar's  accession  to  the  dukedom,  pope 
Clement  VIII  declared  the  choice  to  have 
been  illegal,  and  all  the  papal  fiefs  hekl  by 
the  house  of  Este  to  have  reverted  to  tlie 
church.  Caesar  possessed  so  little  fim- 
ness  of  character,  that  he  immediately 
yielded  to  the  menaces  and  armiea  of  tlie 
pope,  and  surrendered  Ferrara,  tog«>Tlier 
with  the  other  ecclesiastical  fie6^  Foi^ 
tunately,  the  emperor  did  not  dispute  bis 
succession  to  the  imperial  fie&;  he  re- 
mained  in   pnaMttiion  of  Modena   and 


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«9 


Reggio,  but  was  obliged  to  dispute  the 
possession  of  Garfagnano  in  two  wai's  with 
the  republic  of  Lucca,  until  the  contest 
was  finally  settled  by  the  mediation  of 
Spain.  The  violent  temper  of  his  son 
and  successor,  Alfonso  III,  at  firet  excited 
apprehensions  of  a  cniel  and  tyrannical 
reign ;  but  the  death  of  his  wife,  Isabella 
of  Savoy,  to  whom  he  was  warmly  at- 
tached, effected  such  a  change  in  his 
character,  tliat  he  resigned  the  govern- 
ment into  the  hands  of  his  eldest  son, 
Francis,  and  retired  to  a  capuchin  mon- 
asteiy  in  the  Tyrol,  under  the  name 
of  Giovanni  Battista  of  Modena,  where 
he  passed  his  days  in  religious  meditation 
and  acts  of  piety.  Since  the  loss  of  Fer- 
rara,  the  house  of  Este  has  been  distin- 
guished only  for  its  ancient  splendor. 
Francis  I,  son  of  Alfonso  III,  died  in 
1658 ;  Alfonso  IV,  in  1662 ;  Francis  II,  in 
1694:  Rinaldo  I  died  in  1737.  The  last 
mentioned  prince,  who  was  in  early  life  a 
cardinal,  married  Charlotte  Felicitas  of 
Brunswick,  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Han- 
over, and  tfius  reunited  tlie  two  branches 
of  the  house  of  Este,  which  had  been 
divided  since  1070.  His  son  Francis  III 
(died  1780J  deserves  to  be  mentioned  as  a 
patron  of  literature.  Muratori  and  Tira- 
boschi    were   his  subjects,  and   received 

Sensions  from  him.  Ercole  III,  tlie  last 
uke  of  Modena,  Reggio  and  Mirandola, 
married  his  only  daughter,  Maria  Beatrice, 
to  the  arch-duke  Ferdinand  of  Austria : 
a  fruit  of  this  marriage  was  the  second 
wife  of  Francis  of  Austria.  Ercole  had 
accumulated  great  treasures,  but  lost  the 
afl^ctions  of  his  subjects,  and,  on  the  ap- 
proach of  the  French  armies,  in  1796,  he 
ned  to  Venice.  Modena  and  Reggio  were 
included  in  the  Cisalpine  confederacy 
(republic),  and  the  house  of  Este  was 
de&nitively  deprived  of  the  sovereignty 
by  the  treaty  of  Campo-Formio  (q.v.), 
Oct  17, 1797.    (See  JWbrfena.) 

Esther;  originally  a  Jewish  girl,  a 
prisoner  in  Persia.  Her  beauty  gained 
her  the  love,  and  made  her  the  queen,  of 
the  kihff  Aliasuerus.  Her  uitercession 
delivered  the  Jews  from  a  general  pro- 
scription, to  which  they  had  b^cn  subject- 
ed by  Haman,  a  minister  and  favorite  of 
the  king.  The  history  of  this  event  is  the 
subject  of  the  book  of  Esther.  Many 
"writers  supfXNse  that  diis  Ahasuerus  is  tlie 
Artaxerxes  of  tlie  Greeks.  There  are 
many  different  suppositions  respecting  the 
author  of  the  book  of  Esther. 

Esthetics.    (See  .EdheticsJ) 

EsTHOMiA,  or  the  Government  of  Re- 
VAL ;  the  northern  part  of  the  Russian  prov- 

VOL.  IV.  so 


ince  of  Livonia,  consisting  of  7000  square 
miles,  and  containing  302,600  inhabitants. 
Though  much  of  its  soil  is  sandy,  it  pro- 
duces grain,  hemp,  flax,  cattle,  horses,  &c. 
Reval  is  the  capital.  The  Esthonians,  a 
Finnish  tribe,  anciently  belonged  to  the 
Russian  monarchy,  and  were  called 
Tschuda.  They  afterwards  attempted  to 
deliver  themselves  from  the  Russian 
yoke ;  and,  after  1385,  when  the  country 
was  sold  to  the  Teutonic  knights,  it  made 
a  part  of  Livonia,  with  which,  after  beinff 
100  years  subject  to  Sweden,  it  reverted 
to  Russia.  Under  Catharine  II,  it  re- 
ceived the  name  of  the  government  of 
Reval,  but,  in  1797,  was  again  called  the 
goverwnet}i  of  EsUumia.  Much  has  been 
written  on  the  unhappy  situation  of  the 
serfs  in  Livonia  and  Esthonia.  The  Es* 
thonians  Uve  in  mean  habitations,  are 
rough  and  hardy,  and  profess  the  Christian 
religion.  The  emperor  Alexander  did 
much  towards  alleviating  the  condidon 
of  the  peasants ;  and  servitude  has  been, 
to  a  certain  extent,  aboUshed  in  this 
country. 

EsTRATs  and  Waip?.  Estmys  are  any 
valuable  beasts,  not  wild,  found  within  a 
lordship,  and  whose  owner  is  not  known, 
such  as  are  commonly  impounded,  and  not 
claimed.  They  are  then  to  be  proclaimed 
in  tlie  church  and  two  nearest  market 
towns,  on  two  market  days,  and,  not  being 
claimed  by  the  owner,  belong  to  the  king, 
and  now  commonly,  by  grant  of  the 
crown,  to  the  lord  of  the  manor,  or  the  lib- 
erty.— fVaifs  are  goods  which  are  stolen, 
ana  waved,  or  left  by  the  felon  on  his  be- 
ing pursued,  for  fear  of  being  apprehend- 
ed, and  forfeited  to  the  king  or  lord  of 
the  manor. 

EsTR^Es,  Gabrielle  d'  (duchess  of  Beau- 
fort), the  mistress  of  Henry  IV  of  France, 
bom  about  1571,  was  the  daughter  of 
Antoine  d'Estrdes,  a  descendant  of  one 
of  tiie  noblest  houses  in  Picardy,  for  a 
long  time  grand  maitre  de  rartUlaiey  who 
distinguished  himself  in  the  defence  of 
Noyon  against  the  duke  of  Mayenne,  for 
which  Henry  IV  made  him  governor  of 
the  Isle  de  France.  GabriAle  was  about 
20  years  of  age  when  Henry  first  saw  her 
on  a  visit  to  Coeuvres  castle  ;  and  her 
beauty  immediately  captivated  him.  Ga- 
brielle, however,  who  was  attached  to  the 
duke  of  Bellegarde,  was  at  first  linle  in- 
clined to  gratify  the  wishes  of  the  king. 
But  Henry  still  urged  bis  suit,  and  often 
stole  by  the  sentinels  of  his  enemies,  in 
the  dress  of  a  peasant,  to  see  tlie  object 
of  his  love.  The  lieart  of  tlie  lady  watf 
at  length  moved  by  such  ardor  audde^ 


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ESTREES— ESTREMADURA. 


TOtioo.  She  became  the  mistres  of  the 
diivalric  monarch,  who  never  loved  any 
other  woman  so  passionately.  To  escape 
the  severe  scrutiny  of  her  father,  Henry 
married  her  to  a  nobleman  named  Damer- 
val,  of  Liancourt ;  but,  says  Sully,  U  sut 
empichtr  la  consommatUm  du  tnariage^ 
and  subsequently  dissolved  the  marriage, 
on  the  eround  of  Damerval's  impotency, 
although  this  nobleman  had  had  14  chil- 
dren by  a  former  wife.  Henry  intended 
to  raise  Gabrielle  to  the  throne  as  his  law- 
ful wife.  For  this  purpose,  he  not  only  pro- 
cured a  divorce  from  Margaret  of  Valois, 
but  also  raised  the  county  of  Beaufort  to  a 
duchy,  which  he  bestowed  on  Gabrielle, 
thus  giving  her  a  high  rank  at  court. 
This  design  was  strongly  opposed  by  Sul- 
ly, who  often  represented  to  the  monarch 
the  bad  consequences  of  such  a  measure. 
Gabrielle,  therefore,  became  his  bitter  ene- 
my, and,  instigated  by  the  enemies  of  the 
mmister,  she  once  so  far  forgot  herself  as 
to  urge  the  king  to  discharge  him.  Hen- 
ry^ reply  was,  **•  By  God,  madam,  if  I 
must  lose  one  of  you,  I  would  rather  give 
up  ten  mistresses  like  you,  than  one  ser- 
vant like  him.''  So  ardent,  however,  was 
his  passion  for  Gabrielle,  that  he  once 
wrote  to  her  in  a  moment  of  danger,  **  If  I 
am  conouered,  you  know  me  too  well  to 
believe  that  I  shall  flee.  My  last  thought 
shall  be  God's,  my  last  but  one  yours." 
Notwithstanding  the  determination  of  the 
king,  and  the  wishes  of  Gabrielle,  theur 
marriage  never  took  place.  Just  before 
Easter,  in  1599,  when  negotiations  were 
already  in  train  for  the  divorce  of  the 
kinff,  she  retired  from  court,  by  the  advice 
of  Ken^  B^noit,  the  king's  confessor,  and 
went  to  Paris  to  spend  Passion  week. 
On  Maundy  Thursday,  having  eaten  an 
orange  afler  dinner,  she  was  suddenly 
seized  with  convulsions,  which  distorted 
her  beautiful  countenance,  and,  on  Satur- 
day, she  died  in  the  most  excruciating 
torments.  Apoplexy,  With  convulsions, 
was  the  cause  assigned  for  her  death ;  but 
no  one  can  doubt  that  she  was  poisoned. 
The  king's  grief  for  her  loss  was  exces- 
sive :  and,  wRat  is  seldom  the  case,  the 
royal  mistress  was  universally  lamented. 
Her  amiable  disposition,  the  gentleness  of 
her  diaracter,  and  the  modesty  which 
prevented  her  fit>m  meddling  with  public 
affiiira,  won  her  general  &vor.  She  had 
three  children  by  the  king,  Caesar  and 
Alexander,  afterwards  dukes  of  Vendome, 
and  a  daughter,  Catharine  Henrietta,  after- 
ivarda  the  wife  of  the  duke  of  £lbeu£ 
Her  biography,  which  appeared  some 
yean  ago,  in  France,  is  accompanied  by 


an  interesdng  correspondence  between 
Gabrielle  and  her  n)yal  lover. 

£>rR^s,  Louis  C^r  (due  d'),  mar- 
shal of  France,  and  minister  of  state,  bom 
at  Paris,  in  1695.  He  fought  against  tlie 
Spaniards,  under  the  duke  of  Berwick,  and 
disdnguished  himself  so  much  that  he 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  field-marshal, 
and  inspector-general  of  the  cavalry.  In 
the  war  of  1741,  he  obtained  the  confi- 
dence of  marshal  Saxe,  by  the  passage  of 
the  Maine  at  Seligenstadt,  his  conduct  at 
the  battle  of  Fontenoy,  and  the  sieges  of 
Mons  and  Charleroi.  In  1756,  he  receiv- 
ed tlie  baton  of  tnarshal  of  France,  and 
appeared  in  Germany  at  the  head  of 
100,000  men.  His  audience  ynth  Louis 
XV,  closed  with  these  words:  ^By  the 
1st  of  July,  I  shall  have  driven  the  ene- 
my beyond  the  Weser,  and  shall  be  pre- 
paring to  enter  Hanover."  He  kept  his 
word,  and  gained  a  decisive  victory  over 
the  duke  of  Cumberland  at  Hasteiibeck. 
The  Hanoverians  were  preparing  to  leave 
the  electorate,  when  the  niarshal  was  re- 
called by  court  intrigues,  and  succeeded 
by  Richelieu.  After  tlie  defeat  at  Min- 
den,  he  was  sent  to  Giesen,  where  he 
assumed  no  command,  but  was  content  to 
assist  Contades  with  bis  advice.  At  the 
close  of  the  war,  he  was  created  duke. 
He  died  1771,  without  issue.  He  merited 
his  dignities  by  his  services,  and  was  not 
less  esteemed  as  a  citizen  than  as  a  sol- 
dier. 

EsTREMADURA. ;  the  name  of  a  Spanish 
and  a  Portuguese  province.  The  Spanish 
province  of 

Estremadura  is  bounded  N.  by  Leon  and 
Old  Castile,  E.  by  New  Castile,  S.  by 
Andalusia,  and  W.  by  Portucal ;  aliout  90 
miles  each  way.  It  formeriy  made  part 
of  Portugal,  but,  being  seiMuated  from 
that  country,  it  is  sometimes  called  Esbrt- 
nuuhara  of  QuliU.  The  country  is  moun- 
tainous, and  the  air  in  summer  is  exceed- 
ingly hot,  wholesome  to  the  natives,  but 
insupportable  to  strangers.  Spring  water 
is  scarce,  and  the  inhabitants  are  compel- 
led to  use  principally  that  of  ponds.  The 
soil  is  fertile  in  grain,  grapes,  and  other 
ihiits.  Cattle  and  fine  wool  constitute 
theur  principal  commerce.  The  principal 
towns  are  Badajoz,  Merida,  Tnixillo, 
Xerez  de  los  Caballeros,  Ellerena,  Coria, 
and  Placentia.  Population  in  1797, 
428,393.  Square  miles,  14,47a  This 
country  has  furnished  excellent  genenJs 
to  Spam. 

listremadurOf  the  province  of  Portu^ 
is  bounded  N.  1^  the  province  of  Beua, 
E.  and  S.'^  by  Alentejo^  and  W.  by  the 


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ESTREMADURA--BTHELRED  IL 


591 


ocean.  Its  mean  ]en^,  from  north  to 
soutli,  is  124  miles;  its  width  77  miles. 
The  Tagus  divides  it  into  two  nearly  equal 
parts.  The  northern  part  is  mountainous. 
It  contains  some  ujineral  springs.  Earth- 
quakes are  more  frequent  here  than  in  any 
other,  part  of  Portugal  The  soil  m  gene- 
ral is  fertile,  but  in  the  south  sandy.  Ag- 
riculture is  so  neglected,  that  the  produc- 
tion hardly  suffices  for  the  consumption. 
Cattle  abound  in  the  mountains,  fish  m  the 
rivers,  and  metals  in  die  eartli ;  but  indus- 
try is  wanting.  The  (lopulation  is  about 
700,500,  and  is  less  active  than  that  of  the 
northern  provinces. 

Etania,  in  die  Basque  language,  signi- 
fies dweUingj  and  is  the  origin  of  the  ter- 
minations of  Lusitania,  Aquitania,  &c 

Etching  ;  one  species  of  engraving  on 
copper,  the  lines  being  conoded  in  with 
aqua  fortis,  instead  of  being  cut  with  a 
graver,  which,  for  many  purposes,  is  su- 
perior to  engraving ;  but  tiiere  are  others 
m  which  the  subjects  must  be  graved,  not 
etched.  In  general,  in  en^vings  on 
copper  executed  in  the  ,stroke  manner, 
etcliin^  and  graving  are  combined;  the 
plate  is  begun  by  etching,  and  finished 
with  die  graver.  Landscapes,  architect- 
ure and  machinery  receive  most  assist- 
ance from  etching,  which  is  not  so  appli- 
cable to  portraits  and  historical  designs, 
tliough  in  these,  also,  it  has  a  place.  (For 
an  account  of  the  process  of  etching,  see 
JSngrcanng,) 

Eteocles  and  Poltnices;  sons  of 
CEdipus  and  Jocasta.  After  their  father's 
banishment,  A.  C.  1230,  they  agreed  to 
rule  in  Thelies,  each  a  year  alternately. 
Eteocles  violated  lliis  comjiact,  and  Poly- 
nices  fled  to  implore  tlie  assistance  of 
Adrastus,  king  or  Argos,  who  marched 
against  Thebes,  with  Polynices  and  six 
other  Grecian  princes.  The  city  made  an 
obstinate  defence.  The  two  brothers  fell 
by  each  other's  hand ;  and  Creon,  their 
uncle,  ascended  the  throne  of  Thebes. 
He  prohibited  tiie  interment  of  Polynices, 
under  penalty  of  death ;  but  Antigone, 
sister  of  the  deceased,  yielding  to  the 
voice  of  nature,  resolved  to  perform  tliis 
last  rite  for  her  deceased  brother.  She 
was  discovered,  and  buried  alive  by  die 
order  of  Creon.  This  act  of  cruelty  re- 
coiled on  himself;  for  his  son,  Ueeinon, 
who  was  in  love  with  her,  killed  luinself 
on  her  grave.    (See  Thebes.) 

Ethelbert,  kin^  of  Kent,  succeeded 
his  father,  Hennennc,  about  560,  and  soon 
reduced  all  the  states,  except  Northum- 
berland, to  the  condition  of  his  depend- 
ants.   In  his  reign  Chrisdanity  was  first 


introduced  into  England.  Ethelbert  mar- 
ried Bertha,  the  daughter  of  Cariber^ 
king  of  Paris,^  and  a  Chrisdan  princess, 
who,  stipulating  for  the  free  exercise  of 
her  reli^on,  brought  over  widi  her  a 
French  bishop.  Her  conduct  was  so  ex- 
emplary as  to  prepossess  the  king  and 
his  court  in  favor  or  the  Chrisdan  religion. 
In  conseijuence,  pope  Gregory  die  Great 
sent  a  mission  of  forty  monks,  headed  by 
Augustin,  to  preach  the  gos{)el  in  the 
island.  They  were  well  received,  and 
numbers  were  converted ;  and  the  king 
himself,  at  length,  submitted  to  be  ba|>- 
tized.  Civilization  and  knowledge  fol- 
lowed Chrisdanity,  and  Ethelbert  enacted 
a  body  of  laws,  which  was  the  first  writ- 
ten code  promulgated  by  the  northern 
conquerors.  He  died  in  616,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Ed  bald. 

Ethelbert,  king  of  England,  son  of 
Ethelwolf^  succeeded  to  the  government 
of  theeasteni  side  of  the  kingdom  in  857, 
and  in  860,  on  the  death  of  his  brother 
Ethelbald,  became  sole  king.  His  reign 
was  much  disturbed  by  the  inroads  of  the 
Danes,  whom  he  repulsed  with  vigor,  but 
without  success,  as,  whenever  diey  were 
driven  from  one  part  of  the  country,  they 
ravaged  another.    He  died  in  866. 

Ethel  RED  I,  king  of  England,  son  of 
Ethel  wolf,  succeeded  his  brother  Ethel- 
bert in  866.  The  Danes  became  so  for- 
mi<lable,  in  his  reign,  as  to  threaten  the 
conquest  of  die  whole  kingdom.  Assist- 
ed by  his  brother  Alfred,  Ethelred  drove 
diem  from  the  centre  of  Mercia,  where 
tliey  hail  fienetrated ;  but,  the  Mercians 
refusing  to  act  with  him,  he  was  obliged 
to  trust  to  the  West  Saxons  alone,  his  he- 
reditary subjects.  Aflcr  various  successes, 
die  invaders  continually  increasing  in 
numbers,  Ethelred  died,  in  consequence 
of  a  wound  received  in  an  acuon  with 
them,  in  871. 

Ethelred  II,  king  of  England,  son  of 
Edgar,  succeeded  his  brodier,  Edward  the 
Martyr,  in  978,  and,  for  his  want  of  vigor 
and  capacity,  was  suniamed  the  Unreaau, 
During  his  reign,  tlie  Danes,  who  had  for 
some  time  ceased  their  inroads,  renewed 
them  with  great  fury.  After  having  re- 
peatedly obtained  their  departure  by  pres- 
ents of  money,  he  effected,  in  10(/2,  a 
massacre  of  all  the  Danes  in  England. 
Such  revenge  only  rendered  his  enemies 
more  violent :  and,  in  1003,  Sweyn  and  his 
Danes  carried  fire  and  sword  through  the 
country.  They  were  again  bribed  to  de- 
part ;  but,  upon  a  new  invasion,  Sweyn 
obliged  the  nobles  to  swear  allegiance  to 
hhn  as  king  of  England ;  while  Ethelred, 


Digitized  by 


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S9S 


ETHELRED  H— ETHNOGRAPHY. 


in  1013,  fled  to  Normandy  with  his  family. 
On  the  death  of  Sweyn,  he  was  invited 
to  resume  the  government  He  died  at 
liondon  in  1016. 

Ethel  WOLF,  king  of  England,  succeed- 
ed his  father,  Egbert,  in  838,  and,  soon  af- 
ter his  accession,  associated  his  son  Athel- 
stan  with  him,  giving  him  the  sovereignty 
over  Essex,  Kent  and  Sussex.  In  851, 
the  Danes  poured  into  the  country  in  such 
numt)ers,  that  they  threatened  to  subdue 
it ;  and,  though  opposed  with  great  vigor 
by  Athelstan  and  others,  they  tixed  their 
winter  quarters  in  England,  and  next  year 
burnt  Canterbury  and  London.  During 
these  troubles,  Ethelwolf  maiie  a  pilgrim- 
age to  Rome,  with  his  son  Alfi*ed,  where 
he  staid  a  year,  and,  on  his  return,  found 
Athelstan  dead,  and  succeeded  by  his  next 
son,  EtheUmld,  who  had  entered  into  a 
conspiracy  witli  some  nobles,  to  prevent 
his  father  from  again  ascending  his  throne. 
To  avoid  a  civil  war,  the  king  gave  up  the 
western  division  of  the  kingdom  to  his 
son,  and  soon  afler,  summoning  the  states 
of  the  whole  kingdom,  solemnly  conferred 
upon  the  clergy  the  tithes  of  all  the  prod- 
uce of  the  lands.  He  survived  this  grant 
about  two  years,  dying  in  857. 

Ether  ;  a  very  volatile  fluid,  produced 
by  tlie  distillation  of  alcohol  with  an  acid. 
The  ethers  are  a  very  iraf)ortant  class  of 
compounds,  diflfering  in  their  qualities  ac- 
cording as  tliev  are  produced  by  the  dif- 
ferent acids;  but  they  also  agree  in  the 
possession  of  certain  general  properties. 
They  are  highly  volatile,  odorous,  pun« 
gent  and  inflanmiable ;  miscible  with  wa- 
ter, and  capable  of  combining  with  alco- 
hol in  every  proportion.  They  receive 
tlieir  names  from  the  acids  by  whose  ac- 
tion on  alcohol  they  are  produced ;  as  sul- 
Shuric  ether,  nitric  ether,  muriatic  ether, 
ic.  (for  a  particular  account  of  which, 
see  the  respective  articles  under  these  de** 
nominations). 

Ether,  in  philosophy.    (SeeMUier,) 

Etherege,  sir  George,  one  of  the  wits 
of  Charles's  day,  chiefly  known  as  a  wri- 
ter of  comedy,  was  born  about  1636.  He 
is  supposed  to  have  been  for  some  time  at 
Cambridge,  then  to  have  travelled,  and, 
on  his  return,  to  have  been  entered  at  one 
of  the  inns  of  court.  He  appears,  how- 
ever, to  have  paid  little  attention  to  any 
thing  but  gay  pursuits.  In  1664,  lie  pre- 
sented to  the  town  his  first  comedy,  enti- 
tled the  Comical  Revenge,  or  Love  in  a 
Tub ;  which,  although  written  with  a  very 
incongruous  mixture  of  prose  and  verse, 
as  suited  tlie  taste  of  the  times,  was  well 
received.    The  author  was  immediately 


enraUed  amonff  tlie  courtly  wits  of  the 
day,  mid,  in  1&8,  brought  oat  his  next 
piece,  entitled  She  Would  if  She  Could, 
which  was  very  coarsely  licentious.  In 
1676,  he  produced  his  third  and  kst  com- 
edy, entitled  The  Man  of  the  Mode,  or 
Sir  Fopiing  Flutter;  at  which  time,  he 
was,  as  the  dedication  implies,  in  tiie  ser- 
vice of  Mary  of  Modena,  tiie  second  duch- 
ess of  York.  This  performance  was  still 
more  applauded  than  the  preceding,  and 
the  Sir  Fopiing  was,  for  a  long  time, 
deemed  the  ideal  of  the  superlative  beau 
or  coxcomb  of  the  age,  as  Dorimant  was 
intended  to  represent  its  rakish  fine  gen- 
tleman, or  Rochester.  Etherege's  plays 
are  little  more  than  lively  convenation 

1)ieces,  with  a  great  paucity  of  genuine 
mmor  or  felicitous  plot,  and  have  long 
been  placed  on  the  manager's  shelf.  His 
future  career  vnis  very  much  in  character. 
Having  injured  his  constitution  and  for- 
tune, he  sought  to  marry  a  rich  elderly 
widow,  wlio  made  his  acquirement  of  the 
honor  of  knighthood  tlie  condition  of  her 
acceptance.  This,  on  the  accession  of 
James  II,  he  attained,  and  was  appointed 
envoy  to  Ratisbon,  whence  he  wrote  two 
verv  pleasant  letters  to  the  duke  of  fiuck- 
ingham,  which  are  printed  in  the  Bio- 
^aphxa  Brilannica.  On  the  revolution,  he 
is  said  to  have  joined  his  former  master  in 
France.  He  was  courtly  and  companion- 
able, sprightly  and  generous,  but  deemed 
a  little  too  much  of  his  own  Sir  Fopiing. 
Besides  his  plays,  he  wrote  much  light 
and  easy  poetry,  such  as  songa^  lam- 
poons, pa4»egyrics,  &c.,  which  are  not 
without  the  merit  usually  belonging  to 
tlie  mob  of  gentlemen  who  write  widi 


Ethiopians,  an  indefinite  term  in  an- 
ciem  times,  was  used  to  agnify  all  people 
of  a  dark  or  black  skin,  as  well  in  Asia 
as  Africa.  Homer,  who  calls  them  the 
blamdess,  therefore  places  the  Ethiopians 
both  in  the  east  and  the  west  Afterwards, 
the  inhabitants  of  Abyssinia  were  called 
by  tliis  name,  Abvssinia  being  denomina- 
ted Ethiopia.  The  Ethiopian  women, 
who  are  frequently  sold  as  slaves  in  Con- 
stantinople, are  celebrated  for  their  fine 
forms.  (See  Mgroes,) 
Ethiops  Mineral.  {See  Merciay,) 
Etqnographt  (from  the  Greek  Ift^, 
nation,  and  y^ipa^l  write) ;  a  term  used  by 
the  Germans  and  French  to  signify  the 
description  of  nations.  It  descrilies  the 
customs,  religion,  fcc,  in  fact,  every  thing 
which  is  characteristic  of  a  nation.  The 
im|)ortance  of  tfiis  department  of  knowl- 
edge, and  the  progress  which  has  been 


Digitized  by 


Lioogle 


ETHNOGRAPUY— ETIQUETTE. 


503 


made  in  it  since  travelling  has  so  much  in- 
creased, and  the  prejudices  of  travellers  so 
much  diminished,  is  evident  EQmographi' 
ad;  lielonging  to  tlie  science  just  ae6<*rib- 
ed,  and  also  the  history  of  nations.  A  his- 
tory, for  example,  is  either  clu^nological, 
wiieu  events  are  recounted  in  the  order  of 
time,  or  ethnographical,  when  the  liistoiy 
of  an  individual  people  is  given  by  itself. 
(See  HUtmy.) 

Etieiv N£ ;  famous  printers  of  tliis  name. 
(See  Stephens.) 

Etien.ne,  Uharles  Guillaume;  a  dra- 
matic and  political  writer,  born  in  1778  at 
Chamouilly,  in  the  department  of  the  Up- 
per Marue.  He  went  to  Paris  in  1796, 
and  was  at  first  engaged  in  editing  some 
journals,  but  afterwards  devoted  himself 
to  writing  pieces  for  the  stage.  In  1810, 
he  was  appointed  censor  of  the  Journal 
de  PEmpire,  The  general  police  of  the 
periodicals  was  afterwards  committed  to 
iiirn,  as  chief  of  the  literary  division  in  the 
ministry  of  the  interior.  His  Le3  deux  Gen- 
drts  obtained  him  a  place  in  tlie  national 
institute,  and  the  choice  was  announced 
to  him  in  the  words  of  apostolic  histor>' — 
''And  thev  chose  Stephen  (Etiennel  a 
man  full  of  the  spirit"  His  comedy,  Hn- 
irifi^anUy  notwithstanding  the  violent  oppo- 
sition of  his  enemies,  had  alreadv  been 
represented  11  times  with  unbounded  ap 
plause,  when  the  emperor  prohibited  its 
performance,  though  he  had  himself  for- 
merly commanded  its  representation  in  the 
Tuileries.  The  reason  assigned  was,  that 
the  courtiers  had  taken  offence  at  some 
passages ;  or,  according  to  other  accounts, 
Napoleon  had  found  in  it  certain  disagree- 
able allusions.  Hence  the  author  was 
oblif^d  to  make  alterations  in  subsequent 
editions  of  the  piece,  on  which  account 
the  first  edition  was  much  sought  afler, 
and  sold  for  25  francs.  Afler  the  abdica- 
tion of  Napoleon,  the  prohibition  against 
the  comedy  was  revoked,  but  the  author 
was  deprived  of  his  office  of  censor.  On 
the  emperor's  return  from  Elba,  Etienue 
recovered  his  former  places.  As  president 
of  the  national  institute,  in  congmtulating 
Napoleon  on  his  return,  he  spoke  boldly 
of  the  securities  demanded  by  public 
opinion,  and  of  the  liberty  of  the  press. 
Afler  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  he 
was  again  removed  from  his  offices,  and 
from  me  institute,  bv  a  royal  decree.  He 
then  devoted  himself,  with  great  success, 
to  political  writings,  and  was  the  author 
of  the  LeUres  swr  Pcarisj  in  the  Minerve 
Drancaise,  which  give  an  interesting  and 
faithful  account  of  the  commotions  that 
distivcted  the  court  and  the  capital  fix>m 
50* 


1818  to  1820.  The  splendid  success  which 
these  letters  met  witli,  induced  the  elec- 
toral college  of  the  department  of  the 
Meuse  to  choose  him  deputy  in  1820,  and 
aeain  in  1822.  Besides  the  above-mention- 
ed works,  Etienne  bus  also  written  many 
theatrical  pieces,  of  which  the  best  are  the 
operas  CemirtUon  and  Joconde.  The  his- 
tory of  the  French  stage  (Histoiredu  The- 
atre Francaise,  dcpuis  U  Commencement 
de  la  RhmuJtionjuaqu^bL  laR6uniongtn$rcde^ 
1820, 4  vols.),  by  Etienne  and  Martainville, 
is  a  valuable  work,  written  with  taste  and 
impartiality. 

Etiquette  {French ;  a  ticket] ;  prima- 
rily an  account  of  ceremonies ;  nence,  in 
present  usage,  forms  of  ceremony  or  de- 
corum ;  tlie  forms  which  are  observed  to- 
wards particular  persons  in  particular  pla- 
ces, especially  in  courts  and  on  public  oc- 
casions. From  the  original  sense  of  the 
word,  it  may  be  inferred,  that  it  was  for- 
merly the  custom  to  deliver  cards  con- 
taining oitlers  for  regulating  the  ceremo- 
nies on  public  occasions.  Those  countries 
in  which  etiquette  among  the  higher  or- 
ders has  been  most  rigidly  enforced,  have 
rarely  been  free  and  prosperous  ;  and  this 
artificial  splendor,  and  external  honor  paid 
to  the  great,  have,  in  general,  been  more 
anxiously  exacted  by  them  in  proportion 
as  real  respect  was  wanting.  When  tbe 
Roman  emperors  surrounded  themselves 
witli  imposing  ceremonies,  they  had  long 
ceased  to  be  the  masters  of  the  world ;  and 
the  imperial  court  at  Byzantium  was  nev- 
er more  observant  of  trifiiu^  and  empty 
forms,  than  when  the  provinces  were  in 
insurrection,  and  the  barbarians  swarmed 
under  the  walls  of  the  capital.  Philip 
the  Good,  duke  of  Burgundy,  whose  van- 
itv  prompted  him  to  put  himself  on  a  lev- 
el with  his  sovereign,  is  the  father,  as  it 
were,  of  the  modem  system  of  etiquette, 
which  has  been  introduced  since  his  time, 
with  more  or  less  strictness,  into  many 
courts  of  Europe.  To  make  himself 
equal,  in  the  eyes  of  the  world,  to  the  first 

Kriiice  in  Christendom,  he  surrounded 
imself  witli  a  multitude  of  retainers  and 
courtiers,  and  prescribed  to  them  an  eti- 
quette so  formal  and  minute,  that  the 
Spanish  court  alone  (so  lively  and  gay  in 
the  time  of  the  Moors)  surpasses  it  in 
strictness.  At  the  present  day,  the  great 
dififusion  of  knowledge  and  education,  by 
which  all  classes  are  brought  into  closer 
contact ;  the  general  democratic  tendency 
of  the  age;  the  free  and  active  intercourse 
between  nations— all  have  contributed 
much  to  diminish  the  stricmess  of  eti- 
quette.   Probably,  no  nation  has  carried 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


594 


ETIQUETTE— ETRURIA. 


etiquette  to  a  greater  degree  of  nicety  and 
absurd  fonnality  than  tlie  Chinese. 
Etna.    We  will  only  add  to  tlie  account 

S'ven  of  this  mountain  under  tlie  head  of 
I/tia,  that,  on  May  26, 1830,  it  is  stated 
that  seven  new  craters  were  opened,  and 
that  eight  villages,  with  tlieir  inhabitants, 
were  destroyed.  It  was  not  possible,  until 
eight  days  niler  the  eruption,  to  approach 
the  scene  of  ruin.  ' 

Etolia.    (See  JEtdia.) 

Eton;  a  village  in  England,  in  Bucks, 
8e|iaratcd  from  Windsor  by  die  river 
Tliaines,  over  which  is  a  bridge ;  22  miles 
N.  W.  London ;  fiopulation,  2279.  It  is 
celebrated  for  its  royal  college,  which  was 
founde<l  in  the  19tli  year  of  Henry  VI.,  in 
1440,  and  contains  70  king's  scholar^ 
from  300  to  350  independent  scholars,  10 
choristers,  liesides  inferior  officers,  &c., 
of  the  college.  The  college  library  is 
large.  The  revenue  of  the  college  amounts 
to  about  £5000  a  year.  Porson,  and 
other  distinguished  men,  were  educated 
at  this  institution.  Gray's  ode  to  Eton 
college  is  probably  fresh  in  the  minds  of 
our  readers. 

The  Eton  Mofdem  is  one  of  the  many 
old  and  curious  customs  in  Englanif. 
The  scholars  of  the  college  march  in  pro- 
cession to  Salt-hill,  where  their  captain, 
the  l)est  scholar,  recites  a  passage  from 
some  ancient  author.  The  young  gen- 
tlemen, called  salt-bearers,  and  arrayetl  in 
fancy  dresses,  then  disfierse  in  various 
directions,  to  collect  money  from  all  pas- 
sengers, not  allowing  any  one  to  ])ass 
without  giving  something.  The  money 
thus  collected,  which  usually  amounts  to 
several  hundred  ])ounds,  is  given  to  the 
captain,  to  enable  him  to  take  ui)  his  resi- 
dence at  one  of  tlie  universities.  The 
royal  family  and  a  splendid  company 
generally  attend  the  ceremony. 

Etruria.  This  beautiful  region,  bound- 
ed west  by  the  Mediterranean,  east  by 
the  Afiennines,  north  ^y  the  river  Magra, 
and  soudi  by  the  Tiber,  is  the  country  of 
the  ingenious  Etruscans,  who  have  arisen 
from  beneath  the  ruins  of  the  remotest 
antiquity  in  the  histoij  of  modem  art,  and 
in  tlie  archaeological  mvestigations  of  our 
time.  The  chief  river  of  the  country  was 
the  Amus  (AmoV.  This  country,  which 
coniesponds  nearly  with  tlie  present  Tus- 
cany, was  very  early  a  confederation, 
under  the  nUera  of  the  twelve  principal 
cities,  each  of  which  formed  a  republic 
by  itself.  They  were,  Pisse  (Pisa),  Pisto- 
ria  (PisU)ja\  Florentia,  Fa»ulie,  Volater- 
m  {^VoUerra),  Volsinii  (BoUena),  Clusium 
fChiusi),  ArretJum  (./trrezzo),  Cortona,  Pe- 


nisia  (Perugia),  Falerii  (Falart^  and  the 
rich  city  of  Veji.  The  chiefs  ot  these  re- 
publics were  styled  lucumones,  who  were 
also  the  priests  and  generals,  and  held  ilieir 
meetings  in  the  temple  of  Voltuma,  where 
tliey  deliberated  together  on  the  general 
affairs  of  the  country.  Porseniia,  cele- 
brated in  Roman  history,  was  a  luciirao. 
Etruria  was  at  the  height  of  its  glory  at 
tlie  time  of  the  building  of  Rome,  and 
served  for  a  model  to  the  new  government 
Surfiassed  only  by  the  Greeks  in  their 
highest  splendor,  the  Etruscans  excelled 
in  architecture,  ship-building,  medicine, 
the  art  of  making  arms  and  tbrtificatioiis, 
building  dykes,  and  in  tactic  8 ;  they  were 
disdnguished  particularly  for  their  inge- 
nuity and  skill  in  the  construction  of  all 
articles  of  comfort  and  of  luxury.  They 
carried  on  a  considerable  commerce  in 
Italy  and  Greece  with  their  works  of  art, 
and  founded  many  important  colonies^ 
Their  commercial  intercourse  with  the 
Greeks  soon  made  them  their  rivals  in 
refinement  The  progress  made  by  the 
Etruscans  of  that  age  in  painting  and  the 
plastic  arts  is  peculiarly  interesting  to  ar- 
chaeologists, as  the  study  of  their  remains 
(sculptured  gems,  sarcophagi,  vases,  &c.) 
leads  to  tl>e  explanation  of  Uieir  mytholo- 
gy. (See  Ingnirami's  Monum.  Etruschij 
Fiesole,  1826,  6  vols.  4to.  more  accurate 
than  Gori's  .Museum  Etruscum.)  They 
received  the  germs  of  their  art,  which  had 
in  itself  sufficient  charms  to  create  a  new 
epoch  in  modem  taste,  from  Greece  and 
Eg}'pt  The  Etniscan  vases,  with  their 
peculiar  bass-reliefs  and  paintings,  have 
ix^en  carefully  examined  by  Millin,  and  in 
Boettiger's  Treatise  on  lectured  VasesL 
(See  rose).  The  Etruscan  painters,  bow- 
ever,  were  unacquainted  with  the  mixture 
of  colors,  and  the  distribution  of  light  and 
shade :  their  common  colors  were  black 
and  brownish  red.  Theatrical  entertain- 
ments, music  and  poetry  were  not  unknown 
to  them.  Before  they  bad  reached  tliat 
degree  of  refinement  to  which  the  Greeks 
arrived,  this  people  and  their  arts  sunk  to- 
gether under  the  political  stonns  of  the 
age,  partly  througli  internal  dissenaons, 
and  partly  by  the  oppression  of  foreign 
nations.  The  Romans  received  their  re- 
ligious usages,  their  primitive  architecture, 
&c.,  from  the  Etruscans.  At  the  end  of 
their  most  flourishing  (leriod,  the  Gauls 
drove  them  from  their  settlements  in  Up- 
per Italy,  and  some  of  them  fled  to  the 
Alps;  from  whom  the  Rboetians  derived 
their  origin.  They  finally  became  the  vic- 
tims of  Romtn  ambition.  The  Romans 
sent  then  govemora,  but  aUowed  ihtm  to 


Digitized  by  LjOOQ IC 


ETRURIA— ETYMOLOGY. 


retain  their  own  manners  and  laws,  the 
choice  of  their  consuls,  and,  in  general,  a 
reasonahle  degree  of  freedom.  They  af- 
terwards fell,  with  Rome,  under  the  power 
of  foreign  conouerors.  From  this  time 
the  liistoiy  of  Etruria,  or  Tuscany,  as  it 
has  since  been  called,  has  become  inter- 
woven with  tliat  of  Italy  and  Germany. 
Tuscans  and  Etruscans^  however,  were 
namus  as  foreign  to  the  people  as  Tiprht' 
7iian8,  They  called  themselves  Ka8€7UL 
The  ancient  Latin  tenn  was  Etruna  for 
the  country,  7*usci  for  the  peo])le.  Etrus- 
cans did  not  come  into  use  till  after  Cato's 
lime.  Under  the  later  emperors,  the  coun- 
try was  called  Tuscta ;  hence  Ihscana  in 
the  middle  ages.  The  oriein  of  the 
Etruscans  is  extremely  doubtful.  Ancient 
writers,  misconstruing  early  traditions, 
represented  them  as  descendants  of  the 
Greeks — an  opinion  which  was  long  re- 
ceived. Niebuhr,  however,  thinks  there 
is  no  foundation  for  this  opinion,  and,  from 
many  circumstances,  ingeniously  attempts 
to  prove  that .  they  originated  from  the 
northern  mountains,  the  Al|)s.  We  must 
refer  the  reader  to  his  learned  disquisi^on 
on  this  point  in  his  History  of  Rome,  di- 
vision Tuscans  and  Etruscans.  The  dis- 
covery of  a  great  number  of  vases,  in 
1830,  on  the  estate  of  the  prince  of  Cani- 
no,  not  far  from  tlie  north-western  coast 
of  Italy,  nearly  opposite  Elba,  seems  to 
corroborate  this  opinion.  Besides  the 
vases  which  contained  Greek  inscriptions, 
and  which  are  considered  by  many  to 
be  of  an  age  when  Greece  was  still  in  a 
state  of  semi-barbarism,  many  ornaments 
of  gold,  with  engraved  gems,  and  a  su- 
perb fawn,  considered  by  Thorwaldsen 
as  a  most  perfect  piece  of  art,  have  been 
dug  up.  If  it  is  true  that  Greece  re- 
ceived the  fine  arts  from  Etruria,  it  is  an 
interesting  question  how  Egyptian  civili- 
zation was  first  brought  to  the  Etruscans. 
(Sec  Tuscany.)  By  the  peace  of  Lune- 
ville  (q.  v.),  1801,  the  name  Etruria  was 
restored,  and  the  territory  was  constituted 
a  kingdom,  under  the  hereditary  prince 
of  Parma,  Louis,  Infant  of  Spain,  only- 
son  of  Ferdinand  I,  duke  of  Parma.  Af- 
ter the  death  of  Louis  (1803),  his  widow, 
Maria  Louisa,  daughter  of  Charles  IV, 
king  of  Spain,  admmistered  the  govern- 
ment as  guardian  of  her  son,  UhaHes 
Louis;  but  she  resigned  her  authority, 
Dec  10, 1807,  in  consequence  of  a  treaty 
between  France  and  Spain.  Etruria  now 
became  a  French  province ;  and  a  decree 
of  the  senate  of  May  30,  1808,  declared 
the  states  of  Tuscany,  under  the  tide  of 
the  departments  of  the  Amo,  the  Mediter- 


ranean and  the  Ombrone,  a  part  of  the 
French  empire  (the  grand  em/we).  '  In 
1809,  this  territory  was  giwn  to  Eliza, 
sister  of  Na|K>leon,  with  the  title  of  grand- 
duchess  of  Tuscany.  In  1814,  Tuscany 
again  received  its  former  rulers. 

Ettenheim  ;  a  small  town  in  the  grand- 
duchy  of  Baden,  19  miles  S.  S.  E.  Stras- 
bui^,  with  2680  inhabitants.  The  place 
has  become  celebrated  in  consequence  of 
the  duke  of  Engbien  (q.  v.)  having  been 
arrested  here. 

Ettmolooy  (from  the  Greek  irvitoXoyla, 
from  hvfiof,  true,  real,  and  Aoyoj,  word); 
that  luranch  of  philology  which  teaches  the 
origin  of  words,  traces  the  laws  by  which 
the  changes  in  languages  take  place,  and 
discovers  the  true  meanings  of  words  by 
examining  their  roots  and  coni))osition. 
It  is  at  once  the  ddicuB  phUdogictBy  and  a 
safeguard  against  the  corruption  of  words 
by  a  careless  application  of  Uiem.  Ety- 
mology becomes  particularly  interesting 
when  applied  to  those  languages  which 
are  not  so  much  the  product  of  accident 
as  of  settled  laws,  which  continue  to 
operate  as  long  as  the  language  exists. 
Etymology  has  not  unfrequeutly  led  to 
important  historical  conjectures,  because 
the  language  of  a  tribe  is  often  the  oi^ly 
record  of  its  descent,  the  individuals  com- 
posing it  having  lost  all  tradition  of  their 
origin.  Who  can  doubt  the  importance 
of  etymology,  taking  it  in  its  widest  sense, 
as  treating  of  the  origin  and  nature  of 
w^rds,  and  of  the  connexions  of  differ- 
ent languages ;  in  short,  as  occupied  with 
the  laws  which  regulate  the  formation 
of  languages,  which  stand  preeminent 
among  the  most  interesting,  imuortant 
and  noble  productions  of  the  human 
mind?  To  be  a  sound  etymologist,  re- 
quires many  rare  qualifications,  among 
which  are  a  thorough  knowledge  of  many 
and  very  different  languajzes  {  great  cau- 
tion, which  will  not  he  eaaly  led  astray  bv 
appearances;  a  philosophical  mind,  which 
easily  conceives  t}ie  associations  of  ideas, 
and  traces  the  different,  yet  connected 
notions  which  the  same  root  expraves  in 
different  languages ;  in  one  language  rep- 
resenting, perhaps,  the  most  concrete,  and 
in  another  the  most  abstract  idea  9  a  per- 
fect knowledge  of  phonology,  or  th«  sci- 
ence of  human  sounds,  and  the  orgaoB 
which  produce  them,  and  a  natural  ta^te 
and  adaptation  for  the  study,  which,  like 
eveiy  gift  of  nature,  may  be  much  devel- 
oped, but  cannot  be  produced  by  labor. 
Etymology  has  been  cultivated  with  much 
zeal  and  success  in  X)ur  dav,  as  illustrative 
both  of  single  languages  (bow  nocht  ibr 

Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


ETYMOLOGY— EUCLID. 


instance,  has  Buttmaun  done  for  Greek 
etymoio^),  and  of  the  relations  between 
whole  tuniilies  of  languages.  Modem 
scholars  have  been  assisted  ui  their  re- 
searches in  tills  department,  not  merely 
by  the  materials  which  former  ages  have 
accumiiiated,  but  by  tlie  great  advance- 
ment which  has  been  made  in  the  knowl- 
edge of  languages  before  unknown,  ow- 
ing to  the  more  frequent  and  rapid  com- 
munication between  the  mont  distant  parts 
of  the  globe,  to  materials  collected  by  mis- 
sionaries, &;c.  In  general,  it  may  lie  said 
that  the  Gennans  have  done  more  for  ety- 
mology than  any  other  nation;  while, 
comparatively  speaking,  very  little  has 
been  done  by  the  English,  whom  almost 
every  word  in  tlieir  language  conducts 
into  a  foreign  country,  and  with  whom  it 
might  be  supfiosed  etymology  would  be 
much  more  generallv  cultivated  dian  with 
a  nation  like  the  Germans,  whose  lan- 
guage forms  a  whole  in  itself,  die  words 
of  which  explain  each  other  as  far  as 
common  use  requires. 

Etymology  might  be  divided  into  the 
higher  and  lower,  as  we  have  tiie  higher 
and  lower  mathematics,  and  it  miffht,  i)er- 
haps,  be  correct  to  say,  th^t  higher  ety- 
mology examines  the  origin  of  the  root 
of  a  certain  word,  its  connexions  with  cor- 
responding words  in  other  languages,  &;c., 
and  tiiat  it  treats  only  of  the  higher  laws  of 
the  formation  of  languages ;  but,  of  course, 
the  line  of  distinction  between  these  two 
divisions  cannot  be  very  accurately  drawn. 
As  an  instance  of  our  meaning,  let  us  trace 
the  origin  of  (UiagrteaJbleneM ;  ness  is  an 
affix  frequent  io  substantives,  correspond- 
ing to  the  German  ni$s,  and  indicating  a 
state,  effect,  or  al)Straction;  a  syllable 
wiiich  is  to  be  found  in  some  shape  or  other 
in  all  Teutonic  dialects ;  dis  (the  Latin  dw, 
asunder),  a  prefix  oflen  of  the  same  mean- 
ing as  the  English  wi,  conveying  the  idea 
of  negation ;  aerceabUt  from  die  French 
a^iabk,  of  wnich  abU  is  an  adjective 
affix  from  the  Latin ;  a,  a  preposition  oflen 
indicating  o^  as  a  plaisir^  at  pleasure ;  gr^, 
at  last,  is  the  root  of  the  word,  analogous 
to  gTflrf,  the  root  of  the  Latin  gratua,  and 
having  the  same  meaning.  Higher  ety- 
mology now  continues  to  trace  the  root 
ofgratus  in  several  languages,  or  endeav- 
ors to  do  so.  It  is  not  improbable  that  it 
would  be  found  that  g*  is  an  augment 
wliich,  ill  several  other  languages,  is  left 
out  (See  the  article  Fy  To  find  die 
root  of  a  word  is  always  the  first  object 
of  etymolog}',  but  oflen  difficult,  because 
several  diflTerent  syllables  may  sometimes 
present  themselves  as  probable  roots.  Eu- 


phony must  be  always  taken  into  the  ac- 
count, and  letters  which  are  added  merely 
for  die  sake  of  improving  the  sound  must 
be  thrown  aside.  As  another  instance,  we 
may  take  the  word  IowUm;  this  consists 
of  a  substantive,  law,  and  a  syllable,  2ess, 
corresponding  to  the  Gennon  syllable  los, 
which  is  also  used  as  an  adverb,  and  Las 
then  the  meaning  of  off;  it  is  the  root  of 
loBeiij  to  loosen,  to  sefMirate,  connected, 
prolmhiy,  with  the  Latin  laxare  and  luere, 
the  Greek  \vcai,  Xv^civ,  >»»»;  and  tlie  same 
witii  die  Swedish  losa,  the  Icelandic  letsOf 
and  the  An^lo-Saxon  Uzan  and  lysan.  Law 
is  a  root  which  we  recognize  in  uie  corres- 
ponding word,  or  connected  ones,  of  a  great 
many  languages,  Teutonic,  Latin  and 
Greek,  and  probably  Asiatic  ones,  and  ia, 
besides,  connected  with  die  Gelmian  Ugtn, 
to  luy,  to  lay  down,  which  correspond  to 
the  lagjan  of  Ulphilas  in  the  Gothic  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible,  the  Icelandic  Uggia, 
the  Swedish  Lagga,  the  Greek  Xcyo/Mt.  Law 
is  also  connected  with  the  Latin  iocu$  and 
locare.  The  French  hi  probably  comes 
from  the  Latin  lez,  as  tlie  inhabitants  of 
Gaul  received  laws  in  a  very  complete 
state  from  the  Romans  before  the  Franks 
conquered  Gaul,  and  from  the  truncated 
genitive  Ugis,  loy  and  loi  can  easily  have 
originated.  It  is  to  be  remarked  that  de- 
rived languages,  as  the  Italian,  French, 
&C.,  very  often  ibnn  their  substantives 
from  die  genitives  of  the  ori^nal  language, 
as  die  Italian  Giovt  of  Joms, 

EuB<EA.     (See  ATegroponL) 

Eucharist  (from  the  Greek  ev;^p<^a, 
dianksgivuig,  from  ci,  well,  and  x^e^^f  gn^ce) ; 
the  name  for  the  Lord^s  Supper,  l>ecauae 
the  Scriptures  inform  us,  that  Christ,  after 
having  taken  the  wine  and  bread,  blessed 
tiiem  (or  gave  dianks).  (See  iScicraiiieiil, 
and  Corpus  Christu) 

EucHLORiNE.    (See  Chlorine.) 

Euclid,  called  die  father  of  mathe- 
matics, was  bom  at  Alexandria  in  Egypt, 
aliout  300  B.  C,  studied  at  Adiena  under 
Plato,  taught  geometry  at  Alexandria  in 
die  reign  of  Ptolemy  Soter,  and  extended 
the  boundaries  of  mathematical  science. 
The  severity  and  accuracy  of  his  luetLod 
has  never  been  surpassed.  The  most  pro- 
found of  his  works  is  diat  which  treats  of 
geometrical  analysis.  His  elements  (£rmx«a) 
are  still  extant.  One  of  the  best  editions 
is  by  Gregory,  Oxford,  1703,  fbl.  His  wri- 
tings on  music  give  us  the  best  idea  of  die 
state  of  that  art  among  the  Greeks.  His 
work  on  geometrical  analysis  displays  his 
aciiteness  to  the  greatest  advantage. — 2. 
Euclid  of  Megara  was  die  founder  of  the 
Megaric  school    Although  Megara  ia  at 


Digitized  by 


Lioogle 


EUCLID— EUGENE. 


507 


a  considemble  distance  from  Alliens,  and 
its  iiihal>itants  were  forbidden,  under  pen- 
alty of  death,  to  enter  the  Athenian  territo- 
ries, be  used  to  go  to^the  city  in  disguise, 
in  the  evening,  to  enjoy  the  uistruction  of 
Socrates,  and  return  at  day-break.  He 
afterwards  deviated  from  tlie  simple  sys- 
tem of  his  teacher,  and  changed  his  plain 
irony  into  the  most  subde  disputation. 
With  tlie  Eleatjcs,  he  maintauied  that 
there  was  but  one  being  in  the  universe ; 
and  this  being  he  called  the  true  and  good. 
For  its  subtilty  and  disputativeness  liis 
school  was  also  called  the  Eristic  school. 
He  died  424  B.  C.  Eubulides  was  one 
of  his  pupils. 

EuDAMOifisM,  EuDJEMONOLOOT ;  the 
docurine  of  happiness,  or  that  system  which 
makes  human  liappiness  its  prime  object, 
the  highest  motive  of  every  duty,  and  of  a 
virtuous  life,  and  consequently  tlie  whole 
foundation  of  morals.  Eudsemonism  is 
contradistinguished  to  that  morality  or  pure 
system  of  philosophy,  which  makes  virtue 
itself  the  chief  object,  independent  of  its 
tendency  to  promote  human  happiness. 
Euditmonist ;  one  who  supports  the  doc- 
trine of  Eudsemonism. 

Eudiometer  ;  an  instniment  for  ascer- 
taining the  purity  of  air.  Or,  rather,  the 
quantity  of  oxygen  contained  in  any  given 
bulk  of  elastic  fluid.  Dr.  Priestley's  dis- 
covery of  tlie  great  readiness  with  which 
nitrous  gas  combines  with  oxygen,  and  is 
precipitated  in  the  form  of  nitric  acid,  was 
the  basis  upon  which  he  constructed  the 
firat  instrument  of  tliis  kind.  It  consisted 
of  a  glass  vessel,  containing  an  ounce  by 
measure.  Tiiis  was  filled  with  the  air  to  tie 
examined,  which  was  transferred  from  it 
to  ajar,  of  an  inch  and  a  half  diameter  in- 
verted in  water;  an  equal  measure  of 
fresh  nitrous  gas  was  added  to  it,  and  die 
mixture  was  allowed  to  stand  two  minutes. 
If  the  absorption  were  very  considerable, 
more  nitrous  gas  was  added,  till  all  the 
oxygen  appeared  to  be  absorl)ed.  The 
residua]  gas  was  then  transferred  into  a 
glass  tulie,  two  feet  long  and  one  third  of 
an  inch  wide,  graduated  to  tenths  and 
hundreddiB  of  an  ounce  measure;  and 
thus  die  quantity  of  oxygen  absorbed  was 
measured  by  the  diminution  that  had  taken 
place.  Other  eudiometrical  methods  were 
employed  by  other  chemists.  Volta  liad 
recourse  to  die  detonation  of  air  with  hy- 
drogen gas.  For  this  purpose,  two  meas- 
ures of  hydrogen  gas  are  introduced  into 
a  graduated  tube,  with  three  of  the  air  to 
be  examined,  and  fired  by  the  electric 
spark.  The  diminution  of  bulk  observed 
oner  the  vessel  had  retumed  to  its  original 


temperature, « divided  by  three,  gives  the 
quandty  of  oxygen  consumed.  Tlie  ac- 
tion of  liquor  prepared  from  sulphur  and 
potash,  or  suljihur  and  lime,  uoiled  in 
water,  and  the  slow  combustion  of  phos- 
phorus, have,  likewise,  been  employed  in 
eudiometry.  Dobereiner  has  suggested 
tlie  use  of  little  balls  of  spongy  plauna,  for 
the  purpose  of  detecting  minute  portions 
of  oxygen  in  a  gaseous  mixture,  in  which 
hydrogen  is  also  present  Its  efifect  is  im^ 
mediate  and  complete.  The  moment  die 
substance  rises  above  die  suritice  of  the 
mercury,  in  the  tube  containing  the  mix- 
ture, the  combination  of  die  oxy^n  and 
hydrogen  begins,  and  in  a  few  mmutes  is 
completed.  So  energetic  is  it  in  its  action, 
that  It  enables  hydrogen  to  take  1  of  oxy- 
^n  from  99  of  nitrogen — a  result  which  it 
IS  impossible  to  obtain  by  electricity. 

EuERGETjB  (benefactorsy  This  name 
was  given  to  a  small  nation,  called  »^i(^7v 
aspa  or  Jirimaspi,  in  the  Persian  province 
of  Drongiana,  because  they  saved  the  elder 
Cyrus  widi  his  anny  hi  the  desert,  when 
in  great  distress  for  want  of  provisions. 
This  Uttie  tribe  had  a  good  fonii  of  gov- 
ernment, entirely  different  from  that  of  die 
surrounding  barbarians.  Alexander,  there- 
fore, not  only  left  them  their  consdtuUon 
and  liberUes  endre,  but  also  granted  them, 
at  dieir  request,  some  territories  in  their 
vicinity.  Some  princes  have  borne  this 
name,  e.  g.,  the  Ptolemies. 

EuoENE,  Francis,  of  Savoy,  known  as 
prince  Eugene,  fiflli  son  of  Eugene  Mau- 
rice, duke  of  Savoy-Carignan,  count  of 
Soissons,  and  Olyinpia  {dancini,  a  niece 
of  cardinal  Mazarin,  was  bom  at  Paris, 
1663.  Amon^  all  the  generals  and  states- 
men of  Austria,  none  has  rendered  more 
numerous  and  important  services  than 
Eugene.  He  was  great  alike  in  the  field 
and  the  cabinet  Contrary  to  his  own  in- 
clinadons,  Eugene  was  desdned  for  the 
church.  He  t)edti(Hied  Louis  XIV  for  a 
company  of  dragoons,  but  was  refused  on 
account  of  die  opposition  of  Louvois, 
minister  of  war,  who  hated  tlie  fiunily  of 
Eugene.  Indignant  at  this  repulse,  and 
at  the  insults  offered  to  his  family,  and 
particularly  to  his  mother,  Eugene,  in  1683, 
entered  die  Austrian  service,  as  two  of 
his  brothers  had  already  done.  He  served 
his  first  campaign  as  a  volunteer  against 
the  Turks,  under  two  celebrated  ffenerals, 
Charles,  duke  of  Lorraine,  and  Louis, 
prince  of  Baden,  widi  so  much  distinction 
tliat  he  received  a  regiment  of  dragoons. 
Louvois,  jealous  of  the  reputation  of  Eu- 
gene, said  angrily,  **He  shall  never  re- 
turn to  his  coimtiy."    Engene^  to  whom 


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£UG£NE~EUGENE  D£  fi£Al7HABNAI& 


these  words  were  reported,  replied,  **I 
shall  return  in  spite  of  Louvois  f  and,  in 
fact,  some  years  afterwards,  he  entered 
France  at  the  head  of  a  ?ictorious  anny. 
In  1087,  after  the  battle  of  Mohacz,  he 
was  made  lieutenant  field-marshal.  War 
having  broken  out  between  France  and 
Austria,  he  prevailed  upon  the  duke  of 
Savoy  to  enter  into  an  alliance  with  the 
emperor,  and  commanded  the  imperial 
forces  sent  for  the  defence  of  Savoy.  He 
rejected  the  temptuig  offere  inaile  by 
France  to  engage  him  in  her  service,  and 
was  raised  bv  tlie  emperor  to  tlie  rank  of 
ffenenil  field-maishal.  After  tiie  war  in 
Italy  was  concluded,  he  was  sent  to  Hun- 
ffary  widi  tlie  rank  of  commander-in-chief. 
He  defeated  the  Turks  at  the  battle  of 
Zenta  (September  11,  1697),  and  obtained, 
on  tliat  occasion,  the  applause  of  Europe, 
and  the  entire  confidence  of  tlie  inijierial 
armies,  although  his  enemies,  envious  of 
his  glory,  accused  him  of  temerity,  in  un- 
dertaking so  hazardous  an  entenirise.  The 
loss  of  die  Turks  at  Zenta  obliged  tlieni 
to  accede  to  the  peace  of  Carlowitz,  1699, 
which  was  the  first  symptom  of  llieir  de- 
cline. Tlie  Spanish  war  of  succession 
next  called  Eugene  to  a  new  theatre  of 
glory.  Italy  became  the  field  in  which  he 
displayed  his  militaxy  talents.  He  advanc- 
ed rapidly  through  the  passes  of  the  Tyrol, 
at  the  head  of  30,000  men,  in  die  face  of 
marshal  Catinat,  who  endeavored  in  vain 
to  arrest  his  progress.  Villeroi  was  still 
more  unsuccessful,  being  suq^rised  and 
defeated,  near  Cremona,  by  Eugene.  In 
1703,  he  received  die  command  of  the 
anny  in  Gcrmttiy  ^  and,  being  appointed 
president  of  the  council  of  war,  he  was  die 
soul  of  all  important  enterprises,  to  which 
he  imparted  ^reat  activity ;  and  his  effi- 
cient cooperauon  with  Marlborough  frus- 
trated die  plans  of  France  and  her  allies. 
In  the  battle  of  Hochstddt  (Blenheim,  see 
BUnheim),  August  13, 1704,  the  two  heroes 
gained  a  decisive  victory  over  die  French 
and  Bavarian  anny,  commanded  by  die 
prince  of  Bavaria  and  murslial  Tallanl, 
the  latter  of  whom  was  made  prisoner. 
In  1705,  Eugene  returned  to  Italy,  where 
he  was  severely  wounded  in  an  engage- 
ment with  die  French  under  die  duke  de 
Venddme,  and  being  obliged  to  reure  from 
the  field,  his  army  was  defeated ;  but  Ven-. 
ddme  was  recalled,  and  his  successor,  die 
duke  de  la  Feuillade,  could  not  withstand 
Euffene,  who  now  hastened  to  the  relief 
of  Turin,  stormed  the  French  lines,  forced 
them  to  raise  die  siege,  and  in  one  month 
drove  Uiem  out  of  Italy.  In  1707,  he 
entered  France,  and  laid  siege  to  Toulon ; 


but  the  immeDse  superiori^  of  tbe  enemj 
obliged  him  to  retire  into  Italy.  The  'of- 
lowing  yeare  he  fought  on  the  Rhine,  took 
Lille,  and  defeated  the  marshals  VilJan 
and  Boufillers  at  ibfP  battle  of  Malplaquet, 
where  he  himself  was  dangerously  wound- 
ed. In  this  atuation,  he  maintained  that 
calmness  peculiar  to  great  souls:  when 
the  ofiicers  urged  upon  him  the  necessi- 
ty of  providing  for  his  personal  safety, 
**  What  need  of  bandaces,^  said  he,  **  if  we 
are  about  to  die  here  ?  If  we  escape,  the 
evening  will  be  time  enough."  After  the 
recall  of  Marlborough,  which  Eugene  op- 
posed in  person,  at  London,  without  suc- 
cess, and  the  defection  of  England  fix»m 
die  alliance  against  France,  uis  fanber 
progress  was  in  a  great  measure  checked, 
more  particularly  dler  the  defeat  of  gene- 
ral Albemarle  at  Denain.  The  peace  of 
Rastadt,  the  couseauence  of  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht,  was  concluded  between  Eugene 
and  Villars  in  1714.  In  die  war  with  Tur- 
key, in  1716,  Eugene  defeated  two  superior 
armies  at  Peterwaradin  and  Temes^m*, 
and,  in  1717,  took  Belgrade,  after  having 
gained  a  decisive  victory  over  a  third  army 
that  came  to  its  relief.  The  treaty  of  Pas- 
sarovitz  was  the  result  of  this  success. 
During  fifteen  years  which  followed,  Aus- 
tria enjoyed  peace,  and  Eusene  vras  as 
acdve  in  the  cabinet  as  he  had  been  in 
the  field,  when  die  Polish  afiiurs,  in  1733^ 
became  the  source  of  a  new  war.  Eugene 
.  api>eared,  in  his  old  age,  at  the  head  of  an 
anny,  on  the  banks  of  die  Rhine,  but  re- 
turned to  Vienna,  without  effecdng  any 
thing  of  importance.  He  died  m  1736,  at 
the  age  of  72.  The  Austrian  department 
of  war,  to  which  he  imparted  such  activity 
during  his  presidency,  relajised,  after  las 
deadi,  into  its  fontier  imbecdity. 

EuoENE  nE  Beauharnais,  duke  of 
Leiichtenl)erg,  prince  of  Eichstedt,  ex- 
viceroy  of  Italy,  was  horn  September  3, 
1781.  He  was  die  son  of  die  viscount 
Alexander  Beauhamais  (q.  v.),  who  >i-as 
guillouned  1794,  and  Josephine  Tascherde 
la  Pagprie,  aflerwards  wife  of  Napoleon  and 
emjiress  of  France.  During  the  French 
revoluuon,  Eugene  entered  the  miliiaij 
service,  and,  at  the  ase  of  12  years,  accom- 
panied his  iadier,  when  he  took  the  com- 
mand of  die  army  of  die  Rhine.  After 
his  father's  deadi,  he  joined  Hoche,  in  La 
Vendee,  when  his  mother  was  in  prison. 
After  die  Dtli  Thennidor,  he  returned  to 
his  mother  at  Paris,  and  remained  three 
years  devoted  to  study.  In  1796,  Jose- 
phine was  married  to  |^neral  Bonapane, 
then  commander-in-chief  of  the  anny  of 
Italy ;  and  Eugene  accompanied  bis  &dier- 


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EUGENE  BEAUHAKNAIS— EULENSPIEGEL. 


5G0 


in-law  in  his  campaigns  in  Italy  and 
Egypt  He  was  promoted  to  a  high  rank 
in  the  service,  and,  in  1805,  created  a 
prince  of  France  and  viceroy  of  Italy. 
In  the  same  year,  he  distinguished  himself 
in  the  campaigns  against  Austria,  and,  after 
the  peace  of  January  13,  1806,  married 
the  princess  Augusta  of  Bavaria.  In 
1807,  Napoleon  made  him  prince  of 
Venice,  and  declared  him  his  heir  to  the 
kingdom  of  Italy.  He  administered  the 
government  of  Italy  vrith  great  prudence 
and  moderation,  and  was  much  beloved 
by  his  subjects.  lu  the  war  of  1809,  he 
was  at  first  unsuccessful  against  the  arch- 
duke Jolin,  hut  soon  afterwards  gained  the 
battle  of  Raab,  and  distinguished  himself 
at  Wagram.  He  conducted  with  great 
prudence  on  the  occasion  of  the  divorce 
of  Napoleon  from  his  mother.  The  lid 
of  March,  1810,  Napoleon  appointed  him 
successor  of  the  princ*e  primate,  who  had 
been  created  grand -duke  of  Frankfort. 
In  the  Rusr.ian  campaign,  he  commanded 
the  third  cans  cParmiey  and  distinguished 
himself  in  the  battles  of  Ostrowno,  Mohi- 
lo,  and  that  on  the  Moskwa  (Borodino). 
In  the  disastrous  retreat,  he  did  not  desert 
the  wrecks  of  his  division  for  a  moment, 
but  shared  its  toils  and  dangers  with  the 
soldiers,  and  encouraged  them  by  his  ex- 
ample. To  him  and  to  Ney,  France  was 
indebted  for  the  preservation  of  the  re- 
mains of  her  army  during  that  fatal  re- 
treat. On  the  departure  of  Napoleon  and 
Murat,  he  was  left  in  the  chief  command, 
and  showed  great  talent  at  that  dangerous 
conjuncture.  We  find  him  a^ain  at  the 
battle  of  L{itzen,  of  May  2,  1813,  where, 
by  surrounding  the  right  wing  of  tlie 
enemv,  he  decided  the  fate  of  the  day. 
Najioleon  sent  him  from  Dresden  to  the 
defence  of  Italy,  now  menaced  by  the 
enemy's  forces,  where  military  operations 
commenced  after  the  dissolution  of  the 
cfingress  of  Prague,  and  the  accession 
of  Austria  to  tJie  league  of  the  allied 
powers.  Eugene  maintained  the  defence 
of  Italy  even  after  the  desertion  of  Murat. 
After  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  he  concluded 
an  armistice  with  count  Bellegarde,  by 
which  he  delivered  Lombardy,  and  all 
Upper  Italy,  to  the  Austrians.  Eugene 
then  went  immediately  to  Paris,  and 
thence  to  his  &ther-iu-law  al  Munich. 
He  was  at  the  congress  of  Vienna.  On 
the  return  of  Napoleon  from  Elba,  he 
was  obliged  to  leave  Vienna,  and  retire 
to  Baireuth.  He  was  an  inactive  spectator 
of  the  events  in  1815.  By  the  articles 
of  Fontainebleau,  an  indemnification  was 
asngned  him  for  the  loss  of  his  estates  in 


Italy,  which  were  valued  at  20—25  mil- 
lions of  francs :  but  the  congress  of  Vi- 
enna, confirmed  his  dotadon  in  the  march 
of  Ancona,  and  tlie  king  of  Naples  was 
obfiged  to  pay  him  5  million  firaucs.  By 
an  ordinance  of  the  king  of  Bavaria,  he 
was  created  duke  of  Leuchtenl)erg,  No- 
vember, 1817.  The  Bavarian  principal- 
ity of  Eichstedt  was  bestowed  upon 
him,  and  )iis  posterity  declared  capable 
of  inheriting  in  case  of  the  failure  of  th^ 
Bavarian  line.  He  died  at  Munich, 
Feb.  21, 1824,  leaving  two  sons  and  four 
daughters.  Prince  Eugene,  under  a  sim- 
ple exterior,  concealed  a  noble  character, 
and  great  talents.  Honor,  integrity,  hu- 
manity, and  Jove  of  onier  and  justice,  were 
the  principal  traits  of  his  character.  Wise 
in  tiie  council,  undaunted  in  the  field, 
and  moderate  in  the  exercise  of  power, 
he  never  appeared  greater  than  in  the 
midst  of  reverses ;  as  the  events  of  1813— 
18 J  4  prove.  He  was  inaccessible  to  the 
spirit  of  |>arty,  benevolent  and  lieneficent, 
and  more  devoted  to  the  good  of  others 
than  his  own.  He  died  of  an  organic  dis- 
orrler  of  the  brain.  (See  Vie  polUi<pMe  d 
miliUtire  (TEueme  Beauhwmcas,  Ftcc-n» 
(Phalit,  by  Aubriet,  second  edition,  Paris, 
1825.)  His  sister  is  the  duchess  of  Saint- 
Leu,  Hortensia  Eugenia,  wife  of  Louis 
Bonaparte,  formek*  king  of  Holland,  but 
lives  separate  from  her  husband.  His  son, 
the  duke  Augustus,  who  succeeded  him, 
was  bom  Oct  10, 1810.  His  eldest  daugh- 
ter, Josephine,  was  married  23d  of  March, 
1823,  to  Oscar,  crown-prince  of  Sweden, 
son  of  ChaHes  XIV ;  his  second  daughter, 
Hortensia  Eugenia,  was  married  to  the 
prince  of  Hohenzollem-Hechingen,  in 
1826.  Amalia  Eugenia  married  the  em- 
peror of  Brazil,  in  1829. 

EuLENSPiEOEL,  Tyll,  was  bom  at 
Kneitlingen,  a  village  of  Wolfenhfittel, 
not  far  from  Scbopfienstadt,  and  died, 
about  1350,  in  the  little  town  of  Mol- 
len,  about  18  miles  from  Luliec,  where 
his  gravestone,  with  a  looking-glass  (sjM" 
gd\  and  an  owl  (eule)  upon  it,  in  allusion 
to  liis  name,  yet  stands.  His  name  lias 
become  proveri)ial  in  Germany  for  all 
sorts  of  wild,  whimsical  frolics,  which  are 
committed  from  pure  love  of  fun;  for 
Tyll  was  continually  engaged  in  such,  as 
he  roved  about  through  Lower  Saxony  and 
Westphalia,  and  even  as  far  as  Poland  and 
Rome.  Accounts  of  them  are  sdl  I  preserv- 
ed in  the  jK>pular  traditions  of  Germany. 
At  what  time  and  in  what  language  ihey 
were  first  committed  to  writing  can  hard- 
ly be  determined.  From  the  tide  of  the 
old  popular  editions,  it  would  seem  to  have 


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eoo 


EULENSPIEG£L-£mJ5IL 


been  in  Low-German,  and  it  ban  l)een  sup- 
posed, without  sufficient  evidence,  that 
Thomas  Murner,  tbue  Franciscan,  doctor 
of  theology  and  law,  and  an  antagonist  of 
Luther,  known  by  his  Fool's  Complaint, 
and  other  writings  of  a  similar  stamp,  trant^ 
lated  tliem  into  High-German.  Indecencies 
are  fi^equently  to  be  found  in  thelKX>k,but 
tliey  belong  to  tlie  age.  It  has  been  a  fa- 
vorite book,  not  only  with  the  German,  but 
many  other  nations,  has  been  translated  into 
English,  French,  Latin,  Dutch  and  Polish, 
has  been  often  imitated,  and  has  passed 
dirough  edidons  without  number.  (See 
Reidiard's  Bibliothek  der  Eomane^  vol.  2 
and  4 ;  Flogel's  (kschichU  der  Hofnarrea^ 
and  Gdrres^  Ueber  die  Volksbucher.)  The 
earlier  printed  edition,  as  far  as  can  be 
ascertained,  is  the  High  German,  Stras- 
bnrg,  1519,  4to.  A  very  rare  ensravinj;  by 
Luke  of  Leyden  is  called  the  Eulenspu^ 
(I'Espi^le). 

EuLES,  Leonard ;  a  mathematician, 
boni  at  Bke,  1707,  learned  from  his  father, 
a  clergyman,  the  fir^  rudiments  of  tlie 
science  in  which  he  was  ailerwai^s  so 
distin^ished.  At  the  university  of  Bale 
he  enjoyed  the  instructions  of  John  Ber- 
nouilli,  and  the  fiiendship  of  Daniel  and 
Nicholas  Bernouilli,  who  successfully  em- 
ulated their  father's  fame.  In  his  19th 
year,  he  gained  the  accesnt  of  the  prize 
offered  by  the  Paris  academy  of  sciences 
for  the  best  treatise  on  the  masting  of 
vessels.  Catherine  I,  desirous  of  com- 
pleting the  estabHshment  of  the  academy 
of  Petersburg,  invited  Daniel  and  Nicho- 
las Bernouilli  thither.  Nicholas  died,  and 
Daniel  soon  returned  to  his  native  countr}', 
after  having  pto^ured  a  place  in  tlie  acad- 
emy for  his  friend  Euler.  Euler  now 
constituted  tlie  whole  mathematical  de- 
partment in  the  academy,  and  labored 
with  astonishing  industry ;  he  composed 
more  tlian  half  of  the  treatises  in  this 
bnmch  of  science '  contained  in  the  46 
anarto  vols,  published  by  the  academy, 
ttt»m  1727  to  1783,  and,  at  his  death,  lelfl 
al>out  100  unpublished  disseftations,  which 
were  Successively  printed  by  the  society. 
To  the  Paris  academy  of  sciences  he  also 
presented  several  treatises  (among  the  rest, 
liis  dissertation  Inquisitio  phy9*  in  Caimam 
F%uxus  ac  RtfiuxuM  Man&y  which  gained 
the  prize,  thoujrh  Bernouilli  and  Maclaurin 
were  among  his  competitors),  and  carried 
off  or  divided  10  prizes.  In  1741,  he  ac- 
cepted an  invitation  from  Frederic  the 
Great  to  liecome  professor  of  mathemat- 
ics in  the  Berlin  academy,  but,  in  17Gf>,  re- 
turned to  Petersburg,  wliere  he  died  in 
1763^  in  the  office  of  director  of  the  mathe- 


matical class  of  the  academy.  He  receiv- 
ed from  all  parts  of  Europe  flatterinir 
marks  of  respect  The  academy  of 
sciences  in  France  chofie  him,  in  1775^ 
one  of  its  foreign  m^nbers,  diou^li  none  of 
those  places,  tlien  so  much  an  object  of  am- 
bition, was  vacant  He  also  received  con- 
siderable presents  for  the  assistance  which 
he  rendered  to  Tol>.  Mayer  (q.  v.)  in  pre- 
paring his  lunar  tables,  and  £300  steiiiug, 
as  his  share  of  the  prize  o^ered  by  tlie 
English  parliament  for  the  her^.  n^edsod 
of  determining  the  longitude  at  sea.  He 
disdnguished  nimself,  particularly,  by  his 
endeavors  to  perfect  tlie  analytic  raediod, 
according  to  the  system  of  Bernouilli,  and 
the  Leibnitzian  school,  and  to  complete 
its  separation  from  pure  geometry,  which 
Newton's  disciples  principally  employed 
in  their  investigations.  He  first  gave  the 
example  of  those  long  processes,  in  which 
the  conditions  of  the  problem  are  first 
expresse<I  by  algebraic  symbols,  and  then 
pure  calculation  resolves  all  ilie  diflicuP 
ties.  In  tills,  Euler  displayed  extraordi- 
nary acutenesB,  and  a  profound  as  well  as 
inventive  genius.  He  gave  a  new  ibnn 
to  the  sci^ice.  He  applied  the  analytic 
metliod  to  mechanics,  and  enlarged  the 
boundaries  of  this  science.  He  peady 
improved  the  integral  and  differential  ca(> 
cuius  (q.  v.),  of  which  he  aflerwards  pub- 
lished a  complete  course,  which  surpass- 
ed every  thing  dien  extant  on  this  subject 
His  first  essay.  On  tlie  Masting  of  Vessels, 
and  still  more  his  residence  at  Petereliuiig, 
undoubtedly  led  him  to  die  application  of 
mathematics  to  the  building  and  inaoage- 
ment  of  vessels ;  and  be  comfHised  his  7V- 
€fm contvL de la  Constnut.  tide  la  JfajMete- 
tn  dea  Vaiss^  which  has  lieen  introduced 
into  the  French  naval  school,  and  trans- 
lated into  English,  Italian  and  Russian. 
The  great  questions  on  the  system  of  the 
universe,  which  Newton  left  to  his  suc- 
cessore  to  resolve,  were  the  constant  ob- 
ject of  Euler's  inquiries,  and  constitute 
the  subjects  of  most  of  his  prize  esnya. 
An  extensive  dioptric  treatise,  Sur  la  Per- 
fiction,  des  Vtrres  ob}e<t  des  LutuUes,  in  the 
Mhn/oires  de  BtHxa^  1747,  was  the  resuh  of 
his  inquiries  into  the  means  of  improving 
spectacles.  The  share  which  he  contriliu- 
ted,  by  this  work,  towards  the  discovery  of 
achromatic  telescopes,  is  sufficient  to  dis- 
tinguish his  name  in  tliis  department  also. 
But,  in  his  treatises  on  physics,  he  oflen 
profKises  untenable  hyiiotlieses,  and  ap- 
pears only  to  be  seeking  opportunities  for 
calculation.  He  also  employed  himself 
in  metaphvsical  and  phikisophical  8|iecu- 
latipna.    He  attempted  to  fxove  the  im- 


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EULER-EUPHONY. 


601 


materiality  of  the  soul,  and  to  defend  rev- 
elation  d^unst  free  thinkers.  In  his  well- 
known  Ijettres  it  tme  Princesse  (P»^Ue- 
mof^ne^  sur  dwera  Sujds  dt  Phya.  et  de 
PkU&9.  (Berlin,  1763,  3  vols.,  since  re- 
published several  times ;  also  in  German, 
Petersburg,  1773),  he  attacks  the  Leib- 
nitzian  system  of  monads,  and  precstab- 
lished  harmony;  but  it  is  evident  that 
this  was  not  the  field  for  him  to  shine 
in.  Meusel  has  given  a  catalogue  of 
his  numerous  writings,  which  have  not 
appeared  in  collections.  We  will  only 
mention  here  his  Theoria  Motuum  PUm- 
ttanim  et  Comdarum  f  Berlin,  1744,  4to.) ; 
his  hdroductio  in  Ancdygin  fnfinitorum 
(Lausanne,  1748,  2  vols.);  his  work  al- 
ready mentioned,  which  has  always  been 
regarded  as  his  greatest  ])roduction — histi- 
tutumes  CalcvliDifferentialia  (Berl'm,  1755, 
4to.) ;  his  hsiitutiones  Odcidi  htegrcdis 
(Petersburg,  1768—70,3  vols.  4to.;  new 
edition,  4  vols.,  1792 — ^94) ;  his  remarka- 
bly cltmr  and  intelligible  Introduction  to 
Algebra  (ed.  by  Ebert,  Berlin,  1801,  2 
vols.J ;  his  ZKopeKca (Petersburg,  1767—71, 
3  vols.  4to.) ;  his  Opvacvla  Analytical  &c. 
Euler  was  of  an  amiable  character,  unas- 
suming in  hie  manners,  of  a  cheerful  and 
always  pleasant  temper ;  he  was  fond  of 
society,  and  had  the  art  of  enlivening  it 
by  an  affreeable  wit  During  the  last  17 
years  of  his  life,  he  was  totally  blind. 
By  his  first  marriage,  he  had  13  children, 
5  of  whom  were  living  when  he  married 
his  second  wife,  his  sister-in-law.  Of 
his  sons,  John  Albert,  l)om  at  Petersbur|f, 
1734,  where  he  died,  1800,  followed  in  his 
father's  stey»,  was  a  thorough  and  expert 
mathematician,  and  wrote  many  treatises, 
of  which  seven  gained  prizes.  A  cata- 
logue of  them  has  been  given  by  Meusel. 

Eulogies  compose,  particularly  in 
French  literature,  a  separate  branch  of 
belles-lettres.  In  the  a^e  of  Louis  XIV, 
they  took  the  place  of  biography.  Their 
object  being  the  praise  of  distinguished 
men,  tnith  has  been  often  sacrificed  in 
them  to  flattery.  The  French  academy, 
especiallv,  has  paid  this  tribute  to  literarv 
merit,  "tlie  epoch  of  eulogies  began  with 
Fontenelle,  who  published  two  volumes 
of  them,  in  1731,  distinguisheii  for  th«ir 
clearness,  vivacity  and  elegance.  Those 
which  followed  them  were  written  with 
much  oratorical  pomp.  Some  of  tlie  best 
eulogies  are  by  Thomas  (author  oiEsscds 
star  Us  l^ges)^  D'Alembert,  La  Harpe 
and  Condorcet 

EuMENiDEs.    (See  Furies.) 
'  EuNOMiA.    (See  Hours,) 

EuifucHS.    (See  Casbratei.)    Many  of 

▼oi»  IV.  51 


the  eunuchs,  destined  to  become  the 
guardians  of  the  great  harems  of  the 
Turkish  empire,  are  made  such  in  a  vil- 
lage near  Siout,  the  capital  of  Upper 
Egypt,  where  the  operation  is  performed 
mostly  hy  Coptic  priests.  The  slaves 
who  sufrer  are  too  young  to  have  any 
moral  repugnance  to  the  ceremony  which 
they  have  to  pass  tlirough ;  on  the  con- 
trary, they  are,  most  of  them,  it  is  said, 
delighted  with  tiie  prospect  of  the  fine 
clothes,  horses,  &c^  which  they  will  have 
at  command  when  they  become  guard- 
ians of  the  harems.  Burckhardt,  Sonnini, 
Belzoni,  and  other  travellers,  difibr  in 
respect  to  the  number  of  those  who  die 
in  consequence  of  the  operation.  Doc- 
tor Madden,  to  whom  the  Coptic  priests 
were  ordered  by  the  casheff  to  state  the 
proportion,  says  that,  out  of  100, 15  die. 
(See  Letter  xxv,  in  R.  R.  Madden's  Trav- 
els in  TSurkcu,  E^ypt,  Mdtia  and  Palestine^ 
London,  1829,  PhUadelphia,  1830.) 

EuPATORiUH ;  a  genus  of  plants,  be- 
longing to  the  natural  order  composita^ 
containing  a  great  number  of  species, 
most  of  which  are  natives  of  America. 
Their  roots  ars  {)erennial,  possessing  a 
rough,  bitter,  or  aromatic  taste ;  the  leaves 
opposite,  verticillate,  or,  sometimes,  alter- 
nate; the  flowera  smaJl,  white,  reddfeb, 
or  bluish,  in  corymbs.  More  than  30 
snecies  inhabit  the  U.  States,  among  them 
the  E,  perfoliatum  (thorough-wort,  or 
lione-set),  a  common  plant,  in  low 
grounds,  throughout  the  Union.  The 
leaves  of  tliis  plant  are  opposite,  and  join- 
ed together  at  the  base,  the  two  formingi 
apparently,  a  single  leaf^  which  is  perfo- 
rated by  the  stem.  Tliis  ]ilant  is  a  |)opu- 
lar  remedy,  acting  powerfully  as  a  sudo- 
rific and  emetic,  and  sometimes  as  a  pur- 
gative. The  E.  ayofona  of  Brasjil,  wiiich 
has  been  much  celebrated,  possesses  sim- 
ilar properties,  and  probably  many  others 
ef  the  genus  do  also. 

Euphony  ^from  the  Greek  c*^mi»i«,  in 
Latin  euphotua,  from  <Pitv^,  sound,  and  cft^ 
well)  means  agreeable  and  harmonious 
sound,  jiarticularly  the  harmony  of  words ; 
thus,  for  instance,  we  say,  in  Italian  more 
regard  has,  prol>ably,  been  paid  to  eupho- 
ny than  in  any  otlier  modem  European 
language ;  in  fact,  this  language  has  often 
disregarded  etymology  for  the  sake  of 
euphony.  In  general  it  may  be  said,  that 
the  languages  which  are  derived  from  the 
Latin  have  paid  more  re^rd  to  euphony 
tliaii  those  of  the  Teutonic  stock ;  the  lat- 
ter adhering,  too  often  pedantically^  to 
the  etymology  of  words,  as  if  the  lan- 
guage was  inlended  only  for  the  eye,  and 


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EUPHONY—EUEIProES. 


not  much  more  for  the  ear.  .  Euphony  ib 
more  particularly  consulted  in  a  ianguage, 
when  it  is  still  in  its  youth ;  but  tlie  more 
there  has  been  written  in  it,  the  less  regard 
is  paid  to  euphony  in  the  formation  of  new 
words.  From  a  similar  cause,  mure  re- 
gard is  paid  to  euphony  among  the  lower 
Uian  among  the  higher  classes.  With 
the  former,  language  is  addressed  more 
lo  the  ear  than  die  eye ;  but,  as  we  ascend 
to  the  higher  classes,  the  language  be- 
comes more  a  means  of  written  commu- 
nication, and  euphony  is  more  neglected. 
A^in,  in  that  nation  in  which  most  is 
written,  and  which  alTords  the  fewest 
occasions  for  public  speaking^ we  mean 
tlie  Gennan — comparatively  little  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  euphony,  and  much  to 
etymology ;  so  that,  when  the  people  have 
formed  a  practical  and  euphonic  word, 
contrary  to  the  strict  rules  of  etymology, 
which,  in  England  or  the  U.  States,  the 
two  most  practical  of  civilized  countnes, 
would  instantly  come  into  use,  a  Grerman 
writer  will  not  use  it  without  a  caution^ 
•*8o  called"  {aogenanni).  The  Greeks 
flAve  its  due  weight  to  euphony,  and  tlie 
Romans,  also,  allowed  it  a  great  influ- 
ence, as  every  nation  will  do,  in  whicli 
the  language  i^  addressed  more  to  the 
ear  than  to  the  eye. 

Euphrates,  or  Phrat,  or  Frat;  one 
of  the  largest  and  most  celebrated  rivers 
of  Asia,  which  has  its  rise  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Armenia,  from  two  principal 
sources, — one  issuing  from  a  mountain 
in  tlie  vicinity  of  Hajazid  and  Dradin, 
not  &r  from  mount  Aramt,  the  other  from 
mountains  around  Erzenun.  These  two 
stiijams  unite  near  Palo.  The  general 
course  of  the  river  is  south-easter^.  At 
Corna,  130  miles  above  its  mouth,  it  is 
joined  by  the  Tigris.  The  united  stream, 
called  the  Shot  m  Jhrab^  flows  into  the  Per- 
sian gulf,  70  miles  below  Bassora.  The 
whole  length  is  upwards  of  1500  milea» 
It  is  navigable  for  snips  of  500  tons  to  Bas- 
sora, and,  in  the  driest  season,  for  lai^e 
boats  to  Shukaskac,  a  day^s  sail  above 
Coma.  According  to  Kinneir,  the  great- 
est increase  of  the  Euphrates  is  in  Jan- 
uary, when  it  rises  12  feet  perpendicular. 
The  Euphrates  is  one  of  tne  most  cele- 
brated rivers  of  antiquity.  On  its  banks 
is  generally  placed  tlie  paradise  of  the 
Mosaic  records;  and  here  Nimrod  laid 
the  foundations  of  the  Babylonian  em- 
pive.  Between  the  Euphrates  and  the 
Tigris  lay  the  fertile  Mesopotamia,  the 
country  of  the  patriarchs. 
EurH&oBTNE.  (See  Giticet.) 
EuAK.;  a  river  of  Fninoe,  which  has 


S'ven  itsname  to  two  depaitmeii(8,|]iat  ol* 
e  Eure,  and  tiiat  of  the  Eure  and  Loire. 
(See  DtpatitMinL)  The  river  rises  in  tho 
department  of  the  Ome,  and  falls  into  the 
Seine,  on  die  left  bank,  near  Pout-de- 
I'Arche,  after  a  course  of  124  miies,  being 
navigable  for  about  half  the  distance. 

EcRiPtDSs.  This  poet  was  bom  in  the 
1st  year  of  the  75th  Olympiad,  at  Sala- 
mis^  on  the  day  on  wiiich  the  vast  navy 
of  Xerxes  was  defeated  by  the  Greeks: 
and  thus  this  event  serves  as  a  point  of 
connexion  of  tlie  three  greatest  tragic 
poets  of  Greece ;  for  iEaehylus  was  one 
of  the  victors  on  this  occasion,  and  the 
young  Sopliocles  danced  at  the  triumph. 
Of  the  youth  of  Euripides  we  know  only 
that  his  father,  in  consequence  of  some 
false  prediction,  intended  to  train  hhn  fcnr 
an  aiidde ;  but  his  natural  inclination  led 
him  to  different  pursuits.  At  first  be 
Studied  painting,  but  afterwards  sjiphed 
himself  to  rhetoric,  under  Prodicus,  and 
to  philosophv,  under  Anaxagoras  (not 
Socrates).  These  studies  had  so  power- 
ful an  influence  on  his  poetry,  that  be 
might  be  called  the  rhetorical  tragedian 
with  no  less  truth  than  he  is  called  the 
jMosophxcal  tragedian,  Euripides  lived 
at  a  time  when  Greek  tragedy  was  carried 
to  its  greatest  petfection  by  vophocle^  to 
be  ranked  as  second  to  whom  is  high 
gloiy.  These  two  ooets  were  the  favor- 
ites of  their  age.  The  tragedies  of  Eurip- 
ides were  represented  at  the  same  time 
with  those  of  Sophocles,  and  sometimes 
giuned  the  prize  in  preference.  The 
critics,  indeed,  did  not  agree  unanimously 
in  this  decision  of  the  public ;  and  the 
unsparing  satire  of  Aristophanes  was  di- 
rected against  the  popular  poet,  whom  be 
ridiculed  in  cutting  parodies.  ^Aria- 
tophaues,"  says  Richter,  ^'like  another 
Moses,  showers  his  frogs  on  Euripides^ 
only  to  chastise  his  lax  and  relaxing  mo- 
rality, not  blinded,  like  Socrates,  by  his 
moral  sentences  to  the  immoral  tendency 
of  the  whole.*'  The  number  of  his  trage- 
dies has  been  variously  stated,  from  75 
to  SJ2 ;  as  it  is  known  that  he  finished  bis 
worics  with  great  care,  the  former  esti- 
mate seems  more  probable.  Only  19 
are  extant,  on  the  merit  of  which  we 
have  the  following  criticism  by  A.  W. 
Schlegel:  **  Considering  Euripides  by 
himseGf,  without  comparing  him  with  hw 
predecessors,  selecting  many  of  his  better 
pieces,  and  taking  mngle  passages  in  odi- 
ers,  we  cannot  deny  him  extnordtnaxy 
merit  Bat  if  we  regard  him  in  connex- 
ion with  tlie  history  of  the  art,  and  look 
«t  ihe  whole  aoope  and  aim  of  his  pieces^ 


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EUBIPIDiBS— EUROPA. 


608 


as  it  appears  in  those  which  have  come 
down  to  us,  we  find  cause  for  much  and 
severe  censure.  Of  few  writers  can  so 
much  good  and  evil  be  truly  said.  He  had 
an  inexhaustible  invention,  and  the  most 
various  accomplisUiments ;  but,  amidst  an 
abundance  of  brilliant  and  attractive  qual- 
ities, there  is  wanting  that  elevated  grav- 
ity of  spirit,  and  that  nice  dramatic  tact» 
which  we  admire  in  ifischylus  and  Soph- 
ocles. He  is  always  aimiuff  to  please,  no 
matter  by  what  means.  Hence  it  is  that 
he  is  so  unequal :  firequently  he  has  pas- 
sages of  exquisite  beauty ;  at  other  times 
he  sinks  into  mere  common-place.  With 
all  his  faults,  he  hiis  an  adminiMe  ease, 
and  a  certain  insinuating  grace."  If  tlie 
reader  would  view  both  sides  of  the  poet's 
character,  be  may  peruse  A.  W.  Sclile- 

Sel's  essay,  A  Comparison  of  the  PbiB- 
ra  of  Euripides  with  tliat  of  Racine,  in 
connexion  with  what  he  has  said  in  the 
fifth  of  his  Lectures  on  the  Dramatic  Art 
and  Literature.  A  part  of  the  fiiults  of 
Euripides  may  be  cnarged  to  the  age  in 
which  he  lived,  which  was  an  age  of 
sopliistical  disquisition,  of  political  con- 
troversy and  riietorical  art ;  though  it  can 
never  be  a  sufficient  anolo^  for  wron^, 
that  it  is  fiishional)le.  Euripides  made  it 
a  chief  aim  to  awaken  the  tender  emo- 
tions. "He  knew,"  says  another  critic, 
**  the  nature  of  tlie  passions,  and  had  the 
art  of  inventing  situations  In  which  they 
could  have  their  full  play.  Withal  hie 
has  an  elegiac  tone,  which  seldom  or 
never  fails  of  its  effect  Most  of  his  char- 
acters were  once  in  the  enjoyment  of 
distini^uished  prosperity,  and  the  retros- 
pect, in  their  present  situation,  checks  the 
violence  of  the  passions,  and  fewers  them 
to  the  tone  of  lamentation.  For  this 
reason,  in  his  trage<lie8,  the  passions  are 
breathed  forth  in  soft  complaints,  rather 
titan  raised  to  a  iofly  height ;  for  the  same 
reason,  he  is  so  rich  in  moral  sentences, 
and  pliilosophioal  declamations,  as  his 
personages  have  always  coolness  enough 
to  reflect  on  their  situation.  Euripides 
knew  well  wliat  was  suited  to  produce 
an  efiect  at  the  moment.  The  times  of 
boldness,  when  iEschylus  w^rote,  were 
post,  and  the  power  of  the  state  was  be- 
ginning gradually  to  sink.  The  patlietic 
manner  of  Euripides  then  became  pop- 
ular." Various  raults  may  be  found  with 
his  loose  plan,  his  often  unintelligible 
changes  of  character,  his  superfluous  cho- 
ruses, and  sometimes,  too,  his  subject; 
but  he  stands  preeminent  in  true,  natural 
expression  of  the  passions,  in  interesting 
situatioosi  oiiginal.grouping8  of  character, 


and  various  knowledge  of  human  nature. 
He  is  a  master  too,  in  the  art  of  man- 
aging the  dialogue,  in  adopting  the  speech- 
es and  answers  to  the  character,  tlie  sex 
and  station,  the  known  or  private  views, 
the  present  dts|>osition  of  the  speaker,  and 
the  necessity  of  the  moment,  in  short,  to 
all  that  gives  distincmess  and  individuality 
to  a  person.  There  is,  too,  a  certain  ten- 
derness and  softness  diflTused  over  his 
writings,  which  cannot  fail  to  please  the 
mind.  He  has  been  often  called  the 
woman-hater,  probably  on  account  of  his 
many  severe  sentences  on  the  foHies '  of 
the  female  sex.  Yet  he  was  not  disin- 
clined to  the  sex,  and  is  said  to  have  had 
two  wives.  We  meet,  too,  in  his  works, 
occasional  descriptions  of  female  loveU- 
ness,  and  his  sensibility  to  the  nobler 
charms  of  female  purity  and  virtue  can- 
not be  denied.  It  is  not  likely,  as  boa 
been  said,  tliat  his  hatred  of  women,  and 
of  his  own  wife  in  particular,  drove  him 
from  Athens  to  Macedonia ;  he  wetit  at 
the  invitation  of  king  Archclaus,  whose 
favor  and  confidence  he  enjoyed.  Ac- 
cording to  the  tradition,  he  there  metwitli 
an  unfortunate  end,  being  torn  to  nieces 
by  dogs,  or  dying  in  consequence  of  their 
bites.  The  monarch  erected  a  splendid 
monument,  with  the  inscrijition,  **Thir 
memory,  O  Euripides,  will  never  perish." 
Still  more  hononU)le  was  the  inscription 
on  the  cenotaph  at  Athens:  ''All  Greece 
is  the  monument  of  Euripides;  the  Ma- 
cedonian earth  covers  only  his  bones." 
Sophocles,  who  survived  hun,  publicly 
mourned  his  loss.  The  most  celebrated 
editions  of  Euripides  are  those  of  Paul 
Stephanus  (Paris,  1602, 2  volsA  of  Barnes 
(Cambridge,  1694,  folio),  or  Musgrave 
(Oxford,  1778,  4  vols.  4to.),  and  of  Mo- 
rus  and  Beck  (Leipsic,  1779—88,  4to.). 
Tiie  latest  critical  editions  are  by  Mat- 
thi«  (Leipsic,  1813—20, 6  vols.),  and  by 
Botiie  (Leipsic,  1825.  sqq.).  Vulkenaer, 
Brunck,  Person,  Markland,  &C.,  have  de- 
voted themselves  to  the  illustration  of 
single  tragedies. 

EuROPA,  in  mythology ;  the  daughter 
of  Agenor,  king  of  the  PhcenKians,  aud 
the  nymph  Mella,  or  Telephasso,  and 
sister  of  Cadmus,  whose  name,  stgnifyuig 
whiUf  is  said  to  have  heeii  given  to  the 
European  continent,  whose  inhabitants 
are  white.  The  fable  relotcs,  that  one  of 
Juno's  attendants  stole  a  paint-box  from 
the  toilet  of  her  mistress,  and  gave  it  to 
£Uiroi)a.  Her  native  beauty,  heighten- 
ed by  this  means,  won  the  love  of  Jupi- 
ter, who,  in  order  to  possess  her,  changed 
himself  into  a  while  bull,  and  appeared 


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EUROPA— EUROPE. 


in  diis  shape  on  the  shores  of  tlie  sea, 
where  she  was  strolling  with  her  compan- 
ions. Attracted  by  the  beauty  and  gen- 
tleness of  the  animal,  she  even  ventured 
to  mount  upon  his  back,  wlien  he  imme- 
diately plunged  into  the  sea  with  his 
lovely  prize,  and  swam  to  the  island  of 
Crete.  Here  he  transformed  himsielf  into 
a  beautiful  youth,  and  had  hy  her  Minos, 
Sarpedon  and  Rhadamanthus.  She  af- 
terwards married  Asterius,  king  of  Crete, 
who,  being  childless,  adopted  her  three 
sons. 

Europe;  the  smallest  of  the  great  di- 
Tisions  of  our  globe,  but  distinguished 
above  the  rest  by  the  character  of  its 
population,  the  superior  cultivation  of  the 
soil,  and  the  flourishing  condition  of  arts, 
sciences,  industry  and  commerce,  the 
multitude  of  large  and  well-built  cities, 
and  its  power  and  influence  over  the' 
other  pails  of  the  world.  Of  the  origin 
of  its  name  and  its  inhabitants,  history 
furnishes  no  certain  account.  It  is  most 
probable,  that  the  firet  inhabitants  emi- 
grated from  Asia,  the  cradle  of  the  human 
race.  Greece  was  flrst  peopled  by  tlie 
emigrants.  In  that  country,  aliout  1400 
yeara  before  our  era,  grew  up  the  Helle- 
nes, who  soon  outstripped  the  civilization 
of  Asia.  The  most  nourishing  period  of 
that  nation,  commonly  called  3ie  Gruks, 
was  about  300  B.  C.  Eaually  distin- 
guished in  action  and  speculation,  adorn- 
ed by  the  arts  and  sciences,  rich  in  the 
noblest  productions  of  cultivated  minds, 
it  will  be,  as  long  as  civilization  endures, 
an  object  of  admiration,  and  its  remains 
the  foundation  of  our  knowledge  and 
taste.  But  with  the  dissolution  of  Alex- 
ander's empire,  which  had  been  raised  on 
the  ruins  of  Grecian  freedom,  Greece 
sunk  into  insignificance.  At  the  same 
time,  another  nation  was  rising  in  Italy, 
the  Romans,  who  appeared,  indeed,  at  an 
earlier  period,  but  made  no  figure  in  his- 
tory till  they  had  become  masters  of  Ita- 
ly, and  had  proved  victorious  in  their 
struggle  witJi  the  Carthaginians.  From 
that  fieriod,  their  power  began  to  extend 
oyer  all  Euroi)e.  They  subdued  tlie  di- 
vided Greeks,  and  transplanted  their  arts 
and  refinement  to  the  Italian  soil.  By 
the  profi;re8s  of  the  Roman  anns,  Spain, 
Portugal,  France,  tlie  coast  of  England, 
Belgium,  Helvetia,  the  part  of  Germany 
between  the  Danulie  and  the  A]m,  the 
Hungarian  provinces  (then  calleii  Pauno- 
two,  Bbfria  and  Dacia)^  became  known, 
and  received  the  Roman  manners,  lan- 
^oge  and  refinement.  Agriculture  was 
introduced,  and  flourishing   cities   rose 


amoni^  the  wandering  nomades.  The 
Christian  religion,  which  spread  throuefa- 
out  the  wide  Roman  empire,  was  uso 
a  powerful  instrument  in  the  civilization 
of  most  of  the  European  nations.  Ger^ 
many  alone  resisted  the  overwbelininff 
power  of  Rome,  and  thereby  prevented 
tlie  spreading  of  Roman  civilization  in 
the  nordi  of  Europe,  which  sull  remained 
unknown  in  history.  Witli  the  fiill  of 
the  Roman  empire,  occaidoned  chiefly  bj 
its  separation  into  the  Eastern  and  West- 
ern empires,  a  great  change  in  the  political 
constitution  of  Europe  was  produced,  bj 
the  universal  emigration  of  the  northern 
nations.  These  nations  poured  down 
ufMin  the  beautiful  and  cultivated  coun- 
tries of  die  Roman  empire,  now  in  the 
weakness  of  decline,  anu  Roman  ait  and 
science  were  obliged  to  give  place  to  the 
barbarity,  the  deep  ignorance  and  super- 
stition of  the  middle  ages.  The  Ostro- 
gotlis  and  Lombards  settled  in  Italy,  the 
Franks  in  France,  the  Visigotlis  in  Sfiain, 
and  the  Anglo-Saxons  in  South  Britain, 
reducing  the  inhabitants  to  subjection,  or 
becoming  incorporated  with  them.  The 
empire  of  the  Franks  was  enlarged,  un- 
der Charlemagne,  to  such  an  extent,  that 
the  kingdoms  of  France,  Germany,  Italy, 
Burgundy,  Liorraine  aiid  Navarre  were 
afterwards  fonned  out  of  it  About  this 
time,  the  northern  and  eastern  nations  of 
Europe  began  to  exert  an  influence  in  the 
aflTuira  of  the  worid.  The  Slavi,  or  Scla- 
vonians,  founded  kingdoms  in  Bohemiak, 
Poland,  Russia,  and  the  north  of  Germa- 
ny; the  Magyarians  appeared  in  Hun- 
gary, and  the  Nonnans  agitated  all  Ei>- 
rofie.  The  establishment  of  a  hieiBrchy 
was  now  undertaken  by  the  popes,  and 
finally  carried  to  its  completion  by  Greg- 
ory VII  and  Innocent  III.  (See  Empire.) 
Their  jiower  was  increased  by  the  cru- 
sades. Nevertheless,  this  struggle  be- 
tween Asia  and  Europe  had  the  efieci  of 
forming  a  middle  class,  of  leading  tbe 
peasant  gradually  to  throw  oflf  tbe  chains 
of  bondage,  and  of  introducing  the  arts 
and  sciences  through  tlie  Arabs  aod  Greeks 
into  Europe.  The  revival  of  letters,  hy 
the  Greeks  fleeing  from  Constantinople, 
gave  an  entirely  new  impulse  to  Europe. 
The  establishment  of  universities,  tlie  in- 
vention of  printing,  and  the  reformation, 
served  to  cherisli  and  develope  these 
seeds  of  improvement  The  feudal  con- 
tests, the  stniggle  of  privileges,  led  eventu- 
ally to  the  acknowledgment  and  establish- 
iiient  of  the  rights  of  the  individual.  (See 
Cihfj  CorpormmLt  and  EslakB,)  Out  of 
the  chaos  of  the  middle  age%  arose  tli« 


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^05 


■Catet  of  Germany,  France,  Spain,  Por^ 
tugai,  England,  Scotland,  Switzerland, 
tlio  Italian  powers,  Hungary,  Bohemia, 
Poland,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Norway  and 
Russia.  By  the  capture  of  Constantino- 
ple (1453),  the  Turkis,  with  their  fanatical 
military  despotism,  became  a  European 
power.  Austria,  Holland,  Prussia  and 
Sardinia  were  also  added  to  the  number 
of  European  states;  and  Russia,  from 
the  time  of  Peter  I,  was  changed  from 
an  Asiatic  into  a  European  empire.  The 
attempts  of  Charles  V  and  Louis  XIV  to 
become  masters  of  Europe  iiiiled ;  but, 
in  our  own  times.  Napoleon  conceived 
the  project  of  forming,  from  tlie  Europe- 
an states,  a  univenal  monarchy,  and  pur- 
sued it  for  10  years.  Since  the  formation 
of  the  states  of  Europe,  the  following 
have  disappeared  from  the  list  of  inde- 
pendent [wwers:  Hungary,  Poland,  the 
German  empire,  Scotland,  Bohemia,  Ven- 
ice, Genoa,  and  Milan.  The  following 
have  been  added  :  the  states  of  the  Ger- 
man confederacy,  the  Italian  states,  the 
republic  of  the  Ionian  islands,  and  that  of 
Cracow.  A  natural  consequence  of  the 
general  diffusion  of  intellectual  cultiva- 
tion, and  the  decay  of  the  feudal  system, 
lias  been  the  gradual  developement  of  the 
ideas  of  equal  right  and  individual  liber- 
ty; bloody  struggles  have  naturally  en- 
sued between  the  adherents  of  the  new 
and  old  opinions,  and  Europe  is  still  con- 
vulsed by  them.  (See  Fnukd  Stfttem, 
J>rapoUan,  &c.| — ^Europe  is  washed  on 
tliree  sides  by  tne  sea,  which  is  called  by 
different  names,  and  belongs  either  to  the 
Northern  Arctic  or  the  Atlantic  ocean. 
A  narrow  strait  of  the  Mediterranean 
separates  it  from  Africa.  On  the  east, 
alone,  it  ioins  the  main  land,  being  there 
separated  from  Asia  by  an  imaginary  line. 
Europe  is  situated  in  the  northern  frozen 
and  the  northern  temperate  zones,  be- 
tween 10^  and  63P  east  longitude,  and  36° 
and  71°  north  latitude.  Including  the 
islands,  which  contain  about  317,000 
square  miles,  the  whole  extent  of  Europe 
amounts  to  about  3,250,000  square  miles, 
of  which  Russia  comprises  neariy  one 
half.  The  neatest  length,  from  cape  St 
Vincent,  in  Portugal,  to  the  northern  ex- 
tremity of  the  eastern  boundary,  at  Way- 
gan's  straits,  is  about  3500  miles.  The 
greatest  breadth,  from  cape  Matapan,  in 
the  Morea,  to  the  Nortli  Cape,  in  Nor- 
way, is  about  2500  miles.  Europe  is  re- 
markably well  watered,  although  its  rivers 
have  not  so  long  a  course,  nor  such  large 
cataracts,  as  those  in  other  parts  of  the 
globe,  partiGulariy  in   America.     The 


principal  riveiB  are  the  Ebro,  the  Rhone 
and  the  Po,  running  into  the  Mediterra-* 
nean ;  the  I)anul)e,  the  Dnieper  and  tlie 
Dniester,  into  the  Black  sea ;  the  Don,  into 
the  sea  of  Azoph ;  the  Wolga,  into  th0 
Caspian ;  the  Dwina,  into  the  Arctic  ocean ; 
another  Dwina,  or  Duna,  the  Vistula  and 
tlie  Oder,  into  the  Baltic ;  tlie  Elbe,  We- 
ser  and  Rhine,  into  the  North  sea ;  the 
Seine,  into  the  English  channel ;  tiie  I^ire 
and  Garonne,  the  Duero  and  Tagus,  the 
Guadiana  and  Guadalquiver,  into  the  At* 
lantic.  The  Wolga  and  Danube  are  the 
longest.  Of  its  numerous  lakes,  the  lar- 
gest, wliich,  however,  bear  no  compari- 
son with  the  North  American,  are  in  the 
north  of  Europe ;  viz.,  in  Russia,  lakes 
Ladoffa  (the  largest  in  Euro|)e),  Onega, 
and  Tchudskoe,  or  Peipus;  in  Sweden, 
lakes  Maler,  Wener,  and  Wetter.  On 
tlie  borders  of  Germany  and  Switzerland 
is  lake  Constance ;  on  tlie  borders  of  It- 
aly and  Switzerland  is  the  lake  of  Gene- 
va (lake  Leman) ;  in  Hungary  are  lakes 
Platten  and  Neusiedler.  A  great  part  of 
Europe  .is  mountainous;  the  southern 
more  so  than  the  northern.  The  most 
elevated  region  is  Switzeriand,  from 
which  there  is  a  descient,  which  termi- 
nates, on  the  side  of  the  Nortli  sea  and 
the  Baltic,  in  low  plain&  The  lowest 
and  most  level  parts  are  Holland  and 
northern  Gennany,  Denmark,  Russia  and 
Prussia.  The  highest  mountains  are  the 
Alps,  in  Switzeriand  and  Italy,  which 
spread  from  those  countries  in  various  di- 
recdons,  extend  westwardly  into  France, 
and  are  connected  by  the  Cevennes  with 
the  Pyrenees,  which  separate  France 
from  Spain.  One  chain  of  the  Alps 
stretches  south  towards  tlie  Meditemir 
nean ;  then,  taking  an  easterly  course,  runa 
througli  Italy,  under  the  name  of  the 
Apennines,'  Several  brandies  run  east- 
wards firom  tlie  Alps,  through  the  south 
of  Germany,  as  far  as  the  Turkish  pror- 
inces.  Another  chain,  the  Jura,  nins  to 
tlie  north,  and  separates  Switzerland  from 
France.  In  the  east  of  Europe  are  tlie 
Carpathian  mountains,  wliich,  on  one 
side,  meet  the  Sudetic  range,  and  on  the 
other,  the  mountains  of  Turicey  in  Eu- 
rope. The  highest  mountain  in  Europe 
is  Mont  Blanc,  in  Savoy,  one  of  tlie  Alps, 
which  is  saki  to  be  15,7fiG  feet  aliove  the 
level  of  tlie  sea.  Several  of  the  European 
mountains  are  volcanoes ;  as  iEma,  Ve- 
suvius and  Hecki.  It  is  a  &ct  worthy  of 
notice,  that  nbno  of  the  volcanoes  of  Eu- 
rope are  to  be  found  in  an  v  of  the  mat 
chains  of  mountains  which  have  just  boeik 
enimieratad.    Tiie  ooly  one  on  the  conti- 


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EUROPE. 


nent  is  Vesuvius,  and  this  is  too  much  de^ 
tuched  to  be  considered  as  woperly  forming 
one  of  the  A]>ennine8.  iGuia,  in  the  isl- 
and of  Sicily,  rising  to  the  height  of  10  or 
11,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  is  the 
largest  Eurofiean  volcano.  The  Lipari 
islands,  anciently  called  the  .Slolian,  a  few 
miles  to  the  north  of  Sicily,  bear  evident 
marks  of  a  volcanic  origin;  and,  in  several 
of  them,  subterranean  tires  are  still  in  ope- 
ration. The  volcano  of  Stromboli  is  in  al- 
most incessant  activity,  and  <liffers,  in  this 
respect,  from  any  other  with  which  we 
are  acquainted.  The  Azores,  in  the  At- 
lantic ocean,  are  doubdess  indebted  for 
their  formation  to  tlie  same  circumstance 
as  the  Lipari  islands  ;  and,  indeed,  new 
rocks  have  risen  from  the  sea  in  tlieir  vi- 
cinity, within  a  recent  period.  An  erup- 
tion took  place  at  St  George,  during  the 
present  century.  Iceland,  too,  though 
tying  under  65°  of  nortli  latitude,  presents 
the  most  abundant  tokens  of  the  presence 
of  volcanic  fire,  and  has  often  suffered 
under  its  devastations.  Mount  Hecla  is 
the  most  noted,  though  not  the  only 
source  of  the  eruptions  ■  on  this  island. — 
To  the  possession  of  many  inland  seas, 
and,  consequently,  of  a  line  of  coast  very 
extensive  in  |)rDportion  to  its  area,  Europe 
18  greatly  indebted  for  the  great  advance- 
ment of  its  inhabitants  in  civilization; 
these  circumstances  being  favorable  to 
that  intercourse  without  which  nations 
never  make  great  advances.  The  pe- 
ninsulas are  six:  Scandinavia,  Jutland, 
Crimea  (T\mrica  Chenonesus),  Italy, 
S|)ain  and  Greece.  The  soil  of  Europe, 
though  not  equal  in  luxuriance  to  that,  of 
tlie  tropics,  is,  almost  throughout,  fit  for 
cultivation.  The  tracts  in  the  northern 
zone  are  almost  the  only  exception. 
With  respect  to  climate,  Europe  may  he 
divided  into  three  parts, — the  warm  re- 
gion, where  the  lemon-trees  grow  wild, 
as  far  as  48°  north  lat,  havme  a  pleasant 
spring,  a  hot  sununer,  and  short  winter ; 
tlie  temperate,  as  far  as  65°  N.,  in  which 
grain  ripens ;  and  the  cold  region,  to  the 
extreme  nortli,  where  nothing  will  grow 
but  reindeer-moss,  and  no  domestic  ani- 
mal can  live  except  the  reindeer.  The 
products  are  not  so  various  as  in  otlier 
{tarts  of  the  world,  and  many  of  them 
were  originally  brought  from  foreign 
countries  and  naturalized;  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  Europe  f»n  boast  of  a  more 
perfect  cultivation.  Among  the  animals 
aw  horses,  some  of  which  are  of  the 
nobler  breeds,  homed  cattle,  sheep  in 
Spain,  Saxony  and  England,  of  tlie  finest 
wool,  anes,  goats,  swine,  dogs,  reindeer, 


wild  beasts  of  different  kinds,  valuabk  Air 
their  flesh  or  fur,  whales,  sea-cows,  aea- 
dogs,  abundance  of  wild  and  tame  fowl, 
large  quantities  of  fish  in  tlie  seae^  lakes 
and  rivets,  among  which  tlie  herring,  in 
particular,  afibrds  sustenance  to  many  of 
the  inhabitants;  useful  insects,  suck  as 
bees,  silkworms,  kermes,  gall  fiies,  and 
Spanish  flies.  Oysters  and  pearl  muscles 
also  abound.  It  produces  all  kinds  of 
grain,  and  sufficif^nt  for  its  consum|ition ; 
beautiful  garr^.<;n  plants;  abundance  of 
fruits,  including  those  of  soutliem  cli- 
mates, p'jch  as  figs,  almonds,  chestnuts^ 
lemoiis,  oranges,  olives,  pomegranates^ 
dates;  also  flax,  hemp,  cotton,  madder, 
tobacco,  the  best  kinds  of  wine,  and  a 
ffreat  variety  of  wood  for  fuel,  and  for 
house  and  ship  building.  The  birch  and 
the  willow  best  endure  the  cold  of  the 
northern  polar  circle.  Europe  produces 
all  the  varieties  of  metals  and  minerals 
in  great  excellence  and  abundance.  In 
gold  and  silver,  Hungniy  and  Transylva- 
nia are  the  richest ;  in  iron,  the  northern 
countries,  Sweden,  Norway  and  Russia. 
Salt  of  all  kinds,  rock,  sea  and  spring  salt, 
is  also  abundant  in  Europe.  The  inhab- 
itants, estimated  by  MaJte-Brun  at  200 
millions,  at  least,  are  unequally  distributed ; 
in  Russia  and  Sweden  there  are  from  15 
to  18  to  a  square  mile ;  in  the  Netheriands, 
where  the  {lopulation  is  most  dense,  Italy, 
France,  Great  Britain  and  Germany,  the 
same  extent  supports  from  150  to  250 
persons.  The  inhabitants  consist  of  sev- 
eral different  races,  speaking  distinct  lan- 
guages. The  stocks  to  which  the  princi- 
pal languages  belong,  are — the  Teutonic, 
which  is  the  mother  of  the  German, 
Dutch,  English,  Swedish  and  Danish; 
the  Latin,  or  Roman,  now  spoken  only 
by  the  learned,  but  the  motlier  of  the 
Italian,  French,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and 
Walachian  ;  the  Sclavonic,  to  which  be- 
long the  Russian,  Polish,  Biohemian,  Bul- 
^rian.  Vandal,  and  the  Servian,  or  lUyrian. 
Besides  these,  tliere  are  the  modem  Greek ; 
the  Turco-Tartaric  ;  the  Finnish,  and 
Hungarian ;  the  Cimbrian,  in  Wales  and 
the  north-west  i)art  of  France  (Bretagne); 
the  Scottish,  or  Gaelic,  in  Scotland  and 
Ireland ;  the  Basque,  among  the  Pyrenees. 
The  most  widely  spoken  is  the  ^rman, 
with  its  kindred  languages,  formed  by 
a  union  of  the  Roman  witli  the  Sclavonic 
The  prevailing  religion  is  the  ClinstMii, 
which  includes  several  churches,  viz^  the 
Roman  Catholic,  which  is  the  most  nu- 
merous; the  Protestant  (Lutheran,  Cal- 
vinistic  and  Anglican),  consisting  of  nu- 
merous sects — ^Anabapdsts,  Meononiiei^ 


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EUROPE. 


607 


Quakeis,  Unitarians,  Bfefiiodists,  Moravi- 
ans ;  and  the  Greek  church.  A  part  of 
the  inhabitants  profess  the  Jewish,  a  part 
the  Mohammedan  religion.  Among  the 
Laplanders  and  Samoeides  there  are  also 
some  heathens,  but  their  number  is  snudl. 
Agriculture  has  made  great  advances  in 
Europe,  and  is  daily  improving.  In  this 
respect,  those  countries  are  particularly 
distinguished  where  the  Teutonic  lan- 
guages are  spoken,  as,  also,  are  France 
and  a  part  of  Italy.  In  no  part  of  the 
world  are  manufactures  carried  to  such 
perfection  as  in  several  of  the  European 
countries,  esriecially  in  Great  Britain, 
France,  the  Netherlands  and  Germany. 
The  inhabitants  work  up  not  only  native 
European,  but  also  foreign  products,  and 
supply  all  the  wants  and  luxuries  of  life. 
Commerce  is  not  less  active,  and  is  pro- 
moted by  well-constructed  roads  and  ca- 
nals, by  well-organized  posts,  banks,  in- 
surance companies,  commercial  compa- 
nies, and  feirs.  The  commerce  of  Europe 
extends  to  all  quarters  of  the  world,  and 
every  sea  is  filled  with  European  ships. 
In  tliis  respect.  Great  Britain  is  most  dis- 
tinguished. Europe  is  the  seat  of  art  and 
science ;  to  her  belongs  the  honor  of  dis- 
covering the  most  important  truths,  of 
giving  birth  to  the  most  useful  inventions, 
the  finest  productions  of  genius,  the  im- 
provement of  all  the  sciences.  In  intel- 
lectual progress,  the  Teutonic  races,  and 
those  who  speak  the  languages  derived 
fit>m  the  Latm,  have  surpassed  the  Scla- 
vonic nations.  The  Turks  have  remain- 
ed strangers,  in  many  respects,  to  the 
literary  and  scientific  iinT)rovement  which 
has  marked  the  other  European  nations. 
Eighty-five  universities  provide  for  the 
higher  branches  of  education  ;  numerous 
gymnasia  and  academies  for  the  prepara- 
tory studies,  and  a  great  number  of  lower 
schools,  paiticularly  in  Gennany,  are  em- 
ployed in  educating  tlie  common  people. 
In  many  places  there  are  academies  of 
science,  and  societies  of  all  kinds,  for  the 
cultivation  of  the  arts  and  sciences.  By 
its  physical  situation,  Europe  is  divided 
into  East  and  West  Europe.  West  Eu- 
rope comprises  the  Fyrenean  peninsula 
(Spain  and  Portugal),  tlie  country  west 
of  the  Aliis  (France),  the  countries  north 
of  the  Alps  (Switzerland,  Germany  and 
the  Netherlands),  the  country  south  of 
the  Alps  (Italy),  the  islands  of  the  North 
sea  (Great  Britain,  Ireland  and  Iceland), 
and  the  countries  on  the  Baltic  (Den- 
mark, Norway,   Sweden   and   Prussia). 


East  Europe  contains  the  countries  north 
of  the  Carjiathian  mountains  (Russia  and 
GalicJa),  and  the  countries  south  of  the 
Car|Hithian  mountains  (Hungarv,  in  its 
more  comprehensive  seuse^  and  Turkey). 
The  following  are  the  political  states  of 
Europe:  the  three  empires  of  Austria, 
Russia  and  Turkey;  17  kingdoms,  viz., 
Portugal,  Spain,  France,  Great  Britain, 
the  Netherlands,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Nor- 
way, Sardinia,  the  Two  Sicilies,  Greece, 
Prussia,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Hanover,  Wur- 
temberg  and  Poland ;  1  ecclesiastical 
state,  the  papal  dominions;  8  republics, 
viz.,  Switzerland,  the  Ionian  islands,  Cra- 
cow, San  Maiino,  Hamburg,  Lubeck, 
Bremen  and  Frankfort ;  1  electorate, 
Hesse;  6  grand-duchies,  Baden,  Hesse- 
Dannstadt,  Saxe- Weimar,  Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin,  Mecklenburg-Strelitz  and  Tus- 
cany ;  12  duchies,  viz.,  Oldenburg,  Go- 
tha,  Meiningen,  Altenburg,  Brunswick, 
Nassau,  Dessau,  Bernburg,  Cothen,  Mode- 
na,  Parma  and  Lucca;  1  landgraviate, 
Hesse-HombuFg ;  1  grand  principality,  Fin- 
land, and  12  princi|)alities,  viz.,  Holienzol- 
lem-Hechingen,  HohenzoUem-Sigmarin- 
gen,  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,  Schwarz- 
burg-Sondershausen,  Waldeck,  Lippe- 
Detmold,  Sehaumburg-Lippe,  Lichten- 
stein,  Reuss-Greiz,  Reuss-Schleiz,  Reuss- 
Lobenstein  and  Reuss-Ebersdorf. 

[jihahkants.  The  most  important  races 
inhabiting  Europe  are  classed  by  Hassel, 
in  his  statistical  tables  (1823),  in  the  fol- 
lowing pro{iortions :  1.  Roman  nations^ 
75,829,00a>-including  the  French,  Ital- 
ians, Spaniards,  Portugese,  Walloons, 
Walachians ;  2.  Teutonic,  or  German  na- 
tions, 60,451,800— including  the  Gennans, 
Dutch  and  English,  Danes,  Norwegians, 
Swedes ;  a  Sclavonian  nations,  68,2^,000 
— ^including  the  Russians,  Poles,  Litlma- 
nians,  Livonians,  &c.,  Wendish,  6lc^ 
Tschechen,  Sclavonians,  Croats,  Ras- 
cians  and  Servians,  Morlaehiuns,  Bos- 
nians, &c. ;  4.  Caledonians,  including  tlie 
Highlanders  and  Irish,  8,200,000  ;  5. 
Turics,  2,350,000;  d  Greeks,  4^,000; 
7.  Amauts,  530,000 ;  8.  Magyarians, 
4,472,000— including  the  Bulgarians, 
522,000;  9.  Finns,  1,370,000.  Esthonians, 
480,000,  Laplanders,  17^00  (the  three  last 
belong  to  tne  Moneol  race) ;  10.  Cymri, 
or  Low  Bretons,  1,661,000;  11.  Basques, 
620,000 ;  12.  Maltese,  88,000.  The  tables 
of  the  same  distiugiiished  geographer, 
published  in  1817,  estimate  the  Jews  at 
1,179,500;  the  Gipsies  at  313^000;  the 
Aixnenlans  at  131,600. 


Digitized  by 


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floe 


STATISTICAL  VIEW  OF  ALL  THE 


£imorEAN  STATES. 

ARE\ 

in  E  ifUnU 

tt|ii.-ue 

niiks. 

POPULATION. 

CailMrikm. 

Pniiertniitf. 

Greeks. 

MulMiiiuie- 
dniM. 

Jews. 

Tbi^ 

1  Aitlmll-Kt-niSurz, 

3a4 



38.510 

— 



390|          38,1<X) 

2       -       DtKNau,    . 

3U5 

1,500 

6*;,800 

— 

— 

1,270 

59,270 

3      "       Cmhfii,    . 

330 

3t\0 

34,8a') 

— 



415 

35,610 

4  Austria, 

258,603 

25,650,000 

3,000,000 

2,970,000 

60€ 

480,000 

32,ia».^ 

5  Hniicii,     

64ai 

730,808 

343,173 

«- 

— 

16.930 

l.C'>J,Mll 

6  Knvaria,     .... 

31,317 

2,880,383 

1,094,633 

— 

— 

57,574 

4,0J2,;Xi0 

7  l)4>iitiii(k,    .... 

itb 

._ 

2,1KJ0 

.— 

.— 

~- 

2,1>C0 

8  Brunswick,    .  .  . 

1,491 

2.500 

240.100 

— 

— 

1,300 

244500 

9   Hrt'ineii, 

68 

1,500 

50.000 

._ 



.^ 

51400 

10  Bniisli  Empire,  . 

117,788 

6,085,300  16,197.321 

— 

— 

16/X)0 

22,297,621 

11  Cracow 

494 

100,812 

19,000 

._ 

— 

7.2i>8 

127,100 

12  Dciiinark,  .... 

62,268 

2.000 

2,(H9,531 

— 

— 

6.000 

2,057,531 

13  Krojikibrt  on  M.* 

91 

6, (MX) 

42,800 

— 

— 

6,200 

54.000 

14  Kraiwc, 

213,838 

31,099,518 

892,947 

— 

— 

60,000 

32,052,465 

15  (ircece, 

T 

__ 

_ 

.^ 

... 

.^ 

650  W) 

1()  flnmSurg',  .... 

150 

3,a'i0 

139,440 

— 

— 

7,500 

150,000 

17  Hauovcr,    .... 

14,735 

200,000 

1,370,574 

— 

— 

12,000 

1,582,574 

18  lleMc-<'asHel, .  . 

4.428 

105.000 

4!»2,300 

.^ 

_ 

5,400 

CC2,7P0 

lU       "       Dannsiadl, 

3,922 

120,(XX) 

582,900 

— 

— 

10,CCO 

718.900 

20       •'       Hoinburp, 

166 

2,931 

17,683 

— 

.. 

1,030 

tljOM 

21   Hoh.  Hechiii^cii.t 

129 

15,000 

._ 

... 

«. 

— 

15:000 

ti    "     Sieinanii^ii, 
23  Ionian  Islands,   . 

386 

39,(J00 



... 

— 

400 

40.(00 

998 

35,200 

800 

133,898 



6,500 

175,31^8 

24  Lichlensiein,    .  . 

61 

5,800 

.^ 







5,fiC0 

25  Lippc-Delmold;  . 

iSi] 

1,600 

75,113 

— 

— 

— 

76,718 

2G  Lucca, 

413 

146,000 

.^ 

.. 

... 

_ 

146/)C0 

27  Lobcrk 

14;3 

400 

45,703 

_ 

.... 

400 

46,503 

28  San  Marino, .  .  . 

22 

7,000 

... 

.. 

... 



7,CO0 

2y  Meek.  Scbweriu,t 

4,744i 

957 

437,105 

— 

— 

3,102 

441,164 

30      "      Slreliu,    . 

765 

50 

78,510 

— 

— 

833 

79,393 

31  Modena, 

2,092 

377,500 

— 

— 



1,500 

579,000 

32  Nassau, 

1,753 

157,638 

184,661 

— 



5,717 

348.006 

33  Nelheriands,    .  . 

25,367 

3,660,000 

3,237,500 

— 

— 

80,000 

6,977X00 

34  Oldcnburr,   .  .  . 

2,459 

70,700 

175,538 

— 

— 

-970 

247,208 

35  Parma,    7 

2,203 

437.400 

— 

— 

— 

— 

437,400 

30  Ponu^,    .... 

36,510 

3,782.550 

— 

— 

— 

— 

3,782.550 

37  Prussia, 

107,159 

4,694,000 

7,930,403 

— 

.. 

154,000 

12,778.403 

38  lUusi,  elder  line, 

145 

— 

24,020 

— 

— 

80 

S4;iOO 

39      "       younger " 

447 

_- 

67,470 

^- 

... 

220 

67.090 

40  Rasiria,    .  . !  .  . 

1,414,43^) 

6,500,000 

2,658,500 

33,320,600 

150,000 

360,000 

41i>96,000 

41  Sardinia,    .... 

28,912 

4,142,177 

22,000 

— 

— 

3,200 

4,167,377 

42  Saxony, 

43  Saxe-Alienburir, 

575 

48,000 

1,350,000 

— 

— 

2,000 

1,400.000 

496 

150 

109,343 

.. 

— . 

— 

109,493 

44      "     CoKurir,  .  . 

1,036 

ll/)00 

130,593 

— 

.... 

1,200 

143,293 

45      ''    Meiiiingen, 

884 

400 

128,239 

— 

.. 

950 

129,5«9 

4fi      "     Weiinar,    . 

1,416 

9;512 

210,911 





1,231 

221,654 

47  Schaumb.  Lippe,& 

48  Sch.  Rudol!itatli,|f 

206 

100 

25,500 

— 





25,600 

4(H 

200 

66,625 

_ 

.. 

160 

66.985 

49    "  SoiKJershauscn, 

358 

200 

47,906 

.._ 

.. 

.. 

-;::.:^v; 

60  Sicilies  (ihe  1  wo), 

41,284 

7,412,717 

— 

... 

— 

2,000 

".'U  ^.:i7 

61  Siaie«  of  Cliurch, 

17,210 

2,468,940 

— 

— 

— 

15,000 

'Z,liU^U^ 

62  Sweden, 

291,163 

6,000 

3,869,700 

— . 

... 

4,000 

3,87^.710 

53  Swiizeriand,    .  . 

14,761 

817,110 

1,217,760 

— 

— 

1,810 

2f^f^€ 

6'1  Spain, 

1TJ,074 

13,651, IT2 

— 

— 

.. 

— 

l3jrt5L17t 

65  Turkey, 

203,.V)6 

310,000 

— 

6,878,000 

2,890,000 

316,000 

u^^jm 

66  Tuscany,    .... 

8,381 

1,291,130 

— 

_ 

.. 

9,400 

L3C04-^ 

67  Waldeck,  .... 

459 

800 

62,700 





500 

»^*^Mi 

68  Wnrlcml»erff,  .  . 

7.615 

464.000 

1,062,253 

— 

— 

9,150 

1,535.403 

Toinl 

3,H>*,780  1 16,559 .075i49.K47,495'< 

12,308,398 

3,040,506 

r7m,64o 

213,977,108 

*  Pmnkfnrt  nn  the  Maine. 
\  Fioheiixnilem-Hechiiicen. 
[  MecldcnlMirc-i^iJiwerin. 

I  Scliwarzburc-RudoltfkdL 


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EUROPEAN  STATES,  FOR  1828. 


GOVERNMENT.* 


FINANCES. 


LAND  FORCES. 


Revenue. 


Debt. 


In 


In  war. 


SEA  FORCES. 


Peace. 


I  I 


2 
3 
4 
6 
G 
7 
B 
9 
10 
II 

13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
SI 
22 
23 
21 
25 
2G 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
3i 
33 
SI 
35 

37 

38 
39 
40 
41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
43 
49 
60 
51 


Absolute ;  pniviiicial  estates. 


Absolute ;  estates,! 
Constitutional,    .  .  . 


Absolute, 

Absolute  ;  provincial  estates,    .  .  . 

Republic^ 

Constitutional,     .  .  « 

Rcpuhlie,  und.  protee.  Kus.  Prus.  &  Ana. 

Absolute, 

Republic, 

Constitutional,     

7 

Republic, 

Estates, 

Absolute, 

Constitutional, 

Aksolute, 


Repu!)lic,  under  protee.  of  Britain, 

Constitulionhl, 

Absolute  ;  estates, 

Coustitutioual, 

Republic,    

Republic,  protected  by  the  pope, .  . 
Estates,  with  coiisideral>le  power,   . 

Absolute, 

Estates, 

Constitutional, 

Absolute, 

Absolute, 

? 
Absolute  ;  provincial  estates,    .  .  . 
Absolute  ;  estates, 


Absolute, . 
Estates,   . 


Constitutional, 
Estates,    .  .  .  . 


Absolute, 


Elective  monarchy;  absolute,  . 

Constitutional, 

Confederated  republics^    .  .  . 

Absolute  ;  cortes, 

Despotism, 

Absolute, 

Estates, 

Constitutional, 


53 
51 
55 
55 
67 
58 

Total,  .  .  .  ,  ,  7.   .  .  .  .  .  .  .  • 


130,000 

234,000 

92,000 

62,000,000 

3,932,880 

12,031,547 

G2800 

950,773 

160,000 

223,849,600 

133,248 

4,030,000 

301,000 

167,760,000 

600,000 

4,680,000 

1,800,000 

2,351,456 

72,000 

'W,000 

120,000 

565JSO0 

480,000 

196.000 

288,000 

160,000 

12,000 

920,000 

200,000 

600,000 

724,000 

600,000 

600,000 

8,740,800 

30,477,600 

66,000 

160,000 

62,000,000 

8,740,800 

4,400,000 

240,000 

360,000 

300,000 

719,784 

86,000 

130,000 

120,000 

12,593,484 

4,800,000 

7,000,000 

25,509 

26,620,000 

11,200,000 

160,000 
3.342,318 


210,000 

200,000 

640,000 

200,000,000 

6,392,421 

44,402,257 

60,000 

1.400,000 

1,200,000 

3,490,896,768 

10,000 

40,000,000 

3.200,000 

480,000,000 

6,200,000 

12,000,000 

780,000 

6,589,460 

180,000 

200,000 


280,000 

600,000 

1,200,000 

3,800,000 
200,000 
400,000 

2,000,000 
178,078,670 

2,000,000 

24,000,000 

114.840,440 

2,000,000 

480,000 

200,000,000 

21,000,000 

12,800,000 

329,640 

1,200,000 

1,000,000 

2,400,000 

120,000 

170,992 

160,000 

84,000,000 

98,000,000 

17,264,812 

230y448,062 
36,000,000 

480,000 
10.942,766 


370 

629 

324 

271,404 

11,566 

63,898 

2,432 

385 

90,619 

38,819 

476 

281,000 

2,680 

1,050 

12,940 

9,859 

8,421 

200 

146 

370 

1,600 

65 

690 

800 

40G 

3,137 
742 
1,860 
2,800 
43,297 
2,177 


740 

1,058 

648 

750.604 

20,000 

71,600 

"4,192 

770 

378,370 

74,000 

946 

320,000 

2,696 

26,108 

11,353 

12,390 

400 

290 

740 

1,600 

110 

1,380 

800 

812 

7,160 
1,434 
1,860 
6,056 
69,472 
4,354 


40,000 

165,000 

206 

638 

600,000 

28,000 

13,307 

982 

1,366 

1,150 

2,164 

240 

639 

461 

28,4^ 

9,100 

45,201 

46,000 
80,000 

8,000 
618 

4,90(i 


70,000 

624,428 

412 

1.076 

1,039,117 

60,000 

24,000 

1,964 

2,732 

2,300 

4,020 

480 

1,078 

902 

60,000 

9,100 

13?l,569 

33,578 

173,550 

200,000 

8,000 

1,036 

27,910 


31 


610 

97 

329 


31 


l,0fi0 

120 

350 
80 


93 


23 


160 


12 
8 


946 

6 

372t 

60 
160 


L^ 


658.847,899 


5,341,721,211 


l,*JU9,i75 


1,578,4C0 


f2,(Ml 


*  Tho  word  ConttUutimml  is  wl  againat  thone  state*  which  have  roprefoniative  govRrnmenii  in  the  modem 
■entie  of  the  term.  Tho  words  JIbsolale,  eHate»,  indicate  that  though  tho  ropreaentaiion  of  the  wrtatea  exists, 
Che  Koveroment  is.  In  fact,  ahM>lute }  as  In  Prussia,  where  the  power  of  the  estates  is  limited  I"  expreasing 
Iheif  opinions  on  snhiects  which  the  governmonl  lays  hefore  thmn.  The  word  E*tfltM,simpIy,  indical.rn,  that 
the  estates  have  actually  some  share  in  the  goveroment.  When  not  othorwiso  sUitod,  the  guveromeut  is  mooarcbioal. 

\  Austria  is  compose-l  of  very  different  parts.    (See  Austria^  aad  CmutUiUiim,) 

I  Among  these  are  316  xebecs. 


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610 


EUROPE-EUSTATHIUS. 


Among  the  best  soarcee  for  the  cuirent 
statitfticB  of  Europe,  we  would  mention 
tlie  (knealogmh/ar  HidoT%9cher  tmd  Sta- 
Hsiischtr  Mmnauich^  an  annual,  published 
at  Weimar,  and  established  by  the  cele- 
brated geographer  Haasel.  This  is  a 
work  of  much  merit  in  many  respects. 
For  English  statistics,  the  Com{)anion  to 
tlie  British  Almanac,  published  annually 
by  the  society  for  the  diffusion  of  useful 
knowledge,  is  of  great  value. 

Eur  YALE ;  1.  (^ueen  of  the  Amazons. — 
2.  A  daughter  of  Minos. — 3.  A  daughter 
of  PrcBtus,  king  of  Argos. — 4.  See  Gof*- 
gmw.  ' 

EuRTALUs ;  1.  one  of  the  Greek  heroes 
at  tlie  siege  of  Troy. — ^2.  One  of  llie  com- 
panions of  iEneas,  famous  for  iiis  fnend- 
flliip  with  Nisus,  witli  whom  be  wsk  kill- 
ed, afler  having  forced  his  way  with  him 
into  the  enemy's  camp.  Virgil,  JEneiiL 
DC  175. 

EuRTDicE.  Among  the  many  women 
of  antiquity  who  bore  this  name,  the  most 
celebrated  is  the  wife  of  Orpheus,  who 
died  by  tlie  bite  of  a  seqient.  Her  hus- 
band, inconsobible  Ibr  her  loss,  descended 
to  tiie  lower  world,  and,  by  tlie  ciianns  of 
his  lyre,  moved  tfie  iiifenial  deities  to  era  nt 
hitn  fiennission  to  bring  lier  back.  This 
they  grunted,  on  oondition  tliat  he  would 
not  took  round  u|K>n  her  till  he  hud 
reached  the  upuer  world.  Forgetting  his 
firomise,  he  looked  back,  and  lost  her  for- 
ever. This  story  has  often  formed  a  ^ne 
subject  for  |)Oets. 

EuRTNOME ;  tlie  daughter  of  Oceanns; 
according  to  Heaiod,  me  mother  of  the 
Graces,  (q.  v.) 

EusEBJA  ( Oredb) ;  piety ;  in  the  modem 
allegorical  sense,  the  piesiding  genius  of 
tlieology. 

EusEBiDS,  sumamed  PcanpkUus^  the 
fiither  of  ecclesiastical  historv,  bom  at 
CiBsarea,  in  Palestine,  about  i70,  A.  D., 
died  alx)ut  340,  and  was  the  most  learned 
man  of  Ins  time.  He  was  a  presbyter, 
and,  in  314,  was  ap|X>inted  bisliop  in  his 
native  city.  He  was  at  first  op|)osed  to 
the  Ariajis,  but  afterwards  became  tlieir 
advocttte,  and  with  tliem  condeumed  the 
doctrines  of  Aihanasius.  His  ecclesi- 
astical history,  written,  like  his  other  works, 
in  Greek,  ia  containeti  in  10  books,  and 
extends  from  tlie  birth  of  Christ  to  324 
(tlie  best  editions  are  tliat  of  Valesius, 
Paris,  leSS),  foL  and  tltat  of  Reading,  Can- 
terbury, 1720,  foiy  Of  his  Ckromam, 
with  tlie  exception  of  some  fragments  of 
tlie  original,  we  have  only  an  Armenian 
translation,  and  the  Latin  version  of 
Jerome.     Besides  these,   there  are  yet 


extant,  15  books  of  bis  Praparaiio  Emm- 
gelica,  which  is  particularly  valuable  for 
the  extracts  it  contains  from  lost  phtk>- 
sophicul  works.  Of  the  20  books  of  lib 
Demonstratio  Evmifdica,  in  which  he 
shows  tlie  superiority  of  Christianity  to 
Judaism,  we  have  only  10  imperfectly 
preserved;  and,  finally,  a  life,  or  ratlidr 
eulogium,  of  Constantine.  Notices  of  his 
life  may  be  found  in  the  above  quoted 
edition  of  Valesius.  Danz,  Mcilkr  and 
Kessner  have  written  briefly  on  his  value 
and  credibility  as  a  historian. 

EusTACfii,  Burtolomeo,  a  physician 
and  anatomist,  bom  at  San  Severino,  in 
the  mark  of  Ancona,  studied  Latin,  Greek 
and  Arabic  at  Rome,  and  devoted  himself 
to  tlie  various  departments  of  medical  sci- 
ence, more  |)articularlv  those  which  re- 
kite  to  tlie  structure  of  ji|»e  human  Ixxly, 
and  was  made  physician  to  the  cardinals 
Carlo  Borromeo,  and  Giulio  della  Rovere; 
lie  was  also  8r|){)0inted  professor  in  the 
institution  della  Sapienza,  at  Rome.  There 
is  hardly  any  part  of  anatomical  science 
which  he  did  not  enrich  by  profound  re- 
searches or  important  discoveries.  Some 
of  the  parts  discovered  by  bim  liave  re- 
ceived their  names  from  bun:  tlius  the 
canal  that  unites  the  inieroal  ear  with  the 
back  |iart  of  the  mouth,  is  called  the  ev- 
stackicm  tube ;  so  also  the  eustachian  valve 
of  the  heart.  Among  his  works  are  his 
Tahulm  aruUomic€ty  tpias  e  TVnAris  tandem 
vin(Hcaia»,etPoniificu  CUmeniU  XIMum^ 
centia  Dmu)  aceepkUy  Pratfaiione  Afbtiwque 
iUiutravit  Joaixnes-Mana  Lancisi  (Rome, 
1714,  fol.).  This  work  is  remarkable  as 
containing  excellent  drawings  of  the  hu- 
man body,  wlikh  were  executed  in  1532, 
but  not  discovered  and  ))tiblished  till  a 
much  later  period.  The  text  has  never 
been  found.  Albinus  iHiblislied  an  ex- 
cellent commentary  on  these  tables  (Ley- 
den,  1743,  fol.).  Anotlier  of  his  works, 
De  ^naiomicorum  ControversiU^  is  also  lost 
Besides  tliese,  we  have  many  otlier  valua- 
ble works  b^  him.  Boerhaave  pubUshed 
an  edition  of  tliem  at  Leydeii,  1707,  which 
was  reprinted  at  Delft,  1736.  Eustacfai 
died  at  Rome,  1574. 

EusTATuius,  a  commentator  on  Ho- 
mer and  tlie  geographer  Dionysius,  orig- 
inullv  a  rnonk,  afterwards  deacon,  and 
fiiiully,  1155,  arclibishop  of  Thessakmia. 
He  died  mfter  1  li>4.  Though  not  very  en- 
lightened in  his  theological  vie^\'8,  be  was 
deeply  read  hi  tlie  classics,  and  a  man  of 
extensive  erudition,  as  ap|iears  from  his 
coiiimeiitaries  compiled  from  the  old 
8chuliaHtt<,  of  which  tliat  on  Homer,  in 
particular,  is  an  inexhaustihie  mine  of 


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EUSTATHIUS— EVAPORATION. 


611 


phUoiogical  learning  (Rome,  1541^—50, 
4  vola.  fol.,  and  fi^e,  155d--60,  3  vols. 
&L,  new  edition,  Leipsic,  by  Weigel,  com- 
menced in  18^5,  4to.). 

EusTATiA,  St.,  one  of  the  Leeward  is]- 
iuids,  fifteen  miies  south-east  of  Saba, 
and  eight  nortli-west  of  St.  Christopher's, 
18  a  huge  rock,  rising  out  of  the  waves,  in 
tlie  form  of  a  pyramid,  29  miles  in  cur- 
cumference.  Sugar,  cotton  and  maize 
are  raised  here;  but  the  principal  pro- 
duction is  tobacco,  which  is  cultivated  on 
the  sides  of  the  pyramid,  to  its  very  top. 
There  is  but  one  landing  place,  and  that, 
though  difficult  of  access,  is  strongly  for- 
tified. The  number  of  inliabitants  is 
18,000,  of  whom  4000  are  whites,  chiefly 
Dutch,  and  14,000  negroes.  The  Dutch 
made  the  first  settlement  on  this  island 
about  tlie  year  1600.  In  the  year  1665,  it 
was  ca|itured  by  an  English  expedition. 
The  French,  however,  soon  afterwards 
expelled  the  British,  and  restored  it  to  the 
Dutch  in  1667.  The  English  retook  it  in 
1689,  and  restored  it  on  tlie  termination 
of  the  war  in  1697.  In  1781,  a  larg^  naval 
and  military  force,  under  admiral  Rod- 
ney, comi>eried  the  inhabitants,  wiio  were 
jiica))able  of  defence,  to  submit  at  discre- 
tion. The  English  commanders,  under 
the  pretence  that  the  people  of  the  island 
had  supplied  the  U.  States  with  naval 
stores,  confiscated  all  private  profierty,  and, 
at  one  blow,  reduced  tlie  unfortunate  in- 
habitants to  poverty.  In  the  same  year, 
however,  the  island  was  retaken  by  a 
small  body  of  French  troops,  under  the 
command  of  the  marquis  de  Bouilie.  St 
Eustatia  was  again  attacked  by  the  Eng- 
lish in  1809,  and  compelled  to  submit; 
but,  in  1814,  the  Dutch  government  was 
restored. 

Euterpe  ;  one  of  the  muses,  considered 
as  presidiiij^  over  music^  because  the  in- 
vention of  the  flute  is  ascribed  to  her. 
She  is  usually  represented  as  a  virgin 
crowned  widi  flowers,  liavin^  a  flute  in 
her  hand,  or  with  various  mstniments 
about  her.  As  her  name  denotes,  she  Is 
the  inspirer  of  pleasure.    (See  Muses.) 

Euthanasia;  a  gentle,  easy,  happy 
death.  Wieland  gave  this  name  to  one 
of  his  works. 

Eutropius,  Flavins;  a  Latin  histori- 
an, who,  ns  he  himself  informs  us,  l)ore 
anns  under  the  emi)eror  Julian.  The 
place  of  his  birth  and  his  histoir  are  un- 
known to  us.  He  flourished  about  <%0 
A.  D.  His  abridgment  of  the  history 
of  Rome  (Breviarium  Historut  RomantB) 
reaches  fit>m  the  foundation  of  the  city  to 
the  time  of  the  emperor  Valens,  to  whom 


it  is  dedicated.  The  style,  though  not  fin- 
ished, is  perspicuous.  The  most  esteemed 
editions  are  those  of  Havercamp(Leyden, 
1729),  Verseik  (Leyden,  1762, 2  vols.),  and 
Tzschucke  (Leipsjc,  1804). 

EuxiNE  {Pontus  Ewrinus) ;  the  ancient 
name  for  the  Black  sea. 

Evan;  a  surname  of  Bacchus.  (See 
Bcuickus.) 

EvamoElicai*.  The  king  of  Prussia 
has  endeavored,  for  some  time  {Mist,  to 
unite  his  IiUtlieran  and  Calvinist  subjects. 
There  was,  in  fiict,  little  difiference  in  the 
faith  of  many  of  tlie  two  denoniinations ; 
many  of  the  Calvinista,  or  the  RifortMd^  as 
they  are  called  in  Germany,  not  hokling  to 
predestination  and  several  other  Calvinistic 
points ;  and  many  of  the  Lutherans  hav- 
ing not  adhered  to  the  doctrine  of  consub*- 
stantiation.  Not  a  few,  however,  still  ad- 
here strictly  to  the  tenets  of  their  differ- 
ent sectB.  To  assist  the  vtwrn^  as  it  was 
styled,  the  Lord's  supper  is  now  a4lniinia- 
tered  uniipnnly,  in  all  Protestant  church- 
es, throughout  die  kingdom,  viz. :  unleav- 
ened bread  is  used  in  the  rite.  If  any 
Lutlieran,  however,  wislies  to  receive  the 
host  in  the  old  way,  he  may  have  it, 
'because  the  sacra ineiit  in  all  Lutlieran 
churches  is  administered  in  tliis  form 
likewise.  Calvinist  preachers,  or  rather 
such  as  were  formerly  Calvin ists,  are  now 
oflen  appointeil  in  Lutheran  churches,  and 
vict  vena,  Tliis  union  has  had  some  sal- 
utary influences ;  but  the  question  may  be 
reasonably  asked,  What  is  tlie  character 
of  tho  two  sects  in  tlieir  present  state  ? 
Have  they  given  up  or  become  imlifferent 
to  the  iin|ioitant  points  of  distinction 
which  formerly  existed  between  them  ? 
Nothing,  in  this  respect,  has  been  settled. 
In  tlie  public  documents,  tlie  words  Lu- 
thenm  or  Cahinist  ace  never  used  at  pre- 
sent, tgvangeUcal  being  substituted  in  the 
room  of  both.  The  king  even  went  so 
far,  a  few  years  ago,  as  to  [iroliibit  the  uso 
of  the  woni  Protestant^  in  any  publica- 
tion,  and  ordered  the  term  evcmfceUecU  to 
be  em]>loyed,  on  occasion  of  a  theological 
controversy  which  had  attracted  liis  maj- 
esty's attention. 

Evaporation  is  the  conversion  of 
liquid  and  solid  bodies  into  elastic  fluids, 
by  the  influence  of  caloric.  Expose,  for 
instance,  water  to  heat,  bubbles  at  first 
adhere  to  the  sides  of  tlie  vessel,  which, 
by  degrees,  ascend  to  the  surface,  and 
burst  These  bubbles  rise  tlie  more  rap- 
idly in  proijortion  to  the  heat  Water  is 
evaporated  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  merely, 
and  even  without  this  in  the  0|)en  air,  and 
the  vapor,  rising  hito  the  air,  is  condensed 


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EVAPORATION— EVE. 


into  clouds.  The  general  cause  of  evapo- 
Fatiou  is  caloric ;  but  different  substances 
require  different  degrees  of  it.  Water  is 
particularly  subject  to  evaporation.  It 
evaporates  at  a  very  low  temperatiue,  and, 
from  the  immense  quantity  which  is 
spread  over  the  earth,  it  may  be  inferred, 
with  great  probability,  that  the  most  im- 
portant changes  in  our  atmosphere  are  oc- 
casioned by  it  Instruments  have  been 
invented  to  measure  the  evaporation  of 
water  (see  MnomeUr)^  but  the  results  are 
uncertain.  If  we  assume,  as  experiments 
justify,  that  the  annual  evaporation  aver- 
ages 30  inches  (i.  e.  that  the  vapor,  if  re- 
converted into  water,  would  cover  the  sur- 
face from  which  the  evaporation  took 
place,  to  a  heiglit  of  30  inches),  then,  the 
surfhce  of  all  die  waters  on  our  earth  be- 
inff  assumed  at  128,000,000  of  geographi- 
cal miles,  60,000  cubic  miles  of  water 
would  be  annually  chanf;ed  into  vapor ; 
and  the  amount  vnll  be  still  greater,  if  we 
add  to  it  the  evaporation  fix)m  moist  earth 
and  from  the  watery  parts  of  the  vegeta- 
ble and  animal  kingdoms.  In  summer, 
eva|>oration  is  generally  much  greater  than 
in  winter ;  yet  it  is  not  so  inconsiderable 
in  cold  weather  as  we  might  suppose 
from  the  small  quantity  of  caloric  then 
sensible.  Even  in  the  polar  circles,  it 
does  not  entirely  cease ;  for  ice  evaporates 
in  the  open  air.  To  account  for  the  phe- 
nomenon of  evaporation,  two  hypotheses 
have  been  fbrmea ;  that  it  is  a  conversion 
of  fluids  into  elastic  vapor  by  their  union 
with  caloric,  or  that  it  is  a  real  solution  of 
the  fluids  in  the  air.  The  latter  theory 
has  been  opposed,  particularly  by  De  Luc. 
He  maintains  that,  in  evaporation,  water 
combines  with  caloric,  without  being  dis- 
solved in  tlie  air.  The  principal  argument 
in  support  of  this  theoiy  is,  that  cold  is 
generated  by  the  evaporation  of  a  liquid. 
Cold  |b  only  the  absence  or  consumption 
of  caloric.  If  now,  in  evaporation,  caloric 
is  consumed,  i.  e.,  is  combined  with  the 
evaporated  water,  this  consumptioa  must 


generate  a  sensible  cold.  De  Luc  fiirthez 
maintains,  that  the  air,  so  fnr  from  con- 
tributing to  evaporation,  prevents  it  by  its 
pressure.  If  tliis  pressure  is  removed,  the 
same  quantity  of  water  requires  far  less 
caloric  to  evaporate  it ;  for  experiments 
show  that  water  evaporates  more  rapidly 
in  a  vacuum  than  in  the  air,  and  Saussure 
says,  that  at  the  same  degree  of  the  ther- 
mometer and  hygrometer,  the  evaporation 
OR  mountains,  where  the  air  is  of  three 
times  less  density,  is  more  than  double 
that  in  the  valleys.  Later  experiments 
render  it  still  more  evident,  that  a  dissolv- 
ing power  of  air  is  not  necessaiy  to  change 
water  into  an  elastic  vapor,  since,  other- 
wise, it  could  not  be  produced  in  a  vacu- 
um. Such  a  dissolving  power  in  the  air, 
however,  is  absolutely  required  to  effect  a 
uniform  mixture  of  this  vapor  with  air; 
otherwise,  from  the  difference  of  the  spe- 
cific gravities  of  the  two  fluids,  a  separa- 
tion must  ensue,  of  which  we  have  no  ex- 
perience ;  and  we  find  ourselves  compelled 
to  regard  the  utiion  of  the  expansive  va- 
por ^vith  the  air  as  a  true  solution  of  the 
one  in  the  other.  De  Luc  developed  the 
first  view  in  the  N6v»dlts  IdScssur  la  Mi- 
Uorologk  (London,  1786,2  vols.),  while 
the  soh'ent  power  was  maintained  to  be 
the  cause  of^  evaporation  by  Uube,  in  his 
treatise  On  EvafM>ration  (Leipsic,  1790). 
(See  Penpiraiion.) 

Jhiificiai  Evcqforaium  is  a  chemical  pro- 
cess, usually  i)erformed  by  applying  beat 
to  any  compound  substance,  in  oraer  to 
separate  the  volatile  parts.  It  differe  fitMn 
distillation,  its  object  being  chiefly  to  pre- 
serve the  more  fixed  matters,  while  the 
volatile  substances  are  allowed  to  escape. 
Accordingly,  tiie  vessels  in  which  these 
two  operations  are  performed,  are  difier- 
ent ;  evaporation  beinff  commonly  made 
to  take  place  in  open,  uiallow  vessels,  and 
distillation  in  an  apfiarotus  neariy  closed 
firom  the  external  air. 

Evx.    (See  Mam.) 


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APPENDIX. 


DoMiciL,  in  law.    By  the  term  cbmictZ, 
in  its  ordinary  acceptation,  is  meant  the 

Elace  where  a  person  lives,  or  has  his 
ome.  In  this  sense,  the  place  where  a 
person  has  liis  actual  residence,  inhabit- 
ancy or  commorancy  is  sometimes  called 
his  doTnicU.  In  a  strict  and  legal  sense,  that 
is  properly  the  domicil  of  a  person,  where 
he  has  fixed  his  true,  permanent  home, 
and  princi[)al  establishment,  and  to  which, 
whenever  he  is  absent,  he  has  the  inten- 
tion of  returning  (animus  revertendi).  The 
Roman  law  stated  it  thus :  In  eodem  loco 
sinffulos  kabtre  domicUium  turn  canbigiiur^ 
vbt  quis  larem  rerumque  ac  fortunarum 
suarum  summam  constituit^  unde  cursus 
non  sit  discessturus  si  nihil  ayocet ;  vfukf 
cumprofedus  est,  peregrinari  videtur ;  qund 
si  rediitj  peregrmari  jam  destUit,  (Cod. 
Lib.  10,  tit,  3S5,  L  7.)  In  the  French  law, 
some  of  its  liest  writers  define  it  thus :  Le 
domicile  est  le  lieu  ou  une  persomie  jou- 
issant  de  ses  droits,  ^tahlit  sa  demesne  et  le 
sUge  de  sa  fortune  (Denizai-t,  article  Dom- 
icue);  or,  as  the  Encydopedie  Modeme 
(article  Domicile)  expresses  it,  C^est,  h 
proprement  porter,  Vendroit  ou  Von  aplaci 
le  centre  de  ses  affaires.  Vattel  (B.  I,  ch. 
xix,  §  22)  seems  to  define  it  to  be  a  fixed 
residence  in  any  |)lace,  with  an  intention 
of  always  staying  there.  This  is  not  quite 
accurate.  It  would  be  more  correct  to  say, 
that  that  place  is  the  home  or  domicil  of 
a  person,  in  which  his  habitation  is  fixed, 
witlioutany  present  intention  of  removing 
therefrom  (10  Mass.  JR.  488).  The  ques- 
tion of  domicil  is  ofleii  one  of  great  difii- 
culty  and  nicety,  and  so  dependent  upon 
cireumstancea,  that,  as  it  has  been  ob- 
served by  lord  Stowell  (2  Jtjoh.  322),  it  is 
hardly  capable  of  beiiig  defined  by  any 
general,  precise  rules.  It  is  compounded 
partly  of  matter  of  fact  and  partly  oT  law. 
It  is  often  a  mere  question  of  iutentictti ; 

TOL.  IV.  S2 


sometimes  of  express  intention,  and  some 
times  of  presumptive  intention,  from  acts 
and  conduct  The  mere  dwelling  or  res- 
idence in  a  place  is  not,  of  itself,  sufilcient 
to  make  it  the  domieil  of  the  party.  He 
inust  be  there  widi  the  intention  of  re- 
maining (onufio  manendi).  The  act  of 
residence  must  be  coupled  with  the  in- 
tention of  making  it  the  real,  substantial 
home  of  the  party,  excluding  all  others. 
If,  tiierefbre,  a  person,  having  his  home 
in  one  place,  go  to  another  for  temporary 

{)urposee^  but  with  an  intention  to  return, 
lis  domicil  is  not  changed  by  such  ab- 
sence ;  nor  does  he  acauire  a  new  domi- 
cil in  tiie  place  of  such  temporary  resi- 
dence. If  a  person  go  on  a  voyage  to 
sea,  or  to  a  foreign  country  for  health  or 
pleasure,  or  business  of  a  temporary  na- 
ture, with  an  intention  to  return,  no  one 
supposes  his  domicil  to  be  changed  there- 
by. But,  sometimes,  where  there  has 
been  a  removal  for  tem]K>rary  purposes 
at  first,  tiiere  may  be  engrafted  on  it, 
subsequently,  an  intention  of  perma- 
nent residence.  And,  in  many  instan- 
ces, therefore,  where  we  are  called  up- 
on to  decide  upon  questions  of  domicile 
the  length  of  time  of  the  residence  be- 
comes a  material  ingredient  Lord  Stow- 
ell has  observed,  that  it  is  not  nnfre- 
quently  said,  that  if  a  person  comes  to  a 
place  for  a  special  purpose,  that  shall  not 
fix  a  domicil.  "•  This,"  he  adds,  ^  is  not 
to  be  taken  in  an  unqualified  latitude,  and 
without  some  respect  had  to  tiie  time 
which  such  a  pur]>ose  may  occupy ;  fbr 
if  the  pur[X)Re  be  of  a  nature  tiiat  may 
probably,  or  does  actually,  detain  the  per- 
son for  a  great  length  of  time,  a  general 
residence  might  grow  upon  the  S|)ecii]3 
puipose.  A  special  pun>ose  mav  lead^ 
man  to  a  countiy,  wnere  it  shall  detain 
him  the  whole  of'^his  life."    (2  Rah.  Btp. 


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DOMICIL. 


322, 324.)  These  remarks,  agjain,  require 
some  qualification ;  for  time  is  not  abso- 
lutely decisive  in  such  cases,  if  it  is  clear, 
from  other  circumstances,  that  the  fmr- 
pose  was  wholly  temporary  and  positive. 
Suppose  a  man  should  go  to  a  country  in 
ill  health,  and  remain  there  a  number 
of  years,  and,  durine  that  whole  peri- 
od, were  incapable  or  being  removed,  or 
of  returning  home,  without  danger  to  his 
life ;  if  such  residence  were  so  constrain- 
ed, it  would  not  chanee  his  former  dom- 
icil.  The  question  of  domicil  is  of  very 
great  importance,  for  it  often  regulates 

Solitical  and  civil  rights,  and  founds  or 
estroys  jurisdiction  over  the  person  or 
property.  Thus,  for  instance^  there  is 
what  is  called  a  political  domicUy  which 
18  that  place  where  a  party  must  exercise 
bis  jK>litical  rights,  duties  and  privileges, 
as  his  riffht  to  vote,  his  du^  to  nay  taxes, 
&c.  Then  there  is  what  is  called  a  civil 
dondeily  or  that  where  he  has  fixed  his 
hahituiil  home  or  residence,  which  do* 
cides  upon  his  civil  rights,  and  power  to 
acquire,  alienate  and  dispose  of  property,  to 
contract  marriage,  &c.  Then,  ogsun,  there 
is,  or  may  l)e,  a  forensic  domicil  (forum 
domicilii),  or  place  where  he  is  to  sue  or  be 
sued,  and  to  be  subjected  to  the  exercise 
of  the  jurisdiction  of  judicial  courts.  It 
may,  and  it  oflcn  does  happen,  that  the 
political,  civil  and  forensic  domicil  is  the 
«ame ;  but  this  is  a  matter,  not  so  much 
of  general  piinciple,  as  of  positive  legisla- 
tion in  different  countries ;  and,  therefore, 
it  is  oflen  regulated,  in  different  countiies, 
by  very  different  rules,  sometimes  by  op- 
posite rules.  Some  general  principles, 
tiowever,  may  assist  to  guide  us,  in  cases 
where  tiiere  is  no  positive' legislation  lo 
govern  the  case.  1.  The  place  of  birth 
of  a  person  is  considered  as  his  domicil, 
if  it  be  at  the  time  the  home  of  his 
parents.  Patria  originem  unusmiisque 
werndtur.  This  is  generally  called  domi- 
ciUum  originia  (the  domicil  of  nativity j. 
But,  if  tlie  parents  were  then  on  a  visit 
or  journey  {in  iHnert),  the  home  of  the 
parents  (at  least  if  it  were  in  the  same 
country)  would  be  deemed  the  domicil  of 
nativity.  A  person  bom  in  a  foreicn 
country,  while  his  parents  are  there  under 
the  allegiance  of  the  government  of  the 
country,  though  they  are  there  for  tem- 
porary purposes  only,  is  generally  deemed 
a  subject  of  such  country,  and  owing  al- 
legiance to  its  Bov^^ign.  2.  The  domi- 
cil of  birth  continues  until  a  new  domicil 
has  been  obtained.  Infants  are  general- 
\j  deemed  incapable  of  changing  thoir 
ooinicil  during  their  minority,  and^  there- 


fore, they  always  retain  the  domicil  of 
their  parents ;  and  if  their  parents  change 
their  domicil,  that  of  the  mfant  follows ; 
and  if  the  father  dies,  his  last  domicil  is 
that  of  the  in&nt  A  person  who  is  of 
age  to  choose  a  domicil  for  himself,  stiJl 
retains  the  paternal  domicil,  while  he 
continues  to  remain  with  his  parents. 
But  when  he  is  emancipated,  or  has  ac- 
cjuired  a  domicil  of  his  own,  he  no  longer 
rollowB  the  paternal  domicil.  3.  The 
domicil  of  birth,  also,  easily  reverts ;  and 
it  requires  fewer  circumstances  to  estab- 
lish in  proof,  that  a  party  has  reverted  to 
the  dop[)icil  of  his  nativity,  or  fiunily  dom- 
icil, thari  to  establish  his  foreign  domiciL 
The  reason  is  obvioua  A  residence  in 
the  place  of  one's  birth,  uoexplaitied, 
gives  rise  to  a  general  presumptK>n,  that 
It  is  of  permanent  choice;  because  an 
affection  for  such  a  place,  and  a  desire  to 
abide  there,  are  so  commonly  found  amonff 
all  classes  of  persons.  4.  The  domicil 
of  a  married  woman  follows  that  of  her 
husband.  This  results  finom  the  general 
principle,  tiiat  a  person  who  is  under  the 
authority  and  power  of  another,  possess- 
es no  right  to  choose  a  domicil.  5.  By 
the  civil  law,  minors  retain,  as  we  have 
seen,  the  domicil  of  their  parents ;  and 
the  same  principle  is  said  to  apply,  in 
that  law,  to  the  case  of  persons  msane, 
or  non  compos  mentis^  whether  they  are 
under  guardianship  or  not ;  for  the  guar- 
dian has  no  power  to  change  their  dom- 
icil, as  it  may  change  the  order  of  suc- 
cession to  their  estates.  But  it  has  been 
said  that  our  law  is  different,  and  that  a 
guardian  may  change  the  domicil  of  his 
ward,  if  he  chooses.  (9  Mass,  R,  543 ;  5 
Pick.  R.  20.)  But  this  is  a  point  wbicb 
deserves  very  grave  consideiation,  and 
does  not  seem  universally  settled,  as  a 
part  of  the  common  law.  (See  Gidcr  v. 
(TDamd,  1  Binney,  352,  note;  SomervOU 
V.  Somerville^  5  Vesey  jr.,  787 ;  Paltinger 
V.  ffigfOman,  3  Meriv.  R.  67.)  6.  PrSnd 
facie,  the  place  where  a  person  lives  is 
taken  to  be  the  place  of  his  domicil,  until 
other  facts  establish  the  contrary.  7.  Ev- 
ery person  .of  full  age  having  a  right  to 
change  his  domicil,  it  follows,  that  if  he 
removes  to  another  place,  with  the  inten- 
tion to  remain  (ammo  manendi),  the  latter 
instantaneously  becomes  bis  place  of 
domicil.  It  is  of  no  consequence,  in  such 
a  case,  how  short  his  residence  ma^  have 
been ;  for  it  is  the  feet,  coupled  with  the 
intention,  that  settles  his  domicil,  and 
here  both  are  unequivocal.  8.  If  a  per- 
son has  actually  removed  to  another 
fiac%  with  an   intention  of  remaining 


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DOMICIL. 


615 


there  for  an  indefinite  time,  and  as  a 
place  of  oresent  domicil,  it  becomes  his 

Elace  of  domicil,  notwithstandiDg  he  may 
ave  a  floatiog  intention  to  eo  back  at 
some  future  period*  9.  The  place  where 
the  family  of  a  married  man  resides  is 
generally  considered  as  his  domiciL  But 
Siis  may  be  controlled  by  circumstances. 
For  if  the  place  be  only  a  temporary  es- 
tablishment ibr  his  family,  or  for  tempo- 
rary obiectSyit  may  be  dinerent  10.  If  a 
married  man  has  his  family  fixed  in  one 
place,  and  does  his  business  in  another, 
the  former  is  considered  as  the  place  of 
his  domicil  11.  If  a  married  man  has 
two  places  of  residence  at  different  times 
of  tlie  year,  that  will  be  esteemed  his 
domicil  which  he  selects,  considera  or 
describes  as  his  fixed  home,  or  which  ap- 
pears to  be  the  centre  of  his  afi&irs,  where 
{le  votes,  or  acts  as  a  citizen.  12.  If  a 
man  is  unmarried,  that  is  generally  tlie 

Elace  of  his  domicil  where  he  transacts 
is  business,  exercises  his  profession,  or 
assumes  municipal  duties  or  privileges. 
13.  Residence  in  a  place  by  constraint,  or 
involuntarily,  will  not  give  the  party  a 
domicil  there ;  but  his  antecedent  domicil 
remains.  14.  Mere  intendon  to  acquire 
a  new  domicil,  without  the  fact  of  re- 
moval, avails  nothing;  neither  does  the 
fact  of  removal,  without  the  intention. 
Presumptions  arising  generally  firom  cir- 
cumstances, will  not  prevail  against  pos- 
itive acts,  which  fix  and  determine  Obnt^ 
icil.  Idb  Widows  retain  the  domicil  which 
had  been  their  husbands'  until  they  have 
acquired  a  new  one.  Vidua  mulier  amxBti 
mcariii  domicUium  ntinet, — ^There  are  some 
other  considerations,  of  a  general  nature, 
which  deserve  enumeration,  as  they  re- 
s|)ect  domicil  in  a  foreign  country.  Those 
which  have  been  already  referred  to, 
principally  respect  domicil  in  different 
parts  of  the  same  country.  1.  We  have 
aheody  seen,  that  persons  who  are  bom 
in  a  country,  are  deemed  inhabitants  and 
citizens  of  that  country.  Foreigners,  also, 
who  reside  there  for  permanent  and  in- 
definite purposes,  or,  as  Vattel  expresses 
it  (B.  I,  ek,  xix,  §  213),  who  are  permitted 
to  settle  and  stay  in  a  country,  are  deem- 
ed inhabitants.  If  they  are  there  merely 
on  a  visit,  or  for  temporary  porposes,  they 
are  not  deemed  inhaoitants.  2.  A  person 
who  resides  in  a  foreign  country,  for  pur- 
poses of  trade,  is  deemed  an  inhabitant 
of  that  country  by  foreign  nations ;  and 
his  character  changes  with  that  of  the 
country.  In  peace  he  is  deemed  a  neu- 
tral, in  war  an  enemy ;  and  his  property 
is  dealt  with  accordingly  in  prize  courts. 


(The  Vemu,  8  Cranch  R. 27a)  a  A  i>er- 
son  may  have  a  national  character  of^his 
trade,  although  his  domicil  be  in  a  diffeiv 
ent  country.  Thus,  if  he  be  allowed  to 
engage  in  the  trade  exclusively  belonging 
to  the  subjects  of  an  enemy's  country,  he 
will,  so  rar  as  respects  that  trade,  be 
deemed  an  enemy  trader,  and  his  proper- 
tv  will  be  liable  to  condemnation  as  such, 
though  his  own  domicil  be  neutral.  So, 
if  he  is  the  owner  of  a  plantation  in  an 
enemy's  country,  the  produce  thereof  will 
be  liable  as  pnze  in  the  some  manner. 
So,  if  he  1)0  a  parmer  in  a  house  of  trade 
in  an  enemy's  country,  his  property  in 
the  partneraliip  will  be  deemed  the  prop- 
erty of  an  enemy.  (9  Cranch^  191 ;  Tht 
FtgUantiOy  1  Rob.  R.,  14, 15 ;  The  Phcnnx, 
5  Rob.  R.,  20;  The  San  Jose  Aidianoy  2 
Gallison's  R.,268.)  4.  A  national  character^ 
acquired  by  residence  in  a  forcicn  coun- 
try, changes  with  a  change  of  that  resi- 
dence ;  and  if  no  other  domicil ,  be  ac- 
quired by  the  party  subsequently,  his  na- 
tive domicil  reverts ;  and,  in  such  a  case, 
it  will  revert  as  soon  as  he  puts  himself 
in  motion  to  return  to  his  native  country, 
although  he  has  not  actually  arrived  tliere. 
But  the  mere  return  to  his  native  country 
does  not  destix)y  his  foreign  domicil,  un- 
less there  is  an  intention  to  abandon  the 
latter.  {The  Venus,  8  Cranch  R.,  278, 
281 ;  The  IVance,  8  Cranch  R.,  335.)  5. 
If  a  person  quits  his  own  country,  fo^ 
temporary  puqK)ees,  or  in  public  em- 
ployment, and  solely  by  reason  of  such 
employment,  his  native  domicil  is  not 
changed  thereby.  If  an  Englishman, 
for  instance,  should  go  to  Germany  in 
the  king's  service,  or  for  a  temporary 
purpose,  the  domicil  of  his  birth  would 
not  be  changed.  But  if  he  entered  into 
the  German  service,  although  with  a 
'general,  indefinite  intention  to  return  to 
England,  it  would  be  otherwise.  6.  The 
descent  of  real  estate,  such  as  lands, 
is  according  to  the  law  of  the  place,  rei 
siUe.  But  the  descent  and  distribution 
of  personal  estate  is  according  to  the  law 
of  the  place  of  the  owner's  domicil.  It 
has  been  recentlv  doubted  in  England, 
whether  a  British  subiect  can,  by  a  for- 
eign domicil,  chan^  the  general  law  of 
succession,  as  to  his  personal  estate,  ex- 
isting in  his  own  country.  But  it  is  ad- 
mitted he  may  change  his  domicil,  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  his  own  country,  and 
thereby  change  the  miccessioo  and  dis- 
tribution of  his  personal  estate.  (CurUng 
V.  ThtnjUon,  2  Addam's  Ecclea  R.,  17, 
19.)  7.  A  will  of  personal  estate,  good 
by  the  law  of  the  place  where  the  porty 


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m 


DOMICIL. 


ba8  his  domicil,  is  sufficient  to  pass  all 
personal  estate  in  any  other  country. 
but,  if  not  good  b]^  the  law  of  the  place 
of  the  partjTS  domicil,  it  is  said  not  to  be 
good  to  pass  personal  property  in  any 
other  country,  although  otherwise  suffi- 
cient by  the  law  of  the  country  where  the 
personal  property  is.  [De^esbais  v.  Ber- 
mnar,  1  Binney,  336.  But  see  CuHing  v. 
ThomUm,  2  Addam's  Eccles.  R.  6, 19  to 
d5.|  8.  Ambassadors  and  other  ministers 
still  retain  the  domicil  of  the  country 
which  they  represent,  and  to  which  they 
belong;  and  their  children,  bom  in  the 
forei^i  country  where  they  reside,  are 
considered  as  natives  of  the  countiy  of 
their  own  sovereign.  It  is  not  so  in  re- 
lation to  consuls  and  other  commercial 
agents.  They  are  considered  as  having, 
like  ether  subjects,  tlieir  domicil  in  the 
country  where  they  reside.  (Vattdj  B. 
I,  c^  xix,  §  217;  The  Indian  Chitf,  3 
Rob.  13,  27;  T%«  Josephine  4  Rob.  26.) 
19.  Children  bom  upon  the  sea  are  gene- 
rally deemed  to  be  natives  of  the  country 
to  which  their  parents  belong.  (See  VaU 
id,  B.  I,  ch,  xix,  §  216.)  The  reader  who 
desires  further  information  on  the  sul)ject 


of  domicil,  is  referred  to  the  title  DtmiaU, 
in  Denizart,  Collection  de  Jurisprudence, 
torn.  6;  the  same  in  Encychpidie  Ms>- 
demey  tom.  10 ;  in  Merlin^s  Rtjtertoire  de 
Jurisprudence ;  in  2  Domat,  464,  B.  I,  title 
16,  8.  3,  of  Public  Law  ;  in  Digest,  lib. 
50,  title  1, 1. 1  et  seq. ;  and  Code,  iibi  10, 
title  39,  1.  2,  4, 5,  7 ;  Code  CSml  de  France^ 
tit.  3,  art.  1G2,  &c. ;  Voet  ad  Pand.  lib.  5, 
tit.  1,  sec.  90, 91, 92 ;  Bynkershock,  QiMest 
Prfp.  Jitm.,  lib.  1,  ch.  16 ;  Pothicr,  Ontr 
tumes  d*OrUans,  Introd.  n.  16, 20.  In  the 
English  and  American  law,  the  Ibllowing 
references  will  be  found  most  useful: 
Bruce  v.  Bruce,  2  Bosancjuet  &  Puller^ 
229;  SomerviUe  v.  SomennUe,  5  Ves.  jr., 
786;  Bempde  v.  Johnstone,  3  Ves.  195; 
CurUnrv.  Thomtony  2  Addam's  EcclesL 
R.  5 ;  FoUingfr  v.  f^himan,  3  fiierivale 
R.  67;  Green's  Admiralty  Digest,  JVo- 
tiontd  Character;  The  VenuSy  8  CrBDch, 
278 ;  Wheaton's  Digest,  title  Prize,  iv ; 
Holifok4i  v.  ffaskins,  5  Pick.  R.  20;  Cdm- 
bri'fge  V.  CharUsUrtmiy  13  Mass.  Rep.  501 ; 
Wimams  v.  Whixng,  11  Mass.  Rep.  424; 
Gmer  v.  CDameL  1  Binney'a  Rep.  352, 
note ;  Elbers  v.  U.  Insunmce  Cbmpitmf,  16 
Johnson's  Rep.  128. 


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CONTENTS. 


C/rantara 3 

Crape " 

Crapelet  (C.  aod  A.  G.) . . .  " 

Crassus  (L.  L.  and  M.  L.) . .  " 

Crater  (see  VdcaDo) 4 

Cravat " 

Craven  (Elizabeth) 5 

Crawfish " 

Crayer  (Caspar) 6 

Crayons " 

Cream  of  Tartar " 

Cr^Ulon  (P.  J,  de) 7 

(C.P.J.dc) 8 

Crecy  or  Cressy  en  Ponthica  " 

Credit " 

Creech  (Thomas) 9 

Creed " 

Creeks,  or  Muscogees 11 

Crees,  or  Knistenaux ** 

Crefeld " 

Cremnitz,  or  Kremnitz .....  '' 

Cremona IS 

Cieole " 

Dialects " 

Crescendo,  or  Cres 13 

Crescent " 

Crescenzi  (Pietro) 14 

(D.  J.  B.) " 

Crescimbeni  (Giovanni M.) . .  " 

Crespi  (Giuseppe  M.) 16 

Cressy  (see  Crecy) " 

Crest " 

Crete  (see  Candia) 16 

Creticus  (see  RhyUnnus)  ..." 

Cretinism ** 

Creasa 17 

Creutz  (G.  P.  count  of) " 

Creuzer(G.F.) " 

Crevenna  (P.  A.) 18 

Cribbage " 

Cricbton  (James) " 

Cricket 19 

Crillon  (Louis  de  Balbe) 21 

Crime /  " 

(Statistics  of) .'  J4 

Crimea  (see  Taurida) 31 

Criminal  Xiaw 31 

Crisis  (in  medicine) 40 

Crispin,  St.  (two  ofthis  name)  " 

Critical  Philosophy  (see  Kant,  " 

and  Philosophy) ** 


Croatia. 

Crocodile 

Croesus 

Crocus  (see  Saffron) 

Croisade  (see  Crusade)  .... 

Croix,  St  (river  in  Maine)  . . 

(river  in  N.  W.  Ter- 
ritory)   

(river  m  Canada) . . 

Croker(J.WO 

Cromlech,  or  Cromleh 

Cromwell  (Oliver,  the  protec- 
tor)   

(Oliver) 

— —  (Thomas,    eari    of 
Essex) 

Cronion  (see  Jupiter) .... 

Cronos  (see  Saturn) 

Cronstadt,  or  Burzenland  . 

Cronstadl,  or  Kronschtat  . 

Crosier 

Croes 

•  (in  baptism) • 

Bar-Shot 

— ^  Bearer 

— ^  Bow,  or  AH>alist  . . 

^— ~  Examination 

Fh^ 

Crotch  (William) 

Crotona,  or  Croto 

Croton  Oil 

Croup 

Crousaz  (J.  P.  de) 

Crow 

Crown 

Corona  agonothetarum 
aurea 


60 


51 


63 


.  castrensis 
•  civica  . 


-  convivalis 

•  muralis  . . . 

-  natalitia  . . 
.  navalis 


nuptialis 

■  obsidlonaCs  .... 

■  ■       triumphalis  .... 

Crown  (in  commerce) 

— .  (in  an    ecclesiastical 


69 


-Glass  . 
-Office 
-  Point . 


GDI 


Crozat(J.  A.) GO 

Cruisers ** 

Crasades « 

Crusade,  and  Chisada  (see 
article  Coins,  under  the  di- 
vision Portugal) est 

Crusca.  Academia  della  (see 

AcaaemiesI " 

Crustaceous  Animals'. *' 

Cruz,  Santa  (several  places 

of  this  name) " 

Cruzada " 

Crypt 63 

Crypto *' 

Calyinists " 

Cryptogamia " 

cm'*?'.-.v.-.-.::::::M 

Cubature  of  a  SoUd 69 

Cube " 

Cube,  or  Cubic  Number  ....    '' 
Cube,  or  Cubic  Quantity  ...    *' 

Cube  Root ** 

Cubic  Foot ** 

Cubit " 

Cuckingstool *' 

Cuckoo " 

Cucumber 70 

Cucuta 71 

Cudworth  (Ralph) " 

Cuenza " 

,  or  Bamba " 

(Sierra  de) " 

Cueva  (John  de  la) ** 

Cufic     Writing    and     Cufic 

Coins 7% 

Cuiress 73 

Cuias  ( Jaquea),  or  Cujacius  .  74 

Cullen  (Wiiiam)*  !!.*!'.!!!    " 

Culloden  Muir 76 

Culm. : " 

Culmination " 

Cuma,  or  Cyme " 

Cumae 76 

Cumana " 

— — — ,  or  New  Cordova  . .    " 

Cumberland  (duke  of) " 

-— -^  (Ernest    Augus- 
tus, duke  of)    ** 

Mountains 77 

(Richaix!) 76 


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618 

Comborland  (riverj 77 

(town)  ....... 

Cuminazee,  or  Coomassie .  . . 

CuDdinainarca 

Cunendorf 78 

Cupel 

Cupellatjon  (see  Cupel) .... 

Cupica 

Cupid 

Cupola   

Curasao 79 

Curassoa  Orauires 

Curds 

Cureles  (see  Corybantes) ...  80 

Curia  (Papal) " 

Curia 81 

Curiatii  (see  Horatii) " 

Curius  Deutalus  (M.  A.)  . . .    ** 

Curlew " 

Curran  (John  Philpoi) " 

Currants 8S 

Currency    (see     Circulating 

Medium) 83 

Currents 

Currying 84 

Curry- IN)wder      (see      Tur- 
meric)   85 

Curtius  (Marcus^ 

Curtius  ilufus  (Quintus)   .  .  . 

Curves 

Cusco,  or  Cuzco 

Cushing  (Thomas) 86 

Custine  (A.  P.  count  of)  .  .  . 
Customs  (see  Revenue) .... 

Cusios  Rotulorum 

Custrin 87 

Cuticle 

Cutlass 

Cutler  (Timothy) 

Cutlery 

Cutter 88 

Cutty-Stool 

Cut-Water 

Cuvier  (G.  L.  C.  F.  D.  baron) 

Cuxhaven 80 

Cuyaba,  or  Jesus   de    Cu- 

yaba 90 

Cyanogen  (see  Prussic  Acid)    " 

Cybele " 

Cycladcs " 

Cycle " 

Cyclic  Poets  (see  Greek  Lit- 
erature)   91 

Cj'cloid " 

Cyclopaedia  (see  Encyclopce- 

dia) 92 

Cyclopean  Works " 

Cyder  (see  Cider) " 

C^'linder " 

Glass  (see  Glass)  .    " 

Cymbals " 

Cynics .*  93 

Cynosura «' 

Cynthius [   « 

Cypress ]  *    " 

Cyprians " 

Cyprian  (St.) 94 

Cypns " 

Cyprus '< 

Cyr(St.) ;;    " 

CyrcnaTca 95 

Cyrcnalcs " 

C^'irne  (see  Cyrcnaica) ....    " 
Cyril    (three    sainU    or  this 

c) ft 


CONTENTS. 

Cyrillian  Letters 96 

Cynis 96 

Cythera 97 

Czar,  Zar,  or  Zaar " 

Czenstocbow,  or  Cz«nstoch- 

owa 98 

Czemy  George  (see  Servia) .    " 
Czirkuitz  (see  Zuinitz)  . . . ,   " 

D. 

D " 

OaCapo " 

l>acca '* 

Dacca  Jelulpore " 

Dach  (Simon) " 

Dacia 99 

Dacier  (Andrei  ......... 

— ^^  (Anna  LelT  vre) .... 

Dactyle  (see  Rhythm) 100 

Daclyliomaacy 101 

Dactyliolbeca 100 

Dactylology,  or  Dactylono- 

my 101 

Daduchus " 

Dffdalus " 

Daendels  (H.  William) " 

Daflbdil  (see  Narcissus)  ...  102 

Dagh " 

Dagobert  I  (ihc  Great) " 

D'Aguesseau    (see    Agues-    " 

seau) " 

Dahl  (J.  Christian)    " 

Dahlia " 

Dahomey " 

Daira,  or  Dairo  (see  Japan)    ** 

Dairy " 

Daisy " 

Dal 103 

Dalai  Lama  (see  Lama)   .  .    " 
Dalberg  (familv  of  the  bar- 

oasof) " 

(C.  T.  A.  M.) " 

(E.J.  duke  of)  ...    " 

Dale  (Richard) 104 

Dalecarlia  (sec  Sweden) ... 

DaHn(OloforOlaus) 

Dallas  (Alexander  James) . . 

(Robert  Charics)   .  .  105 

Dalmatia " 

Dalmatica 106 

Dal  segno " 

Dalziel  (Thomas) " 

Dam,  Damm " 

Damagc-fcasant " 

Damascenus  (John) " 

Damascus 107 

Damask " 

Damaskeening,  or  Damask- 

tiifr " 

Damiens  (Robert  Francis) .  108 

Damietta,  or  Damiat ** 

Damon  and  Pylhias ** 

Dampers " 

Dampier  (William) " 

Damps 109 

Dan    110 

(Hebrew) " 

Danae " 

DanaTdes " 

Dancing " 

Danccnirt  (Florent  Carton)  .111 
Dandelion  (sec  Leontodon) .    " 

Dandolo  (Henry) " 

(Andiew) IIJ 


Danegck IIS 

Dau(orth*s  Speeder " 

Daniel  (the  prophet) ** 

Daniel  (Gabriel) « 

(Samuel) 113 

Danish  Language,    Litera- 
ture, and  Art 

Dauishmeud " 

Dannecker  (John  Henry  von)    ** 

Dante 114 

Danton  (Geoi^  James) ...  117 

Dautzic 118 

Danube 120 

Daphne  " 

Daphnin " 

Daphnis " 

Darcet  (John) 121 

(Jotui  Peter  Joseph) .    " 

Dardanelles " 

Dardanus 123 

Darfur,  or  Darfoor " 

Daria,  or  Deria " 

Darien  (town) '* 

(Gulf  of) ISi 

(isthmus  of) « 

Darius  (ihe  name  of  several 

Persian  kings) " 

Darmstadt 125 

,  or  Hesse  Dann- 
stadi  (see  Hesse)  126 

Dartmoor •* 

Dartmouth " 

— —  College  (sec  Han- 
over, N.  H.). . .     " 
Dara  (P.  A.  N.  B.  count) . .     " 

Darwin  (Erasmus) " 

(Charics) 127 

Daschkoff  (Catharine  Roma- 
nowna,  princess  of)  ... .    ** 

Dalaria " 

Dale " 

(fruit) " 

DaihoKte 128 

Daubenton,  or  D'Aobenton 

(L.J.  M.) " 

Daun  (L.  J.  M.  count) " 

Dauphin 129 

Dauphinv *' 

Dareuaut  (nr  William)  ...     « 

David  (king  of  Israel) 130 

(Jacques  Louis)  ...     " 

Davidson  (Lucrctia  JUaria) .  131 
Davie  (William  Richardson)     *' 

Davies  (Samuel) 192 

Davila  ( Arrigo  Caterino) . .     ** 

Davis  (John) « 

Davis's  Straits " 

Davit « 

Davoust  (Louis  Nicolas)  . .    " 
Davy  (sir  Humphrey)  ....  133 

Day.: ...V 134 

(ThoniM) 135 

Days  of  Grace " 

Deacon " 

Deaconess , .  136 

Dead  Eye " 

'  Reckoning ** 

— —  Ropes " 

Sea,  or  Asphahites . .    " 

Deaf  and  Dumb  (see  Deaf)  137 

Deal  (see  Pine) « 

Dean ^ « 

Death « 

(Agony  of) " 

(Civil) 138 


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DeaUi  (Daaeeof) 140 

(in  mythology) 139 

(Paiushment  of) 140 

Watch 145 

Debenture  (see  Drawback) .    ** 
Debt,  National  (see  National 

Debt) " 

Debtor  and  Creditor  (Laws 

of) " 

Debure  (Guillaume  and  Guil- 

laumc  Fraufois) 148 

Decade  " 

Decafon  " 

Decalogue " 

Decameron " 

Decaudolle  (A.  Pyrame)  . .    '' 
Decapitation     (see    Death, 

Punishment  of) 149 

Decandiia " 

Decapolis '' 

Decatur  (Stephen) " 

Decazes  (Elie) 150 

Deccan,  or  the  Country  of 

the  Soatfa    152 

Decern " 

December " 

Decemvirs  (see  Appins  Clau- 
dius)      " 

Decimal  Arithmetic " 

— ^—  Measure " 

Decimate " 

Decipberinflr  (Art  of) " 

Decius  (a  Koman  emperor)  153 

Mus  (PubUus) •* 

Deck  (see  Ship) " 

Decker '» 

Declination  of  the  Sun,  of 

a  Star,  oi  a  Planet " 

Decomposition  (Chemical) .    " 

Decoy 164 

Decree ** 

Decrepitation *' 

Decrescendo " 

Decretal " 

Dee  (several  rivers  of  this 

name) " 

Deed « 

Deer 155 

De  Facto 167 

Defamation  (see  Slander) .  .    '* 

Defender  of  the  Faith " 

Defland  (Maiie  du) 158 

Defile « 

Definition " 

Deflagration,  and  Deflagra- 

tor  (see  Galvanism)  ....    " 
Deflection  of  the   Kays  of 

Light " 

Defoe  (Daniel) " 

Defterdar 159 

Degerando  (see  Gerando)  . .    " 

Degradation ** 

"Degree  (in  algebra) 160 

(m  geometry) " 

— -^  of  Latitude. " 

of  Longitude 161 

of  Longitude  (Mea- 
surement of  a)  ...  163 

(in  univeniiies) ....  163 

Degrees  (Measurement  of)  .  161 

Deldamea 163 

Dei  Gratia " 

Deiotarus " 

Deir ** 

Deism " 


CONTENTS. 

Dejanira 163 

Deken  (Agathe) '' 

Delambre " 

Delavigne  (J.  F.  Casimir) . .  164 

Delaware  (state) " 

(river) 165 

Bay ** 

'        Breakwater " 

Delegate  (see  Delegation) . .  166 

Delegates  (Court  oi ) ** 

Delegation " 

DeMt  (J.  and  W.) •' 

(town) " 

Delftshavcn 167 

Delaware '» 

Delhi  (provmce) " 

(dty) " 

Dclille  (Jacqaes) 168 

Dclisle,  or  De  L'Isle  (G.) . .  169 
Delia  Maria  (Domhiique)  . .    ** 

Delolme  (John  Louis) " 

Delorme  (Marion) 170 

Delas " 

Delphi 171 

Delbhmi,  in  Usum  (see  Dau- 
phin)   17S 

Delia " 

Deluc  (Jean  Andi*) " 

Deluge " 

Dcmarara^  or  Demcrary ...    " 
Demarcation  (Line  of)  ....  173 

Dembea " 

Demctaiy.  or  Demarara ...    " 
Demesne  (see  Domain) ....    " 

Demeter " 

Demetrius  (several  kings  of 

this  name| " 

Demidofl'(  Nicolaus,  count  of)    " 
Demigods  (see  Heroes)  ...    " 

Demme  (H.  C.  G.) 174 

Democracy    (see     Govern- 
ment, Forms  of) " 

Democritus 

Demoivre  (Abraham) 175 

Demon,  Demoniac,    Demo- 

uology " 

Demona  (Val  di) 177 

Demonstration " 

Demosthenes " 

Demotic  or  Enchorial  Alpha- 
bet   178 

Demoustier  (Charles  Albert)    ** 

Demurrage '' 

Demurrer 179 

Den " 

Denarius " 

Denderah  (Zodiac  of) " 

Dendrites,  or  Arborizations  .  182 
Dengue  Fever  (see  Fever) .    " 

Denham  (Dixon) «' 

^irJohn) " 

Deuina  (Giacomo  Cario) ...    '* 
Denis  or  Denys,  St.  (Aobey 

of) 183 

Denizen " 

Denmark " 

Denner  (Balthaser) 190 

Denuer  (John  Christian) ...    ** 

Dennewitz '* 

Dennie  (Joseph) " 

Dennis  (John) 191 

Denon  (Dominique  Vivani) .    " 

Density 192 

of  the  Earth " 

Dentifrice 193 


610 

Deodand 193 

D'Eon  (The  Chevalier)  ...  194 

Department 195 

Dephlogisticated     Air    (see 

Oxygen) 197 

Deploy " 

Deportation " 

Deposition  (in  law) " 

Depping  (Ucorge  Bernhard)  198 

Deputies,  Chamber  of  (see 

Cbarte  Constitutionnelle) .    " 

Derby  (county) " 

(town) " 

Derbysnire  Spar  (see  FInate 

of  Lhne,  in  article  Lime)     ** 

Derflinser  (George)    •• 

Derschawin  (G.  R.) 199 

Dervia^ " 

Derwrent  Water 200 

Desaix  de  Voygoux  (L.  C. 

A.) .7 " 

Desatir " 

Desault  (Peter  Joseph) ** 

Descartes  (Rene) 201 

Descent  (in  law) 202 

Deseada,  Desirada,  or  Desid- 

erada 204 

De  Serre  (Hercule) " 

Deserter 205 

Deseze  (Raymond) " 

Desfontaines  (P.  F.  G.)  ...  '• 
Deshouli^res  (Antoinette) .  .    " 

Design  (in  painting) 206 

Desmology " 

Desmoulius  (B.  Camille) ...  *' 
Desnoyers  (A.  Boucher) ...  " 
Despard  (Edward  Mareus) .  207 

Despot " 

Dessaix  (Joseph-Marie)  ...  " 
Dessalines  (Jean-Jacques)  .    " 

Dessau  (Anhalt) 208 

Dessole8(J.J.P.A,) " 

Desultores 209 

Destoucbes  (P.  N.) " 

Detonatit^n " 

Detroit " 

River,  or  Strait  of  St. 

Clair 210 

Deucalion • " 

Deuse,  or  Duse '' 

Deuteronomy " 

Deux-Ponts " 

Deva 211 

Devereux  (Robert,  earl   of 

Essex) " 

(Robert,  eari  of 
Essex,  son  of  the 
preceding) ....    " 

Deviation 212 

Device,  or  Badge " 

Deva « 

Fish 214 

Devil's  Advocate 215 

Bridge " 

Waif " 

Devise  (in  law) " 

Devolution " 

Devonport  .' " 

Devonshire,  '  duchess      of 
(Georgiaaa 
Cavendish)  . .    '* 
,  duchess  of  (Eli- 
zabeth     Her- 
vey) " 


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Devonshire,  WSIiam.    duke 

of  (see  Cavendish) 216 

Dew) » 

De  Welte  (see  Wettc) 217 

De  Wilt  (John) " 

Dexter  (Samuel) 218 

Dc7 " 

Dhioliba    (see    Nig«r,   and 

Timbuctoo) 219 

Diadem '' 

Diiecious  (in  botany) ** 

Diaglypbon " 

Dia^iosis  (in  medicine)  ...    '' 

Diagnostic  symptoms " 

Diagonal " 

Diagram ** 

Diar(Sun) " 

Dialect 220 

Dialectics    221 

Dialogue " 

Diameter 222 

Diamond 

District 223 

— ^  (in  technical    lan- 
guage)   224 

Diana 

■        of  Poitiers 226 

Diana's  Tree 

Diapason 

Diaper «  22$ 

Diaphragm 

Diatonic 

Diatonum      latensum,      or 

Sharp  Diatonic 

Diaz  (Michael  and  Bartholo- 
mew. ) 

Dib,  or  Div 

Dibdin  (Charies) 

(Thomas  Frognall)  . 

Dice 227 

Dickinson  (John) " 

——  College  (see  Cari- 

isle) 228 

Dictator ** 

Dictionary 229 

Didactic  Poetry 230 

Didascalia " 

Diderot  (Denis) 231 

Dido 232 

Didot  (several  of  this  name) 

DidymoBUS 233 

Diejsee  Architecture,  page 

338,  rightcolumn) " 

Dicbiuch,     Sabal     Kanski. 
count    (see  Turkey,  ana 
Russia,  towards  the  end) .    " 
Diemen  (Anthony  van). ...    ** 

Diemen's  (Van)  Land '' 

Dieppe 234 

Dies  Ine 

Diet,  German  (see  Germany, 
and  German  Confed- 
eracy)   235 

— ^  of  Hungary  (see  Hun- 

orPoland'(i^*Potaid)  " 

—  (in  medicine) " 

Drink ^  " 

Dietalia  Acta << 

Dietrich  (J.  W.  EJ ** 

Dietsch  (Barbara  Regina) . .  - 

Dieu  et  mon  Droit 236 

Diez  (Jnan,  or  John  Martin)  " 
Difiereutial    Calcuhis     (see 

Calcuios) " 


CJONTENTS. 

Digamma 236 

Digby  (sir  Kenelm) '< 

-  (lord  George) 237 

Digest  (see  Civil  Law) ....    '< 

DIgesteV " 

Digestion  (m  medicine). ...    " 

^ (in  chemistry)  . . .  238 

Digging ** 

Digit  (m  arithmetic) '' 

(in  astronomy) " 

Digilaline " 

Digitalis " 

Digraph " 

Dijon « 

Dike,  or  Dyke 238 

Dilapidation '' 

Dilemma " 

Dilettante '' 

Dtlleuius  (John  James) ....    " 

Dill-Seed " 

Dime " 

Diminutive  (in  grammar)  . .    " 

Diocese,  or  Diocess 241 

Diocletian  (C.  Valerius) ...    " 

Diodati  (John) " 

Diodorus  of  Ai^gyrium  . .  . ,    " 

Diogenes  of  Sinope 242 

Diomedes    (several    of  this 

name) 243 

Dion  of  Syracuse 

Dioniea  Muscipula  (Venus's 

Fly-trap) 

Dion  Cassius 244 

Dione 

Dionys<a 

Dionysius  the  Areopagito  . .  245 

the  Elder 244 

— —  of  Halicamassus .  246 

the  Little 246 

—  the  Younger ; ...  244 

Dioptrics 2-46 

Diorama  (see  Panorama)  . .    '' 
Dioscorides  (Pedantus) ....    " 

Dioscuri " 

Dip  of  the  Horizon " 

Diploma " 

Diplomacy " 

Diplomatics 249 

Dipping  (among  miners) . . .  260 
Needle,  or  Inclina- 

tory  Needle " 

Diptycha " 

Diree,    or   Eumenides    (see 

Furies) 261 

Directory " 

Direct  Tax " 

Dis " 

Discord " 

Discount,  or  Rebate " 

Discos,  Disc,  or  Disk " 

Diseases  (Hereditary)  ....  262 

Dishing  Wheels << 

DismafSwamp " 

— ^—  Canal,      or 
Chesapeake     and    Albe- 

marie  Cana] " 

Dismounting " 

Dispensary 253 

Dispensatory ** 

Disseizin,  or  Disseisin  ....    " 
Dissenters  (see  Non  Confor- 
mists)      " 

Dissidents ** 

Dissonance 264 

Distich " 


Distillation 254 

Distress  (in  law)    255 

Dithyrambus 266 

Ditten  von  Dittersdorf  (C.)    <' 

Ditto " 

Divan " 

Diver  (see  Peari-Fisherv) .    " 
,  a  bird  (see  LoonJ  . .    " 

Divcigent " 

Diveiiging  Series 257 

Diversion  (in  military  o£&irs)    " 

Dividend  of  Stocks '< 

— ^—  (in  arithmetic)  ...    " 

Divinati<Mi *' 

Diving  Bell 258 

Divining  Rod " 

DivisibOity " 

Divorce 260 

Djebcl 262 

Djezzar  (Achmet,  pacha  of 

Aero) " 

Djidda  (see  Jidda) 263 

Dnieper,  or  Dneper,or  Nieper    " 

Dniester,  or  Dmestr " 

Dobberan ** 

Dobrowsky  (Joseph) " 

Dock " 

Docks " 

Dock-Yaitls 265 

Doctor « 

Doctors'  Commons  (see  Col- 
lege of  Civilians) " 

Doctrinaires " 

Dodd(William) " 

(Ralph) 286 

Doddridge  (Philip) " 

I>odecandria " 

Dodington  (Geoiige  Bubb) . .    " 

Dodoua 2167 

Dodsley  (Robert) « 

Dodwell  (Heniyj « 

Doc,  John,  and  Richard  Roe 

(see  Bail,  and  Writ) 268 

Dog " 

Banc 269 

Days " 

Doge " 

Dog-Fish " 

Dogger 270 

Dog-Grass " 

Dogmas  (History  of) *' 

Dogmatics 271 

Dogs  (Isle  of) " 

Dog-Star « 

D(M?wood " 

Dohm  (C.  W.  von) 272 

Doit « 

DolcejCario) " 

Doll  (Ftvderic  WilUam)  . . .    " 

Dollar   273 

Dollond(John) " 

(Peter) " 

DoIomieu(D.G.S.T.G.dc)    « 

Dolomite 274 

Dolphin " 

Dolphin  of  navigators S75 

Domain,  or  Demain,  or  De- 
mesne      ** 

Domat  (Jolm) 276 

Dome  (see  Architecture,  vol. 
1 ,  page  336,  right  colunm ; 
also  the  article  CupcLa) . .    " 

Domeaichino '* 

Domesday  or  Doomsday 
Book 277 


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CONTENTS. 


621 


Domicil 277 

(see  also  page  613) 
Domingo,  St.  (see  Hayti) . .    " 
Dominic  de  Guzman  (dt.) .  .    " 

Dominica 278 

Dominical  Letter " 

Dominicans ** 

Dominique  le  P^ S79 

Domino " 

Domitiaa  (T.  F.  S.) 280 

Domremj  la  Pucelle ** 

Don  (river) " 

latiUe) " 

Donatists " 

Donatos  (iElius) 281 

Donau  (see  Danube) " 

Don  graiuit " 

Doujou  (in  fortification)  ...    '' 

Donne  (John,  D.  D.) " 

Donner  (George  Raphael)  .    ** 
Don  Quixote  (see  Cervan- 
tes)     " 

Doppelmayr  (John  Gabriel)    " 

Dorat  (Claude  Joseph) 282 

Doree  (see  Dory) " 

Dorf " 

Doria  (family  of) " 

Doric " 

Dorigny     (several    of    this 

name) 283 

Doris  (see  Nereus) " 

Dormant  state  of  animals  . .    " 

Dormouse 284 

Dorpat,  or  Doipt 285 

Dorsey  (John  Syng) " 

Dort " 

Dortmund 286 

Dortrecht  (see  Dort) " 

Dory,  or  John  Dory " 

Dosso  Dossi " 

Dotations  of  Napoleon  ....    ** 

Douane 287 

Double  Entente '' 

Entendre '• 

Doubling  a  Cape •    *' 

— ^—  upon  ..*......    " 

Doubloon " 

Douglas  (Gawin) '' 

(John) " 

Dousa,  or  Van  der  Does . . .  288 
Douw,  Gerard  (see  Dow)  . .    " 
Dove  (see  Turtle  Dove,  and 

Pigeon) « 

Dover  (in  Delaware) " 

■  (in  England) " 

(in  N.Hampshire)..    " 

(Straits  of) 289 

Dove-tailing  (in  carpentry) .    " 

Dow  (Gerard) " 

Dower " 

Downing  Street 291 

Downs " 

(road  for  ships) ....    " 

Doxology " 

Doyen  (Gabriel  Fran9ois) . .  292 

Drachm " 

Draco •' 

Dracunculi  ............    " 

Drag 293 

Dragging  the  Anchor " 

Dragoman " 

Dragon " 

Shell 29* 

Dragon's  Blood " 

Dragoon " 


Dragoonades 294 

Drake  (sir  Francis) 

Drama 295 

Dramatui^ 300 

Drapery  (sec  Costume)  ...    " 

Draught " 

Draughts " 

Drawback  (in  commerce) . .    " 

Drawing " 

Slate 303 


Drayton  (William  Heuiy) 

Drebbel  (Cornelius) 

Dresden 304 

Dress  (see  Clothing) 307 

Drinker  (Edward) " 

Droit  d'Aubaine " 

Droits  Reuuis " 

Drome 308 

Dromedary  (see  Camel) ...    " 

Dropsy " 

Drosky 309 

Drosometer " 

Drouais  (John  Germain) . . .  310 
Drouet  (Jean  Baptiste) ....    " 

Drowning " 

Droz  (several  of  this  name) .  312 

(Joseph) '* 

Druids " 

Drum 313 

Drummond  (William) " 

Drunkcmiess " 

Drupe  (in  botany) '' 

Drury  Lane  Theatre " 

Druses 314 

Dnisus  (several  of  this  name )    ** 

Dryads 315 

Dryden(John) " 

Drv-Rot 316 

Dsham^  (see  Jami) 317 

Dshingis  Khan  (see  Gengis 

Kh^) : " 

Dual  (in  grammar) " 

Dualism,  Dualist " 

Dublin " 

Dubois  (William) 318 

Dubos  (Jean  Baptiste) 319 

Ducange  (see  Duiiresne) ...    " 

Ducat " 

Ducatoon 320 

Duchesne,  or  Da  Cbesne 

(A  ) , " 

Ducis  (Jean  Francois)  ....    " 

Duck « 

(acloth 322 

Ducking-Stool  (see  Cucking- 

Stoon " 

Duclos  (Charies  Pineau) ...    " 

Ductility    " 

of  Glass ...  323 

Du-Deffand,   madame    (see 

Deffand) « 

Dudley  (Edmund) ^ 

— ^—  ( John,  duke  of  North- 

umberiand) " 

(sir  Henry  Bate^  .  .  324 

—  (Robert,  eari  of  Lei- 

cester)   

Duel 325 

Dufresne,   or    Du     Fresne 

(Charies) 327 

Duguay-Trouin  (Ren6) ....    " 

DanrJm  (Charies) 328 

Duke " 

Dul^rich  . : 329 

DumatsaU  (C.  C.) '* 


Dumas  (ttatthieo) 329 

Dumb  and   Deaf,  or  Deaf 

Mutes " 

Dummer  (Jeremy) 337 

Dumont  (Slepbeii) 338 

Dumouriez  (C.  F.) 339 

Dun 340 

Duncan  (Adam) " 

Dundas  (Henry) 341 

Dunker  (see  Ephrata,  also 

Baptists) " 

Dunkirk " 

Duiming  (John) 342 

DunoislJenii) " 

Duns  (John),  or  Dims  Sco- 


Dunstan  (St.) " 

Dupaty  (J.  B.  M.) 343 

Dupin  (A.  M.  J.  J.) " 

(Charies) 344 


Dupont  de  Nemours  (P.  S.).  346 

L'Etaiig        (see 

flayl?n) " 

Dupuis  (Charies  Francois) .    " 
Dupuytren  (Guillaume) ....  346 

Duquesne  (Abraham) ** 

Durango " 

Durante  (Francesco) 
Dflrer  (Albert) 


Duress  (iu  law) 347 

Duroc  (Michael) •' 

DQsseldorf 349 

Dutch  Language,  Literature, 
Schools  of  Art,  dtc.  (see 

Netheriaiids) ** 

Dutens  (Louis) " 

Duties  (see  Revenue) 350  ^ 

Duval  (Alexander) " 

(Amaury) 351 

(Valenune  Jameray)  350 

Dwarfs 351 

Dwelling  (see  Domicil,  and 

Hesitation) 392 

Dwight  (Timothy) " 

Dyemg 353 

Dyer  (John) 355 

Dyke,  Van  (see  Van  I^ke)    '' 

Dynameter ** 

Dynamic  and  Atomic  Theo- 
ries     « 

Dynamics : " 

Dynamometer 396 

Dyspepsia ** 

E. 

E 361 

Eagle " 

,  a  coin  (see  Coin) ...    " 

Eahoinomauwe SG3 

£g^f " 

—  Tmmpets 304 

Earl  ...  .V 365 

Marshal  of  England  . .    " 

Eariom  (Richard) " 

Earnest " 

Earth " 

— : —  (Motion  of  the)  ....  867 

Earthquake 369 

Earths " 

Earwig 370 

East ^1 

Easter " 

■.-^— .  Island,     or    Dam' 

Island « 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


Eastern  Empire  (see  Byzan- 
tine Empire) 372 

East  India  Companies  ....    ** 

Danish 380 

Dutch 373 

Eng^lish 375 

French 380 

Portuguese 372 

Swedish 380 

East  India  Fly " 

East  Indies  (see  India,  and 
the  different  articles,  as 
Calcutta,  Bengal,  6lc,)  . .    " 

Easton « 

Eastport ; " 

East  River " 

Eaton  (WiUiam) 381 

Eau 382 

de  Cologne *< 

— ^  de  Luce " 

Ebb  (see  Tide) " 

Ebel  (John  Godfrey) '* 

Ebeling_(C.  D.) 883 

Eben  ^deric) " 

Ebenezer 384 

Ebert  (John  AnioM) " 

Ebionites 386 

Ebony " 

Ebro *' 

Ecbatana 386 

Ecce  Homo " 

Ecclesiastical    Courts    (see 

Courts) " 

EsUblishments   " 

History     [see 

Christijuuty)  391 
-  States       (sec 
Church,  States 
of    the:    also 
Curia,  Papal)    " 

Echtlote " 

Echard  (Lawrence) " 

Echea " 

Echelon " 

Ecboneis 392 

Echinus,  or  Sea  Ejnr  ..... 

Echo.. 393 

(in  mythology)  ....    " 

Eckhel  (Joseph  Hiliry)  . . .    '< 

EckmOhl " 

Eclectics 396 

Eclipse  of  the  Moon " 

Sun « 

Ecliptic 396 

Eclogue 398 

Economy,  Political  (see  Po- 
litical Economy) " 

Edam « 

Edda ** 

Eddystone  Rocks 399 

Edelinck  (Gerard) " 

Eden  {nee  Paradise) " 

(sir  F.  Morton) " 

Edgar,  kinj^  of  England ...    " 

Edgeworth  (^Maria) 400 

— — — —  ae  Firmont  (Hen- 

n- Essex)  ..." 

(Richard  LoveU)  401 

Edict " 

—  of  Nantes  (see    Hu- 

guenots)      " 

Edile  (see  iEdile) " 

Edmbiiigfa " 

— ■ Review 403 

Edmund  I 404 


CONTENTS. 

Edmund  n 404 

Edred,  king  of  England  ...    " 

Edridge  (Henry) " 

Edward  the  Black  Prince  .  .  408 
(Charles,  the  Pre- 
tender)   409 

the  Confessor  ....  405 

the  Elder 404 

1 405 

II 406 

Ill " 

IV /> 408 

V 409 

VI " 

the  Martyr 404 

Edwards  (Biyan) 410 

(Jonathan) 411 

Edwy,  king  of  England  .  .  ,  412 

Eel  ....  f. " 

Effeudi 413 

Effigy  (to  execute  or  degrade 

Efflorescence 

Egalile  (Philip! 

Egbert,  king  or  England  . . 

Egede  (Johnl  .,.. 

Egeran  (see  Idocrase)  ....  414 

Egeria 

Egerton  (Francis,  duke    of 

Bridgewater) 

Egg 415 

Plant 

Egil  Scallagrim 

Egina  (see  iEginaJ 

Eginctan  Sty^  of  Art  (see 

iEgiiietan  Style) 

Eginbard  (Eiiiard) 416 

Egis  (see  iEgis) 

Egisthus  (see  Agamemnon) . 

Eglantine 

Egmout  (Lamoral) 

,     or      New 
Guernsey  . 

Egra,  or  Egcr 417 

Egra,  Eger,  or  Chebbe  ...    " 

Egypt " 

(Political  History  of)  421 

<— — ^  (Lauding  and  Cam- 
paign of  the  French 

ui) 424 

Egyptian  Mjvthology  (see 
T/emetery ,  Qiaron,  and  Hi- 
eroglyphicsj ..........  429 

Ehrem>reitstem 

Ehrenstroem 

Eichhoni  (John  Godfrey) . . 

(Frederic  Charies)  430 

Eichstaadt  (H.  C.  A.) '< 

Eider  Duck 431 

Eifel " 

Eisenach " 

Ejectment  (in  law) 432 

a,  or  Al 433 

Ekun 

Elastic  Gum  (see  Caout- 
chouc)  

Elalia.. 

Elasticity 

Elatcr 434 

Elba 

Elbe 435 

Elb^(Gigotd') " 

Elbcrfeld " 

Elbeuf,  or  Elboeof <' 


Elbing 436 

Elder « 

Elders 436 

Eldon  (eari  of) " 

Eldorado 437 

EleaUc " 

Elecampane " 

Election " 

Elective  Affinity  (see  Affin- 
ity)   442 

Elector: " 

Elcctra 444 

Electric  Calamine  ( see  Zinc )    " 
Electrical  Eel " 

Machines 450 

Electricity 444 

Electro-Dynamics 462 

Magnetism " 

Electrometer  (see  Electiie- 

ity) 467 

Electrophorus  (see  Electric- 
ity)     " 

Electro-Statics ** 

Eloctnim " 

Eleemosynary  Corporation  .    " 

Elegy 468 

Element " 

Elephant " 

Elepbanta,  or  Elephant  Isle  470 

Elephantiasis " 

Elephant's  River 471 

Elephantina,  or  El  Sag  ...    " 

Elcusis " 

Eleuthcra,  or  Alabaster  Isl- 
and   472 

Elevation  of  a  Place  (see  Al- 
titude)      " 

the  Host " 

Elf « 

Elgin  (lord) " 

El-Harib 473 

Eliauus  (see  iGlianus) '* 

Eiias  (see  Elijah) •* 

EUjah « 

Eho  (Francisco  Xavier) ...    " 

EUot  (John) 474 

Eliott  (Geonre  Augustus)  .  .    " 

EU8.:..y?:...v:..!..473 

Elixir " 

Eliza  Bonaparte  (see  Bacci- 

occhi) « 

Elizabeth  (St.)  of  Thuringia    <' 

■  queen  of  England  476 

— — —  Charioite,  duchess 

of  Oricans  ....  478 
— —  Petrowua,  empress 

of  Russia 479 

(Christina)  of  Prus- 
sia   480 

of  France " 

Ishuids 481 

Elizabethtown " 

Elk  (see  Deer) " 

Ell «•• 

Ellenborougfa  (lord) '' 

Ellcry  (Wflliam) 482 

Elliott  (Stephen) " 

Ellipsis «' 

Ellipticit^  of  the  Terrestrial 

Spheroid     (see     Degree, 

Measurement  of) 483 

Ellis  (Georgej « 

EUora  (seeElora) " 

Ellsworth  (Oliver) " 

Ellwood  (Thomas)     484 


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CONTENTS. 


623 


Elm 484 

Elmina,  or  La  Mina,  or  Od- 
deoa.  or  St.  George  del 

Mina T 485 

Elmo's  Fire  (Su) « 

Elmsley  (Peter,  D.  D.)  ...    " 
Elongatiou  (in  astronomy)  .    " 

Elopement " 

Elora " 

Elsinore,  Elsineur,  or  Hel- 

singoer 486 

Elysiam,  Elysian  Fields  ...    '' 

Elzevir,  or  Elzvier " 

Emanation^  Efflux " 

Emancipation  (see  Catholic 

Emancipation) 487 

Emanuel  the  Groat,  king  of 

Portugal " 

Embalming " 

Embargo  (in  commerce) ...    " 
Embasftftdor  (see  Ambassa- 
dor, and  Ministers,  For* 

eign) " 

Embayed " 

Ember  Weeks  or  Days  ...    " 

Embezzlement " 

Emblem 488 

Embonpoint ** 

Embossing,  or  Imbossing  .  .    ** 

Embracery '* 

Embroidery " 

Embryo " 

Emden 489 

Emerald " 

Emerson  (William) " 

Emery  (John) " 

-^— —  (a  mineral) " 

Emetic 490 

Emetine    

Emeu,  or  New  Holland  Cas- 
sowary (see  Cassowary) . 

Emigration 

Emigres 402 

Emilius  (see  iEmilius)  ....  493 

Eminence 

Emir 

Emiyn  (Thomas) 

Emmet  (Thomas  Addis) ...  494 
Empecinado,The(seeDicz) .  495 

Empedocles " 

Emperor " 

Empiric 496 

Ems 497 

EmulsioDS " 

Enameling " 

Encaustic  Painting " 

Enchasing  (see  Chasing)  .  .  498 
Enchorial,  or  Enchoric  ....    '' 

Enclave " 

Enclosure 499 

Encratites " 

Encyclopedia,  or  Cyclopae- 
dia      " 

Encyclopedic  (The  French).  601 

Endeavor  Straits 602 

Endemic " 

Endive " 

Endymion 60S 

Eneas  (see  iEneas) 

Eneid  (siee  Virgil) 

Enestdemus  (see  iEncside- 

mus) 

Enfield  (WUliam,  LL.  D.) . 

Enfilade 

Engadina,  or  Engadlne  . . . 


Engagement,     Naval    (see 

Ship,  and  Nttvy) 503 

Engano  Isle '' 

Engel  (John  Jame«) ** 

Enghieu  (duke  of) 604 

or  Eughuien 


Engia(Gulfor) 510 

(Island  of) 609 

Enifma  (see  Enigma) ....  610 
England 


i Church  of) 512 
LitUe) 517 
New) " 
lannel 514 

Language " 

Engravers  (Modem) 522 

Engravuig 618 

-(Line) 619 

-  of  Mczzotintos  .  520 

-  on          |Mneciou6 
Stones 521 

.(Steel) " 

.in  Wood 


Epicunis 510 

Epicycle  (in  astronomy) . . .  Ml 
Epicycloid  (in  geometry)  .  .    " 

Epidaurus <.    ** 

Epidemic,  or  Epidemic  Dis- 
ease     " 

Epidermis 642 

Epidote " 

Ep^astric " 

Epiglottis 043 

Epigoni " 

Epigram " 


Etching    520 

Stippling 519 

Engravings  (Colored)    522 

Engrossing  (in  law) 523 

Ennarmonic ** 

Enneper  or  Emper  Road  . .  524 

Euaius  (Qulntutf) " 

Enoch " 

(the  Prophecy  of ) . .    " 

Enos '• 

Ensemble ** 

Ensign " 

EntiSlature " 

Entail,  or  Tail " 

Enteritis 525 

Entomology '' 

Entre-Duero-e-Minho 532 

Entresole  (see  Attic) 533 

Envoy  (see  Ministers,  For- 
eign, and  Diplomacy) ...    " 
EoUan   Harp   (see  iEolian 

Harp).... " 

Eolians  (see  iEoIians)  ....    " 
Eolipile  (see  iEolipile) ....    " 

Eohis  'see  iEolus) '< 

Eoi)  the  chevalier  de  (see 

D'Eon) " 

Eos  (see  Aurora) " 

Epact  (Rule  to  nnd  the  Gre- 
gorian)     " 

Epacts " 

(Annual) " 

Menstrual) •' 

Table  of  Gregorian)    " 


534 


Epaminoudas 
Epaulement  (in  fortification) 

Epaulette 

Epee  (Abb^  de  T) 535 

Epemay 536 

Ephemera 

Ephemerides  (in  astronomy) 

Ephesus  • 

Ephialtes  (see  Incubus)  . . . 
(see  Aloides) .... 


Ephori 

Ephraimites 537 

Ephrata 

Epi 

Epic  . . 

Epichannus  of  Cos 540 

Epichirema " 

Epictetus ** 


Epilepsy 

Epilogue 

Epimcnides 

Epimetheus 

Eipiuay  (madame  d') 

Epiphany 

Epiphora 

Epirus 

Episcenium 

Episcopacy  (see  England, 
Church   of,    and   Roman 

Catholic  Cbureh) 

Episode 

Epistolae  obscurorum  Viro- 

rum 

Eptfttylium  (see  Architecture, 
vol.  1,  p.  338,  right  column) 

Epitaph 

Epithalamium 

Epitome 

Epoch,  or  Era   

the  Era  of  Abraham . 

the  Abyssinian  Era . . 

Era  of  Antioch,  and 
Era  of  Alexandria . 

the  Era  of  the  Arme- 


544 


545 


the  Bengalee  year  .  . 

the  Cesarean  Era  of 
Antioch 

the  Caliyug 

the  Chinese  cycle  .  . . 

the  Christian  Era  . . . 

the  Era  of  Constanti- 
nople  

the  Creation 

the  Death  of  Alexan- 
der the  Great .... 

the  Era  of  Diocletian^ 
or  Era  of  Martyrs 

the  Egyptian  Era . . . 

the  French  Revolu- 
tiouar)'  Calendar . . 

the  Grecian.  Era,  or 
Era  of  the  Selcuci- 
des 

Indian  Chrenologr  . . 

the  Japanese  cycle .  . 

tiie  Jewish  Era 

.the  Julian  Period  . . . 

the  Mexic&n  year .  .  . 

the  Mohammedan 
Era,  or  Era  of  the 
H^ra 

the  Era  of  Nabouas- 
sar 

the  Olympiads 

the  Roman  Ere  .... 

the  Ere  oCSalivabana 

the  Spanish  Era,  or 
Era  of  the  Caesars 

the  Era  of  Tyre .... 


546 

a 

tt 

547 


55t 
550 

649 

552 
654 

55? 
554 
554 
M8 

549 


551 


552 


551 
553 
655 
550 
551 
556 


553 

551 
548 

u 

664 

558 


Digitized  by 


Lioogle 


CONTENTS. 


the  Era  of  Vicramadi- 

tya 

die  Era  of  Yezdeg^inl 
III,  or  the  Pentian 
Era 

Epode  

Epopee  (see  Epic) 

Epopttt 

Eprouvctle 

Epaom 

-— -  Salt 

Equation  (in  algebra) 

— ^^  of  Payments .... 

of  Time 

lUjuaior 

Eouatorial  (Uuiversal),  or 
Portable  Observatory  . . . 

£querr3r 

Equestrian  Order  (in  Roman 
antiquities) 

Equilibrist 

Equinoctial  (in  astronomy)  . 

Gales 

; PoiuU 

Equinox 

Etjuisetum 

Equity 

■  (Courts  of) 

— —  of  Redemption  .... 

Equivalents  (Chemical)  . . . 

Era  (see  Epoch,  and  JEra) 

Eras  (List  of  the  Correspon- 
dence of,  with  the  Year 
1830)..: 

Erasmus  (Desiderius) 

Erato 

Eratosthenes 

Ercilla  y  Zufiiga  (don  Alon- 
zo  de) 

Krebus 

Ereciheus  (see  Ericthoniua) 

Eremite 

Ercsiclhou  (see  ErisicUion) . 

Erfurt 

Emt 

Erfaard  (Christian  Daniel).  . 

(John  Benjamuij . . . 

Eric  (name  of  several  kings) 

Erictbouius,  or  Erectheus  . . 

Eridauus 

Eric 

Erigeua  (John  Scotus) .... 

Eriniiycs  (see  Furies) 

Eripliyle 

Eris 

ErisictlKMiyOrEresicthon. . . 

Eriangen 

Ermanc 

Enneuonville 

Ermine 

Eniesli  (John  Augustus) . . . 

Eros 

Erusiratus  (see  Eratostratus) 

Erotic 

Erotomanv 

Erpenitts  (Tliomas) 

Error  (in  astronomy) 

Encb  (John  Samuel) 

Krskiue  (lord) 

Erupiiou  (in  medioino) .... 


ff76 


Erwin  of  Sieinbach 576 

Er>'ngo « 

Erysipelas " 

Erzerum,  or    Arzerum,    or 

Arz-roum " 

Erzgcbirge 677 

Es,orE5 " 

Escalade '* 

Escape  (in  law) " 

Escheat  (in  lawj " 

Eschenbach  (Wolfram  von)     " 
Escheuborg  (John  Joaclum)  578 
Eschines  (see  iEschuies)  . .    ** 
Eschylus  (see  iKschylus) . .    " 
Esclepiades  (see  iEsclepia- 

des) " 

Esclcpiadic  (see  ^sclepia- 

dicj. " 

Escoiquiz  (don  Juan) .....    " 

Escort " 

Esculapius  (see  iEsculapius)  579 

Escurial " 

Escutcheon  (in  heraldry)  .  .  580 

Eski 

Eskimaux  (see  Esciuimaux) 
Esmenard  (Joseph  A  Iphonse) 
Esmeraldas  (province) .... 
(river) . 


554 


552 
556 
557 


568 
i< 

i4 

U 

u 

569 
it 
It 
u 
tl 

560 
tt 

562 

tt 

tt 
566 


567 
it 

tt 
tt 
tt 

568 
tt 

569 
tt 
tt 

570 
It 

tt 

571 

tt 

tt 
tt 
tt 

bit 

tt 

tt 

tt 
573 


574  Eslremadura 


Esneh,  Esne^  or  Asua *' 

Esop  (see  JEtsnf) ** 

Esopus  (sec  i£sopus) '' 

Esoteric " 

Espagiioletto  (see  Spagno- 

letlo) " 

Espaliers " 

Espinasse  (J.  J.  E.) ..... .  " 

Espiritu-Sauto,   or   Spiritu- 

Santo 581 

Esplanade  (in  fortification)  .  " 

Espr^menil  (James Duval  d')  '' 

Esprit " 

Esquimaux ** 

Esquire 582 

Ess  (Charles  vaii) 

Essaying  (see  Assaying) . . . 

Essciies,  or  Essseajis 

Essential  Oils 

Essequibo  (river) 583 

(settlement) .....  " 


Essex 

Esslitieen  (see  Aspcru) .... 

Estacnar,  or  EstaVar,  or  Is- 

tachar 

Estafet 

Gstaffette  d'Alger  (L') 584 

Estaing  (count  d') " 

Estamiuet " 

Estate  (in  law) '• 

Estates  (in  politics) 585 

Este  (family  of) 587 

Esther 589 

Esthetics  (see  ^Esthetics)  . .    " 

Esthouia '-' 

Estrays  and  Waifs « 

Estrees  (Gabrielle  d') '' 

(ducd') 590 

(province    of 
Spain) " 

(province    of 
Tortugal) . .    " 


Etania 591 

Etching ** 

Eteocles  and  Polyiuces  ...  " 
Ethelbert,  king  of  En^and  .  ** 
^—- — ,  king  ef  Kent  ...  •* 
Ethehed  I,  king  of  England    " 

il.T?: " 

Ethelwolf,  kuig  of  Ei^land  &3% 
Ether  (b  chemistiy| " 

— ,   in    philosoHiy    (sec 

iEther)~. " 

Etherege  (sir  George)  ....    •* 

Ethiopians " 

Ethiops  Mineral  (see  Mer- 

cuiy) " 

Ethnography " 

Eiienue  (see  Stephens) ....  593 

.  (Charies  Guillaume)    " 

Etiquette " 

Etnlt 694 

Etolia  (see  iEtolia) " 

Eton " 

Monlem " 

Etruria " 

Etteiiheim 696 

Etymology " 

Euboea  (see  NegroponI) .  . .  596 

Eucharist " 

Euchlorine  (see  Chlorine)  . .    *^ 

Euclid " 

Eudsemontsm,  or  Eudsnno- 

nology 597 

Eudiometer " 

Euei^tae " 

Eugene  (prince) " 

de  Benuhamais  . . .  696 

Eulenspicgel  (Tyll) 599 

Euler  (Leonard) 600 

Eulogies 601 

Eumenides  (see  Furies)  ...    ** 

Euiiomia  (see  Hours) " 

Eunuchs " 

Eupatorium " 

Euphony " 

Euphrates,  or  Phrat,  or  FVat  GQt 
Euphrosync  (see  Graces)  . .    " 

Eure '* 

Euripides " 

Europa  (b  mythology) ....  603 

Europe    604 

Euryale  (three  of  this  name)  610 
Euryalus  (two  of  this  name)    " 

Eur>xlice " 

Eur>'Uome " 

Eusebia " 

Eusebius " 

Eosiachi  (Bartolomeo)  ....    ** 

Eustathins ** 

Eustatia  (St.) 611 

Euterpe ** 

Euthanasia " 

Eutnopius  (Flavius) " 

Euxine ** 

Evan  (see  Bacchus) " 

Evangelical " 

Evapcretion ** 

(Artificial)  ...  612 

Eve  (see  Adam) «* 

Ajppskdix 619 


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